CURRENT SENSOR

INDEX

1. Introduction
2. Block diagram
3. Circuit diagram
4. Working
5. Component List
6. Component descriptions
7. Bibliography or References
Introduction

High-wattage like electric power loss if left 'on' for hours

unnoticed. Here is a circuit that senses the flow of current
through the appliances and gives audible beeps every fifteen
minutes to remind you of power-'on' status.
This is a non-contact version of current monitor and can sense
the flow of current in high-current appliances from a distance
of up to 3 cm . It uses a standard step-down transformer (0-9V,
500mA) as the current sensor. Its secondary winding is left
open, while the primary winding ends are used to detect the
current. The primary ends of the transformer are connected to a
full-wave bridge rectifier comprising diodes D1 through D4.
The rectified output is connected to the non-inverting input of
IC 4017 andIC 4017 is a 4.5MHz BIMOS operational
amplifier with input and transistor output. It has gate-
protected transistors in the input to provide very high input
impedance (1.5 T-ohms), very low input current (10 pA) and
high-speed switching performance.The inverting input of IC1
is preset with VR1. In the standby mode, the primary of the
transformer accepts e.m.f. from the instrument or surrounding
atmosphere, which results in low-voltage input to IC1. This
low voltage at the non-inverting input keeps the output of IC1
low. Thus transistor T1 doesn't conduct and pin 12 of IC2 goes
high to disable IC2. As a result, the remaining part of the
circuit gets inactivated. When a high-current appliance is
switched on, there will be a current drain in the primary of the
transformer to the negative rail due to an increase in the e.m.f.
caused by the flow of current through the appliance. This
results in voltage rise at the non-inverting input and the output
of IC1 becomes high. This high output drives into conduction
and the reset pin of becomes low, which enables .is a 14-stage
ripple counter. It is used as a by feeding output to the for
through the intermediate circuitry. Resistors and along with
capacitormaintain the oscillations in as indicated by blinking
LED1. The high output from is used to activate a simple
oscillator comprising transistors T and resistors and , and
capacitor . When the output of becomes high, provides 3.1
volts to the base of transitor . Since Tis biased by a high-value
resistor it will not conduct immediately. Capacitor slowly
charges and when the voltage at the base of increases above
0.6 volt, it conducts. When conducts, the base of turns low and
it also conducts. connected to the collector of gives a short as
discharges. This sequence of output at Q9 becoming high and
conduction of and resulting in beep sound repeats at short
intervals.
Block diagram

Circuit diagram
Working

The ’HC4017 is a high speed silicon gate CMOS 5-stage

Johnson counter with 10 decoded outputs. Each of the decoded
outputs is normally low and sequentially goes high on the low
to high transition clock period of the 10 clock period cycle.
The CARRY (TC) output transitions low to high after
OUTPUT 10 goes from high to low, and can be used in
conjunction with the CLOCK ENABLE (CE) to cascade
several stages. The CLOCK ENABLE input disables counting
when in the high state. A RESET (MR) input is also provided
which when taken high sets all the decoded outputs, except
“0”, low. The device can drive up to 10 low power Schottky
equivalent loads. at is designed to produce an alternating
current in its secondary winding which is proportional to the
current being measured in its primary. Current transformers
reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and
provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the actual
electrical current flowing in an AC transmission line using a
standard ammeter. The principal of operation of a current
transformer is no different from that of an ordinary
transformer.

Typical Current Transformer

Unlike the voltage or power transformer looked at previously,
the current transformer consists of only one or very few turns
as its primary winding. This primary winding can be of either a
single flat turn, a coil of heavy duty wire wrapped around the
core or just a conductor or bus bar placed through a central
hole as shown.

Due to this type of arrangement, the current transformer is

often referred too as a "series transformer" as the primary
winding, which never has more than a very few turns, is in
series with the current carrying conductor.

The secondary winding may have a large number of coil turns

wound on a laminated core of low-loss magnetic material
which has a large cross-sectional area so that the magnetic flux
density is low using much smaller cross-sectional area wire,
depending upon how much the current must be stepped down.
This secondary winding is usually rated at a standard 1 Ampere
or 5 Amperes.

There are three basic types of current transformers: "wound",

"toroidal" and "bar".

 • Wound current transformers – The transformers

primary winding is physically connected in series with
the conductor that carries the measured current flowing
in the circuit. The magnitude of the secondary current
is dependent on the turns ratio of the transformer.
 • Toroidal current transformers – These do not contain a
primary winding. Instead, the line that carries the
current flowing in the network is threaded through a
window or hole in the toroidal transformer. Some
current transformers have a "split core" which allows it
to be opened, installed, and closed, without
disconnecting the circuit to which they are attached.
  • Bar-type current transformers – This type of current
transformer uses the actual cable or bus-bar of the main
circuit as the primary winding, which is equivalent to a
single turn. They are fully insulated from the high
operating voltage of the system and are usually bolted
to the current carrying device.

Current transformers can reduce or "step-down" current

levels from thousands of amperes down to a standard output of
a known ratio to either 5 Amps or 1 Amp for normal operation.
Thus, small and accurate instruments and control devices can
be used with CT's because they are insulated away from any
high-voltage power lines. There are a variety of metering
applications and uses for current transformers such as with
wattmeter's, power factor meters, watt-hour meters, protective
relays, or as trip coils in magnetic circuit breakers, or MCB's.

Features
• Fully Static Operation
• Buffered Inputs
• Common Reset
• Positive Edge Clocking
• Typical fMAX = 50MHz at VCC = 5V, CL = 15pF, TA =
25oC
• Fanout (Over Temperature Range)
- Standard Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 LSTTL Loads
- Bus Driver Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 LSTTL Loads
• Wide Operating Temperature Range . . . -55oC to 125oC
• Balanced Propagation Delay and Transition Times
• Significant Power Reduction Compared to LSTTL
Logic ICs
• HC Types
- 2V to 6V Operation
- High Noise Immunity: NIL = 30%, NIH = 30% of VCC

Applications
Automotive and Transportation Amplifiers
Communications and Telecom
Data Converters
Computers and Peripherals
Consumer Electronics
DSP
Energy and Lighting Clocks and Timers
Industrial
Interface
Medical
Logic
Security
Power Mgmt
Space, Avionics and Defense
Microcontrollers Video and Imaging
Component List

Ic 4017
Batt 9v
R 1k
Led
Pcb
Component descriptions

Resistors
Example:
Circuit symbol:
Function
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a
resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode (LED) to
limit the current passing through the LED.

Connecting and soldering

Resistors may be connected either way The Resistor
round. They are not damaged by heat Colour Code
when soldering. Colour Number
Resistor values - the resistor colour
code Black 0
Resistance is measured in ohms; the Brown 1
symbol for ohm is an omega .
1 is quite small so resistor values are Red 2
often given in k and M . Orange 3
1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 .
Resistor values are normally shown Yellow 4
using coloured bands. Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Each colour represents a number as
shown in the table. Grey 8
Most resistors have 4 bands: White 9
The first band gives the first digit.
The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance
(precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored for
almost all circuits but further details are given below.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros)

and gold bands.

So its value is 270000 = 270 k .

On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the
value is written 270K.
Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)
The standard colour code cannot show values of less
than 10 . To show these small values two special
colours are used for the third band: gold which
means × 0.1 and silver which means × 0.01. The first
and second bands represent the digits as normal.
For example:
Red, violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7
green, blue, silver bands represent
56 × 0.01 = 0.56
Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour
code)
The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the
colour code. Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is
given as a percentage. For example a 390 resistor with a
tolerance of ±10% will have a value within 10% of 390 ,
between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of
390).
A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
silver ±10%, gold ±5%, red ±2%, brown ±1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.
Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because
precise resistor values are rarely required.
Buzzer and Bleeper
These devices are output transducers converting
electrical energy to sound. They contain an internal
oscillator to produce the sound which is set at about
400Hz for buzzers and about 3 kHz for bleeper’s.
Buzzers have a voltage rating but it is only
approximate, for example 6V and 12V buzzers can be
used with a 9V supply. Their typical current is about
25mA.
Bleepers have wide
voltage ranges, such as 3-
30V, and they pass a low Inductor (miniature)
current of about 10mA.
Buzzers and beepers must
be connected the right
way round, their red lead
is positive (+).

Inductor (coil)
An inductor is a coil of circuit symbol
wire which may have a
core of air, iron or ferrite (a brittle material made from
iron). Its electrical property is called inductance and
the unit for this is the henry, symbol H. 1H is very
large so mH and µH are used, 1000µH = 1mH and
1000mH = 1H. Iron and ferrite cores increase the
inductance. Inductors are mainly used in tuned
circuits and to block high frequency AC signals (they
are sometimes called chokes). They pass DC easily,
but block AC signals; this is the opposite of
capacitors.
Inductors are rarely found in simple projects, but one
exception is the tuning coil of a radio receiver. This is
an inductor which you may have to make yourself by
neatly winding enameled copper wire around a ferrite
rod. Enameled copper wire has very thin insulation,
allowing the turns of the coil to be close together, but
this makes it impossible to strip in the usual way - the
best method is to gently pull the ends of the wire
through folded emery paper.

Warning: a ferrite rod is brittle so treat it like glass,

not iron!
An inductor may be connected either way round and
no special precautions are required when soldering.
Loudspeaker
Loudspeakers are output transducers which convert
an electrical signal to sound. Usually they are called
'speakers'. They require a driver circuit, such as a 555
astable or an audio amplifier, to provide a signal.
There is a wide range available, but for many
electronics projects a 300mW miniature loudspeaker
is ideal. This type is about 70mm diameter and it is
usually available with resistances of 8 and 64 . If a
project specifies a 64 speaker you must use this
higher resistance to prevent damage to the driving
circuit.
Most circuits used to drive loudspeakers produce an
audio (AC) signal which is combined with a constant
DC signal. The DC will make a large current flow
through the speaker due to its low resistance, possibly
damaging both the speaker and the driving circuit. To
prevent this happening a large value electrolytic
capacitor is connected in series with the speaker, this
blocks DC but passes audio (AC) signals.
Loudspeakers may be connected either way round
except in stereo circuits when the + and - markings on
their terminals must be observed to ensure the two
speakers are in phase.
Correct polarity must always be observed for large
speakers in cabinets because the cabinet may contain
a small circuit (a 'crossover network') which diverts
the high frequency signals to a small speaker (a
'tweeter') because the large main speaker is poor at
reproducing them.
Miniature loudspeakers can also be used as a
microphone and they work surprisingly well, certainly
good enough for speech in an intercom system for
example.

Diodes
Example:

Circuit symbol:

Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction.
The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in
which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical
version of a valve and early diodes were actually
called valves.
Forward Voltage Drop
Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way
through the diode, rather like a person pushing
through a door with a spring. This means that there is
a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called
the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all
normal diodes which are made from silicon. The
forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant
whatever the current passing through the diode so
they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage
graph).
Reverse Voltage
When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode
does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny
current of a few µA or less. This can be ignored in
most circuits because it will be very much smaller
than the current flowing in the forward direction.
However, all diodes have a maximum reverse
voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded
the diode will fail and pass a large current in the
reverse direction, this is called breakdown.
Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal
diodes which pass small currents of 100mA or less
and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents.
Connecting and soldering

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the

diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or -
for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!).
The cathode is marked by a line painted on the body.
Diodes are labelled with their code in small print; you
may need a magnifying glass to read this on small
signal diodes!
Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when
soldering, but the risk is small unless you are using a
germanium diode (codes beginning OA...) in which
case you should use a heat sink clipped to the lead
between the joint and the diode body. A standard
crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.
Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special
precautions are needed for soldering them.
Testing diodes
You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery,
resistor and LED) to check that a diode conducts in
one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to
test a rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a
signal diode because the large current passed by the
lamp will destroy the diode!

Signal diodes (small current)

Signal diodes are used to process information
(electrical signals) in circuits, so they are only
required to pass small currents of up to 100mA.
General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are
made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop of
0.7V.
Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower
forward voltage drop of 0.2V and this makes them
suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which
extract the audio signal from the weak radio signal.
For general use, where the size of the forward voltage
drop is less important, silicon diodes are better
because they are less easily damaged by heat when
soldering, they have a lower resistance when
conducting, and they have very low leakage currents
when a reverse voltage is applied.
Protection diodes for relays
Signal diodes are also used with relays to protect
transistors and integrated circuits from the brief high
voltage produced when the relay coil is switched off.
The diagram shows how a protection diode is
connected across the relay coil, note that the diode is
connected 'backwards' so that it will normally NOT
conduct. Conduction only occurs when the relay coil
is switched off, at this moment current tries to
continue flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly
diverted through the diode. Without the diode no
current could flow and the coil would produce a
damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep
the current flowing.

Rectifier diodes (large current)

Rectifier diodes are used in Maximum
power supplies to convert Maximum
Diode Reverse
alternating current (AC) to direct Current
Voltage
current (DC), a process called 1N4001 1A 50V
rectification. They are also used 1N4002 1A 100V
1N4007 1A 1000V
1N5401 3A 100V
1N5408 3A 1000V
elsewhere in circuits where a large current must pass
through the diode.
All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and
therefore have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. The
table shows maximum current and maximum reverse
voltage for some popular rectifier diodes. The
1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage circuits with
a current of less than 1A.

Bridge rectifiers
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make
a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is
one of them and it is available in special packages
containing the four diodes required. Bridge rectifiers
are rated by their maximum current and maximum
reverse voltage. They have four leads or terminals: the
two DC outputs are labelled + and -, the two AC
inputs are labelled .
Zener diodes
Example:
Circuit symbol:
a = anode, k = cathode

Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage.

They are designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable and
non-destructive way so that they can be used in
reverse to maintain a fixed voltage across their
terminals. The diagram shows how they are
connected, with a resistor in series to limit the current.
Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary
diodes by their code and breakdown voltage which
are printed on them. Zener diode codes begin BZX...
or BZY... Their breakdown voltage is printed with V
in place of a decimal point, so 4V7 means 4.7V for
example.
Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage
and maximum power:
The minimum voltage available is 2.7V.
Power ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Example:
Circuit symbol:
Function
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes
through them.
Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the

diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or -
for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!).
The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight
flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside
the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is
not an official identification method).
LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but
the risk is small unless you are very slow. No special
precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.

Testing an LED
Never connect an LED
directly to a battery or power
supply!
It will be destroyed almost
instantly because too much
current will pass through and
burn it out.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the
current to a safe value, for quick testing purposes a 1k
resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply
voltage is 12V or less. Remember to connect the
LED the correct way round!
Colours of LEDs

LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow,

green, and blue and white. Blue and white LEDs are
much more expensive than the other colours.
The colour of an LED is determined by the
semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the
'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are
available in uncolored packages which may be
diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water
clear'). The coloured packages are also available as
diffused (the standard type) or transparent.
Tri-colour LEDs

The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red

and a green LED combined in one package with three
leads. They are called tri-colour because mixed red
and green light appears to be yellow and this is
produced when both the red and green LEDs are on.
The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour
LED. Note the different lengths of the three leads.
The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for both
LEDs; the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to
the LEDs allowing each one to be lit separately, or
both together to give the third colour.
Bi-colour LEDs
A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse
parallel' (one forwards, one backwards) combined in
one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs
can be lit at one time and they are less useful than the
tri-colour LEDs described above.
Sizes, Shapes and Viewing
angles of LEDs
LEDs are available in a wide variety
of sizes and shapes. The 'standard'
LED has a round cross-section of LED Clip
5mm diameter and this is probably
the best type for general use, but
3mm round LEDs are also popular.
Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and
they are very easy to install on boxes by drilling a
hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will
help to hold the LED if necessary. LED clips are also
available to secure LEDs in holes. Other cross-section
shapes include square, rectangular and triangular.
Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with
resistors in timing circuits because it takes time for a
capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth
varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of
charge. They are also used in filter circuits because
capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they
block DC (constant) signals.
Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store
charge. A large capacitance means that more charge
can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads,
symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are
used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n
(nano) and p (pico):
µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F
n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because
there are many types of capacitor with different
labelling systems!
There are many types of capacitor but they can be
split into two groups, polarised and Unpolarised.
Each group has its own circuit symbol.
Polarised capacitors (large values, 1µF +)
Examples:

Circuit symbol:
Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must
be connected the correct way round, at least one of
their leads will be marked + or -. They are not
damaged by heat when soldering.
There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial
where the leads are attached to each end (220µF in
picture) and radial where both leads are at the same
end (10µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a
little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit
board.
It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors
because they are clearly printed with their capacitance
and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite
low (6V for example) and it should always be
checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. It
the project parts list does not specify a voltage;
choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than
the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible
minimum for most battery circuits.
Tantalum Bead Capacitors
Tantalum bead capacitors are polarised and have low
voltage ratings like electrolytic capacitors. They are
expensive but very small, so they are used where a
large capacitance is needed in a small size.
Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with
their capacitance, voltage and polarity in full.
However older ones use a colour-code system which
has two stripes (for the two digits) and a spot of
colour for the number of zeros to give the value in µF.
The standard colour code is used, but for the spot,
grey is used to mean × 0.01 and white means × 0.1 so
that values of less than 10µF can be shown. A third
colour stripe near the leads shows the voltage (yellow
6.3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V,
white 30V, pink 35V). The positive (+) lead is to the
right when the spot is facing you: 'when the spot is in

sight, the positive is to the right'.

For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68µF
For example: blue, grey, white spot means 6.8µF
For example: blue, grey, grey spot means 0.68µF

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to

1µF)

Examples:

Circuit symbol:
Small value capacitors are Unpolarised and may be
connected either way round. They are not damaged by
heat when soldering, except for one unusual type
(polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at
least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to
find the values of these small capacitors because there
are many types of them and several different labelling
systems!

Many small value capacitors have their value printed

but without a multiplier, so you need to use
experience to work out what the multiplier should be!
For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF.
Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the
decimal point:
For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code
A number code is often used on small
capacitors where printing is difficult:
the 1st number is the 1st digit,
the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the
capacitance in pF.
Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and
voltage rating.
 Colour Code
Colour Number
Black 0
For example: 102 means
1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!) Brown 1
For example: 472J means Red 2
4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% Orange 3
tolerance).
Yellow 4
Capacitor Colour Code
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for
many years. It is now obsolete, but of course there are
many still around. The colours should be read like the
resistor code, the top three colour bands giving the
value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th
band (voltage rating).
For example:
brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF =
0.01µF.
Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands,
so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band.
For example:
wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22µF.

Polystyrene Capacitors
This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is
normally printed without units. Polystyrene capacitors
can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the
polystyrene!) so you should use a heat sink (such as a
crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between
the capacitor and the joint.
Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6 series)
You may have noticed that capacitors are not
available with every possible value, for example 22µF
and 47µF are readily available, but 25µF and 50µF
are not!
Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make
capacitors every 10µF giving 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and
so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you
reach 1000? It would be pointless to make 1000,
1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these values
10 is a very small difference, too small to be
noticeable in most circuits and capacitors cannot be
made with that accuracy.
To produce a sensible range of capacitor values you
need to increase the size of the 'step' as the value
increases. The standard capacitor values are based on
this idea and they form a series which follows the
same pattern for every multiple of ten.
The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten)
10, 22, 47, then it continues 100, 220, 470, 1000,
2200, 4700, 10000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value
increases (values roughly double each time).
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten)
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, then it continues 100, 150, 220,
330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.

Notice how this is the E3 series with an extra value in

the gaps.
The E3 series is the one most frequently used for
capacitors because many types cannot be made with
very accurate values.
Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are
mostly used in radio tuning Variable Capacitor Symbol
circuits and they are
sometimes called 'tuning
capacitors'. They have very
small capacitance values,
typically between 100pF
and 500pF Variable Capacitor
(100pF = 0.0001µF). The
type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for
making small adjustments - see below) as well as the
main variable capacitor.
Many variable capacitors have very short spindles
which are not suitable for the standard knobs used for
variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be
wise to check that a suitable knob is available before
ordering a variable capacitor.
Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing
circuits because their capacitance is too small to be
practical and the range of values available is very
limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor
and a variable
resistor if it is
necessary to Trimmer Capacitor Symbol
vary the time
period.
Trimmer
capacitors
Trimmer
capacitors
(trimmers) are
Trimmer Capacitor
miniature
variable capacitors. They are designed to be mounted
directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when
the circuit is built.
A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to
adjust trimmers. The process of adjusting them
requires patience because the presence of your hand
and the tool will slightly change the capacitance of
the circuit in the region of the trimmer!
Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small
capacitances, normally less than 100pF. It is
impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they
are usually specified by their minimum and maximum
values, for example 2-10pF.

Multimeters
Multimeters are very useful test
instruments. By operating a multi-
position switch on the meter they can Liquid-Crystal Display
be quickly and easily set to be a (LCD)
voltmeter, an ammeter or an ohmmeter. They have
several settings (called 'ranges') for each type of meter
and the choice of AC or DC. Some multimeters have
additional features such as transistor testing and
ranges for measuring capacitance and frequency.
Choosing a multimeter
The photographs below show modestly priced multimeters
which are suitable for general electronics use, you should be
able to buy meters like these for less than £15. A digital
multimeter is the best choice for your first multimeter; even
the cheapest will be suitable for testing simple projects.
If you are buying an analogue multimeter make sure
it has a high sensitivity of 20k /V or greater on DC
voltage ranges, anything less is not suitable for
electronics. The sensitivity is normally marked in a
corner of the scale, ignore the lower AC value
(sensitivity on AC ranges is less important), the
higher DC value is the critical one. Beware of cheap
analogue multimeters sold for electrical work on cars
because their sensitivity is likely to be too low.
Digital multimeters
All digital meters contain a battery to
power the display so they use virtually
no power from the circuit under test.
This means that on their DC voltage
ranges they have a very high resistance
(usually called input impedance) of 1M
or more, usually 10M , and they are
very unlikely to affect the circuit under
test.

Digital Multimeter
Typical ranges for digital multimeters like the one
illustrated: (the values given are the maximum reading on
each range)
DC Voltage: 200mV, 2000mV, 20V, 200V, 600V.
AC Voltage: 200V, 600V.
DC Current: 200µA, 2000µA, 20mA, 200mA, 10A*.
*The 10A range is usually unused and connected via a
special socket.
AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to
measure this).
Resistance: 200 , 2000 , 20k , 200k , 2000k ,
Diode Test.
Digital meters have a special diode test setting
because their resistance ranges cannot be used to test
diodes and other semiconductors.

Multimeters are easily

damaged by careless use so
please take these precautions:
Always disconnect the
multimeter before adjusting the Circuit symbol for a relay
range switch.
Always check the setting of the
range switch before you connect
to a circuit.
Never leave a multimeter set to a
current range (except when
actually taking a reading).
The greatest risk of damage is on the
current ranges because the meter has a
low resistance.
Relays

Relays
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current
flowing through the coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the
switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so
relays have two switch positions and they are double
throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit
which can be completely separate from the first. For
example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay
to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no
electrical connection inside the relay between the two
circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current,
typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much
as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current
and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC
current to the larger value required for the relay coil.
The maximum output current for the popular 555
timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay
coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have
many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays
with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily
available.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you
can solder wires directly to the pins providing you
take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's
connections. The coil will be obvious and it may be
connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief
high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and
this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To
prevent damage you must connect a protection diode
across the relay coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its
coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the
left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is
switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts.
There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground
and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.

The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC

and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this; it is
the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to
this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to
this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched
circuit to be on when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched
circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.

STEP TAKEN WHILE PREPARING CIRCUIT

The main purpose of printed circuit is in the

routing of electric currents and signals
through thin copper layer that is bounded
firmly to and insulating base material some
times called the substrata. This base is
manufactured with an integral bounded layer
of thin copper foil which has to be partly
etched or other wise removed to arrive at a
pre-designed pattern to suite the circuit
connections.

From the constructors point of view the main

attraction of using PCB is its role as the
mechanical support for small components.
There is less need for complicated and time
consuming metal work or chassis construction
except perhaps in providing the [mal
enclosure. Most straight forward circuit
designs can be easily converted into printed
wiring layout the thorough required to carry
out the conversion can often highlights any
possible error that would otherwise be missed
in convention point to point wiring. The
finished project is usually neater and truly a
work of art.
Through proper design of PCB can get
noise immunity. The fabrication process of
the printed circuit board will determine to a
large extent the price and reliability of the
equipment. A common target aimed at is the
fabrication of small series of highly reliable
professional quality PCBs with low
investment cost.
There are two types of PCB:-
Single sided board
Double sided board

Single sided board

The single sided PCBs are mostly used in
endearment electronics where manufacturing
costs have to be kept at a minimum however
in industrial electronics. Also cast factors
cannot be neglected and single sided boards
should be used whenever a particular circuit
can be accommodated on such boards.

Double sided boards

Double sided PCBs can be made with or
without plated through holes. The production
of boards with plated-through holes is fairly
expensive. Therefore, plated through hole
boards are only chosen where the circuit
complexity and density dose not leave any
other choice.

LAYOUT DESIGN
The layout of a PCB has to incorporate all the
information on the board before one can go on
to the artwork preparation. This means that a
concept, which clearly defines all the details
of the circuit, is a prerequisite before the
actual layout can start. The detailed circuit
diagram is varying important for the layout
designer but the must also be familiar with
the design concept and with the philosophy
behind the equipment. When designing the
layout one should observe the minimum size
(component body length and weight). Before
starting to design the layout have all the
required components to hand so that an
accurate assessment of space can be made
care must be taken so as to allow for adequate
air flow after the components have been
mounted.
It might be necessary to turn some
components round to a different angular
position so that terminals are closer to the
connections of other components. The scale
can be checked by positioning the components
on the squad paper. If any connection crosses,
then one can reroute to avoid such condition.
All common or earth lines should ideally be
connected to a common line routed around the
perimeter of the layout this will act as the
ground plane. If possibly try to route the
outer supply line ground plane. If possibly try
to route the other supply lines around the
apposite edge of the layout or through the
center. The first step is to rearrange the
circuit to eliminate the crossover without
altering the circuit detail in any way.

Plan the layout as if looking at the top side of

the board first this should be translated in
reverse later for the etching pattern. Larger
areas are recommended to maintain good
copper adhesive. It is important to bear in
mind always that copper track width must be
at least to the recommended minimum
dimensions and allowance must be made for
increased width where termination holes are
needed from this aspect it can become little
tricky to negotiate the route for connections
to small transistors. One can effect the copper
interconnection pattern in the under side of
the board in a way described below Make the
interconnections pattern looking like
conventional point to point writing by routing
uniform width of copper from component to
component

ETCHING PROCESS

Etching process requires the use of chemicals,

acid resistant dishes and a running water
supply. Ferric chloride is the maximum used
solution, but other enchants such as
ammonium sulphate can be used.

Nitric acid can also be used but in general it

is not used due to the poisonous fumes. The
pattern prepared is glued to the copper
surface of the board using a latex type of
adhesive that can be cubed after use. The
pattern is laid firmly on the copper, use vary
sharp knife to cut round the pattern carefully
and remove the paper corresponding to the
required copper pattern areas. Then apply the
resist solution clean outlines as for as
possible. While the board is drying to test all
components. Before going to the next stage,
check the whole pattern and cross check
against the circuit diagram check for any
foreign matter on the copper. The etching bath
should be in a glass or enamel disk. If using
crystal of ferric chloride these should be
thoroughly dissolved in water to the
proportion suggested. There should be 0.5 Lt.
Of water for 125 gm of crystal. The board is
then immersed in FeCl3 solution for 12 hours,
in this process only the non hidden copper
portion is etched out by the solution.

2FeCl3 + 2H2O + 3Cu 0 3CuCl2 + 2Fe (OH)

2

Waste liquid should be thoroughly diluted and

buried in water land never pour down the
drain. To prevent particles of copper
hindering further etching, agitate the
solutions carefully by gently twisting or
rocking the tray. The board should not be left
in the bath a moment longer than is needed to
remove just the right amount of cooper. In
spite of there being a resist coating, there is
no protection against etching away through
exposed copper edges; this leads to over
etching. Have running water ready so that the
etched board can be removed properly and
rinsed; this will halt etching immediate.

Now the paint is washed out by the petrol.

Now the copper layout on PCB is rubbed with
a smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such
that only the oxide layers over the Cu is
removed. Now the holes are drilled at the
respective places, according to component
layout as shown in figure. Drilling is one of
those operation that calls for great care,
because most of the holes will be made and
vary small drill. For most purpose a no. 60
drill all holes with this size first those that
need to be larger can be easily drilled again
with the appropriate large size.

COMPONENT ASSEMBLY

There should be no damage, such as hair line

crack in the copper on PCB that could have a
serious effect on the operational ability of the
completed assembly holes.

If there are, than they can and should be

repaired first, by soldering a short link of
bare copper wire over the affected part. The
most popular method of holding all the items
is to bend the wires further apart after they
have been inserted in the appropriate holes.
This will hold the component in position
ready for soldering.

Some component will be considerably larger

than others, occupying and possibly partly
obscuring component. Because of this, it is
best to start by mounting the smallest first
and progressing through to the largest, before
starting, makes certain that no further drilling
is likely to be necessary, because access may
be impossible later. When filling each group
of components, mark off each one on the
components list as it is fitted and, if we have
to leave the job, we will know where to
recommence.

Although transistors and integrated circuits

are small items, there are good reasons for
leaving the soldering of these until the last
step. The main point is that these components
are varying sensitive to heat and if subjected
to prolonged application of the soldering iron,
they could be internally damaged. All the
components before mounting are rubbed with
sand paper so that oxide layer is removed iron
their tips. Now they are mounted according to
the components layout.
Soldering Guide
How to Solder
First a few safety precautions:
Never touch the element or tip of the soldering
iron.
They are very hot (about 400°C) and will give you a
nasty burn.
Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex
with the tip of the iron.
The iron should have a heatproof flex for extra
protection. An ordinary plastic flex will melt
immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a
serious risk of burns and electric shock.
Always return the soldering iron to its stand when
not in use.
Never put it down on your workbench, even for a
moment!
Work in a well-ventilated area.
The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from
the flux and quite irritating. Avoid breathing it by
keeping you head to the side of, not above, your
work.
Wash your hands after using solder.
Solder contains lead which is a poisonous metal.
Preparing the soldering iron:
Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in.
The iron will take a few minutes to reach its operating
temperature of about 400°C.
Dampen the sponge in the stand.
The best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and
hold it under a cold tap for a moment, then squeeze to
remove excess water. It should be damp, not dripping
wet.
Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm
up.
You can check if it is ready by trying to melt a little
solder on the tip.
Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge.
This will clean the tip.
Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron.
This is called 'tinning' and it will help the heat to flow
from the iron's tip to the joint. It only needs to be
done when you plug in the iron, and occasionally
while soldering if you need to wipe the tip clean on
the sponge.
You are now ready to start soldering:

Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of

the handle.
Imagine you are going to write your name!
Remember to never touch the hot element or tip.
Touch the soldering iron onto the joint to be made.
Make sure it touches both the component lead and the
track. Hold the tip there for a few seconds and...
Feed a little solder onto the joint.
It should flow smoothly onto the lead and track to
form a volcano shape as shown in the diagram. Apply
the solder to the joint, not the iron.
Remove the solder, then the iron, while keeping the
joint still.
Allow the joint a few seconds to cool before you
move the circuit board.
Inspect the joint closely.
It should look shiny and have a 'volcano' shape. If not,
you will need to reheat it and feed in a little more
solder. This time ensure that both the lead
and track are heated fully before applying
solder.
Using a heat sink
Crocodile clip
Some components, such as transistors, can
be damaged by heat when soldering so if you are not
an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the
lead between the joint and the component body. You
can buy a special tool, but a standard crocodile clip
works just as well and is cheaper.
Soldering Advice for Components
It is very tempting to start soldering components onto
the circuit board straight away, but please take time to
identify all the parts first. You are much less likely to
make a mistake if you do this!
Stick all the components onto a sheet of paper
using sticky tape.
Identify each component and write its name or value
beside it.
Add the code (R1, R2, C1 etc.) if necessary.
Many projects from books and magazines label the
components with codes (R1, R2, C1, D1 etc.) and you
should use the project's parts list to find these codes if
they are given.
Resistor values can be found using the resistor colour
code which is explained on our Resistors page. You
can print out and make your own Resistor Colour
Code Calculator to help you.
Capacitor values can be difficult to find because
there are many types with different labelling systems!
The various systems are explained on our Capacitors
page.

Some components require special care when

soldering. Many must be placed the correct way
round and a few are easily damaged by the heat from
soldering. Appropriate warnings are given in the table
below, together with other advice which may be
useful when soldering.
For most projects it is best to put the components onto the
board in the order given below:
Reminders and
Components Pictures
Warnings
Connect the
correct way
round by
making sure the
Chip Holders
1 notch is at the
(DIL sockets)
correct end.
Do NOT put
the ICs (chips)
in yet.
No special
precautions are
2 Resistors
needed with
resistors.
These may be
connected
either way
round.
Small value
Take care with
capacitors
3 polystyrene
(usually less than
capacitors
1µF)
because they
are easily
damaged by
heat.
 Connect the
correct way
Electrolytic
round. They
4 capacitors
will be marked
(1µF and greater)
with a + or -
near one lead.
Connect the
correct way
round.
Take care with
germanium
5 Diodes
diodes (e.g.
OA91) because
they are easily
damaged by
heat.
6 LEDs Connect the
correct way
round.
The diagram
may be labelled
a or + for
anode and k or
- for cathode;
yes, it really is
k, not c, for
cathode! The
cathode is the
short lead and
there may be a
slight flat on
the body of
 round LEDs.
Connect the
correct way
round.
Transistors
have 3 'legs'
(leads) so extra
7 Transistors
care is needed
to ensure the
connections are
correct.
Easily damaged
by heat.
Use single core
wire; this is one
solid wire
which is
plastic-coated.
If there is no
danger of
Wire Links
touching other
8 between points on
single core parts you can
the circuit board.
wire use tinned
copper wire,
this has no
plastic coating
and looks just
like solder but
it is stiffer.
9 Battery clips, Connect the
buzzers and other correct way
parts with their own round.
 wires
You should use
stranded wire
which is
Wires to parts off flexible and
the circuit board, plastic-coated.
including switches, Do not use
10
relays, single core wire
variable resistors stranded wire because this
and loudspeakers. will break
when it is
repeatedly
flexed.
11 ICs (chips) Connect the
correct way
round.
Many ICs are
static sensitive.

Leave ICs in
their antistatic
packaging until
you need them,
then earth your
hands by
touching a
metal water
pipe or window
frame before
touching the
ICs.
Carefully
 insert ICs in
their holders:
make sure all
the pins are
lined up with
the socket then
push down
firmly with
your thumb.

What is solder?
Solder is an alloy (mixture) of tin and lead, typically
60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at a
temperature of about 200°C. Coating a
surface with solder is called 'tinning'
because of the tin content of solder.
Lead is poisonous and you should
always wash your hands after using
solder.
Solder for electronics use contains tiny
Reels of solder
cores of flux, like the wires inside a
mains flex. The flux is corrosive, like an acid, and it
cleans the metal surfaces as the solder melts. This is
why you must melt the solder actually on the joint,
not on the iron tip. Without flux most joints would fail
because metals quickly oxidize and the solder itself
will not flow properly onto a dirty, oxidized, metal
surface.
The best size of solder for electronics is 22swg (swg =
standard wire gauge).
Desoldering
At some stage you will probably need to desolder a
joint to remove or re-position a wire or component.
There are two ways to remove the solder:

1. With a desoldering pump (solder sucker)

Set the pump by pushing the spring-loaded plunger
down until it locks.
Apply both the pump nozzle and the tip of your
soldering iron to the joint.
Wait a second or two for the solder to melt.
Then press the button on the pump to release the
plunger and suck the molten solder into the tool.
Repeat if necessary to remove as much solder as
possible.
The pump will need emptying occasionally by
unscrewing the nozzle.
2. with solder remover wick (copper braid)
Apply both the end of the wick and the tip of your
soldering iron to the joint.
As the solder melts most of it will flow onto the wick,
away from the joint.
Remove the wick first, then the soldering iron.
Cut off and discard the end of the wick coated with
solder.
After removing most of the solder from the joint(s)
you may be able to remove the wire or component
lead straight away (allow a few seconds for it to cool).
If the joint will not come apart easily apply your
soldering iron to melt the remaining traces of solder at
the same time as pulling the joint apart, taking care to
avoid burning yourself.
First Aid for Burns
Most burns from soldering are likely to be minor and
treatment is simple:
Immediately cool the affected area under gently
running cold water.
Keep the burn in the cold water for at least 5 minutes
(15 minutes is recommended). If ice is readily
available this can be helpful too, but do not delay the
initial cooling with cold water.
Do not apply any creams or ointments.
The burn will heal better without them. A dry
dressing, such as a clean handkerchief, may be
applied if you wish to protect the area from dirt.
Seek medical attention if the burn covers an area
bigger than your hand.
To reduce the risk of burns:
Always return your soldering iron to its stand
immediately after use.
Allow joints and components a minute or so to cool
down before you touch them.
Never touch the element or tip of a soldering iron
unless you are certain it is cold.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.google.com
www.texas.com
www.efymeg.com
www.efy.com
www.micro.edu/echips.com
www.answers.com
www.google.com
www.national.com
www.ascom.com
www.electronicsconsulting.co.uk/
www.radarsystem.com
www.electronicsproject.com
www.scienceproject.com