19 Drainage Canals and Related Structures

M.G. Bos'

19.1 Introduction
The contents of this chapter follows the design process of a main drainage canal system
and the related structures. Section 19.2 discusses the factors that influence the lay-out
of the canal system. This discussion is rather general because each situation yields
a different lay-out. Section 19.3 gives a review of the most important criteria that
determine the shape and the capacity of a drainage canal. Upon availability of a lay-
out, the shape and capacity of the canal system, the hydraulic dimensions can be
calculated by use of Manning's equation. This is treated in Section 19.4. The next
section discusses maximum permissible velocities for earthen canals as a function of
soil type, capacity, etc. If the maximum permissible velocity is surpassed, the designer
has two basic options: protection against scour by use of a pervious lining of the canal
(Section 19.6), or the use of energy dissipators (Section 19.7). The last section deals
with culverts and small bridges.
This chapter deals with operation, maintenance and construction factors only as
far as they influence the design of the system.

19.2 General Aspects of Lay-out

Systems of drainage canals and their related structures collect and carry away excess
water to prevent damage to crops and to allow farm machinery to work the land.
Besides these agricultural functions, a drainage canal system may have to supply water
for irrigation in the dry season, act as a means of transport for shipping, etc. In this
chapter, we shall concentrate on the agricultural functions of the system.

Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of drainage canal systems:

- A system to intercept, collect, and carry away water from sloping land adjacent
to an agricultural area. Most of the water in this system originates from surface
runoff. It will be discharged for brief periods only, causing high flow rates and
sediment transport;
- A system to collect and carry away water from a relatively flat agricultural area.

Here, the main source of water is precipitation on the area or irrigation. Because
of surface detention and groundwater storage, water is discharged over a longer
period than above. Furthermore, the flat gradient canals have little or no sediment
transport capacity.

In designing a drainage canal system for an agricultural area that is partly bounded
by sloping lands, the engineer can either design two canal systems, which drain the
sloping and agricultural area separately, or he can design a combined system.

' International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement.

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19.2.1 Sloping Lands

If a flat agricultural area is partly surrounded by sloping lands, the surface runoff
from these lands should be intercepted and discharged to prevent inundation of the
agricultural area. The extent to which drainage problems in the agricultural area are
caused by this surface runoff should be determined by making a water balance of
the area. Runoff from sloping lands causes two major problems in the downstream
areas; (i) rainfall causes high discharges of short duration, (ii) the surface runoff causes
erosion, and the related sediment transport down the steep gradient of the channels
causes sedimentation in the flatter channel reaches.

Both problems can be eased by a combination of the following techniques:

- Planting trees and encouraging the growth of natural vegetation on steep slopes;
- Contour ploughing and terracing intermediate slopes (up to 10%). Terracing is the
levelling of the slopes along the contour lines in combination with the planting of
crops;
- Encouraging the growth of crops that give a soil cover during the rainy season;
- Constructing retention reservoirs in the streams to temporarily store peak runoff
(see Photo 19.1).

These techniques are a form of erosion control; their application greatly eases the
downstream drainage problems.

In sloping areas, the main drainage system usually will be limited to the reconstruction

Photo 19. I A retention reservoir is used to reduce the downstream flow rate

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of channel reaches (Section 19.6) and to the construction of energy dissipators (Section
19.7).
Streams originating in sloping areas can be connected to a major river, lake, or
sea along two alternative routes; (i) via an interceptor canal, which channels the water
around the agricultural area to a suitable outlet, or (ii) via a canalized stream through
the agricultural area.
The major advantage of the interceptor canal is that peak discharges and sediments
from the sloping lands do not disturb the functioning of the drainage system in the
flatter agricultural area.
It is possible to limit the required discharge capacity of a channel that transports
water from sloping lands to a suitable outlet if the channel discharges from one of
the following two structures:
- A retention reservoir that is filled by the peak stream flow, which is then released
through a bottom outlet. As a result, the discharge peak is lower, but of longer
duration;
- A regulating structure that consists of a weir of limited discharge capacity in the
stream and a side weir immediately upstream of it. If the stream flow exceeds a
predetermined rate, it overtops the crest of the side weir. Most of the additional
stream flow then discharges over the side weir into an area where inundation or
overland flow causes little damage.
Which of these two lay-outs (or an intermediate lay-out) is the best solution can
usually only be decided after a reconnaissance study.

19.2.2 The Agricultural Area

The agricultural areas that require drainage are usually coastal plains, river valleys,
or plains where the inefficient use of irrigation water has caused waterlogging. In
coastal plains, the drainage problems are exacerbated by some hydrological feature,
typical of such plains, being:
- The gentle hydraulic gradient of the rivers in the coastal plain, which leads to low

flow velocities and the deposition of sediments;

- The effect of tidal levels on river water levels near the sea and of saline water intrusion;

- The complicated network of river branches and ramifications, which can cause

natural drains to disappear in coastal swamps giving the river or stream what is
knwon as a ‘bad outlet’ (Section 19.2.3);
- The rapid changes in channel configuration that can occur after each major flood;
- The low elevation of the coastal plain with respect to the level of rivers and the
sea. To prevent the inundation of the coastal plain, dykes along the rivers and the
sea shore are essential.

To illustrate alternative lay-outs of the drainage canal system, let us consider an

irrigated coastal plain that lies between sloping lands (hills) and the sea. The plain
is intersected by parallel rivers and streams and by an irrigation canal system.
Depending on factors such as: run-off from the sloping land, construction and
maintenance cost of canals, quality of drainage outlets, etc., alternative lay-outs can
be considered:

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Combined Drainage System
Figure 19.1 shows a drainage canal lay-out that combines the drainage system of the
sloping land with that in the plain. All run-off from the sloping land is intercepted
and carried away by canalized streams. These streams, and the lateral drains along
the river dykes, flow into a main drain that runs parallel to the sea dyke. One drainage
sluice with a well-defined, stable (suitable) outlet has been planned on that drain. The
other streams are dammed by the sea dyke. Concentrating all the drainage water
discharge through one sluice eases sedimentation problems in the outlet channel.

Separate System for Sloping Land

If relatively high discharges come from the sloping lands, or if the plain is wide, intercepting
and diverting streams into the nearest river is a sound alternative to the lay-out shown
in Figure 19.2. The streams are dammed and the interceptor drains discharge all water
from the sloping lands through two sluices into the rivers. As a result, the coastal plain
has a separate drainage system that discharges precipitation, unused irrigation water, and
groundwater inflow. Drainage has been decentralized into three independent systems:
two for the sloping land and one for the coastal agricultural area.

Figure 19.I The sloping land and coastal plain are drained by one combined system (Storsbergen and Bos
1981)

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Figure 19.2 The sloping land and coastal plain are drained by three separate drainage systems (Storsbergen
and Bos 1981)

Two Drainage Systems in a Coastal Plain

The transport of mud and sand along a coastline often blocks the outlets of all minor
streams into the sea, and dredging may be needed to maintain a sufficient depth at
the river mouths. Under such circumstances, none of the stream mouths is suitable
as a drainage outlet. Water that is collected by the main drain along the coastal dyke
is then discharged into the nearest river. Figure 19.3 shows four separate drainage
canal subsystems: two for the sloping lands and two for the coastal plain.

19.2.3 Drainage Outlet

The site where drainage water is to be discharged into a river, lake, or sea influences
the lay-out and functioning of the drainage system. To ensure the uninterrupted
discharge of water throughout the drainage season, the outlet should not be blocked
by a sand bank or vegetated flats, nor should it be at the inner curve of a river, where
sedimentation occurs.
At the outlet, the main drainage canal usually cuts through the natural river

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embankment or the dyke. To prevent flooding of the agricultural area, the outlet is
usually fitted with a sluice, which can be closed when the outside water level is high.
The sluice should be near the lowest part of the area to be drained. Soil conditions
in such a location, however, may cause foundation problems, and the sluice may have
to be moved.
To avoid damage if there is a change of the river course or coast line, sluices are
built at a certain distance from the river or sea. The entire length of the main canal
reach downstream of the sluice must be protected, and some length of river
embankment or coast must be protected against erosion.
To operate and maintain the gates properly, it is essential that the sluice be accessible
throughout the year. The cost of constructing and maintaining an all-weather access
road may influence the choice of a site for the drainage outlet.
If the hydraulic gradient over the outlet sluice is insufficient to discharge all drainage
water within a selected period (3 or 5 days), a pumping station may be added to the
outlet. In such a case also the cost of power supply to the pumping station influences
its location.

river discharge sea

Figure 19.3 The sloping land and the coasral plain are drained by four separate systems (Storsbergen and
Bos 1981)

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19.2.4 Locating the Canal

To determine the location, hydraulic properties, visual characteristics, and condition

of existing channels, planned canals, and related structures, one needs a 1: 10 O00 scale
topographical map with a contour interval of 0.50 m or less, and a 1: I O O00 controlled
photo mosaic. Maps, especially in flat topography, should be field checked. This step
should be done in the earliest planning stage to avoid the need for major revisions
later. The following information is needed to plan a canal system (adapted from U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture 1977):
1) The drainage area at junctions of existing streams and all flow control points.
Drainage areas should also be delineated for the ‘land level units‘ that will be
described in Section 19.3;
2) The approximate profiles in existing channels, showing the elevation of the channel
bottom, low bank, points of natural low ground away from but subject to drainage
into the channel, and elevation and dimensions of all structures in or over the
channel. The condition and serviceability of all structures should be recorded.
Adequate survey data are needed for all structures to compute the discharge
capacity for each;
3) The representative channel and valley cross sections for each hydraulic or economic
reach. Additional cross sections should be taken as needed for a reliable estimate
of: quantities of excavation and land clearance, damage evaluation in the plain
or valley because of high water levels (see Section 19.3.2), and to permit the
computation of storage in flood plains, ponds and marshes (see Section 19.3.3);
4) Manning’s coefficient ‘n’ for each existing channel. Even if channel elements are
very uniform, the n value should be estimated for each I-km reach;
5) The location and elevation of all soil investigation sites along the proposed canals.
To determine the maximum permissible velocities and bank slopes, soil
investigations should extend to a depth of at least 3 m below the anticipated future
canal bottom (Figure 19.4). Use the Unified Soil Classification of Section 19.3.4;
6) The landscape character and use patterns along major existing and anticipated
drains. Data must include: scenic views, area and density of brush and trees, and
isolated but valuable trees;
7) The location and ownership of boundary lines in the vicinity of all probable canals
and structures;
8) The other significant features that will be affected such as roads, pipelines, power
and telephone lines, buildings, wells, cemeteries, and fences.

Based on the above information, the center line of all the canal system is drawn in
pencil on the photo mosaic, showing curves, intersecting angles, and so on. Mark
the stationing on these center lines with a short dash at each 100-m point.
After this preliminary design phase at the office, the canal location should be field-
checked. For this check, one should walk the full length of the canal’s center line,
noting the following on the preliminary design drawing:
a) The probable realignment of the center line;
b) The points of significant breaks in the grade;
c) The location of all rock outcrops or critical soil conditions;
d) The approximate locations of points where more cross sections could be obtained;

73 1
@ DEEP CUT AND FILL SECTIONS ON SIDE HILLS

(@ NORMAL CANAL SECTIONS

*(if hard, tight rock is encountered above proposed

canal bottom elevation, holes 3 m into the rock, but
at least to bottom grade will usually be sufficient.

Figure 19.4 Depth of preliminary exploratory holes for canal alignment (after U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
1973)

e) The location of significant canal junctions and places where side inlets may be
needed;
f) If not already visible on the aerial photo, note the location of all buildings, utilities
and structures that may be affected by the drainage canal works. These include,
but are not limited to, facilities that are within 100 m of the alignment and 1 m
below the future canal bottom;
g) The location of valuable landscapes and large individual trees adjacent to the
alignment.

Following the field check, one should accurately establish the revised center line on
the photo mosaic. The final alignment should be based on the previous cross sections,
and geological and environmental data. Indicate on the photo mosaic where the cross
sections and soil surveys were made.

19.2.5 Schematic Map of Canal Systems

Maps showing the layout of a drainage canal system must give detailed information
on the location of canal reaches and related structures. Normally, this information
is given on the same map that shows the irrigation canal system, roads, and the
boundaries of irrigation units. To keep such maps legible, standard symbols must

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be used to indicate the center line of the canals and related structures. The schematic
map in Figure 19.5 uses these symbols. It shows:
- The location of the center lines of drains and irrigation canals, numbered for each

reach;
- The radii of the center lines;

- The reserve boundaries of canals and boundaries of any adjacent obstructions,

roads, and land level units. The area of land level units must be shown also;

Unit No 606 Unit No 605 Unit No 601

S6 -W
AB 606 7
81 i 6 - T O 601 (Type 'A')

J
- 210m
-I
0 9 - D O 604
S6-TO 603 (Type 'A' Special)
-- -r S6 -TO 603(Type 'A')
Unit no 606 Unit No 603
S6 -CH 6 0 2 l
. .,
v)

LEGEND
Irrigation canal P
main
lateral
sub-lateral
Drajnage canal Q
main
lateral
sub-lat. or collector
Boundary
Dlscharge regulator
Waterlevel check only
Check- and drop structure
Drop structure
Wasteway
Bridge. culvert or syphon
Turnout (measure flow)
Drainage outlet (farm)
Drain or relief outlet
Length along canal
Non-return gate
Drainage outlet sluice
096. o L-
Drainage outlet pumping plant
On line pumping plant
Irrigation well
Drainage well
Ground-surface contour
Groundwater surface contour
Stream
River
Unit No 610 Dyke. embankment or levee

Figure 19.5 Example of a schematic map (after PWD 1967 and own data)

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- The boundaries a n d number of irrigation units (if applicable);
- All structures, numbered and with position dimensioned with respect to center lines
o r boundaries;
- The north point and scale.

A schematic m a p must be supplemented by longitudinal profiles of all main and lateral

canals. On both the m a p and longitudinal profile, a certain notation has been used
to identify a canal reach a n d its related structure. After the system has been
constructed, this notation must also appear on the structure.
The notation consists of two parts: (i) the number of the canal a n d (ii) the number
of the canal reach or the structure identification number. It is presented below in Table
19.1.

Table 19. I Notation for canals and related structures

Type of canal or First part of notation Second part of notation

structure (i) (ii)
Drainage canal:
main MD
lateral D9
sublateral D9B Number only; assigned
Irrigation canal: consecutively from upstream end of
main MS canal or drain
lateral S6
sublateral S6C
Discharge regulator
Water-level check Plus number;
Drop structure assigned
Check-and-drop structure consecutively from
Wasteway W upstream end of
Bridge, culvert, or S canal or drain
syphon
On-line pumping plant P
Turnout (measures flow) TO Number of structure;
Drainage outlet (farm) identical to farm
Irrigation well block number or
Drainage well DW number of irrigation
Farm access bridge unit served or
adjacent
Drain or relief outlet
Non-return gate NG
OL k No number

Drainage outlet sluice 1

Drainage outlet pumping
station Proper name only
River diversion dam
Storage dam J

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