ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

An Informational report

ON

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Submitted to

Ma’am Maryam Minhas

BY

ABDULLAH AMER

SP18-BAF040

Due Date: December 2nd 2018

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ARTIFICIAL INTELIGENCE:

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EXECTIVE SUMMARY

Artificial intelligence is exhibited by artificial entity, a system is generally assumed to be a

computer. AI systems are now in routine use in economics, medicine, engineering and the

military, as well as being built into many common home computer software applications,

traditional strategy games like computer chess and other video games.

AI system is working throughout the world as an artificial brain. Intelligence involves

mechanisms, and AI research has discovered how to make computers carry out some of them and

not others. If doing a task requires only mechanisms that are well understood today, computer

programs can give very impressive performances on these tasks. We can learn something about

how to make machines solve problems by observing other people or just by observing our own

methods. On the other hand, most work in AI involves studying the problems the world presents

to intelligence rather than studying people or animals. AI researchers are free to use methods that

are not observed in people or that involve much more computing than people can do. We

discussed conditions for considering a machine to be intelligent. We argued that if the machine

could successfully pretend to be human to a knowledgeable observer then you certainly should

consider it intelligent.

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CONTENTS
ARTIFICIAL:-................................................................................................................... 5
INTELLIGENCE:- ............................................................................................................ 5
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:- ........................................................................................ 5
HISTORY ........................................................................................................................ 6
1950s:- ........................................................................................................................ 6
1960:- .......................................................................................................................... 7
1980:- .......................................................................................................................... 8
1990:- .......................................................................................................................... 8
GOALS ............................................................................................................................ 9
LIMITATIONS ................................................................................................................ 11
CATEGORIES OF A.I ................................................................................................... 12
1. Conventional AI:- ................................................................................................... 12
Methods: ................................................................................................................. 12
2. Computational Intelligence (CI):-............................................................................ 13
Methods: ................................................................................................................. 13
TYPICAL PROBLEMS OF AI:- ...................................................................................... 13
FIELDS IN WHICH AI METHODS ARE IMPLEMENTED:- ........................................... 14
APPLICATIONS OF A.I ................................................................................................. 16
FUTURE SCOPE .......................................................................................................... 17
CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 18
BIBLIOGRAPHY: .......................................................................................................... 19
REFERENCES: ............................................................................................................. 20

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ARTIFICIAL:-

The simple definition of artificial is that objects that are made or produced by human beings

rather than occurring naturally.

INTELLIGENCE:-

The simple definition of intelligence is a process of entail a set of skills of problem solving,

enabling to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that encounters and to create an effective

product and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems and thereby laying the

groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:-

Artificial intelligence is a branch of science which deals with helping machines find solution to

complex problems in a more human like fashion. This generally involves borrowing

characteristics from human intelligence, and applying them as algorithms in a computer friendly

way. Artificial intelligence is generally associated with computer science, but it has many

important links with other fields such as math’s, psychology, cognition, biology and philosophy,

among many others. A.I is mainly concerned with the popular mind with the robotics

development, but also the main field of practical application has been as an embedded

component in the areas of software development which require computational understandings

and modeling such as such as finance and economics, data mining and physical science.

A.I in the fields of robotics is the make a computational models of human thought processes. It is

not enough to make a program that seems to behave the way human do. You want to make a

program that does it the way humans do it. In computer science they also the problems because

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we have to make a computer that are satisfy for understanding the high-level languages and that

was taken to be A.I.

HISTORY

The intellectual roots of AI, and the concept of intelligent machines, may be found in Greek

mythology. Intelligent artifacts appear in literature since then, with real mechanical devices

actually demonstrating behavior with some degree of intelligence. After modern computers

became available following World War-II, it has become possible to create programs that

perform difficult intellectual tasks.

1950s: The Beginnings of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Research

With the development of the electronic computer in 1941 and the stored program computer in

1949 the condition for research in artificial intelligence is given, still the observation of a link

between human intelligence and machines was not widely observed until the late in 1950. The

first working AI programs were written in 1951 to run on the Ferranti Mark I machine of the

University Of Manchester (UK): a draughts-playing program written by Christopher Strachey

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and a chess-playing program written by Dietrich Prinz. The person who finally coined the term

artificial intelligence and is regarded as the father of the AL is John McCarthy. In 1956 he

organized a conference “the Darthmouth summer research project on artificial intelligence" to

draw the talent and expertise of others interested in machine intelligence of a month of rain

storming. In the following years AI research centers began forming at the Carnegie Mellon

University as well as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and new challenges were

faced:

1) The creation of systems that could efficiently solve problems by limiting the search.

2) The construction of systems that could learn by themselves.

1960:-

By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. was heavily funded by the Department of

Defense and laboratories had been established around the world. AI's founders were profoundly

optimistic about the future of the new field: Herbert Simon predicted that "machines will be

capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do" and Marvin Minsky agreed,

writing that "within a generation.

By the 1960’s, America and its federal government starting pushing more for the development of

AI. The Department of Defense started backing several programs in order to stay ahead of Soviet

technology. The U.S. also started to commercially market the sale of robotics to various

manufacturers. The rise of expert systems also became popular due to the creation of Edward

Feigenbaum and Robert K. Lindsay’s DENDRAL. DENDRAL had the ability to map the

complex structures of organic chemicals, but like many AI inventions, it began to tangle its

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results once the program had too many factors built into it... the problem of creating 'artificial

intelligence' will substantially be solved.

1980:-

In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems, a form

of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts.

By 1985 the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth

generation computer project inspired the U.S and British governments to restore funding for

academic research in the field. In the 1990s and early 21st century, AI achieved its greatest

successes, albeit somewhat behind the scenes. Artificial intelligence is used for logistics, data

mining, medical diagnosis and many other areas throughout the technology industry.

1990:-

From 1990s until the turn of the century, AI has reached some incredible landmarks with the

creation of intelligent agents. Intelligent agents basically use their surrounding environment to

solve problems in the most efficient and effective manner. In 1997, the first computer (named

Deep Blue) beat a world chess champion. In 1995, the VaMP car drove an entire 158 km racing

track without any help from human intelligence. In 1999, humanoid robots began to gain

popularity as well as the ability to walk around freely. Since then, AI has been playing a big role

in certain commercial markets and throughout the World Wide Web.

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GOALS

The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken down into a

number of specific sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers

would like an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most

attention.

1. Deduction, reasoning, problem solving:-

Human beings solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgements rather than the

conscious, step-by-step deduction that early AI research was able to model. AI has made some

progress at imitating this kind of "sub-symbolic" problem solving: embodied agent approaches

emphasize the importance of sensorimotor skills to higher reasoning; neural net research

attempts to simulate the structures inside the brain that give rise to this skill.

2. Knowledge representation:-

Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering are central to AI research. Many of the

problems machines are expected to solve will require extensive knowledge about the world.

Among the things that AI needs to represent are: objects, properties, categories and relations

between objects; situations, events, states and time; causes and effects; knowledge about

knowledge (what we know about what other people know) and many other, less well researched

domains.

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3. Planning:-

Intelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them. They need a way to visualize the

future and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or "value") of the available choices.

In classical planning problems, the agent can assume that it is the only thing acting on the world

and it can be certain what the consequences of its actions may be, if the agent is not the only

actor, it must periodically ascertain whether the world matches its predictions and it must change

its plan as this becomes necessary, requiring the agent to reason under uncertainty.

4. Natural language processing:-

Natural language processing gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages that

humans speak. A sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would enable natural

language user interfaces and the acquisition of knowledge directly from human written sources,

such as Internet texts.

5. Motion and manipulation:-

The field of robotics is closely related to AI. Intelligence is required for robots to be able to

handle such tasks as object manipulation and navigation, with sub-problems of localization,

mapping and motion planning or path planning.

6. Perception:-

Machine perceptions the ability to use input from sensors to deduce aspects of the world.

Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input. A few selected sub problems are speech

recognition facial recognition and object recognition.

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7. Social intelligence:-

Affective computing is the study and development of systems and devices that can recognize,

interpret, process, and simulate human affects. A motivation for the research is the ability to

simulate empathy. The machine should interpret the emotional state of humans and adapt its

behavior to them, giving an appropriate response for those emotions. Emotion and social skills

play two roles for an intelligent agent.

8. General intelligence:-

Most researchers think that their work will eventually be incorporated into a machine with

general intelligence, combining all the skills above and exceeding human abilities at most or all

of them. A few believe that anthropomorphic features like artificial consciousness or an artificial

brain may be required for such a project. Many of the problems above may require general

intelligence to be considered solved.

LIMITATIONS

The artificial intelligence (AI) race has taken on the portentous public relations spectre of the

Soviet-USA race to the moon, or to build the first atomic bomb. Periodic announcements of

milestone achievements confuse many because few understand what it means for an algorithm to

pass a test reading literature.

One of the main limitation of AI is the cost. Creation of smart technologies can be expensive,

due to their complex nature and the need for repair and ongoing maintenance.

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Other AI limitations relate to:

 Implementation times, which are often lengthy

 Integration challenges and lack of understanding of the state-of-the-art systems

 Usability and interoperability with other systems and platforms

CATEGORIES OF A.I

AI divides into two schools of thought:

1. Conventional AI.

2. Computational Intelligence (CI).

1. Conventional AI:-

Conventional AI mostly involves methods now classified as machine learning, characterized by

formalism and statistical analysis. This is also known as symbolic AI, logical AI, neat AI and

Good Old Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI).

Methods:

 Expert systems: apply reasoning capabilities to reach a conclusion. An expert system can process

large amounts of known information and provide conclusions based on them.

 Case based reasoning.

 Bayesian networks.

 Behavior based AI: a modular method of building AI systems by hand.

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2. Computational Intelligence (CI):-

Computational Intelligence involves iterative development or learning (e.g. parameter tuning e.g.

in connectionist systems). Learning is based on empirical data and is associated with non-

symbolic AI, scruffy AI and soft computing.

Methods:

Neural networks: systems with very strong pattern recognition capabilities. Fuzzy systems:

techniques for reasoning under uncertainty, has been widely used in modern industrial and

consumer product control systems. Evolutionary computation: applies biologically inspired

concepts such as populations, mutation and survival of the fittest to generate increasingly better

solutions to the problem. These methods most notably divide into evolutionary algorithms (e.g.

genetic algorithms) and swarm intelligence (e.g. ant algorithms).

TYPICAL PROBLEMS OF AI:-

 Pattern recognition

o Optical character recognition

o Handwriting recognition

o Speech recognition

o Face recognition

 Natural language processing, Translation and Chatter bots

 Non-linear control and Robotics

 Computer vision, Virtual reality and Image processing

 Game theory and Strategic planning

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FIELDS IN WHICH AI METHODS ARE IMPLEMENTED:-

Automation:-

It is the use of machines, control systems and information technologies to optimize productivity

in the production of goods and delivery of services. The correct incentive for applying

automation is to increase productivity, and/or quality beyond that possible with current human

labor levels so as to realize economies of scale, and/or realize predictable quality levels.

Automation greatly decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements while

increasing load capacity, speed, and repeatability.

Cybernetics:-

It in some ways is like the science of organization, with special emphasis on the dynamic nature

of the system being organized. The human brain is just such a complex organization which

qualifies for cybernetic study. It has all the characteristics of feedback, storage, etc. and is also

typical of many large businesses or Government departments. Cybernetics is that of artificial

intelligence, where the aim is to show how artificially manufactured systems can demonstrate

intelligent behavior.

Hybrid intelligent system:-

Hybridization of different intelligent systems is an innovative approach to construct

computationally intelligent systems consisting of artificial neural network, fuzzy inference

systems, rough set, approximate reasoning and derivative free optimization methods such as

evolutionary computation, swarm intelligence, bacterial foraging and so on. The integration of

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different learning and adaptation techniques, to overcome individual limitations and achieve

synergetic effects through hybridization or fusion of these techniques, has in recent years

contributed to an emergence of large number of new superior class of intelligence known as

Hybrid Intelligence.

Automated reasoning:-

The study of automated reasoning helps produce software that allows computers to reason

completely, or nearly completely, automatically. Although automated reasoning is considered a

sub-field of artificial intelligence, it also has connections with theoretical computer science, and

even philosophy.

Behavior-based robotics:-

Behavior-based robotics is a branch of robotics that bridges artificial intelligence, engineering

and cognitive science.

Knowledge Representation:-

Knowledge representation (KR) is an area of artificial intelligence research aimed at representing

knowledge in symbols to facilitate inferencing from those knowledge elements, creating new

elements of knowledge. The KR can be made to be independent of the underlying knowledge

model or knowledge base system (KBS) such as a semantic network.

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APPLICATIONS OF A.I

Artificial intelligence has been used in a wide range of fields including medical diagnosis, stock

trading, robot control, law, scientific discovery and toys.

 Hospitals and medicine:-

 Heavy industry:-

 Game Playing :-

 Speech Recognition :-

 Understanding Natural Language :-

 Computer Vision :-

 Expert Systems :-

 Heuristic Classification :-

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FUTURE SCOPE

 In the next 10 years technologies in narrow fields such as speech recognition will continue to

improve and will reach human levels.

 In 10 years AI will be able to communicate with humans in unstructured English using text or

voice, navigate (not perfectly) in an unprepared environment and will have some rudimentary

common sense (and domain-specific intelligence).

 We will recreate some parts of the human (animal) brain in silicon. The feasibility of this is

demonstrated by tentative hippocampus experiments in rats, there are two major projects aiming

for human brain simulation, CCortex and IBM Blue Brain.

 There will be an increasing number of practical applications based on digitally recreated aspects

human intelligence, such as cognition, perception, rehearsal learning, or learning by repetitive

practice.

 The development of meaningful artificial intelligence will require that machines acquire some

variant of human consciousness.

 Systems that do not possess self-awareness and sentience will at best always be very brittle.

 Without these uniquely human characteristics, truly useful and powerful assistants will remain a

goal to achieve. To be sure, advances in hardware, storage, parallel processing architectures will

enable ever greater leaps in functionality

 Systems that are able to demonstrate conclusively that they possess self-awareness, language

skills, surface, shallow and deep knowledge about the world around them and their role within it

will be needed going forward.

 However the field of artificial consciousness remains in its infancy.

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CONCLUSION

We conclude that if the machine could successfully pretend to be human to a knowledgeable

observer then you certainly should consider it intelligent. AI systems are now in routine use in

various field such as economics, medicine, engineering and the military, as well as being built

into many common home computer software applications, traditional strategy games etc. AI is an

exciting and rewarding discipline. AI is branch of computer science that is concerned with the

automation of intelligent behavior. The revised definition of AI is - AI is the study of

mechanisms underlying intelligent behavior through the construction and evaluation of artifacts

that attempt to enact those mechanisms. So it is concluded that it work as an artificial human

brain which have an unbelievable artificial thinking power.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Programs with Common Sense:-

John McCarthy, In Mechanization of Thought Processes, Proceedings of the Symposium of the

National Physics Laboratory, 1959.

Artificial Intelligence, Logic and Formalizing Common Sense:-

Richmond Thomason, editor, Philosophical Logic and Artificial Intelligence. Klüver Academic,

1989.

Logic and artificial intelligence:-

Richmond Thomason.

In Edward N. Zalta, editor, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Fall 2003.

http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2003/entries/logic-ai/.

Artificial Intelligence a Modern Approach

Russell, Stuart and Norvig, Peter

The second edition of a standard (and very substantial) university-level textbook on AI.

2003

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REFERENCES:

www.google.com

www.wikipedia.com

http://www.aaai.org/

http://ww0w-formal.stanford.edu/

http://insight.zdnet.co.uk/hardware/emergingtech/

http://www.genetic-programming.com/

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