Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Learning Objectives

After carefully reading this chapter, completing the exercises within it, and answering the questions at the end,
you should be able to:

• Describe the differences between cobbles, pebbles, sand, silt, and clay and explain the
relationship between clast size and the extent to which clasts can be transported by moving water
or by wind.
• Describe the characteristics of the various types of clastic sedimentary rock, including the
significance of differences in the composition of sandstones.
• Explain the differences in the characteristics and depositional environments of various types of
chemical sedimentary rocks.
• Differentiate between various sedimentary depositional environments in both terrestrial and
marine environments, and explain how the formation of sedimentary basins can be related to plate
tectonic processes.
• Apply your understanding of the features of sedimentary rocks, including grain characteristics,
sedimentary structures, and fossils, to the interpretation of past depositional environments and
climates.
• Explain the importance of and differences between groups, formations, and members.

180
181 Steven Earle

Figure 6.0.1 The Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation at Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, one the world’s most
important sites for dinosaur fossils. The rocks in the foreground show cross-bedding, indicative of deposition in a
fluvial (river) environment

In Chapter 5, we talked about weathering and erosion, which are the first two steps in the transformation
of existing rocks into sedimentary rocks. The remaining steps in the formation of sedimentary rocks
are transportation, deposition, burial, and lithification (Figure 6.0.2). Transportation is the movement of
sediments or dissolved ions from the site of erosion to a site of deposition; this can be by wind, flowing
water, glacial ice, or mass movement down a slope. Deposition takes place where the conditions change
enough so that sediments being transported can no longer be transported (e.g., a current slows). Burial
occurs when more sediments are piled onto existing sediments, and layers formed earlier are covered and
compacted. Lithification is what happens—at depths of hundreds to thousands of metres—when those
compacted sediments become cemented together to form solid sedimentary rock.
 Physical Geology - 2nd Edition 182

Figure 6.0.2 The rock cycle, showing the processes related to sedimentary rocks on the right-hand side.

In this textbook, we divide sedimentary rocks into two main types: clastic and chemical. Clastic
sedimentary rocks are mainly composed of material that has been transported as solid fragments (clasts).
Chemical sedimentary rocks are mainly composed of material that has been transported as ions in
solution. It’s important not to assume that mechanical weathering leads only to clastic sedimentary rocks,
while chemical weathering leads only to chemical sedimentary rocks. In most cases, millions of years
separate the weathering and depositional processes, and both types of sedimentary rocks tend to include
at least some material derived from both types of weathering.

Media Attributions

• Figures 6.0.1, 6.0.2: © Steven Earle. CC BY.

 6.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

1
A clast is a fragment of rock or mineral, ranging in size from less than a micron (too small to see) to
as big as an apartment block. Various types of clasts are shown in Figure 5.3.1 and in Exercise 5.3. The
smaller ones tend to be composed of a single mineral crystal, and the larger ones are typically composed
of pieces of rock. As we’ve seen in Chapter 5, most sand-sized clasts are made of quartz because quartz
is more resistant to weathering than any other common mineral. Many of the clasts that are smaller
than sand size (less than 1/16th millimetre) are made of clay minerals. Most clasts larger than sand size
(greater than 2 millimetres) are actual fragments of rock, and commonly these might be fine-grained
rock like basalt or andesite, or if they are bigger, coarse-grained rock like granite or gneiss. Sedimentary
rocks that are made up of “clasts” are called clastic sedimentary rocks. A comparable term is “detrital
sedimentary rocks”.

Grain-Size Classification

Geologists that study sediments and sedimentary rocks use the Udden-Wentworth grain-size scale for
describing the sizes of the grains in these materials (Table 6.1).

1. A micron is a millionth of a metre. There are 1,000 microns in a millimetre.

183
 6.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 184

Table 6.1 The Udden-Wentworth grain-size scale for classifying sediments and the grains that make up
sedimentary rocks

[Skip Table]

Type Description Size range (millimetres) Size range (microns)

large 1024 and up

Boulder medium 512 to 1024

small 256 to 512

large 128 to 256

Cobble
small 64 to 128

very coarse 32 to 64

coarse 16 to 32

Pebble (Granule) medium 8 to 16

fine 4 to 8

very fine 2 to 4

very coarse 1 to 2 1000 to 2000

coarse 0.5 to 1 500 to 1000

Sand medium 0.25 to 0.5 (1/4 to 1/2 mm) 250 to 500

fine 0.125 to 0.25 (1/8th to 1/4 mm) 125 to 250

very fine 0.063 to 0.125 (or 1/16th to 1/8th mm) 63 to 125

very course 32 to 63

course 16 to 32

Silt medium 8 to 16

fine 4 to 8

very fine 2 to 4

Clay clay 0 to 2

There are six main grain-size categories; five are broken down into subcategories, with clay being the
exception. The diameter limits for each successive subcategory are twice as large as the one beneath it.
In general, a boulder is bigger than a toaster and difficult to lift. There is no upper limit to the size of
2
boulder. A small cobble will fit in one hand, a large one in two hands. A pebble is something that you
could throw quite easily. The smaller ones—known as granules—are gravel size, but still you could

2. The largest known free-standing rock (i.e., not part of bedrock) is Giant Rock in the Mojave Desert, California. It’s about as big as an
apartment building—seven stories high!
185 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

throw one. You can’t really throw a single grain of sand. Sand ranges from 2 millimetres down to 0.063
millimetres, and its key characteristic is that it feels “sandy” or gritty between your fingers—even the
finest sand grains feel that way. Silt is essentially too small for individual grains to be visible, and while
sand feels sandy to your fingers, silt feels smooth to your fingers but gritty in your mouth. Clay is so fine
that it feels smooth even in your mouth.

Exercise 6.1 Describe the sediment on a beach

Providing that your landscape isn’t covered in deep snow at present, visit a beach somewhere nearby—an
ocean shore, a lake shore, or a river bank. Look carefully at the size and shape of the beach sediments. Are
they sand, pebbles, or cobbles? If they are not too fine, you should be able to tell if they are well rounded or
more angular.
The beach in Figure 6.1.1 is at Sechelt, B.C. Although there is a range of clast sizes, it’s mostly made up of
well-rounded cobbles interspersed with pebbles. This beach is subject to strong wave activity, especially when
winds blow across the Strait of Georgia from the south. That explains why the clasts are relatively large and
are well rounded.

Figure 6.1.1 Pebbles on an ocean beach at Sechelt, B.C.

See Appendix 3 for Exercise 6.1 answers.

If you drop a granule into a glass of water, it will sink quickly to the bottom (less than half a second). If
you drop a grain of sand into the same glass, it will sink more slowly (a second or two depending on the
 6.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 186

size). A grain of silt will take several seconds to get to the bottom, and a particle of fine clay may never
get there. The rate of settling is determined by the balance between gravity and friction, as shown in
Figure 6.1.2. Large particles settle quickly because the gravitational force (which is proportional to the
mass, and therefore to the volume of the particle) is much greater than the frictional resistance (which is
proportional to the surface area of the particle). For smaller particles the difference between gravitational
push and frictional resistance is less, so they settle slowly.

Small particles that settle slowly spend longer

suspended in the water, and therefore tend to get
moved farther than large particles if the water is
moving.

Transportation

One of the key principles of sedimentary geology

is that the ability of a moving medium (air or
water) to move sedimentary particles—and keep
them moving—is dependent on the velocity of Figure 6.1.2 The two forces operating on a grain of sand
flow. The faster the medium flows, the larger the in water. Gravity is pushing it down, and the friction
particles it can move. This is illustrated in Figure between the grain and the water is resisting that downward
6.1.3. Parts of the river are moving faster than force.
other parts, especially where the slope is greatest
and the channel is narrow. Not only does the velocity of a river change from place to place, but it changes
3
from season to season. During peak discharge at the location of Figure 6.1.3, the water is high enough
to flow over the embankment on the right, and it flows fast enough to move the boulders that cannot be
moved during low flows.

3. Discharge of a stream is the volume of flow passing a point per unit time. It’s normally measured in cubic metres per second (m3/s).
187 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 6.1.3 Variations in flow velocity on the Englishman River near Parksville, B.C. When the photo was taken the
river was not flowing fast enough anywhere to move the boulders and cobbles visible here. During flood events the
water flows right over the snow-covered bank on the right, and is fast enough to move boulders.

Clasts within streams are moved in several different ways, as illustrated in Figure 6.1.4. Large bed
load clasts are pushed (by traction) or bounced along the bottom (by saltation), while smaller clasts
are suspended in the water and kept there by the turbulence of the flow. As the flow velocity changes,
different-sized clasts may be either incorporated into the flow or deposited on the bottom. At various
places along a river, there are always some clasts being deposited, some staying where they are, and
some being eroded and transported. This changes over time as the discharge of the river changes in
response to changing weather conditions.
Other sediment transportation media, such as waves, ocean currents, and wind, operate under similar
principles, with flow velocity as the key underlying factor that controls transportation and deposition.
 6.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 188

Figure 6.1.4 Transportation of sediment clasts by stream flow. The larger clasts, resting on the bottom (bedload), are
moved by traction (sliding) or by saltation (bouncing). Smaller clasts are kept in suspension by turbulence in the flow.
Ions (depicted as + and – in the image, but invisible in real life) are dissolved in the water.

Clastic sediments are deposited in a wide range of environments, including glaciers, slope failures,
rivers—both fast and slow—lakes, deltas, and ocean environments—both shallow and deep. If the
sedimentary deposits last long enough to get covered with other sediments they may eventually form
into rocks ranging from fine mudstone to coarse breccia and conglomerate.
Lithification is the term used to describe a number of different processes that take place within a
deposit of sediment to turn it into solid rock (Figure 6.1.5). One of these processes is burial by other
sediments, which leads to compaction of the material and removal of some of the intervening water
and air. After this stage, the individual clasts are touching one another. Cementation is the process
of crystallization of minerals within the pores between the small clasts, and especially at the points of
contact between clasts. Depending on the pressure, temperature, and chemical conditions, these crystals
might include a range of minerals, the common ones being calcite, hematite, quartz and clay minerals.
189 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 6.1.5 Lithification turns sediments into solid rock. Lithification involves the compaction of sediments and then
the cementation of grains by minerals that precipitate from groundwater in the spaces between these grains. Source:
Karla Panchuk (2016) CC BY 4.0

The characteristics and distinguishing features of clastic sedimentary rocks are summarized in Table
6.2. Mudrock is composed of at least 75% silt- and clay-sized fragments. If it is dominated by clay,
it is called claystone. If it shows evidence of bedding or fine laminations, it is shale; otherwise, it is
mudstone. Mudrocks form in very low energy environments, such as lakes, river backwaters, and the
deep ocean.

Table 6.2 The main types of clastic sedimentary rocks and their characteristics.

[Skip Table]

Group Examples Characteristics

mudstone Greater than 75% silt and clay, not bedded

Mudrock
shale Greater than 75% silt and clay, thinly bedded

Dominated by fragments of partially decayed plant matter often enclosed between

Coal
beds of sandstone or mudrock.

quartz
Dominated by sand, greater than 90% quartz
sandstone

Sandstone arkose Dominated by sand, greater than 10% feldspar

lithic dominated by sand, greater than 10% rock fragments, greater than 15% silt and
wacke clay

Conglomerate Dominated by rounded clasts, granule size and larger

Breccia Dominated by angular clasts, granule size and larger

Most coal forms in fluvial or delta environments where vegetation growth is vigorous and where
decaying plant matter accumulates in long-lasting swamps with low oxygen levels. To avoid oxidation
 6.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 190

and breakdown, the organic matter must remain submerged for centuries or millennia, until it is covered
with another layer of either muddy or sandy sediments. It is important to note that in some textbooks
coal is described as an “organic sedimentary rock.” In this book, coal is included with the clastic rocks
for two reasons: first, because it is made up of fragments of organic matter; and second, because coal
seams (sedimentary layers) are almost always interbedded with layers of clastic rocks, such as mudrock
or sandstone. In other words, coal accumulates in environments where other clastic rocks accumulate.
It’s worth taking a closer look at the different
types of sandstone because sandstone is a
common and important sedimentary rock. Typical
sandstone compositions are shown in Figure
6.1.6. Sandstones are mostly made up of sand
grains of course, but they also include finer
material—both silt and clay. The term arenite
applies to a so-called clean sandstone, meaning
one with less than 15% silt and clay. Considering
the sand-sized grains only (the grains larger than
1
/16th mm), arenites with 90% or more quartz are
called quartz arenites. If they have more than
10% feldspar and more feldspar than rock
fragments, they are called feldspathic arenites or
arkosic arenites (or just arkose). If they have
more than 10% rock fragments, and more rock Figure 6.1.6 A compositional triangle for arenite
4 sandstones, with the three most common components of
fragments than feldspar, they are lithic arenites. sand-sized grains: quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments.
A sandstone with more than 15% silt or clay is Arenites have less than 15% silt or clay. Sandstones with
called a wacke (pronounced wackie). The terms more than 15% silt and clay are called wackes (e.g., quartz
quartz wacke, lithic wacke, and feldspathic wacke wacke, lithic wacke).
are used with limits similar to those on the arenite
diagram. Another name for a lithic wacke is greywacke.
Some examples of sandstones, magnified in thin section are shown in Figure 6.1.7. (A thin section is
rock sliced thin enough so that light can shine through.)

Figure 6.1.7 Microscope photos of three types of sandstone in thin-section. Some of the minerals are labelled:
Q=quartz, F=feldspar and L= lithic (rock fragments). The quartz arenite and arkose have relatively little silt-clay
matrix, while the lithic wacke has abundant matrix.

4. “Lithic” means “rock.” Lithic clasts are rock fragments, as opposed to mineral fragments.
191 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks in which a significant proportion of the clasts are larger than 2 millimetres are
known as conglomerate if the clasts are well rounded, and breccia if they are angular. Conglomerates
form in high-energy environments such as fast-flowing rivers, where the particles can become rounded.
Breccias typically form where the particles are not transported a significant distance in water, such as
alluvial fans and talus slopes. Some examples of clastic sedimentary rocks are shown on Figure 6.1.8.

Figure 6.1.8 Examples of various clastic sedimentary rocks. [Image Description]

Exercise 6.2 Classifying sandstones

 6.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 192

Table 6.3 below shows magnified thin sections of three sandstones, along with descriptions of their
compositions. Using Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1.6, find an appropriate name for each of these rocks.

Table 6.3 Classifying sandstones

Magnified Thin Section Description

Angular sand-sized grains are approximately 85% quartz

and 15% feldspar. Silt and clay make up less than 5% of
the rock.

Rounded sand-sized grains are approximately 99% quartz

and 1% feldspar. Silt and clay make up less than 2% of the
rock.

Angular sand-sized grains are approximately 70% quartz,

20% lithic, and 10% feldspar. Silt and clay make up about
20% of the rock.

See Appendix 3 for Exercise 6.2 answers.

193 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Image Descriptions

Figure 6.1.8 image description: (A) Mudrock with bivalve impressions, Cretaceous Nanaimo group,
Browns River, Vancouver Island. A very fine-grained rock with shell impressions. (B) Coarse sandstone
with cross-bedding, Cambrian Tapeats Formation Chino Valley, Arizona. (C) Conglomerate with
imbricate (aligned, tilted down to the left) cobbles, Cretaceous Geoffrey Formation, Hornby Island, BC.
(D) Sedimentary breccia, the Pre-Cambrian Toby Formation, east of Castlegar, BC. [Return to Figure
6.1.8]

Media Attributions

• Figures 6.1.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.3, 6.1.4, 6.1.5, 6.1.6, 6.1.7, 6.1.8: © Steven Earle. CC BY.
• Exercise 6.2, first image: Aplite Red © Rudolf Pohl. CC BY-SA.
 6.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Whereas clastic sedimentary rocks are dominated by components that have been transported as solid
clasts (clay, silt, sand, etc.), chemical sedimentary rocks are dominated by components that have been
transported as ions in solution (Na+, Ca2+, HCO3−, etc.). There is some overlap between the two because
almost all clastic sedimentary rocks contain cement formed from dissolved ions, and many chemical
sedimentary rocks include some clasts. Since ions can stay in solution for tens of thousands of years
(some much longer), and can travel for tens of thousands of kilometres, it is virtually impossible to relate
chemical sediments back to their source rocks.

Chemical weathering and chemical sedimentary rocks

Many students confuse chemical weathering with chemical sedimentary rocks, or mistakenly assume that when
and where chemical weathering is taking place, chemical sedimentary rocks will accumulate. Most ions in
solution in rivers, lakes and the ocean are produced during chemical weathering, but those ions can remain in
solution for millions of years, and during that time they can travel hundreds of thousands of km (yes, literally
around the world, several times). They might eventually come out of solution as a result of a biological process
or a change in the chemical conditions and will then become a mineral crystal that can settle to form a chemical
sediment.
So the calcium ions that are part of a calcite mud on the sea floor near Australia’s Great Barrier Reef could
literally have come from anywhere on Earth (and almost certainly came from many different places), and might
have been in solution for as little as a few days or for as long as tens of millions of years.

The most common chemical sedimentary rock, by far, is limestone. Others include chert, banded
iron formation, and evaporites. Biological processes are important in the formation of some chemical
sedimentary rocks, especially limestone and chert. For example, limestone is made up almost entirely of
1
fragments of marine organisms that manufacture calcite for their shells and other hard parts, and most
chert includes at least some of the silica tests (shells) of tiny marine organisms (such as diatoms and
radiolarians).

Limestone

Almost all limestone forms in the oceans, and most of that forms on the shallow continental shelves,
especially in tropical regions with coral reefs. Reefs are highly productive ecosystems populated by a
wide range of organisms, many of which use calcium and bicarbonate ions in seawater to make carbonate
minerals (especially calcite) for their shells and other structures. These include corals, of course, but also
green and red algae, urchins, sponges, molluscs, and crustaceans. The hard parts of these organisms are
1. We use the word marine when referring to salt water (i.e., oceanic) environments, and the word aquatic when referring to freshwater
environments.

194
195 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

eroded by waves and currents to produce carbonate fragments that accumulate in the surrounding region,
as illustrated in Figure 6.2.1.

Figure 6.2.1 Various corals and green algae on a reef at Ambergris, Belize. The light-coloured sand consists of
carbonate fragments eroded from the reef organisms, and this is the type of material that will eventually become
limestone.

Figure 6.2.2 shows a cross-section through a typical reef in a tropical environment (normally between
40° N and 40° S). Reefs tend to form in areas with clear water (e.g., not close to the mouths of
large rivers), and near the edges of steep drop-offs because the reef organisms thrive on nutrient-rich
upwelling currents. As the reef builds up, it is eroded by waves and currents to produce carbonate
sediments that are transported into the steep offshore fore-reef area and the shallower inshore back-reef
area. These sediments are dominated by reef-type carbonate fragments of all sizes, including mud. In
many such areas, carbonate-rich sediments also accumulate in quiet lagoons, where mud and mollusc-
shell fragments predominate (Figure 6.2.3a) or in offshore areas with strong currents, where either
foraminifera tests accumulate (Figure 6.2.3b) or calcite crystallizes inorganically to form ooids—spheres
of calcite that form in shallow tropical ocean water with strong currents (Figure 6.2.3c).
 6.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 196

Figure 6.2.2 Schematic cross-section through a typical tropical reef.

Figure 6.2.3 Carbonate rocks and sediments: (a) mollusc-rich limestone formed in a lagoon area at Ambergris,
Belize, (b) foraminifera-rich sediment from a submerged carbonate sandbar in Belize (c) ooids from a beach at
Joulters Cay, Bahamas.

Limestone also accumulates in deeper water, from the steady rain of the carbonate shells of tiny
organisms that lived near the ocean surface. The lower limit for limestone accumulation is around 4,000
metres. Beneath that depth, calcite is soluble so limestone does not accumulate.
Calcite can also form on land in a number of environments. Tufa forms at springs (Figure 6.2.4) and
travertine forms at hot springs. Similar material precipitates within limestone caves to form stalactites,
stalagmites, and a wide range of other speleothems. Tufa, travertine and speleothems make up only a
tiny proportion of all limestone.
197 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 6.2.4 Tufa formed at a spring at Johnston Creek, Alberta. The bedded grey rock to the left is limestone.

Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) is another carbonate mineral, but dolomite is also the name for a rock
composed of the mineral dolomite (although some geologists use the term dolostone to avoid
confusion). Dolomite rock is quite common (there’s a whole Italian mountain range named after it),
which is surprising since marine organisms don’t make dolomite. All of the dolomite found in ancient
rocks has been formed through magnesium replacing some of the calcium in the calcite in carbonate
muds and sands. This process is known as dolomitization, and it is thought to take place where
magnesium-rich water percolates through the sediments in carbonate tidal flat environments.

Chert

As we’ve seen, not all marine organisms make their hard parts out of calcite; some, like radiolarians
and diatoms, use silica, and when they die their tiny shells (or tests) settle slowly to the bottom where
they accumulate as chert. In some cases, chert is deposited along with limestone in the moderately deep
ocean, but the two tend to remain separate, so chert beds within limestone are quite common (Figure
6.2.5), as are nodules, like the flint nodules of the Cretaceous chalk of southeastern England. In other
situations, and especially in very deep water, chert accumulates on its own, commonly in thin beds.
 6.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 198

Figure 6.2.5 Chert (brown layers) interbedded with Triassic Quatsino Fm. limestone on Quadra Island, B.C.
All of the layers have been folded, and the chert, being insoluble and harder than limestone, stands out.

Banded iron formation

Banded iron formation (BIF) is a deep sea-floor deposit of iron oxide that is a common ore of iron
(Figure 6.2.6). BIF forms when iron dissolved in seawater is oxidized, becomes insoluble, and sinks to
the bottom in the same way that silica tests do to form chert. BIF is prevalent in rocks dating from 2400
to 1800 Ma, a result off changes in the atmosphere and oceans that took place over that time period.
Photosynthetic bacteria (i.e., cyanobacteria, a.k.a. blue-green algae) consume carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and use solar energy to convert it to oxygen. These bacteria first evolved around 3500 Ma,
and for the next billion years, almost all of that free oxygen was used up by chemical and biological
processes, but by 2400 Ma free oxygen levels started to increase in the atmosphere and the oceans. Over
a period of 600 million years, that oxygen gradually converted soluble ferrous iron (Fe2+) to insoluble
ferric iron (Fe3+), which combined with oxygen to form the mineral hematite (Fe2O3), leading to the
accumulation of BIFs on the sea floor. After 1800 Ma, little dissolved iron was left in the oceans and the
formation of BIF essentially stopped.
199 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 6.2.6 An example of a banded iron formation with dark iron oxide layers interspersed with chert stained red by
hematite. This rock is 2.1 billion years old.

Evaporites

In arid regions many lakes and inland seas have no stream outlet and the water that flows into them is
removed only by evaporation. Under these conditions, the water becomes increasingly concentrated with
dissolved salts, and eventually some of these salts reach saturation levels and start to crystallize (Figure
6.2.7). Although all evaporite deposits are unique because of differences in the chemistry of the water,
in most cases minor amounts of carbonates start to precipitate when the solution is reduced to about
50% of its original volume. Gypsum (CaSO4·H2O) precipitates at about 20% of the original volume and
halite (NaCl) precipitates at 10%. Other important evaporite minerals include sylvite (KCl) and borax
(Na2B4O7·10H2O). Sylvite is mined at numerous locations across Saskatchewan (Figure 6.2.8) from
evaporites that were deposited during the Devonian (~385 Ma) when an inland sea occupied much of the
region.
 6.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 200

Figure 6.2.7 Spotted Lake, near Osoyoos, B.C. The patterns on the surface are salt. This photo was taken in May
when the water was relatively fresh because of winter rains. By the end of the summer the surface of this lake is
typically fully encrusted with salt deposits.

Figure 6.2.8 A mining machine at the face of potash ore (sylvite) in the Lanigan Mine near Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.
The mineable potash layer (on the right) is about 3 metres thick.

Exercise 6.3 Making evaporite

201 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

This is an easy experiment that you can do at

home. Pour about 50 mL (just less than 1/4 cup) of
very hot water into a cup and add 2 teaspoons (10
mL) of salt. Stir until all or almost all of the salt has
dissolved, then pour the salty water (leaving any
undissolved salt behind) into a shallow wide dish or
a small plate. Leave it to evaporate for a few days
and observe the result. What is the size range and
shape of the crystals you grew?
It may look a little like Figure 6.2.9. These
crystals are up to about 3 millimetres across.
Figure 6.2.9
See Appendix 3 for Exercise 6.3 answers.

Media Attributions

• Figures 6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.2.3ab 6.2.4, 6.2.5, 6.2.7, 6.2.9: © Steven Earle. CC BY.
• Figure 6.2.3c: JoultersCayOoids by Wilson44691. Public domain.
• Figure 6.2.6: © Andre Karwath. CC BY-SA.
• Figure 6.2.8: Photo courtesy of PotashCorp. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
6.3 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins

Sediments accumulate in a wide variety of environments, both on the continents and in the oceans. Some
of the more important of these environments are illustrated in Figure 6.3.1.

Figure 6.3.1 Some of the important depositional environments for sediments and sedimentary rocks.

Table 6.4 provides a summary of the processes and sediment types that pertain to the various
depositional environments illustrated in Figure 6.3.1. We’ll look more closely at the types of sediments
that accumulate in these environments in the last section of this chapter. The characteristics of these
various environments, and the processes that take place within them, are also discussed in later chapters
on glaciation, mass wasting, streams, coasts, and the sea floor.

202
203 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Table 6.4 The important terrestrial depositional environments and their characteristics

Depositional
Environment Important transport processes Typical sediment types
environments

gravity, moving ice, moving valleys, plains, streams, glacial till, gravel, sand, silt,
Glacial
water lakes and clay

Alluvial gravity steep-sided valleys coarse angular fragments

gravel, sand, silt, and organic

Fluvial moving water streams
matter (in swampy parts only)

Aeolian wind deserts and coastal regions sand, silt

moving water (flowing into a sand (near the edges only), silt,
Lacustrine lakes
lake) clay, and organic matter

moving water (flowing into a

Evaporite lakes in arid regions salts, clay
lake)

Table 6.5 The important marine depositional environments and their characteristics

Important Transport Depositional

Environment Typical Sediment Types
Processes Environments

sand, silt, clay, and organic

Deltaic moving water deltas
matter (in swampy parts only)

waves, longshore
Beach beaches, spits, sand bars gravel, sand
currents

Tidal tidal currents tidal flats silt, clay

waves and tidal

Reefs reefs and adjacent basins carbonates
currents

Shallow water waves and tidal shelves and slopes, carbonates in tropical climates,
marine currents lagoons sand/silt/clay elsewhere

Lagoonal little transportation lagoon bottom carbonates in tropical climates

underwater gravity continental slopes and

Submarine fan gravel, sand, mud
flows abyssal plains

Deep water marine ocean currents deep-ocean abyssal plains clay, carbonate mud, silica mud

Most of the sediments that you might see around you, including talus on steep slopes, sand bars in
streams, or gravel in road cuts, will never become sedimentary rocks because they have only been
deposited relatively recently—perhaps a few centuries or millennia ago—and are likely to be re-eroded
before they are buried deep enough beneath other sediments to be lithified. In order for sediments to
be preserved long enough to be turned into rock—a process that takes millions or tens of millions of
years—they need to have been deposited in a basin that will last that long. Most such basins are formed
by plate tectonic processes, and some of the more important examples are shown in Figure 6.3.2.
 6.3 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins 204

Figure 6.3.2 Some of the more important types of tectonically produced basins: (a) trench basin, (b) forearc basin, (c)
foreland basin, and (d) rift basin.

Trench basins form where a subducting oceanic plate dips beneath the overriding continental or oceanic
crust. They can be several kilometres deep, and in many cases, host thick sequences of sediments from
eroding coastal mountains. There is a well-developed trench basin off the west coast of Vancouver
Island. A forearc basin lies between the subduction zone and the volcanic arc, and may be formed in part
by friction between the subducting plate and the overriding plate, which pulls part of the overriding plate
down. The Strait of Georgia is a forearc basin. A foreland basin is caused by the mass of the volcanic
range depressing the crust on either side. Foreland basins are not only related to volcanic ranges, but can
form adjacent to fold belt mountains like the Canadian Rockies. A rift basin forms where continental
crust is being pulled apart, and the crust on both sides of the rift subsides. As rifting continues this
eventually becomes a narrow sea, and then an ocean basin. The East African rift basin represents an
early stage in this process.

Media Attributions

• Figure 6.3.1: Schematic diagram showing types of depositional environment © Mike Norton.
Adapted by Steven Earle. CC BY-SA.
• Figure 6.3.2: © Steven Earle. CC BY.
6.4 Sedimentary Structures and Fossils

Through careful observation over the past few centuries, geologists have discovered that the
accumulation of sediments and sedimentary rocks takes place according to some important geological
principles, as follows:

• The principle of original horizontality is that sediments accumulate in essentially

horizontal layers. The implication is that tilted sedimentary layers observed to day must have
been subjected to tectonic forces.
• The principle of superposition is that sedimentary layers are deposited in sequence, and that
unless the entire sequence has been turned over by tectonic processes, the layers at the
bottom are older than those at the top.
• The principle of inclusions is that any rock fragments in a sedimentary layer must be older
than the layer. For example, the cobbles in a conglomerate must have been formed before the
conglomerate was formed.
• The principle of faunal succession is that there is a well-defined order in which organisms
have evolved through geological time, and therefore the identification of specific fossils in a
rock can be used to determine its age.

In addition to these principles, that apply to all sedimentary rocks (as well as volcanic rocks), a number
of other important characteristics of sedimentary processes result in the development of distinctive
sedimentary features in specific sedimentary environments. By understanding the origins of these
features, we can make some very useful inferences about the processes that led to deposition the rocks
that we are studying.
Bedding, for example, is the separation of sediments into layers that either differ from one another in
textures, composition, colour, or weathering characteristics, or are separated by partings—narrow gaps
between adjacent beds (Figure 6.4.1). Bedding is an indication of changes in depositional processes that
may be related to seasonal differences, changes in climate, changes in locations of rivers or deltas, or
tectonic changes. Partings may represent periods of non-deposition that could range from a few decades
to a few millennia. Bedding can form in almost any sedimentary depositional environment.

205
 6.4 Sedimentary Structures and Fossils 206

Figure 6.4.1 The Triassic Sulphur Mt. Formation near Exshaw, Alberta. Bedding is defined by differences in colour
and texture, and also by partings (gaps) between beds that may otherwise appear to be similar.

Cross-bedding is bedding that contains angled layers within otherwise horizontal beds, and it forms
when sediments are deposited by flowing water or wind. Some examples are shown in Figures 6.0.11,
6.1.7b, and 6.4.2. Cross-beds formed in streams tend to be on the scale of centimetres to tens of
centimetres, while those in aeolian (wind deposited) sediments can be on the scale of metres to several
metres.
207 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 6.4.2 Cross-bedded Jurassic Navajo Formation aeolian sandstone at Zion National Park, Utah. In most of
the layers the cross-beds dip down toward the right, implying a consistent wind direction from right to left during
deposition.

Cross-beds form as sediments are deposited on the leading edge of an advancing ripple or dune under
steady state conditions (similar flow rate and same flow direction). Each layer is related to a different
ripple that advances in the direction of flow, and is partially eroded by the following ripple (Figure
6.4.3). Cross-bedding is a very important sedimentary structure to be able to recognize because it can
provide information on the process of deposition, the direction of current flows and, when analyzed in
detail, on other features like the rate of flow and the amount of sediment available.
 6.4 Sedimentary Structures and Fossils 208

Figure 6.4.3 Formation of cross-beds as a series of ripples or dunes migrates with the flow. Each ripple advances
forward (right to left in this view) as more sediment is deposited on its leading face (small arrows). (On each ripple
the last deposited layer is represented by small dots.)

Graded bedding is characterized by a gradation in grain size from bottom to top within a single
bed. “Normal” graded beds are coarse at the bottom and become finer toward the top. They are a
product of deposition from a slowing current (Figure 6.4.4). Most graded beds form in a submarine-fan
environment (see Figure 6.4.1), where sediment-rich flows descend periodically from a shallow marine
shelf down a slope and onto the deeper sea floor. Some graded beds are reversed (coarser at the top), and
this normally results from deposition by a fast-moving debris flow (see Chapter 15).

Figure 6.4.4 A graded turbidite bed in Cretaceous Spray Formation rocks on Gabriola Island, B.C. The lower several
centimetres of sand and silt probably formed over the duration of less than an hour. The upper few centimetres of fine
clay may have accumulated over several hundred years.

Ripples, which are associated with the formation of cross-bedding, may be preserved on the surfaces of
209 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

sedimentary beds. Ripples can also help to determine flow direction as they tend to have their steepest
surface facing in the direction of the flow (see Figure 6.4.3).
In a stream environment, boulders, cobbles, and pebbles can become imbricated, meaning that they
are generally tilted in the same direction. Clasts in streams tend to tilt with their upper ends pointing
downstream because this is the most stable position with respect to the stream flow (Figure 6.4.5 and
Figure 6.1.7c).

Figure 6.4.5 An illustration of imbrication of clasts in a fluvial environment.

Mud cracks form when a shallow body of water (e.g., a tidal flat or pond or even a puddle), into which
muddy sediments have been deposited, dries up and cracks (Figure 6.4.6). This happens because the clay
in the upper mud layer tends to shrink on drying, and so it cracks because it occupies less space when it
is dry.
 6.4 Sedimentary Structures and Fossils 210

Figure 6.4.6 Mudcracks in volcanic mud at a hot-spring area near Myvatn, Iceland.

The various structures described above are critical to understanding and interpreting the conditions that
existed during the formation of sedimentary rocks. In addition to these, geologists also look very closely
at sedimentary grains to determine their mineralogy or lithology (in order to make inferences about the
type of source rock and the weathering processes), their degree of rounding, their sizes, and the extent
to which they have been sorted by transportation and depositional processes. Some of the types of
differences that we might want to look for are illustrated in Figure 6.4.7.

Figure 6.4.7 Thin section photos of two sandstones with very different grain characteristics. The one on the left has
angular grains with a wide range of different types (quartz, feldspar, biotite, rock fragments), and is poorly sorted
(grains range from less than 0.05 mm to ~1 mm). The one on the right has relatively well-rounded grains of quartz
only, and the size range is much less (approx. 0.25 to 1 mm). (Scale bars are 1 mm.)
211 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

We won’t be covering fossils in any detail in this book, but they are extremely important for
understanding sedimentary rocks. Of course, fossils can be used to date sedimentary rocks, but equally
importantly, they tell us a great deal about the depositional environment of the sediments and the
climate at the time. For example, they can help to differentiate marine versus terrestrial environments;
estimate the depth of the water; detect the existence of currents; and estimate average temperature
and precipitation. For example, the tests of tiny marine organisms (mostly foraminifera) have been
recovered from deep-ocean sediment cores from all over the world, and their isotopic signatures have
been measured. As we’ll see in Chapter 19, this has provided us with information about the changes in
average global temperatures over the past 65 million years.

Exercise 6.4 Interpretation of past environments

Sedimentary rocks can tell us a great deal about the environmental conditions that existed during the time of
their formation. Make some inferences about the source rock, weathering environment, type and distance of
sediment transportation, and deposition conditions that existed during the formation of the following rocks:

1. Quartz sandstone: no feldspar, well-sorted and well-rounded quartz grains, cross-bedding

2. Feldspathic sandstone and mudstone: feldspar, volcanic fragments, angular grains, repetitive
graded bedding from sandstone upwards to mudstone
3. Conglomerate: well-rounded pebbles and cobbles of granite and basalt; imbrication
4. Breccia: poorly sorted, angular limestone fragments; orange-red matrix
See Appendix 3 for Exercise 6.4 answers.

Media Attributions

• Figures 6.4.1, 6.4.2, 6.4.3, 6.4.4, 6.4.5, 6.4.6, 6.4.7: © Steven Earle. CC BY.
6.5 Groups, Formations, and Members

Geologists who study sedimentary rocks need ways to divide them into manageable units, and they also
need to give those units names so that they can easily be referred to and compared with other rocks
deposited in other places. The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) has established a set of
conventions for grouping, describing, and naming sedimentary rock units.
The main stratigraphic unit is a formation, which according to the ICS, should be established with
the following principles in mind:
The contrast in lithology between formations required to justify their establishment varies with
the complexity of the geology of a region and the detail needed for geologic mapping and to work
out its geologic history. No formation is considered justifiable and useful that cannot be delineated
at the scale of geologic mapping practiced in the region. The thickness of formations may range
from less than a meter to several thousand meters.
In other words, a formation is a series of beds that is distinct from other beds above and below, and
is thick enough to be shown on the geological maps that are widely used within the area in question. In
most parts of the world, geological mapping is done at a relatively coarse scale, and so most formations
are in the order of a few hundred metres thick. At that thickness, a typical formation would appear on a
typical geological map as an area that is at least a few millimetres thick.
A series of formations can be classified together to define a group, which could be as much as a few
thousand metres thick, and represents a series of rocks that were deposited within a single basin (or a
series of related and adjacent basins) over a few million to a few tens of millions of years.
In areas where detailed geological information is needed (for example, within a mining or petroleum
district) a formation might be divided into members, where each member has a specific and distinctive
lithology. For example, a formation that includes both shale and sandstone might be divided into
members, each of which is either shale or sandstone. In some areas, where particular detail is needed,
members may be divided into beds, but this is only applicable to beds that have a special geological
significance. Groups, formations, and members are typically named for the area where they are found.

212
213 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

The sedimentary rocks of the Nanaimo Group

provide a useful example for understanding
groups, formations, and members. During the
latter part of the Cretaceous Period, from about
90 Ma to 65 Ma, a thick sequence of clastic rocks
was deposited in a foreland basin between what is
now Vancouver Island and the B.C. mainland
(Figure 6.5.1). The Nanaimo Group strata
comprise a 5000-metre-thick sequence of
conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone layers.
Coal was mined from Nanaimo Group rocks from
around 1850 to 1950 in the Nanaimo region, and
even more recently in the Campbell River area.
The Nanaimo Group is divided into 11
formations as described in Table 6.6. In general,
the boundaries between formations are based on
major lithological differences. As can be seen in Figure 6.5.1 The distribution of the Upper Cretaceous
the far-right column of Table 6.6, a wide range of Nanaimo Group rocks on Vancouver Island, the Gulf
depositional environments existed during the Islands, and in the Vancouver area. [Image Description]
accumulation of the Nanaimo Group rocks, from
nearshore marine for the Comox and Haslam Formation, to fluvial and deltaic with backwater swampy
environments for the coal-bearing Extension, Pender, and Protection Formations, to a deep-water
submarine fan environment for the upper six formations.
 6.5 Groups, Formations, and Members 214
1
Table 6.6 The formations of the Nanaimo Group

[Skip Table 6.6]

Depositional
Approximate Age (Ma) Formation name Lithologies
Environment

Sandstone with minor Submarine fan, high

65 to 66 Gabriola
mudstone energy

Mudstone/sandstone Submarine fan, low

66 to 67 Spray (Fine grained)
turbidites energy

Sandstone and Submarine fan, high

67 to 68 Geoffrey
conglomerate energy

Northumberland (Fine Submarine fan, low

68 to 70 Mudstone turbidites
grained) energy

Submarine fan, high

70 De Courcy Sandstone
energy

Cedar District (Fine Submarine fan, low

70 to 72 Mudstone turbidites
grained) energy

Nearshore marine and

72 to 75 Protection Sandstone and minor coal onshore deltaic and
fluvial

Nearshore marine and

75 to 80 Pender Sandstone and minor coal onshore deltaic and
fluvial

Conglomerate, with Nearshore marine and

80 Extension minor sandstone and onshore deltaic and
some coal fluvial

80 to 85 Haslam (Fine grained) Mudstone and siltstone Shallow marine

Conglomerate, sandstone,
Nearshore fluvial and
85 to 90 Comox mudstone (coal in the
marine
Campbell River area)

In tables like this one, the layers are always listed in order, with the oldest at the bottom and the youngest
at the top.
The five lower formations of the Nanaimo Group are all exposed in the Nanaimo area, and were well
studied during the coal mining era between 1850 and 1950. All of these formations (except Haslam)
have been divided into members, as that was useful for understanding the rocks in the areas where coal
mining was taking place. Within some of those members even some individual beds have been named
if they were of specific importance to the mining industry.
Although there is a great deal of variety in the Nanaimo Group rocks, and it would take hundreds of
photographs to illustrate all of the different types of rocks, a few representative examples are provided
in Figure 6.5.2.
1. [Based on data in Mustard, P., 1994, The Upper Cretaceous Nanaimo Group, Georgia Basin, in J. Monger (ed) Geology and Geological Hazards
of the Vancouver Region, Geol. Survey of Canada, Bull. 481, p. 27-95.]
215 Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 6.5.2a Representative photos of Nanaimo Group rocks.

Turbidite layers in the Spray Formation on Gabriola Island. Each
turbidite set consists of a lower sandstone layer (light colour) that
grades upward into siltstone, and then into mudstone. (See Figure
6.4.2 for detail.)

Figure 6.5.2b Two separate layers of fluvial sandstone with a thin

(approx. 75 centimetres) coal seam in between. Pender Formation in
Nanaimo.
 6.5 Groups, Formations, and Members 216

Figure 6.5.2c Comox Formation conglomerate at the very base of the

Nanaimo Group in Nanaimo. The metal object is the end of a rock
hammer that is 3 centimetres wide. Almost all of the clasts in this view
are well-rounded basalt pebbles cobbles eroded from the Triassic
Karmutsen Formation which makes up a major part of Vancouver
Island.

Image Descriptions

Figure 6.5.1 image description: A map showing that Nanaimo Group rocks are present along the east
coast of Vancouver Island from Nanaimo to Campbell River, farther inland in areas around Port Alberni
and Duncan, on much of the Gulf Islands and a bit in the Vancouver area. [Return to Figure 6.5.1]

Media Attributions

• Figure 6.5.1: Redrawn based on Mustard, P., 1994, The Upper Cretaceous Nanaimo Group,
Georgia Basin, in J. Monger (ed) Geology and Geological Hazards of the Vancouver Region,
Geol. Survey of Canada, Bull. 481, pp. 27-95. © Steven Earle. CC BY.
• Figure 6.5.2abc: © Steven Earle. CC BY.
Summary

The topics covered in this chapter can be summarized as follows:

Section Summary

Sedimentary clasts are classified based on their size, and variations in clast size have important
6.1 Clastic implications for transportation and deposition. Clastic sedimentary rocks range from
Sedimentary conglomerate to mudstone. Clast size, sorting, composition, and shape are important features
Rocks that allow us to differentiate clastic rocks and understand the processes that took place during
their deposition.

Chemical sedimentary rocks form from ions that were transported in solution, and then
converted into minerals by biological and/or chemical processes. The most common chemical
6.2 Chemical
rock, limestone, typically forms in shallow tropical environments, where biological activity is a
Sedimentary
very important factor. Chert and banded iron formation are deep-ocean sedimentary rocks.
Rocks
Evaporites form where the water of lakes and inland seas becomes supersaturated due to
evaporation.

6.3
Depositional There is a wide range of depositional environments, both on land (glaciers, lakes, rivers, etc.)
Environments and in the ocean (deltas, reefs, shelves, and the deep-ocean floor). In order to be preserved,
and sediments must accumulate in long-lasting sedimentary basins, most of which form through
Sedimentary plate-tectonic processes.
Basins

The deposition of sedimentary rocks takes place according to a series of important principles,
6.4
including original horizontality, superposition, and faunal succession. Sedimentary rocks can
Sedimentary
also have distinctive structures, such as cross bedding, graded bedding and mud cracks, that are
Structures
important in determining their depositional environments. Fossils are useful for determining the
and Fossils
age of a rock, the depositional environment, and the climate at the time of deposition.

6.5 Groups,
Sedimentary sequences are classified into groups, formations, and members so that they can be
Formations,
referred to easily and without confusion.
and Members

Questions for Review

Answers to Review Questions at the end of each chapter can be found in Appendix 2.

1. What are the minimum and maximum sizes of sand grains?

2. How can you easily distinguish between a silty deposit and one that has only clay-sized material?
3. What factors control the rate at which a clast settles in water?

217
 Summary 218

4. The material that makes up a rock such as conglomerate cannot be deposited by a slow-flowing
river. Why not?
5. Describe the two main processes of lithification.
6. What is the difference between a lithic arenite and a lithic wacke?
7. How does a feldspathic arenite differ from a quartz arenite?
8. What can we say about the source area lithology and the weathering and transportation history of
a sandstone that is primarily composed of rounded quartz grains?
9. What is the original source of the carbon that is present within carbonate deposits such as
limestone?
10. What long-term environmental change on Earth led to the deposition of banded iron formations?
11. Name two important terrestrial depositional environments and two important marine ones.
12. What is the origin of a foreland basin, and how does it differ from a forearc basin?
13. Explain the origin of (a) bedding, (b) cross-bedding, (c) graded bedding, and (d) mud cracks.
14. Under what conditions is reverse graded bedding likely to form?
15. What are the criteria for the application of a formation name to a series of sedimentary rocks?
16. Explain why some of the Nanaimo Group formations have been divided into members, while
others have not.