Graphs
Graphs
2
Basic Terminology
Definition 1. Two vertices u, v in an undirected graph G are
called adjacent (or neighbors) in G if there is an edge e between
u and v. Such an edge e is called incident with the vertices u and
v and e is said to connect u and v.
Definition 2. The set of all neighbors of a vertex v of G = (V, E),
denoted by N(v), is called the neighborhood of v. If A is a subset
of V, we denote by N(A) the set of all vertices in G that are
adjacent to at least one vertex in A. So,
Definition 3. The degree of a vertex in a undirected graph is the
number of edges incident with it, except that a loop at a vertex
contributes two to the degree of that vertex. The degree of the
vertex v is denoted by deg(v).
Degrees and Neighborhoods of
Ver7ces
Example: What are the degrees and neighborhoods
of the vertices in the graph H?
Solution:
H: deg(a) = 4, deg(b) = deg(e) = 6, deg(c) = 1,
deg(d) = 5.
N(a) = {b, d, e}, N(b) = {a, b, c, d, e}, N(c) = {b},
N(d) = {a, b, e}, N(e) = {a, b ,d}.
Handshake Theorem
Theorem: Let G = (V, E) be an undirected graph with m
edges. Then
"
2m = deg(v)
v!V
Proof: Each edge contributes twice to the total degree
count of all vertices. Thus, both sides of the equation
equal to twice the number of edges.
Handshaking Theorem
We now give two examples illustrating the usefulness of the
handshaking theorem.
Example: How many edges are there in a graph with 10
vertices of degree six?
Solution: Because the sum of the degrees of the vertices is
6 ⋅ 10 = 60, the handshaking theorem tells us that 2m = 60.
So the number of edges m = 30.
Example: If a graph has 5 vertices, can each vertex have degree
3?
Solution: This is not possible by the handshaking theorem,
because the sum of the degrees of the vertices 3 ⋅ 5 = 15 is odd.
Degree of Ver7ces
Theorem: An undirected graph has an even number of
vertices of odd degree.
Proof: Let V1 be the vertices of even degree and V2 be the
vertices of odd degree in an undirected graph G = (V, E)
with m edges. Then
even
This sum must be even because 2m
must be is even and the sum of the degrees
even since of the vertices of even degrees is
deg(v) is also even. Because this is the sum
even for of the degrees of all vertices of odd
each v ∈ V degree in the graph, there must be
1
an even number of such vertices.
Directed Graphs
Recall the definition of a directed graph.
Definition: An directed graph G = (V, E) consists of V,
a nonempty set of vertices (or nodes), and E, a set of
directed edges or arcs. Each edge is an ordered pair of
vertices. The directed edge (u,v) is said to start at u
and end at v.
Definition: Let (u,v) be an edge in G. Then u is the
initial vertex of this edge and is adjacent to v and v is
the terminal (or end) vertex of this edge and is
adjacent from u. The initial and terminal vertices of a
loop are the same.
Directed Graphs (con$nued)
Definition: The in‐degree of a vertex v, denoted
deg−(v), is the number of edges which terminate at v.
The out‐degree of v, denoted deg+(v), is the number of
edges with v as their initial vertex. Note that a loop at
a vertex contributes 1 to both the in‐degree and the
out‐degree of the vertex.
Example: In the graph G we have
deg−(a) = 2, deg−(b) = 2, deg−(c) = 3, deg−(d) = 2,
deg−(e) = 3, deg−(f) = 0.
deg+(a) = 4, deg+(b) = 1, deg+(c) = 2, deg+(d) = 2,
deg+ (e) = 3, deg+(f) = 0.
Directed Graphs (con$nued)
Theorem 3: Let G = (V, E) be a graph with directed edges.
Then:
Proof: The first sum counts the number of outgoing edges
over all vertices and the second sum counts the number of
incoming edges over all vertices. It follows that both sums
equal the number of edges in the graph.
Special Types of Simple Graphs:
Complete Graphs
A complete graph on n vertices, denoted by Kn, is the
simple graph that contains exactly one edge between
each pair of distinct vertices.
Special Types of Simple Graphs:
Cycles and Wheels
A cycle Cn for n ≥ 3 consists of n vertices v1, v2 ,⋯ , vn,
and edges {v1, v2}, {v2, v3} ,⋯ , {vn‐1, vn}, {vn, v1}.
A wheel Wn is obtained by adding an additional vertex
to a cycle Cn for n ≥ 3 and connecting this new vertex
to each of the n vertices in Cn by new edges.
Special Types of Simple Graphs:
n‐Cubes
An n‐dimensional hypercube, or n‐cube, Qn, is a graph
with 2n vertices representing all bit strings of length n,
where there is an edge between two vertices that
differ in exactly one bit position.
HyperCubes and Parallel Processing
We can map matrices onto this architecture
so that neighborhood relations are preserved.
Bipar7te Graphs
Definition: A simple graph G is bipartite if V can be partitioned
into two disjoint subsets V1 and V2 such that every edge
connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2. In other words, there
are no edges which connect two vertices in V1 or in V2.
It is not hard to show that an equivalent definition of a bipartite
graph is a graph where it is possible to color the vertices red or
blue so that no two adjacent vertices are the same color.
H is not bipartite
since if we color a
G is
bipartite red, then the
adjacent vertices f
and b must both
be blue.
Bipar7te Graphs (con$nued)
Example: Show that C6 is bipartite.
Solution: We can partition the vertex set into
V1 = {v1, v3, v5} and V2 = {v2, v4, v6} so that every edge
of C6 connects a vertex in V1 and V2 .
v3 v4
v2 v5
v1 v6
Bipar7te Graphs (con$nued)
Example: Show that C3 is not bipartite.
Solution: If we divide the vertex set of C3 into two
nonempty sets, one of the two must contain two
vertices. But in C3 every vertex is connected to every
other vertex. Therefore, the two vertices in the same
partition are connected. Hence, C3 is not bipartite.
Complete Bipar7te Graphs
Definition: A complete bipartite graph Km,n is a graph
that has its vertex set partitioned into two subsets
V1 of size m and V2 of size n such that there is an edge
from every vertex in V1 to every vertex in V2.
Example: We display four complete bipartite graphs
here.
New Graphs from Old
Definition: A subgraph of a graph G = (V,E) is a graph
(W,F), where W ⊂ V and F ⊂ E. A subgraph H of G is a
proper subgraph of G if H ≠ G.
Example: Here we show K5 and
one of its subgraphs.
New Graphs from Old
Definition: Let G = (V, E) be a simple graph. The
subgraph induced by a subset W of the vertex set V is
the graph (W,F), where the edge set F contains an
edge in E if and only if both endpoints are in W.
Example: Here we show K5 and the subgraph
induced by W = {a,b,c,e}.
New Graphs from Old (con$nued)
Definition: The union of two simple graphs
G1 = (V1, E1) and G2 = (V2, E2) is the simple graph with
vertex set V1 ⋃ V2 and edge set E1 ⋃ E2. The union of
G1 and G2 is denoted by G1 ⋃ G2.
Example: