RUNNING HEAD: GENDER DIFFERENCES AND SELF-ESTEEM

Gender Differences and the Effects of

Fitness Modeling on Instagram on Self-Esteem

Mikayla Nogueira

Bryant University
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Table of Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………4

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..5

Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………….5

Background on Instagram Fitness Models and Hashtags……………………………….5

Social Comparison Theory……………………………………………………………...7

Self-Esteem……………………………………………………………………………...9

Gender Differences……………………………………………………………………..11

Rationale and Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………….13

Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………14

Participants Description…………………………………………………………………14

Procedures Description………………………………………………………………….14

Instruments Description…………………………………………………………………15

Results…………………………………………………………………………………………...16

Discussion……………………………………………………………………………….17

Limitations………………………………………………………………………………18

Future Directions………………………………………………………………………...19

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….20

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………..21

Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………...24

Appendix A……………………………………………………………………………...24

Appendix B………………………………………………………………………….......26

Appendix C……………………………………………………………………………...27
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Appendix D……………………………………………………………………………...29

Appendix E……………………………………………………………………………...31
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Abstract

The following research study is based on the hypothesis that the viewing of Instagram

fitness modeling profiles for body comparison will have a more adverse effect on a woman’s

self-esteem compared to a male’s self-esteem. Past literature is reviewed to determine the

relevance of the topic and justify the hypothesis. The articles focus on media’s portrayal of the

body and how it affects an individual, as well as self-esteem. Based on the literature review, the

hypothesis can be rationalized. To test the hypothesis participants completed a survey which was

analyzed using an Independent Sample T-Test and the results were insignificant. Based on the

results, a discussion, the limitations, and future directions for the study were discussed and a

conclusion was formed.

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Gender Differences and the Effects of

Fitness Modeling on Instagram on Self-Esteem

In a media saturated society, it has become easy for men and women to compare

themselves to one another via social media. Specifically, men and women may find themselves

scrolling through Instagram profile’s desiring to look like the thousands of fitness models who

have gained significant popularity in the last several years. Female fitness models have enabled

women to change their lives for the better by communicating the importance of fitness and living

a healthy lifestyle; however, it may not truly have the positive effect on women that it may

appear to. Fitness models portray their bodies in a very specific way, emphasizing the

importance of having a smaller waist and larger hips and glutes. For some this is possible, but for

a majority of women, it is not. For men, society has similar standards. Male fitness models on

Instagram portray a muscular physique with visible definition and are often very aesthetically

appealing. Yet, based on previous research, studies suggest that men may be less affected by

what they see on their Instagram feeds. This paper examines gender differences in terms of how

self-esteem is affected when male and female users browse through Instagram fitness profiles.

Literature Review

Background on Instagram Fitness Models & Hashtags

Instagram was created in 2010 with the intent that users would be able to communicate

through the use of images. Eight years later, Instagram is one of the most popular social media

applications ever created with over one billion users to date (Instagram, 2018). Overtime, a trend

has recently emerged where Instagram thrives on influential users. These individuals are

classified as Social Media Influencers. According to Chae (2018), a Social Media Influencer is

an online celebrity who uses their personal lives to gain a social media following. They practice
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picture perfect self-presentation and create an online image to attract mass attention (p. 246). For

this research, fitness Social Media Influencers are the focus.

Along with Social Media Influencers, the use of hashtags is quite significant. Social

Media Influencers gain followers and likes on their posts by using hashtags. In the fitness

community, hashtags are used to inspire others and encourage a fit and healthy lifestyle. Two

popular hashtags include ‘fitspiration’ and ‘fitspo.’ These two hashtags combined show over 76

million public images to users. The hashtag ‘fitnessmotivation’ shows over 50 million and

‘fitness’ shows nearly 300 million posts. A final example is the hashtags ‘fitnessmodel’ and

‘fitnessgirl’ which displays over 50 million posts. It is clear that hashtags are key in promoting

visuals on Instagram and gaining the attention of a larger audience.

Tiggemann and Zaccardo (2016), conducted a content analysis of ‘fitspiration’ images

on Instagram. They coded 600 images to look at body type, activity, objectification, and textual

elements (p. 1). Tiggemann and Zaccardo (2016), define the ‘fitspiration’ hashtag as the

promotion of health and well-being through images showing healthy eating, exercise, self-care,

and an overall philosophy encompassing strength and empowerment (p. 4). While in many cases

the hashtag ‘fitspiration’ does have a positive influence, there are many reasons why it would be

concerning. Most women in these images are thin and toned, and there is an emphasis on

appearance (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2016, p. 6). Through this content analysis the researchers

found that of the 600 images, 91.2 percent were of healthy food items, 67.3 percent were of

women, 75.2 percent of women were thin, 56.2 percent had visible muscle, and 60 percent of

images with men had significant muscularity (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2016, p. 14-16). In terms

of objectification, 56.0 percent of the images had at least one aspect of objectification present,

where many included a body part or a sexy pose. This content analysis not only showed the
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popularity of ‘fitspiration,’ but also showed the limited range of body types, where thin and

toned dominated the images. The researchers then concluded that not only will individuals strive

to be thin, but they will strive to be muscular, which is a more challenging goal to achieve and

attain (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2016, p. 21).

Social media influencers and the use of hashtags on fitness Instagram profiles have

sparked the debate over whether these profiles are creating a community of self-accepting and

motivated individuals, or if they are having more detrimental effects, such as lowering an

individual’s self-esteem. Further, if these profiles do in fact lower an individual’s self-esteem,

prior research argues that these effects may be more notable in women. This can be further

explained using the social comparison theory.

Social Comparison Theory

In 1954, Leon Festinger developed what is known as social comparison theory.

According to Festinger (1954), social comparison theory is a way of explaining that individuals

are always evaluating themselves, and they do so by comparing themselves to others (p. 117-

118). In a study done by Festinger, he tested how people evaluate their opinions and abilities

based on the comparison of the opinions and abilities of other individuals. This can be applied to

this research because when women compare themselves to fitness models they may find

themselves evaluating their attractiveness and their body image in a negative manner. It may

cause them to see “thin” as the ideal. In recent years, social comparison theory has been used in

many studies in relation to body comparison and social media use.

According to Tiggemann (2014), unrealistic thin ideals promoted by media are correlated

with the adverse effects on the moods, body image, and eating patterns of women (p. 127).

Marika Tiggemann published a research article which analyzed a plethora of other researcher’s
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articles on the role of media and body image (Tiggemann, 2014, p. 127). According to

Tiggemann (2014), while analyzing a plethora of studies in relation to this topic, they all appear

to have one particular theme in common: social comparison theory is the root of the negative

effects correlated with media exposure and body comparison. She states that this has become the

dominant explanation because being exposed to thin ideal media messages would in turn produce

an upward social comparison resulting in body dissatisfaction (p. 130).

In 2015, a study was completed where 51 women over the course of five days viewed

thin-ideal messages. The variables of self-evaluation and body satisfaction were measured over

this period. A proposed hypothesis for this study stated, “self-evaluation social comparisons

during exposure to magazine pages featuring thin-ideal images decrease body satisfaction”

(Knobloch-Westerwick, 2015, p. 1092). According to Knobloch-Westerwick (2015), media

portrays women who are thin and conform to what culture has defined beauty as. Yet, as female

models become increasingly thinner, the average body size of women is actually increasing (p.

1090). The stimuli for the study was magazines containing pictures of women with an idealized

body. The participants also completed a questionnaire about satisfaction in their overall life.

When the results of the questionnaire were analyzed, it revealed that participants were least

satisfied with their weight and body shape (Knobloch-Westerwick, 2015, p. 1093). When

viewing the online magazine, participants were asked to record their experience over the course

of the five days. The results of this study found that self-evaluation reduced body satisfaction,

and also fostered weight loss behavior (Knobloch-Westerwick, 2015, p. 1098).

Further, this ideology was also addressed by Tiggemann and Slater (2003), who stated

that negative effects may be induced by exposure to media images which is a part of the process

of social comparison (p. 49-50). Tiggemann and Slater studied how women in music videos
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influenced women to desire to be thin and fit in to what is socially desirable. They used 84

female participants attending Flinders University and showed them various music video clips.

Six clips contained thin and attractive women, while another six showed ordinary looking

people. They then used a seven-point scale to ask them the extent to which they thought about

their appearance after each clip. Where a score of one represented having no thoughts about their

appearance and a score of seven represented having a lot of thought about their appearance.

Ultimately, the findings of this study showed that viewing these short video clips led to an

increase in body dissatisfaction of the participants (Tiggemann & Slater, 2003, p. 55).

Overall, previous literature has had the ability to show how social comparison theory has

the capacity to negatively impact an individual’s overall beliefs about his or her body image and

appearance. Festinger’s theory is often used to explain the impact of media on men and women,

which can be further researched to determine if this theory could have long-term adverse effects

on self-esteem.

Self-Esteem

Ultimately, social comparison theory has the capability of lowering an individual’s self-

esteem. According to Krcmar, Giles, and Helme (2008), there is a direct relationship between

media and self-esteem (p. 118). They emphasize that a possible outcome of the exposure to the

thin media ideal is that young women may lose self-esteem and have body dissatisfaction when

they compare themselves to images that are unrealistic (Krcmar, Giles & Helme, 2008, p. 113).

In a study completed by the researchers, they used 427 young women who took a questionnaire

to measure effects on self-esteem based on various variables. The questionnaire contained

various questions about social comparison and media exposure, as well as the Body-Esteem

Scale for Adolescents and Adults (BESAA) was used, which measures body-esteem appearance,
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body-esteem weight, and body esteem attribution (Mendelson, Mendelson & White, 2001). The

results of this study showed that images that are now considered normal in society, which

consists of images of thin and idealized women, are directly related to lower appearance and

weight esteem. Also, the exposure to fashion, celebrity, and fitness magazines had a negative

effect on appearance esteem (Krcmar, et al., 2008, p. 125).

According to Xu (2017), social cognitive theory can be used to explain media effects on

body-esteem and self-esteem (p. 281). According to Albert Bandura, social cognitive theory

suggests that individuals use symbolic models to learn certain behaviors with significant

influence while taking the social environment into consideration (Bandura, 2009, p. 94). In

regards to media influence, the exposure to media messages related to body image may cause an

individual to internalize his or her observations and extend those observations to their own

values (Xu, 2017, p. 281). Xu hypothesized that perceived media pressure would be negatively

associated with body esteem for men and women (Xu, 2017, p. 282). To test this hypothesis, 274

undergraduate students aged 18 to 26 were used. The participants reported their BMI, completed

the BESAA (Mendelson et al., 2001), and they were asked questions about media exposure to

magazines, television, and media pressure in the same regard (Xu, 2017, p. 284). The results of

this study showed that media pressure is correlated with lower body esteem overall. What is

significant about this study is that it showed that women reported lower body esteem than men,

which can be explained by the fact that there is a greater social focus on women’s bodies (Xu,

2017, p. 288).

Research shows that self-esteem can in fact be lowered due to media exposure and the

pressure behind media ideals of body type and appearance. Yet, majority of this research has
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been focused on women, rather than men. This can be explained further with research, where

gender differences play a role in self-esteem levels and the extent of body comparison.

Gender Differences

According to Tiggemann and Zaccardo (2016), their content analysis revealed that

women dominate the ‘fitspiration’ images, with only 30 percent of the images being of men.

Therefore, a majority of these Instagram posts are exclusively directed at women (Tiggemann &

Zaccardo, 2016, p. 21). In a study done in 2017, the researchers chose women as their

participants solely because they are the largest users of Instagram and because body

dissatisfaction is more prevalent among the female population (Fardouly, Willburger &

Vartanian, 2017, p. 6). For this study, they used 276 female participants who were asked to

report how often they viewed fitspiration images on Instagram, where one equaled never and five

equaled every time they used Instagram. Another question they were asked is how long they use

Instagram for when they have the app open each time. Lastly, they were asked how often they

compare themselves to other female Instagram users (Fardouly, et al., 2017, p. 10). The

researchers also used a variety of scales to assess internalization of the beauty ideal, general

appearance comparison tendencies, body image concerns, and self-objectification (Fardouly, et

al., 2017, p. 11-16). The study found that Instagram usage was positively correlated with self-

objectification, where women internalize beauty, which can have negative consequences

(Fardouly, et al., 2017, p. 25-27).

Sumter, Cingel, and Antonis (2018) also completed a study where women were the focus

because they state that fitness model profiles on Instagram are more popular among women.

They also state that the social media messages conveyed on ‘fitspirational’ Instagram posts can

lead to body dissatisfaction, compulsive exercise, and situated optimism related to body goals (p.
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1). The researchers base these ideas off of research completed by Richard Perloff in 2014.

Perloff (2014) states that based on traditional gender roles, girls and women learn to self-

objectify and internalize societal emphases on their external appearance and put more importance

on their physical appearance than do boys or men (p. 364). Perloff (2014) makes an important

point, stating that young girls are exposed to mass media images as early as three with the Barbie

doll (p. 365). For the study, they used 359 women ages 18 to 28 who completed a survey that

measured body mass index, fitspirational social media use, the fit-ideal and thin-ideal

internalization, body dissatisfaction, compulsive exercise, and situated optimism. Overall, their

findings showed that the exposure to fitspirational social media messages is positively related to

compulsive exercise and body dissatisfaction (Sumter, Cingel & Antonis, 2018, p. 33). The study

revealed that women who internalize the thin-ideal are ultimately vulnerable to the negative

consequences of ‘fitspirational’ social media (Sumter, et al., 2018, p. 38).

Another study that looks at potential gender differences was completed in 2009, where

researcher Steve H. Sohn investigated the gender differences of magazine and television

comparison processes on men’s and women’s body perceptual gap and body satisfaction (Sohn,

2009, p. 19). Sohn sought to investigate the impact mass media has on males in particular

because there is a lack of research on the subject. He argues that for women, the social

comparison process creates negative body perception and satisfaction, whereas for men the

endorsement of the muscular ideal inclines them to selectively expose themselves to that specific

media content (Sohn, 2009, p. 20). The study used 134 participants, 66.4 percent being female.

They measured body self-perception and ideal body size, the body perceptual gap, body

satisfaction, social comparison to media images, affect and reason, and involvement (Sohn,

2009, p. 24-27). For this study, the body perceptual gap indicated the discrepancy that one had
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between his or her current body perception and the ideal body perception (Sohn, 2009, p. 25).

The research found that social comparison to television diminishes men’s body perceptual gap,

while social comparison to magazine models actually enlarges the body perceptual gap (Sohn,

2009, p. 31). For females, social comparison to television led to an increase in the body

perception gap and a decrease in body satisfaction. It can therefore be confirmed through this

study that social comparison has a direct negative impact on a female participant’s body

satisfaction and there is not a significant impact in men (Sohn, 2009, p. 32).

Overall, these research studies reveal that most research on media’s influence on an

individual’s self-esteem and body dissatisfaction are focused on women. This is because women

are more likely to internalize certain ideals in relation to their appearance and have been

objectified in society and the media for decades. Men are less likely to expose themselves to

these types of media because they use more selective exposure, whereas women will seek out

Instagram profiles to internalize thin-ideals and socially compare themselves to other women.

Rationale & Hypothesis

Based on the literature review, it can be firmly argued that women are highly impacted by

media exposure to fitness Instagram profiles based on social comparison theory, social cognitive

theory, self-objectification, and various other factors. Media, mass media in particular, has

become more dominated by female imagery which objectifies women and reveals body types

that are idealized by society, yet are unrealistic and not attainable. Instagram has an

overwhelming amount of imagery that promotes the thin-ideal and utilizes hashtags such as

‘fitspiration’ and ‘fitnessmodel,’ where most of these images and messages are targeted towards

women. The lack of research on this topic with men as the subjects is questionable and should be

expanded, hence why this research study is important. There has yet to be a study focused on the
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direct profiles of fitness Instagram models and whether the ideal physique effects women or men

more in relation to their self-esteem. The preexisting knowledge and recent developments of

these ideas can be used to formulate the following hypothesis for this research study:

H1: Men who view Instagram fitness modeling profiles for body comparison will have

higher self-esteem compared to women who view Instagram fitness modeling profiles.

Methods

Participants Description

For this study, participants were obtained through Internet administration. This allowed

not only for a random and diverse group of respondents, but it allowed for the target

demographic to be obtained. Overall, there were 188 responses, which was then analyzed and

updated. Respondents whose survey results showed that they were not users of Instagram or who

did follow fitness Instagram accounts were discarded. This led to a final total of 100 responses,

with 73 females (73%) and 27 males (27%). Overall, the sample consisted of 100 participants

with a mean age of 20.88 (SD = 3.96). The participants represented a college age sample, which

is helpful considering Instagram is far more utilized by millennials and generation Z.

Procedures Description

Participants completed a survey which first asked demographic questions such as sex and

age. Also, participants were asked several questions about their Instagram use in order to

understand how much their Instagram accounts have an impact on their internal and external self.

They were asked questions such as, “Do you use Instagram?” “Do you find yourself comparing

yourself to fitness models on Instagram?” and “How often do you use Instagram?” These

questions correlate directly with the independent variable. Along with the demographic and
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media use questions, three scales were administered. The first scale is the Rosenberg Self-

Esteem Scale (RSE) created by Morris Rosenberg in 1979 (Rosenberg, 1979). The other two

scales are in relation to body esteem, the first scale used is the Body-Esteem Scale for

Adolescents and Adults (Mendelson, Mendelson & White, 2010), and the second is the Body-

Esteem Scale (Franzoi & Shields, 1984). Finally, participants were asked to think of instances

where they viewed fitness Instagram accounts and describe how those instances made them feel

in relation to their body comparison and self-esteem in an open-ended response question.

Instrumentation Description

The three scales being used are critical in determining the self-esteem of the individual’s

taking the survey, which can then be analyzed to see how much of an effect Instagram truly has

on these individuals. These scales correlate directly with the dependent variable, self-esteem.

The first scale being used is the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) which is a very popular

scale among researchers. It contains ten questions and uses a four-point Likert format ranging

from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” This scale sets a general basis for an individual’s

level of self-esteem. This scale has a Cronbach’s alpha of .914. The other two scales include the

Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults, and the Body-Esteem Scale. For the Body-

Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults, part one of the scale will be used for this study to look

at one’s overall self-esteem in relation specifically to their body. Part one consists of 21

questions with a five-point Likert format ranging from “never” to “always.” The scale will

demonstrate how one views their external appearance and how they believe others see them as

well. This scale has a Cronbach’s alpha of .944. The last scale, the Body-Esteem Scale, contains

35 questions that are very specific in determining how individual’s feel about their body. It uses

a five-point Likert format ranging from “have strong positive feelings” to “have strong negative
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feelings.” This scale has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.959. Overall, these reliable scales in

combination help to determine an individual’s self and body esteem levels in correlation to

viewing fitness Instagram profiles. The beginning of the survey contains a section for an open-

ended response from the participant. The question asks the participant to think of a time where

they viewed fitness Instagram profiles and asks them to analyze and describe how those profiles

made them feel about themselves internally and externally. This allows us to see how an

individual compares themselves to others online and how they feel about themselves in the

present moment.

Results

The hypothesis for this study was that males who view Instagram fitness modeling

profiles for body comparison will have higher self-esteem compared to women who view

Instagram fitness modeling profiles. To test this hypothesis, three Likert scale scores were

computed into the individual variable of self-esteem and then an Independent Sample T-Test was

used to examine one nominal variable, which in this case was biological sex. An Independent

Sample T-Test was conducted to determine whether female (M = 189.30, SD = 40.81) and male

(M = 206.15, SD =21.24) reported levels of self-esteem differed. The Independent Sample T-

Test was determined insignificant (t = -1.417, p > 0.05), so no significant difference was noted

between the two groups. In other words, the study does not reach a confidence level of 95% and

the results are therefore not significant. The null hypothesis is then accepted and the alternative

hypothesis is rejected.
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Discussion

The primary goal of this study was to determine whether female’s levels of self-esteem

were more negatively impacted when viewing Instagram fitness modeling profiles compared to

males. In other words, males ultimately have higher self-esteems then female’s when exposed to

fitness Instagram profiles. The findings revealed that the results were insignificant. The results

for this hypothesis showed that there were no significant differences in either a female’s or

male’s self-esteem levels based on the means and the Independent Sample T-Test.

As revealed in the literature review, majority of studies based on self-esteem that revolve

around Instagram or any sort of media heavily focus on having female participants. The goal of

this study was to include male participants to determine the level of negative impact on their self-

esteems. In Steven H. Sohn’s study in 2009, he was able to conclude through his study that social

comparison has a direct negative impact on a female participant’s body satisfaction and there is

not a significant impact in men (Sohn, 2009, p. 32). Yet, similar to my study he had far more

female participants (66.4%), which could ultimately skew results.

An interesting result from the survey responses showed that 76% of the participants used

Instagram four or more times a day. It also showed that 65% of users are on the app for more

than three minutes, with 16% of those individuals being on the app multiple times a day for ten

minutes or more. A total of 34% of participants follow more than 50 profiles of Instagram fitness

modeling profiles. 67% of participants stated that they do compare themselves to fitness

Instagram models. In terms of body-esteem, only 3% of participants stated that they have

positive feelings towards the appearance of their stomach, and 5% of participants stated that they

have positive feelings towards their weight. In terms of the 34 body items listed in the Body-

Esteem scale, a majority of responses had moderate or negative feelings towards the items.
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According to Xu (2017), his study showed that women reported lower body esteem than

men, which can be explained by the fact that there is a greater social focus on women’s bodies

(Xu, 2017, p. 288). There is an immense amount of research which suggests the negative effects

of media use on female’s self-esteem’s and body-esteem’s, simply because they are often in the

spotlight. Marika Tiggeman, mentioned several times throughout the literature review, has done

multiple studies on how Instagram affects a woman’s self-esteem, and she indicates in all of her

studies that Instagram can indicate that a woman who uses this form of media may have lower

self-esteem, body-esteem, and may exhibit disorder eating. However, there is still a significant

lack of research on males. Although this study’s results were insignificant, showing minimal

difference between the mean scores of both females and males, it is clear that viewing Instagram

fitness modeling profiles does have a negative effect, specifically for females. This study failed

to show that, but there are limitations to which could have affected the results.

Limitations

For this study, there were two observed limitations that could have affected the results.

The most significant limitation of the study is the male to female ratio. Ultimately, the goal of

the study was to see the difference between the self-esteems of males and females who view

Instagram fitness modeling profiles. After survey results were collected and analyzed, there were

73 females and 27 males. Having a significantly lesser amount of males in the study could have

skewed the mean scores. It would have been best if there were around 50 females and 50 males

for the study. But in the short time span given to collect data, it would have been inconceivable

to obtain that data.

The second possible limitation presented in this study is that over 95% of the survey

results were obtained by college students who attend Bryant University. Therefore, the sample is
GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SELF-ESTEEM Nogueira 19

not as random as one would hope for it to be. Had the sample obtained individuals from different

geographical locations and of different ages, there may have been different results.

A third limitation includes the scales that were used. Popular self-esteem scales were

used in order to determine an individual’s self-esteem. These scales do a decent job in

determining how an individual may view themselves in a positive or negative manner. However,

self-esteem is highly complex and may be better determined based on observation overtime.

Individuals are often unable to determine their own self-esteem and it is more so determined

based on the self-worth they carry but are not aware of. Many of the studies explained in the

literature review had females view magazines, images, or television media and then reflect on

their self-esteem. This may determine self-esteem more accurately than a Likert scale. Had these

limitations not occurred, the results of this study may have been significant.

Future Directions

There is potential for this study to be re-examined and replicated by researchers. Overall,

based on reading the individual survey results, many individuals do think negatively of

themselves, especially when comparing themselves to Instagram fitness modeling profiles. This

study could be replicated using new measurement methods, and also could have a more even

sample given no time constraint. The study could use techniques such as a focus group, or

individual face-to-face interviews to gain a better understanding of one’s self-esteem. The study

could incorporate images from fitness Instagram modeling pages, and the individuals could then

reflect on their self-esteem once viewing these images. It has been done in many other studies,

but we do begin to question how ethical this truly is, as one’s mental health is fragile and should

be taken care of, rather than manipulated. Also, it is important that there is an equal amount of

male and female participants (50% male and 50% female) because it would prevent skewed
GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SELF-ESTEEM Nogueira 20

results. It would also be interesting to do a study similar to this solely with males, as this appears

to not have been done before. Men are often seen as tough and emotionless compared to women,

so they have not been a main focus to self-esteem studies. However, it would be interesting to

see the relationship between self-esteem in males and media usage on Instagram fitness

modeling profiles.

Conclusion

The following study was conducted based on the previous literature that has been

published on media’s role in affecting an individual’s self-esteem, body-esteem, and overall

perception of oneself and their worth. Literature that has been done is solely focused on women,

simply because the data shows that women are more complex and are dominating social media

and mass media with imagery. This study aims to look further into the gender differences and see

if women are truly affected more by media effects. There is a pure focus on fitness models

profiles on Instagram, as they have significant influence and power on the social media network.

It was hypothesized that the viewing of fitness model Instagram profiles will have a more

negative effect on a women’s self-esteem than on a male’s. A survey was completed by 100

individuals who use Instagram and follow fitness Instagram modeling profiles. Three self-esteem

scales were used in order to determine the variable of self-esteem. Then, an Independent Sample

T-Test was conducted and it was determined that there was no significance between the means of

the males and females; therefore, there is no significant difference. Yet, the study can be

replicated and improved in the future because media plays a major role in our culture and that

role is only becoming more prevalent.

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GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SELF-ESTEEM Nogueira 24

Appendix

Appendix A:

Demographic Questions:

1. What is your age?

2. What is your sex?

Instagram Questions:

1. Do you use Instagram?

a. Yes or no

2. How frequently would you say you use Instagram?

a. Once a day

b. Twice a day

c. Three times a day

d. Four or more times a day

3. When you do go on Instagram, how long are you on the app?

a. 60 seconds or less

b. 1-3 minutes

c. Over 3 minutes but less than 10

d. 10 minutes or more

4. What types of profiles do you follow on Instagram?

a. Gives list of types of profiles (Fashion, Travel, Fitness, etc).

5. How many of these types of profiles do you follow on Instagram?

a. Insert number response.

6. Do you find yourself comparing yourself to influencers on Instagram?

GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SELF-ESTEEM Nogueira 25

a. Likert format: “always” to “never”

Open Ended Response:

Please recall a time where you viewed one or more fitness Instagram profiles on

Instagram. Please describe these instances and how they made you feel in reference to

your body image and self-worth.

GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SELF-ESTEEM Nogueira 26

Appendix B

RSE

Please record the appropriate answer for each item, depending on whether you Strongly agree,
agree, disagree, or strongly disagree with it. 1 = Strongly agree 2 = Agree 3 = Disagree 4 =
Strongly disagree

_____ 1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

_____ 2. At times I think I am no good at all.
_____ 3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
_____ 4. I am able to do things as well as most other people.
_____ 5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
_____ 6. I certainly feel useless at times.
_____ 7. I feel that I'm a person of worth.
_____ 8. I wish I could have more respect for myself.
_____ 9. All in all, I am inclined to think that I am a failure.
_____ 10. I take a positive attitude toward myself.
GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SELF-ESTEEM Nogueira 27

Appendix C

Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults

Part 1: Directions: For questions 1-21, indicate how often you agree with the following
statements. Choose the appropriate option beside each statement. Never = 1 Seldom = 2
Sometimes = 3 Often = 4 Always = 5

1. I like what I look like in pictures. 1 2 3

4 5
2. Other people consider me good looking. 1 2 3
4 5
3. I am proud of my body. 1 2 3 4
5
4. I am preoccupied with trying to change my body weight. 1 2 3
4 5
5. I think my appearance would help me get a job. 1 2 3
4 5
6. I like what I see when I look in the mirror. 1 2 3
4 5
7. There are lots of things I’d change about my looks if I could. 1 2 3
4 5
8. I am satisfied with my weight. 1 2 3 4
5
9. I wish I looked better. 1 2 3 4
5
10. I wish I looked like someone else. 1 2 3
4 5
11. People my own age like my looks. 1 2 3
4 5
12. My looks upset me. 1 2 3 4
5
13. I’m as nice looking as most people. 1 2 3
4 5
14. I’m satisfied with how I look. 1 2 3
4 5
15. I feel I weigh the right amount for my height. 1 2 3 4
5
16. I feel ashamed of how I look. 1 2 3 4
5
GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SELF-ESTEEM Nogueira 28

17. My weight makes me unhappy. 1 2 3

4 5
18. My looks help me to get dates. 1 2 3
4 5
19. I worry about the way I look. 1 2 3 4
5
20. I think I have a good body. 1 2 3 4
5
21. I look as nice as I’d like to. 1 2 3 4
5
GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SELF-ESTEEM Nogueira 29

Appendix D

The Body-Esteem Scale (Franzoi & Shields, 1984)

Instructions: On this page are listed a number of body parts and functions. Please read each item
and indicate how you feel about this part or function of your own body using the following scale:

1 = Have strong negative feelings 2 = Have moderate negative feelings 3 = Have no feeling one
way or the other 4 = Have moderate positive feelings 5 = Have strong positive feelings
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. body scent _____
2. appetite _____
3. nose _____
4. physical stamina _____
5. reflexes _____
6. lips _____
7. muscular strength _____
8. waist _____
9. energy level _____
10. thighs _____
11. ears _____
12. biceps _____
13. chin _____
14. body build _____
15. physical coordination _____
16. buttocks _____
17. agility _____
18. width of shoulders _____
19. arms _____
20. chest or breasts _____
21. appearance of eyes _____
22. cheeks/cheekbones _____
23. hips _____
24. legs _____
25. figure or physique _____
26. sex drive _____
27. feet _____
28. sex organs _____
29. appearance of stomach _____
30. health _____
GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SELF-ESTEEM Nogueira 30

31. sex activities _____

32. body hair _____
33. physical condition _____
34. face _____
35. weight _____
GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SELF-ESTEEM Nogueira 31

Appendix E

Qualtrics Survey

https://bryant.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_cZtzZJ8n3PPC7fn