Name : Mulya Fitriyasa

NIM : D202173013

D’Alembert’s principle and applications

1.1 D’Alembert’s principle

The principle of virtual work states that the sum of the incremental virtual works done by
all external forces F i acting in conjunction with virtual displacements s i of the point on
which the associated force is acting is zero:
X
W= F i si = 0: (1.1.1)
i

This technique is useful for solving statics problems, with static forces of constraint. A
static force of constraint is one that does no work on the system of interest, but merely
holds a certain part of the system in place.
In a statics problem there are no accelerations. We can extend the principle of virtual
work to dynamics problems, i.e., ones in which real motions and accelerations occur, by
introducing the concept of inertial forces. For each parcel of matter in the system with
mass m, Newton’s second law states that
F = ma: (1.1.2)
We can make this dynamics problem look like a statics problem by defining an inertial force

F = ma (1.1.3)
and rewriting equation (1.1.2) as

F total = F + F = 0: (1.1.4)
D’Alembert’s principle is just the principle of virtual work with the inertial forces added to
the list of forces that do work:
X X
W= Fi si + Fj sj = 0: (1.1.5)
i j
 R φ

MG
S

Figure 1.1.1: Sketch of bead of mass m sliding frictionlessly on a vertical hoop of radius
R under the influence of gravity.

1.1.1 Mass falling under gravity

A trivial example would be a mass m falling under the e ffect of a constant gravitational
field g. With z positive upward, the force on the mass is mg and the work due to this
2 2
force under vertical displacement z is W G = mg z. The inertial force is m(d z=dt ) and
2 2
the work is WI = m(d z=dt ) z. Setting the sum of the two to zero gives us

2 2 2 2
mg z m(d z=dt ) z = mg + m(d z=dt ) z = 0; (1.1.6)
from which we infer the expected result
2
d z = g: (1.1.7)
2

dt
D’Alembert’s principle offers no advantages over normal procedures in this case.
However, it becomes more economical in problems with constraints.

1.1.2 Bead on frictionless vertical hoop

Figure 1.1.1 illustrates the slightly more interesting problem of a bead sliding
frictionlessly around a vertically oriented hoop of wire. Here the force of gravity is not in
the direction of motion. The component of gravity normal to the hoop does no work on
the bead. Nor does the force of the hoop on the bead that constrains the bead to move
in a circle. The work on the bead due to gravity for a small displacement s = R along the
wire is WG = mgR sin . The acceleration of the bead also has two components, a radial
2
component ar = v =R, where the tangential velocity is v = ds=dt = R(d =dt), and a
2 2 2 2
tangential component at = d s=dt = R(d =dt ). The radial component of the inertial
2 2 2
force mv =R does no work. However, the tangential component ma t = mR(d =dt )
2 2 2 2 2
does: WI = mR(d =dt ) s = mR (d =dt ) . D’Alembert’s principle thus gives us
mgR sin mR2(d2 =dt2) =0 (1.1.8)
 S

M
M

Figure 1.1.2: Sketch of Atwood’s machine.

from which we get the governing equation

2
d g sin
2 +
= 0: (1.1.9)
dt R
(This could equally well have been expressed in terms of s rather than .)

1.1.3 Atwood’s machine

D’Alembert’s principle makes the venerable Atwood’s machine, illustrated in figure 1.1.2,
trivial to analyze. The state of the machine is determined by the positions of the two
masses along the U-shaped coordinate s looping over the frictionless pulley with the
string. The work done by gravity on the left-hand mass under the displacement s is W L
= mg s, while the gravity acting on the right-hand mass produces work W R = +M g s.
2 2
The inertial work on the two masses gives WI = (M + m)(d s=dt ) s, resulting in

2 2
W = (M m)g (M + m)(d s=dt ) s = 0 (1.1.10)
Or
2
ds M m
2 =g : (1.1.11)
dt M +m
Note that the force of constraint by the pulley (which is assumed to be free to rotate but
held rigidly in place and with negligible moment of inertia) does not enter the problem at
all.

1.2 Distributed forces

So far we have dealt with a limited number of forces that each act at a point on the
system of interest. However, forces like gravity as well as inertial forces act on each
mass point in the system, making the calculation of the virtual work more complex.
 DR
F
R
R
Dφ I φ

MASS ELEMENT

FIXED AXIS

Figure 1.2.1: Sketch for rotating disk with angular acceleration.

1.2.1 Falling mass reconsidered

Let’s return to the simple case of a mass falling in a uniform gravitational field. If the
mass is extended but not rotating, the vertical displacement of each mass element m i is
the same: z. The work due to gravity on each point is therefore the same: W Gi = mig z.
In this case the work due to the inertial force associated with the vertical acceleration is
2 2
also simple: WIi = mi(d z=dt ) z where we have recognized that the accelerations
2 2
associated with each point d zi=dt are all the same as that of some reference point z
fixed to the object. There are also forces exerted on each mass element by neighboring
mass elements that do work. However, as we now sum over all mass elements, these
internal forces cancel by virtue of Newton’s third law. Performing this sum, we find that
X
2 2 2 2
W= g + d z=dt mi z = g + d z=dt m z; (1.2.1)
i

where m is the total mass of the object. This gives rise to the expected result
2
d z = g: (1.2.2)
2

dt

1.2.2 Rotating disk and moment of inertia

Figure 1.2.1 shows a rotating disk with angular acceleration induced by a force F applied on
the right side of the disk. The work done by the force with an angular displacement is W F
2 2
= RF . the work done by the inertial force on mass element dm i is WIi = dmiri(d =dt )ri
where ri is the radius at which the mass element is located. Ignoring
internal forces between mass elements as before, the total virtual work is therefore
" #
X
2 2 2
W= RF dmiri (d =dt ) (1.2.3)
i
 y center of mass

(x’,y’)

(X,Y)
(x,y) mass
element x

Figure 1.2.2: Sketch for parallel axis theorem. The fixed point denoted by the cross
becomes the center of mass.

and the governing equation is

2
I d = RF 2
(1.2.4)
dt
where the moment of inertia is

X
I = i dmiri2: (1.2.5)
Using the methods of calculus, we write dm i = ridrd dz where the (constant) mass den-
sity is and the variable z is normal to the page. Upon letting the di fferentials become
infinitesimal, I becomes
4
w 2 R wR
Z 3
Z
I= 0 Z 0 0 r drd dz = 2 ; (1.2.6)
where w is the thickness of the disk. Recognizing that the mass of the disk is M = R 2w ,
elimination of the density results in
M R2
: I= (1.2.7)
2
The moments of inertia for other common shapes may be obtained by similar methods.

1.2.3 Parallel axis theorem

In the above case the moment of inertia was calculated about the center of mass of the
disk. Sometimes we need to make this calculation for rotations about some other point.
The parallel axis theorem shows how to do this once the moment of inertia about the
center of mass has been calculated.
Referring to figure 1.2.2, the moment of inertia about the origin of the illustrated mass,
which is in the form of an irregularly shaped plate of thickness h normal to the page, is
Z ZZ ZZ
I=h r2dm = h r2 dxdy = h (x2 + y2) dxdy; (1.2.8)
where in general the density (x; y) may depend on position in the plane and where the
0 0
bounds on the integral extend over the mass. Let us substitute (x; y) = (X; Y ) + (x ; y )
where (X; Y ) points to a fixed location. The above integral then becomes
ZZ
I =(X2 + Y 2)h dxdy
ZZ
+2h (Xx0 + Y y0) dx0dy0

ZZ
+h (x02 + y02) dx0dy0: (1.2.9)
0 0
(The change of variables in the integral is trivial, as dx = dx and dy = dy .) The first
term on the right side of the equals sign is just the mass M of the object times the
2 2 2
square of the distance from the origin to the fixed point R = X + Y . The third term is
the moment of inertia about the fixed point. Anticipating that this point will become the
center of mass, we donote the moment of inertia about this point I CM .
The second term can be written in the form of a dot product
ZZ
0 0 0 0
2(X; Y ) h (x ; y ) dx dy (1.2.10)

which must be zero for all choices of the original origin if (X; Y ) is to become the location of
0 0
the center of mass. To see why this is so, substitute (x ; y ) = (x; y) (X; Y ) in the integral
in equation (1.2.10) and change from primed to unprimed integrand variables:
ZZ ZZ
h (x; y) dxdy (X; Y )h dxdy = 0: (1.2.11)

The coefficient of (X; Y ) is just the mass of the object, whereas the first term is just the mass times mass-weighted
average of (x; y). This is just the mass times the center of mass,
and therefore
h
ZZ
(X;Y) = M (x; y) dxdy (1.2.12)
is just the position of the center of mass. Equation (1.2.9) becomes
2
I =MR +ICM (1.2.13)
a statement of the parallel axis theorem: the moment of inertia about an arbitrary axis
(for a rotation axis normal to the x-y plane) is just the moment of inertia for rotations
about the center of mass (also normal to the x-y plane) plus the mass times the square
of the distance between the arbitrary axis and the center of mass.

1.2.4 Disk rolling down ramp

The problem of a disk rolling down a ramp under the influence of gravity can be solved
economically using the parallel axis theorem. Two real forces act on the disk, gravity and
 S M
R
θ A
φ
P

Figure 1.2.3: Sketch of a disk rolling down a ramp.

the force (with normal and tangential components) of the ramp on the disk. Since in rolling
motion the point P on the disk in contact with the ramp (see figure 1.2.3) is not moving, the
force of the ramp on the disk is one of constraint and does no work. Since the point
P is stationary, the motion of the disk over a short interval can be expressed as a rotation
about the point P . The work done by the gravitational force as the disk moves a distance s
down the ramp is WG = M g sin s = M gR sin and the work due to the integral of
2 2
the inertial force acting on all pieces of the disk is W I = I(d =dt ) in analogy with the disk
in section 1.2.2, where the moment of inertia is that appropriate for rotation about the
point P in figure 1.2.3. Using the parallel axis theorem, we have
2
2 MR
I=MR + (1.2.14)
2
and hence
2 2
3M R d
2
W = M gR sin 2 dt = 0: (1.2.15)
Noting that ds = Rd , this leads to the governing equation
2
d s 2g sin
2 = : (1.2.16)
dt 3
Thus, the acceleration down the ramp in rolling motion is less than would be expected
from frictionless sliding, g sin .

1.2.5 Motion of solid bodies in two dimensions

The inertial virtual work in general for a solid body in two-dimensional rotation and trans-
lation can be written as the sum of the works for each mass element of the solid:
2

X d r
WI = i mi dt 2i ri (1.2.17)
where ri is the position vector of the ith mass element. Let us make an initially arbitrary
split of this position vector as follows:

0
ri = R + r i (1.2.18)
where R represents a pivot point, to be chosen later. Substituting this into equation (1.2.17) results in a rather
complex expression
WI = i mi dt2 R + dt2 r0 + dt2 0 R + dt20 r0 :
d2R d2R d2r d2r
X (1.2.19)

This can be reduced to

2 2 2 0 2 0
d R d R d rCM d ri
(1.2.20)
2 2 0 2 2 0
W I= M dt R M dt rCM M dt R Xi mi dt ri
where the position of the center of mass relative to the pivot point is
0 1X 0
r = m ir :
(1.2.21)
CM M i

We are now faced with choosing a pivot point that simplifies equation (1.2.20). The most
obvious choice is to take the pivot point as the center of mass of the object. With this
0
choice, r CM = 0, since the position of the center of mass relative to the center of mass
is the zero vector. In this case, the inertial virtual work is
2 2
d RCM d
2
I 2
W I= M dt RCM CM dt (1.2.22)
where RCM is the position of the center of mass of the object relative to the original origin. The
first term in equation (1.2.22) is the virtual inertial work that would occur if all of the mass were
concentrated at the center of mass. The second term is the virtual work for rotations about the
center of mass, such as was computed in section 1.2.2. The variable I CM is the moment of
inertia about the center of mass and is the corresponding rotation angle.
Another choice that is useful in certain situations occurs when the pivot point R is fixed
2 2
in space, so that d R=dt = 0 and R = 0. If the mass element located at the pivot point is
instantaneously stationary, then equation (1.2.20) reduces to
2
W I= I d (1.2.23)
2

dt
at that instant, as was done in section 1.2.4 for the disk rolling down the ramp. In that
case the pivot point is the point of contact of the disk with the ramp at a particular time
and the moment of inertia I is that appropriate to rotations about that point. Since R is
fixed, all of the motion of each mass element is contained in changes in r i with time.
In section 1.2.4 we implicitly assumed that the gravitational force, which acts separately
on each mass element of the disk, can be considered to act solely on the center of
mass, i.e., the center of the disk. This seems obvious in the case of a disk, but is less
obvious for a more irregularly shaped object. We now prove that the gravitational force
effectively acts on the center of mass of an object regardless of its shape.
 Fa Fa

stationary moving
v
N N

Fs Fk

Figure 1.3.1: Two cases of friction. On the left the object is stationary and the frictional
force Fs is in balance with the applied force F a. On the right the object is moving and the
frictional force Fk is related to the normal force on the object N. The applied force is not
necessarily equal to the frictional force.

The total gravitational work due to small virtual displacements of mass elements can be
written

X
WG = i dmig ri
=Mg RCM (1.2.24)
since the mass-weighted average of the positions of mass elements is simply the center
of mass. One note of caution: The above result holds for any force that acts uniformly
across the body in question. However, if the force is non-uniform, then the resulting
virtual work is more complex. An important example is the total gravitational force on a
body in a non-uniform gravitational field.