GAS TURBINE PACKAGING OPTIONS AND FEATURES

Klaus Brun, Ph.D. Turbines Incorporated in San Diego, California. His

Program Director organization is responsible for the Design, Manufacturing and
Southwest Research Institute® Testing of Solar’s Up- and Midstream Gas Compressor
San Antonio, Texas, USA products. Prior to this position Mr. Winkelmann was engaged
in Business Development and Management activities in Europe,
Dr. Brun is the Program Director of the the Middle East and Africa. Mr. Winkelmann attended the
Machinery Program at Southwest Research Polytechnic University of Bochum where he graduated with a
Institute. His experience includes positions Dipl. Ing. degree in mechanical Engineering, specialized in
in engineering, project management, and Turbo Machinery Design.
management at Solar Turbines, General Electric, and Alstom.
He holds six patents, authored over 150 papers, and published ABSTRACT
two textbooks on gas turbines. Dr. Brun won an R&D 100
award in 2007 for his Semi-Active Valve invention and ASME This tutorial provides an overview of typical packaging
Oil & Gas Committee Best Paper/Tutorial awards in 1998, options for gas turbines in industrial applications. Applicable
standards are discussed. The requirements for different systems,
2000, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2012, and 2014. He was chosen to the
"40 under 40" by the San Antonio Business Journal. He is the such as air filtration, and fuel systems are explained. Off shore
past chair of the ASME-IGTI Board of Directors and the past requirements, especially on floating systems are highlighted.
Chairman of the ASME Oil & Gas Applications Committee. He INTRODUCTION
is also a member of the API 616 and 692 Task Forces, the
Middle East and Far East Turbomachinery Symposiums, the Industrial and aeroderivative gas turbines are commonly
Fan Conference Advisory Committee, and the Supercritical employed in oil and gas applications where high power to
CO2 Conference Advisory Committee. Dr. Brun is the weight ratio, low emissions, and high availability requirements
Executive Correspondent of Turbomachinery International are very advantageous compared to other drivers. Industrial gas
Magazine and an Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Gas turbines are frequently used as mechanical drivers for natural
Turbines for Power. gas centrifugal compressors and as generator set for oil field
power generation. Due to their operational flexibility, low
maintenance requirements, and good speed match with the
Rainer Kurz, Ph.D.
driven equipment, they are ideally suited for this service. As
Manager
Solar Turbines, Inc. with any machinery, gas turbines require a significant number
San Diego, California, USA of on-skid and off-skid (also known as ancillary and auxiliary)
equipment, such as lube oil systems, controls and
Rainer Kurz is the Manager, Systems instrumentation, fire-detection and suppression systems, fuel
forwarding and filtration systems, starter and crank motors, and
Analysis, at Solar Turbines Incorporated in
San Diego, California. His organization is inlet/exhaust systems for their safe and efficient operation.
responsible for analyzing compression Given a specific application, an optimal set of ancillary and
auxiliary equipment options must be selected. This selection is
requirements, predicting compressor and gas turbine
performance, for conducting application studies, and for field not just based on the type of application and utilities available
performance testing. Dr. Kurz attended the Universitaet der at the site, but the operator’s requirements for operating profile,
reliability, and/or availability, and the environmental conditions
Bundeswehr in Hamburg, Germany, where he received the
degree of a Dr.-Ing. in 1991. He has authored numerous at the site must also be considered.
publications about turbomachinery related topics, is an ASME For many compression and power generation applications,
fellow, and a member of the Turbomachinery Symposium gas turbines are located in unmanned stations with limited
Advisory Committee. service access and are required to operate over wide ranges of
loads and speeds while providing high availability and
Bernhard Winkelmann reliability. Air, fuel, and lube oil quality maintenance and
Director monitoring are very important, but can be a challenge for these
Solar Turbines applications. The proper selection of ancillary/auxiliary
San Diego, CA, USA equipment is critical to assure operation within the required
operating parameters of output power, efficiency, reliability,
Bernhard Winkelmann is the Director of availability, and emissions.
the Gas Compressor Business Unit at Solar

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 This paper will describe the standard ancillary/auxiliary  Pneumatic, hydraulic, or variable speed AC starter motor
equipment options for gas turbine driven compressor and  Controls and instrumentation (on-skid, off-skid)
generator systems and their relative advantages and  Seal gas/seal oil system (compressors)
disadvantages in pipeline applications. Some discussion on API
standards and how they relate to packaging options is also Off-Skid – Outside the Package
provided.  Enclosure with lifting devices and fire protection system4
OVERVIEW o Enclosure ventilation
 Inlet system
The packaging of gas turbine driven compressors for oil o Air-filter (self-cleaning, barrier, inertial, demister,
and gas applications presents some very special challenges, and screen)
gas turbine manufacturers have developed specialized o Silencer
packaging options for these different types of services. o Inlet fogger/cooler
Fundamentally, the package systems are designed to provide o Anti-icing system
the gas turbine with its utility requirements (air, fuel, oil, and  Exhaust system
water), control the operation of the unit and process, and assure o Silencer
safety. The gas turbine, the gas compressor, and, if necessary, o Stack
the gearbox are usually mounted on a skid, together with most
 Lube oil cooler (water, air)
of the systems described below. Thus, the primary gas turbine
 Fuel filter/control valve skid
package systems are:
 Off skid control system
 Starting  Motor control center
 Lube oil  Switchgear, neutral ground resistor
 Fuel  Yard valves (load, recycle, anti-surge)
 Seal gas (if dry gas seals are utilized)  Turbine cleaning system (on-line, on-crank)
 Fire/gas detection and fire fighting  Documentation
 Inlet and exhaust air
The different package components are described in more
 Enclosure
detail below. Also, because of the significance of filtration of
 Control and instrumentation the different utility streams (air, fuel, lube oil, and water) in a
Each of these package systems has a number of subsystems gas turbine package, this topic is discussed in additional detail
and components. Generally, package systems are classified into below.
on-skid and off-skid systems. On-skid classification generally API STANDARDS
corresponds to all equipment inside the gas turbine enclosure,
while off-skid or outside the package refers to equipment The American Petroleum Institute (API) is the primary
connecting to the gas turbine package, such as ancillaries and trade organization for the U.S. petroleum industry. API has
auxiliaries. The main turbo compressor’s ancillary equipment, over 400 member companies that cover all aspects of the oil
classified by this definition, is listed below: and gas production. API 616 is the principal industry standard
for gas turbines in oil and gas services and provides detailed
On-Skid – Inside the Package requirements in Chapter 4 (mostly on-skid and core engine
 Fuel system and spark igniter direct ancillaries) and Chapter 5 (off-skid) for gas turbine
o Natural gas (control valves, filter) package systems. Other API standards that are relevant for gas
o Liquid (pumps, valves) turbines in pipeline service are API 614 (lube oil systems), 617
 Bearing lube oil system1,2 (centrifugal compressors), 670 (machinery protection), 671
o Tank (integral) (couplings), and 677 (gears). Similar standards have been
o Filter (simple, duplex) developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO),
o Pumps (main, pre/post, backup) but these are not as frequently used. API provides definitions
 Accessory gears3 and sets minimum functionality, materials, construction,
 Fire/gas detection system testing, and machinery controls requirements. Consequently,
 Starter/helper drive API 616 has become a critical purchase contract document for
gas turbines operators.
1
Some packages have two separate lube oil systems.
2
Lube oil systems/lube oil tanks can also be separate skids.
3 4
The accessory gear is used by the starter but can also drive the Enclosures can be mounted on the skid, or they can be of the
main lube oil pump and hydraulic pumps. drop-over type.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 Oil and gas applications of gas turbines have requirements  Piping and manifolds (usually stainless steel)
that are inherently different than those of the electric power  Seal system (dry gas seal system or seal oil system)
industry, and customers require:  Base gas turbine skid with integrated lube-oil tank and drip
 High availability/reliability pans
 Ruggedness  On-skid electrical wiring
 Low maintenance requirements and ease of maintenance  On-skid digital display

Because of these requirements, many operators insist on The gas turbine engine and compressor constitute the
compliance with API codes and are willing to accept the major elements of the package. These elements are installed on
associated increase in package costs. Within API, there are separate heavy-steel base frames in an in-line arrangement. The
standards that address each engine and packaging systems; base frames are structural steel assemblies with beam sections
however, the focus of most API specifications is on packaging and cross members welded together to form a rigid foundation.
and ancillaries rather than on gas turbine core components. For Once connected together, the total package may be suitable for
example, API 616 covers the design of the gas turbine inlet, three-point mounting, depending on the driven equipment
exhaust, enclosure, interface connections, instrumentation, configuration. Mechanical interface connection points for fuel,
base-skid, lube oil system, and fuel system in significant detail, air, and water are conveniently located on the outer skid edge.
whereas the core engine design specifications are generally Electrical connection points are made in on-skid junction boxes
broad and allow more manufacturing flexibility. and terminal strips.

API 617 covers the requirements for axial and centrifugal Typically, all package piping and manifolds are 316L
compressors, single-shaft and integrally geared process stainless steel material. This applies to all package piping
centrifugal compressors, and expander-compressor for use in systems, including the start, fuel, lube oil, and wet/dry seal
the petroleum, chemical, and gas industry services that handle systems, as well as the supply, drain, and vent lines up to and
air or gas. As with all other API codes, the equipment vendor including four inches in diameter. In addition, the associated
may offer alternative designs, if these designs improve the flange assembly hardware is 316 stainless steel or equivalent.
safety or performance of the equipment. Piping sizes six inches in diameter or larger are usually carbon
steel, and all tubing is 316L stainless steel with 316 stainless
STANDARD PACKAGE OPTIONS steel fittings.
The basic package options for a typical gas turbine driven The following items are usually not made from stainless
compressor train are described below. Obviously, not all steel, unless specifically requested by the purchaser:
options and features that are provided by different
manufacturers are included, and the focus here is simply a  Valve bodies and system functional components
description of the most commonly utilized packaging  Pipe support brackets
equipment. For completeness sake, a brief description of the  Oil tank cover assemblies with connection piping and fittings
core engine (gas generator and power turbine) is also provided: welded in place
 Sliding lube oil drain couplings and plates
Gas Turbine Package Unit  Pipe flexible couplings
Most gas turbine units, as delivered by the manufacturer,
 Filter housings
consist of a completely integrated, fully operational package
 Lube oil tank
including driven equipment. They are equipped with all
accessories and auxiliary systems necessary for normal Electrical System
operation when connected to suitable compressor station Most North American applications require that the
facilities. equipment meets National Electric Code (NEC) requirements.
Details of these requirements can be found in the NEC National
A gas turbine driven compressor package set, thus, usually
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70 code. In many parts of
includes:
the world, Cenelec requirements, or local electric codes may
 Two-shaft industrial or aeroderivative gas turbine engine apply.
 Engine air inlet and exhaust collectors On-skid electrical equipment is in accordance with NEC
 Centrifugal gas compressor (driven equipment) NFPA 70 requirements for electrical equipment installed in
 Gear box Class I, Group D, Division 2 hazardous locations. This means
 Turbine/compressor control system that all wire runs are made in copper-free aluminum conduit for
 Start system physical protection and isolated from combustible atmospheres.
 Fuel system When supplied, the turbine control console, variable frequency
 Lubricating oil system

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

drives, and battery charger are non-explosion-proof and must Lean premix combustion requires a higher air-to-fuel ratio than
be installed in a nonhazardous location. conventional stoichiometric combustion resulting in lower
maximum flame temperature, which reduces pollutant
Core Engine
formation. The excess air is used to further cool the combustion
The core gas turbine engine is a self-contained, completely
chamber and mixes with the combustion products to reduce the
integrated prime mover of two-shaft, axial-flow, dry emissions
gas temperature at the inlet to the first turbine stage. The
control design. The gas producer and power turbines have
cooling air keeps metal temperatures in the combustion
separate shafts and are mechanically independent. Figure 1
chamber and turbine section at design levels consistent with
shows a typical gas turbine core engine.
component service life objectives.
Driven Equipment Centrifugal Compressor
Typical centrifugal compressor standard features include:
 Radial vibration monitoring, X and Y proximity probes and
monitoring system
 Keyphasor probe
 Axial position monitoring
 Thrust bearing temperature monitoring
 Journal bearing temperature monitoring
FIGURE 1. GAS TURBINE CORE ENGINE  Rigid modular rotor construction
The engine assembly consists of:  Vertically split barrel-type construction
 Overcompensating balance piston
 Accessory drive assembly
 Tilting-pad journal and thrust bearings
 Air inlet collector
 Rotor trim balancing
 Axial-flow compressor with variable geometry on the inlet
guide vanes and first four rows of stators Compressor Centrifugal Impellers
 Combustor – Depending on the manufacturer, this is either Impeller alloys can be selected to be in general
an annular, can-annular, single-can, or multi-can design. conformance (chemical composition and hardness) with NACE
Almost all new gas turbines installed in the North American (National Association Corrosion Engineers) standards for sour
and European markets utilize lean-premixed combustion for gas. Compressor impellers are made from investment castings
nitrous oxides emission control. or machined and are designed to conservative stress levels.
 Gas producer turbine assembly Compressor Casings
 Power turbine assembly The pressure-containing outer casings of a compressor
 Turbine exhaust collector comprise of an assembly of three components: the suction and
The components of the gas turbine engine are maintained discharge end caps (covers) that contain the bearing and seal
in accurate alignment by mating flanges with pilot surfaces and assemblies, and the center body, which holds the rotor and
are bolted together to form a rigid assembly. stator assembly. This is considered a vertically split “barrel”
design. The end caps contain all the service ports for oil and
The gas turbine has four principal components: gas. Alternatively, some manufacturers provide horizontally
compressor, combustor, gas producer turbine, and power split compressor casings.
turbine. Air is drawn into the air inlet of the gas turbine and is
compressed by the axial-flow compressor. The compressed air Dry Gas Seal System
is directed into the combustion chamber in a steady flow. A The dry gas seal system is standard on most gas
portion of the air is premixed with fuel. This premixed fuel/air compressors and is composed of two closely interrelated
mixture is injected within the annular combustion chamber. systems: the buffer air system and the seal gas system. The
During the turbine start cycle, this fuel/air mixture is ignited, buffer or separation air system maintains separation of the
and continuous burning is maintained as long as there is compressor bearing lube oil and the dry gas seals. The seal gas
adequate flow of pressurized air and fuel. The hot pressurized system maintains a barrier between the process gas in the
gas from the combustion chamber expands through the two compressor and the compressor dry gas seals. The seal gas is
stages of the gas producer turbine to provide power to the axial normally taken from the compressor discharge and is cleaned,
compressor. Gases leaving the gas producer turbine then flow sometimes cooled, heated, or dried (depending on the gas
through the power turbine where the remaining energy of the quality) before it is fed to the seal system. Since the dry gas
gas stream is absorbed by the power turbine and is transferred seals both on the suction and on the discharge side of the
to the output shaft. For lean premix combustion, the gas turbine compressor are exposed to compressor suction pressure, the
requires approximately one-half of the total air it compresses. pressure differential between discharge pressure and suction

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

pressure pushes the seal gas through the filters in the seal gas ±5% and 50 to 60 Hz ±2 Hz. If supply voltage is greater than
system. When the compressor is started, and no pressure 600 ±5%, the use of a step-down power transformer is
differential between suction and discharge side exists, suggested. The VFD regulates the voltage and frequency to the
additional gas boosters can boost the seal gas pressure. The start motor as required to initiate engine rotation, accelerate to
standard package components that form part of the seal gas purge speed, and then accelerate to ignition and starter dropout
system are rated for pressures in accordance with the discharge speed as commanded by the unit control system. The system
pressure levels. should be capable of performing multiple start attempts per
hour, as well as extended purge cycles for heat recovery unit
Gas Turbine Start System
applications and engine water or detergent wash cycles.
The start system provides torque to initiate rotation and
assist the engine to self-sustaining speed. At self-sustaining The VFD cabinet is usually shipped loose for installation
speed, the start system disengages and the engine continues to off-skid in a nonhazardous location and provides for direct
accelerate under its power to loading speed. These are the most across-the-line starting control of the motor.
common gas turbine start system options:
Power Wiring and Control System Wiring
Pneumatic Starter Off-skid wiring between starter motor, battery systems,
The pneumatic start system can use either compressed air instrumentation, and the control systems is usually not provided
or natural gas as a power source. The engine start system by the manufacturer and must be performed by an electrical
incorporates a pneumatic motor to initiate engine rotation. contractor. The manufacturer provides drawings and
Starting power to the engine is transmitted through an specifications that detail these wiring requirements. It is beyond
overrunning clutch and shaft. the scope of this paper to discuss the multitude of off-skid wire
connections required. All on-skid wiring is usually completed
The pneumatic start system includes the following primary
by the manufacturer and tested prior to shipping.
components:
Fuel Supply System
 Air or gas, rotary, positive-displacement, helical-lobe, The fuel system, in conjunction with the electrical control
lubricated screw-type expansion motor system, includes all necessary components to control ignition
 Pilot gas shutoff valve and fuel flow during all modes of operation. Gas, liquid, or
 Pilot gas filter dual-fuel options are usually available for the fuel supply
 Inlet gas strainer system. For natural gas compression, most gas turbines are
The supply gas may be delivered from a common source provided with gas-only fuel systems, but some applications
with the fuel system gas using an external manifold. If a make use of the capability to switch from gas to liquid fuel.
separate source of compressed air or service gas is used, a This system can be made NACE compliant, if the fuel gas
quick-acting manual shutoff valve and a strainer must be composition requires this. The natural gas fuel system includes:
installed at the gas inlet.  Supply pressure transmitter
Direct-Drive AC Motor Starter  Pilot air operated primary fuel shutoff valve
The direct-drive AC start system consists of a squirrel-cage  Pilot air operated secondary fuel shutoff valve
3-phase AC induction motor with a solid-state variable  Pilot air operated gas vent valve
frequency drive (VFD). The start motor is specifically designed  Pilot air valves
to provide high breakaway starting torque and acceleration  Torch with associated shutoff valve and regulators
from standstill to starter dropout speed. The motor is of  Electrically activated fuel control valve
explosion-proof/flame-proof construction and standard motor  Main fuel manifold
frame size. The motor has integral overtemperature protection  Engine fuel injector assemblies
thermostats that must be connected to the unit control system  Piping, manifolds, and tubing (usually 316 stainless steel)
for hazardous area motor certification and protection. The  Inlet gas filter loose shipped for field installation
motor usually includes a space heater suitable for 115/230-volt,
single-phase power connection. Separate cable/conduit entries The gas fuel control valve is electrically operated and
are provided for power connections, thermal protection wiring, electronically controlled by means of an integral DC powered
and the space heater wiring. Starting power is transferred to the actuator that incorporates a brushless DC servo motor, a linear
engine via the accessory drive gearbox and overrunning clutch ball screw drive, a digital controller for precise motor control,
and shaft assembly. and a resolver for position feedback. The valve is rated for
operating pressure and temperatures that meet the specific
The VFD provides a pulse-width modulated variable application. It must also have a significant turndown ratio
frequency/variable voltage to the start motor. The VFD usually (greater than 200:1). Response time is usually less than
requires a supply of 3-phase AC power from 380 to 600 Vac 100 msec from 10 to 90 percent stroke. Fail-safe operation

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

ensures bubble tight valve closing in case of loss of either the Heavy hydrocarbon gases present as liquids provide many
command signal or the control power. The valve body is times the heating value per unit volume than they would as a
fabricated either from aluminum or stainless steel. gas. Since turbine fuel systems meter the fuel based on the fuel
being a gas, this creates a safety problem, especially during the
GAS FUELS
engine startup sequence when the supply line to the turbine still
Gas fuels for gas turbines are combustible gases or may be cold. Hydrocarbon liquids can cause:
mixtures of combustible and inert gases with a variety of
 Turbine overfueling, which can cause an explosion or severe
compositions covering a wide range of heating values and
turbine damage)
densities. Some gas turbines also utilize liquid fuel or dual fuel
systems but this is less common in oil and gas industry. For  Fuel control stability problems, because the system gain will
gas fuel the combustible components can consist of methane vary as liquid slugs or droplets move through the control
and other low molecular weight hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and system
carbon monoxide. The major inert components are nitrogen,  Combustor hot streaks and subsequent engine hot section
carbon dioxide, and water vapor. It is generally accepted that damage
this type of fuel has to be completely gaseous at the entry to the  Overfueling the bottom section of the combustor when
fuel gas system and at all points downstream to the fuel nozzle liquids gravitate towards the bottom of the manifold
(Kurz, 2004; Elliott, et al. 2004).  Internal injector blockage over time, when trapped liquids
pyrolyze in the hot gas passages
Gaseous fuels can vary from poor quality wellhead gas to
high quality consumer or “pipeline” gas. In many systems, the Liquid carryover is a known cause for rapid degradation of
gas composition and quality may be subject to variations the hot gas path components in a turbine (Anderson 1980;
(Newbound, et al. 2003). Typically, the major sources of Meher-Homji, et al. 1998; Newbound and Wagiealla 2003, and
contaminants within these fuels are: Newbound and Al-Showiman 2004).

 Solids The condition of the combustor components also has a

 Water strong influence, and fuel nozzles that have accumulated
 Heavy gases present as liquids pipeline contaminants that block internal passageways will
probably be more likely to miss desired performance or
 Oils typical of compressor oils
emission targets. Thus, it follows that more maintenance
 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
attention may be necessary to assure that combustion
 Hydrogen (H2) components are in premium condition. This may require that
 Carbon monoxide (CO) fuel nozzles be inspected and cleaned at more regular intervals
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) or that improved fuel filtration components be installed.
 Siloxanes
Other factors that will affect turbine or combustion system Fuel

life and performance include lower heating value (LHV), Spec

gas at
A Insurance
Filter
manifold

specific gravity (SG), fuel temperature, and ambient req'd

temp
Coalescer
skid
temperature. B
220

A 200

Some of these issues may co-exist and be interrelated. For B

Pressure
regulator
C Fuel
control
D
180

instance, water, heavy gases present as liquids, and leakage of valve

160
Gas temp deg F

machinery lubricating oils may be a problem for turbine C D

140

operators at the end of a distribution or branch line or at a low 120

point in a fuel supply line. Gas dew point

100

10 degF superheat gas

Water in the gas may combine with other small molecules

80
50 deg F superheat gas

to produce a hydrate – a solid with an ice-like appearance.

60
810 760 710 660 610 560 510 460 410 360 310 260

Hydrate production is influenced, in turn, by gas composition,

Gas pressure psia

gas temperature, gas pressure, and pressure drops in the gas FIGURE 2: SCHEMATIC OF A GAS FUEL SYSTEM
fuel system. Liquid water in the presence of H2S or CO2 will SHOWING THE PRESSURE DROP IN VARIOUS
form acids that can attack fuel supply lines and components. DEVICES. IF THE GAS IS NOT SUPERHEATED
Free water can also cause turbine flameouts or operating SUFFICIENTLY, ITS TEMPERATURE WILL
instability, if ingested in the combustor or fuel control EVENTUALLY FALL BELOW THE DEWPOINT
components. TEMPERATURE.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 With a known gas composition, it is possible to predict
dew point temperatures for water and hydrocarbons. However, Pressure feedback

the prediction methods for dew points may not always be

Pressure
accurate. In fact, it is known that different equations of state Regulator

will yield different calculated dew points under otherwise

identical conditions. Furthermore, the temperature in an
unheated fuel line will drop, because the pressure drop due to To engine

valves and orifices in the fuel line causes a temperature drop in Pipeline
the gas (Figure 2). This effect is known as the Joule-Thompson
effect. Most fuel gases (except hydrogen) will exhibit a Purchaser
reduction in temperature during an adiabatic throttling. specified gas
composition above
Hydrogen, on the other hand, actually shows an increased required
temperature
temperature when the pressure drops, which is a potential
explosion hazard.
Protection against heavy gases and water present as liquids
can be achieved by heating the fuel downstream of knockout FIGURE 4. SCHEMATIC OF GAS PIPELINE FUEL
drums and coalescing filters (Figure 3). The idea is to have a DELIVERY SYSTEM WITH GAS AT GREATER THAN
saturated gas at the exit of the knockout drum and filters and MINIMUM SUPERHEAT
then to raise the temperature to the necessary superheat to A gas analysis alone may not be entirely sufficient for the
prevent subsequent liquid dropout. The system shown in detection of heavy hydrocarbons, because it may only include
Figure 3 is typical for fuel systems on oil or gas platforms, the gases but not the liquids in the stream. Also, it is common
where the gas produced is usually wet. For dry gas of well- practice to lump all hydrocarbons from Hexane and heavier into
known composition, such as from gas plants or for pipeline one number. While this is perfectly acceptable for the
applications, a less complex system may be appropriate calculation of the lower heating value as long as the Hexane
(Figure 4). and heavier hydrocarbons constitute a minute fraction of the
Figure 4 illustrates the necessity for a superheat of about gas, it will lead to a wrong estimate of the dew point. C14H30,
50F (28 K) over the dew point to ensure that no liquid dropout even in parts-per-million amounts has a significant impact on
appears in the fuel system components downstream of the the dew point of the gas mixture, as we will show later.
heater. A superheating requirement of 50F (28 K) is currently Certainly, a gas analysis has to be used in the project stage to
allow for equipment sizing. Also, fuel systems usually limit the
acknowledged as an industry standard. The heat input yielded
by a specific gas fuel is determined by the gas composition gas supply temperature due to temperature limits of its
(including the moisture content), its mass flow, and its heating components. If the necessary superheat temperature exceeds the
fuel system temperature limits, additional gas treatment may be
value. Performance representations for gas turbines are usually
based on the lower heating value of the fuel gas, because the necessary.
exhaust temperatures are always high enough to keep the water Lower Heating Value, Specific Gravity, Fuel Temperature,
vapor in the exhaust from condensing. and Ambient Temperature are important parameters since they
Pressure feedback influence the energy of the fuel flowing in the system. From the
lower heating value (LHV) in Btu/scf [kJ/Nm3] and the specific
Pressure
Regulator
Filter
Purge/
warm up gravity (SG), the Wobbe Index (WI) of the gas can be
calculated as:
line

Coalescer
LHV
Heater WI 
Production
Separator To engine
SG

Purchaser
Because the fuel supply temperature, Tf, has an impact on
Coalescer
specified gas
composition the actual volumetric fuel flow, a temperature corrected Wobbe
Index is often used, where the reference Temperature, Tref, is
above required
Liquid Liquid temperature

usually 520R or 288K:

Drop out Drop out

FIGURE 3. SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL OIL OR GAS

LHV Tref
PLATFORM FUEL CONDITIONING SYSTEM WI  
SG Tf

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 If two different fuel gas compositions have the same  Oil tank
Wobbe Index, the pressure drop in a given fuel system will be  Engine-driven, rotary screw type, primary pump
the same for both gases. The Wobbe Index is, thus, an  Motor-driven auxiliary pumps, including AC pre/post and
indication of energy flow in the system at the same gas 120-VDC backup post-lube pump
pressures and pressure drops.  Duplex oil filters with replaceable elements
A standard fuel system may, for example, be designed for a  Off-skid oil cooler
Wobbe Index of 1220 10% Btu/scf (48,031 10% kJ/Nm3)  Oil level, pressure, and temperature indication including
based on the LHV of the fuel. Different gas compositions can engine oil drain temperature
yield the same Wobbe Index, but they will have widely  Pressure and temperature regulators
different hydrocarbon dew points. Minimum engine flameout  Strainers
fuel flows will also vary, if the fuel contains high percentages  Oil tank vent separator
of noncombustible gases. In addition, high fuel gas or ambient  Oil tank vent flame trap
temperatures can cause problems, if the temperature
The filters are supplied with a transfer valve with
capabilities of elastomeric seals, electrical devices or other
differential pressure indication and alarm. The system includes
system components are exceeded. Low fuel gas or ambient
all supply and drain piping and manifolds internal to the skid.
temperatures can cause water or heavy hydrocarbon
The interconnect piping between the skid edge connection and
condensation.
the off-skid-mounted oil cooler is not supplied as part of this
Protection against these factors includes analyzing the system. The lube oil filter canisters, tank, covers, and transfer
variations in the fuel composition, fuel temperature, and valve are often fabricated from carbon steel and painted, or
ambient temperature so that the required modifications to the optionally, manufacturers offer these items in stainless steel.
fuel treatment system and turbine fuel system can be made. A Also, an electric lube oil tank heater is often provided to ensure
turbine expected to operate with gaseous fuels exhibiting a that lube oil temperature remains sufficiently warm for starting
wide Wobbe Index range will need to be configured differently in cold ambient conditions. Because of its significance, lube oil
than one that will only operate with a small variance in Wobbe filtration is discussed in more detail below.
Index. The fuel supply contract should include the allowable
Unit Control System
variations in composition and temperature. The probability of
The gas turbine package control system provides for
upset conditions needs to be evaluated, and fuel treatment
automatic starting, acceleration to operating speed, sequencing
systems and turbine fuel systems need to be designed for the
control, engine and driven equipment monitoring during
upset conditions. Gas fuel supply and package lines may need
operation, and normal and malfunction shutdown. The unit
to be heat traced to keep the gas fuel supply above the gas dew
control also acts as the primary machinery protection system.
point during periods when the engine is not operating. Low
This is discussed in additional detail below in the section on
point drains are also recommended, if liquids may be present in
machinery protection.
the gas fuel. This precludes burying the gas fuel supply lines
underground when liquids may be present. During operation, the control system, by means of
automatic warning and shutdown devices, protects the turbine
Gas turbines can be designed to operate on both liquid and
engine and driven equipment from possible damage resulting
gaseous fuels. Many systems allow the switch from gas fuel to
from hazards, such as turbine overspeed, high engine
liquid fuel and vice versa, under load. Liquid fuel
temperature or vibration, low lubricating oil pressure, and
contamination is an important concern, since even liquid fuel
excessive oil temperature.
that meets the fuel specification can become contaminated
during transport and storage. Fuel centrifuges and day tanks The control processor (controller) performs proportional
help to avoid liquid fuel problems. control, startup, operation and shutdown sequencing, and
protection functions, as well as detection and annunciation of
Lube Oil System
abnormal operating conditions. Control for these functions
The package lube oil system consists of a complete system
comes from signals the controller receives from solid-state
suitable for operation with purchaser-supplied lube oil but must
devices, control switches, speed, pressure and temperature
conform to the manufacturer’s fuel specifications. The
transmitters, relays, solenoids, and vibration sensors. These
lubrication system circulates oil under pressure to the various
components provide the controller with the data necessary to
working parts of the drive train rotating elements. The system is
control and maintain desired process conditions, while
supplied from the lube oil tank located in the driver steel base
maintaining engine speed and temperature at safe levels.
frame. Proper oil temperatures are maintained by a thermostatic
control valve and an optional oil cooler. A typical lubrication In the event of an abnormal condition or malfunction, the
system incorporates the following components: control system indicates the nature of the malfunction. When an
alarm or shutdown is displayed, a sequence of appropriate

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

operations begins in response to the detected condition. In the  Historical Data – Stores data surrounding specified events.
event of a control system failure, the backup relay system Data can be played back using the Strip Chart feature.
initiates a shutdown while operating the lubricating oil system  Strip Chart – Display of real-time data for selected analog
and other subsystems, as required, to avoid engine and driven signals in strip chart format. Configurable with legend,
equipment damage during shutdown. cursor and zoom features.
Vibration and Temperature Monitoring  Program Constants – Password protected display and
Most standard control systems include vibration monitor modification of controls constant values.
and associated vibration sensing devices. The system is usually  Unit Valve Mimic – Status indication and manual operation
physically and functionally integrated with the control system. of unit valves (compressor sets).
The vibration data values are displayed on the vibration Off-skid Control System
monitor and on a dedicated control system vibration summary In this case, the control system is mounted in a free-
screen. standing console for installation in a nonhazardous area. The
Most turbine engines incorporate the following standard console contains the same key elements as described above for
vibration and temperature monitoring: the on-skid system, but usually more graphic displays,
monitoring, and control functionality is available.
 X and Y proximity probes at each of the five engine bearings
and one accessory drive gearbox velocity transducer Data Storage and Display
 Axial position probes at both the gas producer and power Data can be viewed in a strip chart format in real time,
turbine rotors trended, analyzed on-line, or exported for off-line viewing. All
logs are self-describing repositories containing site information,
 RTDs at both the gas producer and power turbine thrust
tag information, and the historical data itself. The data can be
bearings
viewed on-line using the Historical Trend Display. The
 Gas producer and power turbine key phasors to provide
objective of historical data monitoring is to provide information
vibration diagnostic capability with the use of externally
of a type and in a format that allows informed decisions to be
applied diagnostic equipment
made in the areas of operation, maintenance, and optimization
 RTDs at all turbine lube oil drain lines of the turbomachinery and associated equipment. The
The control system can either be mounted off-skid in a information is collected for on-line viewing and analysis, it or
remote control room or on-skid directly on the package may be exported for storage and off-line analysis.
enclosure. These options are described below: Typical data include:
On-skid Control System
 Driven equipment status
The control system components are mounted in one or
 Gas producer turbine speed
more panels located on the package skid. These panels contain
the key elements of the system, including the control processor,  Power turbine speed
the I/O modules, the vibration monitoring system, and the  Turbine control temperature (e.g., T5, power turbine inlet)
display unit. The operator interface includes lighted switches  Lube oil header pressure
for Start/Starting, Normal Stop/Stopping and Backup System  Lube oil temperature
Active/Reset and switches for Speed Increase/ Decrease,  Ambient temperature
Off/Local/Aux, Horn Silence, Acknowledge, Reset and  All alarms and shutdowns
Emergency Stop. The Display System provides the following  All panel light status
key features:
Supervisory control signals include:
 Operation Summary – Overview of key operation
 Start
parameters.
 Stop
 Temperature Summary – Display of all monitored
 Acknowledge/Reset
temperatures.
 Remote Speed/Load Set Point
 Vibration Summary – Display of all vibration readings.
 Alarm Summary – Display of all malfunctions with date and Engine and Compressor Performance Map Display
time stamping. The engine performance map displays real-time turbine
 First Out– Display of unacknowledged malfunctions in high performance corrected to standard conditions. This is a
resolution sequence. calculated performance based on package instrumentation
 Event Log – Display of date and time stamped sequence of readings. These maps are essentially for reference and are used
events with sorting and filtering functions. to monitor trends in engine performance and operating point.
The compressor map displays real-time compressor nominal

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

head-versus-cfm performance map and shows the position of
the actual operating point.
Compressor Surge Control
Anti-surge control is provided to protect the compressor
from surge. The system monitors the operating point of the
compressor in relation to its surge line and, if conditions
require, takes automatic corrective action by opening an anti-
surge recycle valve. The system operates based on the position
of the operating point and on the rate of change of position.
Additional backup protection is provided through an integral
surge detection system that will alarm and, if necessary, shut
the equipment down, if multiple surge events are detected. The
system usually also includes: FIGURE 5. GAS TURBINE AXIAL COMPRESSOR
 On-screen, real-time graphic display and control parameter DEGRADATION
setting Air Inlet System
 Suction flow differential pressure transmitter The gas turbine’s air inlet system typically consists of all
 Suction and discharge pressure transmitters components upstream of the engine inlet collector that are
 Discharge gas temperature RTD necessary to supply a clean, smooth flow of air to the turbine.
Beyond the simple surge control functionality, most unit Sometimes the air inlet system is also used to provide clean
control systems can also be utilized for process control of yard enclosure air. The inlet air system components, silencers,
valves and other process equipment. ducting, and air inlet filter are designed to accommodate the
required flow, as specified by the manufacturer. At this flow,
Control and Accessory Power Supply the inlet pressure loss should be as low as practical consistent
The control and accessory battery system supplies power with requirements for cost, air filtration, and acoustical
for the unit control system, electric fuel valves, engine bleed attenuation. Because of its significance, air inlet filtration is
valve and variable guide vane actuators, and the backup post- discussed in more detail below.
lube oil pump. This system is always designed for indoor
installation in a nonhazardous area. Exhaust System
The turbine exhaust system typically consists of all
Gas Turbine Axial Compressor Cleaning Systems components downstream of the engine exhaust flexible section
Gas turbine performance degrades over time due to axial that are necessary to ensure a smooth flow of exhaust from the
compressor blade fouling and dirt deposits (Figure 5). Thus, turbine. The turbine exhaust system should be capable of
most modern gas turbines are supplied with both on-line and handling the required gas flow as specified by the
off-line washing systems. The systems are independent of each manufacturer. Pressure losses should be minimized as
other and include separate distribution manifolds with pressure additional back pressure results in a decrease of available
atomizing spray nozzles in the engine air inlet collector and turbine horsepower. The system usually includes attaching
associated on-skid piping, filter, and solenoid operated shutoff hardware (bolts, nuts, washers, and gaskets) for the inlet flange
valves to deliver water or approved cleaning fluid to the of each component. The turbomachinery package includes
manifold. Both systems facilitate periodic cleaning of the attaching hardware for connection of the turbine engine exhaust
turbine compressor and are designed for use in salt-laden or flexible section to the first exhaust system component.
dusty atmospheres or where compressor contamination from
hydrocarbon vapors is possible. The on-line cleaning system is Gas Turbine and Driven Equipment Enclosure
operable between 90 and 100 percent gas producer speed with Although some compressors sets are sold without
or without load, with the water/cleaning solution flow activated enclosures (i.e., only skid-mounted) and installed inside a
from the operator interface panel. This system is intended to compressor station building, most are delivered with a full
supplement the on-crank system by increasing the time sound and weather enclosure for outdoor installation. These all-
intervals between periodic on-crank water, detergent, or fluid steel enclosure housings are completely self-contained,
cleaning, depending on site-specific contamination. The on- weatherproof, insulated, and sound-attenuated enclosure
crank (off-line system) is operated with the gas turbine assembled on the turbine package skid base. Figure 6 shows a
shutdown, and the rotor being cranked by the starting motor. pipeline compressor installation with a fully enclosed gas
turbine and compressor.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 handles, hinges, latching mechanism, internal lock override
release, restraining device, and attaching hardware. The
enclosure doors are equipped with door position switches to
initiate an alarm whenever any of the enclosure doors are not
securely closed.

FIGURE 6. FULLY ENCLOSED GAS TURBINE

INSTALLATION
The enclosure sides and roof include panels and access
doors supported on a heavy-duty frame. The side and roof
panels are easily removed individually for complete access to FIGURE 7. ANALYSIS OF THE AIR FLOW IN A GAS
the major components for inspection and maintenance and for TURBINE ENCLOSURE
component removal by forklift and overhead crane. The panels
are treated with fiberglass material for noise attenuation and
thermal insulation, and weather stripping is installed between
all panels for sealing and sound attenuation. The enclosure is
constructed to support adequate roof load (usually 50 lb/sqft)
and to withstand a wind load of 120 mph (or more, if
specified).
The following standard features are usually included in a
basic enclosure:
 Inlet and exhaust ventilation silencers: The enclosure
ventilation openings are equipped with vent silencers with
weather louvers.
 Single or dual fan ventilation system: Enclosure ventilation is
FIGURE 8. ANALYSIS OF THE AIR FLOW IN A GAS
provided by a single or dual motor-driven fan. This motor is
TURBINE ENCLOSURE
typically 3-phase AC, high efficiency, with Class F
insulation. The fan is sized to provide the airflow required to Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) tools are used in
ensure that the internal air temperature around the enclosed both on- and off-shore applications to validate design criteria.
equipment remains within acceptable limits. Sometimes, for Previously, this data was only occasionally requested for off-
additional ventilation or certification requirements, a dual fan shore applications. Now, however, it is becoming more of a
ventilation system may be required. requirement. We will focus on the application of this tool for
 Pressurization system: The enclosure is positive pressurized the acoustic enclosures. The CFD tool is used to apply the
to prevent the ingress of external hazardous atmospheres surface temperature to the turbine, understand the temperature
through the enclosure seams. A differential pressure distribution within the enclosure, and determine the required
transmitter is provided for enclosure low pressure alarm and flow distribution and proper size of the ventilation fans and
shutdown. motors. Understanding the flow distribution within the
 AC lighting: 110-VAC or 220-VAC lights are provided to enclosure allows the optimization of the package design to
illuminate the enclosure interior, with on/off switches located minimize stagnant volumes where gas, if present, could be
at the interface panel. trapped, as well as position package components away from
 Trolleys: Internal movable trolley rails located over the identified hot areas so the component temperature limits are not
turbine for turbine maintenance and removal are included. exceeded. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the results of a CFD
 Door Hardware: All enclosure doors are equipped with a analysis in a sub-scaled test rig. The test rig is used to match
heavy duty stainless steel door locking mechanism, including the analysis with actual test data to validate the accuracy of the
CFD tool. The colored streamlines represent airflow velocity

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

throughout the enclosure with dark blue representing the lowest The detectors are diffusion-based, point-type infrared devices
velocity flow and the light blue, green, and yellow representing that provide continuous monitoring of combustible
progressively higher velocities. This CFD model represents a hydrocarbon gas concentrations. The turbine start signal is
full size package with all of the major components. The dashed interlocked with the fire and gas monitoring system to ensure
lines represent the flow direction. Again, the dark blue color the atmosphere is safe prior to initiating turbine engine start.
being the lower velocity air; while green, yellow, and red
Most commonly, the enclosure is equipped with a CO2 fire
represent increasing velocities.
suppression system consisting of a primary total flooding
Beyond the above described features, manufacturers often distribution system and a secondary metered distribution
provide the following options for the enclosure: system. In the United States, the system is designed in
accordance with the U.S. National Fire Protection
Sound Attenuation
The sound-attenuated enclosure is intended for use with Association Code 12.
suitable turbine air inlet and exhaust silencing systems in On detection of fire, the detectors transmit an electrical
environments where low noise levels are a requirement. signal via the fire control panel to activate the fire suppression
Ventilation openings are equipped with suitable silencers to system release solenoids located on the fire suppression skid.
achieve maximum sound attenuation. Sound levels at a specific On receipt of this signal, the solenoid actuated control heads
site will depend on existing walls, barriers, equipment in close activate the discharge valves on the primary and extended
proximity, multiple units, and other installation considerations. extinguishing cylinders, releasing the extinguishing agent into
Enclosure Barrier Filter the enclosure. CO2 pressure actuates the pressure trip operated
The enclosure ventilation inlet is equipped with a single- dampers that close all vent openings. CO2 release control heads
stage, disposable, barrier-type filter unit equipped with a delta- are also provided with manual release levers.
P alarm switch. The ventilation exhaust opening is equipped Additionally, a weatherproof fire suppressant cylinder
with back-draft dampers to prevent ingress of dust when the cabinet is sized to house the CO2 extinguishant cylinders and is
unit is not running. equipped with doors for servicing. The manual pull levers are
Fire and Gas Detection and Monitoring System routed, by cable, to break glass pull stations on the exterior wall
Usually, an automatic, electronically controlled fire and of the cabinet. CO2 cylinders are mounted on a weight scale
combustible gas detection and monitoring system is installed in with a preset alarm. Another frequently used fire suppression
the enclosure. A typical system description is provided below: system uses water mist.

The primary fire detection system uses multi-spectrum Equipment Handling System
infrared (MIR) detectors. The system includes an automatic An equipment handling system is provided, consisting of
optical integrity feature to provide a continuous check of the external trolley beams and movable chain-fall hoists for
optical surfaces, detector sensitivity and electronic circuitry of removal of major equipment from the package. A trolley beam
the detector-controller system, and automatic fault extension allows turbine removal through the side of the
identification with digital display of system status in numerical enclosure. One end of the beam extension attaches to the inside
code. The secondary fire detection system consists of rate- trolley rails; the other end is a floor-standing A-frame. The gas
compensated thermal detectors. The two detection methods act turbine or other heavy equipment is then removed through the
independently in detecting and reporting a fire. enclosure side and placed on a truck bed or cart.

The fire and gas system control panel provides system The above discussion provided typical package features
supervision (for open circuit, ground fault, or loss of integrity), found on most gas turbines in compression applications.
initiates alarm, release of fire suppression agent, and visual MACHINERY PROTECTION
display of system status. The suppression system agent release
is activated automatically with release solenoids located on the As turbocompressors and generators are complex
fire suppression skid. The suppression system can also be mechanical devices, they require electronic and mechanic
activated by an electrical push button on the turbine enclosure controls as well as instrumentation. A compression station’s
or manually at the suppression skid. If a fire is detected, the most expensive assets are the gas turbine, centrifugal
detectors transmit an electrical signal to the fire and gas system compressor, and/or turbo pump. This valuable equipment must
control panel to activate the fire alarm and suppression system. be protected from station operational upsets, process
excursions, and high vibrations. For example, if the fuel
The enclosure is equipped with two gas detectors: one at constituents into the gas turbine combustion system vary
the turbine enclosure ventilation air inlet and one at the significantly from the design point, liquids may form in the fuel
ventilation exhaust to provide continuous monitoring for system and combustor damage will likely result. Similarly, a
combustible gases at the enclosure ventilation inlet and outlet. rapid fluctuation in flow can take a compressor into surge,

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

causing catastrophic damage. Clearly, a number of external However, the proper selection of the inlet filtration system
events can lead to damage to the turbocompressor. can have a substantial impact on the overall life cycle cost of
the gas turbine installation. While many operators only consider
Thus, the gas turbine’s unit control system principal design
the filter replacement and sometimes the gas turbine’s output
function is to protect the turbocompressor from these types of
power loss associated with the inlet pressure drop in their cost
upsets. However, the unit control system relies on auxiliary
analysis, other factors that can also affect the overall operation
measurements (flow, temperature, vibration, and pressure) for
and maintenance cost of a plant include downtime associated
reaching set alarm points and/or shutdown levels. The unit’s
with off-line water-washing, reduced time-between-overhaul,
control system initiates auxiliary automatic valves (surge,
and startup reliability. All of these can be directly attributed to
loading, isolation, blowdown, etc.) action to avoid or mitigate a
the filter selection.
flow upset condition. An off-skid backup battery rack and a
battery charger are employed to bring the unit to a safe A normal mid-size (10 MW) gas turbine ingests about 100
shutdown upon a significant operational upset. Pressure relief million cubic feet (3 million cubic meters) of air per day. At
valves are intended to avoid any equipment (and piping) that rate, even 100 ppb of foulant, such as dirt, oils, or minerals,
overpressure situation. contained in the airflow, will result in almost one pound of
foulant entering the gas turbine per day. Axial compressor
If this auxiliary equipment (meters, chargers, batteries, and
fouling due to blade dirt deposits, leading/trailing edge erosion,
valves) is not regularly tested, maintained, and calibrated, the
or surface corrosion, can reduce a gas turbine’s output power
unit control system cannot protect the unit. Machinery
and efficiency by up to 20 percent.
protection also includes maintaining the air, oil, and fuel flow
into the machine to prevent contamination of critical internal It is important to realize that there is no universal gas
parts (bearings, seals, and fuel nozzles). This is accomplished turbine inlet filtration system that is optimal for all applications.
with (self-cleaning) inlet air filters, duplex oil filters, and fuel Depending on the environmental conditions (arctic, offshore,
gas treatment skids (scrubbers, separators, and filters). marine, desert, tropical, urban, or industrial), the filter selection
must be customized appropriately for the installation site. This
The control system of a gas turbine driven compressor, at a
is best done by evaluating the site's local air quality, wind
minimum, must provide the following functions through the use
conditions (through air sample testing), upset conditions (such
of a Human Machine Interface (HMI):
as dust during harvest season in an agricultural area), and
 Machinery Monitoring and Protection defining the desired gas turbine operating profile (including
o Equipment startup, shutdown and protective sequencing desired uninterrupted operating hours; for instance time
o Stable equipment operation between off-line water-wash, filter replacement, and time
o Alarm, shutdown logic between overhauls).
o Backup (relay) shutdown
o Vibration monitoring
 Driven load regulation
o Fuel/speed control
o Process control
o Surge control
o Communication (SCADA) interface
FILTRATION
There are usually only three or four utility fluids whose
quality can affect a gas turbine's life and performance. These
are the lube oil, the combustion fuel, the inlet air, or possible
water used for washing or performance enhancement. Thus, on
gas turbines, a number of streams must be filtered to protect the
machine: air inlet flow, lube oil supply, and fuel gas supply.
FIGURE 9. GAS TURBINE FILTER HOUSE
Inlet Air Filters
The selection of an inlet filtration system for a new or Once the application and site conditions are understood,
existing gas turbine installation is often underappreciated and filter system design can begin. A broad range of filter system
handled as one of the low priority decisions in the overall design considerations, such as number of stages, types of filter
equipment purchasing process. Considering that the inlet stages (barrier, inertial, coalescing, etc.), and inlet filter ducting
system only constitutes a small fraction of the total purchase layout, prevailing inlet orientation, downtime schedules, duty
price for a gas turbine package, this may appear appropriate. cycles, and more should be reviewed as options are developed.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

Other more intrinsic filter properties such as particulate components of a filtration system and considerations for the
removal efficiency, loading characteristics, water permeability, operating environment are outlined; and lastly, a procedure for
and face velocities (high versus low speed), must be considered quantitatively comparing inlet filtration system options is
and analyzed to determine an optimal filter selection. Of special provided.
consideration should also be the rain and snow/ice protection
CONSEQUENCES OF POOR INLET FILTRATION
design of the inlet filter (usually weather louvers or vane
separators or both and inlet heating, if necessary) in order to When the quality of the air entering the gas turbine is not
avoid wetting or icing of the filter surface and subsequent well controlled, there are several consequences which can
mineral and dirt penetration of the filter screen. Figure 9 and occur. Some of the most common degradation mechanicals are
Figure 10 show a typical gas turbine inlet filter housing. reviewed below, including erosion, fouling, and corrosion. We
emphasize the different mechanisms as they directly relate to
  air filtration.
Erosion
Erosion occurs when solid or liquid particles
approximately 10 microns and larger impact rotating or
stationary surfaces in the gas turbine. The particles will impact
the surface and remove tiny particles of metal, which
eventually lead to changes in the geometry of the surface. This
change in geometry causes deviations in the air flow path,
roughening of smooth surfaces, alteration of clearances, and
reduction of cross-sectional areas, possibly in high stressed
regions. Erosion is a non-reversible process; therefore, the gas
turbine components must be replaced in order to regain their
original condition. However, particles of 10 microns and larger
are easily removed by commercial filters
Fouling
Fouling of compressor blades is an important mechanism
leading to performance deterioration in gas turbines over time.
Fouling is caused by the adherence of particles to airfoils and
annulus surfaces. Particles that cause fouling are typically
smaller than 2 to 10 μm. Smoke, oil mists, carbon, and sea salts
are common examples. Fouling can be controlled by an
appropriate air filtration system, and often reversed to some
degree by detergent washing of components. The adherence is
impacted by oil or water mists. The result is a buildup of
material that causes increased surface roughness and, to some
degree, changes the shape of the airfoil (if the material build up
FIGURE 10. GAS TURBINE FILTER HOUSE
forms thicker layers of deposits).Fouling occurs and, in turn,
Gas turbines ingest a large amount of ambient air during causes a decrease in the performance of the gas turbine.
operation. Because of this, the quality of the air entering the
Commercial filters can remove the majority of particles
turbine is a significant factor in the performance and life of the
which cause fouling. But, there are several submicron particles,
gas turbine. A filtration system is used to control the quality of
the air by removing harmful contaminants that are present. The which are difficult to remove from the flow stream. The
buildup of particles not removed by the inlet filtration system is
selection of the filtration system can be a daunting task,
removed with the use of compressor washing. This process
because there are many factors to consider. The system should
be selected based on the operational philosophy and goals for recovers a larger portion of the compressor performance, but
cannot bring the gas turbine back to its original condition
the turbine, the contaminants present in the ambient air, and the
(Wilcox and Kurz 2011)
expected changes in the contaminants in the future due to
temporary emission sources or seasonal changes. This tutorial Corrosion
outlines the primary considerations for selecting and installing When chemically reactive particles adhere to surfaces in
a gas turbine inlet filtration system. First, the consequences that the gas turbine, corrosion can occur. Corrosion that occurs in
can occur due to improper inlet filtration are reviewed, then the the compressor section is referred to as “cold corrosion” and is
different characteristics are discussed; after this, the due to wet deposits of salts, acid, and aggressive gases, such as

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

chlorine and sulfides. Corrosion in the combustor and turbine flow stream moves around a filter fiber. The particulate then
sections is called “hot corrosion.” Also, called high temperature impacts and is attached to the filter media and held in place, as
corrosion, hot corrosion requires the interaction of the metal shown in the top picture of Figure 11. This type of filtration
surface with another chemical substance at elevated mechanism is effective in high velocity filtration systems.
temperatures. Hot corrosion is a form of accelerated oxidation
that is produced by the chemical reaction between a component
and molten salts deposited on its surface. Hot corrosion
comprises a complex series of chemical reactions, making
corrosion rates very difficult to predict. It is the accelerated
oxidation of alloys caused by the deposit of salts (e.g., Na2SO4).
Type 1, or high temperature hot corrosion, occurs at a
temperature range of 730 to 950°C (1345 to 1740°F). Type 2,
or low temperature hot corrosion, occurs at a temperature range
of 550 to 730°C (1020 to 1345°F). Some of the more common
forms of hot corrosion are sulfidation, nitridation, chlorination,
carburization, vanadium, potassium, and lead hot corrosion.
Sulfidation Hot Corrosion requires the interaction of the
metal surface with sodium sulfate or potassium sulfate, salts
that can form in gas turbines from the reaction of sulfur oxides,
water, and sodium chloride (table salt) or potassium chloride,
respectively. It is usually divided into Type 1 and Type 2 hot
corrosion, and Type 1 hot corrosion takes place above the
melting temperature of sodium sulfate (884°C or 1,623°F),
while Type 2 occurs below this temperature. Hot corrosion is
caused by the diffusion of sulfur from the molten sodium
sulfate into the metal substrate which prevents the formation of
the protective oxidation film and results in rapid removal of FIGURE 11. COMMON FILTRATION MECHANISM
surface metal. One should note that for hot corrosion to occur, (KURZ AND BRUN, 2007)
both sulfur and salt (e.g., sodium chloride, potassium chloride,
or chloride) have to be present in the very hot gas stream in and The next filtration mechanism, diffusion, is effective for
downstream of the combustor. Sulfur and salt can come from very small particles, typically less than 0.5 micron in size.
the inlet air, from the fuel, or water (if water is injected). Effectiveness increases with lower flow velocities. Small
particles interact with nearby particles and gas molecules.
Corrosion is a non-reversible degradation mechanism. Especially in turbulent flow, the path of small particles
Therefore, corroded components must be replaced in order to fluctuates randomly about the main stream flow. As these
regain the original gas turbine performance. Corrosion also particles diffuse in the flow stream, they collide with the fiber
initiates or advances other damage mechanisms in the gas and are captured. The smaller a particle and the lower the flow
turbine. For example, corrosion can intrude into cracks or other rate through the filter media, the higher probability that the
material defects and accelerates crack propagation particle will be captured.
FILTRATION CHARACTERISTICS The next two filtration mechanisms are the most well-
Filtration Mechanisms known; interception and sieving. Interception occurs with
Filters in the filtration system use many different medium-sized particles that are not large enough to leave the
mechanisms to remove particles from the air. The filter media, flow path due to inertia or not small enough to diffuse. The
fiber size, packing density of the media, particle size, and particles will follow the flow stream where they will touch a
electrostatic charge influence how the filter removes particles. fiber in the filter media and be trapped and held. Sieving is the
Each filter typically has various different mechanisms working situation where the space between the filter fibers is smaller
together to remove the particles. Four filtration mechanisms are than the particle itself, which causes the particle to be captured
shown in Figure 11. and contained.

The first filtration mechanism is inertial impaction. This Another mechanism not shown in Figure 11 is electrostatic
type of filtration is applicable to particles larger than 1 micron charge. This type of filtration is effective for particles in the
in diameter. The inertia of the large heavy particles in the flow 0.01 to 2 micron size range (Figure 12). The filter works
stream causes the particles to continue on a straight path as the through the attraction of particles to a charged filter. In gas
turbine applications, this charge is applied to the filter before

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

installation as a result of the manufacturing process. Filters Filter efficiency is a trade-off against the pressure loss
always lose their electrostatic charge over time because the across the filter. Normally, the filtration system pressure loss
particles captured on their surface occupy charged sites, will increase with an increase in filtration efficiency. As filters
therefore, neutralizing their electrostatic charge. As the charge become more efficient, less dust penetrates through them. Also,
is lost, the filter efficiency for small particles will decrease. On the air flow path is more constricted with higher efficiency
the other hand, as the filter is loaded, the filtration efficiency filters. This leads to higher pressure loss. Filter engineers must
increases, thus, counteracting the effect of the lost charge to determine the acceptable pressure loss and efficiency for their
some extent. This will offset some of the loss of filtration application. Studies have shown that a higher pressure loss due
efficiency due to the lost charge. Figure 12 shows a comparison to using a high efficiency filter has a lower effect on gas turbine
of a filter’s total efficiency based on the various filtration power degradation than poor inlet air quality.
mechanisms that are applied. The figure shows the difference
The efficiency of a filter cannot be stated as a general
between the filter’s efficiency curve before and after the charge
characteristic. The filter efficiencies vary with particle size,
is lost. The performance of the filter should be based on the
typically being lower for small particles and higher for large
discharged condition.
particles. They also vary with operational velocity. Filters
designed for medium and low velocities will have a poor
performance at higher velocities and vice versa. Therefore, a
particle size range and flow velocity must be associated with
the stated efficiency. For example, a filter may have 95 percent
filtration efficiency for particles greater than 5 microns at a
volumetric flow rate of 3,000 cfm, but the efficiency could be
reduced to less than 70 percent for particles less than 5 microns
or at a volumetric flow rate of 4,000 cfm.
Filters are rated for performance based on standards
established in the United States of America and Europe. These
filter ratings are based on the results of standard performance
tests. In the United States, ASHRAE standard 52.2-2007
outlines the requirements for performance tests and the
methodology to calculate the efficiencies. In this standard, the
efficiencies are determined for various ranges of particles sizes.
The filter is given a Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value
FIGURE 12. COMBINATION OF FILTRATION (MERV) rating based on its performance on the particle size
MECHANISMS TO OBTAIN FILTER EFFICIENCY AT ranges (particle count efficiency) and the weight arrestance
VARIOUS PARTICLE SIZES (weight efficiency). The weight arrestance is a comparison of
(KURZ AND BRUN, 2007) the weight of the dust penetrating the filter to the dust feed into
Filter Efficiency and Classification the flow stream. In this standard, a filter with a MERV of 10
Filter efficiency is a broad term. In general, the filter will have 50 to 65 percent minimum efficiency for particles 1–3
efficiency is the ratio of the weight, volume, area, or number of microns in size and greater than 85 percent for particles 3–10
particles entering the filter to the weight, volume, area, or microns in size.
number of the particles captured in the filter and ratings, The European standards used to determine performance are
respectively. A general efficiency calculation is shown in below EN 779:2002 and EN 1822:2009. The EN 779:2002 is used to
equation, where W is the variable for which efficiency is being rate coarse and fine efficiency filters. The EN 1822:2009
calculated. The efficiency can be expressed in several ways: presents a methodology for determining the performance of
maximum, minimum, or average lifetime value. Many filters high efficiency filters: Efficient Particulate Air filter (EPA),
have poor performance against small particles at the beginning High Efficiency Particulate Air filter (HEPA), and Ultra Low
of their lives, but as the filter media becomes loaded with Particle Air filter (ULPA). In EN 779:2002, the performance is
particles, it is able to catch smaller particles. In this case, the found with average separation efficiency, which is an average
average efficiency would actually be higher than the initial of the removal efficiency of 0.3 micron particles at four test
efficiency. Some of the filters will never reach the quoted flow rates (particle count efficiency) for fine filters and with an
maximum efficiency before they are replaced. average arrestance (weight efficiency) for coarse particle filters.
Wentering  Wleaving This standard rates the filters with a letter and number
 *100% designation: G1–G4 (coarse filters) and F5–F9 (fine filters).
Wentering Filter performance is determined by the Most Penetrating
Particle Size efficiency (MPPS) in EN 1822:2009. The MPPS

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

is defined as the particle size, which has the minimum filtration increases linearly. A 50 Pa (0.2 inH2O) reduction of pressure
efficiency or maximum penetration during the filter testing. The loss can result in a 0.1 percent improvement in power output.
particle sizes tested range from 0.15 to 0.3 microns. The filter Typical pressure losses on inlet filtration systems can range
efficiency is calculated based on particle count. These filters from 2 to 6 inH2O
are given a rating of E10–E12 for EPA type filters, H13–H14
The performance of the filter needs to be assessed for the
for HEPA type filters, and U15–U17 for ULPA filters. Table 1
full pressure loss range over its life, not just when it is new. The
gives a general overview of the efficiencies for each filter
pressure loss will increase over the lifetime of the filter.
rating and a comparison of the filter ratings between American
Therefore, one can expect a lower gas turbine performance over
and European standards.
the life of the filter, or filters have to be changed or cleaned
If an engine ingests 100 kg/year of contaminants, if there periodically in order to maintain a low pressure loss. The
were no filtration system in a typical off-shore application, an change of pressure loss over time is highly dependent upon the
F55 filter would reduce this to about 21 kg/year, an F61 filter to filter selection and the type and amount of contaminants
6 kg/year, an F7/H101 filter system to 0.2 kg/year and an experienced.
F7/F9/H101 system to as little as 0.05 kg/year.
Filter Loading (Surface or Depth)
During operation, as the filter collects particles, it is slowly
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF FILTER CLASSIFICATION
loaded until it reaches a “full” state. This state is usually
FOR ASHRAE 52.2:2007, EN 779:2002, AND EN
defined as the filter reaching a specified pressure loss or at the
1822:2009
end of maintenance interval. Filters are loaded in two different
ways: surface and depth loading.
Depth loading is the type of filtration where the particles
are captured inside of the filter material. To regain the original
pressure loss or condition, the filter must be replaced.
The other type of filter is a surface loaded filter. With this
type of loading, the particles collect on the surface of the filter.
Few of the particles may penetrate the fiber material, but not
enough to call for a replacement of the filter. Surface loaded
filters are most commonly used in, but not restricted to, self-
cleaning systems, because the dust can easily be removed with
pulses of air once the filter differential pressure reaches a
certain level. Once the filter is cleaned, the pressure loss across
the filter will be close to its original condition. The surface
loaded filter’s efficiency actually increases as the surface is
loaded with dust, because a dust cake develops on the surface
This indicates two conclusions:
of the media, creating an additional filtration layer and also
 While large particles have a significant impact on fouling decreases the amount of available flow area in the filter media
degradation, a significant amount is due to the finer particles.
Face Velocity
 The overall contaminant ingestion can be influenced by Filtration systems are distinctively classified as high,
several orders of magnitude by using an appropriate air medium, or low velocity systems. The velocity of the filtration
filtration system. Also, with filtration systems of this type, system is defined as the actual volumetric air flow divided by
there are virtually no particles larger than a few microns the total filter face area. Low velocity systems have air flow at
entering the engine less than 500 fpm (feet per minute) (2.54 m/s) at the filter face.
Filter Pressure Loss Medium velocities are in the range of 610 to 680 fpm (3.1 to
As mentioned above, a higher pressure loss occurs with a 3.45 m/s). High velocity systems have air flows at the filter face
more efficient filter due to air flow restrictions. Pressure loss in excess of 780 fpm (4 m/s).
has a direct impact on the gas turbine performance, as it causes High Velocity Systems
a reduction in compressor inlet pressure. For the compressor to Historically, high velocity systems are used on marine
overcome the inlet system losses, the gas turbine will consume vessels and off-shore platforms where space and weight are
more fuel, and it also has a reduced power output. As the premiums. However, currently, low, medium, and high velocity
pressure loss increases, the power decreases and the heat rate systems are found on marine and off-shore applications. High
velocity systems have the advantages of reduced size (cross-
5 sectional area), weight, and initial cost. Filter efficiencies for
Per EN 779

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

small particles are significantly lower than those of lower removed through water washing methods or direct scrubbing of
velocity systems, and dust holding capacities are lower. the blades.
High velocity systems typically use vane separators
upstream and, often, also downstream of the filter media to
remove water from the air stream. For the vanes to work
effectively, higher flow velocities are necessary.
Ultimately, this type of system requires more filter
replacements when compared to the lower velocity system of
similar performance.
Low Velocity Systems
Low velocity systems are the standard on land-based
applications; however, high velocity systems are also used in
some coastal applications. The low velocity systems are
characterized by large inlet surface areas, large filter housings, FIGURE 13. COMPARISON OF FRACTIONAL
and usually multiple stages of filters. The two- or three-stage EFFICIENCY FOR FILTER ELEMENTS FROM
filters provide an advantage over high velocity systems, DIFFERENT SUPPLIERS AND DIFFERENT FACE
because they have a high efficiency filter stage as the final VELOCITIES IN NEW AND DIRTY CONDITIONS
stage to remove many small particles (especially salt) below (KURZ AND BRUN, 2012)
1 micron. Recently, developed filter media can also keep water
from penetrating the media and, thus, entering the gas turbine. COMPONENTS OF A FILTRATION SYSTEM
The lower velocity also provides a lower pressure loss or higher In order to protect the gas turbine from the variety of
filtration efficiency. Using pre-filters to remove the majority of contaminants present in the ambient air, several filtration
the particles, the life of the high efficiency filters is extended. devices are used. Each of the devices used in modern filtration
Overall, low velocity systems can be more effective at reducing systems are discussed below (Wilcox et al., 2011).
the mass of contaminants which enter a system, thus, extending
the water wash intervals for the engine.
Water and Salt Effects
Many environments where gas turbines operate will have
wet ambient conditions. This could be in a tropical environment
where it rains a significant amount of time or a coastal location
with ocean or lake mist. The difference between filter operation
in wet and dry conditions can be significant. In some cases, the
pressure loss across a filter can increase significantly, even with
a little moisture. This is true for cellulose fiber filters, which
swell when they are wet. These filters will also retain the
moisture, which can lead to long periods of time when the
pressure loss across the filter is elevated.
Salt can have a direct effect on the life of a gas turbine, if
not removed properly. It is often carried into the engine
dissolved in water spray. Salt can lead to fouling and corrosion.
Gas turbine manufacturers usually recommend stringent criteria FIGURE 14. WEATHER HOOD ON INLET
on the amount of salt that can be allowed to enter the gas FILTRATION SYSTEM
turbine (less than 0.01 ppm). In coastal environments, the
airborne salt can easily range from 0.05 to 0.5 ppm on a typical Weather Protection and Trash Screens
day. If the filtration system is not equipped to handle the salt, it Weather louvers, or hoods, and trash screens are the most
can enter the compressor and the hot section of the gas turbine. simplistic of the filtration mechanisms, but they are important
Salt is present in the air either as salt dust or dissolved in in order to reduce the amount of moisture and particles that
seawater and contains sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, enter the main filtration system. These are not classified as
and calcium sulfate. Salt may also come from localized sources, filters, but they are part of the filtration system and provide
such as a dry salt bed. The salt on compressor blades must be assistance in removal of large objects or particles carried in the
flow stream.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 Weather hoods are sheet metal coverings on the entrance system in frigid environments to prevent the moisture in the air
of the filtration system (see Figure 14). The opening of the from freezing on the inlet bell mouth or filter elements.
hood is pointed downward so the ambient air must turn
Inertial Separators
upwards to flow into the inlet filtration system. The turning of
Inertial separation takes advantage of the physical
the air is effective at minimizing rain and snow penetration.
principles of momentum, gravity, centrifugal forces, and
Weather hoods and louvers are used on the majority of inlet
impingement, and the physical difference between phases to
filtration systems, and they are essential for systems in areas
cause particles to be moved out of the gas stream in such a way
with large amounts of rainfall or snow. Weather hoods, or
that they can be carried off or drained. The higher momentum
another comparable weather protection system, are strongly
of the dust or water particles contained in the air stream causes
recommended for all systems with high efficiency filter.
them to travel forward, while the air can be diverted to side
Next to the weather hood is a series of turning vanes called ports and exit by a different path than the dust. There are many
weather louvers that redirect the air so that it must turn. The types of inertial separators, but the ones commonly used with
weather louvers are also effective at minimizing water and gas turbine inlet filtration are vane and cyclone separators.
snow penetration. Also next to the weather hood, or louver, is a
Moisture Coalescers
trash or insect screen. Trash screens capture large pieces of
In environments with high concentration of liquid moisture
paper, cardboard, bags, and other objects. The screens deflect
in the air, coalescers are required in order to remove the liquid
birds, leaves, and insects. Screens that are installed specifically
moisture. The coalescer works by catching the small water
for preventing insects from entering the filtration system are
droplets in its fibers. As the particles are captured, they
referred to as insect screens. These screens will have a finer
combine with other particles to make larger water droplets.
grid than trash screens. Weather hoods, louvers, trash screens,
Coalescers are designed to allow the droplets to either drain
and insect screens are used on the majority of filtration systems
down the filter or be released back into the flow stream. If the
due to their inexpensive cost and construction, and negligible
larger drops are released, then they are captured downstream by
pressure loss.
a separator. Figure 16 shows an example of how the droplet
size distribution changes across the coalescer that releases the
droplets.

25
Upstream
20 Downstream
Distribution (%)

15

10

FIGURE 15. CARTRIDGE FILTERS WITH FROST 5

BUILDUP DUE TO COOLING TOWER DRIFT
Anti-Icing Protection
Anti-icing protection is used in climates with freezing
0
weather. Freezing climates with rain or snow can cause icing of 0 10 20 30
inlet components that can result in physical damage to inlet
ducts or to the gas turbine compressor. This ice can also affect Particle Size (micron)
the performance of the gas turbine. If ice forms on filter FIGURE 16. COALESCER DROPLET FORMATION
elements, then ice on those filters will be blocking the flow DISTRIBUTION (WILCOX ET AL, 2011)
path, which will cause the velocity at the other filters to
increase. This causes a decrease in filtration efficiency. Also, Prefilters
the filter elements with ice can be damaged. Figure 15 shows The air has a mixture of large and small particles. If a one-
an example of ice formation on filters due to cooling tower stage high efficiency filter is used, the buildup of large and
drift. Heaters or compressor bleed air are often used in the inlet small solid particles can quickly lead to increased pressure loss
and filter loading. Prefilters are used to increase the life of the

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

downstream high efficiency filter by capturing the larger solid efficiency filters can also be made from media that does not
particles. Therefore, the high efficiency filter only has to allow water to seep through the filter media.
remove the smaller particles from the air stream, which
increases the filter life. Prefilters normally capture solid
particles greater than 10 microns, but some prefilters will also
capture the solid particles in the 2–5 micron size range. These
filters usually consist of a large diameter synthetic fiber in a
disposable frame structure. Bag filters are also commonly used
for prefilters. These offer a higher surface area, which reduces
the pressure loss across the filter. In many installations, the
prefilters can be exchanged without having to shut the engine
down.
High Efficiency Filters
As discussed above, there are filters for removing larger
solid particles that prevent erosion and FOD. Smaller particles,
which lead to corrosion, fouling, and cooling passage plugging, FIGURE 17. RECTANGULAR HIGH EFFICIENCY
are removed with high efficiency filters. These types of filters FILTERS
have average separations greater than 80 percent. Three
common types of high efficiency filters are EPA, HEPA and Cartridge filters are also made up of closely spaced pleats,
ULPA. EPA and HEPA filters are defined as having a but they are in a circular fashion (Figure 18). Air flows radially
minimum efficiency of 85 percent and 99.95 percent, into the cartridge. They are installed in a horizontal or vertical
respectively, for all particles greater than or equal to fashion (hanging downward). These types of filters can be
0.3 microns. ULPA filters have a minimum efficiency of depth or surface loaded. The surface loaded filters are
99.9995 percent for particles the same size or larger than commonly used with a self-cleaning system, but not all of them
0.12 microns. Often, these names are used loosely with the are designed for self-cleaning. Cartridge filters used in self-
discussion of high efficiency filtration. However, the majority cleaning systems require a more robust structural design in
of the high efficiency filters used in gas turbine inlet filtration order to protect the filter fiber media during the reverse air
does not meet these requirements. pulses. The more common structural support is a wire cage
around the pleated media on the inside and outside of the filter.
The high efficiency filters used with gas turbines have The filters shown in Figure 18 are not designed for a self-
pleated media, which increases the surface area. In order to cleaning system since there are no structural supports on the
achieve the high filtration efficiency, the flow through the filter outside of the filter. Self-cleaning filtration systems are
fiber is highly restricted, which creates a high pressure loss, discussed in the next section.
unless the face velocity is kept low. The pleats help reduce this
pressure loss. Initial pressure loss on high efficiency filters can
be up to 1 in H2O with a final pressure loss in the range of
2.5 in H2O for rectangular filters and 4 in H2O for cartridge
filters. The life of the filters is highly influenced by other forms
of filtration upstream. If there are stages of filtration to remove
larger solid articles and liquid moisture, then these filters will
have a longer life. Minimal filtration before high efficiency
filters will lead to more frequent replacement or cleaning. High
efficiency filters are rated under various standards. The
majority of filters used in gas turbines are not classified as
EPA, HEPA, or ULPA. The filters used in gas turbines are
rated with ASHRAE 52.2:2007 and EN 779:2002.
FIGURE 18. HIGH EFFICIENCY CARTRIDGE
There are many different constructions of high efficiency FILTERS
type filters: rectangular, cylindrical/cartridge, and bag filters.
Self-Cleaning Filters
The rectangular high efficiency filters are constructed by
All of the filters with fiber type media previously discussed
folding a continuous sheet of media into closely spaced pleats
are required to be replaced once they reach the end of their
in a rectangular rigid frame. Rectangular filters are depth
usable life. In some environments, the amount of particles can
loaded; therefore, once they reach the maximum allowable
be excessive to the point where the filters previously discussed
pressure loss, they should be replaced. Two examples of
would have to be replaced frequently to meet the filtration
rectangular high efficiency filters are shown in Figure 17. High

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

demand. A prime example of one of these environments is a
desert with sand storms. In the 1970s, the self-cleaning
filtration system was developed for the Middle East where gas
turbines are subject to frequent stand storms. Since then, this
system has been continually developed and utilized for gas
turbine inlet air filtration. FIGURE 20. MULTI-STAGE FILTRATION SYSTEM
The self-cleaning system operates primarily with surface Lube Oil Filtration
loaded high efficiency cartridge filters. The surface loading Contamination, such as particles, water, and process fluids
allows for easy removal of the dust that has accumulated with in lubricant streams can lead to increased maintenance costs
reverse pulses of air (Figure 18). The pressure loss across each and reduce equipment service life on lubrication systems, such
filter is continuously monitored. Once the pressure loss reaches as the turbine bearing lube and hydraulic control systems. Gas
a certain level, the filter is cleaned with air pulses. The pressure turbine manufacturers have very strict guidelines for lube oil
of the air pulses ranges from 80 to 100 psig. The reverse jet of quality, and failure to maintain the lube oil to these standards is
compressed air (or pulse) occurs for a length of time between often sufficient reason for manufacturers to disclaim their
100 and 200 ms. To avoid disturbing the flow and to limit the warranty obligations.
need for compressed air, the system typically only pulses 10
percent of the elements at a given time. With this type of Most modern gas turbines employ duplex lube oil filters
cleaning (see Figure 19), the filter can be brought back to near with a continuous flow transfer valve. The media inside these
the original condition filters can range from paper cardboard to synthetic matrix
fibers. Multi-layer filter cartridges with a high flow, high
efficiency media are typically provided by the manufacturer
when the units are shipped. Special care should be taken to
follow the manufacturer’s recommendations when replacing the
original filters with third-party filters. Differential pressure
transducers to monitor the pressure drop across the filter media
should also be mounted with electronic signals and alarms to
the unit control system for trending purposes.
FUEL GAS HEATING
Fuel gas heating is generally employed to ensure that the
fuel that enters the gas turbine is in entirely the gaseous state.
To ensure that the fuel gas does not develop liquid drop-out as
a result of the ubiquitous pressure drop in the fuel system, it has
to be superheated to (typically) 28°C (50°F) above its dew
point. However, the natural gas’ dew point is a strong function
of its hydrocarbon composition; the higher the percentage of
FIGURE 19. EXAMPLE OF OPERATION OF AN heavy hydrocarbons in the fuel, the higher the dew point.
UPDRAFT SELF-CLEANING FILTERS Consequently, swings in the composition of the natural gas
supplied from the producer fields can easily move the average
Staged Filtration dew point of the gas significantly. If the fuel constituents into
Any gas turbine application typically needs more than one the gas turbine combustion system vary significantly from the
type of filter, and there are no “universal filters” that will serve design point, liquids may form in the gas turbine’s fuel system
all needs. Therefore, two-stage or three-stage filtration systems and combustor damage will rapidly result.
are used. In these designs, a prefilter, or weather louver, can be
used first to remove erosive particles, rain, and snow. The To ensure that a gas turbine’s fuel is free from liquids, a
second may be a low to medium performance filter selected for fuel heating system can be employed. A fuel heating system
the type of finer-sized particles present or a coalescer to remove should be directly interfaced with either the unit control system
liquids. The third filter is usually a high-performance filter to or the station control system to maintain the fuel gas
remove smaller particles less than 2 microns in size from the temperature constant above the dew point and to be
air. automatically activated during significant fuel quality swings.
Also, electric heat tracing of the fuel supply lines, rather than
Figure 20 shows a generalized view of a filtration
natural gas burners, is a safer and more controllable means to
arrangement. This arrangement is not correct for all cases due maintain the fuel gas temperature.
to the fact that the filter stages are highly influenced by the
environment they are operating in.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

MOTOR CONTROL CENTER Off-shore Applications
Gas turbines are preferred prime movers for power
Motor Control Centers (MCC) provide the best method for
generation, as well as drivers for compressors and pumps for
grouping motor control, associated control, and distribution
off-shore installations. Many off-shore projects, especially in
equipment. They provide a convenient, centralized means of
deep waters, use Floating Production Storage and Offloading
protecting and controlling all of a facility’s motor loads. Motor
systems (FPSO) as the equipment platform (see Figure 21).
control centers can be outfitted with a large number of
This type of system, as well as semi-submersible platforms,
electrical devices including solid state reduced voltage starters,
SPAR’s, and TLP’s, exhibit significant deck movement as a
AC adjustable speed drives, meters, programmable logic
result of wave and wind action, as well as possible deck
controllers, control relays, TVSS devices, lighting panel boards,
deflections. This requires specific design considerations for the
distribution panel boards, distribution transformers, power
turbomachinery packages employed to achieve the highest
management control systems, equipment ground fault
possible availability and reliability. There are various types of
protection, and spectra RMS circuit breakers.
structures used for oil and gas exploration and production,
PACKAGE UTILITY REQUIREMENTS either bottom supported structures and vertically moored
structures [Fixed Leg Platform (FLP), Compliant Tower (CT),
For a typical mid-size gas turbine driven compressor set Tension Leg Platform (TLP) and Mini Tension Leg Platform
(7 MW), a list of the package utility requirements are provided (Mini TLP)] and the Floating Production and Sub-Sea category
in Table 2. It is important to understand that these utilities must
consisting of Spar, Semi-Submersible (SS) and Floating
usually be provided by the operator. Production Storage and Off-loading (FPSO).
TABLE 2. TYPICAL SET OF PACKAGE UTILITY Off-shore platforms and Floating Production Systems
REQUIREMENTS perform complex operations in a compact space (see
Figure 21). As a result, there is a high value placed on the
Device Requirement installed size of off-shore equipment. In addition to the
installed footprint, successful design for operation in off-shore
Starter Motor Drive AC applications must address a variety of load cases. A prime
Pre/Post Lube Oil Pump AC initiator of many of these load cases is the environment. Wind
Lube Oil Cooler Motor AC and its resulting effects are key contributors to sea conditions
Enclosure Ventilation AC causing wide variations from the relatively calm condition to
System the very severe condition as evidenced, for example, in the Gulf
Lube Oil Tank Immersion AC of Mexico during hurricane Katrina. At one stage, a Category 5
Heater hurricane, Katrina ultimately made landfall in Louisiana and
Enclosure Lighting AC Mississippi, at Category 4 strength.
Battery Charger AC
Space Heaters AC
Back Up Lube Oil Pump DC
Gas Fuel Control Valve DC
Bleed Valve and Guide DC
Vane Actuators
Control System/Control DC
Console
Air Inlet Self Cleaning Compressed Air
Filter

Clearly, this list of utility supply requirement varies

significantly depending on the application, operation, and
equipment utilized. Additionally, the unit will also require a fill FIGURE 21. GAS TURBINE INSTALLATION ON AN
of the lube oil tank (typically between 1,000–2,000 gallons FPSO
depending on the unit and driven equipment design) and may In addition to considering the effects of the environment,
require clean water for inlet fogging, compressor water-wash, code compliance to assure safe, reliable equipment, also has a
or combustor injection. role to play. The framework of directives and standards, such as
ATEX and CSA, are one piece of the puzzle. There are other
international, national, and local rules and regulations that must

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

also be satisfied. These other rules and regulations are Package Requirements
represented by two groupings of authority. International Each of the criteria plays an important role in off-shore
Authority, represented by an International Class Society, may design and, as such, cannot be addressed independently of one
represent a country’s government’s interest and also have the another. Unlike a land-based application, all six degrees-of-
capability to enforce the laws. Additionally, each country may freedom are considered when designing the machinery for
have a local authority. In the United States, the USCG Code of floating applications (Figure 22). It is critical to understand the
Federal Regulations (CFR) serves this function. Each Class applicable class requirement, the type of vessel, the expected
Society has individually developed rules for building and deck deflection, and where the equipment will be located on the
classification of vessels. Depending on the type of machinery, vessel.
and its usage, several options are available.
This information is then translated into the design
These rules will play a significant role in verifying the conditions of:
motion criteria to be used in the design effort. There are two
major classifications for off-shore machinery: the “Main &  Type of mounting method used to attach the package to the
Auxiliary Classification” applies to equipment that is essential deck
to propulsion, vessel safety, utilities for deck support  Acceleration for structural analysis
equipment and direct operation of the vessel, while the  Static and dynamic angles for fluid management
“Emergency Service Classification” applies to equipment used Wind and Wave action causes stresses and deflections in
as a separate source of power for emergency duty. The support the Floating Production System, resulting in hogging, sagging
of the steering gear and fire-fighting equipment are two such and twisting of the vessel’s hull. Apart from the external
examples. Generator sets fall into both classifications; however, connections between the package and site interfaces, the
Solar supplies only Main & Auxiliary generators that can only machine’s drive train alignment requires close attention.
be used for Oil and Gas process electrical power. For example,
using the “DNV Rules for Classification of Ships,” each of Figure 23A helps illustrate how, if not properly addressed,
Solar’s gas turbines used in Oil and Gas applications, are the effect of the deck deflection can translate through the base-
supported by a DNV Type Approval Certificate. Renewed plate and compromise the machinery’s alignment.
every 4 years through a detailed design assessment and type
testing, the Type Approval provides documentation that all of
the applicable codes, regulations, and rules have been met. A
secondary benefit to receiving a Class Society Type Approval
is the acknowledgement by that Class Society that the
manufacturer is committed to quality and has a proven Quality
System.
When designing to meet code requirements, an internal
process known as a Task Risk Assessment, or TRA, may be
performed. The TRA identifies potential effects of the
requirement, so appropriate action can be taken if required.
With this overview of the types of vessels, the environment,
and the need to satisfy applicable codes and standards, we can
now move into a discussion of designing packages to meet
these challenges.

FIGURE 23(A). DECK DEFLECTIONS AND (B) THEIR

IMPACT ON A TURBOMACHINERY PACKAGE FOR
FIGURE 22. DEGREES-OF-FREEDOM FOR DYNAMIC 4-POINT AND 3-POINT MOUNTS
MOVEMENT AND STATIC DISPLACEMENT

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

 Not enough stiffness in the machinery’s supporting movement. The gimbal is chosen when the package will be
structure, or improper attachment to the deck, can result in exposed to excessive deck deflection, or the deck deflection
unwanted vibration levels. Illustrated in Figure 23B are two data is not available. Although three-point mounting decouples
methods of attaching a turbine package to the deck of a vessel. the turbomachinery from the vessel’s structural deflections, it
The four-point tie-down graphic on the left does not decouple does not alleviate the requirement to react to the dynamic
the vessel’s structural deflections from the package. Although forces applied to the components supported by the package
acceptable under certain conditions, in this mounting structure. Structural requirements, transportation needs, and
arrangement, the package will see more of an effect from deck handling all play a role in the design of the base-plate resulting
twist. On the other hand, the three-point tie-down graphic on in three basic methods (Figure 24):
the right allows the vessel’s structural deflections to become
decoupled from the package. With less effect from deck twist  Single-piece minimizes the number of on-site connections,
being transmitted to the package, this is generally considered to but depending on factory needs and/or transportability to site,
be the preferred arrangement for off -shore applications. this is not always a practical solution.
 Two-piece is an appropriate solution when transportability,
Understanding the benefit of three-point mounting is only manufacturing, and non-operational requirements take
one aspect. The success of three-point mounting the equipment precedence. This allows the machine to be easily moved and
is dependent on what is used to connect the package to the transported in smaller modules, and then assembled either
deck. There are two common mounting methods of dock-side for single lift or assembled on the deck.
transitioning from the turbine package to the deck. One method  Two-piece with a sub-base is appropriate for large machines
is using an Anti-Vibration Mount, commonly referred to as an with long drive trains. More easily managed in the factory
AVM. The AVM is located between the package and the deck and during transport to site in smaller modules, these long
in sets of three. The AVMs are positioned to most effectively base-plates alone do not provide enough structural rigidity
carry the package operational load requirements. The AVM for the severe environmental conditions of an FPS. As a
affords a level of protection to the package and drive train result, a sub-base structure under the entire machine,
alignment from deck movement, but less than that provided by designed to maintain the power train alignment, is required.
a gimbal design. AVMs are used when there is a need to isolate
the turbomachinery package from deck vibration, or, when To develop and predict how the machinery will respond to
installation near onboard living quarters mandates a level that the various load cases, finite element models are used to
cannot be achieved without them. AVM selection is project evaluate the base-plate designs. With the environmental loads
specific and depends on the package weight, center of gravity applied to the model, deflection and stresses can be determined.
location, and application (i.e., moderate or severe duty). Using this information, structural design of the base-plate can
be compared with established design criteria to ensure it meets
the application requirements. In addition to the base-plate
analysis performed in the as-installed condition, analysis is also
performed for the off-shore lift scenarios. In off-shore
applications, the engine handling kits are designed with an
integrated braking system for safety. A chain is welded along
the underside of the beams, and a sprocket is incorporated into
the hoist.
In the same way that the base-plates are analyzed using
finite element analysis, the enclosure and ancillary structures
are also evaluated using 3-D beam analysis.
Fluid management is another important aspect of ensuring
successful operation of the equipment. A key data point here is
FIGURE 24. BASE-PLATE DESIGN knowing the installed package orientation relative to the vessel
centerline. Installation perpendicular to the vessel centerline is
The second method commonly used is the gimbal mount. a structurally simpler design but is not as prevalent on FPSs.
The gimbal mount is also located between the package and the This is because perpendicular orientation provides a level of
deck in sets of three. Like the AVM, the gimbal mounts are difficulty in designing for fluid management of the lube oil
positioned on the package to most effectively carry the package system. By far the most common and recommended installation
operational load requirements. A gimbal is designed with a option is parallel with the vessel’s centerline. While this option
spherical bearing that allows the two mounting surfaces to presents difficulty in structural design, it is the simplest
move independent of one another. This, in effect, isolates the orientation when considering fluid management of the package
package and the drive train alignment from the deck’s constant lube oil system. CFD tools are also used to assist the engineer

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

in efficiently addressing fluid management within the package.
Regardless of the location of the equipment, accurately
monitoring the nominal oil level is critical to successful
operation. With the constant motion of the lube oil within the
tank, monitoring the lube oil level within the tank must be
handled differently than in a non-floating application. Installing
the level indicator inside a stilling tube to dampen the effect of
the oil movement can assist in accomplishing this vital
operational feature. Due to the constant motion off-shore, if
such a simple feature is not incorporated, even the most
efficient placement of baffles within the oil tank can cause false
low and/or high level alarms to be sounded.
As mentioned earlier, the severity of the dynamic or static
inclinations experienced may exceed the baffle and gate valve
capability, and/or cause the lube oil drain lines to no longer
slope downwards. In these instances, a scavenge system is
required. To ensure oil is drawn out of the turbine bearing
cavity regardless of the inclination, the addition of a dedicated
scavenge pump and drain line to return lube oil back to the tank
may be the only turbine modification required. The package
scavenge system ensures that all other lube oil drain lines return
oil back to the oil tank efficiently. There are two scenarios that
can drive the need for a package scavenge system. These are
defined by not only the magnitude of movement but also the
package length: Where the package length is such that even
slight inclinations cause the lube oil drains to no longer slope
downwards back to the tank, a second tank system is added to
the driven base-plate. This is dedicated to ensure effective
bearing drainage of the driven equipment. When the
inclinations seen by the package are significant, a completely
separate oil tank system located beneath the package may be
FIGURE 25.(A)VARIATION IN OIL PRODUCTION AND
required. Locating the tank system below the package provides
POWER DEMAND IN AN OFF-SHORE APPLICATION
the additional insurance that, regardless of inclination, the
(B). DEPENDENCY OF COMPRESSOR SUCTION
drains will always have a downward slope to the tank.
PRESSURE ON WELL YIELD. TYPICAL WELLHEAD
Other environmental considerations taken into account that PERFORMANCE, SHOWING THE WELL YIELD AS A
are vital to the longevity of the machinery are: corrosion due to FUNCTION OF PRESSURE. THE LOWER THE
chemical reactions with oxygen, water and sulfur; erosion as a COMPRESSOR CAN DRAW THE TUBING PRESSURE,
result of wind, sand and salt; electrolysis, resulting from contact THE HIGHER THE FLOW.
of dissimilar materials. These elements are addressed with the
Particular attention needs to be given to the dynamic
type of attachments, consideration for galvanic bonding,
behavior of the equipment during load changes, as well as
material selection, and coatings.
during transients. An important aspect of surge avoidance lies
Off-shore applications also impose specific requirements in the design of the compressor module and, in particular, the
on the turbomachinery (gas turbines or compressors) employed piping upstream and downstream of the compressor. Most anti-
regarding flexibility, maintainability, and reliability in an surge systems are perfectly capable of avoiding surge during
environment characterized by ever-changing operating normal operating conditions. Good control systems, with
conditions on all time scales (Figure 25), a salt laden properly sized recycle valves and appropriate control
atmosphere, and opportunity fuels. Compressors need to lend algorithms are capable of allowing compressor package to
themselves to easy restaging to adapt the driven equipment to operate from design flows, down to full station recycle without
changing operating conditions (Figure 26). upsetting the process. However, unplanned emergency
shutdowns present a significant challenge, and surge avoidance
in these cases depends to a large degree on the dynamic
behavior of the station, including driving equipment inertia,
valve dynamics, and the stored pressure energy in the pipe

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

volume downstream of the compressor. Furthermore, the AIR INLET SYSTEMS
concepts used in the anti-surge system (valves, piping, coolers)
The off-shore environment imposes challenges on the
also impact the startup of the installation, or of individual units
treatment and conditioning of gas turbine combustion air, as
of the installation (White and Kurz 2006).
well as the fuel, and water used. To help protect the internals of
the turbine from the elements mentioned, a stainless steel
turbine air inlet filter designed for off-shore applications is
used. The design is specific to mitigating water, salt, and dust
from entering the turbine. Off-shore filters have to be capable
of removing water (as droplets or mist) and with it the salt that
may be dissolved in it, from the air stream. They also have to
be efficient, especially in dry environments, to remove small,
dry dust, and salt particles.
The inlet air filtration system has to minimize the amount
of solid particles and liquid, salt laden droplets entering the gas
turbine. Besides the choice of filter concepts, an important
consideration is the arrangement of the filter system on the
deck. Considerations include avoidance of excessive sea water
FIGURE 26. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS FOR RE- spray into the air inlet, but also ingestions of exhaust gases
INJECTION DUTY AT 240 BAR (3,500 PSI) from other processes. Maintenance of the air filter system by
DISCHARGE PRESSURE appropriate cleaning or exchange of filter elements help to limit
Another topic is the decision to use gas turbines as the the pressure drop from the inlet system as well as the
drivers for compressors, or electric motor drives. Results of contamination of the turbine (Figure 27).
studies (e.g., Kurz and Sheya 2005) point out that the decision
of which scenario to use, an all-turbine approach versus an
electrified approach, is a complex one; dependent on numerous
factors including life-cycle costs, emissions, reliability,
availability, flexibility and design simplicity. Installations,
where the compressors are driven by electric motors, while the
electric power is generated by gas turbine driven generators,
will always require larger overall amounts of installed power
than a solution where gas turbines drive the compressors, too.
The all-electric solution requires a higher efficiency for the
generator sets to break even to the all-turbine approach on
system efficiency. This break-even point is mandated by the
power ratio between the compression and electrical loads FIGURE 27. AIR FILTRATION TRADE-OFF
required.
FUEL
Both the electrified approach and all gas turbine approach
Gaseous fuels can vary from poor quality wellhead gas to
can meet the paramount requirement of flexibility for off-shore
high quality consumer or “pipeline” gas (Kurz 2004).
platforms. However, the electrified approach does add
Typically, the major sources of contaminants within these fuels
considerable additional scope of electrical equipment resulting
are: solids, water, heavy gases present as liquids, oils typical of
in a more complex solution.
compressor oils, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydrogen (H2), carbon
Availability is driven not only by the frequency of monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2).Other factors that
machinery failure, but more so by the time it requires to repair will affect turbine or combustion system life and performance
the problem. There are large differences between different include lower heating value (LHV), specific gravity (SG), fuel
manufacturers and different service arrangements. temperature, and ambient temperature. Some of these issues
may co-exist and be interrelated. For instance, water, heavy
Sparing of equipment improves equipment uptime. The
gases present as liquids, and presence of H2Sor CO2 may be a
loss of a certain percentage of power does not necessarily
problem for turbine operators using associated gas as fuel gas.
equate to an equal percentage of production flow reduction.
Water in the gas may combine with other small molecules to
The actual production impact due to turbomachinery downtime
produce a hydrate – a solid with an ice-like appearance.
is application dependent.
Hydrate production is influenced, in turn, by gas composition,
gas temperature, gas pressure and pressure drops in the gas fuel

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

system. Liquid water in the presence of H2S or CO2 will form SUMMARY
acids that can attack fuel supply lines and components. Free
Industrial and aeroderivative gas turbines are commonly
water can also cause turbine flameouts or operating instability,
employed in applications where high power-to-weight ratio,
if ingested in the combustor or fuel control components.
low emissions, and high availability requirements prohibit the
Heavy hydrocarbon gases present as liquids provide many use of other mechanical drivers. Industrial gas turbines are
times the heating value per unit volume than they would as a frequently used as mechanical drivers for natural gas
gas. Since turbine fuel systems meter the fuel based on the fuel centrifugal compressors. Due to their operational flexibility,
being a gas, this creates a safety problem, especially during the low maintenance requirements, and speed match with the
engine startup sequence when the supply line to the turbine still driven equipment, they are ideally suited for this service. As
may be cold. Hydrocarbon liquids can cause: any machinery, gas turbines require a significant number of on-
skid and off-skid equipment – such as lube oil systems, controls
 Turbine overfueling, which can cause an explosion or severe and instrumentation, fire-detection and suppression systems,
turbine damage fuel forwarding and filtration systems, starter and crank motors,
 Fuel control stability problems, because the system gain will and inlet/exhaust systems for their safe and efficient operation.
vary as liquid slugs or droplets move through the control Given a specific application, an optimal set of ancillary and
system auxiliary equipment options must be selected. This selection is
 Combustor hot streaks and subsequent engine hot section not just based on the type of application and utilities available
damage at the site, but the operator’s requirements for operating profile,
 Overfueling of the bottom section of the combustor when reliability, and/or availability. The environmental conditions at
liquids gravitate towards the bottom of the manifold the site must also be considered. This paper discussed
 Internal injector blockage over time, when trapped liquids packaging equipment selection options for a typical gas turbine
pyrolyze in the hot gas passages driven compressor unit. API considerations were discussed.
Liquid carryover is a known cause for rapid degradation of Because of their special significance, filtration, machinery
the hot gas path components in a turbine. With a known gas protection, and utility requirements were also covered in
composition, it is possible to predict dew point temperatures for additional detail.
water and hydrocarbons. However, the prediction methods for REFERENCES
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different equations of state will yield different calculated dew Anderson, A.W., 1980, “Sawyers Turbomachinery
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necessary, can prevent these problems.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station

Newbound, T. D. and Wagiealla, W., 2003, “On-Line
Hydrocarbon Dew Point Monitoring in Fuel Gas,” ASME
GT2003-38868
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper would not have been possible without the
contributions of numerous people from the authors’ companies.
We want to particularly acknowledge the contributions of Jon
Windt, Solar Turbines Incorporated, to this paper, since a large
part of the section on off shore requirements is based on his
work.

Copyright© 2016 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station