1.
Introduction
Thousand years ago ,there were kind of apes who could hardly survive in the Planet Earth,
but today they are the leading creature in the planet earth. They are humans today or more scientifically
HomoSapiens-Sapiens. We could evolutonized upto now and live in artificial world, because of our
understanding ability, analytical skills, imagination power and creative thinking. So in the process of
evolution humans master certain knowledge parts and and injected themselves. They study about
animals, climate changes, farming and recent past about energy sources. One of the key subjects areas
that have helped for success of humans is Semiconductor Physics. It is the basement Electronic
Technology, and Electronic Technology is the basement of Information based society today. Because
from big satellite which is rotating around earth’s orbit to mobile phone which we use to is made up from
electronic circuits.
Understanding the basic building block of matter has been one of the most intriguing
endeavors of humankind [1]. So understanding Energy Bands of electrons is very important when we are
studying Electronics. For that we use Kronig-Penny Model basically and partially solutions of differential
equations. Which symbolizes human’s imagination power and creative thinking.
2.Kronig-Penny Model
Using Kronig Penny Model we are modeling Electron’s Energy relative to distance of electron to nucleus.
Figure1 : One-Dimensional Crystal; Real variation of Potential energy
a – atom size
b – separate distance of nucleus
It is idealized by Kronig-Penny to model a crycstalline solid.
Figure2 : Kronig Penny Model of a crycstalline solid
Mathematical model ehich is equalent for this,
0<x<a, V(x)=0.
a<x<(a+b), V(x)=V.
Periodicity d=a+b.
The electrons of energy “E” move in the crystal with a periodic PE therefore,
V(x)=V(x+d)=V(x+2d)=................................................
From Schrödinger's wave equation and discoveries of Kronig-Penney we can derive following
equation.
sin ( α a )
P [αa ]
+cos ( α a )=cos ( ka)----------------01
P = lim V1->∝; b→ 0 ; ( β ²ab/2) ; delta function
Figure3 : Delta Function
3.E-k diagram
3.1. Free Electron (P = 0)
When P = 0,
Here, cos(∝a) = cos(ka)
Figure4 : sin(x) function
So two graphs over laping.
That implies there are no potential barriers for electrons. So electron can move free of potential
barriers and we call it as free electron.
3.2 Electron confined to potential well ( P = infinite)
Now here,
P*(sin(∝ a)/(∝ a ¿) + cos(∝ a) = cos(k a )
(sin(∝ a)/(∝ a ¿) + (1/P)*cos(∝ a) = (1/P)*cos(∝ a)
When P = infinite; (1/P) = 0,
Hence Equation becomes; sin(∝ a) = 0.
Which means ∝=0.
It suggests that Electron iin Potential Well.
3.3 Electron in a crycstal ( P = finite, P is a constant)
Figure5 : Variation of P*(sin(x)/x)+cos(x), when x = 2
Figure6 : Variation of P*(sin(x)/x) + cos(x), when x = 7
Figure7 : Variation of P*(sin(x)/x) + cos(x), when x = 7, look from distance; Zoom out view
When P is finite, for example P = 2 and P = 7 the graph has drawn. But cos values can only get values
between -1 and +1. Hence as shown in the Graphs (Shadeded areas) it is clear that when P is finite there
are forbidden values and allowed values for (ᾳa) .
3.3.1 Conduction Band, Valence Band Band gaps
According to the Energy bandgap of material’s, its Electric conductivity characteristics can be divided.
Figure8 : Bandgaps of soe Materilas
4. Energy Bands of Semiconductors
4.1. E-K diagram for Semiconductors
Because there are discontinuities for (αa ), because of that there are discontinuities in E-k diagram.
Figure9 : E-k diagram for crycstalline solid
4.2 Direct & Indirect Bandgap
Figure10 : Diret and Indirect Band gaps
We explain Band gap above it is the difference exists between the lowest point of the conduction
band and the highest point of the valence band. A solid may have more than one conduction
band. Since, we take the lowest point of conduction band, all the semiconductor may not have
CB edge and VB edge at “k=0”. Therefore, band gap is not at “k=0”. Such materials are called
“indirect band gap” material, while material which band gap is found at “k=0” are called
“direct band gap” material.
Semiconductors like Ge and Si have indirect band gap but GaAs have a Direct Band gap. Also
Light emitting diodes and laser diodes are made from direct band gap materials.
4.3. Energy Bandgap of common semiconductors Si, Ge, GaAs
Different semiconductors have different types of Bnad Gaps
Figure11 : Bandgaps Of Semiconductors
References:
[1]. Principles of Electronic Maerials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasp, McGraw Hill.
[2]. Physics of semiconductor Devices, second Edition, S.M. Sze, Wiley Eastern Limited.
[3]. Particle in one dimensional lattice(Periodic Petential), From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.[Online]
Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_in_a_one-dimensional_lattice_(periodic_potential)
[Accessed : 01 July 2010]
[5]. Electronic Circuits and Devices by G.K. Mithmal.
[6]. www.google.com/band theory of solids.
[7]. Class Handouts.
