DC NETWORK ANALYSIS 41 INTRODUCTION When a number of network clements* are connected together to form a system that consists of set(s) of interconnected elements performing specific or assigned functions, it is called a “network”. An electrically closed network is a “circui An electrical network is a combination of numerous electric elements (e.g., resis- tance R, inductance L, capacitance C, etc.). Some important definitions related to an electrical network are as follows: Node: It is the junction in a circuit where two or more network elements are connected together. Branch: It is that part of the circuit which lies between two junctions in a circuit. Loop: It is a closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more than once. Mesh: It is such a loop that contains no other loop within it. 4.2; CHARACTERISTICS OF NETWORK ELEMENTS 4.2.1 Linear and Non-linear Elements A linear element shows linear characteristics of voltage vs current. Thus the parameters of linear elements remain constant (i.e., the parameters do not change with voltage or current applied to that element). Resistors, inductors and capaci- tors are linear elements. On the other hand, for a non-linear element, the current passing through it does not change linearly with the linear change in applied voltage across it, at a particular temperature and frequency. In a non-linear element the parameters change with applied voltage and current changes. Semiconductor devices like diodes, transistors, thyristors, etc. are typical examples of non-linear elements. Ohm's law is not valid for non-linear elements. *A network element is a component of a circuit having different characteristics like linear, non- linear, active or passive ete, and will be defined shortly.DC Network Analysis 181 4.2.2 Active and Passive Elements If a circuit element has the capability of enhancing the energy level of an electric signal passing through it, it is called an active element, viz., a battery, a trans- former, semiconductor devices, etc. Otherwise the element that simply allows the passage of the signal through it ‘out enhancement is called passive element (viz., resistors, inductors, thermistors and capacitors). Passive elements do not have any intrinsic property of boosting an electric signal. 4.2.3 Unilateral and Bilateral Elements If the magnitude of the current passing through an element is affected due to change in polarity of the applied voltage, the element is called a unilateral ele- ment. On the other hand if the current magnitude remains the same even if the polarity of the applied voltage is reversed, it is called a bilateral element. Unilat- eral elements offer varying impedances with variation in the magnitude or direc- tion of flow of the current while bilateral elements offer same impedance irrespective of the magnitude or direction of flow of current. A resistor, an induc- tance and a capacitor, all are bilateral elements while diodes, transistors, etc. are unilateral elements. 4.3 SERIES RESISTIVE CIRCUITS Resistors are said to be in series when they are connected in such a way that there is only one path through which current can flow. Therefore the current in a series circuit is the same at all parts in the circuit. The voltage drop across each compo- nent in a series circuit depends on the current levels and the component resistance (or impedance). 43.1 Currents and Voltages in a Series Circuits The circuit diagram for three series connected resis- tors and a d.c. voltage source is shown in Fig. 4.1. The total resistance connected across the voltage source is R = R, + R; + Ry. (R is called the equiva- lent resistance in ohms for the given circuit.) For a series circuit with n resistors, the equiva- lent resistance R is thus RoR, +Ry+Ryt-- +R, (4.0 The equivalent circuit for the series resistance circuit is shown in Fig. 4.2. Fig. 4.1 A simple series The equivalent circuit consists of the voltage seslative clreuit source E and the equivalent resistance R. The current / flows from the positive terminal of the voltage source. Using Ohm’s law the current through the series circuit in ampere is obtained as E E RR +R,+Ry+-4R, . (4.2)182 There is only one path for current flow in a series circuit. The current flow causes a voltage drop V or potential difference across each resistor in the circuit of Fig. 4.). Using Ohm’s law, the voltage drops across each resistor in volts are obtained as V, = AR, V3 = IRy Basic Electrical Engineering =>! + Ee T SR Fig. 4.2. Equivalent of a simple series resistive circuit and V3 =JR3 Since the sum of the resistive voltage drops is equal to the applied emf, for any series circuit, E=V,+Vy4 V3 to + Vy E=l(R + Ry +Ryt-~+R,). Next we consider series connectiun of voltage sources instead of series conne: tion of resis- tors. If three voltage sources are connected in series as shown in Fig. 4.3, the resultant volt- age in volt is or E=E,+Ey+ Ey In Fig. 4.4 the lowermost voltage source E has its negative terminal connected to the nega- tive terminal of the middle cell. The resultant voltage in this case is E=E,|+E,-E; In Fig. 4.3 the voltage sources assist one another to produce the circuit current, so they are said to be in “series aiding”. In Fig. 4.4 the bottommost voltage source will attempt to produce current in the opposite direction to. that formed by the other two. Therefore this bottommost source is connected in “series op- posing” with the top two cells. 4.3.2 Voltage Divider In Fig. 4.5 two series connected resistors are used as a voltage divider or potential divider. Here, V, = IR, Also (4.3) & Fig. 4.3 Series connection of three-voltage sources -———+ ao aL le + L__, Fig. 44 Series connections of three voltage sources with the polarity of one source reversed A lt Fig. 45. Voltage divider (or po- tential divider) circuitDC Network Analysis 183 If R,=R, then Waves =. When rn number of resistors are connected in series then voltage drop (V;) across any resistance (Rj) is given by R V,= Ex ———___ 4.4 ‘ R.+Ry + Ry tee +R, a4) V; and E are expressed in volt and resistors are given in ohms. Voltage Divider Theorem Ina series circuit, the portion of applied emf developed across each resistor is the ratio of that resistor's value to the total series resistance in the circuit. 4.3.3 Potentiometer The circuit diagram of a variable resistor employed as a potentiometer is shown in Fig. 4.6. The potentiometer is essentially a single resistor with terminals at each end and a movable contact that can be set to any point on the resistor, Terminals A and B are the end terminals and terminals C is the ad- Yo justable contact (Fig. 4.6). { The output voltage (V,), in volt, is given as ; - Ry Fig, 4.6 A simple potentiometric V,=Ex R+R (4.5) circuit If the moving contact is half way between the two end terminals then R R,=R,= = rR a 1 or Ve=EX 5 When R)=R,V,=E and when R, =0,V,=0 Thus it is seen that the potentiometer can be adjusted to give an output voltage ranging linearly from 0 to E. 4.3.4 Power in a Series Circuit In Fig. 4.5, the power (VA) dissipated in 2, is given by 2. For any series circuit containing n number of resistors the power dissipated is P=P\+Py+P3+-- +P, + Vyl + Val be + Vy = IV, + Va + Vato + Va) =lE(4.6) Rt Ry + Ry toot Ry In de circuit volt-ampere power (VA) is same as power expressed in watts. Thus P is usually expressed in watts in de circuits, 4.3.5 Current-limiting Resistor Sometimes a resistor is included in series with an electrical circuit or electronic device to drop the supply voltage down to a desired level. This resistor can be treated as ty te a current-limiting resistor. +o In Fig. 4.7, R, provides a voltage drop to the series connected lamps Z, and L,. The lamps operate to a voltage level lower than — the source voltage even in series connection. Fig. 4.7. Application of current- Also the resistor R, limits the current J to the limiting resistor Rs level required by the lamps. Here circuit current in ampere is obtained as E Rg +(sum of resistances of lamps) or R, = (Ell) = (sum of resistances of lamps) (4.7) 4.3.6 Open Circuits and Short Circuits in a Series Circuit ‘An open circuit occurs in a series resistance circuit toe when one of the resistors (or any series network ele- i (5 0) zn ment) becomes disconnected from the adjacent one. + Open circuit can also occur when one of the resistors Ee Vor (or an element) has been destroyed by excessive powet | ‘Fe dissipation. -$ In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.8, the open circuit can be thought of another resistance in series with value “infinity”. Therefore the current, J = —E. =0. R+ Rt The voltage drop across the open cir- cuit (Voc) in volts is obtained as Voc = £- IR, =E-0=E Figure 4.9 shows a series resistance R3 short circuited in the series circuit. Here the resistance between the terminals of R, becomes zero after short circuit. There- fore, the circuit current J in ampere is _ given by Fig. 4.8 An open circuit Fig. 4.9 Deactivation of a resistance tx —~—-_#_ (Ry in a series circuit by R,+R, +0 R,+R; shorting terminals of RyDC Network Analysis 185 Find the current that flows through the resistors 10 Q, 20 Q, and 30 Q connected in series across a 240 V supply. Solution 2 Current ¢= ——Y—_ 4-29 _ 2 ag 10+ 20+ 30 10+ 20+30 aeucere Determine the voltage drops across each resistor of ihe circuit shown in Fig. 4.10. 52 Solution The current flowing through each resistor is given as 20 10 =I0A 54243 30 Voltage drop across the 5 Q resistor = 10 x 5 Voltage drop across the 2 Q resistor = 10 x 2 ig. 4.10 Circuit of Ex. 4.2 Voltage drop across the 3 9 resistor = 10 x 3 Polarities are marked in Fig, 4.10{a). Check that total voltage drop is 100 V, same as the supply voltage. 50V 20V 30V + + aval Fig. 4.10(a) Voltage drops for the series circuit shown in Fig. 4.10 10A 43, In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.11, if £, = 10 V and — Tt E, = 7, find the current through the resistors, Solution Arsen 7 The current through the resistors R370 & E+ 1047 = a OT A Faz 32 R+R FR, 24743 (Note that £, and £, are in series aiding connection.) Fig. 4.11. Cirenit of Ex. 4.3 4,4 Determine the current through the resistors in the 4.11 when the polarity of E> is reversed, Solution E,-E; Current f= ——— = 0.25 A RRR (this time £, and £, are in series opposition). stsevas 4,5) Calculate the minimum and maximum values of V, that can be obtained from the shown in Fig. 4.12. P is the moving contact and can slide linearly along a 300 Q resistor.186 Basie Electrical Engineering . Solu con + By ‘aspection it is evident that, if P is at the 5000 bottommost point of 300 @ resistor, V, is minimam. 2 Vegniay = 240x ——8___5 20 v. +800 +300 +500 Pp e a . 240V 3002 + On the other hand, if P is at the topmost point of 300 © resistor, V, is maximum. 800 +300 Vetenax) = 240 x ———— = 165 V. 800+ 300 +500 It is possible to obtain values of (V,) between = 120 V and 165 V by sliding P suitably across the Fig, 4.42 Circuit of Ex. 4.5 300 © resistor. seeeeee 4,6, Determine the power dissipated in each resistor of Fig. 4.11 and also find the total power. Solution Power dissipated across the 2 Q resistor in Fig. 411 is J? x 2, ie. (1.4167)? x 2, ie, 4.014 W. (The value of circuit current has been obtained in Ex 4.3 as 1.4167 A.) Power dissipated across the 7 @ resistor is i? x 7, ie., (1.4167)? x 7 or 14.05 W. Similarly, power dissipated in the 3 9 resistor is (1.4167)? x 3, i.e.. 6.02 W. Total power is (Ex 0), ie., (Ey + Ey) x1. This gives (10 + 7) x 1.4167, ie., 24.084 W. [Check: Total power is P(2 +7 +3), ic, (14167)? x 12 or 24.085 WI vaseaee 4,7, Im the cirevit shown in Fig. 4.13 find the value of the resistor so that the lamps Ly and Ly operate at rated conditions. The rating of each of the lamps is 12 V, 9 W. If Ly becomes short circuited find the current through the circuit and the power dissipated in each of the lamps. 300V Fig. 4.13 Circuit of Ex. 4.7 Solution Voltage rating of the lamps is 12 V each, while power rating of each of the lamps is 9 W. If / be the rated current through the lamps then Vie P or i= 2-2 corsa vi2 If R,, be the resistance of each lamp, 9 Ry, = 9 of, R= —— . “(0.75 =162.DC Network Analysis 187 ‘Supply voltage = 300 V (given) +. Voltage across resistor (R) is (300 - 2 x 12) ie., 276 V Also, current through R is 0.75 A s r= 289 = 3680. 075 If L becomes short circuited, resistance across terminals of Ly is 0. If the current now is , we can write 300 = (+ R,) = (368 + 16) or P=078 A. Power dissipated in Ly is now (0.78)? x 16 = 9.73 W (Ly will glow brighter) Power dissipated in Ly is obviously 0. cenneee 44 PARALLEL RESISTANCE CIRCUITS Resistors are said to be connected in parallel when equal voltages appear across each resistor (or network element). The total current taken from the supply is the sum of all the individual resistor or network elements’ currents. 4.4.1 Currents and Voltages in Parallel Circuits Resistors are said to be connected in parallel when the circuit has two terminals which are common to each resistor. Figure 4.14 represents a circuit having three resistors connected in parallel. The voltage across each resistor is E volts and the current through R; is /,, through Ry is /, and through Ry is J. E n-F os R, BER and =z ‘The current supplied by the battery in ampere is (J) = 4, + 1) +1, If R be the equivalent resistance (in ohms) of the circuit in Fig. 4.14, Fig. 4.14 The resistors in parallel connection L = +t or ale——! | 1 1 1 np dig A," Ay” Ry or Fig. 4.15 Equivalent circuit of three resistances in a The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.15. parallel circuit If n resistors are connected in parallel then we have Alby ty gh (4.9) RR Ry Rs R, where R is the equivalent resistance.188 Basic Electrical Engineering Therefore, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of resistors in paraltel connection is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. 4.4.2 Conductances in Parallel In de circuits conductance is the reciprocal of resistance and its unit is “Siemens” (S) in SI units or “mho” in cgs units. If G,, G2, G3, ..., G,, be the conductances of the resistors connected in parallel then the equivalent conductance (G) in Si- emens is given by G=G,+G,+G,+- +G, (4.10) According to Ohm's law, / = ¥ = VG, where V is the applied voltage, G is the equivalent conductance of a parallel circuit, and J is the source current. 4.4.3 Current Divider Parallel resistance circuits are often called current divider circuits because the supply current is divided among the parallel branches. The circuit in Fig. 4.16 can be called as a current divider circuit. Here I ry E Pe + Again, i= Fig. 4.16 Concept of current division @.1D Similarly I, 4.12) 4, and /; are the currents in the branches of this current divider circuit in amperes. These two equations (4.11 and 4.12) can be used to determine how a known supply current is divided into two individual currents through parallely connected resistors or network elements.DC Network Analysis 189 If G, and G, be the conductances of the resistors R, and R5, 1 GG ,-i1— A. (4.13) 1,1 G+, GG 1 G, G. and h= 1—— =-—*— 1, (4.14) 1Ly,1 G+G G G If there are m number of resistors with conductances G), G3 ..., G, connected in parallel across a voltage source then current in any resistor with conductance G; is 1 G 1G, 4G, +G34--4G, {/ being the supply current in ampere while /, is the currrent through G;). I (4.15) 4.44 Power in Parallel Circuits For the circuit in Fig. 4.14, the power (in VA) across resistor R, is given by BE P,=Eh = Rik Total power P = E(I, + Ip + J) =F (b+d+d ea +1FR, + BR ROR Rs =P, +P; ‘When » resistors are connected in parallel PaPi+Py+ Ppt 4P, 4.16) (P) can be expressed in VA or in Watts in de circuits, 4.4.5 Open Circuits and Short Circuits in Parallel Circuits When one of the components in a parallel resistive circuit is open circuited, as shown in Fig. 4.17, no current flows through that branch. The other branch currents are not affected by the open circuit as they still have the normal supply voltage applied across each of them. In Fig, 4.17, J; = 0. Supply current J = Ip + J;. All currents are expressed in amperes. Open circuit Fig. 4.17 Open cireuit in a branch in a parallel resistive circuit190 Basic Electrical Engincering Figure 4.18 shows a short circuit across resistor (Ry). ' \\i5c f= ‘Sle Fig. 4.18 Short circuit in a branch i a parallel circuit As there is a short circuited path across R3, i.e., across one of the resistors in the parallel circuit, no current will flow through resistors R,, Rz and R;. Total current will flow from the battery through the short circuited path and the current (gic) = 1 = E/0 = 00, However, in practice this current is limited by the internal resistance of the battery and lead resistances of the wires. If the internal resis- tance of the battery be taken only and is equal to Rj, then current / = E/R, which is also very high (as the internal resistance of a battery is very small). 4,8 Calculate the total current supplied by the battery 1 in Fig. 4.19. b Solution + aay 6Q = IZA, I= 3a =8 Aand 24 aeaa Fig. 4.19 Cireuit of Ex. 4.8 +. The total current / = J) + fy +4, =(12+8+4)A=24A ceeenee 4.9, Determine the equivalent resistance of the four resistances connected in parallel across a 240 V supply. Also find the total current. The resistances are of 10.0, 15 Q, 25 Q.and 40.2. Solution The equivalent resistance 1 1 Ty Lyd 01+0067+0,.08+ 0.025 1015” 28” 40 =4310 Total current p= £22 4 < 5508.4. R 431 ), Three resistors of conductances 0.1 Siemens, 0.2 Siemens and 0.5 Siemens are nected in parallel. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit. Solution G,+G,+G, 1.1 + 0.2 + 0.5 = 0.8 Siemens Equivalent conductance (G) Equivalent resistance 4 25.2. G7 08 tenesDC Network Analysis 191 4,11, Using the current divider rule find the current in the resistors R, and Rp connected in parallel across a voltage source. The supply current is 50 A, R, = 10 Q and R, = 20 2. Solution Total current J = 50 A Ry R+Ry Current through resistor R, is (I) = Fx 20 x —0_ 20+10 = 33.33 A R R+R, 10 x 10+20 = 16.67 A seeeens Current through resistor Ry is (f) = FX 4,12 In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.19 find the power dissipated across each resistor and the total power. Solution Power dissipated across 2 Q resistor (P,) = 1? x 2= (12 « 2 = 288 W. (8x3 = 192 W, Power dissipated across 6 @ resistor (P;) = 1} x 6 = (4)? x6 = 96 W. Power dissipated across 3 © resistor (P,) = 1} x 3 Total power (P) = P, +P, + Py = 288 + 192 +96 = 576 W. (The values of 4), f, and fy have been obtained as 12 A, 8 A and 4 A in Ex 4.38]. Also, (P) = Ef = 24 V x 24A = 576 W (check). veneene 4.5 SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS Scries-parallel resistive circuits consist of combi- nations of series connected and parallel connected resistors (or other passive network elements). Ay Figure 4.20 represents a simple series-parallel ih 3h Fig. 4.20 A series parallel circuit resistive circuit. In this circuit R, and R, are connected in parallel. The parallel combination of a Ry and Ry is RaRyl(Ry + Ry) (= Ryg)- The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.21, Since R, and R,q are connected in series, there- fore the equivalent resistance of the whole circuit is [Ry + Req) Q).192 Basic Electrical Engineering es Ay AR, Re Py Ry +R, Fig. 4.21 Equivalent of series-parallel circuit 4.5.1 Currents and Voltages in Series-parallel Circuits In Fig. 4.20 the supply current / flows through resistance R;. Then J splits into J, and J, flowing through R; and R; respectively. Obviously, f= 1, +15, [being expressed in amps The currents J, and /, can easily be calculated using the current divider rule. The voltage across resistor Rj is given by V, = IR, The voltage across resistors R, and R3 are equal as they are connected in parallel. Here V, = V3 = AR, = TyRy Also, E=V,+V2=V, + V3. Once the branch currents are known, the voltages across cach resistor can easily be calculated. 4.5.2 Open Circuits and Short Circuits in a Series Parallel Circuit ‘The effect of open circuit in a series-parallel circuit is shown in Fig. 4.22(a) and Fig. 4.22(b). YH 0) A “<— Open circuit b{=0) Fe Fs | (= 0) Fig. 4.22(a) Open circuit in series- Fig. 4.22(6) Open circuit in a branch parallel circuit of series-parallel circuit In Fig. 4.22(a), open circuit occurs at one terminal of R,. This has the same effect as an open circuit in the supply line, so that the main current flowing in any part of the circuit is zero. Also as the main current is zero there is no voltage drop across the resistors and the supply voltage E appears across the open circuit. When open circuit occurs at one end of one of the parallel resistors, as shown in Fig. 4.2(b), the current through that resistor only is zero. Here, [, = 0. Also, R, and R3 can be assumed to be connected in series. Hence l=h=DC Network Analysis 193 As there is no current through R, so there is no voltage drop across it and the voltage across the open circuit is equal to the voltage across Ry, ye ‘When short circuit occurs across the terminals of R, as shown in Fig. 4.23(a), the resistance across the terminals of R, is 0. >! >! Ri Sr Rm Short Ea circuit ea “(Gnd Re aby ‘Short circuit Fig. 4.23(a) Short circuit in series Fig. 4.23(b) Short circuit in a parallel part of series-pasallel cir+ branch of a series-paraliel cuit circuit is obtained as, [= —=H—=———=— The total current is obtained as, / = RR, RyRy/(Ry + Ry) h=1-—— d yar =l-+—— an =). > R+R $ Ry+R When short circuit occurs across the terminals of R,, as shown in Fig. 4.23(b), the resistance across the terminals of R, is 0. Therefore no current will pass through R, as there is a short circuited path in parallel with it. E. Hence Inge also, 1,=0=h, If J,,, be the current in amps through the short circuited path then (/y_-) (= 1) = E R 4.5.3 Analysis of a Series Parallel Circuit ‘The following are the steps for solving series-parallel circuits. 1. Draw a circuit diagram identifying all components by number and showing all currents and resistor voltage drops. 2. Convert all series branches of two or more resistors into a single equivalent resistance. 3. Convert all parallel combinations of two or more resistors into a single equivalent resistance. 4. Repeat procedures 2 and 3 until the desired level of simplification is achieved, The final circuit should be simple series or parallel circuit. Once the current through each equivalent resistance or the voltage across it is known, the original circuit can be used to determine individual resistor currents and voltages.194 Basic Electrical Engineerin; Find the supply current and the currents 4 50 ¢ parallel branches in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.24. + hy 42 Solution 100V = 100: 200 In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.24, 10 @ and 20.0 are in parallel. The equivalent resistance of ig. 4.94 Circuit of Ex. 4.13 oo 10x20 _ 200 the parallel combination is =a 10+20 30 4 = 6.67 Q. 5 © and 6.67 Q are now in series as MN shown in Fig. 4.24(a) + 100 too 6.67.2 The supply cireuit is f= A =857A 5+6.67 From Fig. 4.24, Fig. 4.24(a) Equivalent circuit of _ 20 the series-parallel cir- 1 =857x Toa TATA cuit of Fig 4.24 = 8.s7x —_ 22.9574 10+20 4,14 Find all resistor currents and voltages in the cir- >! cuit shown in Fig. 4.25. Solution 1 al: 20 1x22 h fe The parallel combination of 1 Q and 2Q is ——==Q. 1423 le 5x10 boy The parallel combination of 5:2 and 10 Q is sn 5a 102 = Bp9-Mg 5s 3. Fig. 4.25 Circuit of Ex. 4.14 Also, ja and Ra are in series as shown in Fig. 4.25(a) >I + >! o——t wt a sagiery zofvarv 10V 10 + + Bo sageary wongeany Fig. 4.25(a) Simplified equivalent of Fig. 4.25(b) Polarity of voltage drops cirenit of Fig. 4.25 of the circuit of Fig. 4.25D€ Network Analysis 195 Figure 4.25(a) represents a simple series circuit. The supply current is given by 10x3 A=—— A= 1D 254 From Fig. 4.25, Current through 1 Q resistor f, =2.5 x A = 167A + Current through 2 Q resistor fy = 2.5 x A = 0.83 A 1+2 Current through 5 © resistor fy =2.5 x 04 =1.676 A 10+5 Current through 10 Q resistor [, = 2.5 x x ZA = 0834 A + Therefore Voltage across | Q resistor is 1.67 x 1 = 1.67 V Voltage across 2 Q resistor is 0.833 x 2 = 1.67 V Voltage across 5 Q resistor is 1.676 x 5 = 8.34 V Voltage across 10 Q resistor is 0.834 x 10 = 8.34 V [Polarities of voltage drops are shown in Fig. 4,25(b)]. ceeeees 4 5 Find the current through 5 Q resistor in Fig. 4.26 when the terminals across a 10 Q resistor is Gi) open circuited and (ii) short circuited. Also find the current through the short cizcuited path. Solution 52 Gi) When terminals across 10 © resistor is open circuited as shown in Fig, 4.26(a), 15 Q and 5 Q are in series, Hence current J flows through both 15 9 and 5 0. The current through the 10 Q resistor is Fig. 4.26 Circuit of Ex. 4.15 obtained as + 50V> Fig. 4.26(a) One resistor in circuit of Fig, 4.26(b) 10 Q resistor is shorted in Fig. 4.26 open circuit of Fig. 4.26196 Basic Electrical Engineering ii) When terminals across. 10 Q resistor is short circuited as shown in Fig. 4.26(b), no current will pass through the 5 Q resistor as there is a short-circuited path in parallel with it. Therefore current through the 5 & resistor is 0. The supply current J will pass through 15 Q and through the short circuited path. Hence the current through the short circuited path is SO/IS A = 10/3 A = 3.33 A. 4.6 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS A German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff developed two laws enabling easier analy- sis of circuits containing interconnected impedances. The first law deals with flow of current and is popularly known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) while the second one deals with voltage drop in a closed circuit and is known as Kirchhoff’s voltage laws (KVL). 4.6.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) It states that in any electrical network the algebraic sum of currents meeting at any node of a circuit is zero. In Fig. 4.27, i, and 7 are the inward ig currents towards the junction 0 and are as- is sumed as negative currents, Currents f3, i, ; 's and is are outward currents and taken as ' positive. As per KCL, wi, — i; +i; +i, +i5=0 ie, ip +ip= is + iy + is (4.18) Fig. 4.27 Explanation of KCL ie., the algebraic sum of currents entering a node must be equal to the algebraic sum of currents leaving that node. 4.6.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) It states that the algebraic sum of voltages A Ve (or voltage drops) in any closed path, in a network, traversed in a single direction is + zero. MN In Fig. 4.28, if we travel clockwise in the network along the direction of the current, Ry application of KVL yields - -V, +R, + Vz + iR, + iR, =0 - or VR) +R, 4R)+V, (4.19) {We can also write equation (4.19) as fol- lows: Fig. 4.28 Explanation of KVL or (4.20)]DC Network Analysis 197 We consider the voltage drop as positive when current flows from positive to negative potential. Hence V, is negative while V3 is positive in the first step of equation (4.19). 4.6.3 Network Analysis Procedure using Kirchhoff’s Laws 1. Convert all current sources to voltage sources. 2, Letter or number all junctions on the network as A, B, C or 1, 2, 3 etc. 3. Identify current directions and voltage polarities and number them accord- ing to the resistor involved. 4. Identify each current path according to the lettered junctions and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, write the voltage equations for the paths. 5. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law, write the equations for the currents ¢n- tering and leaving all junctions where more than one current is involved. 6. Solve the equations by substitution to find the unknown currents and or voltages. 4,16 Find the magnitude and direction of the ’ unknown currents in Fig, 4.29, Given i = 20 A, ip= 12 A and i, = 8A. Solution Applying KCL at node ‘a’ ip +i, +ig=0- Q) ish or iy iy ~ ip =20-12=8A Applying KCL at node *b’ ; ~~ ijt is= 0) at or iy = is - v Applying KCL at node ‘d" Fig. 4.29 Circuit of Ex. 4.16 wig + iy — ig = 0 + (2) or igs ip ig=-d~B=-12A The actual currents are now marked in Fig. 4.29(a). Fig. 4.29(a) Actual current flows in circuit of Fig. 4.29198 We can imerpret as follows: i, =-4 A(from d to b) ie. is = 4 a(trom b to) A(from a to d) 12 A(érom ¢ to d) or ig = 12 A(from d to ¢) 4:¥* In Fig. 4.30, find v. Also find the magnitudes and direction of the unknown currents through 10 Q, 2 Q and 5 Q res tsa) 109 v 20 (sa 5a Fig. 4.30. Circuit of Ex, 4.17 Solution Applying KCL at node ‘a’, (Fig. 4.30), IS +i, 4)-5+4i,=0 or i, + in + fy = 20 i) From Ohm's Law, i; = +34, = 4 andi, = +. BE QS 7g MBE Then from equation (i), we have ahah 220 10°25 or v+ Sv 42v = 200 oo v=e25 Vv. Hence so crs 10 10 25 b= = =125A 2 25 ij= = =5A. 88'S In the part of the electrical network, shown in Fig. 4.31, find v,. Assume i (10e*)A, ig = 6(sin 2) A and v; = (8c) V. Solution Applying KCI at the node ‘0’ in Fig. 4.31, mij -h- ity =0DC Network Analysis a os . or iy +106" + ce ~6sinz=0 dt or iy + 10e™ + ax£(8e%) ~ 6 sin r= 0 or i, + 10e™ — 48e"™- 6 sin =0 i, = 38e" + 6 sing Now, yete sax £ G84 6 sins) at at = 4{-114e™ + 6 cos 1) 199 ‘Circuit element v, = (24. cos 1 - 456 e*) ¥ Fig. 4.31 Circuit of Ex, 4.18 4,19 Find branch currents in the bridge circuit shown in Fig. 4.32. 4ov Fig. 4.32 Circuit of Ex. 4.19 Solution ‘We assume currents i), i: and i; in the directions as shown in Fig. 4.32. Applying KVL in loop ‘abda’, we find Si, + 3iy- Si, = 0. Applying KVL in loop ‘bedb’, we find (i, — is) — 64, + 13) - 31, = 0 or Gi, - 6i, — 15i, = 0. Applying KVL in loop ‘adcea’, we find Siz + Oli, + #3) - 10 =0 or Mi, + 6is ~ 10 = 0. Solving equations (i), (ii) and (iii) we get i, =i, =0.91 Asi, =0. 4,20 In the network of Fig. 4.33, find v, and v, using KVL. Solution In loop ‘abca’, from KVL we can write, l+r,- or yomsh w (ii) (iii) wo200 Basic Electrical Engineerin; Fig. 4.33 Circuit of Ex. £20 In loop ‘bedb’, using KVL we find, —y)+1+4=0 or yas. Substituting the value of v, in equation (i) we get vy =6V. oneenee 4.21 Find current i in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.34, Solution ‘The assumed and given currents in various branches of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.34 are drawn in Fig. 4.34(a). ® )sav Fig. 4.34 Circuit of Ex. 4.21 Fig, 4.34(a) Circuit of Ex. 4.21 Using KCL at node ‘A*, S43 or ve @ Applying KVL in loop ‘ABCDA’, S’'+5-8=0 ie. Substituting the value of i’ in (i), we have 7 = 0.6 - 5 = 44 A. Thus i(4.4 A) flows from node D to node C in the actual circuit. seeeeesDC Network Analysis 201 4.7 NODAL ANALYSIS Nodal analysis is based on Kirchhoff’s current law. This method has the advan- tage that a minimum number of equations are needed to determine the unknown quantities. Moreover, it is particularly suited for networks having many parallel branches and also when there are current sources in the network. For the application of this method one of the nodes in the network is regarded as the reference or datum node or zera potential node. The number of simulta- neous equations to be solved becomes (n — 1), where is the number of indepen- dent nodes. : Mlustration { Referring Fig. 4.35, we find that nodes ‘A’ and “B’ are independent nodes. Let °B’ be (V4) and (V,) respectively. Obviously, Vp = 0. * Using Ohm's Law, h assume inward currents as negative while ow surd currents as positive. RR. Applying KCL at node A, Fig. 4.35 [lfustration for nodal method -Iy-In += 0 -V, : ie., - ae (4.20) : This equation represents the nedal form of Ku. nedal analysis we usually : 4.7.1 Nodal Analysis Procedure 1. Convert all voltage sources to current sources and redraw the circuit dia- gram. 2. Identify all nodes and choose a reference node. (Usually, the commen node is the reference node.) 3. Write the equation for the currents flowing into and out of each node, with the exception of the reference node, 4. Solve the equation to determine the node voltage and the required branch currents.202 Basic Electrical Engineering Find the voltage v in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.36. iy 40 4 ig 100": Fig. 4.36 Circuit of Ex. 4.22 Solution Considering ‘B” as reference node, V, = 0. Let V, be the potential at node “A’. Obviously, Vy — Vp =v, icy Vy =. Using nodal analysis at node ‘A’, we get vy, - - y=100 Va Va 180 4 10 10 or ¥-100 v 4 2180 . 4°10 100 1 1 +44] =43 “ Gs i0 1) 4310 ve = 95.55 V. 45 4.23 Find the currents in different branches of the network shown in Fig. 4.37 using nodal analysis. 12 19 | @isv @aev Fig. 4.37 Circuit of Ex, 4.23 Let V, and Vg be the nodal voltages at nodes ‘A’ and ‘B’ in the given figure, The ground node is the reference node. Using nodal analysis, at node ‘A’ we can write ¥ Va Va -Ve 1 W2 or. 4V,-2V, = 15. i) =0At node ‘B’ we can write Vg 2 or 3.5 Vy—2 Vy = 20 Gi) Solving equations (i) and (ii), we get Vy = LV; ¥y = 9.25 V¥. Hence, current through the respective resistors can be calculated as follows: Fig. 437(a) Current values in branches of Fig. 4.37 weneeee 4,24 Find the node voltages (¥,) and (V,) using nodal analysis (Fig. 4.38). Ve 4a Ww z ¥ roaCt) 6Q FA 100; 52 Fig. 4.38 Circuit of Ex. 4.24204 Sélution At node ‘a", we have vy 10+ +24 0 6 Y, or = 4 or 5V, = 3V, = 96. @ Applying nodal analysis at ‘y", we get or or SV, = LIV, i) Solving equations (i) and (ii), we get V, = 29.4 .V; ¥,= 17 V. senses Find current in the 15 2 resistor using nodal method (Fig. 4.39). 202 @ 152 @ 102 G@)soov F800 802 @e00v Fig. 4.39 Circuit of Ex. 4.25 Solution Let us first designate the nodes “1” and ‘2° in Fig. 4.39 and assume nodal voltages to be (¥,) and (V,) respectively At node ‘1’, v Vy - M400 Mh MaVa 2 Bo" 15 V; or u(he 1 +t) =20 20 80 15 15 My ly , or Se M- av = 20 @ Similarly, using nodal analysis at node ‘2’, - - Ya=200 Ya YaoW 10 90 15 =0or ~tau( hed) = 1015" 90)" or -tvs s V, =20 Soling equations (i) and (ii) we get V, = 264.88 V; V,= 211.33 V Hence, current in the 15 9 resistor is obtained as Vy 264. 1s 15 This current is directed from node ‘1° and node ‘2°. > As = 4,26 In Fig. 4.40, find “v" in the given circuit using nodal analysis. Solution Let us mark the junction of two resistors (1 Q and 2) as node ‘A’ and assume the voltage at this node to be (V,). Applying nodal analysis at “A* we get Vi Mats Y, Ma Mat5 Vat 10 2° 1+1 1 or v(Zedet}e3 +10=0 27371)*2 or V, =-625 V. We now find the currents passing through both side resistors of the node ‘A’, We redraw Fig. 4.40 as Fig. 4.40(a) and mark the corresponding resistors as Fr, and r;, The current through 7, is given by i, =Vq +10/ =3.75 A, directed outwards of node ‘A‘. Similarly, current through r3 is given by Va45 GT a 2. Voltage drop across 1, is (3.75 x 1) while that across. ry is (-0.625 x 1) i The corresponding polarities have been marked in Fig. 4.40(2). Finally, in loop ‘mnApq’ we can write, from KVL, —v-2- 3.75 + 0.625 =0 5.125 V. = -0.625 A, directed towards the node ie. v (It means, polarity of ‘m” is actually negative while polarity of Fig. 4.40(a)). 205 (i) =357A tov) sv 20 19 12 12 2v(t) 6 v—— +e Fig. 4.40 Circuit of Ex. 4.26 10V @Osv 19 20 re | 19s, Aw} p av Fig. 4.40(a) Figure 4.40, redrawn, for analysis s actually positive in206 Basic Electrical Engineering 4.27 Obtain the current through the 1 © resistor using node voltage method for the circuit shown in Fig. 4.41. Fig. 4.41 Circuit of Ex. 4.27 Solution Let us first mark the nodes ‘1" and ‘2* in Fig. 4.41 and assume corresponding nodal voltages to be V, and V;. At node ‘1’, we have to41)] -V,= °r "G+ 2 ) an8 or 17, = 10 V, = 60. a) At node ‘2', we have V,-24 ¥, ¥-Y 2 42 oh 3 1 or yen +2 tei) = 304 19 = —V, = or Vit My =8 or -12V, + 19V2 = 96, di) Solving (i) and (ii) we get, V; = 10.35 V; V3 = 11.6 V Hence the current through 1 Q resistor is Wy _ 116-1035 hea. = 1.25 V, directed from node ‘2’ and to node ‘1’. saeeeee v2 49 4% 1 Fig. 442. Circuit of Ex. 4.28 In Fig. 4.42, find J so that V,DC Network Analysis 207 Solution Atnode “x’ we can write, using nodal analysis, ¥,-¥, ¥, 14 2v,4 + -1=0 4 or 25.V,-0.25 V5 At node *y’, using nodal analysis, we write Vv, -V, = a-V Va Van 12 _ 4 2 2 or 1.25 Vz - 0.25 V, =6 wi But as per question, V, = 0. + from (ii), Vy = i =48 V, Also, from (i), 1 = 4.8 x 0.25 =-1.2 A Thus the current source J pushing current in the reverse direction and of magnitude 1.2 A will make V, = 0. teeeeee Obtain the value of Vp in the network wn in Fig. 4.43. Solution In the network of Fig, 4.43 let us assume that the node voltage at node ‘x’ be ‘V,’. Thus at node ‘x’ we can write, or or Vv, -3) v w@ Also, in branch ‘xy’, V,=2= Vg ie. V5 (Vp +2)¥ w Substituting the value of V, from equation (ii) in equation (i), we get 3 5_3 Vg = 2g +2)-2=2Vp-1 n= 5g +2)- 3-2 Vg V_=—4 Ve 4.8 MESH ANALYSIS (OR LOOP ANALYSIS) The mesh or loop analysis is based on Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Here the currents in different meshes are assigned continuous paths so that they do not split at a junction into branch currents. In this method loop voltage equations are written by KVL in terms of unknown loop currents. Circuits with voltage sources are comparatively easier to be solved by this method.208 Basic Electrical Engineerin; Illustration ! work containing five resistors. There are * two loops and the respective loop currents are J, and /y. Applying KVL in loop 1, we have -E, +1,R,+(1,-1)R,+1,;R,=0 Fig. 4.44 Illustration of mesh or Ey =1,(R, + Ry + Ry) Ry @ analysis Applying KVL in loop 2, we get Ey + 1gRy + (ly ~ 1h) Ry + Rs or FE) =1)Ry— (Ry + Ry + Rylp. (ii Solving equations (x) and (y), we can find the values of [, and f, and subse quently branch currents can be evaluated. 4.8.1 DC Circuit Analysis Procedure using Loop Equations 1. Convert all current sources to voltage sources. 2. Draw all loop currents in a clockwise direction and identify them. . Identify all resistor voltage drops as + to — in the direction of the loop current and assume these drops to be positive. 4. Identify all voltage sources according to their correct polarity. 5. Write the equations for the voltage drops around each loop in turn, by equating the sum of the voltage drops to zero. 6. Solve the equations to find the unknown currents and/or voltage drops. we Fig. 445 Circuit of Ex. 4.30 4,30 Calculate the current supplied by the battery in Fig. 4.45 using loop current method. Applying KVL in loop-1 8/, + 204, -) 44 10, =0 or 224, - Aly = -20 or Mi, - 2h =-10DC Network Analysis 209 11, +10 or he (i) Applying KVL in loop-2, Shy + Aly + (ly -) 4-20=0 or Al, + 13h, = 20 Gi) ‘Substituting the value of /, from equation (i) in equation (ii), we get 10+11h Aly #13 x —S— - 20=0 or 1, =-0.667 A 10+ 11(-0.667) Also, he LBA. Hence the current supplied by the battery is obtained as (J, — 1,), i.e, 1.33 + 0.667 = 1.997 A. veveaee 43), Find the currents in 2 0, 3.0, 4 ©, 5 O and 10 © resistances in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.46 using loop method. Loop 2 Loop 1 Fig. 446 Circuit of Ex. 4.31 Solution: Let us first mark the loop current in Fig. 4.46 as shown by dotted arrows. For loop I we can write, -12 + 6f, +, -h 4+, - 4) 10=0 or 10/, - 2h - 5 = 6. @ Applying mesh method in loop 2, we have 2h +(h-d) 3+ (b-1)4=0 or I, - 9h; + 31, = 0. (ii) Applying mesh method in loop 3, we have 51, + (ly ~ 4) 104 (dy 1.) 320 or 10, + 3d, ~ 184, = 0. Gil) Comparing equations (i) and Sh, = 13h = ~6 ye Bas éw) 3210 Basic Electrical Engineering Again, from equation (ii) we can write 9b - 31, 7 Substituting this value of I, in equation (i), we get he ‘Simplifying, (yy From equations (iv) and w. we have 131, -6 a8. 4(6,324) 5 82 4 or 1 = 82 20754. + From equation (iv) we now can write 13x 0.75-6 ea 20758 Also from equation (i), we can write 101, = 2x 0.75 +5 x 0.75 + 6 = 11.25 2 A= 1.125 A. ‘Thus current in the 2 Q and 5 Q resistors is 0.75 A each; current in the 4 resistor is (f, — I) ie., 0.375 A, current in the 10 Q resistor is (Z, ~ I;) ie., 0.375 A, and current in the 3 2 resistor is (/, — /,) ie., 0 A. seeeeee 4,32, From the mesh analysis find the current flow through a 50 V source in Fig. 4.47. Solution Let us designate the loop currents by dotted arrows in the network of Fig. 4.47. 50~ 20. 330 In loop 1 we have ‘ ‘ " . . jg! -50 + Si) + (i, - i) 2+20=0 + 1 eT or Tiy - 2i, - 30=0 @ sov@) <’ eau @rov In loop 2 we can write, Loop 1 Loop 2 Big + 10 ~ 20 + (i, = i) 2 = 0 Fig. 4.47 Circuit of Ex. 4.32 or = 2h -5 i) 2 Substituting the value of #, from equation (ii) to equation (i), we get i. - ($a -5) ~2i,-30=0DC Network Analysis 211 Simplification yields, =4.19A Thus from equation (ii) we get 3 X4.19 5 =5.475 A. The current through the 50 V source is thus 5.475 A. seneeee c a y 20 20 0 5 Fig. 448 Cireuit of Ex. 4.33 Solution The current supplied by the 10 V source in the loop-mnxy is obtained as jee 154342 The current supplied by the 20 V source in the loop-bade is given by b pM yo "ev 2a sv COCO Fig. 4.48(a) Currents and voltages for the circuit of Ex. 4.33 Vig 2 Vj, + SV 4 Vy 2-245 +10 = 13 V. The drop across terminal (3) and (a) is 13 V. seneues 4,34, Find the current through the resistors using mesh method for the network shown in Fig. 4.49,212 Solution 3A Lev'us first draw the loop currents in the 2S network of Fig. 4.49. The loop currents are XGA shown by dotted arrows. It may be noted that alsa» s2 |, due to presence of current source of 3 A, the Nv Vv corresponding loop current / is 3 A. YY ‘Nb In the loop containing 12 V source, we s2v(*) 1 229 1(@)ev have nw PR =12 + (I +395 + (h -1)2=0 or UW, -U,+3=0, a @ 19 Applying mesh analysis in the loop containing “Fig. 4.49 Circuit of Ex. 4.34 6V source, we get Al+(h-h)2+4(h+3)6+6=0 or he 2-4 +12, ii) Substituting the value of /, from equation (ii) in (i), we get (24 +1) 2h +3.=0 or A ‘Thus from equation (ii), we get t= 2 x (295) +12 =-1.275 4 We now can find currents in respective resistors: Current through 5 Q resistor (= /, + Jy) = -1.275 + 3 = 1.725 A. [It may be noted that the current obtained through the 5 Q resistor is directed from a to 6). Current through the 6 © resistor (= fy + 45) =-2.95 +3 = 0.05 A. [This current is directed from b toc}. Current through the 2 Q resistor (= J, + J;) = -1.275 + 2.95 = 1.675 A. [The current through the 2 resistor is directed from b to d]. Finally, the current through the 1 £2 resistor (/,) is (-2.95 A) and is directed from d ts 6 In the bridge network shown in Fig. 4.50 the current through the galvanometer having 20 Q internal resistance. Use mesh analysis. Solution We first assign loops as loop i, loop 2 and Joop 3 with circulating currents J,, [, and 1, through these loops (Fig. 4.50). In loop 1 we have 61,4, -B) 20+, -4)3= or 291) -20h-3h=0. @ Tn loop 2 we have Fig. 4.50 Cireuét of Ex. 4.35 12 Ip + (lp) 10 + (1) 200 or -20 fy +42. - 10 = 0. i)DC Network Analysis 213 Similarly, in loop 3 we can write 12 + (y=) 3 + (y= 4) 10 =0 or 31-10 +13 h-12=0. Let us now solve these three simultaneous equations. _ 204, +315 . From equation (i), f, = —~—> (iv) 29 — 421 - 1015 and from equation (i), fy == > ” Comparing equation (iv) and (v) we get 201, +34, 42-101, ~» 20 or 818 J, - 350 =0 wi) Again, from equation (iii) we find =10 Fs +13 fy -12 1} 5 (vii) Comparing equation (v) with equation (vii) we get “Wh +1Bh-12 42%, -104 3 - 20 or 326 Jp ~ 290 J, = ~240 (viii) From equation (vi) we find /; = (350 /,/818); substitution of value of J, in equation (viii) yields 326 x 322 . 1, - 290 4, = 240 818 or b= 159A. From (vi), #, can be found as /, = (350/818) x 1.59 ie, 1, =0.68 A From (vii) we can find the value of 1); 1, = 2100.68 +13%1,59-12 1s = 0.633 A. 3 The current (/2 ~ 1) through the galvanometer is then obtained. Obviously, (iy -1)) = Ig = 0.68 ~ 0.633 = 0.047 A (directed upwards). seaneee 436, Find current in all branches of the network shown in Fig. 4.51. Solution Let the current in the arm AF be I amps, as shown by dotted arrow. Using the concept of KCL, the currents at each of the branches have been identified in Fig. 4.51 in terms of the assumed current /. Next we apply the mesh analysis at the hexagonal network AFEDCBA. We have 0,02(1) + 0.01¢/ ~ 60) + 0.03(F) + 0.01(7 - 120) + 0.0107 ~ 50) + 0.02(7 - 80) = 0. Solving for 1, we get I= 39 A.214 Basie Electrical Engineering 4.51 Circuit of Ex. 4.36 Thus we can identify the branch currents as current in AF current in Fl current in ED current in DC = Ip = (I~ 120) = -81 A current in CB = Ieg = (I-50) =-I1 A current in BA = Ip, = (I - 80) = 41 A. 48.2 Mesh Analysis Using Matrix Form Let us consider the network shown in Fig. 4.52; it contains three meshes. The three mesh currents are /;, 2, and J; and they are assumed to flow in a clockwise direction. Ay Ay As WV WV WV D >) i) Fig. 4.52 Concept of mesh analysis in matrix form Applying KVL to mesh | ~E, + (I, = TR, +R, =0 or NR, + (h- B)R = Ey or AAR, + Ry) -— bRy = Ey or 1(R, +R) + L(-R,) = Ey. (4.21)DC Network Analysis 215 Applying KVL to mesh 2 (Uy = A) Ry + 1yR3 + Uy - T)Rg = 0 or “IR, + Iy(Ry + Ry + Ry) — Ry =0 or ACR,) + Fy(Ry + Ry + Ry) + I{CRy) = 0 (4.22) Applying KVL to mesh 3 Ey + IyRs + (ly -1)R, = 0 or “IgRy + Iy(Ry + Rs) = Ey. (4.23) It should be noted that the signs of resistances in the above equations have been so arranged as to make the items containing self-resistances positive. The matrix equivalent of the above three equations is R+R -Ry 0 Tn) [é =Ry RtR+R, -R |,|=] 0 0 “Ry +R | [-B In general the resistance matrix [R} can be written as Rr Ry Ry Ry Rox Ras Ry Raz R33 where Ry, = self-resistance of mesh 1 = R, + Ry Ry = Self-resistance of mesh 2 = Ry + Ry + Ry R33 = self-resistance of mesh 3 = Ry + Rs Ry =Ry {sum of all the resistances common to meshes 1 and 2) — [sum of all the resistances common to meshes 2 and 3) =-R, Ry aky =— [sum of all the resistances common to meshes 3 and 1] = 0 (here). [Ry1, Roa, Rap -.. are called diagonal elements of the resistance matrix while Rj>, Ry3, Roy» Rog, --- ate called off-diagonal elements.] 4.37, Find the mesh currents in Fig. 4.53 using mesh current method. 102 102 I WW toov 4 D) h 50V Fig. 4.53 Circuit of Ex. 4.37216 Basic Electricat Engineering Solution Applying KVL in loop 1 100 + 10(f, = 43) + 10(7, i) + 107, = 0 or 1,(10 + 10 + 10) ~ 10%, - 10, Applying KVL in loop 2 50+ 10(d - 1s) # 10, - 4) = 0 or -10/, + £,(10 + 10) - 10, = -50 Applying KVL in loop 3 LOI, + 10(, ~ 1,) + 10(, - 1,) = 0 or 101, — 102, + 4y(10 + 10 + 10) = The above equations in matrix form can be written as 30 -10 -10]74 100) -10 20 ~10//z, | = |-so -10 -10 30)4; h 30 -10 -10]' [100 Hence 4 |: 20 -10 | nj [Ho -10 30} | o 1 500 400 300]/ 100 or 4 = sal 800 400||-50 4 300 400 so0]| 0. Therefore, fy = OMIT MOND a a5.4 8000 400 100 — 50 «800 he —— aye and OR AE LISA 438 Find the ammeter current in Fig. 4.54 using mesh analysis. Solution Applying mesh method in mesh 1 44101, +20,-f)=0 or 12h - 2h = Applying mesh method in mesh 2 ton 2+ Yl ~ 1) + 101, . “ah + th Fig, 4.54 Circuit of Ex. 4.38 In the matrix form the above equations can be written as (2 kt) -(2] « [iE GesheDC Network Analysis 217 or ny]. a [2 T,} > 140-32 Hence 2a and he -a. 140 140 ‘Therefore, the current through ammeter is b 2 ~ at A [in the direction of (/,) as shown in Fig. 4.84). 0 4.9 STAR DELTA CONVERSION Like series and parallel connections the resistances may be connected in star (Y) or delta (A) connection as shown in Fig. 4.55(a) and Fig. 4.55(b). 1 1 Ry Pay Rio Ry Fo 3 2 3 ‘Fag 2 Fig. 4.55(a) A star (or T) connection _ Fig. 4.55(b) A delta (or mesh) connec- tion Circuits shown in Fig. 4.55(a) and Fig. 4.55(b) are identical provided their respective resistances from terminals (12), (23) and (32) are equal. In star connection, Resistance between terminals 1 & 2 is (R; + Ro) Resistance between terminals 2 & 3 is (R, + R3) Resistance between terminals 3 & | is (Ry + Rj). Similarly in delta connection, Resistance between terminals 1 & 2 is [RizlI(R2; + R3,)] _ Ria(R3 + Ra) Ria + Rog + Ray Resistance between terminals 2 & 3 is [Roll(R3, + Ry) _ Res (Roi + Riz) Riz + Ros + Roy Resistance between terminals 3 & 1 is [RalI(Ry2 + Ro3)] _ Rai (Ri2 + Ras) Riz + Ras + Ray" Now, we equate the resistances in star and delta across appropriate terminals. Ri2(Ras + Ru) Le. Ri, +R,= PNP" Ria + Roa + Bo (4.24)218 Basic Electrical Engineering Ros (Roi + Riz) Rip + Ros + Ray Ry (Ria + Ras) Ry + Ry t+ Ry, Subtracting equation (4.25) from equation (4.24) we get Ria(Roy + Rai) = Rog (Roi + Riz) Ria + Ros + Ray Ry +Ry= (4.25) Ry +R, = (4.26) Ry - Ry= _ Riz Ri — Raa Ra Riz + Ry; + Ry, Adding equations (4.26) and (4.27) _ 2 Ria Rar Ria + Ros + Ry (4.27) RRs “ Bie Rat Ray + Ry Rp Ry lar way. R= Ro Ry Me Ry Ros 2 + Ros + Ray Thus we see that if the resistances in delta connected resistance network are known, we can find the equivalent star network where R= — Re 4.28(a) Rit Rog + Ry . Ri Ros -— Finks 4.28(b) Re Rit Ros + Ray ®) Ras Ry R= > 4.28(¢) 5 Rat Rg + Ry © R,, Rz and R, being equivalent resistances in the star network and Ry», Rp, and Ry, the resistances in the delta network. Next, multiplying each equation (4.28(a), 4.28(b) and 4.28(c)] with another and adding Ri, Rag + Ry2 Ry Ry + Reg Riz (Riz + Rey + RP RyRy + Roy + RoR (4.29)DC Network Analysis 219 Dividing equation (4.29) by (R,), we get RR; Ryz Ro R3,(Ry2 + Ros + B: Ry + 2 4 y= ERK t Xo 31) A Ry(Ria + Ry + Ry? Ry2 Ros Roy =o (4.30) RR +R + Ry) » Substituting the value of 2, from equation (4.28(a)) in equation (4.30) we get RRs _ Riz Ras Ry (Ria + Ras + Rai) R, +R + = R Ry Ria (Riz + Roy + Ry) Rios Ry RyRy RR, + RyRy + RR, = R . Similarly, dividing equation (4.29) by Rp we get R, Ry + Ry Ry + RyRy 51 = R; and dividing equation (4.29) by (R;) we get R Ry + Ry Ry + RAR, R; . Thus we find Ry, R3; and R3,, i.e. the equivalent delta network provided R,, Ry and R; of the star network are given. ‘The equations are ie. Ros 12 = RR, + Ry Ry + RR, Ry= i 4.31(a)} RR, +R Rt RR, Ry = Se (4.3106)] RyRy + Ry Ry + RR, , Ry = (4.31@)] 49.1 Delta-Star (A-Y) and Star-Delta (Y-A) Transfor- mation Procedures. 1. When starting with a A network, draw a Y network; when starting with a Y network, draw a A network. 2. Identify the three corresponding terminals on each network as 1, 2 and 3. 3. Identify the resistors on the A network as follows: Resistor between terminals 1 and 2 as (Rj) Resistor between terminals | and 3 as (R,3) Resistor between terminals 2 and 3 as (R23).4. Identify the resistors on the Y network as follows: Resistor connected to terminal 1 as (Rj) Resistor connected to terminal 2 as (R,) Resistor connected to terminal 3 as (R3). 5. For A to ¥ transformation, substitute the A network resistor values into equations 4.28(a), 4.28(b) and 4.28(c) to obtain the Y network resistor values. 6. For ¥ to A transformation, substitute the Y network resistor values into equations 4.31(a), 4.31(b) and 4.31(c) to obtain the A network resistor values. [A ¥ network is also called as 7(Te) network while a A network may be called as a mesh or (pi) network). Convert the 7 network shown in Fig. 4.56 into equivalent T network. 100 — Fie 52 s 30 ta p2 Fig. 4.56 Circuit of Ex. Fat Res . 439 Solution The network in Fig. 4.56 can be redrawn as shown in y Fig. 4.56(a), Here R,, R, and Ry in star combination represent the equivalent of the given delta network. y Ry Xk 105 1 2 R= 2 * Roy =278 2 Ry A Ra +Ros+ Ry 104345 Ry X 3x10 ° p= eRe 3x0 era Ra +Ryt Ry 10+345 Pa RyX 3x5 R= —BaXRy 3x5 0.83.2 Ry +R + Ry 104345 3 Thus we have obtained the equivalent star (or 2) Fig, 4.56(a) ALY conversion of resistances given by the given network Ry = 2.78 9; Ry = 1.67.9; Ry = 0.83 0. eusvace 4,40 Find the input resistance (R) of the network shown in Fig. 4.57. 200 300 B02 602 Fig. 4.57 Circuit of Ex. 440221 DC Network Analysis Solution Converting the upper delta network of Fig. 4.57 into a star network [Fig. 4.57(a)] we obtain the arm impedances of the equivalent star network as > a Fig. 4.57(a) Conversion of upper delta network to equivalent star for the net- work of Ex. 4,40 _ 20x30 120 +30450 20x50 R= —*™ _ 100 20 +30+ 50 30x50 R= ———_— 20430450 Next we further reorient the network as shown in Fig. 4.57(b). =15Q. Ry r> Re Ae aon 600 Fig. 4.57(b) Simplified equivalent of network of Fig. 4.57(a) (10 + 80) x (15 + 60) Here, =6+ ————— (10+ 80) + (15 +60) 90x75 90+75 = 46.90. Thus, the equivalent resistance of the network given in Fig. 4.57 is 46.9 Q. =6+222 4A Using star-delta conversion, find the equivalent resistance between terminals A and Bin the network shown in Fig. 4.58. Fig. 4.58 Circuit of Ex. 4.41 Solution Let us first convert the star connected network using 20 Q, 20 9 and 40 @ resistors to an equivalent delta network [Ref. Fig. 4.58(a)]. Fig. 4.58(a) Equivalent A network of a part of circuit of Fig. 4.58 20x40 + 20x 40 +.20x 20 Here, k, = ———, ——— = 1002 40 +20 20x 20 - 20x x40+20x =1009 20 20 40 +20 x 40 + 20x 20 R; = —————_——— = 09. 40 Figure 4.58(b) is the final form of the given network as reduced in Fig. 4.58(a). 102) 1002 100.2 600 Fig. 4.58(b) Simplified equivalent of network of Ex. 4.41‘Thus the equivalent resistance between terminals A and B is obtained as R 10011 50x10 | 100x60 “a 50+10 100+ 60 = 100 Il 45.83 i 100 45.83, j 100+45.83 j ‘The equivalent resistance across terminals A and B is thus 31.43 Q. weenene = 31.430. Find the resistance across terminals AB for the circuit shown in Fig. 4.59. 30 5a 82 30 an A 20 8 3a so 8a vv Fig. 4.59 Circuit of Ex. 4.42 Solution ‘We convert the two delta networks formed in the given circuit to equivalent star networks as shown in Fig. 4.59(a). Fig. 4.59(a) Formation of equivalent stars for the given network in Ex. 4.42 3x3 We find, R, = Rp=Ry= ——— = 34343 8x8 and Ry=Ry= Ry= = 2672. The equivalent resistance between terminals CD (Fig. 4.59(b)) can be obtained by redraw- ing Fig. 4.59(a) as Fig. 4.59(b). Rep = (Ry + 5+ Rel(R3 + 5+ Rs) = (1 + 5+ 2.67) + 5+ 2.67) = 4.335 Q Hence the resistance between terminals AB of the given network is R=24+R,+4.3354+Ry=2+1 +4335 +267 10 2.224 Basic Electrical Engineering 5a 52 Fig. 4.59(b) Equivalent network of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.59(a) 3 Determine the resistance between Points A and B in the network shown in 60. a 5 sas 3 a Sen B Fig. 4.60 Circuit of Ex. 4.43 Solution Figure 4.60(a) is drawn to represents a star equivalent to the part of the given network containing resistaces 3 Q, 2 Q and 5 Q. In Fig. 4.60(a), 3x2 R= cose 34245 | me 2X5 Lig O° 54243 3x5 R= ———— 2150. So T4542 We redraw Fig. 4.60(a) as Fig. 4.60(b) and the circuit is further reduced to Fig. 4.60(c). We draw a star equivalent for the delta connected resistances 5.6 2,4 Q and 1 oB in Fig. 4.60(c). Fig. 4.60(a) Formation of star equiva- Here, = 1kt . 03779 lent for a portion of net- 144+56 work shown in Fig. 4.60DC Network Analysis 15.6 ta = ———— = 0.5289 144456 4x56 4a = ———— -210. ® 14+44+56 2 The final configuration of the given network is shown in Fig. 4.60(d). The resistance between terminals AB is then obtained as 4a Ray = (7.5 + 0.528) Il (4 + 2.11} + 0.377 8.028 x 6.11 ————_ + 0.377 = 3.8 * gore “O87 349 be The equivalent resistance across AB is then Fig. 4.60(b) Reduction of circuit 3.84. shown in Fig. 4.60(a) A | 3780 34a gm Sh Re Fig. 4.60(c) Further simplification 5 of circuit shown in Fig. 4.60(d) Final simplified equivalent Fig. 4.60(c) circuit of Ex.443 4.10 VOLTAGE SOURCES AND CURRENT SOURCES A network can sometimes be simplified by converting voltage sources to current sources and vice versa. Voltage sources can be represented by an ideal voltage cell in series with the intemal resistance of the cell or battery. The ideal cell is assumed to be a constant voltage source and the output current produces a voltage drop As “ across the internal resistance. Figure 4.61 shows, A> ML such a constant voltage source, with voltage E, I — I source resistance Rs and an external load resis- -- tance R,. Using the voltage divider rule in Art. Fig. 4.61 A constant voltage 4.3.2 the output voltage developed across R, can ~ source with a load be determined. resistor “+ + 1226 = pe Ve Oe, (432) If Ry « R,, then V, =E When the load resistance is very much larger than the source resistance, the constant voltage source is assumed to have zero source resistance and all of the source voltage is assumed to be applied to the load. Certain electronic devices can produce a current that tends to remain constant regardless of how the load resistance varies. Hence it is possible to have a ‘constant current source. The circuit of constant current source is shown in Fig. 4.62 with its source resistance Ry and a load resistance R,. Constant current —> generator Fig. 4.62 A constant current source with a load resistor Here Rs is in parallel with the current source. Hence some current flows through Rs and remaining through R,. Using the current divider rule as shown in Art 4.4.3, the output current (or load current) from a constant current source can be determined in terms of R, and Rs! i = Fe (4.33) If Rs > R, then f, =1. Figure 4.63(a) and Fig. 4.63(b) show how a voltage source can be converted into an equivalent current source that will produce the same current level in a given load resistor. Current source source ' ' ' Voltage | I ' \ 1 Fig. 4.63(a) & (b} Conversion of a constant voltage source to an equivalent constant current source When the load resistance is very much smaller than the source resistance, a constant current source is assumed to have an infinite source resistance, and all of the source current is assumed to flow through the load.227 4.10.1 Source Conversion According to source conversion technique a given voltage source with a series resistance can be converted into an equivalent current source with a parallel resistance (as ex- plained in Art. 4.10). Similarly, a current source with a parallel resistance can be converted into a voltage source with a series resistance. Here we explain again the conversion of the Lo constant voltage source shown in Fig. 4.64 into 2 an equivalent constant current source. Fig. 4.64 A constant voltage The current supplied by the constant voltage source with series source when a short circuit is placed across ter- resistor minals | & 2 is [= VIR. A constant current source supplying this cur- rent J and having the same resistance R con- nected in parallel with it represents the 1G i equivalent current source as shown in Fig. 4.65. Similarly, a constant current source of / and a parallel resistance R can be converted intoa _ . 2 constant voltage source of voltage V(= IR) and Fi8: 4.65 Equivalent constant a resistance R in series with it. current source of the voltage source (V) 4,44, Convert the constant voltage source shown in Fig. 4.66 into equivalent current 200 100" Fig. 4.66 Circuit of Ex. 4.44 source. 5A 209 Solution The current supplied by the 100 V source when a short circuit is placed across the output terminals is 1 = 100/20 = 5 A. So the value of the equivalent source of the 100 V : 1 " voltage source constant current source is 5 A; the equivalent circuit wauenee with current source is shown in Fig. 4.67. Fig. 4.67 Equivalent current 4,45, Convert the constant current source of Fig. 4.68 into equivalent voltage source. + 15A 52 Fig, 4.68 Circuit of Ex. 445Basic Electrical Engineering 228 Solution The value of the equivalent constant voltage source is given as V (= IR) = 15 x 5=75 V. The equivalent network with the voltage source is shown in Fig. 4.68(a). 75V Fig, 4.68(a) Equivalent voltage source of 15 A current source 4.46 Use source transformation technique to find the current through the 2 Q resistor in Fig. 4.69. 22 20a (4) 30 52 +) 8a Fig. 4.69 Circuit of Ex. 4.46 Solution Converting the two sources into equivalent voltage source, the network shown in Fig. 4.70 is obtained. 32 20 52 Fig. 4.70 Current sources of Fig. 4.69 converted to voltage sources ‘The values of V, and V3 are 20 x 3 = 60 V and 8 x 5 = 40 V respectively. ‘As the voltage sources are series connected hence they deliver current in the same direction. Hence the current through 2 © resistor is 60+ 40, 34245 =10A. 4,47, By using source conversion technique find the value of voltage across R, where R, = 4 Qin Fig. 4.71. 4a 22 49 4oy Ay 122 200 A Fig. 4.71 Circuit of Ex. £47DC Network Analysis 229 Solution Converting 40 V source into equivalent current source, in Fig. 4.71(a) the value of the current source is 40/4 = 10 A. 20 4a mp _ " Fig. 4.71(a) Conversion of 40 V voltage source to equivalent current source ‘The combination of the parallel resistances of 4 Q and 12 Q is (12 x 4)(12 + 4) =3 Q (the network is shown in Fig. 4.71(b)). 10 AG) A Fig. 4.71(b) Reduction of network shown in Fig. 4.71(a) Converting 10 A current source into equivalent voltage source, the value of the voltage source is 10 x 3 = 30 V, the equivalent cireuit is shown in Fig. 4.71(c). 30 20 40 WV AW AW Fig. 4.71(c) Cotiversion of 10 A current source to equivalent valtage source Again converting the voltage source into current source, the network in Fig. 4.71(d) is is oi 5x20 obtained where the parallel combination of 5 9 and 20 Q is 3420 * 4Q. + 4a 30 Seer 8Al +) 5a 200 FR, Fig. 4.71(d) Conversion of 30 V voltage source to an equivalent current source230 Further converting the current source into voltage source (Fig. 4.71 (¢)) we get current through Ry as = 2 A and the voltage across R, is 4x 2= 8 V. A ae4e4 4a 40 Fig. 4.7) Conversion of 6 A current source to equivalent voltage source 8, Using source conversion technique 52, 20 the current / in Fig. 4.72. Solution ‘The current source is connected in parallel with a 2 Q resistor; so the value of the equivalent voltage source is obtained as, V= 10x 2 = 20 V (as shown in Fig. 4.73) Fig. 4.72 Circuit of Ex. 4.48 fovea" 5Q x 20 20V y ° tov = Fig. 4.73 Conversion of 10 A current source to equivalent voltage source The current delivered by a 10 A source would flow from y to x in 20 © resistor. The polarity of the 20 V source is shown in Fig. 4.73. Therefore, pa 208 asa. 54245 4.49, Convert the circuit of Fig. 4.74 into a single voltage source in series with a single resistor. 100 *510=50V an JOA 20 108 Fig. 4.74 Circuit of Ex. 4.49 8 f Fig. 4.74(a) Conversion of 5 A Solution current source to Figure 4.74(a) represents the conversion of 5 A equivalent voltage source into equivalent voltage source. source Fig. 4.74(b) represents conversion of 10 A current source into equivalent voltage source.DC Network Analysis 231 +o—_—_ FL 10x2=20V 129 20 = 70V — -—— Fig. 4.74(6) Conversion of 10 A current Fig. 4.74(c) Equivalent circuit of source to equivalent voltage network shown in source Fig. 4.74 The net voltage of the single voltage source is thus (50 + 20) V = 70 V and the net resistance is (10 + 2) Q = 12.Q. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.74(c). eeeeene 4.10.2. Independent and Dependent Sources The voltage or current sources which do not depend on any other quantity in the circuit (i.e the strength of voltage or current in the sources), and do not change for any change in the connected network, are called independent sources. Inde- pendent sources are represented by circles. An independent voltage source and an independent current source is shown in Fig. 4.74.1(a) and 4.74.1(b) + -—— >! voy a: - _, Fig. 4.74-1(a) independent voltage _Fig. 4.74-1(b) Independent current source source A dependent voltage or current source is one which depend on some other quantity in the circuit (may be either voltage or current) i. the strength of voltage or current changes in the source for any change in the connected network. Depen- dent sources are represented by diamond-shaped symbol. There are four possible dependent sources: Voltage dependent voltage source, as shown in Fig. 4.74.1(c). Voltage dependent current source, as shown in Fig. 4.74.1(d). Current dependent current source, as shown in Fig. 4.74. 1(e). Current dependent voltage source as shown in Fig. 4.74.1(f). In the above figures a, b, c and d are the constants of proportionality @ and c has no units, unit of b is siemens and unit of d is ohms. Some examples of independent sources are battery, de (or ac) generator. Depen- dent sources are parts of models which are used to represent electrical properties of electronic devices such as operational amplifiers and transistors etc.232 Basic Electrical Engineering ———e av tov — Fig. 4.74-1(c) Voltage dependent Fig. 4.74-1(d) Voltage dependent voltage source current source —— ei Nar Fig. 4.74-1(e) Current dependent Fig. 4.74-1( Current dependent current source voltage source 411 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM Statement: In a linear bilateral network containing several sources, the current through or voltage across any branch in the network equals the algebraic sun of the currents or voltages of each individual source considered separately with all other sources made inoperative, i.e., replaced by resistances equal to their inter- nal resistances, It may be noted here that while removing the voltage source it should be replaced by its internal resistance (if any) or by a short circuit and while remov- ing the current source it should be replaced by an open circuit. Superposition theorem is applicable only to linear networks (both ac and dc) where current is linearly related to voltage as per Ohm’s law. + Tlustration «Let us find the current / as shown hoo Ro oh ‘in Fig. 4.75 applying superposition = theorem. * Considering the voltage source E, act- ing alone and removing the other volt- age source £} after replacing it by its internal resistance (if any) otherwise Fig. 4.75 A simple resistive network short circuiting the source, the current with two voltage sources through R, is [Fig. 4.75¢a)] i 4 4.34) = RR, (4.34) Rt RER Hence current through R is pte Ro E\Ry rahx = (4.35) R+R, RR+RR,+RR™DC Network Analysis 233 KOR, ty Rp HOR, Ro Is 2 << WA —+- yr w + R R | Ea Fig. 4.75(a) Source E, retained, E, Fig. 4.75(b) Source E, retained, deactivated E, deactivated Similarly considering the voltage source £, acting alone removing the source E, and replacing it by a short circuit [Fig. 4.75(b)], the current through R,, Ry and R being J,” , 13’ and J” repectively, we find for E, acting alone 4.36) R+R, ” ” R E,R and he TE* Rak, RRR RRR, Therefore, if there are two sources connected through a network, the resultant current flowing through R is 37, E,R, +E, R, RR, + RR, + RR, Jal 4i= (4.38 4.11.1 Procedure for Applying Superposition Theorem 1. Select one source and replace all other sources by their internal impedances. 2. Determine the level and direction of the current that flows through the desired branch as a result of the single source acting alone. 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 using each source in turn until the branch current components have been calculated for all sources. Algebrically sum the component currents to obtain the actual branch current(s). 4. 4.50, Compute the current in the 10 @ resistor as shown in Fig. 4.76 using Superposition ‘orem. 52 52 AW 102 50V Fig, 4.76 Circuit of Ex. 4.50 Solution Considering the 100 V source acting alone, the direction of currents supplied by the source has been shown in Fig. 4.76(a).Here f= 105M 4, 59 52 10x5 125 s+ " 1045 + Hence current through 10 9 resistor / =f, x 100V toa 3 e4a 5+10 Considering a SO V source acting alone the Fig, 4.76(a) Source 100 V only con- direction of currents supplied by the source sidered are shown in Fig. 4.76(b). Here, Jy= —30__ 750 4 5a 52 be 10x5 125 AM AW —* 5+ 5410 ye Hence current through the 10 Q resistor is nH 50V 5 Zia A Ir=hx =2A 5+10 When both the sources are acting simultancouly, py the current through 10 @ resistor (according to F'8* 4-76(b) Source 50 V only Superposition theorem) is given by (I" + I”) ic, 4A +24 = 6A). aveneee considered 4,51, Find the current in the 50 Q resistor in Fig. 4.77 using Superposition theorem, 109 102 600 Gd) 502 *300V Fig. 4.77 Circuit of Ex. 4.51 Solution Considering the voltage source acting alone and removing the current source (the corre- sponding figure being shown in Fig. 4.77(a)) the total current supplied by the voltage source is i= —— Sova 19 + 000+ 50) 60 +(10+ 50) 100 pa . 6002 ob Fig. 4.77(a)_ Voltage source is acting onlyDC Network Analysis 235 Hence the current through the 50 © resistor due to the voltage source acting alone is rs 38, © _ 2S 4 23.75 A (fromatod) 2° 60+10+50 4 Next, removing the voltage source and considering the current source acting alone (the corresponding networks being shown in Fig. 4.77(b) and Fig. 4.77(c)), the current through the 509 resistor is | 10+60/7 130% TO 8.124 A (from a t0 5) 50 +10+ 60/7 60x10 [The combined resistance of the 60 @ and 10 in parallel is —~" = © gy 60+10 7 100 a 602 r 502 ob Fig. 4.77(b) Current source is acting only 109 pa Ct) 500 bb Fig. 4.77(c) Simplified circuit of network shown in Fig. 4.77(b) According to the Superposition theorem when both the sources are acting simultaneously, the current through the 50 Q resistor is I +1" = (3.75 + 8.124) A = 11.874 A (from a to 5) weeeeee 4,82 Obtain / using the Superposition theorem for the network shown in Fig. 4.78, 1100 202 200 Fig. 4.78 Circuit of Ex. 452236 Basic Electrical Engineering Solution Considering the voltage source acting alone (Fig. 4.78(a)] the current supplied by the source is -—_9__-8,4 3000+20+20) 3 30+ (10+ 20+ 20) 4 a ton b 202 200 Fig. 4.78(a) Voltage source is acting alone Hence the current through the 10 2 resistor is 8 30 = 3" 30n10+20420 ~ | romeo) Removing the voltage source and considering the current source acting alone [Fig, 4.78(b)] the current through the 30 & resistor is zero as there is a short circuit path in parallel with it. Hence the network of Fig. 4.78(b) reduces to that in Fig, 4.78(c). The current through the 10 © resistor is then given by I’ =5 x ———__. =2 A (from b to a) (or -2 A from a to b) + a 10a 9" b 202 Fig. 4.78(b) Current source is acting Fig. 4.78(c) Simplified circuit of alone Fig. 4.78) Therefore according to the Superposition theorem when both the sources are acting simul- taneously the current i=f +f =1-2=-1 A (froma to b) eeeenee Find the voltage across 20 © resistor using the Superposition theorem in Fig. 4.79. Solution When 1 A current source is acting alone (the corresponding figure being shown in Fig. 4.79(a), the current through the 20 Q resistor under this condition is obtained as 1 x 445 9 ——— = = A (from a to b) 2+4+5 29 Hence voltage across 20 @ resistor is = x20 = 1 Vv (=v)237 G) 5a 1a) 3200 Fig. 4.79 Circuit of Ex. 4.53 40 a 4a Van ta t200 sa a 52 (5A (9/29) A iat 200 & 6 Fig, 4.79(a) Current source (1 A) Fig. 4.79(b) Current source (5 A) is acting alone acting alone Fig. 4.79(b) shows the network when | A source is deactivated and 5 A source acts alone. ‘The current through 20 Q2 resistor under this condition is 5 Sxs 25 344420 A= AF 9 A (from a to b) 25 500 The voltage across the 20 Q resistor is then V,, = > x20V= 5x v 9 According to the Superposition theorem the voltage across 20.2 resistor (V,,) when both sources are acting simultaneously is +, yw _ 180 , 500 _ 680 a V5 + Ve = 180, 200 _ 80 _ 95, Van Vib + VS = Sota y aay V = 2345 V . 4,34. Find the current through 40 Q resistor using Superposition theorem in Fig. 4.80. son 102 + - i 202 3402 = 10v 3300 Fig. 4.80 Circuit of Ex. 4.54 25 Solution Let us consider that the 25 V source is acting alone and the other source is deactivated. ‘The corresponding figures are shown in Fig. 4.80(a) and Fig. 4.80(b).238 Basic Electrical Engineering f 802 g 109 AW r 20n $400 $300 Fig. 4.80(a) 25 V souirce is acting alone ly 500 > 40x10 _ 200 qon10 2782 Fig. 4.80(b) Simplified circuit of Fig. 4.80(a) The current through 50 Q resistor is 25 20 he x = 0431 A 20x58 = 20450 +8 20+58 Hence the current through 40-2 resistor duc to 25 V source alone is r=0431x 10 A = 0.0862 A (from a to b in Fig. 4.80(a)) 40+10 Next consider the 10 V source acting alone deactivating the 25 V source. The current through the 10 © resistor [Fig. 4.80(c) and Fig. 4.80(d)] is 10 30 he —____, ata > 30x (200/910) 30+200/9+10 30+ 200/9-+10 Hence the current through the 40 2 resistor is P2031 x —2— 20.172 A (from btoa) 50+40 Using the Superposition theorem the current through the 40 @ resistor is I” =F = 0.172 ~ 0.086 = 0.086 A (from b to a) 502 , 102 Fig. 4.80(c) 10 V source is acting aloneDC Network Analysis 239 102 40x50 _ 200 |- ao+s0" 9 TOV, soa le Fig. 4.80(d) Simplified circuit of Fig. 4.80(c) susnean 4,55, Utilising the Superposition theorem find the current through the 20 Q resistor for the network shown in Fig. 4.81. 402 4a 100¥ I 202 169 200V Fig. 4.81 Circuit of Ex. 4.55 Solution Considering the 10 V source acting alone (Fig. 4.8i(a)] the current through the 20 2 resistor is 100 4416 {= ————_ «x —__ 20x +16) 4416+20 49+ **) 2044416 = 1A (from a to b) 42 , 49 Wi vA 1 200 169 2a 8 F16a : te banal bo 200V Fig. 4.81(a) 100 V source is acting Fig. 481(b) 200 V source is acting alone alone Considering the 200 V source acting alone (Fig. 4.81(b)] the current through the 20 resistor is 200 x 40 16+ 4+ (40% 20)/(40+20) 40+20 Then, according to the Superposition theorem, the current through 20 © resistor is Uy - 4) =4-1=3 A (from 6 toa). h = 44 (from b toa)4.56 Find the current through 1 2 resistor 52 8a ‘applying the Superposition theorem in Fig. 4.82. [ Solution i 4a Consider 10 V source acting alone (the cor- AW responding figures are shown in Fig. 4.82(a) 5a and Fig. 4.82(b)). 10 i, =—__19____,,__ 4 __ 4x (B+(5/6)) 4+8 +(5/6) +The Fig. 4.82 Circuit of Ex. 4.56 =O4A 52 8a i 52 Eye) 10 r 4a ov = h 52 Ss a ob ia ¢ Fig. 4.82(b) Simplified circuit of Fig. 4.82(a) 10 Vsource is acting alone Fig. 4.82(a) Therefore current through the | 92 resistor is 204% 2033 (froma to b) S+l Next considering the 5 V source acting alone (corresponding figures are shown in Fig 4.82(c) and Fig. 4.82(d) 5x4 8+ 2*4 10.220 52 an Se4 = 4a a b 5a + 5a 5V 19 sv 19 = rt Ud > Fig. 4.82(c) 5 V source is acting alone Fig. 4.82(d) Simplified circuit of Fig. 4.82(e) ‘The current supplied by 5 V source is Ip= —2—_ acura 510.22 + 5+10.22is 241 ‘The curremt through the 1 @ resistor due to the 5 V source acting alone is then P = Ip = 1.147 (froma to 5) Hence according to Superposition theorem the current through the 1 resistor is obtained as 41" = 0333 + 1.147 = 1.48 A 4,37, Find the current through resistance (R,) for the network shown in Fig. 4.83 using the Superposition theorem Fig. 4.83. Circuit of Ex. 4.57 Solution Considering the 10 V source (E,) acting alone the current through R, [Fig. 4.83(a)] is t= 2) 9 = 0.42.4 (from a to 5) 20x15 20+15 5+ 20+15 a h 200 on SEQ ’ Fig. 4.83(a) 10 V source (E,) is acting alone Next, considering the other 10 V source (E,) acting alone the current through Rp [Fig. 4.83(b)] is 10-5 2 0,105 A (from a to by Sx15 5+15 20+ 3415 Fig. 4.83(b) Another 10 V source (E,) is acting alone242 Basic Electrical Engineering Considering the current source (1A) acting alone the current through R,, [Fig 4.83(c) and Fig. 4.83(4)] is 10 LO hei A= 0.5263 A (from ato b a= I Toased ~ 19 (rom a to 5). 1A a by 52 200 = 108 AL S50 Fig. 4.83(d) Simplified circuit of Fig. 4.83(c) Hence, according to the Superposition theorem the current through R,, when all the sources are acting simultancously, is obtained as 1, + Jy + I; = 1.0513 A. aeeeeee 412 THEVENIN’S THEOREM Statement: The current flowing through a load resistance R, connected across any V, two terminals A and B of a linear, bilateral network is given by Rak , where i + Ry Vo, is the open circuit voltage (i.e voltage across terminals AB when R, is re- moved) and R; is the internal resistance of the network as viewed back into the open circuited network from terminals AB deactivating all the independent ‘sources. The following are the limitations of this theorem: (@) Thevenin’s theorem can not be applied to a network which contains non- linear impedances. (ii) This theorem can not calculate the power consumed internally in the circuit or the efficiency of the circuit.- ~ Thevenin’s theorem can be explained with the help of the following simple example. The steps are as follows: Step I R, is to be removed from the circuit terminals a and b for the network shown in Fig. 4.84.DC Network Analysis 243 Ry Re Ry Rp 98 a r AL Ry Vo ‘ | ob b Fig. 4.84 Circuit to explain Thevenin's Fig, 4.84(a) R, removed from circuit of theorem Fig. 4.84 Step I The open circuit voltage (V,.) which appears across terminals a and b in Fig. 4.84(a) is calculated as Vie (= Voltage across Ry) = Roe Ry Vove is called the “Thevenin’s voltage” (V7) ER, Hence, Vin = TeR +R (4,39) Step I Removing the battery from the circuit leaving the internal resistance (r) of the battery behind it [Fig. 4.84(b)] when viewed from terminals a and b, the internal resistance of the circuit is given by Ry (R, +1) Ri Rt R+R +r This resistance R; is called Thevenin’s equivalent resistance (Ry) Ry (R +1) ” R=Rn Rt pom a (4.40) Ry Re Am a a + r Ry <—R, Vu RL (Vere) | b b Fig. 4.84(b) Internal resistance R; of Fig. 4.84(c) Thevenin's equivalent the given network circuit Step IV Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is drawn as shown in Fig. 4.84(c) and R, is recon nected acrosss terminals a and 5. The current through R, is I Ls TH” Rm +R,(a) For independent sources: Deactivate the sources, i.e for independent cur- Tent source deactivate it by open circuiting its terminals and for voltage source deactivate it by shorting it. Then find the internal resistance of the network looking through the load terminals kept open circuited. In case these independent sources are non-ideal, the internal resistance will remain connected across the deactivated source terminals. (b) For dependent sources in addition or in absence of independent source: First Method (i) Find open circuit voltage V,, across the open circuited load terminals. Next short circuit the load terminals and find the short circuit current (J-) through the shorted terminals. The Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is then obtained as x< (oc Rm= 7 \ | 244 Ba: Different methods of finding Ry, Second Method (ii) Remove the load resistance and apply a de voltage V,, at the open circuited load terminals. keep the other independent sources deacti- vated, A de current /,, will flow in the circuit from the load terminals. The Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is then Va Foe 7 4.12.1 Thevenizing Procedure . Calculate the open circuit voltage (V>,) across the network terminals. 2. Redraw the network with each independent source replaced by its internal resistance. This is called “deactivation of the sources”. 3. Calculate the resistance (Ry,) of the redrawn network as seen from the output terminals. 4.58 Using Thevenin’s theorem find the current through the 15 Q resistor in Fig. 4.85. 100 162 Fig. 4.85 Circuit of Ex, 4.58 Solution Removing the 15 Q resistor the open circuit voltage across a and b [Fig. 4.85(a)] i8 Vie = 100 200 —— V=—V. 10+29 *Y= 5DC Network Analysis 245 ‘The Thevenin's equivalent voltage is TON a Vin © Voc) = SOV tov 202 Voc Next removing the source, the internal resistance of the network as viewed from b the open circuited terminals (Fig. 4.85(b)] Fig. 4.850) Finding (V.) 10x 20 is Ry = ~~ ive, Thevenin's equivalent 20+10 resistance is Rr, = Rj = (20/3) Q. Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. ‘The current through the 15 © resistor (according to Thevenin’s theorem) is then hs = oO 4 2 MO gear (20/3) #15 65 20 100 3° a a (A) 202 ~—RA, ey = hs $3152 (Vere) b o Fig. 4.85(b) Finding of R; (Ry) Fig, 4.85(c) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit (Ex. 4.58) 459, Find the current through the 2 Q resistor using Thevenin’s theorem (Fig. 4.86]. svt aq 6a = A ew 20 6a 4a Fig. 4.86 Circuit of Ex. 4.59 Solution The circuit is redrawn in Fig. 4.86(a) with terminals of R, open circuited. a cS Thevenin’s equivalent voltage is Van = Vie = Vea Van eve 42 62 6 4 =6x —2 6x4. * G44 64a b 2 Vue d =3.6-24 = 1.2 V [V, is higher potential]. 6a 4a Deactivating the voltage source, Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is shown . ge in Fig, 4.86(b) and Fig. 4.86(c). Fig. 4.86(a) Finding of (Voie)b 62 xy 4a d Fig, 4.96(b) Finding of (Rr) Fig, 4.86(c) Reduced equivalent net- work to find Ry, 489 4x6 = (4l16) + (61l4) = 2 x we n=480 (Fin) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.86(4) 12V 2 (Vorcd The t through (R,) is then J, = e current through (R,) is then I, = a= A Fig. 4.86(d) Thevenin’s cqutvaten circuit of Ex. 4.59 1.2 = — =0.176A 6.8 4,60, Find the current through 102 resistor in Fig. 4.87 using Thevenin's theorem, 102 20A 52 159 => 50V Fig. 4.87 Circuit of Ex. 4.60 Solution Removing the load resistance of 10 © from its terminals, the open circuit voltage across terminals a and (as shown in Fig. 4.87(a)) can be found out. ab Va s0v 20a(4 652 159 c cs Fig. 4.87(a) Finding of Vo). The voltage across the 15 © resistor is due to the current supplied by the voltage source only.DC Network Analysis 247 <. Voltage across the 15 @ resistor is 50 V. Hence Ve = 50-V; Also, Vor = 20 A x 5 = 100 V. Therefore voltage across open circuit terminals a and b is Vase = Vas = Vac — Vie = (100 — 50) V = 50-V ie Vip = 50 V (= Vay) Deactivating all the sources as shown in Fig. 4.87(b), the internal resistance of the network as viewed from the open circuited terminals is, Ry, = 5 Q (as 15 Q resistor is short circuited) 50V = (Vere) Fig. 4.87(¢) Thevenin’s equivalent Fig. 4.87(b) Finding of Ry, circuit of Ex. 4.60 Thevenin's equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.87(c). The current through 10 Q Vy —T__ 50g 33a Rm +R, 5+10 vevaeee resistor is f 4,61, Find the current through 15 Q resistor for ihe network shown in Fig. 4.88 using Thevenin's theorem. Solution Removing 15 @ resistor the open circuit voltage across its terminals is found out in the network of Fig. 4.88(a). The current through 10 © resistor is obtained as 200 4 = 200g. ' 10+5 15 | Voltage across the 10 Q resistor is given by V,, = 200V 10 x 200.2000 Fig. 4.88 Circuit of Ex. 4.61 x 20 2000 15 IS Current through the 12 @ resistor is found as 20) 4 = 20 4 12416" 28 Voltage across the 12 9 resistor is obtained as V,= 12x My Mwy 2B = = -=S> =85.71 V- 133.33 V. = 47.62 V. 200V Hence bis at higher potential with respect toa. Fig, 4.88(a)_ Finding of Vi Fherefore Vi = Vig = 47.62 V.Deactivating the voltage source, Thevenin’s equivalent resistance can be obtained as shown in Fig. 4.88(b) and Fig. 4,88(c). ia 1990 52 tone 5a x ¥ roy tee tea 120 162 I, Fig. 4.88(b) Finding of R, Fig. 4.88(c) Reduced network to find R, The resistance between a and b is then found as 10.190 Ray = (1015) + (1216) b _ 10x + 12x16 . + “tors “12416 47.62 hoy = 10,19 2 (= R) (Yas) ++ Current through 15 Q resistor [Fig. 4.58d] is 5 a ¥ Fig. 4.88(d) Thevenin’s equivalent y= = 7 e908 circuit of Ex. 4.61 Ry +R, ~ 10.19 +15 [flowing from terminal b to terminal a] weeeees 4.62, Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the 5a oa etwork (shown in Fig. 4.89) across termninals x-y. Solution The voltage across the open circuited terminals is same as the voltage across the 6 Q resistor. ‘+ Vyy = Voltage across the 6 2 resistor 50V Fig. 4.89 Circuit of Ex. 4.62 Removing the source, Thevenin’s equivalent resistance Ry, (Fig. 4.89(a)) is 10 + x 7 Sx6 lige 2 = 1272.9. 546 52 102 12.720 * + + (Fin) 62 <—Fm 27.27 4 (ore y Lo Fig. 4.89(a) Finding of (Ry) Fig. 4.89(b) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of Ex. 4.62 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.89(b). eeeereDC Network Analysis 249 4,63 Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of a the ‘network shown in Fig. 4.90 across terminals a-b, sov +7 Solution Removing the 3 Q resistor, the circuit is 4, 3a redrawn as shown in Fig, 4.90(a), From Fig. 4.90(a) the circulating current is, b ro 30410 gags, 241 Applying KVL in loop abyx, Vab 13.33 x 2+ 30=3.34V & Vago (= Voy) = 3.34 V. xa 30V + 10V Next deactivating the sources, Thevenin's Bs equivalent resistance [Fig. 4.90(b)) is given Vote by 20 | 19 yb Fig. 4.90 Circuit of Ex. 4.63 2x1 =—— =0.6672. Rn 31 66) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is then drawn in . Fig. 4.90(c). Fig. 4.90(a) Finding of (Vai) a 0.6670 a (Fin) I 20 19 *a94V Z3a (Wa) 7 \ 6 » Fig. 4.90(b) Finding of Rp, Fig. 4.90(¢) Thevenin’s equivatent circuit of Ex. 4. 64, Find the current through the 5 Q resistor 30 ig Thevenin’s theorem in Fig. 4.91. Solution Removing the 5 & resistor [Fig. 4.91(a)} the current circulating in the loop abyx is 20V re 2410 A 10, 346 3 (in the clockwise direction) Fig. 4.91 Circuit of Ex. 4.64 Let Vz, = voltage across branch xy = voltage actoss branch ab 3a 6a 52 Here, y, =-1046% 2-19 V= Y, [osmmie Vay = 20 - 3 x 8 =10V=Vp. Deactivating all the sources, Ry, = 3 + (6113) =3 + pid 259. +250 Basic Electrical Engineering x 32 Pen oy lt tov Vm tov-4" +) 5a a T ' 7 | od) 1A b y Fig. 491b) Thevenin’s equivalent Fig. 4.91(a) Finding of (Vp) circuit of Ex. 4.64 From Fig. 4.91(b) the current through 5 © resistor is cd =LA 4,65, Find the Thevenin's equivalent circuit of Fig. 4,92, across R,. © Solution 30 R,, is removed and the terminals are open cir- AW cuited as shown in Fig. 4.92(a). The current 4a supplied by the 24 V source circulates through 7 the 3 Q and 6 © resistor only while the cure 24V 7 sa 3 A rent due to the current source circulated through the 4 © only when the circuit is open circuited at a and b. Fig. 4.92. Circuit of Ex. 4.65 3a Fig. 4.92(a) Finding of (Vp) Voltage across de is 24x6 3+6 Voltage across da is V,, = 3x4 W = 12 V. Applying KVL in the loop abed Vy, = 16 -12=4VieVy=4V Next, all the sources in the network is deactivated (Fig. 4.92(b)]. ‘de = V=16V 3x6 s Ry=4+ —— =69 ut 3+6 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig, 4,92c.3a 4a 251 62 wna (Pin) av (Vave) b Fig. 4.92(b) Finding of (Ry) 4.66 Find the current in the ammeter of the 2.Q resistance as shown in Fig. 4.93 using Thevenin's theorem. Solution The ammeter is removed and the circuit is shown in Fig. 4.93(a). The total current delivered by 10 V source is = 10 -—_10 (10 + 6) x (10 +5) 6x5 (10+ 6) + (10 +5) 31 = L144 A 10 “ 14a x *5 Loss a 15+16 10+6 and J) = 1,144x = 039A. 15 +16 Voltage across open circuited terminals @ and bis Vin = Va = Ver = Vea = 0.59 x 10-0.55 x 10204 V. Deactivating the voltage source, the corre- sponding figure is drawn in Fig. 4.93(b). In this figure using delta star conversion valucs of Ry, Ry and R3 can be found out. 10%6 10+641 6x1 = 10+6+1 _ 1x10 °* 10+6+1 60. R= —2 ' 7 2 Fig. 4.92(c) L____ sb Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of Ex. 4.65 109 62 109 §Q — 19 10V Fig. 4.93 Circuit of Ex. 4.66 12 Fig. 4.93(a)_ Finding of (Vy) 10V Resistance between a and b as shown in Fig. 4.93(c) is given by = 01/10 & Ray {(S-0)( 10.59 x 5.35 10.59 + 5.35 = 7.084 2 =3.53+252 Basic Electrical Engineerin; a ’ a mY 102 bn LO EN Rg 3 Re 102 50 toa 3s 8 ’ Fig. 4.93(b) Network reduction to find Fig. 4.93(c) Final network reduction Ry) to find Ry) ‘The current through the 2 © resistor is Vin 04 Ig = Pe = —S4— = 0.044 A (directed from a to b 20° Rn te? T0R4+2 ‘ ? Find the current through the 5 Q resistor in the network of Fig. 4.94 using Thevenin’s. ‘theorem. Fig. 4.94 Circuit of Ex. 4.67 Solution ‘The 5 & resistor is first removed. The circuit configuration is shown in Fig. 4.94(a). 10 17+3 AsO5A. ‘The current through 17 2 resistor is ‘The current through pair of 10 2 resistors is oe ‘Voltage across 17 9 resistor is Vi Voltage across 10 Q resistor is Vi, Hence Ver = Ven — Vea = 5- or Vja,= 3.5 V (i.e b is positive terminal) ie Vy = 3.5VDC Network Analysis Fig, 4.94(a) Finding of Vin 170 100 S100 & Fig, 4.94(b) Finding of Rr, For finding Ry, the circuit is redrawn in Fig. 4.94(b) deactivating the source; 17x3 10x10 = + 1743 10410 Current through the 5 2 resistor [Fig. 4.94(c)] is obtained as =7552 Vr =m 2 35 A 202794 Rpts 75545 (flowing from b to a). tsa 7.559 b (Fin) 3.5V 5a (Ry) (Vind a Fig. 4.94(c) saseaee 4.68 Find the current in the 5 Q resistor (using Thevenin's theorem) in Fig. 4.95, 102 52 Fig. 4.95 Circuit of Ex. 4.68 Solution Let us first remove the 5 © resistor. The circuit configuration is shown in Fig. 4.95(a). Applying the Superposition theorem, we consider one source at a time. Considering SA source alone and removing the voltage source, the current through the 10 &2 resistor is 210, x = : 2+10 12 SA oO S20 100 = 10V ° Fig. 4.95(a) Finding of Vix Voic Considering the voltage source acting alone and removing the current source, the current through the 10 @ resistor is 10 2410Basic Electrical Engineering Both the currents are directed in the same direction through 10 Q resistor. So net current through 10 © resistor is 1241029 4 and voltage across 10 @ resistor is 22 x 10 = 1271212 12 200 y 12 ‘As 10 9 is connected in parallel with the open circuited terminals hence, Vy, = Voltage acros 10 & resistor 16.67 V. Removing all the sources, Ry, is found out and is shown in Fig. 4.95(b). 10Q ~<-An Fig. 4.95(b) Finding of Rr Vow 16.67 ig2 — =25A s theorem (Fig. 4.96). 5a Fig. 4.96 Circuit of Ex. 4.69 Solution Removing 10 © resistor the circuit configuration is shown in Fig. 4.96(a). 52 1A 20 Voie 10 eb ] Fig. 4.96(a) Finding of Vorc ‘As the open circuit voltage (Vj,) across terminals so a and b is in parallel with the 10 V source hence the ‘open circuit voltage is becoming 10 V (or Vij. = Vay =10V) 20 An Removing all the sources Rp, is found out from Fig. 4.96(b). However there is a short circuit path across ab, so Ry, = 0 2. Fig, 4.96(b) Finding of RimDC Network Analysis 255 Current through the 10 Q resistor according to Thevenin's theorem is Vern 10 Rn +R, 0+10 Asta Therefore power loss in 10 Q resistor is PR=1? x10 W =10W. sevens Find Thevenin's equivalent circuit of the network across R, in Fig, 4.97. Fig. 497 Circuit of Ex. 4.70 Solution R,, is removed first and the corresponding figure is shown in Fig. 4.97(a). Under this condition 10 V source can not deliver any current. Current due to 5 V source circulates through 2 Q and 3 2 resistor “ I = A=lA 243 Voltage across 3 9 resistor is 3 x 1 V=3V Applying KVL in loop a bc de fa of Fig. 4.97(a) Vip =1043=13¥ 20 19 3a ~—Am Fig. 4.97(a) Finding of Voyc Fig. 4.9716) Finditig of Rry Deactivating the sources Ry, is found out een + [Fig. 4.97(6)}. (Pn) Ry els 3x2 av = 3+2 (Yove) =222 Thevenin's equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.97(c) Thevenin’s equivalent Fig. 4.97(c). circuit of Ex. 4.70256 4.13 NORTON’S THEOREM Basic Electrical Engineering According to this theorem, any two-terminal active network containing voltage sources and resistances when viewed from its output terminals is equivalent to a constant current source and an internal (parallel) resistance. The constant cur- rent source (known as Norton’s equivalent current source) is of the magnitude of the short circuit current at the terminals. The internal resistance is the equivalent resistance of the network looking back into the termi- nals with all the sources replaced by their internal resistances. A network is shown in Fig. 4.98 to explain Norton’s theorem. Let us find out the current through R, using Norton's theorem. The steps are as follows: Step I Remove (R,) and short circuit the terminals a and 6 [Fig. 4.98(a)]. The current through the short circuited path is /,,= EVR, (= Iy), where Ty is the Norton's equivalent current. Step I For finding internal resistance R, of the network, terminals a and 4 is open circuited and the source is deactivated [Fig. 4.98(b)]. RiRy 1 OR +R, the Norton's equivalent resistance. Step II Norton's equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.98(c). It contains Norton’s current source y and a parallel resistance equal to internal resistance of the circuit R,. Step 1V Connect 8, across terminals a and b and find current {, through R, Ry x > N” Ry +R, (= Ry), where Ry is called I 44D 4.13.1 Nortonizing Procedure Ay ob Fig. 4.98 Circuit to explain Norton's theorem Ay AW- a es" = FR, hse bo Developing Norton’s current source Fig, 4.98(a) Ry Ro The current through the short circuited path is 15ACh 2a t= 18-2 x 3 © 2x3 342 243 is 2083 Fig. 4.107(a) Determination of Isic 6 =5 A (from a to b) Removing all the sources and open circuiting terminals a and b (Fig. 4.107(b)], Ry = 2.2 Ry ote a 2n ang 5A 22 12 Db Fig. 4.107(b) Determination of Ry Fig. 4.107(<) Norton’s equivalent circuit Thus the current through | 9 resistor (Fig. 4.107(c)] is 2 [=$% => A=3, Sx 5 A=333ADE Network Analysis 265 4,80, Find the current through 8 0 resistor using Norton's theorem in the network of Fig 4.108. =. Ty 30v Solution 3 an Short circuiting the 8 @ resistor as shown in p9q toa Fig. 4.108(a), the current through the short - « 100 _ 30 ited path is ly = C-* = 2 a th cureuted pall 18 ‘N= “30 10 (from a Fig. 4.108 Circuit of Ex. 4.80 to b). Open circuting ab and removing the sources the Norton’s equivalent resistance (Fig. 4.10806)] 499 y I+ is - y= 0x10 0 6670 200 20+10 The current through the 8 { resistor {from , 661 Fig, 4.108(c)] is ()=2 x Ge = 0.9 A. Fig. 4.108(a) Determination of Iy 200 Ry S100 2A 6670 S80 ° Fig, 4.108(b) Determination of Ry Fig. 4.108(¢) Norton’s equivalent circuit of Ex. 4.80 Find the current through the 20 2 resistor in Fig. 4.109 using Norton's theorem. 4a C1) 5a 1A > 209 Fig. 4.109 Circuit of Ex. 4.81 Solution The 20 Q resistor is short circuited and the circuit is redrawn in Fig. 4.109(a). The current through the short-circuited path due to 1 A current source only is [,,, = 1 A (from ato b), The current through the short-circuited path due to $ A source only is I,,, = 5x 5 — a= a (froma to b): Norton's equivalent current is then S+4 9 Ty © had) = bog + Hoey a8 =3.78 A.4nz 4 | (5A [ i 350 7 1a | + Fy Fig. 4.109(a) Determination of Ieue Fig. 4.109(b) Finding of Ry Next, removing the sources and open- a circuiting terminals a and b [as shown in a Fig. 4.109 i i a4 en CO] Ry is obtained as (Ry) =4+5 5g + 90 200 The current / through the 20 Q resistor is obtained from Fig. 4.109(c), where ’ T=3.78x 9. 1.173.A (from ato b) Fig. 4.109(c) Norton's equivalent 9+20 circuit of Ex. 4.81 4.14 EQUIVALENCE OF THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS Figure 4.110 shows the equivalency of Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems. It can be proved that the equivalent circuits given by Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem yield exactly the same current and same voltage in the load impedance and they are effectively identical to one another. In any particular problem, either theorem can therefore be used. In most cases Thevenin’s theorem is the easier to apply, although when the network impedance is high compared with the load imped- ance, the Norton's theorem concept may simplify calculations. a Active Passive network (A) network (B) (with source) {no source) Thevenin’s L Nae Norton's equivalent equivalent circuit circuit a a _— > ‘e(th) 1M Z(=Zn) 2 + te(H) $zizw BZ Voe ~ 5 Fig. 4.110 Equivalence of Thevenin’s and Norton's circuitsDC Network Analysis 267 From Fig. 4.110 by applying Thevenin’s theorem the load current is given by Vee lum™ 35, (4.42) where V,.= Open circuit voltage (Thevenin’s equivalent voltage source) Z, = Thevenin’s equivalent impedance (or resistance for de circuit), and Z,, = Load impedance of the load network. On short circuiting the terminals a and b of the Thevenin’s equivalent, i hye (4.43) or Vog = Igg X Zi (4.44) However from Norton’s equivalent circuit [Fig. 4.110(b)], the load current is given by 1, XZ; lu 7, 4.45) Substituting the equation (4.44) in equation (4.45), Voc . Tuy = 2+z,, (4.46) Comparing equation (4.42) and equation Ry a (4.46) Wie Lio = tea (4.47) Thus for any passive network, being Sr Re connected to an active network, one can have equivalent representation of Norton's equivalent or Thevenin's equivalent circuit Fig. 4.114 Circuit for ill te (ie. both the theorems are equivalent to TIS #11a) Circuit for illustra ing equivalence of each other). For easy understanding, a Thevenin’s and simple example is shown in the circuit of Norton's thearems Fig. 4.L11{a). From Fig. 4.111(b) the load current is ER ER, liam = (4.48) “RR ARR, FRR, [-v In Fig. 4.111(a), removing R, the equivalent resistance R, looking back to the network from a — b, is RR, . E {ee} and V,. is then ‘(Ges Jeah, Ah)” 4(M, ge C4) y= (AIR ’ > : b Fig. 4.111(b). Thevenin’s equivalent "Fig. 4.111(c) Norton's equivalent circuit . circuitRt RR, + RR, A+R RR, +R Ry + RR, {> Removing R from a—b terminal and applying short circuit at a - b, current through the terminals a-b is (I,,) i.c. (2) while the internal resistance of the f A |) Rk ER, li = tu) = ——— Mah) TUN) RR, FRR, + RR, network is i (4.49) 4.15 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM As applied to de networks this theorem may be stated as follows: A resistive load abstracts maximum power from a network when the load resistance equals the internal resistance of the network as viewed from the output terminals, with all energy sources removed, leaving behind their internal resistances. This theorem is aplicable to all branches of electrical engineering including analysis of communication networks. However the overall efficency of a network supplying maximum power to any branch is only 50%; hence application of this theorem to power transmission and distribution networks is limited because in that case, the final target is high efficiency and not maximum power transfer. But in electronics and communication network as the purpose is to receive or transmit maximum power, even at low efficiency, the problem of maximum power transfer is of crucial importance in the operation of communication lines and antennas. + Illustration + Figure 4.112 shows a simple resistive network in which a load resistance R, is = connected across terminals a and b of the network. The network consists of a * generator emf(£) and internal resistance ralong with a series resistance R. The internal resistance of the network as viewed from the terminals a and b is (RJ) =rt+R According to maximum power trans- fer theorem R,, will abstract maximum Fig, 4.112 Circuit for illustrating power from the network when maximum power transfer R, = R, or Ry = (r+ R). theorem 1 RoaDC Network Analysis 4.15.1 Proof of Maximum Power Trarisfer Theorem Let us assume that current / flows through R, in the cireuit shown in Fig. 4.112. i E Obviously, J = RR, " £ a (4.50 Power across the load (P,) = "R, = 77> 7 . PD=PRL= RRP RRP » For P, to be maximum, aP, —4+=9 aR, Differentiating Eq. (4.50), aP, pal % +R, ~2RAR +R) | 0 aR, (R+R,) or R, + Ry = 2R, or Rp=Rp=r+R Thus for maximum power transfer, R, = R;- . A Be The maximum power is (Pp4,) = 7R, = ——-——- x, = —— pe ‘Lax! ‘Le (R, +R, Le 7k, 2 The power delivered by the source is (E/) = —_ (R, +R, . . a, EMR, 4 So the effeciency under maximum power transfer condition is == EB 12R, 2 1, (or 50%). 4.32, Calculate the value of R,, which will abstract maximum power from the circuit shown in Fig. 4.113 Also find the maximum power. 52 100 le 10v > Fig. 4.113 Circuit of Ex. 4.82 Solution 52 100 Removing all the sources and open circuiting the terminals of &, [Fig 4.113(a)] the internal resistance R, of the network is found out as 109. ie, R= 100 © For maximum power transfer R,=R=102 Fig. 4.113(a) Determination of (R))270 v8 Again for R, = 10 Q, the total current through R, due to both sources is given by ps —0__,__ 5 sia 5x(10+10) 5+10+10 5+10+10 [The current due to 10 V source circulates through 5 © resistor and 20 V source only) The maximum power across load is PR, = (Cy x 10 = 10 W 3, Calculate the value of R, which will absorb maximum power from the circuit wn in Fig, 4.114, Also calculate the value of this maximum power. in tov 3 Fen (Orns Fig. 4114 Circuit of Ex. 4.83 Solution 2 Let R be removed and internal resistance of the network is calculated looking from the open circuited terminals after removing all the sources +A S20 as shown in Fig. 4.114(a). 1x2 Here * R,=—— Q2=202 142 3 Fig. 4.114(a) Determination of (Rj) ie. R=R= 3 2. = 0.667 O [for maximum power transfer] ‘The current through R due to both the sources acting simultaneously is given by 2x1 241 r= —10__,_? _43,__**t _ 0.667% 2 240.667 2x1 +——_—— 0.667 +—— 0.66742 2+1 $4998 405=55A : ‘The value of the maximum power is (5.5)? x 0.667 W = 20 W. wanenae 4,84 Obtain the maximum power transferred to Ry in the circuit of Fig. 4.115 and also the Value of 2, 20 52 ANA 102 Bea sa 20 A Fig. 4.115 Circuit of Ex, 4.84DC Network Analysis * ‘Solution R,, is removed and its terminals are open circuited. Deactivating the sources the internal resistance R; of the network can be found out from Fig. 4.115(a). R= [eX S42 ]n2] + 5= 6.45.0 10+5 Thus, according to the maximum power transfer theorem the value of R, is 6.45 Q for maximum power transfer. 20 59 Fig. 4.115(a) Finding of (Rp) Neat, considering the 10 V source acting alone in the network the total current sup- plied by the 10 V source [Fig. 4.115(6)] is 10 = 0.82 A. 5x3, 10+ 3437 22 Ht 102 2611.45 arias 17° 10Vv Fig. 4.115(b) Current (I) for 10 V source only + Current through Ry due to the 10 V source only is 1, =0.82x —>— x _—2__ S+24¢1.7 2+5+645 Again considering the 2 A source acting alone, the current through the 2 9 resistor is 10 5 =0.07 A, fe=2x x2 A=04T39 A top eoT 542417 5437 20 Tr 100 Gea S50 172 Fig. 4115(c) Determination of current through 2 Q resistor for 2 A source only272 Basic Electrical Engineering Hence the current due to the 2 A current source through R,, is 2 Ih = OATI9 x ee AS O0TA Applying the superposition theorem current through R,, (when both the sources are acting simultaneously) is 11, + [y= 007 +007 =0.16A 2. Maximum power transferred across Ry, is PR, = (0.14) x 6.45 = 0.126 W. Find the value of R in the circuit of Fig. 4.116 such that maximum power transfer place. What is the amount of this power? 10 5a av 20 210 3A on 6V Fig. 4.116 Circuit of Ex. 4.85 Solution Deactivating all the sources, internal resistance io so R, of the network is found out as shown in Fig. 4.116(@). axt 19 — Vovel= Vin) 8 Fig. 4.129(c) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of Ex. 4.98 4.99, Obiain Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with respect to terminals A and B of the heiwork shown in Fig. 4.130. | A AV eo €) €) 78 OSA 9A Yo a ws Fig. 4.130 Circuit of Ex. 4.99 Solutions Let us first convert 6 V and 10.V voltage sources into corresponding current sources and 9 A current source imo voltage source [Fig. 4.130(a)]. Next, Fig. 4.130(a) is reduced to Fig. 4.130(b). Next we convert 5.5 A current source into equivalent voltage source as shown in Fig. 4.130(c). Figure 4.130(d) shows further network reduction. The current J through the loop in Fig, 4,130(4) is 39 f= =A =355A 843 35554V 62 5A Fig. 4.130(a) Conversion of sources 30 Ae AW 22 4 AW Ki 4V 54V © 5.5A Fig. 4.130(b) Network reduction 3a tiv 2a sov 68 Fig. 4.130(c) Reduced network 30 A -——-B ov 8a Fig. 4.130(d) Finally reduced network +. Vay = Voltage across the 3 Q resistor 2.189 =3x 3.55 V = 10.65 V. a's exon A 8x3 10.65 Thevenin’s equivalent resistance Ryy = == 0 i ~ + = 2182. ——————» Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.130(e) Thevenin’s equivalent Fig. 4.130(c). network of Ex, 4.99284 Basic Electrical Engineering (00 Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent of the bridge network shown in Fig. 4.131 seen from the galvanometer terminals B and D and hence determine the galvanometer current when Rg = 50 2. 102 10V Fig. 4.131 Circuit of Ex, 4.100 Solution To find the Thevenin's equivalent voltage across BD, the galvanometer is open-circuited and the corresponding figure is shown in Fig. 4.131(a). The circuit of Fig. 4.131(a) can then be reduced to that shown in Fig. 4.131(b). P 109 202 300 502 300 Q Fig. 4.131(a) Circuit configuration with Fig, 4.131(b) Reduced network galvanometer removed Current through the 30 © resistor = ©, _50_ co 217 a, 3050 * 50+30 10+ » "30 +50 10x30 Current throush the 50 0 resistor = [>A = 0.13 A, 2. Curren |ivough PB and PD in Fig. 4.131(a) are 0.217 A and 0.13 A respectively. Vy. = Veo = Veo = Veg = 20x 0.13 = 0.217 x 10 = 0.43 V To find ticvcnin's equivalent resistance the voltage source is short circuited as shown in Fig. 4.131(c) Converting delta network into equivalent star network Fig. 4.131(d) is obtained. 10x10 = ———— =252 10+ 20+10 10x20 R= = 40 20%10 R= =52 Fig. 4.131() Finding of Ry,DC Network Analysis 285 102 200 202 son Fig, 4.131(d) Network reduction for network shown in Fig. 4.131(c) ‘The equivalent resistance across terminal BD can be found out from Fig. 4.31(e) as 22.5x35 Ry, = 5 + ——— = 18.696 Q, 22.5435 2.59 200 52 “ ~ 52 80 Fig, 4.131(e) Finally reduced network ‘Thevenin’s equivalent of the bridge network is shown in Fig. 4.131(f). 18.6962 Fig. 4.131(f) Thevenin’s equivatent of Ex. 4.100 ‘The galvanometer current is given by 1s —243__ 4 20.0063 A= 6.3 mA 18.696 + 50 4101 Find Norton's equivalent circuit at terminals A and B for the network shown in Fig. 4.132 and hence determine the power dissipated in a 5 Q resistor to be connected ‘between terminals A and B. 10V 109 ov = wa tov - @ 2A 202 °8 Fig. 4.132 Circuit of Ex. 4:101286 Solution First we convert the current sources into equivalent voltage sources and short circuit terminals AB [Fig. 4.132(a)}. oa 79% too 10.9 Fig. 4.132(a) Conversion of sources If f, and Jy be the loop currents then 10+ (10+ 10) f, + 20(4 - 1) =0 @ and -20 + 20(f, = ,) + 10, = 0 (i) Solving Eqs (i) and (ii) we get e125 Now, Norton's equivalent current i.e, the current through short-circuited path AB is siven by Jy = 1.254 To find Norton's equivalent resistance, AB is open circuited and the sources are removed as shown in Fig. 4.132(b). 20x20 =10 =200 Bu = 10+ 3050 100 102 Fw 200 gs a In (Fin) Fig. 4.132(b) Finding of Ry Fig, 4.132(¢) Norton's eouivalent circuit of Ex.4.101 Norton's equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.132(c). So, the current / through 5 Q resistor connected between terminals A and B is 1a125x —0_ 21 2045 Hence power dissipated through 5 Q resistor = 1? x5 = 5 W. : . 4,102, In Fig. 4.133 the galvanometer G has a conductance of 10 S. Determine the current through the galvanomneter using Thevenin’s theorem. Solution Let us first see open-circuiting terminals AB (Fig. 4.133(a)]DC Network Analysis 287 P 180 1mA A SE B t Q 192 Fig. 4.133 Circuit of Ex. 4.102 Fig. 4.133(a) Circuit with galvano- P f 4 Vb ama (4 ia 182 8 A 199 Zea 20 . Q meter removed Fig. 4.133(b) Modified circuit of Fig. 4.133(a) Figure 4.133(a) is redrawn as shown in a Fig. 4.133(b). From Fig. 4.133(b) current through the 1 0 resistor is hat 0. 205 mA ia 192 20+ 20 and current through 18 Q resistor is also P @ b=1x ee =0.5 mA. 180 20 Now Vay = Vpn = Vea = 1x05 ~ 18x 0.5 =-85 mV “ Van = Vea = 8.5 mV A [terminal B is at higher potential]. To find Thevenin’s equivalent resistance cur- rent source is open-circuited and the network of Fig. 4.133(c) is obtained, (18+ 119-4 2) Hence Ry, = ———— = 9.975 (18-+1) +(19 +2) From Fig. 4.133(d) current through the galva- nometer of 10 §, i.e. 1/10 © resistance is 8.510 1 9.975 + — 10 A = 0.844 x 107A = 0.844 mA Fig. 4.133(c) Determination of Rry 9.9750 B Fn 8.5 MV Vin te 0 A Fig. 4.133 (4) Thevenin's equivalent of Ex. 4.1024,103 Determine the current through the 1 Q resistor connected across A, B of the network shown in Fig. 4.134 using Norton’s theorem. Fig, 4.134 Circuit of Ex, 4.134 Solution Removing the | Q resistor and short-circuiting the terminals AP the circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig. 4.134(a). The 1 A current source has been transformed into voltage source. Applying KVL to the three loops we get the following three equations: 3N, + 2-1) + 1-3 =0 A or 51, - 21, =2 @ 2, - 1+ 2h, - 1) =0 or 4h - 2, = 1 Gi and Wy ~ fy) + 2h - 1) = 0 or <2, - 2, + 41, (i) Solving the three equations (i), (ii) and (iii) we get fy = 0.59 A. Hence the current through the ono reaited path AB is 1; = 0.59 A, i.e. Iy= Fig, 4.134(a) Determination of (Iy) “To find Ry, all the sources are deactivated and open circuiting terminals AB [Fig. 4.134(b)}, we get A Ry= 3x2 4282 220 32242 A 30 20 A 0.59 (#) 229 S10 20 20 Cn) (Rn) B 8 Fig. 4.134(c) Norton's equivalent Fig. 4.134(b) Determination of (Ry) circuit of Ex. 4.103 From Fig. 4.134(c) the current through the 1 Q resistor is 0.59 x A = 0,4056 A, 22 2241DC Network Analysis 289 4,104 Solve the above problem (Example 4.103) using the superposition theorem. Solution Considering a 1 A current source acting alone, the circuit shown in Fig. 4.134, transforms into the circuit shown in Fig. 4.135. oA 4 Ls c 20 Fig. 4.135 1A source is acting alone in circuit of Fig. 4.134 The circuit further reduces as shown in Fig. 4.135(a). A 22 12 1A 3n zap AAA B 20 Fig. 4.135(a) Reduced circuit Next, Fig. 4.135(a) is simplified into Fig, 4.135(b) and then into Fig. 4.135(c). Ae os 1a(h) am < °B 12 192 Fig. 4.135(b) Network reduction Fig. 4.135(c) Finally reduced circuit with 1A source acting only The current through the 1 Q resistor when the current source acts alone is given by 6 5 Sy A = 0,375 A (from A to B) 141 Next, considering the voltage source acting alone, the network in Fig. 4.134 transforms into Fig. 4.135(d).290 Basic Electrical Engineering Fig. 4.135(d) Voltage source acting alone in circuit of Fig. 4.134 Applying KVL in the three loops the following three equations are obtained: 2d, = 1) +1431, =0 20; = Ij) + Uz 1 = and I, + 2;-f) +20, ~ Solving these three equations, J = 0.03125 A (from A to B). Applying superposition theorem current through the 1 Q resistor (when both the sources are acting simultaneously) is 0.375 + 0.03125 = 0.40625 A (from Ato B). — weeeeee 0 Using the superposition theorem find the voltage aeross the 20 Q resistor of the clreuit shown in Fig. 4.136. tev G 3A 802 Fig. 4.136 Circuit of Ex. 4.105 Solution Let us consider that the 16 V source acts alone; removing the other sources the cir cuit configuration is shown in Fig. 4.136(a). ‘The current through the 20 Q resistor is = 4 = 0.16 A from Ato B 20+80 16V Considering 10 V source acting alone the circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig. 4.136(b). 1 802 . 10 Current through the 20 Qists= So TEGA Fig 4.136(a) 16 V source acting alone = 0.1 from B to A,291 4 ° Ak 8 A 2090 fs |B 1, < we FE Wy 10V eon G)aa Fig. 4.136(b) 10 V source acting alone Next, considering 3 A source acting alone the corresponding circuit is shown in Fig. 4.136(c). Current in the 20 Q resistor is J, = 3 x 80 +50" 2.4 A from B to A. Considering the 1.5. source acting alone the correspoding circuit is shown in Fig. 4.136(d). As there is a short circuit path in parallel with 1.5 A current source, hence no current flows through 20 & resistor due to this source. 800 Fig. 4.136() 3 A source is acting alone 145A ) ws 202 é 802 Fig. 4.136(d) 1.5.A source acting alone Applying superposition theorem, when all the sources are acting simultaneously the current through the 20 0 resistor is (Fy + 1,— 1,) = (0.1 + 2.4 0.16) = 2.34 A from BtoA. or voltage across the 20 Q resistor is 2.34 x 20 = 46.8 V. 4.106 Determine R, in Fig. 4.137 for maximum power transfer to the load. Solution The two-delta networks, one formed by 3 numbers of 6 @ resistors and another by 3 numbers of 21 0 resistors, are first converted into equivalent star network. 12 212 32 6a A AW Sa We We + ao a0 cay zea AL Fig, 4.137 Circuit of Ex. 4.106 21x21 Ht Ry = ——— 2 7 me 1" Dieaieal R= 2S 9 220 * 64646292 Basic Electrical Engineerins ‘The corresponding network is shown in Fig. 4.137(a). 19 30 A Fig. 4.137(a) Circuit reduction ‘The network shown in Fig. 4.137(a) can further be reduced to Fig. 4.137(b). 6a 122 202 8a 122 2a A vs Wo A + zov + 1a 320 3h 12a 3129 +R, 8 8 Fig. 4.137(b) Fintally reduced circuit Fig. 4.137(¢) Finding of (R,) For maximum power transfer to the load R, the value R, should be equal to R, which is equal to the internal resistance of the network. R, can be found from Fig. 4.137(c) remov- ing the source and open circuiting terminals AB (Fig, 4.137 (c)). B= R= (sro lnalee eR ee * 16.8 x12 +2 =92 © 168412 vaenene 400 G@)esv 4a) Fig. 4.138 Circuit of Ex. 4.107 Solution Converting the current source into equivalent voltage source the transformed network is shown in Fig. 4.138(a) ‘Considering the 20 V source acting alone, the circuit is shown in Fig. 4.138(b).DC Network Analysis 293 159 62 20V B Fig. 4.138(a) Conversion of source Fig, 4.138(b) 20 V source acting alone The current through R, is pe 20 20 ' 20x40 40420 204 20+ 40 20x40 300 8 = eee =e = 0-4 A (from A to B) 20x60+20x40 1200+800 20 Considering the 25 V source acting alone from the circuit, is shown in Fig. 4.138(¢), the current through (Rj) is 25 28 = —P— xis = 0.25 A (from A to B), 40422 2 2x50 2 A 402 16 5a AL Fig. 4.138(0) 25 V source acting alone Applying the superposition theorem when both the sources are acting simultaneously the current through R,, is 1, + 1, = 04 +0.25 = 0.65 A (from A to B) sevenee 4,108, Find the current through the 2 resistor as shown in Fig. 4.139 using the Superposition theorem, Solution Considering the 2 A source acting alone, the corresponding circuit is shown in Fig. 4.139(a). Fig. 4.139(a) is redrawn in Fig. 4.139(b). Now the current through the 2 Q resistor is 22x 1 a = 0.424 A (from P to A) 4 1424.3 443294 Basic Electrical Engineering Q Q Fig. 4.139 Circuit of Ex. 4.108 Fig. 4.139%) 2 A source acting alone 20 h . A 2a 10 3a 2a) 19 A 4a 330 ev ang Q Fig. 4.139(b) Simplified circuit Fig. 4.139(c) 8 V Source act~ ing alone Considering the 8 V source acting alone, the corresponding circuit is shown in Fig. 4.139(c). Current through the 2 02 resistor is hs + 0.727 A (from P tw A) 442 2 Using superposition theorem, net current through 2 Q resistor is [, + J, = 0.424 + 0.727 = LISIA, teeeeee 4,109 Find the current through the 2 Q resistor of Fig. 4.139 using Norton's theorem. Solution Let us short-circuit the terminals PA after removing the 2 Q resistor. Now we p A consider the 2 A source acting alone the (corresponding circuit being shown in 19 3a Fig. 4.140), Figure 4.140 can be further reduced to 2A ) z 40 the circuit shown in Fig. 4.140(a). The short circuit current due to the 2 A. source acting alone is @ - 1 2x74 7 a? La = 2% ea" Di Fig. 4.140 Circuit of Ex. 4.109 443 (from P to A).DC Network Analysis 295 y lst 2A m9 Q Fig. 4.140(a) Reduced network with 2 A source acting alone \ Considering the 8 V source acting alone, the current P leca through the short circuited path can be found from = [—VW—" Fg Fig. 4.140(b). Current through short circuited path due to the 8 V source acting alone is “a ha = —@— x= (from PteA) = 8V 7 4a 3x1 3+) 19 _ 341 Applying the superposition theorem the current through the short circuited path when both the sources Fig. 4.140(b) 8 V source act- are acting simultancously is ing alone 14 24 4,2 (+3) =2a aa ( #) Hence, Norton’s equivalent current iy = 2 A. Now to find Norton's equivalent resistance Ry, all the sources are deactivated and open circuiting terminals PA the circuit configuration shown in Fig. 4.140(c) is obtained. 3x4 12 rt sl4+ i sltpe Ta. Read yg ty mF Ry Y P ia an 19 4a 2a 7a Q Fig. 4.140(c) Determination of (Ry) Fig. 4.140(d) Norton's equivalent cir- cuit of Ex, 4.109 Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.140(d). The current through the 2 Q resistor connected between terminals P&A using Norton's 19 7. 2x19 theorem is 2x —T— = A = LIST A. 24l2 7296 Basic Electrical Engineering Find the value of V, in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.141. olution 28 4 109 Let V, be the voltage at node a. Applying aS AMY KCL at node « + V,-2 V,-8V,_ sag 202V_ Pp ose "Oar or 5V,— 10+ V, - 8V_ = 20 2v or 6V,, - 8V_ = 30 Again Vp = V,-2 01, V, = Ve +2 & Hence, 6(Vg + 2) ~ 8Vq = 30 Fig. 4.141 Circuit of Ex. 4.110 or = 2p = 18 or Vp = -9 V [this means node “a” is of negative polarity.] weneeee 411, Applying kirchhoff's voltage law find the values of current ¢ and the voltages ¥, and V; in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.142. 62 Fig. 4.142 Cireuit of Ex. 4.111 Solution Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law in Fig. 4.142 6 =v, + 81-0, =0 or vy yy =6 4 BF Now v,=6i and y,=8i Hence 61+ 81= 6 + 81 or i=l Therefore v= 6 x 1 =6 Volts and v) = 8x 1=8 V. veneane 2 Applying KCL find the value of current i in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.143. Solution Applying KCL at node (x), be ii, 42i,-=0 50V a0 or i+i,-i,=0 30 => =10A andi, = Ba, Fig. 4.143 Circuit of Ex. 4.112 or, i= 2-102 2 =667A4DC Network Find i,, é and iy in Fig. 4.144. Solution Let us consider mesh currents i, and i, in the two meshes as shown in Fig. 4.144(a). Applying loop equations in the two meshes 6x IW, - 4) - 21 = 0 and 6 x 10°C, - i.) + 12 x 10°), +28 = 0 ; 21 ‘ or i+ wo 7" 6x10 and 18 X 10°, -6 x 10%, +28 =0 (ii) Solving these two equations i,=-0.583 mA and i, =2.917mA From Fig. 4.144(a) it is evident that O.5i, = 2.917 mA or iy = 5.834 mA. Applying KCL at node a 0.5i, + i, +i3=0 or in + 15 =0 or Analysis 297 0.5 fs 28V SO ih ihS eka Aig “Cy AWA, atv 12k0 Fig. 4.144 Circuit of Ex. 4.113 0.5i3 2ev ata wv > ti, ~ + 6 “ ) ty ix +ry Vf 2iv 12k2 Fig. 4.144(a) Network of Fig. 4.144 with mesh currents 4,114, Find the power dissipated in the 100 Q resistor and find the voltage rating of the dependent source in Fig. 4.145. Solution Applying KVL in the given figure, 6 - 500i, + 2 - 100i, = 0 or i, & = 13.33 mA. Power dissipated in the 100 Q resistor = (100) x (0.0133)? = 17.7 m Watts. Hence voltage rating of the dependent source is 500 x i, = 500 x 0.0133 = 6.65 V. 500i & 2V 0.0 @ev lo Fig. 4.145 Circuit of Ex. 4.113 4,115, Using node analysis find the value of a for the circuit shown in Fig. 4.146 when the power loss in the | @ resistor is 9 W. _ aly alz 20 C# 19 A 5A » 320 ¢ 10V Fig. 4.146 Circuit of Ex. 4.115298 Basic Electrical Engineerin; Solution Power loss in the 1 © resistor is or and or Also Vg + iy — Qi = vp or 34+3a-4 Since v= 10 hence 3a=10+1L=11 or a= 3.67. seeweee 4,116 Find é and i; in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.147 using superposition theorem. 4 19 > 62 WA ev ia Sah Ys Fig. 4.147. Cireuit of Ex. 4.116 Solution Considering 6 V source acting alone and removing the current source (as shown in Fig, 4.147(a)), we get 6-2 =(1 +5), or iy 3 Ak i,= =A Iso aag iy 12 §Q hp 4 12 Ve $2 iz > WA AW WW sv@) Oe 1A S2i, Fig. 4.147(a)__ 6 V source acting alone Fig. 4.147(b) 1A source acting alone Now, considering the L A current source acting alone and removing the others, from the corresponding circuit (shown in Fig. 4.147(b)), we have299 or 5 + Si, vy +2, or Ti -v,+5=0 Me : “ = -i hence Ty +h +5=0 or ip=-3a 8 ih 424 and jye ATT TE 3S 3g 5 5 5 8 8 ‘Applying superposition theorem when both the sources are acting simultaneously and 4.117 Find v in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.148 using superposition theorem. v a Bua, 10V Mraensy Or Fig. 4.148 Circuit of Ex. £117 Solution Let us consider the 10 V source only re- 52 a 19 moving the | A and 4 V source. The corre- sponding circuit is shown in Fig. 4.148(a) + At node a, v 10V 2a Sy 2 v=10 5 or 2v - 20 + 10v- Sv +5v=0 Fig. 4.148(a) 10 V source considered or 12v = 20 or, v= 1.67 V. only Now, let us consider 1 A source acting alone, The corresponding figure is shown in Fig. 4.148). 52 a 19 oO ’ or - 2 Fig. 4.148(6) 1 A source acting alone300 At node a, or or soa AN ia pad 12 WAC > NAN G AM a + t Fig. 4.148(c) 4 V source acting alone Fig. 4.148(d) Simplified network with 4V source Here 5 Q and 2 Q are in parallel. The transformed network is shown in Fig. 4.148(d). In the circuit of Fig. 4.148(d), or Again, Wi 8 Hence ~ aq 7124 or i= -2.33 ve ° X 2.33 = 3.33 V Using superposition theorem, when all the sources are acting simultaneously we have v= 1.67 - 0.833 + 3.33 = 4.17 V. wweeene 4.118 Find power loss in the 2 @ resistor shown in Fig. 4.149 using superposition theorem. in 4Vo Fig. 4.149 Circuit of Ex. 4.118DC Network Analysis 301 Solution Considering the 10 V source acting alone in the circuit [Fig. 4.149(a)] the loop equation 10+V, +4V, -24=0 or 5V,- 2.1 + 10=0 Now Lxi=-V, Hence 5(-i) -2i + 10=0 or “Ti+10=0,ie. i= Ba = 13 A 4.149(a) 10 V source acting alone Considering 2 A source acting alone (Fig. 4.149(b}] and applying KCL at node a we have 2-+--—* =0 1 2 or 4-2-4 -4V,20 or 4-34,-4¥,=0 Fig. 4.149(b) 2 A source acting alone Now, from the given figure, v, = V, Hence from(i) 4-7V,=0ie. V,= + 2057V ae Current through 2 Q resistor is vy t4¥, WV, +4V, 20° 2 Applying superposition theorem the current through 2 Q resistor is thus (1.43 + 1.425) A ie 2.855 A. Hence power loss in 2 resistor is (2.855)? x 2 = 16.31 W. =3x057 = 1425 A Solve Example 4.118 using Thevenin’s theorem. Solution Removing 2 Q resistor as shown in Fig. 4.150, the open circuit voltage is obtained and Vee = 104 Vy + 4¥, = 10+ 5V,302 Basic Electrical Engincering Fig. 4150 Determination of Voc However, V, = voltage across the 1 @ resistor = LX current through the 1 Q resistor =1x2=2¥ Hence Vee = 1045x2520. To find out Ap, let us first short-circuit the output terminals as shown in Fig, 4.150(a). 4Vo Fig. 4.150(a) Determination of Igo and Rry Applying KVL in the circuit, 10+V,+4V,=0 10 5 Applying nodal analysis at node a, y, 2-2. or =2 or 20V 2a Hence Ry= = =50. The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.150(b) Thevenin’s equiva- Fig. 4.150(b) lent circuit ‘The current through 2 Q resistor = 2 A = 2.857 A. Hence the power loss in the 2 Q resistor is (2.857)? x 2. = 16.31 W . 0 Obtain Thevenin's equivalent circuit across terminals a-b in the Fig. 4.151, Solution V, ‘The current through 1 k resistor is {| 22. +2] 1000 * 20002k WW 1? 10 Vv, wo gun OY) ats i 35 Fig. 4.151 Circuit of Ex. 4.120 Open circuit voltage across a~b is the voltage across the 1 kM resistor V, Hence v,= {22 4-2] « 1000 = 10 +05 v, 1000 "2000 ie. V,=20¥ To find out Thevenin's equivalent resistance (Rp,) let us short circuit terminals ab as shown in Fig. 4.151(a). 2ka t 0 we i yoo 4 1k > abo “r bo Fig. 4.151(a) Determination of Rr, As ab is short-circuited V,, is zero. The network reduces to that shown in Fig. 4.151(b). . 10 I 10 He _—x—— = — mee "8 Too0 “T+2 ~ 3000 ‘Therefore, 0 X 3000 = 6000 2 6000.2 a a 10 i at “ 70004 fen 20V-—=— 6 |____op Fig. 4.151(b) Reduced network of the cir- Fig. 4.151(c) Thevenin’s equivalent cuit shown in Fig. 4.151(a) ciresit of Ex. 4.120 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.151(c). seneage 4,121, Find the current in the 2 9 resistor using Thevenin’s theorem in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.152. Solution Let us remove the 2 Q resistor. The corresponding figure is shown in Fig, 4.152(a). Obviously the current supplied by the dependent current source 2i is zero.304 Basic Electrical Engineering 19 j iov Gra 3a S20 Fig. 4.152 Circuit of Ex, 4.121 @ 19 j a 10V 1A 3a Voc c b Fig, 4.152(a)_ Determination of Voc Applying nodal method at node (a), Voc. -1-i=0 or Vee = 3(1 + 1D) @ Applying KVL in loop abed 10-i-V,.=0 (V,.= voltage across the 3 2 resistor) or ii) Solving the two equations (i) and (ii), 3i43=10-% or 75 A and i= 8.25 A. To find out Ry, terminals across the 2 Q resistor are shorted as shown in Fig. 4.152(b). ¢ 19 7 a 3 WN —, 10V *) 1A 3a hie e b Fig, 4.152(b) Determination of Rr, 1,328 Applying the nodal method at node a, y i+d= 242i 3 where v, is the potential at node (a) w.r.t node (b)305 Hence Bit 3.50, +68 or 3i=3—v, (ii) Applying KVL i pplying KVL in loop abed tt80 10-i-¥,=0 ie. v, = 10- tiv) Solving the two equations (iii) and (iv), 3i=3-104i 2a ie. 2i=-Tornis-35A Hence Ip = 2-7 Fig. 4.152(c) Theventin’s equiva- and Rn= 33 = 1189. lent circuit of Ex. 4.121 ‘The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.152(c). 8.25, 24118 Hence current in the 2 Q resistor is =2.59 A. 4,122, Find the Norton's equivalent circuit for the transistor amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 4.153. i 2402 av Vy ¥p6i 240 oY Fig. 4.153 Circuit of Ex. 4.122 Solution To find the Norton's equivalent current source (iy) let us short circuit xy. The correspond- ing figure is shown in Fig. 4.153¢a). Fig. 4.153(a) x-y terminals shorted in the circuit of Fig. 4.153 The voltage across short-circuited terminals xy is zero, i.c. Vy, = 0. Hence i= 4+ azoo7a 240 and iy = -6i = -6 x 0.0167 = 0.1002 A (from x10 y) or “jy = 0.1002 (from y to x)306 Basic Electrical Engineering To find the Norton's equivalent resistance Ry let us find the open circuit voltage V,, from Fig. 4.153. V,, = Voltage drop across the 24 @ resistor 61 xX 24 = - 1447 or x Again aplying KVL equation we find 4-240; — Vey = 0 . o.1002a (Y) 60a or y or Fig. 4.153(b) Norton's equiva- lent circuit of Ex. Hence 4,122 The Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.153(b). 4123. Find the current through R, in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.154 using Norton's theorem. 12v Ox 19RD Fig. 4.154 Cirewit of Ex. 4.123 Solution Let us short-circuit the terminals xy to find out the Norton’s equivalent current (Fig. 4.154(a)). Fig. 4.154(a} Determination of iy, iy =i 431 = 41 2 Now, is Bac2a 6 Hence iy=4xX2=8A To find Norton's equivalent resistance Ry let us open circuit terminals xy. The corre- sponding circuit is shown in Fig. 4.154(b).rav(¢) <4) 3a oy Fig. 4.154(b) Determination of Vy At node a, i+3i- But, x 12-¥, 8A 12 Hence Vy = 12 E> = 24-2 yy ® 3V,, = 24 ie, Vy = 8 V. y 8 Fig. 4.154(c) Norton's equiva- Therefore Rye 5 = 10. lent circuit of Ex. 4.123 Norton's equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.154(c), Hence current through 1 @ resistor = 8 x 5] =4A. 4,124, Using maximum power transfer theorem find the value of the load resistance Ry at the maximum power is transfered across R, in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.155. 2a 19 AW WA x Fig. 4.155 Circuit of Ex. 4.124 Solittion Let us remove X,, and open circuit terminals xy to find out the internal resistance R, of the circuit. According to maximum power transfer theorem the maximum power will be transfered through R, when Rp=R From Fig. 4.155(a) applying KVL, 10 - 2i, - 57, i) = 0 ie. Ti, - 5i, = 10 @Fig. 4.155(a) Determination of V,, and 3v,~ Slip i) yx 1-2 = 0 ie. 3X Sti, - ig) — Si) =F =O Ee y= Sip o i - 23 = ie, iy = iy i) Using equation (ii) in equation (i) we get 23. 2 Hence Tx Fa Si,= 10 or iy=3.28A and ip=3.772 A Now, (3.772 — 3.28) = 2.46 V. Let us now short circuit the terminals xy as shown in Fig. 4.155(b). 22 yy, 12 Va Fig. 4.155(b) Determination of ise At node a, v, +34, 1 ot i= 0 As a—b are shorted v, = 0 Hence — vet LS, + i, ie. ig = O50, Now, v, = Voltage across 5 © resistor. Current through 5 Q resistor Iq = x = bs osesa 43! S+1 12+5 6 S+1 Hence = 5 «0.588 = 2.94 V and 0.52.94 =-1.47 A 0.82 Therefore, — = 0.558 9." -1.47maxmum power across it in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.156. Solution Applying KVL in the closed loop (Fig. 4.156), we have 102 200 5-10 + 5i-5i=0 isv(¢) or ie Beisa 10 b Hence Vay =15%5= 7.5 V Fig. 4.156 Circuit of Ex. 4.125 For finding out the internal resistance R, of the circuit let us short circuit the path ab as shown in Fig. 4.156(a). The mesh equations in the two loops are 15 + 10/, = 57+ 5ti, ~ 4) =0 roo 200 ie, -15i, + Sig + 51+ 1520 <> a and 20ig + 5, - 11) =O | i, \Y ie, Si) -5in=O wr 4 salt )y i n iy = Si Also i= iy—d — Hence -15(5i,) + 5i + 5(é, ~ iy) + 15 =0 Fig. 4.156(a)_ Determination of R, With i, = Si, we get i) =0.3 A (=iy) Yay _ 7.5 s Re 2 = 2250 03 According to the maximum power transfer theorem maximum power will be transferred across ab when the resistance connected across ab is equal to R, i.e., 25 Q. euacseé. Eng a, Ry Ik Wie V_= 3Vo + Ve 3 Ri Re Fig. 4.157 Circuit of Ex. 4.126 [Given: R, = 4.0, R, = 6; Ry = 20; R,= 109, V=9V) In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.157, find Solution Let us first simplify the circuit by clubbing R3 with R, to get R(=Ry + R,) in the right loop (loop 2) in the given circuit. The simplified circuit is shown in Fig. 4.157(a). In loop 2, Vp + V, = i,R = 12, or V+ 3V; = 12i, o V, = 3i, a310 Basic Electrical Engineering Fig. 4.157%(a) Simplified circuit Again at loop 1, V-iR, = Vz [assuming current ‘i’ passing through R,] Using (1) 2) 4 Vy . But i=i,+ [applying KCL at node 1] 3i, Figt [losing CD] = 1 Si, From (2) we then get V-4x 15i, or V=9i, a) “ ata? sta Be OO sesneee 4,127, In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.158, find j, assuming B= 8. Use the superposition principle. Fig. 4158 Circuit of Ex. 4.127 Solution First we take the 30 V source (Ref. Fig. 4.158(a)] Here, 4, = i, + igy = Dig () In loop abcde, -30 + 6 X ig, + (4 + 2) ig, = 0 ; 1 * ij = LAZ05A = 5 Next we consider the 3 A constant current source. [Ref. 4.158(b)).DC Network Analysis 311 a rhb e 62 4aQ 1 ia YD tele Bion) 2a e d Fig. 4.158(a)_ 30 V source acting alone 3A 62 (rice) “wy lg 4a Jie ¥D ix =(Bho2) 2a Fig. 4.158(b) 3 A source acting alone Current through the 4 © resistor is (3 ~ ig.) A, and current through the 6 @ resistor is = 9 ign <. We can write from loop equation, 5, X 6 = G = iy) X 4+ iy x 2=0 as 6 X Digg = 12 + Ging =O 2. gg = (since ip = Digg) A. Then using superposition principle ig = fg, + fgg = 0.5 40.20.78 wureeee 28, In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.159, find 1. 20 ‘| Bich Zsa @rov Fig. 4.159 Circuit of Ex. 4.128 Solution We redraw the circuit with arbitrary current distribution and node number [Fi 4.159(a)}312 Basic Electrical Engineering At node @), ST=T4h _¥,¥-10 5 2 [Assuming voltage at node x to be (V)] ‘ 7¥—S0 b S12 or sor=7V-50 (1) v Fig. 4159(a) Circuit of Ex. 4.128 redrawn But =5 with currents and nodes desig- -. From (1), 10 V=7 VY -50 or 4,129. In the network shown in Fig. 4.160, find the value of the dependent source using G) nodal method and (ii) superposition theorem. | 2 Fig, 4.160 Circuit of Ex, 4.129 Solution Using nodal method: We first redraw the figure and assign a node (%) for application of nodal method (Fig. 4.160(a)) Fig, 4.160(a) Solution by nodal method 10-V At the node (@), we have, {(V) being the-node voltage at ()) v +h 3 +20313 -v _ 10— 77 We can write, Simplification yields V = 13.5 V. 10-13.5 —_ Thus, / = 1 = ~3.5 and the dependent source would have value 2/, i.c., 2 x (-3.5) ie. -7 A. It may be noted here that the actual direction of the currents J and 2/ would be just the reverse than given in the question. Using Superposition Theorem Let us first assume the 10 V source only (Fig. 4.160(b)). At node (@), we find wW-V _v,,f10-¥ 3 1 Since [= 10 Simplifying, V=15 Volts (at node a) 1-V 10-15 ne while 2h =-10A h . 4 ¥ ANA 0 & 2h 3a Zea 5 Fig. 4.160(b) Solution by superposition method (10 V source acting only) Next we consider the constant current source 1 A only (Fig. 4.160(c)). ‘We select node (6) where we find Vv lee 42h +he=l @ But he wa Fig. 4.160(c) 1.A source acting only314 Basic Electrical Engineerin; Using (ii) in (i), we get, Vv 37 “ heals Finally, using the principle of superposition, we get 2 = 2h + 2h =-1043=-7A (the same result that we obtained earlier). se eeeee 4,130 Find Thevenin’s equivalent for the given circuit in Fig. 4,161. Fig. 4.161 Circuit of Ex. 4.130 Solution At node %*, we can write, i+Ki,=i, i=i,0-) Also, in loop x - J - y~ z we can write -v + ir, + ir =O tpi (LK) + igr (using i = i, (1 - K) for i] io [to (1 — KY +r] v d-K)+r vxr (l-K)+r Let us now short the output terminals. Resistance r is bypassed (Fig. 4.161(a)] Here, ~v+irg=0 or Hence Vues iy xr 2 or ist. to However, i= iy Kiye at node 2 or ine (I= KY s i.- — Fig. 4.161(a) Determination of isc fe eR) “+ yy (Thevenin equivalent impedance)315 _ xr y ~7,0-R)+r/ G-R) rx1,(1-K) © rte)” Thus, for the given circuit, vxr rxp (1-K) Vole = Teg Hh =a Oe)” (-K)+r r+n (1-K) senneee 4.131. Obtain the values of /,, /, and J, in the 20 5A shoes tn Fi, > circuit shown in Fig. 4.162. ANA +} Solution ® In loop ®. the circulating current will be “e) driven by 5 A constant current source and hence 4Q 19 h=5A. ANA- In loop @), we write © @ ' (h-)4+3-12=0 (i) But T= 1,1, (in loop @) ->) 3 “ey © From i), (Iy— 4) 4 + 3) —h) - 12=0 or 41, + 3h, - Tl = 12 ia) Since J; = 5 A, equation (1a) gives | KH 41, +3 -7x5= 12 iV ev or 41, + 3h, =47 (i) Fig. 4.462 Circuit of Ex, 4.131 For loop-(2), we write 1x1+6-3f=0 of [=3A Using 1=3 A, I= I, - Ty, we get h-h=3 of =1,+3=8A (2 h=5A) Thus from (ii), af, =47-31,=23 A or =S75A ‘Thus finally, T,=S.75A, h=8A, G=5A. weneees 4,132, Find v, and v, using the principle of superposition in Fig. 4.163. 0.5 va Fig. 4.163 Circuit of Ex. 4.132 Solution Let us first take 10 V source (Fig. 4,163(a)), It may be observed that the 10 Q resistor is shorted due to deactivation of the 5 V source.316 Basic Electrical Engineering Vas ORs Yon > ® sa 109 Fig. 4.163(a) 10 V source acting alone At node @), we have or Obviously vy =0. Next, we deactivate the 10 V source and activate the 5 V source. (Fig. 4.163(b)) O.5va Vaz Vee Fig, 4.163(0)5'V source acting alone At node @), we have ¥, va 5 5 +05 ¥,, o Vg, = 0. Ys, is then 5 Ve Using superposition principle, 20 Ve= Yo, +Ye, = = 2.22 V 9 we My ty, = 5. 4.133 Obtain Thevenin equivalent across x-y in the network shown in Fig. 4.164. Solution Voie = Vey = 10(v — @ 10 a - = 10), 9v=10¥, or v="DC Network Analysis 317 109 10°99 Thus, Voje = Vay = a Next we short terminals x-y. (Fig. 4.164(a)). 1090 v 10892 vo Fig, 4.164(a) Network of Fig. 4.164 with (x-y) shorted Here, 10(v - v,) = 10° x 2 x Ty. 10(v-v,) _ v=¥, ye = aM) _ Mo i) 2x1 200 Also, v= 10x i, = 10001, Gi) Using (iii) in (ii) we get 1000 Tue Ye tae = 200 Mo Mt Bye = 399° es lee = F094 We now obtain the internal resistance of the circuit as Vote 10 10 go’ = x 800 = 288.89 2 ae = ee Tate Mo 800 The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is thus obtained as 0 Vote = “g Ye Rig = 888.89 ©. 4,134 In the network shown in Fig. 4.165 find J using Thevenin theorem and verify the result using Norton’s theorem. Solution Let us first remove 1 © resistor from the given network. With reference to Fig. 5.165(a), we can write, -10 + Vy, + V; = 0 ” Vore = 10 -318 Basie Electrical Engineering 2 L —_ ia tov 1A 3n 2n a Fig. 4.165 Circuit of Ex, 4.165 Ss Vas ~ S feo vi; 2t¥o ™e 1A t 30 S20 Fig. £.165(a) Determination of Voye By inspection, Vj=1Ax3Q=3V. ” Vane 7 Ve Next, we short terminals (x)-()) [Ref Fig. 4.165()] Fig. 4.165(b) Deterrnination of Iyc By inspection, v/ =10¥. At node a, we can write 0 . 7 > ~Dueits bie yA ‘Thus, the internal resistance of the circuit is Ine + Voc 7 Rg? = Ie (119) We now draw both Thevenin’s and Norton's equivalent circuits. (Fig. 4.165¢c) and 4. 1650) respectively). Tn Fig. 4.165(c), =92 Thus we have obtained current in 1 Q resistor by Thevenin’s theorem which is 0.7 A.DC Network Analysis 319 Fig, 4.165(¢) Thevenin’s equivalent network tue OU * 19 Fig, 4.165(d) Norton's equivalent network If we apply Norton's theorem, from equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.165(d), we get 1 [ye X =O7 A. Thus the current obtained in the 1 Q resistor using Thevenin’s theorem has been verified by Norton's theorem. Find i and i the circuit shown in 4,166. Use node analysis. Solution Let nodal voltage at nodes (®) and (’) be V, and Vy’. At node @) we can write v, V,-¥,Y, 4 +1=0 2 1 2 [Please note here that electrically x, y, z nodes are at the same potential and hence treated as one common node (@); node 0 is taken as references node). or 2¥,-¥/ =3 ay At node (©) we can write VeaVy Vy 21-8 1 1 or 2.2V, -V,-2i-9=0 V, But is 2 «. We can write from (ii) x Gi) V, 22V) -Vy-2x | -9=0 or -2V, 42.2" (iia) Solving for (i) and (iia), Vy = 10 V and V," = 17 V.320 Basic Electrical Engineering 4.136 In the network shown in Fig, 4.167, verify, using Thevenin theorem Vi, 3 3 Vole" ney AW AW vo Lj? en (@— 1) v@ lve 75 18 (ig — ti,,). Use of KVL in this loop gives 7.- Fig. 4.173 Fig. 4.174 11. Use branch currents in the network shown in Fig. 4.174 to find the current supplied by a 60 V source. [Ans: 6 AJ 12. Solve problem no. 11 by mesh current method. 13. Two ammeters x and y are connected in series and a current of 20 A flows through them. The potential difference across the ammeters are 0.2 V and 0.3 V respectively. Find how the same current will divide between x and y when they are connected in parallel. [Ans: 12 A and 8 A} 14, Obtain the source current / and the power 5a delivered to the circuit in Fig. 4.175. [Ans: 6 A, 228 W] , ia Hint: fag = 4 As Veyopezay = 4X 2 = 8 V: 8 4a 20 Hence lig = 7 = 2A. yaa oT =hgt hg =6 Ai PHOS +2 x4 4422 = 228 W] Fig. 4.175 15. For the circuit shown in Fig. 4.176 find the potential difference between x and y. [Ans: -2.85 V] + av 32 + 5Q 109 Fig. 4.176327 ate ~~ 2. win ci -i- (Hint: In left loop, J = 7 0.5 A; in right loop, [ 15 0.33 A. Vey = Vay + (6) + Vz, = 0.5 x 3 - 6 + 0.33 x 5 = 2.85 V] 16. Reduce the circuit in Fig. 4.177 to a voltage source in series with a resis- tance between terminals A and B. 90 15 V2 20 Vand R=1S [Ans 34 and R 3 a] 2A iL GB Ac 2B -—w—_—_ Fig. 4.177 17. For the network shown in Fig. 4.178 5Q find V which makes J = 7.5 mA. [Ans: 1.02 VI} \ 1S 6Q 1= 75 mA; hq = AXE! an 6Q an =75mA 2 Asq= 15 mA. DropinSQ=15mA ¥ XS Q=75 mV. Then drop across 4 Q is 75 mV + 7.5 120 mA x6 Q=120mv. Fig. 4178 oly = “ = 30 mA. Current from battery is then (30 + 15) ic.45 mA. Hence voltage drop in 8 Qis 45 mA x 8 = 360 mV. Drop in 12 Q is 45 mA x 12= 540 mv. ©. V= 360 + 75 + 45 + 540 = 1020 mV. i-e., 1.02 V 18. In the network shown in Fig. 4.179 find the resistance between (i) A anda (ii) C and A. [anco1acyZa] [Hint: Convert delta (abc) to star first and proceed) For the ladder network shown in Fig. 4.180, find the applied voltage V. [Ans: 800 V] [Hint: Find current through the 40 Q resistor and then proceed as shown in Problem no. 17) 19.328 12 12 8 19 c Fig. 4.179 752 2502 252 102 AWW 400 502 502 4ow Fig. 4.180 20. Find the current in the 10 Q resistance in the network shown in Fig. 4.181 using Thevenin’s theorem. fAns: 4 Aj Fig. 4.181 21. Using Norton's theorem find the current through 64 Q resistance in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.182, [Ans: 0.3 A from A to B) Fig, 4482 22. In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.183 find the value of R, so that it abstracts maximum power and also calculate that power. What percentage of power delivered by the battery reached R,? [Ans: 25 Q, 900 W, 35.7%]329 30Q 4 960 1500 3 A, | Fig. 4.183 | 23. In the network shown in Fig, 4.184, find Thevenin’s equivalent network across x y terminals. [Ans: Voje = Vj = 25 Vs Ryy = 17 Q] 20 z HSA fsa > 4 10a / Blo y Fig. 4.184 [Hint: 10 Q resistor is removed. V,,, = 5 A x 5 2 = 25 V. Next.x~ y is shorted. At node z, we can write 5s Y get Ives But teat (V being the voltage at node z). Voie oe Le= 147 A and Ry = 2 = 179) le: 24, In the circuit shown in Fig, 4.185 use loop analysis to determine the loop currents iy, i, and is. [ans i= Fig. 4.185 25. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit at terminals A, B for the network shown in Fig. 4.186. [Ans: Vp, = 25 V, Rp, = 20 Q] 26, Find V, and V> in Fig. 4.187 using nodal voltages analysis method. . [Ans: V; = 2.468 V and V; = 1.156 V]@24 102 Wr. WM 102 102 (ra S200 wVv= 2B Fig. 4.186 A 020 B Fig. 4.187 Hint: At node A, 20= “442 anode a, 52 424 ¥2—M (Hint: At node A, 20 = 5+ 5s Atmode BS = +5) 27. Find the current through the resistance R in Fig, 4.188 by nodal voltage analysis. [Ans: 0 A] Rr 12 Fig. 4.188 28. In the network shown in Fig. 4.189 show that the internal impedance of the network when looked into it through terminals 1-2 is Wm (l-m) "+h =m) Apply Thevenin's theorem.29. Obtain Thevenin’s equivalent network shown in Fig. 4.190. ith respect to terminals A and B of the [Ans: Vzy = 10.637 V, Ry, = 2.182 Q) G2 ) ={+ fw. sv 3a Ac—— +—°B Vv 29 Av obga ak =k 7—w et le 5A 9A Fig. 4.190 30. Determine the value of R,; for maximum power transfer to the load and determine the load power in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.191. [Ans: 9 Q, 0.694 W] 62 A Fig, 4191 31. Using superposition theorem find the value of V, in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.192. [Ans: -46.8 V] 200 5A Fig. 4.192 32. Determine Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as viewed from the open circuit terminals a and b of the network shown in Fig. 4.193. [Ans: 3 V, 5 Q) i 1009 Fig. 4.193332 Basic Electrical Engineering 33. Find ip, i, and the value of the dependent source for the network shown in Fig. 4.194, [Ans: 2A, 4.4; 4 A] Fig. 4.194 [ Hint: At node x, assuming node voltage to be v, we have, peat o + 20 = ig However, —i; A. jowever, ig = 75 2 ¥=-24 Vandi, =» = 6 AS Ig =— 5 =2A, Value of dependent source is 4 A. B i= -2iy= 4A. 34. Find the current in the 6 Q resistor of Fig. 4.195 using Thevenin’s theorem. (Ans: EA] Fig. 4.195 35. Find the loop currents i,, i; and é; in the network shown in Fig, 4.196 by mesh method. 17 17 Haa-Za] 19 19 20 v@ 4) 20 h eat) oN 2i, Fig. 4.196DC Network Analysis 333 36. What is the power supplied by the de- 1A 2a pendent source in the circuit of Fig. 4.197. [Ans; -84 W} (Hint: In the right loop, -5 — Vo + 21 + Wy=0 1 Vo + 2=5. 2M But Vy =-(i+ 1) x1 -1 @) Solving, i =-6 A and Vy =-7 V :. Power supplied by the dependent source is 2 Vy x i =-84 W] Fig. 4.197 37. Find Norton's equivalent circuit of the network shown in Fig. 4.198. [Ans: 1.17. A, 6 Q] Fig. 4.198 38. Using Norton’s theorem find the current in the 5 Q resistor in the network shown in Fig. 4.199. [Ans:.4.166 A] ig 29 40 sav(t) & Alo Fig. 4.199 39, In the circuit of Fig, 4.200, if r= 5 Q, R, = 109, v, = 10 V, i, =2 A, find the current through R, using Thevenin’s theorem. [Ans: 1.33 A] - f [ Hint: R,, is removed. Vote = ly XF-+ Vy = 20 V (0) ie Ry, = 5 Q(=r) Vole ody eM 134] | Rt Re Fig, 4.200 40, Find v by superposition theorem (Fig. 4.201). [Ans: v = 23.37 V] [ im With 10 V source only, ere lo. y= lO xi= 10x oe =6.67V334 Basic Electrical Engineering With 5 A source only, 5a 5 =5x > = 167A fo 5+10 10V 1g=5 A = 1.67x10=16.7V @ O Thus, v=, + ¥, = 23.37 v] Fig aan 41, The galvanometer in Fig. 4.202 has a resistance of 5 Q. Find the current through the galvanometer using Thevenin’s theorem. [Ans: 15.9 mA] [ Hint: Open circuiting BD, current through 10 Q resistor B 109. 15.2 he we a A=04A. Current through the 12 Q resistor A e he ate A= 0357 A. an’ 160] Vin = Vap = Vap ~ Vag = 12 x 0,357 - 10 x 0.4 = D 0.284 V - 10x15 12«16 tov - = 12.857. T Tovis * 12416 Fig, 4.202 12.857+5 42. For the electrical network shown in Fig. 4.203 find the value of load resis- tance R, for which source will supply maximum power to the load. Find Currrent through galvanometer = —2284_ 4 = 0.0159 A [B to ni] also the maximum power. (Ans: 8 W] op, - 9%3 o_ 18 g_ 3a [ine Ry = 2S Q= 7 2=20 & Rin) + 6 A, R 6 wv a I vs = x—— = h 6x2 642 74 or Pus = OF X2W = BW] 43. Determine the current passing through the 20 Q (BD) resistor of the network as shown in Fig. 4.204 with the help of Thevenin’s theorem. [Ans: I(B to D) = -7.79 A] [ in Removing the 20 Q resistor the open circuit voltageDC Network Analysis 335 Voo = Vin = Van Van = 555 «3-2 x6 = 0.205 V pg, = BxI2, 3x10 Tm 6412" 3410 Stop = 0205. Current through the 20 2 resistor = 3046307 A from B to D or 7.79 mA = 6.307 Q. from D to B . Find the current in each branch of the network shown in Fig. 4.205 using Kirchhoff’s law. [Ans: lig = 1.978 A; ha B = 1.12 A (AD) Iyq = 0.066 A (BD); ho = 1.912 A (BC) Ig = 1.186 A (DO); Current through battery = 3.098 A] [Hint: Taking 3 mesh currents J,, f, and 4, in loops ABDA, BCDB and ADC (12 V) A, 1+, -1)4+(,-1)2=0 20 12 2h, + 3h, — 1.) + 4, — 1) =0 Fig. 4.205 Dy + Ul = 1) + 3Uly = 1) = 12 Solving J, = 1.978 A; J, = 1.912 A; J, = 3.098 A currents in all branches can be found out from /,, Jp and Jy]