Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering

Pradip Chanda
Suparna Mukhopaddhyay

Operation and
Maintenance of
Thermal Power
Stations
Best Practices and Health Monitoring

123
Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering

Series editor
Muhammad H. Rashid, Pensacola, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13509
Pradip Chanda Suparna Mukhopaddhyay
•

Operation and Maintenance

of Thermal Power Stations
Best Practices and Health Monitoring

123
Pradip Chanda Suparna Mukhopaddhyay
Power Management Institute Power Management Institute
Noida, Uttar Pradesh Noida, Uttar Pradesh
India India

ISSN 2199-8582 ISSN 2199-8590 (electronic)

Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering
ISBN 978-81-322-2720-5 ISBN 978-81-322-2722-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016936430

© Springer India 2016

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To all the unsung heroes who spend their
sleepless nights silently running the power
stations, keeping the nation growing
Preface

Conversion of thermal energy to electricity is not a high-efficiency process. As the

conversion temperature approaches the characteristic temperature of the fuel (for
coal this is approximately 3000 °C), the efficiency of conversion increases.
However, metallurgic constraints restrict the conversion temperature to a much
lower value (approximately 600 °C). Research is ongoing for achieving temperatures
near 700 °C. Furthermore, derating of thermal power generators due to various
reasons poses problems to the power industry, as the available capacity becomes
reduced. Thermal power generation is a highly capital-intensive industry, an envi-
ronment polluter by default, and a large consumer of primary resources such as land,
water, and fuel. Therefore, the operating availability of the installed capacity, design
efficiency, and longer life spans are a serious concern. Undoubtedly, the ability to
run beyond the regulatory period with high loading factors and high efficiencies
gives thermal power plants a cutting-edge advantage of commercial superiority.
Various subsystems of a thermal power generator are built upon integrating
many types of equipment. The subsystems operate in coordination to generate
power with sustained reliability. Extensive research and development by the
manufacturers of such equipment has improved the efficiency of individual pieces
of equipment to a great extent. However, the overall operating efficiency of any
subsystem depends on the optimum design of the subsystem and the operating
practices. Therefore, operating and maintaining a thermal power generator requires
understanding of system-level dynamics, which is different from the
equipment-level operating and maintenance procedures.
Approximately 42 % of the total electricity produced globally is generated from
coal. Burning of coal in these plants is responsible for almost 28 % of the global
carbon dioxide (CO2) emission. 1 % reduction in turbine efficiency in a 500 MW
unit leads to reduction of heat rate by 4.5 kcal/kWh. This leads to reduction of 4
million tons of CO2, reduction of 0.03 million tons of sulfur dioxide (SOx),
reduction of 4000 tons of nitrogen dioxide (NOx), reduction of 500 tons of soot,
reduction of 10,000 tons of Suspended Perticulate matter (SPM), a savings of 2

vii
viii Preface

million tons of coal and, finally, savings of Indian Rupee (INR) 220 crore
(approximately 32 million USD).
Residual life assessment of plant components hover around two different
approaches, one using data analysis based on operational history and the other
based on a periodic examination of critical components. Operation beyond the
limiting range can cause fatigue to the equipment and reduce its effective lifespan.
Creep damage occurs when the component is operated above the grain recovery
temperature characteristic of a material. Creep fatigue results in plastic deformation
of the material. Low-cycle fatigue is the fatigue of a component as a result of cyclic
loading beyond the strain limit. Each cycle in the resulting stress (load cycle) leads
to utilization of the low-cycle fatigue resistance (low-cycle fatigue) and thus finally
to stress cracking at the most highly loaded point.
Since 2001, the EN12952 code is being followed in many countries for design
service loading combination. A boiler manufacturer will generally design the boiler
so that there is some reserve with regard to the design service loading combination.
It is a reality that a power plant is initially operated in base load operation due to its
favorable efficiency compared with other available power plants. With increasing
age, it will be deployed more and more in cycling duty or as a peaking plant. This
different operating mode compared with the design of the components results in a
different anticipated service life for the power plant equipment.
A load cycle is a closed hysteresis loop in the stress/strain diagram. The stress in
the material is calculated from the pressure and temperature gradient, while the
numbers of cycles to crack initiation are material properties. Continuous fatigue
monitoring is the responsibility of the power plant operator (not the manufacturer)
and to be performed for the most highly-loaded components.
Strong corrosion occurs at the furnace wall of coal-fired boilers by flame
impingement. When coal containing a lot of sulfur content is used as fuel, the area
in the neighborhood of the burner zone becomes an atmosphere of low oxygen
partial pressure containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S), creating a severe corrosive
environment. Increase in the oxygen partial pressure on the piping surface by filling
boundary air (to create an air curtain along the water wall piping) over the water
wall piping surface, is considered effective.
Water is a major component used as a working fluid as well as a cooling
medium. At high pressure, the solubility of water comes down and chemicals get
deposited inside the vessel. Boiler tube failure due to corrosion and chemical
deposition is a common phenomenon and a nightmare for all thermal plant oper-
ators. Due to bad management of water chemistry, carry-over silica at the low
pressure (LP) stage of a turbine may disturb the dynamic balance of the turbine
blade, cause rise in vibration, and finally, failure of the blades. More than 45 %
of the energy input into turbine gets lost in the condenser. Untreated cooling water
produces scaling and algae inside the condenser tube, causing heat transfer and
thereby reducing turbine output and cycle efficiency. Therefore, managing water
chemistry for cycle water as well as cooling water is a major challenge to power
station managers. In addition to water, the chemical analysis of lubricating oil,
transformer oil, etc. predicts the condition of different equipment. Chemical
Preface ix

analysis of flue gas predicts the efficiency of combustion. Considering all these
facts, this book makes a special emphasis on thermal power plant chemistry.
The task and timing of major equipment maintenance is determined by predictive
maintenance or reliability-centered maintenance focused on the engineering side of
maintenance. As financial constraints are placed on maintenance resources, there is
an increasing need for determining the timing of maintenance taking into consid-
eration the financial expenditure and impacts. Risk Evaluation and Prioritization
(REAP) provides the plant management quantified assessments of financial invest-
ment decisions of maintenance. Different maintenance strategies are deployed to
avoid breakdowns, premature equipment malfunctions, and to increase response
times to recover from failure, in order to effect improvements in overall plant
availability. This book also covers details on the planning part of maintenance.
A large number of forced outages occur per year due to human error which not
only affects the industry in terms of financial losses, but also in terms of its repu-
tation among its customers as a reliable power producer. The root causes of these
human errors have been discussed in detail for better outage management.
Best practices are not just benchmarking parameters. Implementation of these
practices creates long-term sustainability. Best practices have many dimensions
starting from maximizing efficiency to maximizing life span. The chapter dedicated
to best practices in this book has covered many dimensions of good practices to
minimize resource utilization, better environment management, knowledge man-
agement with maximizing growth, and life span.
The huge operating experience of National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC)
shared in a different forum has made it possible for me to write this book. Borrowed
from erstwhile Central Electricity Generation Board (CEGB), different operating
and management practices have been indigenized by NTPC to suit the weather and
ambience of the country the plant belongs to. Many operating practices over time
have been documented through instruction and directives, but many are still a tacit
knowledge. Moreover, the instructions and directives do not speak about the
knowledge and reasoning. Through this book I try to bare the knowledge of the
different processes involved in thermal power plant operation and maintenance so
that future engineers are not mandated to follow the instructions blindly, but are
able to upgrade and make independent decisions for managing a power station.

Noida, India Pradip Chanda

Acknowledgments

I am thankful to my senior colleagues and fellow engineers at NTPC who have held
my hand during the process of learning. I am thankful to Dr. Suparna Mukhopaddhyay
for encouraging me to write down my experience. Finally, I wish to profoundly thank
my wife Nibedita, son Arnab, and daughter Debarati for their constant encouragement
and support which helped me immensely in writing this book.

Noida, India Pradip Chanda

xi
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Understanding Operation Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Understanding Maintenance Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Performance Parameters of Power Stations
of Global/Indian Scenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 7
2.1 Impact of Performance Parameter on Economics
of Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Impact of Performance Parameter on the Environment . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1 Environment Impact on Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.2 Impact on Air Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.3 Impact on Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Residual Life Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Cold and Hot Startup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Fire Prevention and Fire Fighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.5 Abnormal and Unsafe Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.6 Abnormal Operation Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5 Managing Thermal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.1 Boiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2 Turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

xiii
xiv Contents

5.3 Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.4 Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 59
6.1 Role of Chemistry in Thermal Power Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 59
6.2 Effect of Processes Chemistry on Power Plant
Equipments and Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.3 Fuel Chemistry and Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.4 Effect of Fuel Quality on Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.4.1 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.4.2 Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.4.3 Coal Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.4.4 Some Important Points of Combustion Control . . . . . . 67
6.5 Managing Water and Steam Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.5.1 Treatment of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.5.2 Water Quality at Different Stages of the
Demineralization Process (For Drum Type Boiler) . ... 74
6.5.3 Water Chemistry for Super Critical Unit . . . . . . . . ... 76
6.5.4 Cycle Chemistry Core Monitoring Parameters
for Conventional Fossil Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 80
6.5.5 Treatment for Once-Through and Supercritical
Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.6 Managing Cooling Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.6.1 Strategies to Minimum Water Consumption. . . . . . . . . 84
6.6.2 Cooling Water-Associated Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.7 Managing Lube Oil Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.8 Monitoring Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.8.1 Ambient Air Quality Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.8.2 Water Pollution and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.9 Indication of Abnormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7 Maintenance Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 97
7.1 Types of Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 97
7.1.1 Preventive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 98
7.1.2 Predictive Maintenance/Condition-Based
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.1.3 Risk Evaluation and Prioritization (REAP) . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1.4 Interrelationship Among RCM, Overhaul, and
Activity-Based Budgeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1.5 Corrective Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.2 Permit to Work System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.2.1 Work Order System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.2.2 Clearance Permit System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Contents xv

7.2.3 Preventive Maintenance Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

7.2.4 Resources Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.3 Maintenance Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.3.1 Short-Term Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.3.2 Long-Term Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.3.3 Overhauling Preparedness Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8 Outage Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.1 Avoiding Human Error-Reviewing Tripping
Due to Human Error-Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.2 Minimizing Process Parameter Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
9 Managing Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.1 Efficiency Losses in a Coal-Fired Power Station . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.2 Heat Balance Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
9.3 Boiler Efficiency Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.4 Turbine Heat Consumption Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.5 Turbine Pressure Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.6 Condenser Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.7 Mill Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.8 Fan Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.9 Pump Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
10 Best Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
10.1 Best Practices Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
10.2 Longevity and Efficient Operation Beyond
the Regulatory Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
10.3 Maximizing Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
10.4 Knowledge Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
10.4.1 Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
10.5 Growth Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
10.6 Environment Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.7 Important Operational Guidelines/Operation Directives . . . . . . . 144
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical

Cleaning of Thermal Power Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Appendix C: System for Plant Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

About the Authors

Dr. Pradip Chanda has more than 34 years of

experience as a power plant professional in various
capacities within NTPC. Starting his career as a
commissioning engineer of 200 and 500 MW thermal
sets has given him exposure to the intricacies in
behavior of equipment and subsystems of thermal
power plants. Working as a shift-charge engineer in a
1600 MW super thermal power station and heading the
efficiency department of a thermal power station for
more than 9 years has enriched him with knowledge
on operation and maintenance practices, different
standards of efficiency, and testing procedures. His
journey carried him through corporate planning at NTPC for 5 years, and 7 years
experience within the training and development wing of NTPC as a member of
senior faculty. Presently he is serving as Sr. Consultant, Ministry of Higher
Education, Govt. of India.
Dr. Chanda graduated as Electrical Engineer from Sibpore Bengal Engineering
College and completed his M.Tech. and Ph.D. from IIT Delhi. He has published
many research papers in various journals and conferences. His areas of interest are
mathematical modelling of physical systems, heat transfer, and control system.

xvii
xviii About the Authors

Suparna Mukhopaddhyay, M.Tech., Ph.D., is a

mechanical Engineer from NIT(A) and completed her
post-graduate degree from Jadavpur University. She has
a unique combination of industrial and research/teaching
experience of over 20 years. Currently she is serving at
NTPC Ltd as a Deputy General Manager in planning
and system Division at Talcher Super Thermal Power
Station. Prior to that she was a visiting scientist in the
Engineering Mechanics Unit, JN Centre for Advanced
Scientific Research, Bangalore and Assistant Professor
in Mechanical Engineering at Kalyani Government
Engineering College, Kalyani, West Bengal for a com-
bined period of more than 15 years. Dr. Mukhopaddhyay has published a text book on
fluid mechanics and a large number of good research publications.
Abstract

Good operating and maintenance practices help in maintaining the health of the
equipment and adds life to any thermal power station. This book covers many
dimensions of good practices to minimize resource utilization, better environment
management, knowledge management with maximizing growth, and life span. The
discussions in this book are distinctly divided in two parts, namely ‘Operation
practices for sustenance’ and ‘Maintenance practices for long term reliability’. Its
goal is to help the readers develop their own practices and technical guidelines
suitable for the plant concerned in a structured way.

Keywords Thermal plant Reliability Residual life Operation practices





Maintenance practices Performance parameter Water chemistry Best practices

xix
Chapter 1
Introduction

Electricity is a key enabler to the gross domestic product growth of the country.
Thermal power station is an industrial facility for generating electric power from
fossil fuel. Being a highly capital-intensive industry, it needs to operate at a high
utilization factor during the whole plant life cycle to justify its investment.
First-rate operating and maintenance practices assist in maintaining optimization
of equipment and add life to any thermal power station. With an installed capacity
of approximately 267 GW, the national load factor of thermal power was
approximately 65.55 % during 2013–2014, and compared with 2012–2013, the
figure was reduced by 4.38 %. While availability of fuel is one of the factors
responsible for the drooping trend, unplanned outages of systems and equipment
played a major role in on bar availability. This was also reflected in the down trend
of the plant load factor. It is observed that, while some of the older power stations
that have crossed their normative life cycles are operating with high availability,
some new plants are operated with very low availability. It is because the stations
that have adopted operating practices aligned with enhancing the life cycle of
equipment, get sustainable availability of any system. Omission minus commis-
sioning, maintaining process chemistry meticulously throughout the life cycle of the
plant, maintaining process parameter within prescribed norms, predicting mainte-
nance, etc. are the success stories of a healthy power stations.
Equipment manufacturers generally provide specific operation and maintenance
instructions for the equipment supplied by them. A thermal power generating unit is
built up by integrating different equipment, namely the boiler, turbine, generator,
and many other auxiliaries forming different systems such as the ‘air and gas
system’, ‘fuel firing system’, ‘feed water system’, etc. These systems operate in
coordination to generate power with sustained reliability. Hence, operating and
maintaining a thermal power generating unit requires understanding of system level
dynamics which is different from the individual equipment level
operating/maintenance procedures.
Furthermore, to maintain reliable and efficient operation of a generating unit
throughout its lifecycle and beyond its lifecycle, it requires specific care in
© Springer India 2016 1
P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9_1
2 1 Introduction

operation and maintenance practices, up-grading through renovation and modern-

ization which will prevent the possibility of any permanent damage or deterioration
of performance of any equipment. These specific requirements of care for operation
and maintenance practices for a generating unit are different from standard oper-
ating and maintenance instructions for start and run/stop of individual equipment in
a sense that, these practices are adopted through experience looking at long-term
impact on different system parameters. The discussion in this book is distinctly
divided into two parts: ‘Operation Practices for Sustenance’ and ‘Maintenance
Practices for Long-Term Reliability’.

1.1 Understanding Operation Practices

The process of thermal power generation can be logically defined as a process of

converting heat energy from fossil fuel to electric energy and thus the process
essentially demands converting the available heat efficiently while keeping the
thermal stress of the equipment within a permissible limit. It is perhaps worth
mentioning that as the conversion temperature approaches the characteristic tem-
perature of the fuel (in the case of coal, it is around 3000 °C), the efficiency of
conversion increases, but due to metallurgical constraint the present conversion
level is much lower (around 600 °C+). Research is going for achieving 700 °C+).
Any thermal stress beyond the permissible limit of metallurgy may cause
non-reversible damage to the equipment.
Again, conversion of thermal energy to electricity is not a high efficiency pro-
cess. The operation practices need to focus on maximum utilization of available
energy. Therefore, in real time, the operating engineers need to look for maximum
heat absorption by working fluid within the temperature limit.
Furthermore, thermal power generation uses water and steam as working fluid
through which energy is transported. Water being a universal solvent, can content
harmful chemicals/dissolved gases which under different thermal conditions, can
adversely affect the metallurgy of the working fluid carrier/user equipment. These
adverse effects are very slow processes but can create nonreversible damage to any
equipment.
Similarly, the operating condition of turbine lubricating and control oil, gener-
ator stator water, lubricating oil for other equipment plays a major role in long-term
sustained operation. The operating practices discussed in this book are not bounded
by specific instructions of do’s and don’ts, rather discussion made on long-term
effect of operating conditions so that operation engineers understand the nitty-gritty
of all the processes involved in power generation and can take corrective action
judiciously. Nevertheless, emergency situations are always required to be handled
per the do’s and don’ts in the instructions.
The major input sources for a steam generator (boiler) are fuel, air, and water.
The quantity of these input sources is determined by the steam output required for
meeting the electrical power demand from the generator. The auto loops are there to
1.1 Understanding Operation Practices 3

control the above input sources and work on a real-time basis. Then where is the
role for operation engineer for bench marking practices? To understand the role we
need to understand what happened when these inputs goes to the system and what
are the limitations of auto loops in general used in modern power stations.
What happens when fresh pulverized coal reaches the burning furnace zone? It
gets burned, releases energy, and produces flame. But the flame temperature,
velocity of the flame, and emissivity of the flame depend on the constituent and size
of the pulverized fuel input and its rate of entry in the furnace. Flame temperature as
a function of constituent can be expressed as
P
_
mð146:58C þ 568:78H þ 29:4S  6:58A  51:53ðO þ NÞÞ þ ðti  tref Þ _ p ÞR
ðmC
tf ¼ P þ tref
_ p ÞP
ðmC

where subscript R and P express as reactant and product, respectively. C, H, S, A,

O, and N are carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, ash, oxygen, and nitrogen that are present in
the coal and air. Rate of fuel as well as its components are expressed as m_ and their
specific heat capacity as Cp . ti and tref are the initial temperature of the fuel and
reference temperature, respectively.
Similarly, the flame emissivity depends on mean beam length (the average
thickness of radiating gas layer) and can be expressed as eg ¼ 1  ekPS where k is
the coefficient of radiant absorption, P is the furnace pressure and S is the mean
beam length. The presence of carbon dioxide and water vapor in furnace changes
mean beam length by a factor (PH(PC + PH))0.5 where PH and PC are partial
pressure of water vapor and carbon dioxide
h respectively.
i Presence of ash particle
eg eash
changes flame emissivity by a factor eg þ eash eg eash and hence the heat transfer.
While rate of entry can be programmed by automatic loops, the constituent of
fuel in real time is an ex post facto factor. The variation in flame temperature and
variation in emissivity cause change in local temperature, heat absorption pattern in
water wall, super heater, etc. which finally gets reflected in gas exit temperature.
The variations can be minor or insignificant, but each time the equipment goes
through thermal stress beyond the permissible metallurgical limit, they lose a life.
Unfortunately, no control system is designed to map this internal process of heat
absorption (except at specific node like drum in case of drum type boiler, super
heater inlet/outlet for spray control, etc.) and response on the basis of the variation
of these parameters; only operating engineers can sense this and take corrective
actions a priori.
The same variation occurs when water input to the system gets changed in
chemical content. Be it in the cycle water or in the cooling water, if the operating
engineer remains insensitive to the variation, it will have a permanent effect on the
system performance and on the life of the equipment.
The operation practices will capture how a different condition of an operating
thermal power station speaks about the variations in operating parameters and how
to take precautions a priori.
4 1 Introduction

1.2 Understanding Maintenance Practices

The capital equipment of thermal power units is very expensive. Good maintenance
practices can sustain efficiency and the life cycle of the equipment. Although
manufacturers provide maintenance instructions for the equipment supplied by
them, in reality similar types of equipment behave differently, and maintaining them
with their unique behavior calls for a different approach. The maintenance practices
discussed in this book are not guided by manufacturer instructions, but rather
practice needs to be adopted for managing the equipment for a sustained long life
and efficiency.
The maintenance practices of a thermal power station are different from tradi-
tional maintenance practices in the sense that
1. Power plants require being run continuously. Maintenance causes outages of
equipment/system. Duration of outage for maintenance is restricted by market
demand (even under regulated condition). Hence, the maintenance philosophy
appropriate to the market demand pattern with a short-term, medium-term, and
long-term approach is required for preserving the deterioration or damage of
equipment.
2. Being an energy conversion industry, the maintenance practices not only need to
address the equipment health conditions, but also to plug losses.
Elaborating further, the thermal power generator’s commercial earning is
dependent on its availability to grid and its operating efficiency. The availability is
guided by redundancy and reliability. Power plant equipment is very costly,
therefore, redundancy is limited. Various philosophies such as time base mainte-
nance with analytical hierarchy principle, predictive maintenance, condition-based
maintenance, or mixed up methods are generally adopted for enhancing reliability.
The overall strategy is to enhance the availability at the lowest maintenance cost.
In thermal power generation, energy is converted from one form to another and
the process is less efficient. Therefore, any waste/dilution of primary energy during
conversion requires attention to maintenance to plug in the fault. Interestingly, this
type of fault does not reflect on the physical performance of the equipment such as
change in vibration/noise/drawing over current, etc., but is understandable to the
operating engineer through reflection in operating parameters. For example, leakage
through seals of an air pre heater (APH) does not create any vibration/noise, but it
gets reflected in oxygen concentration in the flue gas at the inlet and the outlet of the
APH. Therefore, maintenance in a thermal power station is also operation centric.
Over and above, the thermal plant maintenance practices also need to address
reduction of consumables such as chemicals and lubricants. For example, due to
damage of sealing arrangement of the coal mill gearbox, a considerable amount of
fine coal dust may enter the gearbox and contaminate the oil. This contamination
can lead to high consumption of oil and necessary handling of hazardous waste oil.
Data pertaining to an Indian thermal power station (shown below) indicate
reduction of usage of lubricating oil after adopting advance maintenance practices
1.2 Understanding Maintenance Practices 5

of an ‘on-line side stream electrostatic filtration system’. The role of maintenance is

to then reduce resource consumption.

Financial year 2002–2003 2003–2004 2004–2005

Total number of gearbox 32 19 6
Oil replacement in all mills
Gearbox oil procured (l) 23.520 12.600 3.570

The actual life of the equipment differs from the expected life of the equipment.
Considering the fact that the quality of the equipment was absolutely normal during
delivery, the difference in its life span arises from its actual working circumstances.
It is difficult to avoid being exposed to an abominable circumstance at some
stochastic period of time throughout the life cycle of the equipment. A good
maintenance practice needs to capture the total history of abnormal situations
through which the equipment/system of equipment has gone through.
Maintenance practice to cover the residual life assessment and adopt process of
stress reliving/replacement as dimmed fit for enhancing the life of the thermal unit
as a whole. This book will focus on the maintenance practices of enhancing the life
of the equipment while at the same time sustaining its performance.
Since its inception in 1975, National Thermal Power Corporation of India has
tried to adopt and benchmark its operation and maintenance practices globally. The
journey yields the result. The first unit of NTPC at Singrauli commissioned during
1982 is still operating with 100 % availability and so are the other units. The author
started his career as commissioning and operation engineer with NTPC in 1980 and
for 35 years has moved through many technical and strategic positions within the
company.
This book is a humble endeavor to detail the good operating practices of a
thermal power station which can help the future operation and maintenance engi-
neers sustaining the availability of a thermal plant beyond its perceived life cycle.
Chapter 2
Performance Parameters of Power
Stations of Global/Indian Scenario

Electricity is the lifeline of modern civilization. While availability of electricity is a

prime concern, conversion of fossil fuel to thermal power is not a very efficient
process and generates pollution in the form of greenhouse gases and ash.
Approximately 42 % of the total electricity produced globally is generated from
coal. Burning of coal from these plants is responsible for almost 28 % of the global
carbon dioxide (CO2) emission. The greater the efficiency in heat utilization, the
less pollutant is generated per unit of electricity generation.
Performance of a power station is normally judged by the availability factor, plant
load factor, partial loading factor, forced outages, etc., and efficiency of heat con-
version is judged by heat rate. Environment performance is judged by the level of
nitrogen oxide (NOx), SOx, and suspended particulate matter (SPM) emission in the
air. Definition of various traditional performance parameters are as follows (IEEE
Std 762™-2006):

Total time the generator operated on bar

Availability factor ð%Þ ¼  100
reference time

It describes the percentage availability of the respective generator in supplying

power to the grid.

Total time the generator out of operation for planned mantenance

Planned outage ð%Þ ¼  100
reference time
Sum total of different operating load  time of operation
Plant load factor ð%Þ ¼  100
Capacity  total reference time

Plant load factor indicates the utilization of the available capacity.

Partial loading factor (%) = 100 − Plant Load Factor.
Forced outage (%) = 100 − planned outage (%) − availability (%)

© Springer India 2016 7

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9_2
8 2 Performance Parameters of Power Stations …

Quantity of fuel ðkgÞ  Heat value of fuel ðkcal=kgÞ

Heat rate ¼
Quantity of generation ðkWÞ

Heat rate (kcal/kWh) indicates how much heat is used for generation of one unit
of electricity.

860
Efficiency ¼  100
Heat rate

Fossil fuel contains carbon which combines with oxygen in the air during
combustion and produces carbon dioxide. The parameter is expressed as million
ton.
Nitrogen oxide or NOx is formed when combustion flame temperature reaches
approximately 1400 °C. SOx is generated as a result of the presence of sulphur in
the fuel and its combination with oxygen during combustion. Both NOx and SOx
are expressed as parts per billion (PPB) in the ambient air. SMP is the presence of
fly ash particle in the air expressed in PPM.
Global Scenario
Since 1990, the electricity sector across the globe began changing its focus from a
regulated environment to a market-driven approach. The environmental mandates
has further driven the sector to technology adoption, change in usage pattern, and
change in the classical concept of performance. This has presented a new challenge
as to how the performance can be benchmarked against improving reliability,
mitigating environmental requirements, while adding value in the service to the
customer. The best practices for performance measurement across the different
power generation assets globally has concentrated its focus on the value of the
generation as a composite benefit delivered to the grid (regulated environment) or
benefit delivered to the owners (de-regulated environment). In its 2010 report on
‘Generating Plant Performance’ the World Energy Council (WEC) had suggested a
diverse matrix of performance indicator (World Energy Council Report 2010) as
shown in Fig. 2.1.

Fig. 2.1 Performance

indicators as suggested by the
world energy council
2 Performance Parameters of Power Stations … 9

Electricity generating plant performance, which was until now primarily focused on
effective heat energy utilization only, is replaced by a metrics consisting of availability,
efficiency, emissions, cost, and others. This ensures that only the best possible perfor-
mance can be attained with “perfect” operations and maintenance (O&M) management
practices when equipment failure rate and repair time is minimized. In reality, the actual
achieved performance for each generating plant around the world is far below its
theoretically best achievable values. The Performance Generating Plant Committee
report by the WEC estimated that 80 % of the gap in performance is due to “less than
perfect” O&M management practices. Revisiting a plant’s O&M management prac-
tices, along with replacement of inadequate or worn-out components to increase its
availability and reliability to its theoretical best achievable limits, can substantially
reduce its performance gap. The four core (primary) performance indicators according
to the WEC’s 2010 Generation Performance Report are
1. Energy availability factor (EAF)
2. Load factor (LF)
3. Planned capacity loss factor (PCLF)
4. Unplanned capability loss factor (UCLF)
As per Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standard 762-2006,
the aforesaid indices of performance definition is given below (IEEE Std 762™-
2006).
EAF—The energy availability factor is the ratio of the potential amount of
energy that could be produced by any utility after all planned and unplanned losses
are considered to that of theoretical availability and is measured in percentage
potential. It is a fact that not all available energy can be generated. However, EAF
identifies what percentage of power during a given period could be generated.
Factors beyond management control are included in the EAF. EAF is considered to
be as given by the IEEE 762 weighted equivalent availability factor (WEAF) which
includes outside management control outages or derating, if any. WEAF can be
expressed as
Pn 
½ðAHi  NMCi Þ  ðEUNDHi þ ESDHi Þ  NMCi 
WEAF ¼ i¼1 Pn  100
i¼1 ðPHi  NMCi Þ

Where AH- Available Hours, NMC- Net Maximum Capacity, EUNDH-

Equivalent Unit Derated Hours, ESDH- Equivalent Seasonal Derated Hours and
PH- Period Hours. UCLF—The unplanned capability loss factor is the ratio of the
maximum energy generation that a plant is not capable of supplying to the electrical
grid because of unplanned energy losses to that of total capacity expressed in
percentage. Unplanned losses include unplanned shutdowns, outage extensions, or
load reductions due to unavailability. If an outage is not scheduled at least 4 weeks
in advance, then it is considered to be an unplanned loss. A low value of unplanned
capability loss indicates that important plant equipment is reliably operated and well
maintained. UCLF is equal to IEEE 762 weighted equivalent unplanned outage
factor (WEUOF) and is expressed as
10 2 Performance Parameters of Power Stations …

Pn 
½ðFOHi þ EFDHi þ MOHi þ EMDHi Þ  NMCi 
WEUOF ¼ i¼1 Pn  100
i¼1 ðPHi  NMCi Þ

Where FOH- Forced Outage Hours, EFDH- Equivalent Forced Derated Hours,
MOH- Maintenance Outage Hours and EMDH- Equivalent Maintenance Derated
Hours. PCLF—The planned capability loss factor is the ratio of maximum energy
generation that a plant is not capable of supplying to the electric grid because of
planned energy losses to that of maximum energy available expressed in percentage.
The planned capability loss includes annual maintenance shutdowns. An outage is
considered to be planned if it is scheduled at least 4 weeks in advance. PCLF is equal
to IEEE 762 weighted equivalent planned outage factor (WEPOF) and is expressed as
Pn 
½ðPOHi þ EPDHi Þ  NMCi 
WEPOF ¼ i¼1 Pn  100
i¼1 ðPHi  NMCi Þ

Where POH- Forced Outage Hours and EPDH- Equivalent Planned Derated
Hours. LF—The load factor is the ratio of the maximum energy the unit actually
produced to that of EAF expressed in percentage. LF is equal to IEEE 762 net
capacity factor (NCF) and is expressed as
 
NAAG
NCF ¼  100
NMG

Where NAAG- Net Actual Generation and NMG- Net Maximum Generation.
With increase in population growth surpassing 7 billion, it has become a challenge
to meet the necessary energy requirements. Installed capacity across the globe is
given in Fig. 2.2 as of 2013.
The International Energy Statistics report of the International Energy Agency
(IEA) shows the trend of energy generation growth from fossil fuel across the globe
(Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.2 World installed capacity source wise

2 Performance Parameters of Power Stations … 11

Fig. 2.3 Energy generation growth trend (world scenario)

Fig. 2.4 Impact of efficiency on CO2 reduction

The above trend shows that EAF is high but the generation growth is showing a
negative trend indicating less demand from fossil fired plant for coal-fired units. This
may be because many older units have been discarded and to reduce CO2 emission,
coal as a fuel has taken a back seat to make way for gas and renewable energy sources.
While the availability factor, and reliability enhances commercial compliance of
a utility, the efficiency enhancement of generation reduces fossil fuel consumption
and thereby reduces production of CO2.
As per IEA World Energy Outlook 2009 (IEA 2010), efficiency of coal-fired
utility across the globe is shown in Figs. 2.4 and 2.5.
As per the IEA report, there is enough scope of improvement in efficiency
through adaptation of efficient technology and good operation practices. India needs
to adopt high-efficiency supercritical units to enhance the gross efficiency.
Indian Scenario
India has enough coal reserve, and therefore the primary source of electricity is
coal. The energy availability position of the country (CEA 2010–11) as per CEA
report for the past decades is shown in Fig. 2.6.
12 2 Performance Parameters of Power Stations …

Source: IEA

Fig. 2.5 Relation between net plant efficiency and specific CO2 emission is shown

Fig. 2.6 Energy supply trend-Indian scenario

The energy shortage shows a negative trend over the past 5 years and indicates
that the gap is reducing.
Although the demand is there, the loading factor for fossil-fired power as per
CEA report is being reduced (CEA 2010–11) as shown in Fig. 2.7.
Scarcity of domestic fuel in conjunction with price volatility of international fuel
is one of the major cause of such a downtrend.
2 Performance Parameters of Power Stations … 13

Fig. 2.7 Loading factor trend for fossil fuel generators in India

Nine supercritical units were synchronized to the grid during the 2011–2012
financial year. Planned maintenance accounted for was 5.93 %. This is an increase
as compared with 5.83 % during the 2009–2010 financial year. Increase in
unscheduled capital maintenance along with unscheduled R&M activity of some
units were the main reason for the percentage increase in planned maintenance.
Similarly, during the 2011–2012 financial year, the loss of generation due to forced
outages of thermal units increased to 11.46 % as compared with 10.32 % during the
2009–2010 financial year. Increased forced shutdown of units due to a coal supply
problem was one of the major reasons. Transmission constraints and equipment
problems also added to the value.
Currently, India is going through adaptation of supercritical technology. The
forced outage of supercritical units is high, indicating that the technology has not
yet stabilized with Indian coal and atmospheric conditions. The O&M practices are
being reviewed under Indian context.
Heat conversion at high temperature is always efficient, but the temperature
limitation of turbine metal restricts high temperature conversion. With research for
developing high temperature material for turbine ultra-supercritical units with steam
temperature, approximately 700 °C is expected to substantially enhance the effi-
ciency of a thermal unit (Fig. 2.8).

Fig. 2.8 Turbine metallurgy-development trend (courtsey Toshiba)

14 2 Performance Parameters of Power Stations …

2.1 Impact of Performance Parameter on Economics

of Generation

Performance parameter plays a major role in economics of generation. Better

efficiency results in less consumption of resources such as coal, water, oil, auxiliary
consumption, etc. The cost implication due to a rise in the heat rate, make-up water
consumption, oil consumption, condenser back pressure, excess air, etc., indicate
the urgent need to control these parameters within the designed ratings. A hard fact
is that, with the passing of time, degradation sets in in various equipment and as a
result, the plant’s efficiency deteriorates. To understand the impact of degradation
we must analyze the impact of different components of performance parameter.
High-steam inlet temperature and spray.:
Energy from steam depends directly on pressure and temperature. At a lower
temperature, energy in the steam is low and therefore work done by the turbine will
be low, resulting in low turbine efficiency. Therefore, the steam consumption for the
required output will be higher. How should the loss be calculated?
The designed MS temperature is T and the actual is T1, then variance
is = (T − T1).
Each manufacturer includes a turbine heat rate correction factor. Typical tem-
perature correction factor curves for a 500 MW turbine is shown in Fig. 2.9.

Super heater spray flow Reheater spray flow

Fig. 2.9 Temperature correction factor for a typical 500 MW set. Source CIPECH14
2.1 Impact of Performance Parameter on Economics of Generation 15

Table 2.1 Effect of operating parameters on heat rate deviation

S. No. Parameters Deviation Average HR loss Typical range of HR
(kcal/kWh) loss (kcal/kWh)
1 Main steam 1 0.64 0.32–0.77
temperature (°C)
2 Reheat 1 0.59 0.41–0.86
temperature (°C)
3 Super heater spray 10 0.28 0.15–0.35
(Tones/h)
4 Reheat spray-4 10 2.6 1.1–4.19
(tones/h)
5 Exit gas 1 1.2 0.95–1.91
temperature (°C)

Let C be the correction factor corresponding to T1 temperature, H is the design

heat rate for the turbine and g is the efficiency of the boiler. Then deviation in heat
rate can be calculated as ¼ Hð1CÞ
g=100 %. Loss due to heat rate deviation in different
heads for a typical 500 MW unit is given in Table 2.1.
Heat rate deviation due to variation in condenser back pressure plays a major
role. Condenser back pressure variation can occur as a result of many reasons such
as variation in cooling water temperature, air leakage in the condenser, fouling of
condenser tubes etc. The general impacts are given in Figs. 2.10 and 2.11.
Variation in turbine cylinder efficiency also changes the turbine heat rate.
Typical parameters are

TG HR (kW)
210 MW 500 MW
Change in HPT efficiency by 1 % 0.3 % 0.3 %
Change in IPT efficiency by 1 % 0.16 % 0.16 %
Change in LPT efficiency by 1 % 0.5 % 0.5 %

Fig. 2.10 Impact of cooling

water temperature on back
pressure. Source IEA (2010)
Power generation from coal
16 2 Performance Parameters of Power Stations …

Fig. 2.11 Impact of

condenser tube fouling on
back pressure. Source IEA
(2010) Power generation from
coal

1% change in HP or IP turbine efficiency in a 500 MW unit leads to change in

HR by about 4.5 kcal/kWh and having cost implications of about Rs. 57 lakhs per
year (rail fed station)
If we consider coal price at Rs.-3500/ton, then it comes 1 kcal = 25 lakhs. So if
we can save 50 kcal of any of the unit then it will impact 13 Cr in a year. This will
reduce the cost of generation.

2.2 Impact of Performance Parameter

on the Environment

Coal-based thermal power stations consume a high amount of resources such as

coal, water, etc. Burning of coal produces fly ash particles in the atmosphere.
Temperature of the water used for cooling in the condenser increases in the process.
These create an immeasurable and everlasting impact on the environment and
generate tremendous stress in the local ecosystem (Pokale 2012).

2.2.1 Environment Impact on Water

The specific requirement of water for a coal-based power plant is approximately

0.005–0.18 m3/kWh. A large portion of the water is utilized for cooling purposes.
Cooling water after exchange of heat in the condenser is allowed to cool through
surface evaporation before returning it to the source water. Most aquatic organisms
have developed enzyme systems that operate in only narrow ranges of temperature.
High temperature of cooling water at the place of return adversely affects the marine
life of fish and other living organisms. These stenothermic organisms can be killed
by sudden temperature changes.
2.2 Impact of Performance Parameter on the Environment 17

Ash pond discharge contains harmful heavy metals such as B, As, Hg which can
leach out over a period of time. As a result, the ground water may become polluted
and be unsuitable for domestic use.

2.2.2 Impact on Air Quality

1 kg of Indian coal produces on average 0.4 kg of ash. Out of that, 0.38 kg goes to
air with flue gas. Coal burning at thermal power plants produces mainly CO2, SOx,
NOx, CFCs, and other trace gases. It also produces airborne inorganic particulates
such as fly ash and suspended particulate matter (SPM). CO2, NOx, and CFCs are
greenhouse gases (GHGs) (Shamshad et al. 2012).

2.2.3 Impact on Land

A large amount of land for the main plant and ash pond is required for a coal-based
thermal power plant. The specific land requirement (per MW of installed capacity)
for coal, gas, and hydroelectric power plants is 0.1–4.7, 0.26, and 6.6 ha, respec-
tively. Plant-generated effluents create change in natural soil properties, causing it to
become more alkaline due to the alkaline nature of fly ash. The quantity of effluent
production from coal burning for 1 kWh of electricity production is given below:
• 0.65 kg coal is burnt
• 990 gm CO2 is produced
• 7.6 gm SOx is produced
• 3.5 gm NOx is produced
• 0.061 gm soot is produced
• 2.3 gm SPM is produced.
In addition to mitigating the environment impact through technology, heat rate
improvement reduces coal consumption and thus reduces the adverse impact on
weather.

1 % improvement in efficiency (annual) in India will result in:

• Reduction of 4 million tons of CO2
• Reduction of 0.03 million tons of SOx
• Reduction of 4000 tons of NOx
• Reduction of 500 tons of soot
• Reduction of 10,000 tons of SPM
• Saving of 2 million tons of coal
• Saving of 220 Crore Rs.
Therefore, performance improvement in coal-fired thermal power stations helps
in long-term sustenance.
18 2 Performance Parameters of Power Stations …

References

CEA, Govt. of India. Annual report 2010-11

IEA (2010) Power generation from coal-measuring and reporting efficiency, performance and CO2
emission
IEEE Std 762™-2006. IEEE Standard definitions for use in reporting electric generating unit
reliability, availability, and productivity
Pokale WK (2012) Effects of thermal power plant on environment. Sci Revs Chem Commun 2(3),
212–215. ISSN 2277-2669
Shamshad A, Fulekar MH, Bhawana P (2012) Impact of coal based thermal power plant on
environment and its mitigation measure. Int Res J Environ Sci 1(4), 60–64
World Energy Council Report (2010) Performance of generating plant: managing the changes
Chapter 3
Residual Life Assessment

3.1 Definition

The equipment in a thermal plant has the operating range defined by the manu-
facturer. Often the equipment is subjected to operating beyond its operating range
due to (a) variation in interconnected grid demand, (b) start ups and shut downs,
(c) malfunctioning of controls, etc. This type of abnormal operation adversely
affects the material properties of various equipment through a material damage
mechanism such as creep, fatigue, corrosion, etc., and thereby reduces the life of the
equipment. Residual life assessment (RLA) is a method by which the type of
degradation of equipment and its materials are determined to ascertain the
remaining life of the equipment (Bhavnani 2007). The essential steps involved in
RLA are studying the historic operating data of the equipment and failure history
and estimating the material degradation. Mainly two different approaches are
adopted for RLA of power plant components. As a continuous process, some
manufacturers approach RLA using data analysis based on operational history. As a
discrete process, some approach RLA based on a periodic examination of critical
components. Data analysis is based on operation history and knowledge of the
operational stress-temperature data. Operation beyond the limiting range causes
fatigue to the equipment and reduces its effective lifespan. The most common types
of fatigue for thermal plant equipment are:
1. Creep fatigue: The allowable service life of component depends on the exposure
of the component beyond limiting load and the temperature such that the service
life is limited at a constant load and decreases with increasing temperature.
Creep damage occurs when the component is operated above the grain recovery
temperature characterizing of a material. Creep fatigue results in plastic defor-
mation of the material.
2. Low-cycle fatigue: Low-cycle fatigue is the fatigue of a component resulting
from cyclic loading beyond the strain limit. Cyclic strain loading occurs when
the part is subjected to pressure changes and/or fluctuating fluid temperature

© Springer India 2016 19

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9_3
20 3 Residual Life Assessment

distributions. Thermal stresses resulting from locally transient temperature dis-

tributions are superimposed on the mechanical loading. Each cycle in the
resulting stress (load cycle) leads to utilization of the low-cycle fatigue resis-
tance (low-cycle fatigue) and thus finally to stress cracking at the most highly
loaded point.

3.2 Methods

Since 2001, code EN12952 is being followed in many countries for design service
loading combination. A boiler manufacturer will generally design the boiler so that
there is some reserve with regard to the design service loading combination. In
reality, it is that a power plant is initially operated in base load operation due to the
favorable efficiency compared with the other available power plants. With increasing
age, it will be deployed more and more in cycling duty or as a peaking plant. This
different operating mode compared with the design of the component results in a
different anticipated service life of power plant equipment (Kunze and Raab 2012).
Calculation of creep fatigue Dc is based on a comparison of the exposure time
Top of a component at specific levels of pressure and temperature with the theo-
P P T
retical service life Tal of the component at these conditions: Dc ¼ i k Top;i;k al;i;k
.
The theoretical service life is calculated from the creep resistance (material
property), the operating temperature, and the membrane stress (or pressure). For a
quick overview of the operating mode of the power plant, it is expedient to cate-
gorize pressure and temperature in classes, with the classification assigned by
experts. The background is to define small intervals for normal operation values and
wider.
Low-cycle fatigue Df is determined by comparing the actual load cycles (n) the
equipment has subjected to with the number of cycles to crack initiation N of the
component for specific values of the stress range 2f and temperature t on which the
P P n
load cycle is based: Df ¼ i k Ni;ki;k .
A load cycle is defined by code EN 12952-4 as a closed hysteresis loop in the
stress/strain diagram. The stress in the material is calculated from the pressure and
temperature gradient, while the numbers of cycles to crack initiation are material
properties.
Continuous fatigue monitoring is the responsibility of the power plant operator
(not the manufacturer) and should be performed for the most highly loaded
components.
Heavily loaded components which are continuously monitored with regard to
creep fatigue and low-cycle fatigue are as follows:
• Headers
• Drums
• Separators
3.2 Methods 21

• Spray attemperators
• Piping (pipe bends)
Drums and separators are generally monitored for low-cycle fatigue (not creep
fatigue) because these components are operated in temperature ranges for which no
creep of the material occurs (below the grain recovery temperature).
Operating parameters (measured values) are required for each component to be
monitored for calculation of the service life:
• Creep fatigue:
– Mean wall temperature tmw and
– Internal pressure p
• Low-cycle fatigue:
– Inner wall temperature tim
– Mean wall temperature tmw
– Internal pressure p
The other methods of periodic examination of equipments involve (Padole and
Joshi 2002):
A. Application of NDE techniques for detection of cracks, assessing the extent of
corrosion/erosion etc. Use of ultrasonic thickness gauging, ultrasonic flaw
detector, dye Penetration testing, fluorescent magnetic particle testing for
detection of cracks, assessment of hydrogen damage by ultrasonic testing,
steam side oxide scaling is assessed by in situ ultrasonic boroscopic inspection
of rotors, eddy current tests for rotor blades and root, and video probe of critical
components.
B. Assessing the condition of material through in situ metallography applying
replica method, in situ chemical analysis with the help of spectroscope/X-ray
fluorescence, in situ hardness measurement etc.
C. Grouping of component specimens for a specific type of NDT.
It is essential to select suitable NDE techniques for critical areas where failures
are likely to occur (Table 3.1) and detection of such failures. Based on design
conditions, past experience and previous failure information, suitable inspec-
tion technique is adopted.
The actual service life of plant equipment differs from its nominal design life and
it is significantly dependent on good or poor operation and maintenance. With
respect to thermal power plants, for the purpose of keeping their function and
performance at an established level, the scope of inspection, method, and frequency
are defined on an equipment-by-equipment basis as a standard, and patrols, routine
checks, periodic inspections, service, and maintenance (repair, replacement, etc.)
are performed according to such standards.
Precise inspection and remaining life assessment for plants whose cumulative
operation time has exceeded 100,000 h is shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.1 Typical failure mechanisms and the associated inspection technique (Benesch et al. 2010)
22

Component Damage mechanism Inspection techniques

Creep Fatigue Erosion Corrosion HTT VT UTG UTF PT MT ET HT REP FOT DT CA SPL
Boiler and auxiliaries
1. Drums X X X X X X X X X
2. Steam headers X X X X X X X X X X
3. Water headers X X X X X X X X X X
4. Steam piping X X X X X X X X X X
5. Superheater and reheater X X X X X X X X Xa
tubes
6. Waterwall tubes X X X X X X X X Xb
7. Ductings X X X X X
8. Precipitator X X X X X
9. Structures X X X X X X
Turbine
1. Rotor X X X X X X X Xc
2. Shell X X X X X X X X
3. Steam chest X X X X X X X X X
4. Casing X X X X X X X X
5. Blades X X X X X X X X X Xd
6. HT bolts X X X X X X X X
(continued)
3 Residual Life Assessment
Table 3.1 (continued)
Component Damage mechanism Inspection techniques
Creep Fatigue Erosion Corrosion HTT VT UTG UTF PT MT ET HT REP FOT DT CA SPL
Generator
3.2 Methods

1. Rotor X X X X
2. Retaining rings X X X X X
Condenser and heat X X X X X X X X
Exchanger
X Applicable; HTT High temperature tensile failure; VT Visual inspection and dimensional check; UTG Ultrasonic thickness gauging; UTF Ultrasonic flaw
detection; PT Penetrant testing; MT Magnetic particle inspection; ET Eddy current testing; HT Hardness measurement; REP In situ replica metallography; FOT
Fiberoptic examination; DT Destructive tests on samples; CA Chemical analysis in situ; SPL Special Test Methods
a
Oxide scale measurement by special Ultrasonic technique
b
Hydrogen damage assessment by special Ultrasonic technique
c
Boresonic Inspection
d
Special Eddy Current Test of Roots
23
24 3 Residual Life Assessment

Table 3.2 Various types of inspection methods

Subject Damage to Method of inspection and Automation
material detection
Furnace Thermal fatigue PT, MT UT from outside Automatic inspection
waterwall of piping external furnace device using a
piping metals multi-sensor within
Inner piping High-frequency array UT the furnace
corrosion fatigue Spiral UT
Coil of Creep Replica method, hardness Void recognition
super-heater, method device by image
re-heater, and processing
economizer Fatigue PT, MT replica method
(microscopic method)
High-temperature Inner piping UT Automatic-measuring
corrosion, wear, robot
and thickness
decrease
Steam oxidation High-precision UT method
scale
Wear of High-velocity laser Automatic inspection
horizontal Method Inner piping UT unit
heat-transferring UT thickness gage for
piping narrow portion
Pipe header Type IV crack, Time of flight diffraction Image-processing
and main inner crack method/electronic focus device
piping sector scanning Ultrasonic
noise method

References

Benesch WA, Hay M, Verghese JT (2010) The high available and efficient coal fired power
station. POWER-GEN India & Central Asia 2010
Bhavnani PC (2007) Residual Life assessment, uprating, R&M of old power plants. Conference
proceedings on Thermal Power India 2- Present Status, Technology Development, Future
Prospects & Strategies, IndiaCore
Kunze U, Raab S (2012) Assessment of remaining useful life of power plant steam generators—a
standardized industrial application. In: European conference of prognostics and health
management society 2012
Padole PM, Joshi MM (2002) Application and implementation of residual life assessment
techniques for coal handling plant. NDE2002 predict. Assure. improve. National Seminar of
ISNT, Chennai, 5. Accessed Dec 7 2002
Chapter 4
Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

4.1 Introduction

Operation of a thermal power generating unit involves synchronized or sequential

operation of many subsystems for continuing power production. A schematic
arrangement of various subsystems and output flows are shown in Fig. 4.1.
Each subsystem consists of different equipment, namely fans, pumps, heat
exchangers, valves, dampers, etc. A Equipment manufacturers gives broad oper-
ating procedures based on design criteria but optimum output from each subsystem
is obtained only when minute details of the operating procedure are understood and
followed. There lies the necessity of the development of specific operating guide-
lines. The guidelines to be categories as
1. Commissioning
2. Cold/warm and hot start-ups
3. Fire prevention and firefighting
4. Abnormal/unsafe operations.

4.2 Commissioning

After the plant is erected, all the equipment is subjected to trial operation before it is
taken into the specific subsystem. When the subsystems are proved reliable with
trial operation, the major capital equipment boiler and turbine are taken through the
process of chemical cleaning. Boiler tubes are processed through with chemical
treatment for building up protective layers inside the tubes. Steam blowing is done
for cleaning the boiler tubes free of any debris. Turbine systems are cleaned with
detergent and thereafter oil flushing is done on the lubricating oil system for further
cleaning. Setting of safety valves and testing of interlocks and protection of

© Springer India 2016 25

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9_4
26 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

Fuel (Pulverizer) & Primary Air Flue gas

Water
Water + steam
Furnace Drum
Wall
Air (FD fan)
Water

Turbine Sup Heater

Steam
Condenser

Water
CEP BFP Economizer

Water
Water and steam path
Air preheater
Flue gas path

ESP

ID Fan

To Chimney

Fig. 4.1 Flow diagram of air, gas, water, and steam in a power boiler

equipment and subsystems are done before making the plant ready for synchro-
nization with the grid. All these activities that are required to make the plant ready
are known as commissioning. The regulatory life of a power plant is 25 years.
A well-commissioned plant can run efficiently beyond its regulatory life, and
hence the importance of commissioning guidelines. The guidelines need to cover
the followings:
1. Formation of a commissioning team with experienced representation from the
Mechanical, Electrical, Chemistry, and Control and Instrumentation disciplines.
2. Well-documented formats for pre-checks, trial run checks, and post operation
checks including safe operating limits of equipment and systems.
3. Documentation of omissions.
4. Human safety precaution to be taken during commissioning.
The commissioning team to be formed as a three-tier structure:
a. Steering committee
b. Commissioning panel
c. Working party.
The purpose of the steering committee is to provide policy and priorities, ensure
adequate resources, and approve the work program. The steering committee formed
with plant in-charge, members from the core commissioning team, and a com-
missioning team from equipment erector/suppliers. The commissioning panel
controls day-to-day commissioning activities and coordinates between different
working parties and teams. It is normally chaired by heads of O&M, the test team
4.2 Commissioning 27

leader, and the erection department. The working party and the test team carry out
commissioning activities and hand over equipment from the erection state to the
operation state.
Major committees are formed much before the schedule commissioning.
Identifying the operation and maintenance team, setting up an O&M organization,
procurement of regular consumable spares (such as electrical fuses of different
ratings, different types of bearings for rotating equipment, etc.) to be completed so
that commissioning activities continues without interruption and a smooth transition
from the commissioning phase to the operating phase is ensured.
Various documentation is prepared during the commissioning stage. Mainly five
types of documentation are done: (1) paper of principle, for setting out the principle
and objectives; (2) testing and commissioning schedule, covering details of the
testing procedure, responsibilities, and result; (3) standard checklists, checking for
correct erection, limit of operations, testing instrument schedule, etc.; (4) design
change notification for recording intermediate design change if any; and (5) test
report for documenting the test results and trial run.
Every piece of equipment and system in a plant has unique deviation from its
design characteristics. The condition of the equipment/systems in long run is
compared with its unique initial characteristics. Therefore, keeping the record
of initial test results are vital for maintaining a long life of equipment and systems.
Some of the major commissioning activities on which the life span of a plant
depends are chemical cleaning of boiler tubes and turbine pipelines, preservation of
the boiler after cleaning, oil flushing of lubrication and control oil system, and
maintaining chemical parameters within limits during commissioning. Generally,
commissioning procedure for individual equipment follows the guidelines given by
the respective manufacturer. However, that does not take care of the requirement of
a system commissioning. Therefore, the plant must have its own standard of system
for commissioning. For example, commissioning of an ID fan/FD fan needs to
follow the procedure given by the fan manufacturer, but while commissioning the
air and gas system, setting the operating regime of a secondary air damper or
tertiary air damper should be done as per site condition. Necessary guidelines for
system commissioning to be developed by the plant engineer on the basis of site
condition in conjunction with manufacturer recommendations.
The chemical cleaning process for the water and steam path of steam generators
at fossil fuel fired stations was in itially developed during the latter half of the
twentieth century. Development in technology and experience in field application
subsequently led to a number of changes in the process. Removal of iron oxides
from tube surface is generally accomplished with solvents of iron oxide. However,
the choice of solvent depends on philosophy of approach for cleaning by different
manufacturers. The common solvents are:
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
28 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

• Hydroxyacetic-formic acid (HAF)

• Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)
• Citric acid (CA) compounds
HCl is widely used in cleaning of conventional boilers before commissioning.
Ammonium bifluoride (ABF) is sometimes added to the HCl solution to produce
HF which enhances the capability of iron removal and allows solubility of silicates,
if any, in the deposit material. HAF is an effective good iron remover but has low
affinity for other deposit constituents. EDTA and CA compounds have been used
for pre-commissioning and operational cleaning of conventional boilers, and are
also suitable for cleaning of HRSGs. These solvents are generally inhibited to
control the speed of the reactions and many times other chemicals are included to
enable removal of specific deposit constituents. While designing the chemical
cleaning solvents, special care should be made to minimize the corrosion of base
tube metal anywhere in the boiler. An iron concentration of 2.0 % in the solvent is
generally considered the maximum safe level to avoid corrosion of the base metal.
Inhibited hydrofluoric acid (HF) is commonly used in Europe. The contact period
for HF is generally very short. A summary of the solvents used is shown in
Table 4.1. Chemical cleaning procedures include the following:
• Cleaning of the isolation system
• Removal of debris
• Hydrostatic testing by raising the pressure and preliminary leak detection
• Flushing of the super heater and economizer
• Temperature control during the cleaning process
• Injection of solvent.

Table 4.1 Parameters of typical iron oxide removal solvents

Solvents and HCL HF HAF Ammonium EDTA CA (Citrates)
conditions of Ammonium Sodium
use
Typical use 5–6 1–2 3–6 4–6 2–6 2–6
concentration %
Typical use 150–160 150 (66) 200 (93) Iron: 180–200 Iron: Iron:
temperature (66–71) (82–93) or 265–300 180–200 180–200
°F (°C) (129–149) Copper: (82–93) (82–93)
<150 (66) Or 240–275 Copper:
(116–135) <150
Copper: (66)
<150
(66)
Contact time 4–6 Minimal 12–24 12–48 12–48 12–48
Hours-poor
circulation
Good NR Minimal 6–12 6–24 6–24 6–24
circulation
4.2 Commissioning 29

Fig. 4.2 Use of HF in

once-through steam
generators

A schematic drawing of the open circuit technique used with once through boiler
for acid cleaning is shown in Fig. 4.2.
Once the chemical analysis of the boiler indicates that the boiler is clean, the
next activity is the passivation step. In the case of HCl, passivation is preceded by
rinses and neutralization of any remaining acid in the boiler. In the case of EDTA,
passivation occurs after cooling the boiler to 160 °F and after the pH of the solvent
is raised with ammonia (for diammonium EDTA) when oxygen is added.
The degree to which the boiler tube surfaces are truly passivated is a function of
the solvent, the procedure, and the time and temperature at which the passivation is
performed. The passivation step at the end of the chemical cleaning is generally
neither long enough nor at a high enough temperature to create a robust protective
layer. It is often difficult to ensure that the boiler gets really dry after the cleaning or
can be laid-up properly in a wet condition. The super heater is always back-filled
during cleaning to minimize the risk of contamination. The important thing is to
make sure all deposits have been removed during the cleaning and that the
chemistry has stabilized. A comparison of deposit removal capability of different
solvents is shown in Table 4.2.
Oil flushing is done to clean the oil piping system by removing dirt, welding
slag, etc., after completion of piping erection. This is ensured by creating conditions
30 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

Table 4.2 Deposit removal characteristics

Constituents in deposit: capacity for constituents in question
Solvents and deposit HCL HF HAF Ammoniated CA (Citrates)
constituents EDTA Ammonium Sodium
Iron oxides High High High High High High
Copper metallic Lowa Traceb Traceb Medium Medium Traceb
a b b
Copper oxide Medium Trace Trace Medium Medium Traceb
Nickel oxide High … … High High High
Zinc oxide High … … High High High
Aluminum oxide Low High … Trace … …
Chromium oxide … … … … … …
Calcium salts Highc Mediumc Lowc Mediumc, d … …
Magnesium salts High … Low Medium … …
Silica Lowe High Lowe … Lowe …
Carbonates High … … High … …
Phosphates High .. .. Mediumd … …
Calcium sulfates Low … … Trace … …
Organics Tracef … … … … …
a
With sufficient copper complex present-such as thiourea
b
Dissolved copper will redeposit as metallic copper on bare steel surface
c
Except for calcium sulfate, which is difficult to dissolve
d
Removal may require long contact time
e
Provided ammonium bifluoride is added
f
Trace material may slough off during cleaning. Organic matter, when present, often carbonizes
next to the metal surface and requires removal with an alkaline permanganate solution. Massive
short-term oil intrusion into the feed water can result in only deposits covering a mixture of
carbonized oil and existing metal oxides deposits. Use of a strong alkaline detergent for removal
of noncarbonized oil and prolong exposure to strong alkaline permanganate solutions for removal
of carbonized oil deposits may be necessary

similar to the machine in operation by adopting a thermal shock process. Before oil
flushing, all the pipes should be acid cleaned (soaking through 5 % HCl with
appropriate inhibitor, passivation through sodium nitrite [2 %] and liquid ammonia
[5 %] and then drying via dry compressed air). For conducting the oil flushing
effectively, the oil system is flushed in loops, namely (1) lube oil system flushing,
(2) jacking oil system flushing, (3) control oil system and purification system
flushing, and 4) seal oil system flushing. While flushing is done in different stages
for inclusion and exclusion of different equipment, thermal shock is done for
effective cleaning. One cooler is used for heating the oil while another cooler is
used for cooling. It should be noted however that raising the temperature of oil
should be slow but cooling should be rapid (from around 75 °C to approximately
30 °C). During cooling the pipelines are softly hammered with wooden buttons for
loosening stuck debris, if any. The differential level meter of the main oil tank
4.2 Commissioning 31

Fig. 4.3 Schematic for turbine lubrication oil flushing

(MOT) indicates the filter cleaning requirement. Generally, if the difference shown
in differential level meter becomes 200 mm, then flushing stops to clean the MOT
filter. The lube oil filters are cleaned based on differential pressure (DP) across the
filter (>0.7 Ksc). The pipeline should be considered cleaned when DP across the
filter is stabilized and does not increase beyond 0.1 to 0.2 Ksc for more than 8 h of
continuous flushing operation. Mechanical impurities should be less than 100 ppm
for three consecutive readings at an interval of 4 h. On completion of flushing, a
hydraulic test is conducted for the entire system (in general lube oil lines at 12 kg,
control oil lines at 20/32 kg and jacking oil lines 225 bar). The MOT is drained,
cleaned, and inspected before restoration of the system. All bearing pedestals are
cleaned thoroughly before being boxed up. Schematics for flushing of different oil
systems are given in Figs. 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5.
During erection of high pressure pipelines, welding slag, loose foreign material,
etc. are inadvertently left inside the pipe. These loose materials can damage turbine
blades if they get carried over to turbine. Although there are strainers before entry to
the turbine, the high speed debris will damage the strainer and will cause outages of
the plant. In order to remove these welding slags, loose foreign materials, iron
pieces, rust, etc. from the system, steam blowing of MS lines, CRH, HRH, SH, RH,
32 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

Fig. 4.4 Schematic for turbine control oil flushing

Fig. 4.5 Schematic for turbine jacking oil system flushing

4.2 Commissioning 33

HP, and LP bypass pipe lines of turbine is carried. Effect of steam blowing depends
on thermal shock and the cleaning force of the steam. ‘Cleaning force ratio’ is
defined as the ratio of velocity of steam during steam blowing to that of steam
velocity at MCR (maximum continuous rating) and generally denoted as ‘K’. It can
be expressed as

ðsteam flow during blowingÞ2  ðsp: volume of steam during blowingÞ

K¼
ðsteam flow at MCRÞ2  ðsp: volume of steam at MCRÞ

Recommended value K > 1.25 (between 1.25 and 1.4). Blowing mass flow can
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
be expressed as Qflow ¼ 1:25  QMCR  VMCR =Vblow : Steam flow can be
measured by net feed water flow.
Steam blowing can be done through either the puffing method or the continuous
method. In both, the method boiler pressure is raised approximately 40–60 kg/cm2,
and steam is suddenly allowed to pass through the pipes under the blowing process
and escape to the atmosphere. In the puffing technique the boiler fire is killed, and
pressure drop inside the drum is limited to change in saturation temperature by
40 °C. In the continuous technique, boiler fire is not killed and steam blowing takes
place virtually at a constant pressure.
Steam blowing is done in number of stages depending on the convenience of
taking different pipe line circuits and temporary pipe line erection. However aux-
iliary pipelines are generally blown through using the continuous method.
Stainless steel target plates are put just before the end of the temporary pipeline
where steam is allowed to escape to the atmosphere. Steam blowing is complete
when the orifice granularity on the target plate is not more than 08 nos and size less
than 0.8 mm for two successive blowings. Boiler expansion is checked during
steam blowing.
Certificates are issued in different stages of commissioning. They are: (1) safety
clearance certificate-issued prior to excitation of the plant/equipment, (2) record of
initial operation-issued after initial operation, (3) initial taken over certificate-issued
for taking over the plant in accordance with the condition of contract, (4) final
internal contract clearance certificate-issued after completion of guarantee period,
(5) plant completion report-after performance guarantee test of the entire plant.
Tube failure is a major contributor to boiler downtime. Analysis reveals that a
major percentage of tube failure during commissioning/initial operation is due to
blockage in the tubes. The thermal flow test of the boiler tubes detects any
blockage. The thermal flow meter works on the principle that the rate of cooling of
a tube is proportional to the flow of fluid inside the tube. The accuracy of a flow
meter is good for a fluid velocity of 0.15 to 3.0 m/s. Tubes are heated to approx-
imately 100 °C and the rate of cooling is observed until the temperature drops to
10 °C above the ambient temperature. The cooling period is compared among all
the tubes. The rate of cooling will be lower in case any blockage. The ideal period
of testing of the water wall will be just after acid cleaning. The ideal period for
testing of super heaters will be just after steam blowing.
34 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

4.3 Cold and Hot Startup

Cold/warm and hot startup is defined by turbine metal temperature. A temperature

below 100 °C is considered for cold startup, up to 250 °C for warm startup, and
above that is considered for hot startup. In general, cold startup occurs after major
overhauling of a plant. During major overhauling almost all the subsystems remain
under permit to work for maintenance. Therefore, during cold startup, charging and
lining up of different subsystems is required to be done in sequence. The sequence
is generally done in following order:
1. Charging of electrical system
2. Charging instrument air system
3. Charging condenser cooling water system
4. Charging of raw cooling water system
5. Charging of equipment cooling water system
6. Charging of auxiliary steam system
7. Charging of fuel oil system
8. Charging of LP ash water system
9. Filling hot well; lining and startup of condensate system
10. Lining and startup of feed water system; filling the boiler
11. Lining up and taking in service of lubricating oil system for turbine
12. Lining up of generator seal oil system and taking in service
13. Hydrogen filling in the generator
14. Lining and startup of jacking oil system; putting turbine on barring
15. Charging hydrogen coolers and stator water cooling system
16. Lining up of air and gas system and taking the fans in service; putting draft on
auto
17. Lining up for boiler light up; taking oil burners in service
18. Condenser vacuum pulling
19. Boiler steaming, closing of vents; charging of steam line to turbine
20. HP/LP bypass charging; establishing steam flow to condenser hot well
21. Preparation for turbine rolling; turbine rolling at intermediate speed and
soaking
22. Taking primary air system in service
23. Pulverizer lining up and taking in service
24. Charging attemperation system
25. Lining up switchyard
26. Lining up generator excitation system
27. Turbine rolling at synchronizing speed and synchronization
28. Changeover to unit auxiliary power system
29. LP heaters charging
30. Picking up load.
4.3 Cold and Hot Startup 35

The procedure of aforesaid activities can be further detailed as follows:

Activity Detail procedure to be followed

Electrical system charging. • No permit pending on the system to be charged
All HV and LV switchgear, MCCs and • The minimum IR (insulation resistance) value of
valves and dampers control centers the switchgear bus should be 1 + 1 MX/kV
measured with the help of a 500 V megger for
the LV system and 1000 V megger for the HV
system
• All DC control supply to HV and LV electrical
switch gears are made on
• Buses are charged from both the incomer with
bus coupler on/auto changeover mode
• Checking DG set change over to emergency bus
Charging of instrument air (IA) system • No permit pending on IA system
• Both TG side and boiler side IA system charged
from compressor house
• Furthest end drain crack opened to check for any
water accumulation in the line and closed after
draining of water if any
Condenser charging • No work permit on circulating cooling water
system
• Open CW duct vents. Close water box drains
• With discharge v/v closed start one CW pump
• Line up CW water box priming p/p or priming
ejector
• Open CW inlet v/v to condenser
• Start CW water box priming pump
• Slowly open outlet v/v of condenser and maintain
water pressure. Start second CW p/p
• Close all vents in CW duct and water box. Stop
priming p/p
Charging of raw cooling water system • No work permits pending on circulating water
system, auxiliary cooling water system and plate
heat exchanger
• All flow and pressure switch and indicator are
lined up
• CW duct of the unit is charged
• Suction valves of the pumps are open, sealing
water v/v to gland is open, pump vent is open,
pump recirculation v/v is open. Isolating v/vs of
discharge filter and plate heat exchanger are
open. Discharge valve closed
• Start raw cooling water pump. Open discharge
v/v
• Differential pressure across the strainer should be
less than 0.5 kg
• Check the return flow to CW discharge seal pit
(continued)
36 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

(continued)
Activity Detail procedure to be followed
Charging of equipment cooling water • No work permits pending
system • Adequate level in DM water cooling tank and
pumps are lined up
• Ensure gland sealing
• Start ECW pumps
• Charge various auxiliary coolers
Charging of auxiliary steam header • No work permit pending on auxiliary steam
supply system, SCAPH, atomizing steam, oil
heater
• Drain from auxiliary steam header is opened, all
downstream CVs and manual isolating valves are
closed
• Service air and instrument air is charged
• Charge auxiliary steam header by first opening
bypass of inlet isolation valve
• Allow draining of the header for any water
condensation and ensure that steam is flowing
through the drain (by observing drain line metal
temperature)
• Close the drain and open isolation valve
completely
Charging of fuel oil system • No work permits pending
• Oil trip v/v operation and protection checked
• Charge auxiliary steam for line heating
• Line up fuel oil station at firing floor of the boiler
• Open short recirculation v/v and charge the
system
Charging of LP ash water system • No work permits pending on LP ash water
system, furnace trough seal and bottom ash
hopper
• Line up and start p/p
• Check water flow through overflow lines
Filling hotwell. Startup of condensate • No work permit pending in condensate system,
system LP heaters, deaerator
• Instrument air in service
• ECW water to CEP motor coolers and bearing oil
cooler is lined up
• Open DM water inlet v/v to hot well. Fill hot well
to normal level
• Condenser spill valve bypass and common
isolation valve to exhaust hood spray are closed
• Line up hot well and deaerator level controller,
LP heaters and deaerator
• Start CEP and fill deaerator
• Add hydrazine and ammonia as recommended by
chemist
(continued)
4.3 Cold and Hot Startup 37

(continued)
Activity Detail procedure to be followed
Startup of feed water system and boiler • No permit is pending on feed water system, HP
filling heaters, deaerator, etc.
• Ensure ECW flow to working and lubricate
• Ensure seal quenching pressure more than
recommended value
• Ensure emergency seal quenching pump is lined
up
• Start auxiliary oil p/p of boiler feed pump (BFP)
• Ensure HP heaters are bypassed
• Start BFP in recirculation mode
• Ensure all low point drains are closed
• Drum vents are open
• Open economizer inlet and recirculation valve
• Open low range feed control valve
• LP dosing pumps lined up and taken in service
• Control feed water flow as per rate of flow to
deaerator
• Slowly close recirculation of BFP pump
• Observe drum/separator level (depending on
drum type/once through boiler)
Line up for turbine lubricating oil • No work permits pending
system and taking in service • Lubricating oil coolers are lined up. Supply
valves to bearings are opened
• Thrust bearing filter is lined up
• Adequate oil level in MOT
• Open the oil temperature controller manually to
30 %
• Start oil vapor extractor
• Start one auxiliary oil pump and check local
pressure and flow
• Take temperature controller on auto
Line up for control fluid • Line up control fluid coolers
• Start control fluid tank vapor extractor
• Start one control fluid pump and observe flow
and pressure
Lining up generator seal oil system and • No work permits pending
putting in service • Seal oil tank, seal oil pumps, thrust oil lined up
• Seal oil system is lined up
• Line up seal oil coolers and start seal oil pump
Hydrogen filling in generator • CO2 is entered through bottom of the generator
and air purged through top. Lining up done
accordingly
• Hydrogen is entered through bottom and CO2
purged from bottom
• Check hydrogen purity for >97 % and pressure as
recommended
(continued)
38 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

(continued)
Activity Detail procedure to be followed
TG on barring • Turbine lubricating oil system and seal oil system
in service
• Start jacking oil pump and check pressure
• Open gate gearing valve from control panel
• Observe turbine speed, bearing temperature and
vibration
Line up of air and flue gas system • No work permits on furnace, APH, fans, ESP and
interconnected ducts and dampers in the boiler
• Unit equipment cooling system in running
condition with all coolers in SG side charged
• APH fire sensing device and soot blowers
available
• All the wall blowers and LRSB are in retracted
condition
• Boiler slag bath, trough seal, economizer and air
pre-heater hoppers are filled with water
• Bottom ash equipment is lined up
• All peep holes and man holes in the boiler closed
• All inlet and outlet dampers of the entire ESP
pass are opened
• APH air motor availability checked
• After closing inlet outlet dampers APH start
command given
• Outlet secondary air damper of APH is opened
followed by opening of inlet dampers
• Flue gas outlet damper is opened followed by
inlet damper
Startup of ID fan • No work permits pending on fans
• Adequate oil in lubricating oil tank
• One hydraulic coupling cooler and one lubricated
oil cooler water is charged
• Fan Inlet vane in minimum position, inlet and
outlet damper closed
• Start lubricating oil pump. Adequate pressure and
oil flow in bearings to be checked
• Give ID fan start command. Initially starting
current will be high and then comes down to no
load value
• Inlet and outlet damper opens automatically after
some time
• Do not load ID fan without running FD fan
Startup of FD fan • No work permit is pending on fans
• At least one ID fan is running
• Secondary air damper (SADC) operation is
checked
• Adequate lubricating oil in lubricating oil tank
• Start lubricating oil pump. Adequate pressure and
oil flow through bearings is checked
(continued)
4.3 Cold and Hot Startup 39

(continued)
Activity Detail procedure to be followed
• Fan blade pitch in minimum position and
inlet/outlet damper in closed condition
• Give FD fan start command. Wait till current
comes down to no load value. Inlet/outlet damper
opens automatically
• Load FD fan by opening blade bitch control
• Load ID fan by opening vane control
• Put ID fan on auto. Adjust set point of ID to
maintain a negative draft of around (–) 10 mm of
water column
• Load FD fan to maintain air flow slightly above
40 % of full load flow
SCAPH (steam coil air preheater) in • No work permit on SCAPH
service • One set of ID and FD fan running
• Drain valves down streams of SCAPH are open
to IBD
• Charge the steam line
• Crack open SAPH cold end temperature
controller for worming up
• After worming up close the drains and open
control valve to maintain require cold end
temperature
Line up for boiler light up • Oil guns and igniters checked. SADC checked.
Scanner air fan in service. Bottom ash evacuation
system taken in service. At least one set of ID
and FD fans, both air heaters, all flushing
apparatus are in service. All drains are closed
• Drum is filled with water
• Drum and super heater vents are open
Boiler light up Conditions for purge permissive
• Maintaining air flow between 30 and 40 % of full
load air flow
• Drum water level normal
• Burner tilt horizontal (corner fired boiler)
• All PA fans, pulverizers and feeders off
• All hot air gates closed
• All nozzle valves closed
• No boiler trip command persisting
• All scanner sensing no flame
• Oil tip valve (HOTV) closed
“Purge ready” signal will indicate the compliance
of conditions
• Press “purge start”. After stipulated time elapsed,
“purge completed” signal will glow
• Open long recirculation v/v for oil heating as well
as the HOTV
• Wait until oil temperature at boiler front is
approximately 110 °C
(continued)
40 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

(continued)
Activity Detail procedure to be followed
• Give light up command to one pair of guns at
bottommost elevation
• Igniter at one corner will advance and start
sparking. HO nozzle v/v will open. Atomized
steam oil mixture will spray out. If scanner does
not sense fire within preset time interval, the
corresponding gun will retract automatically
• After flame is established, adjust fuel oil pressure
and combustion air so that flame is stable and no
black soot is visible in exhaust gas
• When oil gun is in service, air heater soot blower
needs to be operated at least once every 8 h
• CBD opening per chemist recommendation
• Maintain rate of rise of drum metal temperature
less than 2 °C per minute and that of main steam
temperature less than 5 °C per minute by
controlling oil firing
• At 2 kg/cm2 drum pressure, close drum vents
• Super heater header startup vents remain open
• Maintain furnace temperature within allowable
metal temperature of re-heater (because no steam
is flowing through re-heater). Check with furnace
temperature probe
• Drum top bottom metal temperature difference to
be maintained within 50 °C
• Maintain water level in the drum through low
range feed control and emergency blow down
Vacuum pulling • Open drain of gland steam supply and charge
gland steam header for warming up
• Start gland seal condenser extractor fan
• Open seal steam pressure controller and maintain
a pressure of 0.1 kg/cm2 or recommended
pressure. Maintain seal temperature at
approximately 150–160 °C
• Line up vacuum p/p. Close vacuum breaker and
start vacuum pump in hogging mode
• Check the vacuum build up at recommended
value
• Open air ejector v/v and close by pass v/v to keep
the vacuum p/p in hold position
• Close drain of gland seal supply line
Main steam line warming and charging • No work permit on main steam line
• Boiler is steaming and pressure is around
6–8 kg/cm2
• Condenser vacuum is pulled
• All drain v/vs of steam line and strainers are
opened
(continued)
4.3 Cold and Hot Startup 41

(continued)
Activity Detail procedure to be followed
• First open by pass v/v of main steam stop valve
and begin heating of the pipe until pure steam
continue to come through drains
• Close the drain and open main steam (MS) stop
valve
HP/LP bypass charging • No work permit on HP/LP bypass system
• ECW cooling water is lined up for gland cooling
of HP bypass v/vs
• All drains of MS are line up to TG flash tank
• HP BP downstream drains open
• HP bypass v/v pressure set-point initially set to
around 12 kg/cm2 and temperature around
220 °C
• Set LP bypass v/v pressure set point to about
4 kg/cm2 and keep in auto
• Water spray pressure controller in manual mode
• Open manual isolation v/v for exhaust hood spray
• Injection water pressure switch and low vacuum
protection switch in LP BP rack is kept in
operating mode
• Control fluid line to all v/v and injection water is
lined up
• Temperature dependent solenoid v/vs are in reset
condition in LP BP rack.
• Open both bypass v/v manually to around 5 %.
Check downstream temperature rising
• LP BP v/v will automatically open and hold
approximately 25 % until the actual hot re-heat
pressure reaches to preset value
• Put HP BP in auto. Increase boiler firing. Pressure
set point increased gradually to around 40 kg for
attaining turbine rolling parameter
• HP BP will force close if downstream
temperature is higher than 380 °C or vacuum
becomes less than 0.8 kg/cm2. In case HP BP
gets forced closed, spray v/v should be closed
immediately to prevent water entry
• After synchronization the HP BP set point should
be kept in higher value than operating pressure
and temperature to avoid unnecessary operation
of HP BP
• LP BP stop and control v/v gets force closed if a
condenser vacuum is less than 0.6 kg/cm2 or
injection water presser becomes low or condenser
wall temperature increases beyond 90 °C
• After synchronization, LP BP set point is a
function of turbine first stage pressure
(continued)
42 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

(continued)
Activity Detail procedure to be followed
Line up and start of turbine rolling • Main steam pressure is around 40 kg/cm2 and
temperature is around 350 °C
• Open all drain v/vs of HP and IP control v/vs.
Open ESV seat drain.
• Take generator primary water system with temp
controller in service
• Generator lockout relay is reset
• Switch on the tracking device from console and
TSE effect
• Reduce the starting device to zero position,
Check building up of Trip oil pressure and
start-up oil pressure
• Raise the speeder gear position to 100 %. Load
limiter set to block load limit
• Raise the starting device slowly (fast opening will
collapse the startup oil pressure fast and may not
be able to open the stop valves). At around 40 %
when HP stop v/v starts opening, hold starting
device. After HP stop v/v opened fully raise
starting device further. The IPCV starts open.
After all the v/vs opened, raise the starting device
fully
• Let all the stop v/vs heated uniformly (by
observing temperature at 50 % depth and 100 %
depth from TSE). Keep warm up controller on
• Raise speeder gear to initial soaking speed
(reference speed will be as per the manufacturer
of the turbine. In general the reference is around
600 rpm)
• Turbine will start speeding up till soaking speed
achieved. Jacking oil pump should cut-off
automatically
• Check that all the bearing temperature, thrust
bearing temperature, bearing vibration and
differential expansion are within limit
Pulverizer line up and starting • Cooling water system is charged and oil coolers
are lined up. Lubricating oil level is ok
• PA fan lub oil system is lined up. Check auto
interlock for standby lube oil pump
• Instrument air is charged to all cold and hot air
dampers
• Secondary air temperature is adequate (>200 °C)
• Coal Feeder is lined up and put it on remote
• All permissive for PA fan is available on Control
desk
• Start one PA fan on no load. After stabilization
load it
• Put seal air fan on auto and start
(continued)
4.3 Cold and Hot Startup 43

(continued)
Activity Detail procedure to be followed
• All pulverizer permissives are available on
control desk
• Start pulverizer. Cold air damper opens
automatically
• Open hot air damper. Maintain recommended air
flow to the pulverizer through primary air flow
controller
• Start feeder. Load slowly and maintained
pulverizer outlet temperature around 80 °C
• Adjust opening of fuel air damper as per feeder
speed
• Scanner should sense flame and flame failure
protection gets armed
Turbine rolling and synchronisation • Line up switchyard bay by closing line side and
bus side isolators
• Adequate margin in TSE is available for rolling
further
• Raise the speed reference to synchronous speed
in one stroke. Turbine speeds up to synchronous
speed
• Auxiliary oil pump will automatically cut off
• Allow for soaking till IP shaft attains temperature
as per rolling curve. TSE margin will indicate
further allowance
• Switch on excitation to generator. Raise AVR set
point to build voltage as recommended. Match
auto and manual set point of AVR and put AVR
on auto
• Switch on synchroscope. Adjust AVR so that
generator terminal voltage and grid voltage are
same
• Adjust turbine speed so that difference between
generator and grid speed is minimized with
generator speed in higher side. (Synchroscope
needle rotates slowly clockwise)
• Close generator breaker when permissive lamps
glow
• Immediately increase speed reference in turbine
to pick up some block load (otherwise generator
may trip on reverse power protection)
• Close HP/LP bypass v/v. Close all drains opened
during rolling. Close warm up drain. Switch off
synchroscope
• Adjust load controller slowly so that turbine
control switches over to load controller
• Raise the starting device to 100 % and turn
tracking device on. Increase load limiter value
• Increase HP/LP by pass set point to full load
pressure
(continued)
44 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

(continued)
Activity Detail procedure to be followed
LP heater charging • Inlet outlet condensate v/vs are opened and their
after bypass v/vs are closed
• Drain v/vs are put on control mode
• Heater vent v/vs are opened
• Level controllers lined up
• Extraction steam isolating v/vs are opened
• NRV solenoids are deenergized
• Observe increase in condensate temperature
• Close all heater vent v/vs
A temperature in service • Line up SH spray circuit by opening isolating
v/vs
• Line up RH spray circuit by opening isolating
v/vs
• Set both SH and RH temperature controller to
auto with recommended set point
Changing over to unit auxiliary • Unit is synchronized with load more than
transformer auxiliary requirement
• Put UAT breakers in racked in condition. Control
supply turned on
• Put UAT-A incomer synchronizing switch in
check mode and check for permissive
• Switch on the breaker of UAT-A
• Switch off the station supply breaker to BUS-A
• Switch off UAT-A incomer synchronizing switch
• Repeat same for taking UAT-B in service
Load raising and HP heater charging • Move pulverizers to another elevation one by one
and remove oil gun when pulverizers are more
than 50 % loaded
• Raise load through load controller
• Put FD fan control, combustion control on auto
• With unit load more than 50 %, ensure HP
heaters water side charging with bypass v/v
closed
• Keep heaters vent v/v open. Extraction drain v/v
open
• Drip v/v put in normal
• Extraction isolation v/v are opened
• FC NRV deenergized
• Observe heater level and feed water temperature
• Close extraction line drain v/vs and heater vent
v/vs

Warm and hot startup is subset of cold startup. When unit is tripped while
running and the cause of tripping is removed very quickly, then hot startup is
restored. The care to be taken during hot startup is:
1. Boiler is purged properly before starting.
2. All drain valves of steam pipes are opened to avoid any accumulation of
condensation.
4.3 Cold and Hot Startup 45

3. Rate of rise of temperature and pressure is within the limit given by manufacturer.
4. Boiler out steam temperature is more than turbine and stop valve metal tem-
perature, so that rotor is not getting cooled down.

4.4 Fire Prevention and Fire Fighting

The thermal power station has many materials that are prone to fire such as cables,
oils, lubricants, coal, etc. Standard guidelines of the NFPA are generally adopted
for providing fire protection devices for combatting fire. But why do fires start in
thermal power units? It may be due to leakage of hot air, leakage of inflammable
oil, or possibly accumulation of coal dust.
Good maintenance and regular checking of safety equipment prevents fires.
Therefore, a good maintenance guideline is a must for a power station. The
guideline should cover:
1. Identification of vulnerable hazardous areas.
2. Daily reporting format of cleanliness for identified hazardous area.
3. Schedule checking of mulsifire, extinguishers, and safety equipment.
4. Reporting of leakage of inflammable material and hot air. Monitoring of the
leakage and its maintenance.
5. Issuance of hot permit.
6. Specific guideline for main plant and offsite areas.
A fire can catch in many types of equipment such as the power transformer,
cable gallery, coal conveyor, oil pipeline, oil storage tank, etc., and they require
different extinguishing methods. Oil fires require a foam extinguisher, electrical
fires require carbon dioxide, transformers are protected with mulsifire, and some
require high pressure water. During a fire, toxic gas is produced. Therefore, in
addition to fire protection, use of protective gas masks is also essential.
Regular firefighting training of all operation and maintenance staff is must.
Station HR should maintain a record of training.

4.5 Abnormal and Unsafe Operation

Why does abnormal operation occur?

A grid interconnected thermal generator is susceptible to many abnormal and unsafe
operating conditions. Abnormal operation can be of short time duration such as the
occurrence of a grid disturbance, malfunctioning of controls, outage of major aux-
iliaries, change in fuel quality, human error, etc. It can be of long duration such as the
thrust bearing temperature of turbine start rising slowly, or hydrogen consumption of
generator increases. In short time abnormalities, the controllers associated with
46 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

different systems are capable of handling disturbances to a certain level of deviation

they are designed for. If the deviation in operating condition is beyond the con-
trollable level, unit protection comes into play for shutting down the
equipment/plant. Therefore, an operating engineer’s topmost priority is to keep the
plant in running condition and preventing any outages. When abnormal conditions
arise beyond the controllable limit, an experienced operation engineer who under-
stands system dynamics, takes charge of the affected system and controls it manually
to save the unit from outages. For example, when a boiler feed pump (BFP) is tripped
but the standby BFP does not come into service (might be under maintenance, or
some protection has tripped the standby BFP), it is difficult to save the unit from
tripping unless the load and fuel input is drastically cut off. An experienced operation
engineer takes the risk to take the load control and fuel controller manually. Often,
this saves the unit from eminent outage, but also may lead to catastrophe. Reasons
for unsafe/abnormal operation can be classified as follows:

Skill-based errors can be caused by:

• Visual scan breakdown
• Error in prioritizing attention
• Inadvertent mistakes
• Omission in procedure
• Omission in checklist
Decision errors can be attributed to:
• Unjustified procedure
• Failed to diagnose emergency
• Errors in handling an emergency
• Beyond ability
• Bad decision
Perceptual errors may be a cause of:
• Failed to judge the parameters limitations
• A complex situation has arisen
• Illusion
4.5 Abnormal and Unsafe Operation 47

Violations may be due to:

• Violation in following rules/regulations
• Insufficiently qualified for the job
• Intentionally crossed the limits of the system
Question arise as to when to take risk for abnormal operating conditions. First
we need to understand the consequence of an action as well as its time constant and
its impact. Coming back to the basics of a thermal unit, it mainly consists of
1. Air and gas subsystem
2. Condensate and feed water system
3. Steam cycle
4. Fuel firing system
5. Cooling water system
6. Turbo-generator system
The systems which have more inertia and less detrimental effects can be taken
for abnormal operation for a short period of time; for example, when the bearing
temperature of an auxiliary drive is showing rising trend. The auxiliary drive can
still be run under an abnormal condition because temperature change is a slow
process, it can be observed closely, and sufficient time is available for corrective
action. But if furnace pressure fluctuation occurs for any reason, the boiler needs to
be tripped immediately because pressure change is much quicker and may create
implosion on explosion if corrective action is not taken immediately.
The thermal process takes a long time to change, whereas change in mass flow
and electrical parameters are much quicker. Cutting off fuel is less dangerous
compared with adding fuel because of the possibility of the formation of an
explosive mixture. Adding feed water is less dangerous than reducing feed water,
which may result in starvation of boiler tubes. Increasing air flow is less dangerous
than reducing air flow, which can lead to implosion of boiler or generation of
unburnt fuel. Therefore, the experience of an operator plays a major role in the
handling of short-term abnormal operation.
Long-term abnormal operation is a conscious decision and needs guidelines. The
guidelines should be based on limits of abnormal operation, interval of monitoring
the parameter trend, and necessary recordkeeping. There are numerous critical
parameters for equipment, and systems are monitored in a thermal power station.
There should be a systematic procedure to report any abnormal operation in the
main plant (or offsite) to the unit control room, and should be recorded in a separate
register. Depending on the limit of abnormal operation, necessary guidelines should
be issued. When the equipment/system is restored to normalcy, the guideline should
be withdrawn. Let us discuss a few cases regarding abnormal operation and its
consequences.
48 4 Coal-Fired Unit Operation Guidelines

4.6 Abnormal Operation Case Study

Case I
Abnormal condition Each occurrence was existing both in the +ve side of 220 V DC
prevailing: source 1 as well as in –ve side of 220 V DC source 2 of switchyard
Happenings 400 kV main and tie breaker (X352 & X252) were tripped. Master
trip relay was found picked up on both 400 and 132 kV protection
panel of tie transformer without any other protection relay operation.
This resulted with a loss of supply to both 132 and 11 kV station
buses. CW pumps 1C and 2C also tripped /because they are on the
station bus. Unit 2 tripped within 4 s of IBT 1 tripping. Unit 2
tripped on actuation of Gr I protection relay. UPS inverter was
tripped within 3–4 s of unit 2 tripping. CW pump 2B also tripped
along with unit 2 trip whose supply was from unit 2 unit bus. At that
time only CW pump 1A remained in service which was from unit
bus of unit 1. Unit 1 tripped at 21:17:20 h (within 55 s of IBT 1 trip)
on low vacuum protection
Root cause On the basis of the switchyard event log and unit 1 SOE, it was
concluded that due to earth fault on both DC sources of the
switchyard has resulted in malfunctioned operation of the master trip
relays of IBT1 and unit 2 generator breakers
Case II
Abnormal condition Generator was running at synchronous speed with full voltage build
prevailing up with bus side isolator closed and generator breaker open condition
due to hold up for a last minute electrical check up
Happenings 400 kV bus tripped on bus bar protection. All units that were
connected to the bus tripped
Root cause analysis The capacitor across the breaker contact was punctured causing LBB
(local breaker back up protection) to operate resulting bus bar
differential protection actuation. This might be due to the fact that at
some instance the voltage phasor of generator became opposite to
bus voltage causing twice the system voltage across the capacitor of
the generator breaker and the capacitor could not sustain that for
considerable time
Case III
Abnormal condition Plant running on full load. Deaerator level controller was
prevailing malfunctioning and hence was kept on manual operation. Hot well
makeup was closed
Happenings All CEPs tripped on hot well level were very low. Subsequently all
BFP tripped on seal water pressure became very low
Root cause analysis D/A controller in manual did not modulate to respond to the hot well
level. Operator did not notice that hot well makeup was closed and
hot well level going down
References 49

References

500 MW Simulator, NTPC, Korba

Franke R, Weidmann B Startup optimization for steam boilers in E.ON power plants
Kokopeli P, Schreifels J, Forte R (2013) Assessment of startup period at coal‐fired electric
generating units
McMurdo Power Plant Standard Operating Procedure
Standard procedure for oil flushing of turbine oil system—210 mw, BHEL
Chapter 5
Managing Thermal Stress

Operating parameters of a power plant are dynamic, and in general, vary within a
band of designed limits. However, often due to variation in fuel quality, failure of
controllers, or disturbance in the interconnected power system, the operating
parameters vary beyond their operating limit resulting with thermal stress to the
component and equipments. First we need to understand how this occurs, and only
then can corrective measures be taken.
Adiabatic flame temperature Tfl in the furnace can be calculated by striking the
heat balance between fuel and air on one hand and combustion products on the
other hand, and can be expressed as

m_ gas Cgas ðTfl  Tamb Þ ¼ m_ air Cair ðTair  Tamb Þ þ m_ fuel Cfuel ðTfuel  Tamb Þ þ m_ fuel Hfuel

where m_ is the mass flow, C is the specific heat and H is the heat content of the
relevant component. It is clear from above that with change in fuel heat content or
quantity of fuel, the temperature of the flame changes. Heat absorbed by the water
wall Q_ ww is a function of flame temperature and water wall temperature Tww (a
function of drum pressure only) and can be expressed as


Q_ ww ¼ efur Aww r Tfl4  Tww
4
. The resultant exit gas temperature Tgexit is again a
m_ g Cg ðTfl  Ta Þ  Q_ ww
function of flame temperature Tgexit ¼ m_ g Cg . As the flame temperature
increases, the components of the boiler become exposed to high flue gas temper-
ature, and prolong exposure resulting in thermal fatigue failure.
Thermal fatigue, corrosion fatigue, and creep damage account for 83 % of the
causes of total damage (Okrajni 2009). As measures are taken to improve the
reliability of thermal power generation plants, it is important to prevent such fati-
gue, corrosion fatigue, and creep damage from occurring to such pressure-retaining
components.

© Springer India 2016 51

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9_5
52 5 Managing Thermal Stress

Thermal fatigue occurs by the repeated effects of high thermal stress that is
generated by the temperature differences among the member materials. The thermal
fatigue generated by the start/stop operation of boiler equipment or by load fluc-
tuation is in general a type of low-cycle fatigue. The causes generating thermal
stress vary depending on the structure of each component of the boiler equipment.
The types of damage generally experienced with the pressure-retaining components
of the boiler equipment are shown in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1 Cause of damage to pressure parts (Forde et al. 2009)

5 Managing Thermal Stress 53

Boiler equipment is generally designed for creep rupture strength of 100,000 h

or longer. However, if the component is overheated beyond the designed temper-
ature range for any reason, creep damage occurs within a very short period of time
resulting in rupture. Typical causes of damage that can be found are as follows:
• Overheating due to decrease in flow rate within the piping caused by clogging
with foreign matters or by peeling off or accumulation of steam oxidation scale;
• Temperature rise at the piping wall caused by the growth of scale adhered to the
inner surface of the pipes of the furnace evaporation piping, or the growth of
porous-type scale with low-heat transmission efficiency.
Strong corrosion occurs at the furnace wall of coal-fired boilers through flame
impingement (Sanders and Hu 2011). It is considered that the area exposed to
flames is locally placed under low oxygen partial pressure, because a lot of
unburned carbon, FeS2, etc. are contained in the adhered ash. Because FeS contains
more grid defects than such oxides as Fe2O3, the protective capability of the coat
becomes poorer, causing strong corrosion. When coal containing a lot of S content
is used as fuel, the area in the neighborhood of the burner zone becomes an
atmosphere of low oxygen partial pressure containing H2S, creating a severe cor-
rosive environment. This corrosion gradually grows to complete corrosion in
general, in a portion where repeated thermal stress is strong. The corrosion may
grow in a groove shape in the direction of the circumference.
Considerable actions to prevent corrosion of water wall piping are as follows:
(1) Measures to be taken in the design,
(2) Selection of materials,
(3) Employment of surface treatment.
The most effective action is the use of coal with a lower S content. Such actions
as utilization of low-NOx burners, use of fined coal to promote complete com-
bustion, increase in the oxygen partial pressure on the piping surface by filling
boundary air (to create an air curtain along the water wall piping) over the water
wall piping surface, etc. are also considered effective.
Reasons for exposure to thermal stress by different component follow (Kumar
et al. 2014).

5.1 Boiler

As the number of start ups and shut downs increases, many cracks on the boiler
tube and leakages begin to appear in all areas of the boiler, and, for this reason,
inspection and repair result in longer time and higher cost. In particular, heavy
damage is found in the metallic substance weld zone of furnace pipe walls, furnace
headers, and nozzle weld zones at the reheater header due to fatigue and creep, and
fundamental measures become necessary.
54 5 Managing Thermal Stress

Although the strength of a boiler’s pressure part used under high temperature
and high pressure is designed on the basis of 100,000-h creep rupture strength, in
reality, different pressure parts of the boiler before reaching the cumulative oper-
ation hours of 100,000 h have been found to be developed with cracks. This is due
to an increase in cyclic creep and thermal stress.
From the early 1960s, inspection and assessment technology for remaining life
assessment coping with deterioration phenomena became obvious with time and
has been developed and became operational. At the present time, the focus of its
development has shifted to reducing manual labor, adopting automation, broader
use of robots, etc. In addition, development and practical use of operation
supervisory/diagnosis technology for the purposes of strengthening and enhancing
the operation supervisory aspect is being pushed forward.
The Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society (Kanto affiliate) conducted
a survey on the renewal status of plant equipment for thermal power plants
(commercial thermal, joint thermal, and private thermal) whose cumulative oper-
ating hours exceeded 100,000 h in 1991 on a nationwide scale, and the results of
that survey have been summarized in the “Report of a fact-finding survey on the
renewal of thermal plants (January 1993).” As extracted from the report, the fol-
lowing are the measures to be taken for renewal of the equipment of a thermal plant,
renewal rate and equipment whose renewal due to “deterioration and damage”
exceeds 20 % (Oesterlin and Maier 2013).
Boiler-plant related

1. Furnace tube
Renewal rate About 36 %
Renewal time From less than 40,000–200,000 h. The renewal peak falls within the range
of 100,000–200,000 h
2. Superheater 1st
Renewal rate About 25 %
Renewal time From less than 40,000–200,000 h or more. The renewal peak falls within
the range of 120,000–140,000 h
Reason for Conceivable reasons for renewal are creep damage, external
renewal high-temperature corrosion, and ash erosion
3. Superheater 2nd to 4th
Renewal rate About 56 %, 3rd about 66 %, 4th about 70 %
Renewal time 2nd: From less than 40,000 h to 200,000 h or more
The renewal peak falls within the range of 100,000–120,000 h.
3rd and 4th: From 60,000 h to 160,000 h
The renewal peak falls within the range of 80,000–100,000 h
Reasons for As there are many renewals for those whose main steam temperature is
renewal 550 °C or more, for those for WSS (weekly start up and shut down)
operation and for heavy oil-fired ones, conceivable reasons for renewal are
creep damage and high temperature corrosion
(continued)
5.1 Boiler 55

(continued)
4. Superheater weld joint with dissimilar materials
Renewal rate About 47 %
Renewal time From less than 40,000–180,000 h. The renewal peak falls within the range
of 80,000–160,000 h
Reason for As there are many renewals for those whose main steam temperature is high
renewal and for heavy oil-fired ones, conceivable reasons for renewal are creep
damage, thermal stress fatigue, and high-temperature corrosion
5. Reheater 1st and 2nd
Renewal rate 1st about 60 % 2nd about 62 %
Renewal time Renewals are distributed widely at 60,000 h or more
The renewal peak falls within the range of 120,000–160,000 h for the 1st
superheater and within the range of 100,000–120,000 h for the 2nd
superheater
Reasons for From the viewpoint of the number of start ups, steam temperature,
renewal conceivable reasons for renewal are creep and thermal stress fatigue
6. Reheater weld joint with dissimilar materials
Renewal rate About 60 %
Renewal time 1st from 60,000 to 180,000 h The renewal peak falls within the range of
100,000 to 120,000 h. 2nd from 60,000 to 120,000 h the renewal peak falls
within the range of 80,000 to 120,000 h
Reasons for From the fact that there are many renewals of those whose steam pressure is
renewal high for both the 1st and 2nd reheater, and in the case of the 1st reheater, a
conceivable reason for renewal is thermal stress fatigue

5.2 Turbine

The actual service life of plant equipment differs from its nominal design life and it
is significantly dependent on good or poor operation and maintenance. The inlet
temperature of a steam turbine is as high as 500 °C or higher, and the steam at the
final stage where it finishes its expansion is in the wet condition at a temperature of
about 33 °C and at a wetness fraction of about 10 %.
Various types of deterioration occur due to the difference in operating condi-
tions. The stage of a turbine near the dry-wet alternating area that becomes wet with
a heavy load and dries with a light load is an area where corrosion must be
particularly observed. In such an area, a phenomenon occurs where traces of cor-
rosive substances dissolved in water droplets sometimes condense as a result of the
alternation between a wet condition and a dry condition caused by load fluctuation
or by starting and stopping.
Corrosion and pitting occur more or less in a steam turbine that has been
operated for a long period of time because when the steam turbine stops, steam
56 5 Managing Thermal Stress

Fig. 5.2 Effects of different factors on turbine aging

turns into droplets that attach to the metal surface even near the last stage where wet
steam flows and in the higher stage where the temperature is higher. Corrosion
fatigue occurs when corrosion and repeated stress exist concurrently. The necessary
strength and ductility of the materials used for the parts exposed to high temperature
are maintained by heat treatment. However, various mechanical properties related
to the strength deteriorate due to the effects of temperature and stress caused by
operation under high temperature for a long period of time. One of these phe-
nomena is softening. The higher the temperature and the stress, the more con-
spicuous is the softening.
A different mode of age deterioration of a turbine is shown below in Fig. 5.2.
Among the above-mentioned deterioration modes, softening and creep are
caused mainly by temperature-related factors. The high-pressure turbine,
intermediate-pressure turbine, and associated valves are assessed. A model of this
complexity is needed to accurately describe cyclic plasticity in addition to
time-dependent effects such as primary and secondary creep and stress relaxation.
Due to long-term scale in power plants, load change effects can play an important
role in the resulting mechanical response of the component and hence the estimated
damage from creep fatigue.
Because low-cycle fatigue occurs due to repeated thermal stress and centrifugal
force caused by the starting and stopping of the operation at the power plant, the
corner portions where stress concentration occurs are assessed for the
high-temperature and high-pressure or rotating parts of the equipment.
5.3 Generator 57

5.3 Generator

The causes of deterioration of the stator coil insulation are generally classified as
follows: (1) heat, (2) electricity, (3) machine, and (4) environment.
Because the impregnated resin of natural resin has plastic elasticity, heat dete-
rioration such as softening, flow-out, and sublimation progress, resulting in voiding
and peeling. It generally leads to dielectric breakdown due to partial discharge. The
following are the measures to be taken for renewal of the generator and generator
auxiliaries of a thermal plant.

1. Generator rewinding of rotor

Renewal rate About 27 %
Renewal time Relatively many renewals were performed within the range of 100,000–
160,000 h. There are many renewals of those with DSS
Reasons for A conceivable reason for renewal is insulation degradation of the winding
renewal
2. Exciter motor, AVR
Renewal rate Motor about 23 %, AVR about 53 %
Renewal time Motor: Relatively many renewals were performed within the range of
100,000–160,000 h
AVR: The number of renewed units increases suddenly from 80,000 h and
continues to 180,000 h
Reasons for Generally, many renewals were performed on large-capacity units and
renewal those for DSS. Conceivable reasons for renewal are insulation degradation
of the winding or aging of the equipment
3. High-voltage motor rewinding of the stator coil
Renewal rate Outdoors about 43 %, Indoors about 39 %
Renewal time Relatively many renewals were performed within the range of 80,000–
140,000 h. There is a trend of increasing renewal of those for DSS
Reasons for Conceivable reasons for renewal are insulation degradation of the winding
renewal
4. Transformer, main transformer cooling system
Renewal rate About 30 %
Renewal time The number of renewed units increases suddenly from 80,000 h or more
Reasons for Conceivable reasons for renewal are corrosion of elements and oil leak
renewal
5. Cable high-voltage cable
Renewal rate About 49 %
Renewal time There are many renewals performed at 100,000 h or more
Cable with high renewal rate. Breakdown by insulation class by class:
Butyl rubber 70 % Cross-linked polyethylene 27 %
Breakdown by plant condition: Air/culvert 48 % Pipe line 35 %
58 5 Managing Thermal Stress

5.4 Fans

Changes in stress occur at the impeller caused by the change in RPM due to
start/stop of operations. Low-cycle fatigue occurs due to repeated thermal expan-
sion caused by temperature particularly with a GRF (gas recirculation fan). If a
GRF begins at room temperature, the temperature of the intake gas rapidly changes
the temperature of the fan impeller and the vibration becomes great until it comes
back to stable, steady operation. This is an effect of the difference in thermal
expansion caused by the temperature difference among the components of the
impeller. In particular, when a riveted joint is used in the structure, this phe-
nomenon appears frequently. Therefore, if a riveted structure has been used for the
impeller, it is recommended to change it to a welded structure and remodel the
connection of the impeller to the shaft/hub to a reaming bolt connection structure
from the rivet-fixed type.

References

Forde J, Fernandes J, Sibli A (2009) Damage to power plant due to cyclic operations and
guidelines for best practices. European Technology Development (ETD) report, April 2009
Kumar A, Mathuriya S, Silpi S (2014) Detection of creep damage and fatigue failure in thermal
power plants and pipelines by non-destructive testing techniques. A review. Int J Eng Res
Technol (IJERT), 3(11)
Oesterlin H, Maier G (2013) Numerical assessment of power plant components by use of
mechanism-based material models for deformation and lifetime. In: 39th MPA-seminar
October 8 and 9, 2013 in Stuttgart. Fraunhofer Institute for Mechanics of Materials IWM,
Freiburg
Okrajni J (2009) Thermo-mechanical fatigue conditions of power plant components. J Achiev
Mater Manuf Eng 33(1)
Sanders R, Hu X (2011) Thermal fatigue of power plant components. In: CEED Seminar
Proceedings 2011
Chapter 6
Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

6.1 Role of Chemistry in Thermal Power Unit

The role of chemistry in a thermal power unit can be broadly classified as follows:
• Production of DM water for cycle water in boiler—Cycle water is the
working medium of the boiler. Although cycle water operates on closed loop,
the average make-up requirement is 3–4 %. As an example, for a 1000 MW
subcritical thermal plant, average make-up water requirement is around
2100 MT/day. Bearing oil coolers of major equipment such as ID fans, FD fans,
PA fans, etc. are supplied with DM water.
• Production of clarified water for equipment cooling and other purposes—
Clarified water is produced from raw water through filtration and flocculation. It
is input for production of DM water. In addition, air conditioners and com-
pressor coolers are supplied with clarified water. This water is also used for
drinking purpose.
• Analysis of coal/oil for determination of calorific value and fuel component
analysis—Cost of fuel is dependent on effective heat content of the fuel. An
analysis of fuel is done for determination of its effective heat value, ash, and
moisture content.
• Analysis of flue gas for ascertaining effluents in flue gas—Flue gas contains
suspended particulate matter and green house gases. Environment norms
specified the acceptable limits of effluent in ambient air. Analysis of flue gas is
done to estimate the effluent concentration in the air and thereby taking cor-
rective measures, if any.
• Analysis of mill fineness, unburnt carbon, and flue gas oxygen and carbon
monoxide for effective combustion—Efficiency of the plant is reduced without
the proper combustion. Negative mill fineness adversely affects the combustion.
Similarly, less air affects combustion and produces carbon monoxide. A flue gas
analysis should be done before taking corrective measures.

© Springer India 2016 59

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9_6
60 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

• Dissolved gas analysis of transformer oil for ascertaining health of power

transformer—When internal insulation and electrical health of the transformer
becomes deteriorated, it generates various types of gases under different fault
conditions. Dissolved gas analysis of the transformer oil gives information about
the internal health of the transformer.
• Testing of lube oil and wear debris analysis for conditioning of lube oil—
Lube oil is the medium for bearing cooling and providing oil wedge to any
rotating machine. The presence of moisture, mechanical debris, sludge, etc.
affects lube oil characteristics leading to bearing failure. Lube oil analysis helps
in correcting the condition.
• Controlling of steam/water chemistry parameters as per recommendation
—Deposits of solid oxides/carbonates/chloride etc. damages boiler and turbine
blades. Stringent water chemistry is maintained to avoid such deposits.
• Monitoring of hydrogen purity inside the generator—Hydrogen is used for
rotor cooling. Less purity (between 3 and 97 %) causes explosion. Purity should
be checked continuously.
• Circulating water treatment for managing effectiveness of condenser—
Circulating water is used in the condenser for cooling. Development of algae,
microbes, etc. fouls condenser tubes and thereby affects heat exchange.
Continuous chemical treatment should be done for maintaining condenser health.
• Environment pollution monitoring—Besides flue gas monitoring, environ-
ment norms call for monitoring of ash pond discharge (turbidity and chemical
component), condenser cooling water (temperature) discharge, etc.
• Treatment of plant effluent—Thermal plant produce many solid effluent.
These are treated for either zero discharge or discharge of non-harmful
chemicals.
• Commissioning activities–Commissioning activities consist of many chemical
activities such as boiler chemical cleaning (Madan et al. 2013), turbine lube oil
flushing, feed discharge detergent cleaning, etc.
It is clear from what is stated above that chemistry plays a major role in
managing power station operation, keeping record of heat inventory, investigating
inefficiency, keeping the rotating equipment health in good condition, and moni-
toring environment pollution near the plant. Let us now find the vast impact of
chemistry in the power generating process.

6.2 Effect of Processes Chemistry on Power Plant

Equipments and Performance

A thermal power plant has a number of chemical and physical processes associated
with it. Fuel is converted to heat energy and produces flue gas as a by-product. The
flue gas contains many toxic components and needs effluent control. Heat energy
from the fuel is converted to water and produces super-heated steam, which runs the
6.2 Effect of Processes Chemistry on Power Plant Equipments and Performance 61

turbine. Lubricants keep the high-speed turbine bearing cool. The generator is
equipped with a high-quality hydrogen cooling and water cooling.
Water is a major component and is used as working fluid as well as a cooling
medium. Because it is a universal solvent, water carries a number of chemicals
dissolved in it, including gases. At high pressure, the solubility of water drops and
chemicals are deposited inside the vessel. Deposited chemicals cause (a) corrosion
to the tubes and (b) prevent heat transfer. Corrosion damages the base material.
Prevention of heat transfer causes localized heating leading to failure of base
material. Boiler tube failure is due to corrosion and chemical deposition is a
common phenomenon and a nightmare for all thermal plant operators. Furthermore,
with the advancement in cycle efficiency through super critical and
ultra-supercritical technology, the cycle pressure and temperature threshold is
increasing, making water chemistry more vulnerable. Keeping water free from
chemicals and developing methods to reduce tube corrosion is still a major subject
of research and development to the power plant researcher.
Under high pressure and high temperature, silica becomes dissolved in steam
and carries over to the turbine. At a later stage of the turbine, when temperature and
pressure are reduced, solubility of silica drops and is deposited on the turbine blade
which disturbs the dynamic balance of the turbine blade, causing a rise in vibration,
and finally blade failure.
More than 45 % of the energy input to turbine gets lost in the condenser. A huge
amount of cooling water is required to extract heat from the condenser. Untreated
cooling water produces scaling and algae inside the condenser tube, affecting heat
transfer and thereby reducing turbine output and cycle efficiency. With an increase
in the number of power plants to meet the ever-rising demand, availability of water
is reduced and we are resorting to close cycle cooling. Close cycle cooling requires
more chemical treatment to keep it suitable for the condenser tube. Tube leakage in
the condenser causes major outage to the plant. Deposits in cooling tower fills
deteriorates cooling efficiency and directly affects heat rate of the unit.
Lubrication oil and control oil are two vital fluids in a turbine. It is an absolute
must for oil lubrication of the turbine to be free from debris, free from moisture, free
from any deposition. Daily chemical analysis keeps the lubrication system healthy.
Defective lubricant causes costly damages and plant outages. With the introduction
of fire-resistant fluid (FRF) for turbine control, keeping FRF free from moisture is
necessary, otherwise acidic property develops causing damage to the sophisticated
control equipment. Lubrication also plays a vital role in all rotating equipment.
Many rotating equipment is pressure lubricated. Poor chemical condition of the
lubrication oil causes non-availability of the equipment.
Coal and oil are the main resources for generating power. A boiler is designed
within a narrow range of coal characteristics. The efficiency of the boiler changes
with diversity of coal composition. Formation of slag and erosion due to abra-
siveness damages boiler parts. Regular chemical analysis of coal gives an idea to
operator for optimum loading of mills, heat rate of the unit, and prescribes blending
(in case a facility for blending is available). The quality of the coal plays a major
62 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

role in combustion and efficiency. The power station chemistry group also identifies
the pulverizer responsible for producing bad quality.
The power transformer transforms electric energy for transmission. Outage of
the generator transformer stops the plant. Health of the transformer is identified
through chemical analysis of transformer oil and predicts the condition of the
transformer long before it reaches the failure stage, thereby allowing preventive
maintenance can be done. Similarly, chemical analysis of oil filled measuring
transformers (CT and PT) prevents catastrophic failure of the electrical system.
Environment norms are becoming more stringent. As a whistle blower, chem-
istry plays a vital role to appraise everybody about the effluent release in the
environment and thereby forced O&M to take corrective measures.

6.3 Fuel Chemistry and Combustion

Boiler furnace design is based on the rate of heat release by the input fuel. Heat
release from the fuel depends on its component. Combustion of coal particles takes
place in different phases as shown in Fig. 6.1 (Shen 2009).
Starting of char burning and total time required for complete combustion
changes the heat transfer pattern of the boiler. Stages of char combustion are shown
in Fig. 6.2.

Fig. 6.1 Mechanism of

combustion

Fig. 6.2 Stages of char

combustion
6.3 Fuel Chemistry and Combustion 63

In general, the ratio of time of volatile matter combustion/char combustion is

1:10.
Components in the fuel guide the required amount of air for combustion, and
thereby mass flow in the furnace changes with diversity in the fuel component. The
mill outlet temperature also changes with the percentage of moisture in the coal and
its grindability behavior.
The basic calculation guideline for determination of air is as follows:
Proximate and ultimate analysis evaluates the components of a coal and their
weighted ratio.

Proximate analysis Ultimate analysis

Fixed carbon (FC) Carbon (C)
Volatile matter (VM) Hydrogen (H)
Moisture (M) Nitrogen (N)
Ash (A) Sulphur (S)
Oxygen (O)
Sum of above = 100 Sum of above = 100

Typical proximate and ultimate analysis of coal of different countries are given
in Tables 6.1 and 6.2.

Table 6.1 Typical proximate analysis of coal

Parameter Indian coal Indonesian coal South African coal
Moisture 5.98 9.43 8.5
Ash 38.63 13.99 17
Volatile matter 20.70 29.79 23.28
Fixed carbon 34.69 46.79 51.22

Table 6.2 Typical ultimate analysis of coal

Parameter Indian coal (%) Indonesian coal (%)
Moisture 5.98 9.43
Mineral matter (1.1 × Ash) 38.63 13.99
Carbon 41.11 58.96
Hydrogen 2.76 4.16
Nitrogen 1.22 1.02
Sulfur 0.41 0.56
Oxygen 9.89 11.88
64 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

The basic equation for combustion is:

C þ O2 ¼ CO2 kJ=kg carbon

H2 þ 1=2O2 ¼ H2 O
S þ O2 ¼ SO2

Adding oxygen involvement to the above equations and deducting the oxygen
presence in the fuel totals the theoretical volume of oxygen required for
combustion.

VO2 ¼ ð1:866C þ 5:56H þ 0:7S  0:7OÞ Nm3 kg

Air contains 21 % oxygen by volume, therefore, the theoretical volume of dry

air required is

Vair ¼ VO2 =0:21 ¼ ½8:89ðC þ 0:375SÞ þ 26:5H  3:3O Nm3 kg fuel

For calculation of theoretical dry air on a mass basis, the following formula can
be used:

Mair ¼ ½11:53 C þ 34:34 ðH  O=8Þ þ 4:34 S þ A  S kg=kg coal

where A = 2.38 for S-capture; = 0 for no S-capture

Flue gas analysis (%)

Flue gas temperature = 190 °C
Ambient temperature = 30 °C
CO2 % in flue gas by volume = 10.8
O2 % in flue gas by volume = 7.4

In practice, more air than the theoretical calculated amount is supplied in order to
obtain complete combustion. The air above the theoretical values supplied for a
combustion process is known as “excess air”. It is necessary to determine the
amount of excess air to exercise control over combustion. This may be accom-
plished by chemical analysis of flue gas. It is possible to assess the quantity of air
taken part in the combustion through flue gas analysis as shown in the table above.
The table indicates how the quantity of excess air supplied in the combustion
process is generally found either by the presence of carbon dioxide or oxygen
percentage in the flue gases. In the case of combustion of a single fuel, a satisfactory
index of excess air can be assessed from the carbon dioxide content of flue gas only.
This is because combustion of 1 lb. of carbon produces 3.67 lb. of carbon dioxide,
only under normal atmospheric condition.
6.3 Fuel Chemistry and Combustion 65

In case a large amount of air is used, the concentration of CO2 will be diluted
and thus the percentage composition will be lowered. Conversely, in case a small
amount of excess air is used, dilution will be less and the percentage concentration
of CO2 will be relatively high. In a given percentage of excess air, higher carbon
hydrogen ratio fuels will experience a higher percentage of CO2 in the flue gas in
comparison to the fuels with lower percentage of excess air. When fuel oil is
burned, the flue gas formed will have a lower percentage of carbon dioxide. Oxygen
percentage in flue gas provides an accurate excess air measurement when either
single or multiple fuels are used. Excess oxygen in flue gas represents the portion
which presents during the combustion, but did not combine as a combustible ele-
ment in the fuel. This additional oxygen in the flue gas and the nitrogen with which
it was mixed are considered as the excess air. The theoretical oxygen and thus the
theoretical air requirement are approximately proportional to the heat content of the
fuel even with variation of the carbon-hydrogen ratio. For a given percentage of
oxygen, the excess air is the same for either coal or fuel oil. A table indicating the
percentage of excess air, carbon dioxide, and oxygen for bituminous coal and fuel
oil is given below:

Kind of fuel Ingredient % excess air

0 20 40
Bituminous CO2 18.6 15.5 13.2
O2 0 3.5 6.0
Fuel oil CO2 15.5 12.6 10.6
O2 0 3.7 6.4

The percentage of excess air over the theoretical air requirement formulas can be
calculated as follows (Basu et al. 2000):

O2  1=2CO
Percentage of excess air ¼  100
0:263N2 þ 1=2CO  O2

When the combustion is a complete one and no carbon monoxide is present in

the flue gas, the formula becomes:

O2
Percentage of excess air ¼  100
0:263N2  O2

Now air contents some moisture. If X m is the percentage of moisture in the air,
then the actual wet air requirement will be Mwa ¼ Mda ½1 þ Xm 
66 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

The mass of flue gas produced per kg of fuel can be calculated as

Wc ¼ Mwa  0:231Mda þ 3:66C þ 9H þ Mf þ Lq Xml þ N þ O þ 2:5Sð1  ESOR Þ þ ac ASH

 
XMgCO3
þ 1:375SR 1 þ 1:19
XCaCO3

For no sulfur capture, ESOR ¼ 0 ¼ R ¼ Lq , and 2.5S should be 2.0S

The heating value can be calculated as:
Higher heating value ðHHVÞ ¼ ½33; 823 C þ 144249ðH  O=8Þ þ 9418S kJ=kg
Lower heating value = ½HHV  22604H  2581M  kJ=kg

6.4 Effect of Fuel Quality on Combustion

6.4.1 Moisture

If the moisture content in coal is high, it will cause trouble for the mill. Hot primary
air supplied to the mills has two purposes. First, to dry up the coal so that it can
properly grind, and second, to carry coal dust to the burners. If the coal is not dry,
higher particles will form by sticking together from finer particles and air will not be
able to carry them freely and efficiently. As a result, the mill will begin to overload
and consequently the milling capacity will be reduced and therefore, the load on the
boiler will be reduced. Additionally, the fuel/air mixture temperature will be low
causing an evolution of volatiles which will retard the combustion process. If efforts
are made to take the same output from the mills, more hot air must be supplied to
dry the coal sufficiently and to carry the coal to the burners. This will cause excess
air to be supplied to the boiler and will lengthen the flame and affect the com-
bustion. There will also be heat loss due to excess air.

6.4.2 Ash

Although ash has nothing to do with the combustion directly, on the whole it affects
performance of the boiler. Moist ash content forms the basis of gradation of coal
(i.e. higher ash means reduction in combustible percentage therefore lower the
calorific value). Coal with a high ash content causes increased wear and tear of the
mills, piping, and ducts. If the boiler has been designed for high ash coal, it will
take care of the poor quality of coal while maintaining furnace stability and load.
But if a boiler has been designed for superior coal low in ash content, feeding of
inferior coal will definitely affect the furnace stability and the rate of heat release
may not be sufficient to complete the combustion with the furnace. It may either
cause fires in the super heater zone or wastage of combustibles.
6.4 Effect of Fuel Quality on Combustion 67

6.4.3 Coal Quality

The furnace is designed for burning a particular size of coal so that its combustion
may be complete by the time it leaves the furnace. Therefore, if coarser coal dust is
fed, combustion will not be complete in the furnace and after-fires may occur. This
will also reduce the output and efficiency of the boiler. Coarse particles can also fall
down to the lower zones of the furnace and may get entrapped in the slag, resulting
in loss of combustibles. If coal quality is increased by changing the classifier vane
position, even the particle of correct size may not pass through the classifier and
return to the mill for further grinding, thus reducing the milling capacity.
Fuel costs consume approximately 80 % of the total cost of power generation.
The evaluated calorific value of the fuel in a chemistry lab proposes a theoretical
coal requirement for a particular level of generation. Comparing the evaluated value
with the actual consumption of coal drives operation engineers to find fault with the
equipment.

6.4.4 Some Important Points of Combustion Control

• A 20 °C rise in flue gas exit temperature results in 1 % boiler efficiency which

costs approximately Rs. 6 lakh in additional coal cost for a 120 MW set.
• 1 % O2 variation in flue gas causes 0.25 % variation of boiler efficiency.
• High excess air operations, furnace slagging, or inadvertent up-tilt of burners
can result in high steam temperature at different stages. Continued operations
under these conditions are conducive to tube failure. Analysis and comparison
of data with normal operating conditions may help solve these problems.
• High input of fuel and consequently air with some streaming conditions raises
outlet steam temperature, particularly in the conductive zones. Super heater
outlet steam temperature therefore needs to be closely monitored to ensure that
the temperature of the metal does not exceed the allowable limit. Limiting the
load on this basis will mitigate problems of tube failure.
• Unduly high steam side pressure drop denotes blocking of coils or deposition in
the super heater tubes.
• An increase in the radiant super heater outlet temperature for the same steaming
conditions indicates slagging of the furnace. The soot blowing regime should
then the suitably attended.
• Air leakage in the system may result in high O2 content and high ID amperage.
• Burner tip wear will lead to oil pressure drop, poor atomization, and soot
formation on the air heater.
Chemical analysis of flue gas at different points of the furnace and associated
subsystem reveals the loss component of the heat and the responsible equipment.
Loss component analysis is discussed in detail in Chap. 9.
68 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

6.5 Managing Water and Steam Quality

Three types of water are used in any thermal plant, namely (a) demineralized
(DM) water, (b) clarified water, and (c) raw water. DM water is used for cycle water
and cooling of bearing lube oil of important rotating machines. Clarified water is the
main input to DM water and is also used for cooling and drinking water purposes.
Raw water in huge quantities is used as cooling water for condensing steam in the
condenser, as cooling water for DM-DM coolers, and as input to the clarifier.
Mineral-free water is preferred as working fluid for generating thermal power.
High-quality demineralized water free from chemical ions is processed through
filtration and ion exchange. Raw water contains soluble carbonates and oxides. Any
salt which dissolves in water that is subjected to hydrolysis and breaks into cations
and anion. These charged particles permit the water to conduct electricity. These
types of salt are called electrolytes. Calcium, magnesium, sodium, and iron are
some of the most common cations in water. Anions such as bicarbonate, carbonate
hydroxide, sulfates, and chlorides are common in water. Soluble carbonate or oxide
at high temperature gets deposited on the inner surface of the tubes causing bad heat
transfer. This further leads to overheating of the tubes and subsequent failure.
Another troublesome impurity is dissolved silica. At very high temperature and
pressure, when fed to boilers, silica is carried away with steam and is deposited at
the low pressure stage of the turbine causing damage to the turbine blades. Further
presence of carbon dioxide and oxygen in natural water causes many corrosion
problems. A DM plant does the chemical treatment to make the water free from
minerals.
Corrosion is the wasting of material due to formation of metallic
oxide/hydroxide when the metal is in contact with water. Metallic iron in contact
with water goes into the solution as ferrous ions leaving negative charged electrons
free to react (Mookherji and Kapur 1971):

M ! Mþ þ e ð6:1Þ

The positively charged metallic ions react with negative (OH)− ions to form the
hydroxide:

M þ þ OH ! MOH ð6:2Þ

The ferrous hydroxide formed is oxidized to ferric form by the oxygen present in
water in the dissolved state. The electrons released in the reaction (6.1) are neu-
tralized by an equivalent amount of hydrogen ions from water to the neutral state:

eþH ! H

The neutral H formed reacts with the dissolved oxygen present in water to
form H2O:
6.5 Managing Water and Steam Quality 69

2H þ 1=2 O2 ! H2 0

Hence, for every hydrogen neutralized and converted to water, a corresponding

hydroxyl ion combines with the metal to form an insoluble hydroxide ion and the
corrosion process continues.
The oxygen present in water in the dissolved state has considerable effect in
accelerating the rate of corrosion.
Hydrazine and ammonia are added in feed water at a low pressure (before
suction of BFP). At a high temperature, hydrazine breaks and reacts with oxide and
the carbonate produces volatile nitrogen and water.
Dissolved CO2 forms acidic solution with water and attacks metallic surfaces.
Excess alkalinity in hydrazine neutralizes the carbonic acid. Trisodium phosphate
reacts with dissolved silica at a high pressure to form insoluble sodium-silicate. In
the case of a drum type boiler, there is a provision for blow down of insoluble
sodium-silicate used to float on the water surface inside the boiler. Therefore, there
is an allowable limit of dissolved solid in feed water to the boiler. But in the case of
the once-through boiler, there is no provision for blow down and any solids will
either become deposited inside the boiler tube or carried over to the turbine.
Therefore, in the once-through boiler, no solid residue is allowed and water treat-
ment is done to produce only volatile matter. The treatment is known as the
all-volatile treatment (AVT). Only hydrazine and ammonia are used for treatment of
feed water. The reaction produces volatile matter only. The Ph value of the water is
kept around 9.0 so that dissolved oxygen in the boiler water is low.

6.5.1 Treatment of Water (Tsubakizaki et al. 2013)

1. Clarification
2. Demineralization
Clarification process encompasses:
1. Mixing of chemicals with water-Various chemicals, namely aluminum sulfate,
iron sulfate, sodium aluminates, iron sulfate, polyaluminium chloride, etc. are
used for coagulation. Chlorine is added for disinfection. The water mixed with
chemicals is churned slowly so that colloids come out of suspension and are
precipitated. Clear water is allowed to overflow from the clariflocculator.
A schematic of clarification is shown in Fig. 6.3.
2. Filtration-The water is allowed to pass through a pressure filter and a gravity
filter. Filtration is the removal of the solid particles from water by passing it
through a filtering medium. Filtration is usually a mechanical process that does
70 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

Fig. 6.3 Clarification of water schematic

Fig. 6.4 Schematic of gravity sand filter

not remove dissolved solids. Various layers of gravity sand filter are shown in
Fig. 6.4.
Clarified water is used for:
1. Feed water to DM plant
2. Feed water to Softening Plant
3. Drinking water–township and plant
4. Service water–as cooling water for A/C and compressors
Demineralization: Filter water is processed through a cation and an ion
exchanger to produce DM water. Synthetic ion-exchange resins are used to remove
6.5 Managing Water and Steam Quality 71

Fig. 6.5 Schematic of ion exchanger

all the ionizable salts and the quality of water thus produced is as pure as that
obtained by distillation. The schematic is shown in the Fig. 6.5.
The strongly acidic cation-exchange resins exchanges hydrogen ions for other
cations. The result is that neutral salts are converted to their corresponding acids, a
process known as salt splitting. The strongly basic ion-exchange resins exchanges
other ions for hydroxyl ions (OH). Therefore, the water after treatment in a cation
exchanger is further treated in an ion exchanger and thus the salts originally present
are converted to water. The mixed bed unit is single column or unit containing both
cation and ion exchange resins intimately mixed together. When water is passed
through such as unit it comes into contact alternately with grains of cation and
anion resin, so that the water is subject to an almost infinite number of deminer-
alization stages. In operation it behaves like a large number of two-stage dem-
ineralizers in series, with the result that it will produce final water which is neutral
and has very low residual dissolved solids content.
During the process of demineralization, the ion exchanger becomes weak and
hence after eight hours of service (or as recommended by DM plant provider),
regeneration of an ion, cation, and mixed bed is done for revival of capability of the
ion exchanger. Ion exchange reactions during service and regeneration are as follows:

Cation exchanger—during service Cation exchanger—during regeneration

RH+ NaCl = RNa + HCl RNa +HCl =RH+ NaCl
CaCo3 R2Ca + H2CO3 R2Ca CaCl2
MgSO4 R2Mg + H2SO4 R2Mg MgCl2
Na2SiO3 RNa + H2SiO3
72 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

Anion exchanger—during service Anion exchanger—during regeneration

R′OH+ HCl = R′Cl + H2O R′Cl +NaOH =R′OH+ NaCl
H2Co3 R2′CO3 + H2O R2′CO3 Na2CO3
H2SO4 R2′SO4 + H2O R2′SO4 Na2SO4
H2SiO3 R2′SiO3 + H2O R2′SiO3 Na2SiO3

In demineralization plants, the strong cation-exchange resins are normally

regenerated with hydrochloric acid. Strengths of up to 15 % have been utilized, but
2–4 % is most common. Anion exchange resins are regenerated with sodium
hydroxide with around 4 % strength. During regeneration of the mixed bed, the first
job is to separate the two resins into two discrete zones. Because the resins have
different densities, during initial backwashing the resins gets separated into two
layers, with an anion resin having lower density, taking its position at the top.
A central combined collector and distributor is provided between the two layers
to facilitate the process of regeneration of the resins. Caustic soda is introduced at
the top and the spent regenerant runs to waste from the central collector. The rinse
water follows the same path.
Acid is then introduced at the central distributor, passes down through the cation
resin, and is run to waste from the bottom of the unit. This is followed by rinsing as
for the anion resin. Finally, the two resins are again intimately mixed by passing
low-pressure air upward through the unit and after a final rinse, it is again ready for
service. The efficiency of regeneration in a mixed bed is never as high as in separate
units because separation of the two resins is never quite complete and there will
always be some interference at the interface. For this reason a mixed bed unit
requires more resin than two separate units and the running cost is higher but as
mentioned earlier, it can produce almost complete de-ionization of the input water.
Schematics of regeneration are shown in Figs. 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8.
In water treatment demineralization plants, the water flow rate through the resin
bed, the depth of resin, and the size of the resin granules utilized, are mainly
determined by the kinetics of the ion-exchange reactions. The design parameter

Fig. 6.6 Activated carbon

filter–service and regeneration
6.5 Managing Water and Steam Quality 73

Fig. 6.7 Cation and anion exchanger–service and regeneration

Fig. 6.8 Mixed bed–service and regeneration

74 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

chosen ensures that, with a raw water having a TDS of several hundred ppm,
virtually complete demineralization results.
A water treatment plant for a 2000 MW station will have a through-put of about
45,000 gal/h and units to handle this through-put with perhaps two complete dem-
ineralization streams operating in parallel can be designed to acceptable dimensions.
Mixed bed units, or sometimes cation-exchange units are used to remove traces of
contaminants (metal corrosion products silica and cooling water leaks) from feed
water particularly in feed systems associated with once-through boilers. This is one
method of “condensate polishing”. The condensate polishing ion-exchange units
form an integral part of the feed system and handle 100 % of the feed water flow.
Typical Back Wash Flow Rates
Cation
Back Wash flow rate—40 m3/h (1/2 of the normal flow rate).
Duration—5 min
Type of water—filtered water
Anion
Back Wash flow rate—20 m3/h (1/3 of the normal flow rate).
Duration—5 min
Type of water—filtered water
Mixed Bed
Mixed bed differs from that of the single resin bed primarily with regard to the
regeneration step. The key to the process is backwash, which serves for classing the
two resin components the lighter anion resin forming at the top, the heavier cation
resins remains at the bottom; when done properly, a clear and level interfacing is
formed between two layers. An interface collector is incorporated at this point.
Back sash flow rate—18 m3/h
Duration—3 min
Type of water—DM water

6.5.2 Water Quality at Different Stages of the Demineralization

Process (For Drum Type Boiler)

Feed water to DM plant-turbidity: <2 NTU

ACF outlet-residual chlorine: Nil, turbidity: <0.5 NTU
Cation exchanger outlet-Na: <2 ppm
Degasser outlet-dissolved CO2: <5 ppm
Anion exchanger outlet-silica: <200 ppb, conductivity: <10 μs/cm, pH: 6.8–7.2
Mixed bed outlet-silica: <20 ppb, conductivity: <0.1 μs/cm, pH: 6.8–7.2
6.5 Managing Water and Steam Quality 75

If 1 ppm of dissolved solids enters in each 1,000,000 lb. of feed water, 1 lb. of
dissolved material enters the boiler each hour. Since 999,000 of that water is
removed as steam (pure water vapor), one pound of solids is left behind in the boiler
in each hour of operation. Obviously, if we continue to operate in this way, the solid
content of the boiler water would keep on increasing. Carbon dioxide and oxygen
gases get dissolved in the feed water due to unavoidable contact with the atmo-
sphere and form corrosive substances causing damage to boiler tubes. An efficient
deaerator can reduce the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the feed water to
<0.005 mg kg–1.
Modern practice is to use hydrazine (N2H4) and it reacts as follows:

N2 H4 þ O2 ! N2 þ 2H2 O

From the above chemical equation we can see that no solids are produced, in
fact, the nitrogen and water are completely harmless. Hydrazine, therefore, is the
ideal chemical for removing oxygen and its only disadvantage is that it is expen-
sive. Any surplus hydrazine that remains after removing the oxygen will decom-
pose to release ammonia (an alkaline gas) and nitrogen.

3N2 H4 ! 4NH3 þ N2
Hydrazine Ammonia Nitrogen
ðliquidÞ ðgasÞ ðgasÞ

GOM72* recommends that for trouble-free running the maximum concentra-

tions of dissolved oxygen in water are as follows:
Extraction pump discharge 0.015 mg kg−1
Economizer inlet 0.005 mg kg−1
When dissolved, carbon dioxide produces acid in feed water, and its corrosive
effect can be minimized by neutralizing the acid with an alkali such as ammonia.

2NH3 þ CO2 þ H2 O ! ðNH4 Þ 2CO3

Ammonia Carbondioxide Water Ammonium carbonate
ðneutralÞ ðacidicÞ

In most boiler systems, the pH is maintained on the alkaline side by adding

chemicals, at about 8.8–9.5, this prevents acidic attack on the system tubes and
pipes, so that the pH measurement is very critical. It is normal practice to use
copper alloy tubes in the condenser and LP heaters and carbon steel in HP heaters.
The carbon steel requires a mildly alkaline pH of about 9.5 while non-ferrous
materials last longer between pH of about 8.8–9.0. Thus for system with both
ferrous and non-ferrous materials, a compromise pH of 9.2 is usually recom-
mended. A close control of pH is essential to avoid acidic attack on ferrous com-
ponents or alkaline attack on non-ferrous components. However, if stainless steel
(rather than carbon steel) tubes are used in feed water heaters, as experience has
shown, operation can be at pH compatible with copper base alloys. Figure 6.9
shows the area prone to corrosion/deposition.
76 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

Fig. 6.9 Area prone to corrosion and deposition

6.5.3 Water Chemistry for Super Critical Unit

Boiler feed water in a supercritical unit has to be of extremely high levels of purity.
Because supercritical boilers are not provided with a steam drum, if the entering
feed water is not free from mineral oxides, the impurities may deposit in the boiler
and carryover of impurities can result in turbine blade deposits.
Make-up water quality at the DM outlet:
• Sp. conductivity < 0.1 µS/cm, with
• Chlorides, sulfates, and sodium < 3 ppb
• Silica < 10 ppb
• TOC < 300 ppb
Therefore, feed water chemistry is critical to the overall reliability and sustain-
ability of fossil-fuel-fired plants. Corrosion products are generated during the pro-
cess, flow along the cycle and are deposited in the various boiler areas. The
deposition at different areas acts as the initiating center for most of the major failure,
and therefore need chemical cleaning for removal.
Reducing, AVT(R)—Reducing agent (N2H4) is added at CEP discharge. pH is
maintained by using ammonia. Here the ORP (oxidation-reduction potential) is in
the range of 300–350 mV.
• Elevated pH of 9.0–9.3.
• Cation conductivity of <0.20 µS/cm.
• Minimum air in-leakage to ensure <10 ppb dissolved oxygen at CPD.
• Addition of reducing agent (N2H4) to the feed water to ensure reducing ORP
(−300 to −350 mv).
6.5 Managing Water and Steam Quality 77

Oxidizing, AVT(O)—No reducing agent is required. Ammonia is added after

the condensate polisher. Here the ORP will be around 0 mv but could be slightly
positive or negative.
• Elevated pH of 9.2–9.6.
• Cation conductivity of <0.20 µS/cm.
• Minimum air in-leakage to ensure <10 ppb dissolved oxygen at CPD.
• No addition of reducing agent (N2H4) to the feed water to ensure oxidizing
ORP.
Oxygenated, OT—Ammonia plus oxygen is added. Here the ORP will be
around +100 to +150 mv.
• Cation conductivity of < 0.15 µS/cm.
• Minimum air in-leakage to ensure <10 ppb dissolved oxygen at CPD.
• Addition of oxygen to the feed water to ensure oxidizing ORP (100–150 mv).
The difference between AVT and OT is shown in Fig. 6.10. Feed water speci-
fications are given in Table 6.3.

Fig. 6.10 Major difference between AVT(R) and OT

78 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

Table 6.3 Feed water specification

S. No. Parameter Units Normal operation During start
Alkaline water Combined water up
Treatment treatment
1 pH Min 9.0 8–8.5 Min 9.0
2 Cation conductivity μs/cm Max 0.2 <0.15 Max 0.5
μs/cm
3 Dissolved oxygen ppb <5 30–150 Max 100
4 Iron ppb <2 <2 <20
5 Sodium ppb <2 <2 <10
6 Silica ppb <10 <10 <30
7 Turbidity NTU <2 <2 <5

Table 6.4 Target value at different treatment

S. No. Parameter AVT AVT AVT OT (all ferrous)
(R) (mixed (R) (all (O) (all
metallurgy ferrous) ferrous)
1 pH at eco inlet 9.0–9.3 9.2–9.6 9.2–9.6 9.0–9.4 (drum)
8.0–8.5 (once through
2 Cation conductivity <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.15
(μS/cm) at eco inlet
3 O2 (ppb) at eco inlet <5 (<2) <5 (<2) <10 30–50 (drum)
30–150 (once through)
4 O2 (ppb) at CEP inlet <10 <10 <10 <10
5 ORP at Deaerator −300 to −300 to Oxidizing +100 to +150
Inlet, mV −350 −350
6 Fe (ppb) at eco inlet <5 <2 <2 (<1) <2 (<0.5)
7 Cu (ppb) at eco inlet <2 – – –

The target specification of feed water at different treatments is shown in

Table 6.4 and maintaining water quality during various phases of operation is given
in Table 6.5.
Taking over of OT in service
• CPU to be in service with full condensate flow.
• Unit in full load and stable condition.
• There shall be 4 CPU vessels (3 in service of 33 % capacity each)
• Required water quality:
– Feed water cation conductivity: <0.15 us/cm
– Feed pH value: 9–9.5
– D/a o/l oxygen: ≤7 ppb
6.5 Managing Water and Steam Quality 79

Table 6.5 Water treatment during various phase of operation

Startup Operation 1 hr shutdown

pH 8–8.5 >9.0

NH3
O2 0 ppb 30–150 ppb 0 ppb
(injected)
Conductivity <0.5 µs/cm ≥0.2 µs/cm

• Stop oxygen feed at least one hour before shutdown

• Increase ammonia feed rate to achieve a pH > 9.0
• Open deaerator vents
• LP and HP heaters should be vented
• Various monitoring points for feed water are given in Table 6.6.

Table 6.6 Monitoring points of feed water

S. No. Parameter Monitoring points
1 Cation conductivity Condensate pump discharge, condenser polisher outlet or
economizer inlet, reheat or main steam, boiler watera
2 Specific conductivity Treated makeup, boiler waterb
3 pH Boiler waterc
4 Dissolved oxygen Condensate pump discharge, economizer inlet, boiler waterd
5 Sodium Condensate pump discharge, economizer inlet, reheat or
main steam
6 Phosphate Boiler water (PC only)
7 Oxidation-reduction Deaerator or inlete
potential (ORP)
8 Air-in-leakage Condenser air removal system exhaust
9 Carryover Calculated from boiler water and saturated steam readingsf
Notes
a
Drum boiler units only
b
Drum boiler on PC and CT
c
Drum boiler units only
d
Only required in drum boiler units on OT
e
Based on either on-line monitor readings (if available) or analysis results for grab samples
f
Boiler water sample shall be drawn from down comer
80 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

6.5.4 Cycle Chemistry Core Monitoring Parameters

for Conventional Fossil Units

There are four action levels that have been developed based on the following
criteria:
1. Normal—Different parameters are consistent over a long period of operation.
A safety limit has been provided to prevent concentration of impurities at sur-
faces and under surface deposits.
2. Action Level 1—The limit indicates that there is a possibility of accumulation
of impurities susceptible for corrosion. The parameters are to be normalized
within 1 week.
3. Action Level 2—The limit indicates that accumulation of impurities and cor-
rosion will occur. Parameters to be brought back to normal level within 24 h.
4. Action Level 3—Rapid corrosion can occur. Shut down the unit within 4 h.
• Immediate shutdown: Rapid boiler tube damage by low boiler water pH.
Immediate shutdown is required.
• Action Level 1 value: 2 × (Normal target value)
• Action level 2 value: Twice the action level 1 value
• Action level 3 value: > Limit of action level 2
• Immediate shutdown: Boiler water pH (drum units) indicates a serious
acidic contamination and the unit should be shut down in an orderly fashion.
Various monitoring points and limits are given in Tables 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10, and 6.11.
When water is converted to steam in a boiler, a small proportion of any impu-
rities in the water will be carried forward with the steam and deposited in the super
heater or on the turbine blades by one of two mechanisms. These are:
(a) Physical carryover whereby small droplets of impure water escape through the
steam scrubbers.
(b) Some impurities become more soluble and are carried forward as the satura-
tion temperature of the steam increases with pressure.

Table 6.7 Feed water limit

Sample Parameter Natural Action Action Action Immediate
point value level 1 level 2 level 3 shutdown
of unit
CPD Cation conductivity (μS/cm) ≤0.30 >0.30 NA NA NA
CPD Sodium (ppb) ≤0.30 >0.30 NA NA NA
CPD Dissolved oxygen (ppb) ≤10 ≤20 NA NA NA
CPD TOC (ppb) ≤200 >200 NA NA NA
CPU effluent Cation conductivity (μS/cm) <0.15 <0.30 <0.60 <0.60 >1.0
CPU effluent Sodium (ppb) <2.0 <4.0 <8.0 >8.0 >50
CPU effluent Silica (ppb) ≤10.0 >10.0 NA NA NA
CPU effluent Sulfate (ppb) <2.0 >2.0 >6.0 >12.0 >24.0
CPU effluent Chloride (ppb) <2.0 >2.0 >6.0 >12.0 >24.0
6.5 Managing Water and Steam Quality 81

Table 6.8 Condensate limit

Sample point Parameter Natural Action Action Action Immediate
value level 1 level 2 level 3 shutdown
of unit
Economizer inlet Cation conductivity ≤0.15 ≤0.3 ≤0.6 >0.6 NA
(μS/cm
Economizer inlet pH 8.0–8.5 <8.0 NA NA NA
>8.5
Economizer inlet Ammonia and Consistent
Sp. conductivity with pH
Economizer inlet Iron (ppb) ≤2.0 >2.0 NA NA NA
Economizer inlet Copper (ppb) ≤2.0 >2.0 NA NA NA
Economizer inlet Dissolved oxygen 30–150 NA NA NA NA
(ppb)
Economizer inlet Suspended solids <10 >35 >50 >100 >150
(ppb)

Table 6.9 Feed water Limit

Sample point Parameter Natural Action Action Action Immediate
value level 1 level 2 level 3 shutdown of
unit
Main/RH steam Cation conductivity <0.15 >0.3 >0.6 >0.6 NA
(μS/cm)
Main/RH steam Sodium (ppb) ≤2.0 ≤4.0 ≤8.0 >8.0 NA
Main/RH steam Silica (ppb) <10 <20 <40 >40 NA
Main/RH steam Chloride (ppb) ≤2.0 ≤4.0 ≤8.0 >8.0 NA
Main/RH steam Sulfate (ppb) ≤2.0 ≤4.0 ≤8.0 >8.0 NA
Main/RH steam TOC (ppb) <100 >100 NA NA NA

Table 6.10 Main steam and Targets Cumulative hours per year
RH steam limit
N (Normal) –
1 (Action level 1) 336 (2 weeks)
2 (Action level 2) 48 (2 days)
3 (Action level 3) 8
Immediate shutdown 1

One of the soluble impurities carried forward in the steam is silica (SiO2). Silica
is more soluble in steam than other impurities and when it deposits on the turbine
blades it is extremely difficult to remove. This effect is so pronounced that special
precautions must be taken. The figure shows these plotted against different boiler
pressures. These limits are controlled (a) by preventing dust particularly entering
parts of the unit when opened up during survey or inspection and (b) monitoring
82 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

Table 6.11 Steam purity Parameter Frequency Limit

limits during start-ups
Cation conductivity (μS/cm) Continuous <0.45
Sodium (ppb) Daily <12
Silica (ppb) Daily <40
Chloride (ppb) Daily <12
Sulfate (ppb) Daily <200
TOC (ppb) Daily <12

and controlling silica at the outlet from the demineralization plant. Should the silica
limits be reached, they must be reduced by lowering the boiler pressure and
blowing down.

6.5.5 Treatment for Once-Through and Supercritical

Boilers

The boiler water quality control for the once-through boiler differs in comparison
with conventional drum-type boilers because of the following:
1. The quality of the water in a drum-type boiler can be monitored and controlled
through sampling and adding chemicals at the drum. The concentrations of
impurities are controlled by blowing down part of the water to waste and adding
fresh water in the drum. Once-through and supercritical boilers do not have any
drum. Therefore, sampling and controlling of the boiler water is not possible.
The only option to maintain water quality is to analyze and control the feed
water at the boiler inlet.
2. The tube wall surfaces of a drum boiler are usually wet. If dry spots occur then
formation of high concentrations of salts at the periphery takes place. Whereas
in a once-through boiler, dry and wet walls at different regions exist by design.
Any impurities will cause salt concentration at dry wall regions. Therefore, the
feed water quality to such boilers must be of exceptionally high standard.
3. Concentrations of normally safe materials in subcritical boilers must be elimi-
nated in the once-through boiler with no blow down. Everything entering will
either deposit or pass out with the steam to the turbine. In the case of the
supercritical boiler, the problems of feed water treatment are accentuated by the
fact that at critical pressure the solubility of dissolved salts is the same in the
steam as in the water. There is no physical separation and impurities in the water
may again pass through with the steam to be deposited in the super heater and
on the turbine blades. If deposition occurs, it can result in an increased pressure
drop across the boiler. This will reduce output efficiency and affect heat transfer
necessitating shutdown to chemically clean the plant. Additionally, solutions of
6.5 Managing Water and Steam Quality 83

other, possibly corrosive, materials will concentrate and corrode the boiler. If
these are carried forward to the turbine they can deposit and lead to loss of
efficiency or possibly cause cracking of the special alloy steels used in turbine
rotors. For once-through boilers, only volatile additives can be used for feed
water dosing. These are normally ammonia and hydrazine. This is known as
zero solids treatment or AVT. In order to achieve the high quality feed water
required for once-through boilers, it is necessary to continuously polish the
whole of the condensate. This is particularly important at sea water stations
where the ingress of salt from condenser leakage would cause rapid boiler
corrosion.

6.6 Managing Cooling Water

The power sector is a dominant consumer of industrial water. Cooling water con-
sumes more than 50 % of the water requirement in thermal power units. Specific
consumption of water with open cycle cooling is about 5 m3/MW. The scarcity of
water and the increasing cost of water mandates for close-cycle cooling. With
close-cycle cooling specific consumption of water can be brought down to about
3 m3/MW.
In close-cycle cooling, the major consumption is evaporation loss (around 75 %)
and blow-down (around 23 %). Around 2 % is drift loss.
Evaporation: Amount of evaporation that occurs in a cooling tower can be
calculated using the following formula.

E (Cr × DT) F/1000

E Evaporation rate
Cr Recirculation rate of cooling tower
DT Temp. diff. (oF) between hot and cool circulating water
F Evaporation factor (when all cooling comes from evaporation, the factor
F = 1, for simplicity this is often assumed to be between 0.75 and 1.0)

Drift (W): Drift is a form of blow down that occurs due to entrainment of water
droplets in the air leaving the cooling tower. Drift typically ranges from about 0.05
to 0.3 % of the recirculation rate depending upon the type and efficiency of the
cooling tower.
Make-up (MU): To replace water lost from the system by evaporation, drift,
blown down, etc., fresh water known as make-up is added to the circulating water
system.
84 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

Cycle of concentration (COC): Number of times the circulating is concentrated

in cooling tower is known as cycle of concentration. The maximum COC depends
upon the effectiveness of corrosion and scale inhibitor programs and on the quality
of make-up water.

MU flow BD CL or BD Mgþ 2 conc:
COC ¼ ¼
BD flow MU CL or MU Mgþ 2 conc

E
BD þ W ¼
COC  1
MU ¼ E þ BD þ W

6.6.1 Strategies to Minimum Water Consumption

• Adoption of higher cycles of concentration (COC 4–5)

• Reducing blow-down with advanced cooling water treatments.
• Using waste water as a resource
Adoption of higher COC and reducing blow down increase dissolved solids in
cooling water. The trend is shown in Fig. 6.11.
As cycles increase the amount of solids increase.
This means:
• The conductivity increases
• The total hardness increases
• The pH will go up as the alkalinity increases
• The risk of scale formation increases

Fig. 6.11 Trend of blow

down versus COC
6.6 Managing Cooling Water 85

6.6.2 Cooling Water-Associated Problems

Due to water’s ability to dissolve most of the substances to some extent, and its
ability to support biological life, every cooling water system is subjected to
potential operational problems. These are:
1. Deposit formation–scaling
2. Fouling-general fouling and microbiological fouling
3. Corrosion
4. Biological deposition
In general, chemical water treatment involves addition of corrosion inhibitor and
periodically analyzing for the residual. However, modern chemical treatment also
includes the control of scale and biological growth as shown in Fig. 6.12.
Controlling the three sides of the water triangle judicially, the effectiveness of water
treatment increases. On the other hand, failure to control any one component of the
triangle adversely affects the water quality leading to damage of valuable capital
equipment.
To prevent formation of calcium scale in the cooling water system, three basic
methods are normally adopted.
1. Removing the calcium oxides/carbonate and scaling minerals from the water
during water treatment.
2. Converting scale forming constituents soluble in water.
3. Converting the impurity as a removable sludge rather than as a hard deposit.

Fig. 6.12 Cooling water

triangle
86 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

Based upon these basic methods scale control may be done in the following
manner:
1. Limiting COC
2. Softening of make-up water
3. pH adjustment of cooling water
4. Polyphosphate dosing
5. Organophosphonates/various organic polymer dosing
6. Scale inhibitors
7. Control of fouling
8. Control of biofouling
9. Periodic cleaning
• Mechanical cleaning
• High-pressure water jet cleaning
For water TDS < 10000 mg/l, different index are used to denote the potential of
scaling and corrosion for calcium carbonate.
1. Langlier (or saturation) index

LSI ¼ pH  pHs
pHs ¼ ð9:3 þ A þ BÞ  ðC þ DÞ

2. Ryzner (or stability) index

RSI ¼ 2pHs  pH

3. Puckorious (or modified stability) index

 
PSI ¼ 2pHs  pHe pHequilibrium ¼ 1:465 logðtotal alkalinityÞ

A—Total dissolved solid factor = [Log10(TDS) − 1]/10

B—Temperature factor = 13.12 * Log10 (T + 273) + 34.55
C—Calcium hardness factor = Log10(Ca) − 0.4
D—Alkalinity of cooling water = Log10(Alkalinity)
T—Temperature in °C
For waters with TDS > 10,000 mg/l and for seawaters, the Stiff and Davis
Stability Index (S&DSI) is used to indicate the scaling potential for calcium
carbonate.
6.6 Managing Cooling Water 87

S&DSI ¼ pH  pHs
pHs ¼ pCa þ pAlk þ K
pCa ¼ 0:4343  logðCaÞ þ 5 pAlk ¼ 0:45  logðAlkÞ þ 4:8

(K is a function of Ionic strength and temp. in °C)

K ¼ 3:78342 þ 0:16781  logðIÞ0:26411  logðIÞ2  0:1029  logðIÞ3

 0:01124  logðIÞ40:122  logðTÞ  0:0001316ðTÞ2

• I = Ionic strength T = Temperature

• Scaling severity index
• LSI: +ve indicates scaling tendency
• LSI: –ve indicates corrosive tendency
• RSI: >6.0 indicates corrosive tendency
• RSI: <6.0 indicates scaling tendency
• PSI: >6.0 indicates corrosive tendency
• PSI: <6.0 indicates scaling tendency
• S&DSI: +ve indicates scaling tendency
• S&DSI: –ve indicates corrosive tendency
• LSI RSI/PSI Condition
• 3.0 3.0 Very high scaling
• 2.0 4.0 High scaling
• 1.0 5.0 Moderately high scaling
• 0.5 5.5 Moderate scaling
• 0.2 5.8 Slight scaling
• 0.0 6.0 Stable Water
• −0.2 6.5 No scaling, slight tendency to dissolve solids
• −0.5 7.0 No scaling, comparatively more tendency to dissolve solids
• −1.0 8.0 No scaling, moderately high tendency to dissolve solids
• −2.0 9.0 No scaling, high tendency to dissolve solids
• −3.0 10.0 No scaling, very high tendency to dissolve solids
Scale inhibition is carried out by:
• Sequestration
• Threshold inhibition
• Crystal modification
Thermal conductivity under different deposited conditions are given in
Table 6.12.
Normally bacteria settles at surfaces makes a thin layer of bio film which acts as
a protective layer and entrap food sources.
88 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

Table 6.12 Thermal Thermal conductivity comparison of deposit-forming

conductivity compounds and biofilm
Substance Thermal conductivity (W m−1K−1)
CaCO3 2.6
CaSO4 2.3
Ca3(PO4)2 2.6
Fe2O3 2.9
Analcite 1.3
Biofilm 0.6

Microorganisms in CW system are found in form of:

• Planktonic bacteria
– Free floating in the water
• Sessile bacteria
– Attached to any surfaces under water
Various oxidizing biocides used in cooling water system for microbial control
are as follows:
A. Chlorine and its various products
B. Bromine
C. Chlorine oxide
D. Ozone
E. Hydrogen peroxide
F. Halogen donors/halogen-releasing compounds
Corrosion is a natural process by virtue of which of the metals tend to achieve
the least energy state (i.e., combined state). Corrosion inhibitors are used to control
the corrosion in the CW system and are as follows:

Anodic Cathodic
Chromate Polyphosphate
Orthophosphate Zinc
Molybdate Polysilicate
Nitrite Phosphonates
Orthosilicate

For example, when phosphate is added to the system in the presence of calcium
hardness it will form a cathodic inhibitor.
6.6 Managing Cooling Water 89

Scale Inhibitor dosage

If PSI or RSI is ppm of active ppm of polyacrylate

Phosphonate (HEDP) (1000 mol.Wt.)p
6.0 or above 0 0
6.0–5.5 0.2–0.5 0.5–1.0
5.5–5.0 0.5–1.2 1.0–3.0
5.0–4.5 1.2–2.2 3.0–5.0
4.5–4.0 2.2–3.2 Can’t be controlled with polyacrylate
Below 4.0 Can’t be controlled with phosphonate

The formulation is dosed in a manner so that the following residual concen-

trations of scale and corrosion inhibitors, dispersants, and biocides is maintained in
the system.

Chemical Residuals
1. Inorganic phosphate as PO4 2–3 ppm
2. Organic phosphate as PO4 1.5–2.0 ppm
3. Zinc as Zn 0.5–1.0 ppm
4. Molybdate as MoO4 0.5–1.0 ppm
5. Dispersant as polymer 1.0–2.0 ppm
6. Biocides chlorine 0.2–0.5 ppm
CIO2 (continuous) 0.05–0.1 ppm
Once daily 0.2–0.5 ppm

The treatment program is suitable for a pH range from 7.5–8.3 and alkalinity up
to 300 ppm. The upper limit of alkalinity is 300 ppm, beyond that sulfuric acid
dosing would be required to maintain the alkalinity ≤300 ppm as per the following
formula:

Sulfuric acid required ðkg=dayÞ ¼ f0:026

 ðCirculating Water Alkalinity  300Þ
 Blow Down ðm3 =hourÞg

where 0.026 is a factor applied for calculations.

6.7 Managing Lube Oil Quality

If the surfaces are separated by a fluid, the friction between them is considerably
reduced and lubricating oil is normally used for this purpose. Good lubrication aims
at retaining the oil film between the moving surfaces. Friction produces heat and so
90 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

a lubricating oil is not only required to prevent the surfaces from coming into direct
contact, but also to dissipate the heat from the parts being lubricated. In the case of a
turbine plant, the heat transmitted along the shafts from the steam cylinders must
also be removed and this is another purpose for the lubricating oil. It is essential that
a lubricating oil allows trouble-free operation of the plant in which it is used.
Deterioration of the oil inhibitors may cause rusting in oilways with debris being
carried forward into journals and bearings. Shafts can be attacked by acids formed
in the oil, or the lubricating properties of the oil can be impaired by emulsification
which can result in damage to shafts and bearings. Regular examination of the oil
can indicate its rate of deterioration. Thus the sampling and analysis of lubricating
oils ensures that they are satisfactory for continued service. If an oil beings to
deteriorate, it can be either changed or reconditioned (sometimes at the site) at a
time suited to the operation of the plant, rather than waiting until deterioration
makes the oil change essential at an inconvenient time. A lubricating oil may
deteriorate for several reasons (Sander 2012):
1. Increase or decrease in viscosity
2. Oxidation
3. Become contaminated with water
4. Lose its rust inhibitor
5. Foam
6. Emulsification
7. Become acidic
8. Become contaminated by dirt or metallic particles
If the viscosity decreases, the oil film between the moving surfaces could
become so thin that the surfaces actually touch each other. Grades of different
lubricating oils are given in Table 6.13.
Oil becomes oxidized when the various compounds which make up the oil
combine with oxygen. Additives called oxidation inhibitors are added to lubricating
oils to stabilize them against oxidation. As an oil becomes oxidized, its acidity
increases. It is better to anticipate any oxidation that might occur rather than wait
until the acidity has increased, or sludge has formed. Oxidation stability tests should
be carried out every 6 months.

Table 6.13 Grade of Lubricating oil viscosities

lubricating oil
Grade Grade Number Viscosity in centistokes at
40 °C
Minimum Maximum
Light 32 28.8 35.2
Medium 46 42.4 50.6
Heavy 68 61.2 74.8
Extra 100 90.0 110.0
6.8 Monitoring Environment 91

6.8 Monitoring Environment

Thermal power plants generate effluents in the form of gas and liquid. Burning of
coal generates huge amounts of CO2 and toxic gases such as nitrogen oxides and
oxides of sulfur. The ash contains many heavy metals and toxic metals. Open-cycle
cooling water enhances the temperature of the source and thereby becomes the
destroyer of aquatic life. Environment norms differ from place to place. The
chemistry department is to monitor the chemical parameters in the effluents.
Various pollutants emitted by flue gas from coal-fired and lignite-based thermal
power plants are namely CO2, NOx, SOx, along with inorganic particles such as fly
ash, soot, suspended particulate matter (SPM), and traces of other gases. Types of
pollutants and emission from thermal power plants depend on the composition of
the fuel, furnace temperature, quantity of air used, and any technology used to
control the emissions. To calculate the impact of burning of fuel inside the furnace,
mass emission for CO2, SO2, and nitric oxide (NO) are computed based on the
input data. Mass of CO2, SO2, NO, and H2O are calculated by mass balance as:

CO2 ¼ C  44=12
SO2 ¼ S  64=32
H2 O ¼ H  18=2

Nitrogen in air/fuel at high temperatures combines with oxygen in the fuel/air to

form nitrogen oxide (NOx) are nitrous oxide (N2O), NO, and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2). The formation depends on the temperature. However, most (about 90 % or
higher) of the NOx produced during the combustion process is in the form of NO.
Production of NO varies with boiler operating conditions and is a function of
flame temperature, excess air in the system, the quantity of fuel fired, nitrogen
content in the coal, and gas cooling rate. The actual mechanism of oxidation of
nitrogen goes through a complex chain of reactions.
Generally accepted reactions for formation of ‘thermal NO’ are:

O þ N2 ¼ NO þ N
N þ O2 ¼ NO þ O
N þ OH ¼ NO þ H

Stoichiometric calculation for equilibrium NO concentration may be given as:

vNO ¼ K10:1 ðvN2 Þ0:5 ðvO2 Þ0:5

where χ is the species concentration and K10:1 is an equilibrium constant depends

upon the temperature of the flue gas. At 1200 K, K10.1 = 0.00526.
92 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

6.8.1 Ambient Air Quality Measurements

The primary objective of this monitoring is to determine the background pollution

level.
Generally, the sampling is done at 4–12 m above ground level to avoid inter-
ference from trees, buildings, etc. The monthly measurements for SPM, SO2 and
NOx on an 8 h average basis are carried out in the field for all locations. The
maintenance of ESP is given high priority to ensure compliance with standards for
particulate emission. The injection of ammonia into a high-temperature flue in the
range of 850–1200 °C in oil- or gas-fired power plants is believed to remove 65–
90 % NOx. This process is known popularly as selective catalytic reduction (SCR).

6.8.2 Water Pollution and Control

A large quantity of water is involved in generating thermal power. In addition to

cooling water requirements, a major water requirement at coal-fired power plants is
for ash transport. Other water requirements at a power plant are for pump bearings
and sealing, air conditioning and ventilation, coal dust suppression, service and
drinking water, etc. Normally, surface water sources have varying amounts of
suspended solids and are not suitable for the above requirements without treatment.
Pretreatment, in the form of flocculation and clarification, is usually provided.
Intake for cooling water is mainly treated for fouling through chlorination. Once
through a cooling system, free available chlorine at final discharge to the river is
minimal. The temperature rise of cooling water at final discharge should be within
5 °C. Due to insufficient availability of fresh water, most of the plant uses a closed
loop cooling system. The closed loop system draws only fresh make-up water from
the reservoir and blows down a portion of circulating water for maintaining cycles
of concentration. Cooling tower blow down can be reused for ash transport then
discharging it into an open pond or river.
Ash contains heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, nickel, cobalt, chromium,
boron, and antimony, etc. Fly ash disposal results in metal contamination of surface
and ground water resources and hence can transfer these contaminants into the food
chain. The leaching potential of ash ponds is higher due to diurnal and seasonal
variations in temperature, moisture, and other parameters. Ash pond overflow is
also released into the local water bodies from the thermal plant. If this discharge
carries lighter ash particles then there is a possibility of ash deposition causing
fugitive dust nuisance after it dries up. The following measures are taken to min-
imize adverse impacts:
• A blanket of water (0.6 m) is maintained over the ash in the ash pond. This
ensures that dry ash is not ejected by the wind, causing fugitive dust.
6.8 Monitoring Environment 93

• Sufficient setting time is allowed in the ash pond before the supernatant water is
released into water bodies. This ensures that the suspended solids in the effluent
are well below the prescribed limits.
• The pH of the effluent is monitored. If this is not within allowable limits,
provisions of neutralizations of the effluent made.
From an environmental point of view, bottom ash is fairly inert and, therefore,
relatively safe. However, fly ash is rather reactive. Due to the presence of various
acid and base metals, ash water mixtures exhibit a wide range of pH.
Ash transport water normally picks up dissolved solids from ash. In addition,
depending on the design and operator of the ash pond, large quantities of suspended
solids may be present. Wide variations in pH of the ash transport water have also
been observed. The range of concentrations of the various parameters of ash
transport waters, monitored by the National Thermal Power Corporation at its
operating stations is presented in Table 6.14.
The demineralization system waste is drained to a flow equalization and holding
tank for temporary storage. The holding tank is sized to hold the waste generated by
one complete cycle of boiler clearing for one unit. From the holding tank the waste

Table 6.14 Ash transport Sl. No. Parameters Range (mg/l)

water quality data
1 Chlorides 3.00–34.00
2 Fluorides 0.14–2.10
3 Nitrate 0.18–0.5
4 Sulphate 9.00–134.64
5 Calcium 16.00–25.00
6 Iron 0.005–35.60
7 Magnesium 7.2–18.20
8 Potassium 0.99–6.00
9 Sodium 6.00–50.00
10 Arsenic 0.002–0.05
11 Cadmium 0.0006–0.01
12 Chromium (Hexavalent Cr) 0.005–0.05
13 Copper 0.0005–0.1
14 Lead 0.02–0.1
15 Manganese 0.003–0.6
16 Mercury 0.001
17 Selenium 0.005
18 Zinc 0.01–0.14
19 Cyanides 0.003
20 Detergents 0.6–0.8
21 Phenolic compounds 0.001
22 Total hardness (as CaCO3) 76–300
23 Total dissolved solids 120–956
24 pH (standard units) 7.4–11.5
94 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

is treated in a clariflocculator where chemical precipitation of iron is achieved.

Effluent from the clariflocculator is discharged into the sedimentation basin. The
final pH of the sedimentation basin effluent and the ash pond overflow cannot be
predicted. It is, therefore, necessary to plan for the neutralization of these effluents.
Once the plant goes into operation, neutralization facilities can be provided.

6.9 Indication of Abnormality

Any abnormality in the chemical parameter indicates problems in the system. Some
examples are given below.
1. Increase in chloride concentration in feed water: The main contributing factor
for increment of chloride concentration in boiler water is condenser tube leak-
age. It is often possible to identify small leakage in the condenser tube before
any rise in feed water conductivity. The normal limit of chloride in boiler water
for a drum-type boiler is <50 ppb and for supercritical boiler it is <3 ppb.
2. Increase in silica concentration in feed water: An anionic exchanger in the water
treatment plant removes silica. Increase in silica concentration in make-up water
indicates anionic bed exhaustion. Taking heaters in services after maintenance
also increases silica in boiler water. Limit of silica in make-up of a drum-type
boiler is <20 ppb and for a supercritical boiler it is <10 ppb.
3. Increase of O2 at air heater outlet: Excess air is required for complete com-
bustion. Air heater seal leakage causes air ingress in flue gas. Therefore, an
increased oxygen measurement at the air heater outlet indicates air heater seal
leakage. Normally in flue gas, 3–5 % of excess oxygen is maintained.
4. Increase of CO in flue gas: Perfect combustion converts all carbon monoxide to
carbon dioxide. In the boiler, the air fuel mixture is not homogeneous at all
points due to turbulence and therefore traces of CO are always there in flue gas.
Again, imperfect combustion causes CO production which may convert to CO2
after the furnace zone. CO formation at various zones can be measured with the
help of high-velocity thermocouple (HVT) along with a gas analyzer. There is
no acceptable limit of CO in flue gas (it should be minimum). However, as per
ambient air quality standard in industrial areas, an acceptable limit is around
5 mg/Nm3 measured every 8 h, on average.
5. Increase of CO in mill: Presence of CO indicates combustion of fossil fuel.
A trace of CO in the mill indicates mill fire. Immediate measures should be
taken for quenching of fire in the mill.
6. Increase of unburned carbon in bottom ash: Burning of coal particle in a PF
boiler depends on the 3Ts (temperature, turbulence, and time) and size of the
coal particles. While the 3Ts are taken into consideration in designing the fur-
nace, unburned in bottom ash is mainly caused by mill quality. Lower coal
quality increases unburned in bottom ash. The acceptable particle size is 75 %
of pulverized coal should pass through 200 mesh.
6.9 Indication of Abnormality 95

7. Increase of wear debris in lubrication oil: Wear debris analysis is done for
understanding the condition of bearings. The limits are expressed in mg/kg.
A general acceptable limit is 10–30 mg/kg. An increasing trend indicates
damage of bearings.
8. Increase in acidity in control oil: In the power generation industry, phosphate
ester fluid is generally used in electrohydraulic turbine governing control
(EHC) systems of steam turbines because of its good stability, exceptional fire
retardant, and lubricating properties. Phosphate ester is a delicate fluid and in the
presence of high water content (>1500 ppm) and high temperatures, it is sus-
ceptible to hydrolytic breakdown and therefore needs special attention.
Breakdown of phosphate ester fluid results in the formation of acidic com-
pounds. To overcome this, conditioning chemicals are used to maintain the acid
environment (acid number) within acceptable limits. In general, fuller’s earth,
activated alumina, and ion exchange resins are used to absorb acidic compounds
formed in the fluid. IEC 60978 and ISO 7745 guidelines should be followed.
The limit in acid number is <0.1 mg KOH/gm.
9. Increase in dissolved gas analysis: Condition of oil-filled power transformer is
diagnosed from dissolved gas analysis (DGA) of oil samples. Presence of the
following gases are examined:
• Pure gases: H2, N2 and O2
• Oxides of carbon: CO and CO2
• Hydrocarbons: acetylene (C2H2), ethylene (C2H4), methane (CH4) and
ethane (C2H6)
Overheating damages the organic structure of the insulation. In this case, DGA
indicates high levels of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. If the damage is
severe, DGA shows methane and ethylene at high levels.
Overheating of oil breaks down the organic structure and formation of methane,
ethane, and ethylene.
Partial discharge is detected in a DGA by increase in hydrogen levels.
Formation of arc is a severe condition in a transformer and indicated by detection
of acetylene.
IEC standard 60599 and the ANSI IEEE standard C57.104 give guidelines for
the assessment of transformer condition based on DGA, and the volumetric ratios of
pairs of gases.
10. Decrease in hydrogen purity: Hydrogen purity inside the generator is required
to be maintained above 97 %. When purity decreases, it indicates mixing with
oxygen or other gases. Only seal oil comes in contact with hydrogen as well as
the ambient atmosphere. Seal oil absorbs oxygen from the air. A decrease in
hydrogen purity indicates trouble in the exhauster system. Additionally, pres-
ence of moisture and other gases due to high temperature in the winding slot
may also be the reason for the decrease in hydrogen purity.
96 6 Chemical Health of Thermal Power Unit

References

Basu P, Kefa, Justin (2000) Fuels and combustion calculation, Chapter 3, Boilers and
Burners-Design and Theory, Springer
Madan HC, Chauhan SS, Garg D (2013) Chemical cleaning of boilers with EDTA. BHEL,
Technical service. http://www.slideshare.net
Mookherji SN, Kapur JC (1971) Some problems of corrosion in thermal plants. ACC-Vikers
Babcock Limited, Durgapur. Proceedings of Short Course on “Corrosion Control in Water and
Waste Water Engineering”, Feb. 24th–27th, 1971, NML
Shen X (2009) Coal combustion and combustion product. Coal, Oil Shale, Natural Bitumen,
Heavy oil and peat vol-I, 2009 - eolss.net
Sander J (2012) Steam turbine oil challenges. LE White paper, 2012 Lubrication Engineers, Inc.
Tsubakizaki S et al. (2013) Water quality control technology for thermal power plants. Mitsubishi
Heavy Indus Tech Rev 50(3)
Chapter 7
Maintenance Practice

7.1 Types of Maintenance

The actual service life of plant equipment differs from its nominal design life and it
is significantly dependent on good or poor operation and maintenance. Precise
inspection for the pressure part of the boiler, turbine rotor, casing, major valves and
rotor of generator, remaining life assessment, renewal of deteriorated equipment
and portions, addition of equipment, strengthening and enhancement of durability
are all planned simultaneously.
Maintenance is perceived as an opportunity to improve reliability and avail-
ability of the equipment and of the unit as a whole. The Power Generation Industry
in India, by and large adopts the philosophy of preventive maintenance at fixed
intervals and predictive maintenance (PdM) of selected equipment occasionally, on
the basis of condition monitoring. Scientific tools such as the reliability centered
maintenance (RCM) with risk evaluation and prioritization (REAP) are now being
introduced in some plants and are in the very early stages of implementation.
Maintenance can be defined as the set of activities that keeps an operating system in
good condition and also brings back the system to working condition if it fails. The
set of activities includes inspections, identification of faults, procurement of spares
and its preservation, repairs, overhauls, etc. carried out on an operating system to
restore it to its original performance, avoid the causes of failure, and ensure its
productivity.
In-production plant, maintenance plays a major role in determining the delivery
schedule, quality of the product, and its cost. The real impact of maintenance can
only be seen when maintenance activities for each piece of equipment are opti-
mized. It has been observed over the past few decades that considerable interest has
been placed and research done in the field of maintenance modeling and opti-
mization. Maintenance affects the cost of production. It also determines whether the
system will be operated economically or not.

© Springer India 2016 97

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9_7
98 7 Maintenance Practice

Various types of maintenance practices adopted:

(1) Preventive maintenance (PM)—the classical approach,
(2) PdM/condition-based maintenance (CBM),
(3) Proactive maintenance, and
(4) Corrective maintenance (CM).
Determining which procedures or methodologies should be adopted for identi-
fication, assessment, and assigning of the maintenance activities, calls for imple-
menting a maintenance management system.

7.1.1 Preventive Maintenance

PM is a time-based maintenance method used to prevent breakdowns and failures

within an operating system. Based on predetermined counter intervals, the main-
tenance activities are planned and scheduled. Therefore preventive maintenance can
be defined as scheduled preventive tasks intended to reduce the probability of
failure of equipment. The scheduling can be done through conventional practices
using a computer system, wall chart, etc. The interval to include time, running
hours, operational cycles, or production and seasons are shown in Table 7.1. The
primary goal of PM is to prevent failure of equipment before its failure occurs,
preserve equipment performance, and enhance reliability by such actions as
replacing worn-out components (Sahu et al. 2012).
When an equipment failure is age related, PM is commonly used. Even if the
equipment is in operation/on restricted load, or on a planned stop, the PM activities
can be carried out easily.
Advantages of preventive maintenance:
• Maintenance is planned well in advance.
• Reduction in wear and tear of machines and increase in their life.
• Reduction in breakdown frequency.
• Minimizes breakdowns, and hence minimum inventory hold ups.
• Improvement productivity due to less breakdowns is a reduction in downtime.
• Improves reliability of the machinery.

Table 7.1 Types of scheduling rotations for preventive maintenance

Calendar time Running time Operational cycles Seasonal cycles
Daily No. of revolution made No. of startups Peak load cycles
Weekly
Monthly Total units produced No. of operations Weather cycles
Quarterly
Semiannual Total hours run No. of switching
Annual
7.1 Types of Maintenance 99

Fig. 7.1 Preventive

maintenance tasks

• Higher safety for workers.

• Labor is used cost effectively.
• It is possible to have planned shutdowns and repair.
• Lesser rejection and better quality.
• Lower breakdown costs.
• Fewer stands by equipment requirement.
• Identification of parts and its nature and cost involved in repairs is possible.
Various activities performed during preventive maintenance are illustrated in
Fig. 7.1. These activities include inspections, tests, calibrations, adjustments, etc.
A checklist of the equipment to be inspected is a major part of inspections. It
follows the details of the equipment location and the indications to look for.
Changing certain operating parameters to optimize equipment performance is
known as adjustment. Conformance of equipment operations to specifications is
done through verification known as tests. Disposing parts is inexpensive, but critical
parts are replaced when they have exhausted their life span.
The benefits and objectives of PM programs are:
• Improving reliability of a system.
• Decreasing replacement cost of parts.
• System downtime decreases.
• Inventory management becomes more efficient.

7.1.2 Predictive Maintenance/Condition-Based Monitoring

PdM (Shimomura et al. 2002) encompasses condition monitoring, condition

assessment, and decisions regarding when and what maintenance should be
100 7 Maintenance Practice

performed to restore equipment capability to the desired condition. PdM is a pro-

cess of converting condition monitoring data into actionable information (such as
replacement of a part or even small corrections such as re-alignment of coupling).
Data collection must be periodic and time-based to enable condition assessment
through trending, correlation, pattern recognition, etc.
Condition monitoring describes a range of key techniques used in PdM
engineering (Yang 2004):
• Vibration monitoring
• Lubricant analysis
• Motor current signature analysis
• Dissolved gas analysis
• Wear debris analysis
• Noise
• Magnetic particle inspection
• ELCID test
• Thermography
• NDT.
The application of a condition monitoring program has specific advantages such as:
• Reduction in unplanned outages.
• Extension of plant life.
• Better deployment of maintenance crew.
• Advance planning in procurement of spares.
• Reduction in secondary damages.
• Increase in productivity.
Proactive maintenance uses analytical tools and techniques such as RCA,
FMEA, risk assessment, etc., to eliminate, minimize, or avoid stress conditions on
equipment. It works by carefully considering certain issues such as:
• What role does the system or equipment perform?
• What is the function of a particular equipment/system?
• What are the anticipated failures?
• In case of failure, what are the likely consequences?
• How can the probability of the failure be reduced, how can the onset of failure
be identified and reduce the consequences of the failure?
Reliability centered maintenance is the basic process of analyzing and defining
the type of maintenance required for a particular piece of equipment. It is a process
used by utility companies and other industries to optimize PM and formulate bal-
anced maintenance strategies. It defines the appropriate maintenance strategy or
economic mix of predictive, preventive, and corrective (run to failure) maintenance
for a particular piece of equipment.
7.1 Types of Maintenance 101

On the basis of criticality and functionality of a component, it is logical decision

making to determine the requirement of surveillance tasks, PdM tasks, and PM
tasks. It also aids in identifying the component where maintenance is not required
and ‘run to failure’ (corrective maintenance) is the most economic decision. It is a
rigorous process and differs with each plant and type of unit and uses extensive data
from plant history, experience, etc.

7.1.3 Risk Evaluation and Prioritization (REAP)

The task and timing of major equipment maintenance is determined by PdM or

RCM. These techniques remain focused on the engineering side of maintenance and
define most economic maintenance for high reliability levels. As financial con-
straints are placed on maintenance resources, there is an increasing need for
determining the timing of maintenance while taking financial expenditure and the
impacts into consideration. In simpler terms, REAP provides the plant management
quantified assessments of financial investment decisions, and ‘how much risk is
mitigated for the available funding’. In other words, which maintenance jobs are
required to be performed on a priority basis using the available funding so as to
mitigate maximum risk (Suebsomran and Talabgeaw 2010).
REAP assures that the maximum amount of risk is mitigated for each rupee
spent on the outage. REAP optimizes maintenance costs and risks for a given level
of availability. It is an extension of the RCM model and it is highly data driven.
Opportunity cost of equipment downtime is calculated in terms of rupee and the risk
of downtime is also measured quantitatively. This task requires mature PdM and
RCM programs.
PdM assessment at some of the representative facilities has established that
programmatic issues such as scheduling, formal correlation of multiple technology
data, and condition reporting need to be addressed. The web-based Equipment
Condition Status Reporting System (EqCSR) is customized to meet needs and
introduced in stations. Emphasis on technology training is continuing and resources
are being strengthened.

7.1.4 Interrelationship Among RCM, Overhaul,

and Activity-Based Budgeting

The RCM provides the base work for scope identification of overhaul and pre-
ventive maintenance. The condition indicators (PdM measurements) are also
defined based on failure modes in the RCM. The frequency of these tasks (number
of times in a year and interval) are also determined through RCM. RCM thus
provides the input for ‘engineering declaration’ which is an essential document for
102 7 Maintenance Practice

Fig. 7.2 Relationship among maintenance practices

overhaul of units. NTPC has also introduced ‘activity-based budgeting’ which is

based on scope of work defined rather than historical assumptions. RCM thus
provides the platform for ‘budgeting’ and ‘overhaul’ implementation. The interre-
lationship is shown in Fig. 7.2.

7.1.5 Corrective Maintenance

Normally CM for minor and inconsequential defects or for redundant equipment is

requested through work requests. However, any defect leading to failure of
equipment function in a normal way is highly undesirable. This type of mainte-
nance becomes a breakdown. Percentage of breakdown to total work orders is an
indicator of maintenance performance in general. Every effort is taken to minimize
this. Minor defects do appear and assist in minimizing equipment failure and
improving performance.
These different maintenance strategies are proactively deployed to avoid
breakdowns and premature equipment malfunctions and to increase response times
to recover from failure in order to effect improvements in overall plant availability.
Selection of the appropriate maintenance strategy to deal with each situation
depends on the requirements of maintenance and should be supported by sound
economic and technical justification.
Finally, the roadmap integrates knowledge of the condition of the machines
(PdM), knowledge of root causes of past failures (pro-active maintenance),
knowledge of function, failure modes, and maintenance histories of equipment
(RCM). Knowledge of risk of availability equipment carries the probability of
failure at a particular time based on current condition, and historical impacts
determines priorities for maintenance based on risk evaluation (REAP). This
7.1 Types of Maintenance 103

Fig. 7.3 Knowledge-based

maintenance roadmap

roadmap requires integration of ‘knowledge’ at each step of the process and is

appropriately called knowledge-based maintenance (KBM). The roadmap of KBM
is shown in Fig. 7.3.

7.2 Permit to Work System

Regular maintenance activities are managed through a well-defined maintenance

process.
The following are the major processes covered:
• Maintenance work order
• Equipment clearance cycle
• Preventive maintenance schedules
• Resources requirements

7.2.1 Work Order System

A work request is created to bring to the attention of the Maintenance Department

any problem observed in the equipment. In general, two categories of work orders
are used for maintenance:
• General work order: When an abnormality is observed in any equipment and if
standby equipment is available, the faulty equipment is stopped and operating
staff creates a work order to address the issue.
• Emergency work Order: When any abnormality of equipment causes danger to
the system and no standby equipment is available or has substantial commercial
implications, it requires immediate maintenance.
104 7 Maintenance Practice

All work order requests are automatically routed for approval to the planner(s) of
the equipment on which the problem was observed. When a planner logs into the
system, all the work order requests created for equipment associated with their
location is displayed for either approval or rejection.
All preventive maintenance work orders are automatically generated by pre-
ventive maintenance schedules defined in the system. Once a work order is created,
it goes through the planning and execution stage, ending with closure of the work
order to complete the cycle. The planning phase consists of scheduling/rescheduling
the work order by taking into consideration the availability of spare parts and
resources to execute the work order as well as feedback from operation on
equipment availability. A clearance permit for isolating the equipment for main-
tenance is also generated when the work order is scheduled. When a work order is
scheduled, it is ready for execution and the actual hours spent by the
employees/resources, the actual duration of the work order/task, the quantity of
spare parts used, details of root cause of failure, and equipment downtime details
can be entered into the system while execution of the work order is in progress.
When the work order is closed, the actual details entered for the work order are
posted to the equipment history for future review/analysis.

7.2.2 Clearance Permit System

The clearance permit describes the list of clearance activities to be performed on

related equipment or other components, the issuing authority, and the validity of the
permit issued. All safety instructions and isolation details specific to the particular
equipment are written on both the Operation and Maintenance copy of the permit
document. Special hot permits are used for carrying out any hot work such as
welding, for which the Fire Fighting department is also notified. The clearance
permit also serves as a quality assurance tool, unless operation personnel cancel the
clearance permit ensuring successful completion of the maintenance work, the work
order cannot be closed and remains pending. In summary, clearance permits are
used to ensure human as well as equipment safety and work completion. A sample
work order is shown in Appendix 1.

7.2.3 Preventive Maintenance Schedules

Preventive maintenance schedules include all preventive maintenance tasks to be

performed on each piece of equipment, specifying the part and resource require-
ments for each task and specific schedules for execution of each task. For each task,
a standard operating guideline is specified. Preventive maintenance work orders are
7.2 Permit to Work System 105

generated and scheduled automatically every week, when maintenance periods are
opened. When equipment is not in use and when the preventive maintenance tasks
identified for that equipment are not to be performed for a temporary period of time,
the equipment can be flagged as off-line for that period. A sample preventive
maintenance work order is shown in Appendix 1.

7.2.4 Resources Requirements

All resources such as spares, consumables, and contract manpower can be specified
during scheduling of the work order. The material can be issued directly against the
work order and the balance of the material can also be returned. Similarly, the
contract manpower can be booked against the work order. This assists in daily
monitoring of the maintenance costs through the equipment and defect level.

7.3 Maintenance Planning

Planning is the most critical for proper maintenance of equipment and systems.
Absence of proper planning may result in unnecessary loss in equipment avail-
ability leading to loss of system availability and hence, overall plant availability
(Wei et al. 2004).
Planning is done to address the following:
• Equipment wise history cards
• Making spares available at the appropriate time
• Skilled manpower planning for maintenance activities
• Preparing PM schedules for time based on manufacturer’s recommendation or
historical performance as well as based on condition
• Preparing maintenance schedules based on reliability using RCM tools such as
REAP
• Inventory management
• Focus on zero failures, reduction in maintenance cost
• Prepare maintenance budgets based on activities to be carried out and resources
to be mobilized
• Reduction in MTTR
• Preparing network diagrams for all maintenance activities
• Preparing sub-assemblies to be ready for final assembly to save down time of
the machine
• Preparing a checklist to be followed before and during maintenance
• Improvement of skills of maintenance staff through appropriate training
106 7 Maintenance Practice

• Designing and implementing a computer-based maintenance management

system
• Assisting in autonomous maintenance by operators
• Categorization of equipment into A, B, and C categories for prioritization of
maintenance
• Preparation of various documents, drawings, charts, TBM calendars, etc.
Maintenance planning can be divided in two major segments, namely short-term
planning and long-term planning.

7.3.1 Short-Term Planning

In a running plant, many abnormalities occur in the equipment or system, which

reduces the performance of the plant but is not a major threat to plant operation, and
it requires shutdown of the plant to attend to the defect. If the defect is not an
immediate danger to the plant and simultaneously there is demand in the grid, often
the plant is allowed to continue operation with the defects. Short-term planning is
used to plan such types of jobs which can be executed during shutdown of the plant.
For example, leakage through an air heater seal is a common defect in a running
thermal unit which deteriorates the performance of air heater but is not a major
threat for plant operation and it requires shutdown of the plant to attend the leakage.
Often the plant is allowed to continue with air heater seal leakage till an opportunity
for shutdown. Work orders are generated for such types of jobs. Short-term plan-
ning ensures that maintenance for all relevant equipment and the associated tasks
are taken into account, garner resources during opportune shutdown, and the
required parts become available; thus avoiding forced shutdowns in the future.

7.3.2 Long-Term Planning

Maintenance practices followed on daily basis help in reducing downtime and

improving availability. However, long-term maintenance or overhauls take a major
portion of the availability percentage and therefore the long-term maintenance
strategy plays a vital role in determining plant performance on a long-term basis.
Cyclic operation reduces the effective life of capital equipment. One way to
ascertain the life of equipment is to find the equivalent operating hour considering
the abnormal operating conditions. The long-term planning engineer ascertains
equivalent operating hours of the boiler/turbine after considering the number of
startups and shutdowns. Accordingly, a five-years rolling plan shows a yearly
7.3 Maintenance Planning 107

maintenance activity schedule to be carried out on major plant equipment. The

planning is done via the following:
• Reduction in shutdown period
• Work estimation
• Resource planning
• Accident-free overhaul

7.3.3 Overhauling Preparedness Index

The concept of the overhauling preparedness index (OPI), initiated in the year 2005
across all NTPC stations, ensures overhaul preparedness of forthcoming overhauls
through various attributes. The OPI score is monitored for the 24 months prior to
the actual overhauling of the unit. Attributes monitored are namely formation of an
outage committee, identification of the scope of work, plant betterment action plans,
incorporation of recommendations of knowledge team/modifications/trip commit-
tee, resources preparation in terms of material and contracts, quality plans,
re-commissioning checks sheets, PERT/BAR chart preparation, etc. The pre-
paredness index is handy in deciding which efforts need to be applied for carrying
out overhaul activities smoothly and in a time-efficient way. The following points
describe OPI and its utility:
• An overhauling schedule is prepared well in advance (8-year rolling plan) and
stations preparedness for overhauling is measured through OPI.
• Monitoring of the OPI is begun 24 months before actual overhauling.
• This index is a measure of preparedness in terms of
– Formation of an outage committee
– Engineering declaration submission
– Outage period and duration: Justification of outage duration and time period
– Equipment and scope of work for overhaul. Standard Scope of work:
Boiler and auxiliary
Steam turbine and auxiliary
Turbo generator and electrical
Control and instrumentation
Miscellaneous
Gas turbine and auxiliary
– Plant betterment action plan (AI/RI/EI/TO/LF) Examples
BTL reduction plan
APH efficiency revival plan
108 7 Maintenance Practice

Turbine efficiency plan

Obsolescence (R&M for DAS)
– Defects/shutdown/pending PM Jobs included in scope
– Incorporation of recommendations/comments of KTs/COS/RHQ-OS
– Resource analysis
Spares and material identification
Contracts identification
Procurement/award plan
– Estimated budget Requirement
– PERT and BAR charts preparation
– QCP identification and preparation
– Isolation plan readiness
– Re-commissioning check sheets (RCS) identification and preparation
– Total applicable activities
• This preparedness index is handy in deterring efforts needed for smoothly
carrying out overhauling activities and in a time-efficient way.
• It also helps to maintain and improve quality of overhaul.

Appendix 1
References 109

References

Sahu R, Tiwari AC, Yadav A (2012) Implementation of preventive maintenance program in

Thermal power station: a review and case study. Int J Mech Eng Technol (IJMET) 3(2) (2012)
Shimomura K, Ishitoku H, Sakurai S, Hirose F (2002) Advanced technologies of preventive
maintenance for thermal power plants. Hitachi Rev 51(5)
Suebsomran A, Talabgeaw S (2010) Critical maintenance of thermal power plant using the
combination of failure mode effect analysis and ahp approaches. AIJSTPME 3(3):1–6
Wei SY, Xu F, Min Y (2004) Study and modeling on maintenance strategy for a thermal power
plant in the new market environment. In: IEEE International conference on electric utility
deregulation, restructuring and power technologies (DRPT2004) April 2004
Yang SK (2004) A condition-based preventive maintenance arrangement for thermal power Plants.
Electr Power Syst Res 72:49–62
Chapter 8
Outage Minimization

8.1 Avoiding Human Error-Reviewing Tripping Due

to Human Error-Cases

Outages occur in power plants due to malfunctioning of equipment, controls, and

disturbance in the interconnected power systems. However, a large number of forced
outages occur per year due to human error which can be minimized with better
automation and training of operating personnel. Looking at the statistics of a reputed
power generation company of India, it reveals the following in Figs. 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3
(Unit Tripping Report 2010).
These indicate that a substantial number of tripping occurs due to human error.
The following are cases to help understand what types of human error do occur and
the root cause.
Case 1:
Time period: 2010–2011
Primary cause of tripping: “flame failure”
Root cause analysis: Unloading of PA fans due to change in set point of PA
header Pr from 805 to 30 mmwc. On investigation it was found that the set point
was changed inadvertently by an operations engineer from a work station via a
keyboard, which led to subsequent unit tripping on “flame failure” protection.
Case 2:
Time period: 2010–2011
Primary cause of tripping: “Condenser Low Vacuum”
Root cause analysis: Due to inadvertent closure of exhaust valve of TDBFP-B,
the diaphragm of TDBFP-B was ruptured. While normalizing TDBFP, the con-
denser was connected to atmosphere.
Human error occurs due to many reasons, including the following:
• Absence of failsafe design and control
• Not trained properly

© Springer India 2016 111

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9_8
112 8 Outage Minimization

Fig. 8.1 Number of coal-fired units each year

Fig. 8.2 Number of tripping each year

Fig. 8.3 Percentage of tripping due to human error

8.1 Avoiding Human Error-Reviewing Tripping Due to Human Error-Cases 113

Fig. 8.4 Cause of human error

• Non availability of experienced manpower

• Not following standard procedure and instruction
Further studies were conducted and the results are shown in Fig. 8.4. It was
found that most of the human error occurred due to non adherence to the standard
procedure, followed by inadequate training, and inexperienced manpower. There is
a need for structured operating guidelines with local management instruction
(LMI) set. All operating staff should have formal training for upgrading their skills,
and route cause of each tripping should be analyzed.
Some incidents of a very casual approach are given below:
Case 1:
Primary cause of tripping: Turbine tripped on low trip oil pressure
Root cause analysis: Auxiliary supply to UAT was changing over from station
supply. During changeover, the switch over travelled in the forward direction.
A reverse command was given to the switch to return to its neutral position. UAT
bus tripped as a result of this. Running CF pump tripped due to loss of supply.
Thus, unit tripped on trip oil pressure low protection.
Case 2:
Primary cause of tripping: Stator water flow low
Root cause analysis: By mistake during isolation of unit-V primary water pumps,
unit VI primary water pumps isolation was done in. Generic approach to minimize
human error.
Design Strategy
• Exclusion: In cases in which the potential human error can lead to catastrophic
consequences, the system should be designed in such a way that it becomes
impossible to commit error.
• Prevention: Where the risk of human error is not as critical, it should be made
difficult to commit that identified human error.
• Fail safe: Make the system fail safe. Mitigates the consequences of human error
instead of trying to prevent it from occurring in the first place.
114 8 Outage Minimization

Training Strategy
• Identifying training needs.
• Imparting skill-based training and refresher courses.
• Training as a part of KPA for the operating staff as well as their reporting officer.
Strategy for Inexperienced Manpower
• Manpower mix needs to be balanced.
• More experienced personnel at lateral level to be increased.
• Experienced manpower may be retained after retirement.
Strategy for Adhering to Standard Procedure
• Working executives can access all the standard procedures easily.
• Involvement of working executives to be increased in procedure development
for new set of activities.
• In case of critical activities, time pressure should be eased to avoid any lapse in
following standard procedures.

8.2 Minimizing Process Parameter Deviation

Any process is dynamic and hence susceptible to change in parameter value over an
acceptable range. The economic operation of any power plant calls for consistent
supervision of the process states and the form of major equipment (Pliska et al. 2010).
Further, there is a wide range of problems connected with measurement inac-
curacies and thereby estimating expected power and efficiency. It is humanly
impossible to notice deviation of all the parameters in a definite time frame. To do
these jobs, artificial intelligence systems are adopted. Under varying conditions and
different steady-state operating modes, process simulation is used to calculate
detailed of expected or desirable performance values (pressures, temperatures,
flows, etc.). In modern power plant, dynamic simuletor is used for prediction and
auto corection of parameters for safe operation. Comparison of expected perfor-
mance and actual performance also helps in early detection of any equipment
degradation or/and incorrect adjustment of the process parameters.
This also aids in improving operation and predictive maintenance so that plant
operation and maintenance costs can be reduced. An example of finding deviation is
shown in Fig. 8.5.
Performance analysis diagnostic and optimization (PADO) is a widely used
system for finding parameter deviation. Different modules of PADO are shown in
Fig. 8.6 (PADO 2016).
8.2 Minimizing Process Parameter Deviation 115

Fig. 8.5 Detection of process parameter deviation

Fig. 8.6 Different modules of PADO

Although the number of forced outages has been reduced considerably over
the past several years, there is still a long way to go to achieve ‘zero forced
outage’.
116 8 Outage Minimization

References

Overview of Performance Analysis Diagnostics and Optimization (PADO). Steag, 2016

Pliska J, Machat Z, Horky V, Sury P, Havlat I (2010) Thermal performance monitoring in
dukovany npp. 2010; 5 p; European Nuclear Society; Brussels (Belgium)
Unit Tripping Report, Rihand Super Thermal Power Plant report, 2010
Chapter 9
Managing Efficiency

9.1 Efficiency Losses in a Coal-Fired Power Station

Conversion of fossil fuel energy into electricity is a very poor process. A major
portion of the energy in fossil fuel gets lost at different components or processes:
• Losses in boiler
• Losses in condenser
• Losses in turbine
‘Heat rate’ is the measurement of how much heat is being utilized for production
of one unit of electricity. Efficiency can be calculated through a direct method of
ratio of energy generation to that of energy input from fuel or indirect method of
(input energy losses) to the ratio of input energy. In general loss method is con-
sidered to be the more accurate method because every component of loss can be
ascertained and accordingly corrected steps can be taken for minimizing the loss.

56% (49%)
Cycle
Boiler
13%

Unit Auxiliaries

8%(3%)

100% Heat
input

87% Net electric

38% output
35%

© Springer India 2016 117

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9_9
118 9 Managing Efficiency

A typical diagram of energy availability in thermal power generation is shown

below (Bellman 2007).
• Dry flue gas loss: Flue gas exits from the boiler carries away appreciable
amount of heat which gets lost in the atmosphere. The amount of loss depends
on the product after combustion and flue gas exit temperature of the gas and is
calculated as follows:
Theoretical air requirement = ½ð11:6  CÞ þ 34:8  ðH 2  E2 =8Þ þ 4:35  S=100 kg/kg
of fuel, where C, O2, H2, and S are the percentage of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and
sulfur in the fuel. h i
Excess air supplied ðEAÞ ¼ 21 O 2%
 O2 %
 100
Actual mass of air supply m = ½1 þ EA=100  Theoretical air
m  C ðT  Ta Þ
Dry flue gas loss = GCVp off fuel  100 %. Where Cp is specific heat of flue gas
in kcal/kg °C and Tf and Ta are the flue gas temperature and ambient air temperature
respectively in degrees Celsius.
• Loss due to moisture in fuel (coal + air): Coal contains surface as well as
inherent moisture. While surface moisture can be dried externally, inherent
moisture absorbs heat from flue gas and is converted to steam. Similarly, air in
the moisture taking part in combustion also absorb heat from flue gas and is
converted to steam. The loss of heat absorption due to moisture in fuel is
calculated as follows:
M  ½584 þ Cp ðTf  Ta Þ
 100 where M is the kg of moisture in 1 kg fuel.
GCV of fuel
m  humidity factor  Cp ðTf  Ta Þ
Loss of heat due to moisture in air is = GCV of fuel  100 where
the humidity factor is calculated from the psychometric chart.
• Loss due to hydrogen in fuel: Hydrogen in fuel combines with oxygen in the
fuel and air at high temperature produces water and this water also absorbs heat
and is converted to steam. Loss due to hydrogen in fuel is expressed as
9  H2 ½584 þ Cp ðTf  Ta Þ
 100
GCV of fuel
• Incomplete combustion: Occurs inside the furnace due to turbulence rarefaction
where concentration takes place and may lead to incomplete combustion. The
same can be identified through CO monitoring in flue gas. The loss can be
expressed as Mco  5744 where Mco ¼ COðin ppmÞ  106  Mf  28. Here Mf is
fuel consumption per hour.
• Unburned carbon loss in ash: Complete combustion inside the furnace depends
on the presence of sufficient oxygen, sufficient ignition energy, and the size of
the coal particle. Deficiency of oxygen, ignition energy or bigger size of coal
particles prevents complete burning and results in unburned carbon in bottom
ash and fly ash. Unburned carbon is measured as percentage of total ash pro-
duction. The loss due to unburned carbon in ash is expressed as
Total ash/kg of fuel burn  GCV of ðfly ash + Bottom ash)
GCV of fuel  100
9.1 Efficiency Losses in a Coal-Fired Power Station 119

Fig. 9.1 Boiler loss indirect method

• Loss due to wasted heat in ash: Ash exits the furnace as bottom ash with high
temperature. Loss related to the sensible heat of ash can be calculated as
½Mass of BA  CBA  ðTBA  Ta Þ þ Mass of FA  CFA  ðTFA  Ta Þ
 100
GCV of fuel
• Radiation and unaccounted loss: Any hot body radiates heat energy, similar to
the boiler. Sufficient insulation is provided on external surface of the boiler to
minimize this loss. Generally, for large boilers, this loss is considered to be
0.4–1.0 %. However, if boiler surface area and surface temperature is known,
h i
this can also be calculated as 0:548  ðTs =55:55Þ4  ðTa =55:55Þ4 þ 1:957 
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1:25 ½196:85Vm þ 68:9
ð Ts  T a Þ  where Vm is the wind velocity and Ts is the
68:9
surface temperature.
Components of boiler loss (Bureau of Energy Efficiency 2014) are shown in
Fig. 9.1.
The following parameters should be monitored for boiler loss:
• APH gas inlet temperature
• APH gas outlet temperature
• APH air inlet temperature
• APH air outlet temperature
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide at APH gas inlet and gas outlet
• Ambient air temperature and humidity
• Coal sample and analysis for GCV and ultimate analysis
• Bottom ash and fly ash sample for unburned carbon analysis.
120 9 Managing Efficiency

Fig. 9.2 Rankine cycle

The condenser converts steam to water. In the thermal cycle of a power plant
condenser is the element where approximately 47 % of the total heat energy is
exhausted and has not been added to the output. The major losses in the condenser
occur due to:
• Poor condenser back pressure: Consider the rankine cycle for power generation
shown in Fig. 9.2, available energy for work depends on the exhaust pressure at
which the adiabatic expansion is taking place (point number 7). Available energy
is reduced when exhaust pressure increases due to bad vacuum.
The following reasons can be attributed to poor vacuum:
• High CW inlet temperature: Low pressure turbine (LPT) exhaust temperature is
the saturation temperature at back pressure. The higher the cooling water tem-
perature the lower the rate of steam condensation taking place, with the quantity
of cooling water flow remaining constant. This results in deterioration in back
pressure. High CW inlet temperature restricts loading of turbine.
• Tube fouling/scaling: Cooling water in the condenser is taken from the raw
water source. Formation of algae and other inorganic growth causes fouling.
Presence of insoluble mineral salts results in scale formation. Fouling and
scaling reduces both heat transfer and flow through the condenser tubes. Poor
heat extraction from the LPT exhaust cause reduction in back pressure.
• LPT exhaust temperature: The turbine consumes heat to convert steam energy to
mechanical energy. Due to leakage in the interstage seals, or any other reason,
pressure drop across LPT can change and will result in high LPT exhaust
temperature. This will cause an increase in hot well temperature and thereby
saturation pressure.
• Air ingress: The condenser is maintained under vacuum. Continuous evacuation
of noncondensable gas from the LPT exhaust steam is done through the vacuum
pump or ejector. The hot well is connected to the LPT exhaust through an
9.1 Efficiency Losses in a Coal-Fired Power Station 121

Fig. 9.3 Condenser LPT exhaust

performance determination TTD
TCW out
DT
TCW in

expansion bellow. Any leakage in the expansion bellow or associated piping

enables air to ingress inside the condenser which increases pressure inside the
condenser.
• Cooling water (CW) flow: Rate of condensation inside a condenser is a direct
function of CW inlet temperature and its flow rate. Reduction in flow rate
increases the back pressure and thereby increases loss.
Two parameters, namely the terminal temperature difference (TTD) (between
LPT exhaust temperature and CW outlet temperature and the difference in tem-
perature [DT)] between condenser inlet and outlet temperature) measure the per-
formance of the condenser. A graphic representation of the two parameters is shown
in Fig. 9.3.
In general a 10° DT is considered healthy for a condenser.
Turbine converts heat energy into mechanical energy. The efficiency of the
turbine is very high, however, major losses can occur due to:
1. Low main stream (MS) pressure: Low MS pressure compared with the design
value indicates less enthalpy in the inlet steam. Considering the outlet steam
pressure as per design one, the enthalpy drop across the turbine is reduced and
hence reduction in turbine efficiency. Graphically shown in Fig. 9.4.

Fig. 9.4 HP cylinder

efficiency determination
(Gill 1984)
122 9 Managing Efficiency

Fig. 9.5 Effect of HRH

temperature on IP
efficiency (Gill 1984)

2. Low MS temperature: Low MS temperature compared with design value indi-

cates less degree of super heat. Hence less available energy from the cycle.
3. Low HRH Temperature: Low HRH temperature also indicates lower degree of
super heat. Intermediate pressure (IP) cylinder efficiency determination is shown
in Fig. 9.5.
4. Low feed water temperature: In a boiler, adding heat at a higher temperature is
economical because at a higher temperature, specific heat has a negative slope.
Low feed water temperature results in a higher heat requirement (i.e., additional
fuel requirement) for raising its temperature. LP heaters, HP heaters, and the
economizer in stages add heat to feed water for raising its temperature almost
nearing the saturation temperature corresponding to the operating pressure.
5. RH spray: RH spray is applied when steam temperature RH out is beyond the
rated temperature. RH spray water is taken from the BFP kicker. In both cases,
the temperature of the water is much lower than the RH steam temperature
because this spray water has not passed through the heaters and economizer.
Low temperature spray water absorbs heat to become super-heated steam. This
spray water has also not passed through the HP turbine. This causes loss to the
system. The loss in efficiency (resulting increase in heat rate) is a function of the
water quantity used as spray. Under the sliding pressure operating mode, the
spray water requirement is lower, and therefore its impact on heat rate is min-
imal. Typically for every 1 % RH spray, the cycle efficiency decreases by about
0.08 %.
6. HP/IP turbine cylinder efficiency: Gross turbine heat rate can be expressed as
Fms ðH1  Hf Þ þ Frhs ðH3  H2 Þ þ Fss ðHf  Hs Þ þ Frs ðH3  Hr Þ=Pg
where
Fms Main steam flow (T/Hr) Hs = enthalpy of S/H
Frhs Hot reheat steam flow Hr = enthalpy of R/H
Fss Superheater spray flow
9.1 Efficiency Losses in a Coal-Fired Power Station 123

Frs Reheater spray flow

H1 Enthalpy of Main steam
Hf Enthalpy of feed water
H3 Enthalpy of hot reheat steam
H2 Enthalpy of cold reheat steam
Used energy
Efficiency of the turbine can be expressed as = Available energy
= hhinin  hhisen
out
where hisen is the isentropic enthalpy
A reheat turbine expands steam in two stages and its efficiency depends on
enthalpy changes in each stage of the turbine. The efficiency of each stage is shown
in Fig. 9.6.
Typical turbine cylinder efficiency is

HP 86 %
IP 90 %
LP 88 %

Cylinder efficiency increases with an increase in blade height and LP blade

height are more than IP stage, but its efficiency is low due to wet region at later
stage.

Fig. 9.6 Turbine cylinder efficiency (Gill 1984)

124 9 Managing Efficiency

9.2 Heat Balance Diagram

A heat balance diagram (HBD) is basically the schematic representation of mass

and energy flow across the whole steam cycle for a thermal power station starting
from boiler to HP turbines, IP turbines, and LP turbines, through condenser and
re-heaters and again to the boiler. The diagram represents mass and energy balance
at each part of the cycle. Thus the diagram contains detailed information on
properties such as pressure, temperature, enthalpy, and mass of the steam at every
heat transfer point of the cycle. The HBD is part of process control diagrams
(PCDs). Typical heat balance diagram for a 200 MW (e) unit and one 800 MW
ultra super-critical unit is shown in Figs. 9.7 and 9.8.
HBDs are typically made at part load of 50, 75, 100 % and valve wide open
condition. On line parameters from the data acquisition system can be obtained
regularly for an operating plant. Deviation in actual parameters from HBD
parameters in any part of the process gives an indication of abnormal operation or
deterioration of that part of the thermal cycle. Corrective measure can be taken
immediately by further investigating the identified part in detail. There are limita-
tions of the conventional HBD. It does not give information about:

Fig. 9.7 Heat balance diagram of a 200 MW (e) unit

9.2 Heat Balance Diagram 125

Fig. 9.8 Heat balance diagram of a 800 MW advanced ultra super-critical unit

• Flue gas condition at different parts in the process

• Circulating water flow, pressure, or temperature
• Turbine exhaust loss
• Pressure drop across the valve
• Generator information.

9.3 Boiler Efficiency Test

The following parameters are measured, for computation of boiler efficiency and
performance test (International Energy Agency 2010).
(a) Flue gas analysis
1. CO2 or O2 percentage in flue gas
2. CO percentage in flue gas
3. Flue gas temperature
(b) Flow meter measurements for
1. Fuel flow
2. Steam flow
3. Feed water flow
4. Condensate water flow
5. Combustion air flow
126 9 Managing Efficiency

(c) Temperature measurements for

1. Flue gas temperature
2. Steam temperature
3. Makeup water temperature
4. Condensate return temperature
5. Combustion air temperature
6. Fuel temperature
7. Boiler feed water temperature
(d) Pressure measurements for
1. Steam pressure
2. Combustion air, both primary and secondary air pressure
3. Draft
The various parameters can be measured with the following
instruments (Jochem 2007):

Measurement Instrument/method
CO2, O2, and CO High-velocity thermocouple (HVT) probe with
portable gas analyzers
Flue gas temperature, combustion air HVT probe with digital temperature recorder/optical
temperature pyrometer, RTD
Boiler surface temperature RTD
Steam temperature Thermocouple
Fuel temperature RTD, liquid in glass
Furnace draft Differential manometer
Steam flow, water flow, air flow Flow meter as applicable
Fuel flow Calibrated gravimetric feeder

The combustion efficiency test does not cover the auxiliary power consumption
by fans, pumps, etc.
Flue gas concentration and temperature can both be stratified due to turbulent
flow in the furnace. An HVT probe can be traversed throughout the width of the
boiler and thereby can collect samples at different points over the cross section for a
representative sample. Flow of flue gas and water is measured either through an
on-line instrument or inserting a differential manometer. Steam flow is measured
from the first stage pressure of the turbine. Rate of fuel flow is estimated from the
gravimetric feeder speed.
Readings should be recorded only after steady boiler conditions are attained.
Steady stack temperature, fuel input, steam pressure, and excess O2 are the indi-
cations that boiler operating condition is stabilized. During the test the following
conditions are maintained:
9.3 Boiler Efficiency Test 127

• Emergency blow down and soot blowing is not carried out during the test
period.
• Mill combination is maintained throughout the test period.
• Drum, deaerator and hot well maintained at a fairly constant level during the
test.
• All controlling parameter variations kept within the permissible limits.
• Duration of the test generally lasts for 4–8 h.
• Fly ash/bottom ash, raw coal, and flue gas sampling are taken at intervals of
15 min.
For calculation purposes, all the readings are averaged for the entire period.
Ultimate analysis of the coal is done for estimating the percentage of different
components.

9.4 Turbine Heat Consumption Test

The object of the heat consumption test is to determine the required heat input to the
turbine for an output of one kilowatt-hour at particular loadings (Gill 1984). The
required heat input for one unit of electricity is known as ‘heat rate’ and its unit is
kcal/kWh.
Prior to the test, the plant should be held on a steady loading at the test load for
at least 1 h to ensure that everything is thoroughly ‘heat-soaked’.
The following parameters are determined during the heat consumption test:
1. Steam flow to HP turbine and its enthalpy at inlet and outlet
2. RH spray flow and its inlet and outlet enthalpy
3. Feed water flow and its enthalpy at a different point
4. Bleed steam flow to heaters and its enthalpy
5. HP gland leak off flow and its enthalpy
6. Steam flow to IP turbine and inlet enthalpy
7. Condenser vacuum
8. Electrical output.
A result is obtained and recorded in a table such as this:

Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Load (MW)
Heat (kcal/h)

When plotted on a graph of heat consumption versus load, the trend lies in a
straight line called a ‘Willians line’ as shown as Fig. 9.9.
128 9 Managing Efficiency

Fig. 9.9 Willians Line

The line has intercepted the heat consumption axis at h0 which is the fixed heat
consumption at any load. At lower loads the heat rate increases and therefore, the
thermal efficiency worsens.
This is because the fixed heat component represents an increasing proportion of
the total heat consumption.

9.5 Turbine Pressure Survey

Internal conditions of a turbine reflects pressure drops at different stages. Steam

turbines whose efficiency has been reduced due to deposits on blades and erosion of
internal clearances can be identified and monitored using a turbine pressure survey.
Except for the first stage of nozzle-governed turbines and the last stage, the pres-
sures at different stages along a steam turbine are functions of steam flow. During
the PG test, at different load conditions, pressure measurement is taken at different
available stages of the operating turbine. Plotting pressure at different stages from
the stop valve to the LPT inlet and drawing a line joining the points will show a
sloping line. At different loads, all the sloping lines will converge at the bottom
right corner as shown in Fig. 9.10. These data should be kept as a first reference.
Subsequently, a pressure survey is conducted at regular intervals. The trend of
pressure survey for a healthy turbine will be either coinciding with the reference
line or below the reference line depending on the loading of the turbine. On the
other hand, if the line lies on a straight line but above the reference line for a
particular load, then this is indicative of general wear throughout the turbine and
may be due to worn diaphragm seals or blade tip seals as shown in Fig. 9.11.
Furthermore, if there is kink in the pressure line as shown in Fig. 9.12, it indicates
restriction of flow between the two pressure tapping points.
In a pressure survey the pressure transducer/pressure gauge used should be of
high precision grade and measurements at different points should be done
9.5 Turbine Pressure Survey 129

LPT ENTRY
HPT EXIT
TSV 200 MW

HPH 5

LPT 1
Pressure in Kg/cm2

140 MW

Fig. 9.10 Turbine pressure survey 200 MW set

LPT ENTRY
HPT EXIT

TSV 140 MW
HPH 5

LPT 1
Actual
Pressure in Kg/cm2

140 MW
Reference

Fig. 9.11 Effect of internal wear

LPT ENTRY
HPT EXIT

TSV 140 MW
HPH 5

LPT 1

Actual
Pressure in Kg/cm2

140 MW
Reference

Fig. 9.12 Effect of internal restriction

simultaneously to ensure that readings are taken at the same loading conditions.
During the pressure survey all the heaters should be in service, otherwise there will
be discontinuity in the best line through the points.
130 9 Managing Efficiency

9.6 Condenser Performance Test

Three main reasons effecting condenser performance are

a. Change in CW inlet temperature: Saturation temperature of condensation
depends on TTD. In a healthy condensed change in CW inlet, temperature will
affect the saturation temperature and thus the back pressure.
b. Change of CW flow: Change in CW flow primarily changes temperature rise.
This is an inverse relation, meaning that if flow is double the temperature, rise
will be halved. Further CW flow affects the heat transfer rate due to changed
thickness of the CW boundary film. If it is proportional to the square root of the
flow, it means log mean temperature will be effected by square root of the ratio
of flow.
c. Dirty tubes: Dirty tubes affect heat transfer and increase TTD, which in turn
affects saturation temperature of condensation.
d. Air ingress: Air ingress also affects heat transfer.
These factors contribute to a given departure of back pressure from the optimum
can be determined as shown in Fig. 9.13. The graph shows CW inlet temperature
versus CW outlet temperature at different flow conditions in one side and saturated
steam temperature and back pressure versus change in TTD on other side. The
deviations are determined as follows:

Fig. 9.13 Condenser conditioning graph. Courtesy AB Gill (1984)

9.6 Condenser Performance Test 131

Deviation due to CW inlet temperature rise

Vertical line is plotted from the actual CW inlet temperature to intersect the design
CW rise line. The horizontal line from the intersection point is plotted to cut the
designed TTD line and then vertically downward to intersect the saturated steam
temperature line and thus deriving the corresponding back pressure. Difference
between the design back pressure and derived back pressure is the loss.
Deviation due to CW flow
The line is plotted from the actual CW inlet temperature to the actual CW rise line.
Then it is horizontally plotted to design TTD; and then vertically down to the
saturation line.
Deviation due to air or dirty tube
The line is plotted from the actual CW inlet temperature to the actual CW rise line.
The horizontal plot to the actual TTD and then vertically downward on the satu-
ration line.

9.7 Mill Performance Test

Coal mills are the major auxiliary equipment used for feeding coal to a coal-fired
power plant. Therefore, performance of the milling system is of utmost importance.
One useful technique used to diagnose milling system performance is known as the
“operating window” (Subba Rao 2011). The operating window (Gill 1984)
describes the limits/operating regime of a mill based on different input parameters
as shown in Fig. 9.14. This helps in avoiding the usual problems such as mill skids,
duct erosion, explosion, and fires in pulverized coal-air ducts or inside the mill. As
shown in Fig. 9.14, the mill operating window is drawn within coal flow–air flow
coordinates, representing the mill performance limits. The following are the limits
considered for developing the operating window:
(1) Limit in flame stability.
(2) Capacity limit of the mill.
(3) Fuel fall out limit of the mill.
(4) Erosion limit.
(5) Tempering limit.
(6) Drying limit.
A typical mill operating window is shown in Fig. 9.14.
In the operating limits related to coal flow is drawn between milling capacity
limit and flame stability limit (1 and 2), the air flow operating regime is drawn
between coal transport limit and erosion limit (3 and 4), Operating regime of
pulverized coal-air temperature is drawn between the drying limit and tempering
limit (5 and 6). Plotting these limits defines a suitable “working area”. This working
132 9 Managing Efficiency

Fig. 9.14 Mill operating

window

area is bound by upper limits (2, 4, and 6) and lower limits (1, 3, and 5). The
pulverizer should operate into this working area, to avoid performance problems.
Milling capacity is the upper limit for coal flow. If coal flow crosses the milling
capacity limit, mill choking may occur. Thus, mill capacity is given by the mill
manufacturer. The turndown ratio of the burner determines the lower coal flow limit
to maintain flame stability. A typical turndown value is half of the maximum
nominal milling capacity (Gill 1984).
If air flow is less, pulverized coal can settle in the ducts and may cause fire or
explosion. The coal-air mixture should have a minimum velocity of 18–20 m/s to
avoid any settlement. On the other hand, if air flow is too high, there is the
possibility of wearing on ducts, valves, and bends. In general, maximum air flow
should be within 1.5 times the minimum air flow value (Gill 1984).
Drying capacity is determined by mass flow of air through the mill and tem-
perature of the air to the mill. The tempering limit ensures outflow coal-air mixture
at a reasonable temperature, but low enough to avoid spontaneous combustion.
Currently, mill performance is not only judged by the limits of operation. The
quality of grinding, equal distribution of coal in all the mill discharge pipes, is a
major factor for combustion. Distribution of coal-air flow is normally checked by
dirty pitot tubes. A mill fineness check is done through high accuracy mill fineness
sampler.
9.8 Fan Performance Test 133

9.8 Fan Performance Test

The manufacturer supplies fan performance characteristic curves associated with

the fan. But in reality, a fan is interconnected with various ducts and dampers.
Hence, actual performance is judged by its static pressure and flow developed in a
connected condition and its power consumption. The efficiency and performance of
a fan depends on the system resistance. The system resistance also changes with
change in the condition of the interconnected ducts and dampers. For example,
erosion of the lining in the ducts, formation of coatings, leakage developed in the
ducts, etc., change the system resistance. In some cases, the change of equipment
duct modifications drastically shift the operating point, resulting in change in
efficiency. The fan performance is tested by measurement of flow, head, tempera-
ture of the discharge air, and l motor kW input.
Air flow measurement
Static pressure
Static pressure is the potential energy input to the system by the fan. It is measured
at the duct inlet. The static pressure produces an area of LP at the inlet to the duct,
Velocity pressure
Velocity pressure is the pressure developed by the air flowing through the duct
along the line of the flow. Air velocity through the duct is calculated using the
velocity pressure head.
Total pressure
The sum of the static and velocity pressure gives the total pressure developed by a
running fan. As the air flows though different sized ducts resulting in accelerating
and decelerating of the velocity pressure and static pressure gets change. However,
the total pressure remains constant except for change in friction losses. The air flow
is measured using an accurate anemometer or pitot tube manometer combination, or
a flow sensor (differential pressure instrument). The average velocity is determined
by taking a number of velocity pressure readings across the cross-section of the
duct. The average of the velocities is used for calculation.
Air density calculation
For calculating the velocity from the velocity pressure measurements the density of
the air is calculated as Gas Density (γ) = (273 × 1,293)/(273 + tοC). Once the air
density and velocity pressure is known, the velocity is determined as: velocity ¼
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Cp 29:81Dpc
c where Cp is the pitot tube constant and Dp is the average differential
pressure recorded by entire cross section of the duct. Fan manufacturers gener-
ally determines fan efficiency in two ways: mechanical efficiency (sometimes called
the total efficiency) and static efficiency and are expressed as:
134 9 Managing Efficiency

Volume in m3 =s  Dpðtotal pressure) in mmwc

Fan Mechanical Efficiency gmechanical % ¼  100
102  Power input to the fan shaft in(kW)

Volume in m3 =s  Dpðstatic pressure) in mmwc

Fan Static Efficiency gstatic % ¼
102  Power input to the fan shaft in(kW)
 100

Drive motor kW may be measured by a load analyzer. The kW multiplied by

motor efficiency give the shaft power to the fan.

9.9 Pump Performance Test

Like other equipment, the operating performance of a pump is also of utmost

importance. A cost-effective tool is periodic hydraulic and mechanical performance
audits. Pump manufacturers provide a set of performance and characteristic curves
for the pump. A sample set of pump characteristic curves is shown in Fig. 9.15. In
practice, an installed baseline performance audit is conducted to compare with the
manufacturer’s provided characteristic curves. The measured parameters are as
follows:
Pump capacity
Differential pressure devices with an orifice or venturi are the most common way
for flow measurement. Modern ultrasonic flow measurement transducers are
replacing the classical method. The ultrasonic transceivers utilizing transit time
algorithms can give accuracy to the precision of 1–2 % depending on the instal-
lation and configuration. An example of typical mounting of an ultrasonic trans-
ceiver external to the piping is shown in Fig. 9.16.
Suction flow indicates the total flow into the pump. Recirculation and inter-stage
take-offs are considered separately. Multistage pumps are generally provided with
internal hydraulic balancing devices. In that case, the flow through the balancing

Fig. 9.15 Typical pump characteristic curves

9.9 Pump Performance Test 135

Fig. 9.16 Ultrasonic flow

measurement

line leak-off is measured to assess the condition of the hydraulic clearances within
the pump.
Pressure and temperature measurement
While pressure is measured using a pressure transducer, temperature is usually
measured through a thermocouple. For noncontact type measurement, portable
infrared instruments provide sufficient accuracy and can be used for temperature
measurement.
Brakes horsepower measurement
Brakes horsepower of a pump driven by an electric motor can be reasonably cal-
culated by its motor current and voltage.

References

Bellman DK (2007) Power plant efficiency outlook. Working Document of the NPC Global Oil &
Gas Study, July 2007
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (2014) Energy performance assessment of boilers
Gill AB (1984) Power Plant Performance. Butterworth and Co (Publisher) Ltd
International Energy Agency (2010) Power generation from coal-measuring and reporting
efficiency performance and CO2 emissions
Jochem E (2007) Realizing the potential of energy efficiency. Expert Report, UNF
Subba Rao PMV (2011) Performance analysis of coal mills
Chapter 10
Best Practices

10.1 Best Practices Concept

The Indian power generation sector has been developed with a mixed ownership by
the central government, state government, independent power producers, and
captive power plants. Having diversified motivation for ownership, the operating
practices of these power plants are not always consistent, and often are not per-
formed with the best possible effectiveness and efficiency. This is further affected
by lack of experience; technical knowhow, lack in research facility which results in
an increasing gap between well-performing units and less-developed ones.
Best practice is a relative term. It should not be misunderstood as benchmarking
parameters and a way to achieve it. To the contrary, it gives the capability of
everlasting sustainability. Best practice has many dimensions for a thermal power
generator. This chapter discusses some of the good practices that give sustainability
rather than a rank in overall performance. The practice covers the following areas:
• Longevity and efficient operation beyond the regulatory period
• Maximizing availability
• Knowledge management
• Growth planning for sustainability
• Environment management.

10.2 Longevity and Efficient Operation Beyond

the Regulatory Period

Longevity of a thermal power plant is considered to be 25 years. Keeping the plant

in healthy operating condition beyond 25 years is a challenge to the plant manager.
The major challenges encountered are:

© Springer India 2016 137

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9_10
138 10 Best Practices

• Capacity degradation of the boiler, turbine, and generator: Steaming capacity

reduction is a common phenomenon for an aged boiler. The reason is reduction
in heat transfer capability. Over prolonged operation, effective heat transfer
capacity of the boiler becomes deteriorated due to:
– Scaling of boiler tubes: Maintaining bad chemistry in the boiler water is the
main reason for scaling. At any point during the life cycle of the boiler, if
water chemistry is allowed deteriorated for a prolonged period of time, the
damage caused to the tube is non-reversible. It starts with make-up water
quality management and goes up to drum water (in drum-type boiler) quality
management. Maintaining the pH of the water, soluble solid concentration,
and dissolved oxygen concentration is a continuous process. Even a small
leakage in the condenser tube changes the soluble solid concentration level
in boiler water. The first best practice is to keep the on-line water chemistry
monitoring devices available around the clock, analyze the reading once
every 8-h shift and notifying the shift controller of chemical parameters and
suggested corrective action, if any. The second best practice is during
overhauling, cutting a piece of water wall tube and analyzing it for any
deposition and micro structure for indication of any fatigue. If deposition is
noticed then appropriate chemical cleaning is considered to be the third best
practice. NTPC Singrauli’s first unit was commissioned during February
1982 and the plant is still operating with its original steaming capacity and
efficiency, after 33 years. One of the major factors of its longevity is better
management of boiler water chemistry.
– Deterioration of air heaters: The air heater is subjected to the most abusive
environment with one side having extreme hot flue gas with fly ash and
another side with cold atmospheric air. Basket choking and seal leakage is a
common phenomenon for bad performance of an air heater. Choking of air
heater baskets can easily be identified by (1) differential pressure (DP) across
the air heater and (2) ID fan suction head. The best practice is to maintain the
DP available in the monitoring console. Choking of the pressure signal tube
to the DP transmitter is common. Regular purging of the same to be adopted
as practice. Air heater seal leakage can be identified from flue gas analysis of
before and after (see Chap. 9 on managing efficiency for calculation of air
heater leakage). If the leakage is severe it will reflect in ID fan loading and
air heater out temperature. The best practice is to analyze the same on regular
basis and make necessary corrections during short or long shut down.
• Capacity degradation of turbine happens as a result of:
– Erosion of glands and blade shrouding: Turbines are subjected to cyclic
operation. Erosion of glands and blade shrouding can be determined through
pressure survey (see Chap. 9 for procedure). The best practice is to conduct
regular pressure surveys and maintain records.
– Deposition of silica on the blades: Carry over silica with steam results in blade
deposition at low pressure stage. Once deposited, it is a nonreversible process.
10.2 Longevity and Efficient Operation Beyond the Regulatory Period 139

Deposition not only changes the heat consumption pattern of the cylinder, but
changes the natural frequency of the blade and results in high vibration.
Maintaining steam chemistry as recommendation is the best practice to avoid
deposition (see Chap. 6 on recommended values). This can be done during
major overhauling of the turbine.
– Bad performance of condenser: Bad performance of condenser can occur as
a result of many issues as explained in Chap. 9. Scaling and corrosion in
condenser tubes is nonreversible if appropriate actions are not taken in time.
Managing cooling water chemistry is one of the best practices for long life of
condenser tubes. DP across the condenser indicates tube choking, fouling,
and scale formation. Reversing of condenser cooling water flow, cleaning
through balls/concho system is adopted for removal of soft scales. A point
worth mentioning is that that during reversal of cooling water flow, loading
on turbine should be reduced appropriately. In case of permanent scaling, a
chemical cleaning method should be adopted for removal of scales.
Monitoring total condition of condenser is the best practice for sustainable
condenser performance (as explained in Chap. 9).
• Capacity degradation of generator can occur as a result of:
– Scaling in generator stator conductor: High-capacity stator conductors are
water cooled. Deviation in chemical parameter of stator water may lead to
scaling inside the conductor and is nonreversible. Monitoring chemical
parameter once every 8-h shift and taking corrective measures is the best
practice for long life of the generator.
– Bad performance of generator coolers: DM water is used for generator
hydrogen coolers. Scaling, if any, reduces performance of cooling. Water
chemistry is a vital factor for long life of coolers.
• Competing with advanced efficient machines: With passing of time, technology
advancement is taking place. Efficiency of an old boiler, heat rate of old turbine
not able to compete with more efficient advanced class of machines. However,
efficiency of old machines can improve to some extent by retrofitting them with
new technology. The best practice is to engage a dedicated R&M group for
studying retrofitting possibilities in old plants.
• Unavailability of spares: Technology is changing fast. Unavailability of spares
leads to capacity degradation. Developing spare parts through vendor devel-
opment is one of the best practices for sustaining longevity of the plant, but
requires a long drawn out process. The maintenance planning group of the plant
should initiate before the spares became unavailable.
• Obsolesce of controls: Control systems and data acquisition systems become
obsolete very fast. The best practice is to plan and implement retrofitting of new
controls before the old become obsolete.
140 10 Best Practices

10.3 Maximizing Availability

Plant availability becomes affected due to forced plant outage or partial outage of its
auxiliaries and availability of fuel (Ahmad et al. 2012) and water. The major
challenges faced are:
• Minimizing forced outages: Forced outages occurs as a result of system dis-
turbance and human error. System disturbance can occur internally due to
equipment or control failure or externally from an interconnected power system.
While internal forced outage probability can be theoretically brought down to
‘zero’ through the approach of total productive maintenance (TPM), an efficient
good islanding scheme can prevent plant outage from an interconnected power
system. Human error can be prevented through training. Increasing acidity in
Turbine control fluied is a common phenonmenon for outage of Turbine
(Bhattacharyya and Ghosh 2013). Documenting all types of forced outages,
discussing the root cause and mitigating measures to all the operating staff on a
common platform is considered to be a best practice. Discussing outages
through video conference across the organization at NTPC is a unique practice.
• Availability of auxiliaries: Partial outage of auxiliaries occurs because of failure
of any given component of the equipment. Preventive and predictive mainte-
nance needs to be taken to such a level that equipment outage is ‘zero’. To truly
enhance the quality of maintenance, one must look beyond preventive and
predictive maintenance philosophies and adopt best practices such as TPM,
which brings in a cultural transformation through a true partnership of the
Operations and Maintenance Departments.

10.4 Knowledge Management

The purpose of knowledge management is to aid people by creating knowledge and

sharing, which measurably improves the performance of an organization. It also
helps in getting the required information to the people at the time it is needed. In a
more explicit way, the outcome of a culture and collaborative environment for
knowledge management is:
• Individual tacit knowledge gets converted to organizational explicit knowledge
• A systematic mechanism is created for sharing knowledge and best practices
• Identifying effectively internal and external expertise
• Developing communities of practice/interest/innovations to facilitate knowledge
sharing.
KM structure in a reputed power utility is shown in Fig. 10.1.
The first best practice is creating the platform for sharing. It can be electronic or
a regular journal published and distributed across the organization. Again, only
creating platform does not serve the purpose; the employees need to be encouraged
10.4 Knowledge Management 141

Fig. 10.1 KM structure in a reputed power utility

to share and the quality of the input needs to be monitored. The second best practice
is determining how to encourage employees to share and acquire. The mechanism
of reward does not work indefinitely. When an employee benefits directly from the
knowledge, the process sustains. It requires a thorough study on the type of
knowledge employees are seeking and easy access to that knowledge. That
knowledge must be developed by relevant domain experts. All these require a
dedicated team for KM. A training/employee development center can act as a
change agent. The mandate should be:
• Creating a platform for collaborative knowledge sharing and capturing tacit
knowledge
• Building organization-wide and unit-specific intellectual capital
• Internal branding
• Creating a culture of knowledge sharing.

10.4.1 Case Study

Auraiya is one of the NTPC gas stations. Due to low schedule from beneficiaries,
the operating performance of the station was deteriorating. The knowledge team
invoked brain storming. The reason attribute was the cost of generation. Details
activity required for reducing the cost of generation worked out. All the concern
departments were aligned to the requirement. Auriya became the 3rd best in gen-
eration cost among the seven NTPC gas stations.
142 10 Best Practices

10.5 Growth Planning

An organization does not grow if the road ahead is not clear. Only proper planning
can bring that clarity. Planning starts with the vision of the organization/department.
Change in business environment, new opportunities, diversification requirement
forces the organization to change its vision. For example, NTPC, a reputable power
utility company in India has revisited its visions and objectives a number of times
since its first corporate planning session in 1985.
The 1985 objective statement stipulated:
• To establish thermal power capacity and associated transmission systems within
the prescribed time schedule, cost, and reliability level and conforming to the
National Energy Plan.
• To operate its power stations at base load with maximum performance efficiency
and plant reliability.
• To build in-house capabilities so as to be self-reliant in respect to technical
expertise and develop a cadre of skilled manpower with a knowledge of the
latest technology.
• To manage the financial operations of the company in accordance with sound
commercial utility practices and to generate returns as per government
guidelines.
• To develop and implement a well-knit personnel policy and a comprehensive
personnel program that will be result-oriented and to develop an organizational,
culture which will motivate employees to contribute their best toward the
achievement of organizational objectives.
• To function as a responsible public sector undertaking, bearing in mind its
commitment to the society.
Over a period, the vision changed, and in 2007 its vision statement changed to
“A world class integrated power majority, powering India’s growth, with increasing
global presence.”
While a vision keeps changing over time, the process of planning roams around
the four basic questions:
• Where does the organization want to go?
• When does it want to achieve the goal?
• Where does the organization stand now?
• How should the organization reach the destination?
The answers to these questions depends on the change in business scenario, the
strength and weaknesses of the organization, and what the opportunities and threats
are. An organization can appraise the answer internally or externally. The best
practice is to internally judge the goal but appraise the strength/weaknesses and
opportunities/threats from the outside. How the external environment perceives the
organization on the above-mentioned fronts gives an accurate representation.
A regular growth plan is a best practice for an organization.
10.6 Environment Management 143

10.6 Environment Management

Ramagundam at Andhra Pradesh is one of the hottest locations in India. The

average temperature during the summer is 49 °C. NTPC set up a super thermal
power station at Ramagundam. A huge afforestation was built in an around the
station. Meteorological data show that this huge afforestation has brought down the
average temperature of Ramagundam by 4 °C. Picture of forestation is shown as
Fig. 10.2.
Any type of development activity consumes resources and produces pollution.
On one hand, good environment management reduces consumption of resources,
and on the other hand it mitigates generation of pollutants. A thermal plant pro-
duces ash, toxic and greenhouse gases such as SO2, NOx, and CO2. Improving the
efficiency of a thermal plant results in reduction of consumption of resources. Less
consumption of resources will produce less pollutants. Therefore, the first best
practice for environment management is improving and sustaining efficiency of a
thermal unit near the design parameters. Indian coal consists of about 40 % ash.
Handling of ash is a big environmental issue. An excessive amount of water is
required for transporting ash to the dyke. Ash water recycling is one of the desirable
practices of power stations. Furthermore, an ash dyke consumes a huge area of land.
The NTPC Dadri power station stacks ash as a huge mound to reduce land usage.
Figure 10.3 shows a picture of the ash mound.

Fig. 10.2 Afforestation at Ramagundam (includes satellite pic)

Fig. 10.3 Ash stacking at NTPC Dadri

144 10 Best Practices

The second best practice is reducing land usage. Many power utility companies
use fly ash for brick and manufacturing. Back filling of a mine with ash is also an
option for ash utilization. Ash utilization via various methods reduces environment
burden.
SOx emission is controlled by treating flue gas with lime. It can also be con-
trolled by blending high sulfur coal with low sulfur coal. Optimization of coal
blending is a dynamic process and is considered to be a good practice. NOx
emission is dependent on flame temperature. Low NOx burner design or blanketing
the flame over a fire air supply reduces NOx emission. The best practice is to
monitor these two gases online and continuously take corrective measures.

10.7 Important Operational Guidelines/Operation

Directives

One of the best practices followed by good power utilities is operation and main-
tenance guidelines specific to the unit/station (Confederation of Indian Industry
2010). The guidelines can be drilled down to system level/equipment level
operation and maintenance instruction. These guidelines are used for development
of local management instructions (LMI) suitable for a particular plant. LMIs are
written by experienced engineers associated with a particular plant and aid in
maintaining health of the units in the long run.
The guidelines can be of the following categories:
(1) Operation directives
(2) Operation guidance notes
(3) Operation information notes
(4) LMIs.
Operation directives are issued by the highest authority of the plant operation
and maintenance (O&M), the implementation of which is mandatory for all power
stations.
Operation guidance notes are documents conveying advice and broad guidance
issued under the highest authority of O&M, the implementation of which would be
mandatory to the extent applicable to the particular station.
Operation information notes (OINs) are issued under the authority of the Head of
Operation Services to provide information to power stations relating to technical
matters. The information contained in OINs is to assist station authorities and to be
acted upon at the discretion of the station head.
LMIs are management instructions produced and issued at locations which are
derived from directives, guidance notes or information notes, and authorized by the
station head to instruct the staff on station policy. Additionally, the station head may
want to include other matters of station policy within his LMI system which he or
10.7 Important Operational Guidelines/Operation Directives 145

she desires to introduce and which allows effective discharge of the managerial
responsibilities. LMIs are by definition site-specific, mandatory documents.
As a sample, three guidelines/directives used at NTPC are given in the
Appendices A, B, and C.

References

Ahmad W, Prasad MSK, Javed Bhat, Thangapandian V (2012) Coal accident analysis, risk
quantification and Suggestive scheme improvements in coal bunkers of Thermal power plants.
IJIERD 3(2), 18–25
Bhattacharyya B, Ghosh SK (2013) Use and maintenance of phosphate ester hydraulic fluids in
steam turbine governor system-A case study. In: NTPC O&M conference IPS 2013
Confederation of Indian Industry (2010) Manuel on best practices in Indian thermal power
generating units
Appendix A
The Operational and Safety Aspects
of Chemical Cleaning of Thermal
Power Plants

1.0 General Guidelines of Pre and Post-Operational Cleaning of

Drum-Type Boilers, Economizers, Super Heaters, Reheaters,
Condensate and Feed Systems
1.1 Introduction
Damage can occur in the water/steam circuits of an operating plant if
the internal surfaces are coated with foreign matter such as adventitious
metal oxides, grease, oil, and dirt or have excessively thick grown
oxides. These can be removed after erection and prior to commission-
ing, and be controlled during subsequent operation by chemical
cleaning.
1.2 Scope
This covers the objectives and criteria for the chemical cleaning of
drum-type/drumless boilers and surface conditioning of the water/steam
circuit of conventional power plants using suitably inhibited ammoni-
ated citric, hydrochloric, sulphamic and hydrofluoric acids; it also
determines the protection of the plant after cleaning.
The requirements of “safety aspects”, to be applied for the pre-
and post-service cleaning of boilers, economizers, super heaters,
reheaters, condensate, and feed systems.
1.3 Objectives of Cleaning
The aim is to commission and operate the plant with the internal
surfaces of the water/steam circuit as free as practicable from foreign
matter, and to establish a satisfactory basis for the growth of a
protective magnetite film, by removing debris and thick oxides
accumulated during construction and operation.

© Springer India 2016 147

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9
148 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

1.4 Criteria for Chemical Cleaning

1.4.1 Pre-service Cleaning of Boiler Furnace and Economizer Tubes
Along With Condensate and Feed System
As a result of the application of clean working conditions, the
condensate and feed systems of drum boilers, super heaters, and
reheaters do not require pre-service chemical cleaning. Instead, they
shall be either water flushed or steam purged. However, if the clean
conditions are not met, alkaline washing of condensate and feed system
as given in Appendix 1A.II shall be practiced.
The furnaces of drum boilers still require to be cleaned and suitable
processes, as given in Appendix 1A.-I, are an alkaline boil-out/alkaline
flushing to remove grease and protective coatings followed by a citric or
hydrofluoric or hydrochloric acid stage to remove oxides and other
debris originating during construction, and finally passivation using
ammonia and hydrazine or sodium nitrite and ammonia.
1.4.2 Post-operational Cleaning of Boiler Furnace Tubes (and
Economizer Where included)
Factors that need to be considered in determining the need for cleaning
are:
(i) Changes in operational chemistry (e.g., the occurrence of
“hide-out” or incidence of persistent condenser leakage).
(ii) The presence of large amounts of water-side debris, revealed by
periodic examination or by indirect instrumental methods.
(iii) The occurrence of on-load corrosion, particularly when there has
been extensive retubing.
(iv) The type of boiler-tube geometry, operating pressure, heat flux
(i.e., the sensitivity of the boiler).
(v) Mode of operation-base load/cycling/number of start-ups.
(vi) Lay-up practices of feed trains and boilers that have been applied.
(vii) Post-acid clean history of the specific plant.
1.4.2.1 The Case for Routine Cleaning
Routine cleaning is often considered because if unduly thick oxides are
allowed to accumulate, they are less easily removed and can concentrate
salts which can intensify corrosion. The aim of periodic cleaning is to
preempt the development of such conditions and the cleanings can be
carried out on the basis of either oxide thickness or time. Severe
problems such as heavy oxide deposition would be one indication of the
need to clean. Super heaters and reheaters are not normally included in
the circuit for routine chemical cleaning.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 149

1.4.2.2 Oxide Thickness as a Guide to Cleaning

Oxide thickness provides the most reliable guidance on the need to
clean. Measurement for this purpose should be made periodically on
samples taken from the higher heat flux zones of the boiler or from
areas known to be most susceptible to deposit formation. Normal oxide
growth rates tend to be in the range of 1–2 m/kh. A general review has
shown that for coal-fired plants (160 bar), an oxide thickness of 100 µm
has been experienced without any evidence of detrimental corrosion
damage to the underlying metal surfaces. However, the projected
influence of site-specific factors needs to be considered to establish an
allowable maximum oxide thickness for individual units. Risks of
corrosion beneath deposits are dependent on the heat flux experienced
by the plant and oil-fired plants typically have higher heat fluxes and a
limit of 50 µm is recommended for these stations. In the absence of
reliable oxide thickness data, routine cleans should be carried out at
intervals of time determined empirically, a typical frequency for
160 bar plant being 4–6 years to be compatible with the plant’s major
outage frequency.
1.4.3 Post-operational Cleaning of Super heaters, Reheaters,
Condensate, and Feed Systems
1.4.3.1 Super heaters, reheaters, condensate, and feed systems are not normally
cleaned for the purpose of removing iron oxide during their service life.
1.4.3.2 If an abnormal requirement for the post-service cleaning to remove iron
oxide deposits from any of these plant items arises, it could probably be
met by employing a modification of Appendix 1E.
1.5 Available Cleaning Processes and Their Application
1.5.1 Process Details
Details of the on-site cleaning processes are given in the Appendices.
Suitable methods of chemical analysis for controlling the cleaning
processes are given in Sect. 4, ‘Analytical Methods’ and safety
precautions are given in Sect. 5, ‘Safety Aspects’.
Wherever pH value or conductivity is quantified, measurement at 25 °C
is implied.
1.5.2 Furnace and Economizer Tubes of Drum Boilers
1.5.2.1 Pre-operational Cleaning
The specified procedure is a preliminary alkaline boilout/alkaline
flushing using trisodium phosphate, followed by hydrofluoric acid/HCl
or ammoniated citric acid, citric acid rinse, and high temperature
passivation, according to Appendix 1A.
150 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

1.5.2.2 Post-operational Cleaning

Selection of the chemical cleaning process should be made by
referencing Appendix 1C. The procedures are given in Appendix 1D.
Hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid are specified as alternatives to
ammoniated citric acid and have advantages if the boiler is especially
dirty or corroded.
The choice of acids is discussed in more detail in Sect. 1.5.4.2.
1.5.3 Super Heaters and Reheaters
1.5.3.1 Pre-operational Cleaning
This area of the plant does not require being chemically cleaned if
erected according to standard practices. However, the plant requires
steam purging, as specified in Appendix 1B.
1.5.3.2 Post-Operational Cleaning
Post-operational cleaning of super heaters and reheaters is covered in
Sect. 1.4.3.
1.5.4 Supplementary Notes
1.5.4.1 Before commissioning, removal of debris by physical cleaning
processes such as flushing shall be used irrespective of any chemical
cleaning. Steam purging (see Appendix 1B) of the super heater,
reheater, and associated pipework is used to remove material which
may remain after erection.
1.5.4.2 Acids Available for Cleaning
The formulations conventionally used for iron removal in chemical
cleaning are 5 % hydrochloric acid, 1–2 % hydrofluoric acid, or 3 %
ammoniated citric acid, each appropriately inhibited as detailed in
Appendix 1F. Compared with ammoniated citric acid, hydrochloric acid
is cheaper, quicker, and holds more iron, but has a greater risk of
pitting. Hydrofluoric acid is very fast and also holds more iron and can
be inhibited to reduce ferric ion corrosion, but particular care must be
taken in its use and disposal. The capacities for iron of 5 %
hydrochloric acid, 2 % hydrofluoric acid, and 3 % ammoniated citric
acid are 2.5, 1.9, and 0.9 %, respectively. However, citric acid is quite
suitable for the majority of cleaning applications and, in some instances,
is the only available option.
1.5.4.3 Choice of Acid for Iron Oxide Removal
1.5.4.3.1 Guidance on selection of chemical cleaning processes for
post-operational cleaning is given in Appendix 1C. 3 % citric acid is
suitable unless the boiler is either very dirty or corroded. With dirty
boilers, extra acid can be used but where corrosion is present,
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 151

hydrochloric acid or hydrofluoric acid may be required. However,

severely scabbed tubes are not susceptible to any acid cleaning process
and some tube replacement is necessary. For boilers with a satisfactory
history of routine cleaning with hydrochloric acid, there is no good
reason to change from the reagent. However, it should be noted that
local corrosion of heat-affected weld zones could occur with
hydrochloric acid, but to a much lesser extent, in citric acid. The effect
has occurred so far only with steels of 0.3 % carbon and while the bulk
of boiler tubes are 0.18 % or less, there is an increasing tendency to use
steels with higher carbon values which tends to mitigate against the use
of hydrochloric acid.
1.5.4.3.2 Work has shown that if 0.5 % formic acid is added to the conventional
citric acid formulation, the capacity for iron is increased by about 20 %
and oxide dissolution occurs more rapidly. Potentially, therefore, this
modification presents another option for iron removal.
1.5.4.4 Fluoride
1.5.4.4.1 The presence of fluoride 0.25–0.5 % ammonium bifluoride increases
the rate of dissolution of iron oxide slightly in hydrochloric acid and
more substantially in citric acid, although in both cases, the solubility of
iron is virtually unchanged. Fluoride additions also improve the
dissolution of siliceous material in hydrochloric acid but in citric acid
this effect of fluoride varies according to the form(s) of silica present.
1.5.4.4.2 Flouride/NH4HF2 should not be added to the citric or hydrochloric acid
solution until the circuit is leak free. There is no test data yet available
to demonstrate that fluoride can be used safely with austenitic stainless
steels.
1.5.4.5 Circulation
Circulation of acid is necessary both to avoid local depletion of effective
strength of acid and inhibitor, and to facilitate the use of analysis to
control the process. For drum-type boilers, the aim should be to obtain
an average rate of circulation of 0.3 m/s in the generator tubes with a
maximum rate of 1.5 m/s. Clearly, the target rate may be exceeded in
some parts of the circuit and experimental work has shown that flow
rates of 1.5 m/s double the corrosion rate found at 0.3 m/s. The effect of
velocity is much more pronounced with inhibited hydrofluoric acid,
albeit from a very low corrosion rate at the low velocity.
1.5.4.6 Copper Removal
In certain situations, economies can be introduced in the copper removal
stages of chemical cleaning, for example, where local experience has
shown that only small amounts of copper are removed on cleaning. In
152 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

such cases, only one copper removal process needs to be utilized and it is
advantageous to use it after iron removal. Furthermore, it may be possible
to divide in half the chemical concentrations of sodium bromate and citric
acid, the pH still, however, being adjusted to 9.5. Work has shown that
sodium nitrite is a less acceptable alternative to sodium bromate for the
oxidizing agent in copper removal, despite its apparent advantage for the
secondary purpose of short-term passivation. If gas-induced circulation is
being used, air is an acceptable medium during copper removal, but does
not obviate the need for sodium bromate.
1.5.4.7 Passivation After Cleaning
To minimize deterioration of the active surfaces produced by acid cleaning,
a final passivation stage is an essential part of the overall cleaning process.
Details are included in Appendices 1A, 1D, 1E and supplementary notes
are given in Sect. 1.8, ‘Protection of Plant After Cleaning’.
1.5.4.8 Protection of Plant When the Cleaning Process is Interrupted
Special situation could arise if it were necessary at any stage to curtail
or suspend a cleaning. Guidance on the available courses of action in
such circumstances is given in Appendix 1G.
1.6 Practical Considerations
1.6.1 Planning
1.6.1.1 Coordination
Experience has shown the need for full consultation between the
Engineering, Design and Construction, Plant Engineering, and
Operation Services before carrying out pre-operational chemical
cleaning.
1.6.1.2 Operational Water Requirements
During cleaning, there is a requirement for very large quantities of
clarified and DM water. Careful programming of the installation and
commissioning of the water treatment plant and water storage tanks is,
therefore, required before commencing pre-commissioning cleaning.
For post-operational cleaning, application of the complete Appendix 1D
may use up to 12 boiler volumes of DM water.
1.6.1.3 Effluents
It is essential that all statutory requirements covering effluent disposal
from the station are established and met. In some circumstances, citric
acid waste can be disposed of by burning in an adjacent boiler.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 153

Hydrofluoric acid waste can be disposed of in the ash lagoons by

neutralizing the acid with lime and precipitating residual fluoride with
calcium chloride solution. With all chemical cleaning solutions, care
shall be taken to avoid contravening Pollution Control Board discharge
limits. Where effluent removal is by tanker, adequate tanker capacity
must be available so that the cleaning program is not delayed or the
plant put at risk.
1.6.2 Supervision
Supervision of cleaning processes requires suitably trained staff to be
present at all times. In addition to the overall supervision provided by
the contractor, a complete post-operational cleaning of one boiler may
take 100–200 h depending mainly upon the rigging time.
1.6.3 Engineering Aspects
1.6.3.1 Permanent Points for Post-operational Cleaning
Recommendations are given.
1.6.3.2 Circuit Integrity
The integrity of the circuit to be cleaned must be tested by filling with
water before introducing chemicals.
1.6.3.3 Station Pumps
Subject to the manufacturer’s approval, boiler circulation pumps may
be used for pre- and post-operational cleaning, or gas-induced
circulation. Where permanent points are fitted, the economizer is
included in the boiler circuit for cleaning. If it is considered necessary to
clean the economizer as well as the boiler furnaces when gas circulation
is used, an auxiliary pump will be required. The neck weals of idle
circulation pump motors should be protected from contact with
chemical cleaning solutions by back-flushing with de-mineralized
water.
1.6.3.4 Flexible Pipework
While the use of flexible pipework is not prohibited, all temporary
connections should be made in rigid material, wherever practicable. All
pipework, flexible or rigid, must be sufficiently reliable for the whole of
the operation. With flexible pipework, suitably placed valves must be
provided for isolation in case of failure.
1.6.3.5 Drum Furniture
The removal of drum internals for cleaning is desirable to facilitate
circulation of reagent and inspection, and for the removal of debris, but
their replacement is time consuming. Program considerations usually
154 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

dictate that both pre- and post-operational cleaning are carried out with
most of the drum internals in place.
1.6.3.6 Stagnant Areas
Particular attention must be given to stagnant areas, instrument
connections, and similar items to ensure that they are properly cleaned
and flushed. Temperature measurement points should be installed to
show uniformity of circulation, although an infra-red TV camera is
preferable for this purpose. Adequate sampling facilities should be
available to check reagent strength and circulation.
1.6.3.7 Water-Plugging of Super heaters
To prevent cleaning solutions entering the super heater while only the
boiler circuit is being cleaned, the super heater shall be water-plugged
before any circulation of cleaning solution commences and
back-flushed between the various stages of the process. Care must be
taken to ensure that the super heater can be adequately back-flushed. In
addition, as discussed in Appendix 1H, a constant head overflow device
shall be fitted to the boiler drum, and suitable arrangements made to
indicate drum level during cleaning. Make-up water should be adjusted
to a Ph OF 8.8–9.2, and ammonia should be used for this purpose.
1.6.3.8 Venting
While chemical cleaning operations are in progress, venting of the
boiler, including the vent from the constant head overflow, should be to
the outside of the building into an area inaccessible to personnel.
1.6.3.9 Inspection
Thorough inspection of the plant, as far as practicable, shall be carried
out at the end of the cleaning process, giving due regard to the
precautions given in Sect. 5, ‘Safety Aspects’.
1.6.4 Chemical Aspects
Given that there have been problems of degradation of inhibitors in
storage, it would be advisable to check the age and batch number of the
chemical used. Apply the inhibitor efficiency test before use.
1.6.4.1 Chemical Requirements
As some cleanings require additional amounts of chemicals (principally
for iron removal), a sufficient reserve should be available locally to
minimize delay to the program. This is particularly important for the
first cleaning in a boiler’s history or after a change of operating regime
(e.g. from base-load to two-shifting).
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 155

1.6.4.2 Chemical Addition

All chemicals shall be added to the cleaning solution in such a manner
as to avoid localized concentrations in the cleaning solution or dilution
tanks by addition at a continuous constant rate while the solution is
being circulated. Avoiding higher acid concentration than specified is
necessary to avoid corrosion. Careful control is necessary when
ammonia is being added to acid solutions containing inhibitors, to avoid
any possibility of inhibitor precipitation.
1.6.4.3 Addition of Inhibitors to Cleaning Solutions
1.6.4.3.1 The approved inhibitor must be present under acid conditions at all
times to ensure that it is fully dissolved and not subsequently
precipitated. It must always be added direct to an acid solution and
not be previously diluted with water or added to water to which the acid
is added later. This requirement can be met by injecting the acid and the
inhibitor simultaneously at the suction of the pump used for injecting
chemicals into the cleaning circuit.
1.6.4.3.2 Some constituents of inhibitors have very limited solubility and,
therefore, must be added to the cleaning solution in a controlled
manner, pro-rota with the acid injection. The inhibitor must be added at
a constant rate over that period of time required for complete circulation
of the cleaning solution, by using either a metering pump or a drip-feed
arrangement.
1.6.4.3.3 The most critical of all chemical additions is that of the inhibitor which,
in some instances, has a very limited solubility (e.g., stannine LTP), and
its addition to the solutions must be made in accordance with Sect. 5,
‘Safety Aspects’. Strict observance of these requirements, in conjunc-
tion with ventilation of the plant and meeting temperature requirements
before entry, have enabled the breathing equipment previously required
for plant inspection after chemical cleaning to be waived in certain
circumstances. The precautions required under such condition are given
in Sect. 5, ‘Safety Aspects’.
1.6.4.3.4 Following the inhibitor addition and at regular intervals during the acid
cleaning stage, a ‘wire wool’ ball test for inhibitor effectiveness should
be used. In this test, a small ball of steel wool (about 0.1 g) is degreased
and added to a sample of the iron removal solution. Inhibition is judged
to be adequate if the wire wool ball does not float after 1 min in
ammoniated citric acid or 2 min in hydrochloric acid. The test is rapid,
but can be affected by a number of factors including temperature,
therefore, the test must be carried out at the same temperature as the
cleaning solution in the boiler or coupon test is done in laboratory by
taking polished metal coupon and subjecting it to test conditions of
temperature and various concentrations of acid and inhibitor.
156 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

1.6.4.4 Water Quality for Super heater Flushing

Contaminated water containing significant quantities of chloride has been
found in the super heaters and reheaters of new drum-type boilers after
erection, presumably being present as a result of the use of unsuitable
water for hydraulic testing. To avoid any risk of stress-corrosion of
austenitic material arising from this source, especially during the
pre-commissioning alkali boil-out, flushing of the super heaters and
reheaters with deionized water shall be carried out before the alkali boil.
Intermittent flushing shall be used until the conductivity of the effluent
water is less than 5 us/cm and the chloride is below 1 mg/kg.
1.7 Water Flushing
Flushing of the plant with water will be required for the following
purposes:
(i) To remove any contaminant which has entered the plant during
erection and any loose corrosion products.
(ii) To remove volatile corrosion inhibitors if used for protection of
the plant during storage and erection.
(iii) To remove chemicals and residual sludge after site cleaning
processes.

Notes:
1. This procedure may be unsuitable for large vessels (e.g., DC heaters) because
of weight support limitations.
2. After water flushing has been completed, the plant shall either be dried out or
put in wet storage, unless the flushing immediately precedes a further stage of
cleaning.
3. Water flushing shall be carried out using deionized water if austenitic
components are present or for once-through boilers. If any other plant is given
a preliminary flush with filtered water, it shall be thoroughly flushed out
afterward with deionized water, except where it is to be followed by a chemical
cleaning process.
1.8 Protection of the Plant After Cleaning
1.8.1 The Need for Passivation
After the steel surfaces have been chemically cleaned, they are very
‘active’ and subject to rapid rusting. It is, therefore, necessary to passivate
the cleaned metal surfaces to prevent their deterioration. Operation
immediately after passivation is the best means of establishing the
protective oxide film.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 157

1.8.2. Passivation at 40 bar

Good passivation can only be achieved under high-temperature and
high-pressure conditions (40 bar is recommended) and for preservation of
the passive film, the boiler should be emptied while hot and at 3–5 bar
pressure, or if operationally acceptable, from 28 bar, to ensure that the
surfaces dry out.
1.8.3 Passivation at 7 bar and Below
In certain situations (e.g., feed systems) it is not possible to obtain
high-pressure passivation conditions immediately after the
pre-commissioning chemical cleaning. It is then necessary to resort to
the circulation of a hydrazine/ammonia solution at 95 °C which confers a
limited resistance to rusting. Passivation may be carried out using
trisodium and disodium phosphate at 70 °C. Some contractors use sodium
nitrite and ammonia solution at 70 °C for preliminary passivation and then
hydrazine and ammonia for final passivation at 90–95 °C.
1.8.4 Storage After Passivation
Where passivation at 90 °C has been utilized, it is recommended that the
plant be either thoroughly dried out, which is the preferred method, or
stored wet using corrosion inhibiting solutions which are specified.

Appendix 1A-I Pre-operational Cleaning of Boiler Furnace and Economizer

Tubes
1A-I.1 Introduction
The following stages constitute a complete cleaning and must be
carried out consecutively and with minimum delay. The steps can
be alkali flushing or alkali boil-out followed by acid cleaning and
passivation.
1A-I.2 Precautions
Precautions must be taken to ensure that the chemical cleaning
solutions used in stage 1A-I.3.3 and 1A-I.3.5–1A-I.3.8 do not
enter the super heater. During stage 1A3.3, the water level shall
not be above normal working level. During stages 1AI3.5–
1AI3.8, the super heater shall be filled with deionized water
(treated with 200 ppm N2H4 and pH around 10) to form a water
plug and back flushing should be carried out periodically. In
addition, during stages 1AI3.5–1AI3.8, a constant head overflow
device should be fitted to the drum (see Appendix 1H).
158 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

1A-I.3 Sequential stages

1A-I.3.1 Hot Water Flushing
Fill and drain the boiler as far as possible using DM water to
remove foreign matter and check for leakages and blockages.
Flush the super heaters and reheaters intermittently using
deionized water until the water leaving the super heater and
reheater has a conductivity of less than 5 us/cm and a chloride
content of less than 1 mg/kg chloride.
1A-I.3.2 Alkali Boil Out
Fill the boiler to working level with demineralized water
containing 1000 mg/kg trisodium phosphate.
Raise the pressure to 40 bar with intermittent blowing down for 30 s
during every hour. The final pressure should be reached in 8–10 h.
Maintain the boiler at 40 bar pressure with the specified chemical
concentration for at least 24 h. Drain while the boiler is still as
hot as practicable and if possible, while under pressure.
Cool the boiler drum to 90 °C metal temperature and open the
boiler drum and distribution drum’s (if any) manhole for
examination/chemical addition and remove any loose deposits.
1A-I.3.3 Alkali Flushing
*The boiler is filled with a solution containing 2000 mg/kg
TSP and
2000 mg/kg DSP
4000 mg/kg Na2CO3
and a suitable surface active agent at 90 °C.
Circulate for 24 h and drain.
1A-I.3.4 Acid Cleaning
1A-I.3.5 Circulate a solution in deionized water containing one of the
following chemicals through the boiler
(i) 3 % W/W citric acid with an approved inhibitor (see
Appendix 1F) and ammonia to give pH 3.5–4.0.
Initially, circulate at not less than 90 °C (maximum
105 °C) and continue until the iron content is constant
(Note 1). The concentration of free citric acid should be
maintained at not less than 0.5 % W/W during circulation,
otherwise basic citrates might precipitate.
(ii) 5 % Hcl acid with 0.25 % ammonium bifluoride and 0.2 %
inhibitor (Rodine-213 Sp) at a temperature of 70 °C
(Appendix 1A-III).
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 159

(iii) 1 % W/W hydrofluoric acid with an approved inhibitor

(Appendix 1A-IV).
Circulate at 55 °C until the iron concentration is constant (Note
1). The concentration of free hydrofluoric acid should be
maintained at not less than 0.2 % W/W during circulation.
1A-I.3.6 Raise the pH to 5.0 by careful addition of ammonia added slowly
during circulation to avoid high pH values (Note 2)
1A-I.3.7 Drain the boiler, and when using ammoniated citric acid, rinse
with a solution containing 0.2 % W/W citric acid with ammonia
to give pH 3.5–4.0
1A-I.3.8 Flush the plant with deionized water until pH remains above 6.0
and conductivity <20 micro Siemens/cm
1A-I.3.9 Fill the plant with deionized water containing:
100 mg/kg N2H4 and with 100 mg/kg ammonia for interim
passivation.
Or, 50 mg/kg hydrazine with 50 mg/kg ammonia for final
passivation.
Maintain a minimum pH of 10.0.
Raise the pressure to 40 bar and maintain for not less than 24 h.
No further additions of hydrazine to the boiler are required
because this has been shown to be unnecessary. However,
50 mg/kg hydrazine and 50 mg/kg ammonia shall be added to
the make-up water to the boiler to react with dissolved oxygen.
On completion of stage 1A-I.3.9, blow the boiler empty at the
highest possible pressure, but in any event, not less than 4 bar.

Notes:
1. Experience shows that provided the system has been lagged, the temperature
should not have fallen below 75 °C before cleaning has been completed, when
using ammoniated citric acid, or 50 °C with hydrofluoric acid/hydrochloric
acid.
2. The reasons for raising pH above 5.0 are:
(i) To minimize corrosion of the plant after cleaning, but before displace-
ment of acid.
(ii) To avoid corrosion in discharge points and culverts.
160 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

Appendix 1A-II Pre-operational Cleaning of HP Feed Systems

1A-II.1 Introduction
Generally, if cleaning conditions are met during the course of
preparation, the pre-boiler system shall be water flushed only.
However, some vendors suggest an alkaline wash or alkaline
wash followed by acid cleaning and passivation of the feed
system, which are detailed below.
1A-II.2 Precautions
Precautions must be taken to ensure that all the instrument
tappings are isolated, HP heaters and BFP are blanked off,
internals of all the regulating valves are removed or they are
replaced by spool pieces, all orifices and flow nozzles are
removed, and feed line connections to HP heaters are isolated or
blanketed. Pipeline portions which cannot be included in the
flushing operations shall be mechanically cleaned and inspected
before erection.
1A-II.3 Sequential Stages
1A-II.3.1 Flush the system with filtered water at an ambient temperature to
remove foreign matter.
1A-II.3.2 Fill the system with DM water at 70–80 °C. Circulate the water
and drain. The process of filling, circulating, and draining is
continued until the outlet water quality matches the inlet water
quality in turbidity and color.
1A-II.3.3 Chemical solution in demineralized water for alkali flushing of
trisodium phosphate 5000 ppm as Na3PO4 12H2O along with a
suitable wetting agent are filled in the system and the
temperature is raised to 80–95 °C. Samples are taken every
hour and analyzed for oil impurities, iron, and pH values. The
process is deemed to be complete when there are no traces of oil
impurities when the iron content and pH stabilizes in inlet and
outlet, or after 12 h of circulation. The system is drained.
1A-II.3.4 The system is rinsed with DM water to remove alkalinity left on
the surface. Hourly samples are compared for phosphate,
alkalinity content, and conductivity. When conductivity and
pH are the same as that of DM water, the operation is complete
and the system should be drained.
1A-II.3.5 For acid cleaning, fill the HP feed system with demineralized
water.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 161

1A-II.3.6 Raise the water temperature to 95 °C.

1A-II.3.7 While maintaining the circulating flow, add chemicals to give
the following final solution:
3 % W/W citric Acid
0.05 % W/W stannine LTP inhibitor
Ammonia for a of pH 3.5–4.0.
1A-II.3.8 Circulate the solution for 6–8 h until leveling out of iron and
acid concentration in inlet and outlet.
1A-II.3.9 Drain the system.
1A-II.3.10 Rinse the system with 0.2 % W/W solution of citric acid
ammoniated to a pH of 3.5/4.0 by filling and circulating briefly.
1A-II.3.11 Flush the system using demineralized water until the conduc-
tivity is 30 us/cm or less.
1A-II.3.12 Fill the HP feed system with demineralized water.
1A-II.3.13 Raise the temperature of the circulating water flow to 95 °C.
1A-II.3.14 While maintaining the circulating flow, add chemicals to give
the following final solutions:
300 ppm hydrazine
Ammonia to give pH 10.
1A-II.3.15 Circulate the solution for 12 h.
1A-II.3.16 Drain the system while hot. Preserve the HP feed heater by N2
capping if not used immediately.

Appendix 1A-III Pre-operational Cleaning of Boiler Furnace and

Economizer Tubes with Hydrochloric Acid
1A-III. 1.0 Hydrochloric acid cleaning.
1A-III. 1.1 Ammonium bifluoride 0.25 % may be added to the inhibited
acid solution for the intensification of the reaction and its
effective silica removal.
1A-III. 1.2 Boiler is drained under nitrogen capping.
1A-III. 1.3 Boiler is filled with DM water at 65 °C to a level slightly higher
than the acid level and is completely drained under nitrogen
pressure. The superheater is back flushed simultaneously.
162 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

1A-III. 1.4 Citric acid rinse is carried out using 0.1 % W/W citric acid with
a of pH 3.5–4.0. The second rinse with citric acid is done at a
temperature of 65 °C. This step is to ensure a more thorough
iron removal.
1A-III. 1.5 Drain the citric acid solution under nitrogen capping.
1A-III. 1.6 Carry out neutralization using a neutralizing solution contain-
ing 8000 ppm of trisodium phosphate, (Na3PO4
12H2O) and
4100 ppm of disodium phosphate (Na2HPO4
7H2O) at a
pressure of 7 kg/cm2. Hold the pressure for about 2 h
Neutralization can also be done using 1 % soda ash solution at
85–90 °C for about 6 h.
1A-III. 1.7 Switch off the fires. Allow boiler to cool gradually. Open the
drum vents when the drum pressure drops to 1–2 kg/cm2. Drain
the boiler when the drum temperature drops to below 100 °C.

Appendix 1A-IV Pre-operational Cleaning of Boiler Furnace and

Economizer Tubes–Hydroflouric Acid Cleaning
1A-IV. 1.0 Hydrofluoric Acid Cleaning
1A-IV. 1.1 Both once-through and circulating methods can be utilized for
cleaning, In the once-through method, the system is filled with
hot water at approximately 70 °C and the acid and inhibitor are
dosed in such a way that a concentration of 0.15 % inhibitor
and 1 % HF are achieved in the feed water line. The dosing
shud be continued until concentration at the outlet reaches
approximately 1 % HF and the iron values are decreasing down
to 2g Fe/l. All pumps are stopped and the acid remains
approximately 2 h in the system for a static treatment.
1A-IV. 1.2 Then the acid is replaced by DM water. The super heaters are
back flushed. Flushing is continued until the conductivity
difference between inlet and outlet water is less than 10 us/cm.
1A-IV. 1.3 Passivation is done by using ammonia to bring the pH up to
10.2 and by hydrogen peroxide at a concentration of 0.1 % at
an ambient temperature.

Appendix 1B Pre-operational Steam Purging of Super Heaters and

Reheaters
1B-1 Effective steam purging requires extensive temporary pipework
and involves complex theoretical considerations which must be be
studied for each individual design. To be fully effective, it is
necessary to achieve a scouring action at least equivalent to that of
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 163

full load steam flow. ASME PTC 4.1/BS-2885 gives a method for
calculating sizes of pipework, and pressure and temperature
conditions necessary for steam purging the super heater, reheater,
and steam pipework together with the necessary chart. Because
there is now a computer program available for carrying out the
required calculations, practical guidance, based on experience on
steam purging at many stations, is also included.
1B-2 During steam blowing, there is an increased risk of water carryover
because the pressure drop which occurs is higher than during
normal operation. To minimize the risk of stress corrosion, sodium
hydroxide must not be added to the boiler water during steam
blowing. The boiler is initially filled with 50 mg/kg hydrazine and
50 mg/kg ammonia. No further additions of hydrazine are required,
but 50 mg/kg hydrazine and 50 mg/kg ammonia should be added to
the make-up water to the boiler to react with dissolved oxygen.
Before commencing the steam blowing process, it must be proved
that all cleaning chemicals have been thoroughly flushed from the
boiler water circuit. The boiler water should not contain more than
0.1 mg/kg chloride (as Cl−) or 0.2 mg/kg sodium (as Na+).

Appendix 1C Post-operational Cleaning of Furnace and Economizer Tubes:

Selection of Chemical Cleaning Processes

Principle deposition during operation of a boiler

1. Mill scale.
2. Oxides of iron and copper.
Tube samples (approximately 600 mm length) to be collected from high heat
flux area (around 3 m above wind box). The following criteria are considered for
depositions.

Boiler type Internal deposits

Clean surface Dirty surface Very dirty surface
(mg/cm2) (mg/cm2) (mg/cm2)
Sub critical <15 15–40 >40
Super critical <15 15–25 >25
164 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

All measurement to be done on the furnace side of the tube samples.

Criteria for deciding chemical cleaning are as follows.

Pressure (kg/cm2) Drum type Once-through type

140 140–180 180 Super critical
Quantity of deposits (mg/cm2) 50–70 40–50 30–40 20–30

Common solvent used is HCL (5 %) at 75 °C. Inhibitor used:

• Ammonium bifluoride if large amount of silica is present.
• Ammonium bromate if large amount of copper is present.
Additionally, the following chemicals are also used:
• Phosphoric acid (3 %) at 100 °C
• Ammonium citrate (5 %) at 105 °C
• Formic hydroxyacetic acid (3 %) at 7 °C
• Ammonium EDTA (3 %) at 150 °C.
Circulation speed should be between 0.3 and 1.0 m/s.
Appendix 1D Post-operational Cleaning of Furnace Tubes in Drum-Type
Boilers (And Economizers, Where Necessary)
1D-1 Introduction
The following stages constitute a complete cleaning and must be
carried out consecutively and with minimum delay (Note 1).
1D-2 Precautions
Precautions must be taken to ensure that the chemical solutions do
not enter the super heater. The super heater must be filled with
deionized water to form a water- plug and back-flushing shall be
carried out periodically. In addition, a constant head overflow
device must be fitted to the drum (see Appendix 1H).
1D-3 Sequential Stages
1D-3.1 In some circumstances, the copper removal stage may be
unnecessary (Note 2) and in others, it may be carried out at
reduced strength (approximately 50 %) of the solution specified
below. Otherwise, fill the boiler with a solution containing 1 %
W/W citric acid with 0.5 % W/W sodium bromate and ammonia
for a pH of 9.5.
Approximately 0.5 % W/W of 0.880 ammonia will be required,
the bulk of which must be added before the citric acid is
introduced. Deionized water must be used for the solution.
Circulate at a temperature of 50 °C, until the concentration of
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 165

copper is constant (approximately 4–6 h). Drain the boiler and

back flush the super heaters with deionized water.
1D-3.2 Achoice must be made in any given case between hydrochloric,
hydrofluoric, and ammoniated citric acids for iron oxide removal
(see Appendix 1C). The boiler is filled with a solution of either:
3 % W/W citric acid with an approved inhibitor (see Appendix 1F)
and ammonia for a pH of 3.5–4.0.
Or
5 % W/W hydrochloric acid with 0.5 % W/W ammonium
bifluoride and an approved inhibitor (see Appendix 1H).
Circulate at 90 °C (Note 3) until the iron and nickel concentrations
are constant (normally 6 h).
Or
1 or 2 % W/W hydrofluoric acid with an approved inhibitor (see
Appendix 1F).
Circulate at 55 °C (Note 3) until the iron concentration is constant
(Normally 3–4 h).
Initially circulate the solution at 90 °C (Note 3) and continue until
the iron concentration is constant (normally 6–8 h). The iron
removal solution will be drained away under nitrogen capping.
1D-3.3 Drain the boiler and when using ammoniated citric or hydrochloric
acid, rinse with a solution containing:
0.2 %t W/W citric acid and ammonia for a pH of 3.5–4.0.
This solution will be drained under nitrogen capping.
1D-3.4 Copper removal may frequently be required at this stage unless the
water/steam circuit contains no copper alloys. The standard
formulation and procedure is given in 1D3.1.
The full strength solution need only be used when the boiler is
known to be heavily contaminated with copper and its oxides.
Where it is judged that copper contamination is not great, a 50 %
solution may be utilized.
1D-3.5 Drain the boiler and thoroughly back flush the super heaters with
deionized water which has conductivity less than 0.5 us/cm. Rinse
the boiler with deionized water to remove the cleaning solution.
1D-3.6 Interim Passivation—50 mg/l hydrazine and 50 mg/l ammonia to
be circulated at 95 °C for 24 h then drained under nitrogen
capping.
Final Passivation—Refill the boiler with deionized water and add
50 mg/kg hydrazine and 50 mg/kg ammonia, maintaining a
minimum pH of 10.0. Raise the pressure to 40 bar and maintain
for at least 24 h. No further additions of hydrazine to the boiler are
required to maintain a reserve in the boiler water because this has
166 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

been shown to be unnecessary. However, 50 mg/kg hydrazine and

50 mg/kg ammonia must be added to the make-up water to the
boiler to react with dissolved oxygen.
1D-3.7 On completion of the passivation process, the boiler should be
blown empty at the highest possible pressure, but in any event, not
less than 4 bar.
Notes:
1. No alkali boil-out is generally necessary for the post-commis-
sioning cleaning of boilers, on the assumption that oil and
siliceous materials will not be present. Where this assumption
is unjustified, stage 1D3.1 shall be preceded by an alkali
boil-out as specified in Appendix 1A-I.
2. The capacity for copper of the formulation given in stage
1D3.1 is 6.3 g Cu/kg. Only rarely is more than 30 % of this
capacity required. Depending on local judgment as to the
amount of copper in any boiler, it may be possible to omit
stage 1D-3.1.
3. Cleaning rates fall with decreasing temperature. Experience
shows that typical temperatures at the end of the iron removal
stage are 70 °C with citric acid, 60 °C with hydrochloric acid,
and 50 °C with hydrofluoric acid.

Appendix 1E Post-operational Cleaning of Once Through Boilers, Super

Heaters, Reheaters, Condensate, and Feed Systems
1E-1 Introduction
The following stages constitute a complete clean and must be
carried out consecutively and with minimum delay.
1E-2 Sequential Stages
1E-2.1 Flush with deionized water at a velocity greater than 1.5 m/s in all
Sect. of the plant.
1E-2.2 Circulate a solution in deionized water containing:
3 % W/W citric acid (Note 1) with 0.5 % W/W formic acid (Note 2)
and an approved inhibitor (see Appendix 1F) and ammonia for a pH
of 3.5–4.0.
The solution is initially circulated at not less than 90 °C and
continued until the iron content is constant. The concentration of
free citric acid should be maintained at not less than 0.5 % W/W
during circulation.
1E-2.3 Raise the pH to 5.0 by careful addition of ammonia, added slowly
during circulation to avoid local high pH values (Note 3).
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 167

1E-2.4 Drain and rinse with a solution in demineralized water containing:

0.2 % W/W citric acid with ammonia for a pH of 3.5–4.0.
1E-2.5 Flush with deionized water at a velocity greater than 1.5 m/s until
the pH remains above 6.0.
1E-2.6 Circulate solution in deionized water containing:
300 mg/kg hydrazine with 50 mg/kg ammonia.
Raise the temperature of the solution to at least 90 °C and circulate for
not less than 24 h. Furthermore, additions of hydrazine should be made
if necessary to maintain a concentration of not less than 25 mg/kg.
1E-2.7 On completion of stage 1E.2.6, drain the plant at the highest
possible temperature.
1E-2.8 After stage 1E.2.7, the plant should be dried out or wet stored.
Notes:
1. The chloride content of the citric acid used should be such that a 3 %
W/W solution does not contain more than 2 mg/kg chloride as C1.
2. Formic acid is required to obtain an acceptable rate of reaction for
dissolving the outer layer of duplex oxides from super heaters.
3. The reasons for raising the pH to 5.0 are:
(i) To minimize corrosion of the plant after cleaning, but
before displacement of acid and subsequent flushing.
(ii) To avoid corrosion in discharge points and culverts.
4. In the event of the need to post-operation clean condensate or feed
systems, the processes required should be based on this Appendix.

Appendix 1F Recommended Inhibitors

1F-1 The inhibitors which are to be used during acid cleaning processes
and the recommended concentrations are:
(i) For 5 % W/W hydrochloric acid, use 0.25 % W/W armohib
28. or 0.1–0.2 % v/v rodine 213 (sp) or equivalent at 65 °C.
(ii) For 1 or 2 % W/W hydrofluoric acid, use 0.1 % W/W
dodigen 95 (Note 1) or lith solvent, CL-4
or 0.1–0.5 % rodine 31A or equivalent.
(iii) For 3 % W/W citric acid, use, preferably, 0.05 % W/W
dodigen 95 or rodine 215 or equivalent (Note 2). If this is
not available, 0.05 % W/W stannine LTP can be used with
appropriate additional safety precautions.
The inhibitor concentration selection will be based on the
manufacturer’s recommendations and should have mutual
acceptance.
168 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

1F-2 The approved inhibitors must be present under acid conditions at

all times to ensure that they are fully dissolved and not
subsequently precipitated. They must always be added directly to
an acid solution and should not be previously diluted with water or
added to water to which the acid is added later. The requirements
for the addition of inhibitors to the cleaning solution as given in
Sect. 5, “Safety Aspects”, shall be strictly observed.
1F-3 Storage and handling of the approved inhibitors must be in
accordance with Sect. 5, “Safety Aspects”.
Notes:
1. With hydrofluoric acid, the material must be brought onto site
as a solution (typically 15 % W/W) to which the inhibitor has
already been added, to eliminate the need to dilute concen-
trated solutions before injecting into the boiler.
2. Dodigen 95 is preferred because its chemical composition is
such that it is incapable of producing the hydrolysis product
which has been associated with eye toxicity when using
stannine LTP.

Appendix 1F-1 Inhibitors for Acid Cleaning (For Information)

Inhibitor Type Cleaning agent Metallurgy Normal Temp
conc. range (°C)
Rodine Liquid, HCl Copper, Brass, M. 1–2 %, 65–93
213 Spl. semi-foaming S., S.S., admiralty V/V of
metal conc. acid
Rodine Liquid HF, Chloride free Any 0.1–0.5 % Room
31A solvents of diluted temp. to
acid 105a
Rodine Liquid HCl Copper, brass M. 1–2 %, v/v 65–80
212 semi-foaming S., S.S., admiralty of conc.
metal acid
Rodine Liquid H2SO4, H3PO4, Any 1–2 %, v/v Room
92B AcOH, NaHSO4, of conc. temp. to
Citric acid 100
Rodine Powder Sulphamic, citric, M.S., S.S., brass, 1–2 %, Room
130 tartaric, oxalic acid copper W/W of temp. to 65
and NaHSO4 conc. acid
a
Varies depending on type of acid
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 169

Inhibitor Type Cleaning agent Metallurgy Normal Temp

conc. range (°C)
Coronil 213 Liquid HCl (also in Standard steel, M.S., 0.1–0.2 % Ambient
(Spl) combination with HF) high carbon steels, v/v of to 90 °C
etc. copper and Cu super heated steels diluted
alloys acid
Coronil-92B Liquid Citric acid – 1–2 % v/v Ambient
and of conc. to 100 °C
powder acid
Coronil-130 Powder Sulphuric, sulphamic Carbon-steel, S.S., 1.5 % –
acid copper and brass. W/W of
acid

1H Constant Head Overflow and Temporary Gauge Glass

1H-1 Constant Head Overflow
1H-1.1 In addition to water plugging and back flushing the super heater, a
constant head overflow device must be fitted to the drum to ensure that
chemical cleaning solutions do not enter the super heater.
The degassifying header has been placed inside the boiler drum and
generated H2 passed through it during the acid cleaning step.
1H-1.2 The overflow device may be fitted using a temporary drum door. It is not
envisaged that the overflow would be required to take full flow of the
chemical circulation pumps and a 100-mm line should be adequate.
Particular care will be necessary when initially adding the acid to the
water in the boiler so as not to exceed the working level. In this context, a
temporary gauge glass extending the full height of the drum should be
provided.
1H-1.3 In the event of a stoppage of the acid circulation pump, the level in the
drum may rise due to water draining back from the tubes. Thus, the height
of the overflow should be positioned 75–100 mm above the required
working level.
1H-1.4 The valve must be open at all times except when it is required to rinse the
upper surfaces of the drum. Before such rinsing is carried out, ensure that
the solution contains less than 2 mg/kg chloride.
1H-1.5 Provision must be made at the overflow outlet for the boiler to be vented
outside the building in a position inaccessible to personnel and for any
liquid overflowing to be led to a convenient sump where it may be
neutralized, if necessary. This may be achieved by leading the overflow
outlet into a small tank from which the liquid can be drained and the
vapor vented outside the buildings.
170 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

1H-2 Temporary Gauge Glass

1H-2.1 A temporary gauge glass is required because the normal means of level
indication cannot be used.
1H-2.2 Experience shows that the boiler drum becomes slightly pressurized
during temperature raising and with an open-ended temporary gauge
glass, a false indication of the drum level is obtained. Both links of the
indicating column must be connected to the drum. It is therefore required
that permanent tapping points are provided for drum-level indication
during chemical cleaning. Each tapping point must be fitted with
double-isolating valves and a blanked flange suitable for full boiler
pressure. Preferably, the lower tapping point should be from a line other
than the permanent gauge glass impulse line (e.g., the boiler dosing or
sampling line). The top tapping point may be led into a drum air release
line before the normal air valve.
2.0 Post-Operational Cleaning of Condensers
2.1 Introduction
Adverse performance due to fouling may justify chemically cleaning
the main steam condenser-side (i.e. the cooling water [CW]) and/or the
steam side according to circumstances.
At some power stations, usually those with recirculating CW systems, it
has been the practice to remove CW side (hardness) scale periodically
by chemically cleaning.
Experience has shown that deposits on the steam side of condenser
tubes can also cause significant efficiency losses. Improvements in back
pressure of 6–12 mbar have resulted from the chemical removal of such
deposits.
Investigational work has been carried out over a number of years into
various aspects of the chemical cleaning of both the CW and steam side
of condenser deposits. It is intended to provide general guidance to
power stations on condenser cleaning, but detailed advice on any
specific case should be sought.
The requirements given in Sect. 5, “Safety Aspects” must be
applied for the post-operational cleaning of condensers.
2.2 Objective of Cleaning
The objective of cleaning is to remove material (whether on the CW
side or steam side) impeding heat transfer and restore the thermal
efficiency.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 171

2.3 Criterion for Cleaning

2.3.1 The criterion for cleaning is an unacceptable fall in condenser
efficiency. If, after allowing for any air-in leakage, the losses attributed
to the fouling of the CW or steam side are judged to be worth retrieving,
then CW or steam side cleaning should be considered. The potential
financial benefit of cleaning is best judged on the basis of estimates of
the fouling burden and the fouling resistance to heat transfer.
2.3.2 The fouling burden on individual tubes can be determined chemically.
Tubes extracted from the condensers for this purpose must always be
removed by cutting between sagging plate positions and removing
sections from the steam side. Extracting tubes will lead to dislodgement
of the steam-side deposit.
2.3.3 In situ deposit thickness measurements on accessible tubes will give an
indication of the extent of fouling. Deposit thickness can be measured
nondestructively using commercially available impedance measuring
instrumentation.
2.3.4 Fouling resistance data can be obtained by externally cleaning selected
tubes, in situ, with emery cloth and comparing the cooling water
temperature rise for pairs of dirty and clean tubes. When using this
technique on power stations where Taprogge is not installed to offset
water-side deposit accumulation, allowance should be made for
water-side losses.
2.3.5 Fouling resistance data can also be obtained from heat transfer tests
carried out, on extracted segments of tubing, by an approved
mechanical engineering laboratory.
2.4 Cleaning the CW Side of Condensers.
2.4.1 Available Cleaning Processes.
2.4.1.1 There are three distinct methods for condenser cleaning, all of which
depend on the use of acid to dissolve he scale. The methods available
are termed ‘off-load’, ‘reduced-load,’ ‘on-load,’ and details are given in
Appendices 2A–2C, respectively. Prior to chemical cleaning the
mechanical cleaning of condenser tubes may be carried out to remove
physical debris like CT fill material, sponge balls, etc., make circulation
path clear, enhance chemical efficiency and reduce chemicals
requirement.
2.4.1.2 In the off-load method, the acid solution is introduced into the
condenser and circulated until monitoring shows scale dissolution to be
effectively complete. The reduced-load method differs in that it is
applied to one shell of the condenser, isolated for the purpose, while the
other is still operating.
172 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

2.4.1.3 In the on-load method, the pH of the cooling water entering the
condenser is decreased by acid dosage to about 2–2.5. The buffering
capacity of the cooling water, together with the large volume of the
system restrict the change of pH elsewhere in the circuit.
2.4.2 Choice of Acid
While in principle any of a large number of acids may be used to
remove the scales found in condensers, hydrochloric and sulfuric acids
are recommended because in addition to being inexpensive and readily
available, they were used satisfactorily in investigational studies of this
subject. Of these two, hydrochloric acid is recommended only when the
whole condenser is isolated, (i.e., in an off-load cleaning). Where there
is any possibility of contamination of the feed water by the cleaning
solution, as in reduced-load or on-load methods, then only sulfuric acid
is to be used. For SS tubes, sulphamic acid, although costly, is also
being used.
2.4.3 Inhibition
2.4.3.1 The three basic methods of cleaning impose quite different requirements
for inhibition and these are influenced by the materials of construction
of the plant and by the estimated long-term frequency of cleaning. By
the use of inhibitors, acceptable conditions can be achieved in respect of
the corrosion of water boxes and tubes, as well as restraint of galvanic
attack and copper deposition and dezincification. The use of either
recommended inhibitors. Armohib 28 or Armohib 533 or equivalent
suppresses copper deposition in the water box and also counteracts
galvanic corrosion. Recommendations for inhibitor requirements are
given in Appendix 2D.
2.4.3.2 The degree of risk to condenser integrity is related to the frequency of
cleaning.
2.4.4 Selection of Cleaning Processes
To aid in the selection of a suitable cleaning process, logic is given in
Appendix 2E.
2.4.5 Practical Considerations
2.4.5.1 Terminal Points
Suitable terminal points can be made as branch connections, so that
rigging can be carried out on-load and subsequent flushing can take
place without delay.
2.4.5.2 Circuitry
Where appropriate, the water boxes should be connected in series into a
circuit containing a tank and pump, the water box vents being fitted
with temporary connections back to the chemical mixing tank.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 173

2.4.6 Protection of Plant After Cleaning

In contrast to boiler plant, there are no special requirements for the
protection of condensers after cleaning provided that the cleaning
solution has been flushed away adequately.
2.5 Cleaning the Steam Side of Condensers
The process described below is not suitable for pannier condensers and
even conventional condensers may need support to take the additional
weight of the cleaning solution.
2.5.1 Available Cleaning Processes
2.5.1.1 Studies have shown that steam-side deposits which foul condensers are
principally a porous mixture of hydrated iron oxides (nominally
Fe2O3
2H2O) together with the corrosion products tenorite (CuO) and
zincite (ZnO) formed in service. In some instances, oil has been found
incorporated into the deposit.
2.5.1.2 Even a small amount of oil will render the deposit hydrophobic, making
removal by aqueous-based systems impracticable. Therefore, prior to
cleaning, the oil content of the deposit shall be determined as this will
influence the final formulation of the cleaning solvent and the process
requirements.
2.5.1.3 Currently, one basic cleaning process with satisfactory field experience
is available. It can be used in two modes, one for deposits which contain
oil and one for deposits which are oil-free. Cleaning is carried out at
ambient temperatures and cleaning time is typically 40 h. Details of
each method are given in Appendices 2F and 2G.
2.5.2 Constituents of Cleaning Solutions
The available formulations contain up to five constituents which are as
follows:
(i) Reducing agent
(ii) Complexing agent
(iii) Approved degreasant
(iv) Additional surfactant
(v) Additional organic acid to adjust pH.
2.5.2. Reducing Agent
The reducing agent is oxalic acid and provides the driving force for the
dissolution of ferric oxides. For both oil-bound and oil-free deposits, the
concentration of oxalic acid is 0.7 %.
174 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

2.5.2.2 Complexing Agent

2.5.2.2.1 The complexing agent which is required to hold iron, copper and zinc in
solution is ethylenediamine-tetra acetic acid (EDTA). The cleaning
solution must be prepared from the tetra-sodium EDTA salt
(Na4EDTA). The use of any other EDTA salt is not permitted.
2.5.2.2.2 The concentration of EDTA used, 3.6–5.5 %, determines the capacity
of the cleaning solution.
2.5.2.3 Degreasant
2.5.2.3.1 The degreasant is based on C9 aromatic naptha. Two commercially
available C9 naptha-based degreasants have been recommended for use
in this application (see Appendix 2H).
2.5.2.3.2 For the removal of oil containing deposits, the formulation may contain
up to maximum of 10 % v/v degreasant. This is the maximum level of
degreasant that can be used when butyl rubber packing is present
without having a permanent deleterious effect on the packing.
2.5.2.4 Surfactant
Although both approved degreasants contain some surfactants
(Appendix 2H), investigations have shown that without the addition
of a supplementary surfactant, separation of the emulsion can occur
during the oxide dissolution process. The supplementary surfactant is
lissopol and it is used at a concentration of 1 % v/v.
2.5.2.5 Additional Organic Acid
Formic acid is used to adjust the pH of the cleaning solution.
2.5.3 Selection of Cleaning Process
2.5.3.1 The choice of cleaning process will be dictated by whether oil is present
and by the estimate of the total mass of metal oxides to be removed. Oil
content determined by solvent extraction from segments of individual
tubes and the metal oxide burden found by laboratory cleaning tests.
Great care should be taken to ensure that representative tube samples
are used for these tests.
2.5.3.2 Once the total metal burden is known, the concentration of EDTA to be
used as such that no more than 60 % of the available capacity will be
consumed (see Appendix 2-I). Dissolution rates diminish if the solution
becomes significantly more than 60 % exhausted. The EDTA concen-
tration should be between 3.6–5.5 %.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 175

2.5.3.3 Experience to date has shown that a solution containing Na4EDTA and
0.7 % oxalic acid has sufficient capacity to cope with most of the
condenser steam side deposits encountered. If oil is present, 10 % v/v
degreasant and 1 % v/v ethomeen S25 has been found to be adequate.
2.5.4 Exclusion of Oxygen
2.5.4.1 Corrosion inhibitors are unnecessary provided air (oxygen) is excluded
from the cleaning circuit.
2.5.5 Practical Considerations
Experience has shown the need for full consultation between cleaning
contractors, stations and if appropriate, specialist advice should be
sought prior to cleaning. Among the factors to be considered are:
2.5.5.1 Water Requirements
2.5.5.1.1 During the cleaning, there will be a requirement for large quantities of
high quality demineralized water for preparing solutions and rinsing.
Water containing a significant concentration of calcium must not be
used, as this would cause a precipitation of calcium oxalate and a
subsequent rise in solution pH.
2.5.5.1.2 Although the clean is carried out at ambient temperatures, if possible, a
supply of high quality hot water (e.g., blow-down) should be available
to facilitate more rapid dissolution of oxalic acid crystals when the
cleaning solution is being prepared.
2.5.5.2 Temporary Holding Tanks
Sufficient temporary holding tanks must be provided to hold the
pre-mixed solution prior to transferring it to the condenser, and to hold
the effluent when the cleaning is completed.
2.5.5.3 Mixing Procedure
2.5.5.3.1 Prior to mixing is necessary to prepare a concentrated (approx. 10 %
v/v) solution of oxalic acid and to add the surfactant to the degreasant.
To save process time, both these procedures may be carried out off site
by the cleaning contractor prior to the cleaning.
2.5.5.3.2 If the degreasant/surfactant mix is prepared on site, this mixture must be
continuously agitated prior to use to ensure complete dispersal of the
much denser surfactant.
2.5.5.3.3 Mixing shall be carried out in the following order:
1. Dilute Na4EDTA concentrate.
2. Carefully add, with further dilution, concentrated oxalic acid
solution.
176 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

3. Carefully add, with further dilution and agitation the degreasant in

which the required quantity of surfactant (ethomeen S25) has
already been dissolved.
4. Dilute the solution to 95 % of required final volume. Carefully add
sufficient formic acid to give a final pH of 4.5.
5. Dilute to required final volume and transfer to the condenser.
The following points shall be noted:
(i) The pH of the cleaning solution must always be maintained at
more than pH 3.8 to prevent free EDTA from precipitating out.
(ii) The surfactant must always be added to the degreasant. Direct
contact with water will produce a solid precipitate.
(iii) The degreasant/surfactant must always be added to the
EDTA/oxalic acid mixture. If concentrated oxalic acid solution is
allowed to come into contact with the degreasant/surfactant
mixture, a solid precipitate will be formed.
2.5.5.4 Quality of As-Received EDTA Solution
2.5.5.4.1 It is required that a quality control check be carried out on the
as-received Na4EDTA concentrate prior to its use. The following
parameters shall be checked:
(i) Na4EDTA concentration
(ii) Free sodium hydroxide
(iii) Relative density
2.5.5.4.2 Experience to date has shown that some commercially available grades
of Na4EDTA are variable in quality and may contain free sodium
hydroxide which could increase the pH of the cleaning solution
2.5.5.5 Solution pH
2.5.5.5.1 The optimum pH for the dissolution process is 4.5, A solution
containing 3.6 % Na4EDTA, 0.7 % oxalic acid, if mixed correctly will
have a pH of 4.4–4.6. If an excess of Na4EDTA is present, pH
adjustment is necessary prior to use. Formic acid is suitable for this
purpose
2.5.5.5.2 Both approved degreasants are essentially non-ionic and their presence
has little effect on the solution pH
2.5.5.5.3 It is recommended that an emergency reserve of formic acid be
available to compensate for any adventitious rise in pH. If any pH
adjustment is carried out, the pH of the solution must not be allowed to
fall below 3.8
2.5.5.5.4 The pH of the cleaning solution will rise slightly during cleaning:
normally the rise is not significant
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 177

2.5.5.6 Circulation, Agitation and the Exclusion of Air

Thorough out the duration of the clean, external pumps shall circulate
the cleaning solution. Nitrogen purging shall be used to ensure good
mixing and to exclude air. Oxygen ingress caused enhanced corrosion
of brass components.
2.5.5.7 Duration of Clean
2.5.5.7.1 The clean should be allowed to proceed until analysis shows iron
uptake has ceased or the total dissolved metal ions are equivalent to 85
% of the available capacity. If the latter situation is reached, it will
probably be necessary to renew the cleaning solution to complete the
clean. Details to be utilized are given in Sect. 4, ‘Analytical Methods’
2.5.5.7.2 Experience has shown that provided the correct pH is attained for the
levels of fouling, cleaning is completed in about 40 h
2.5.5.8 Effluents
2.5.5.8.1 Once the process is complete, the spent solution must be discharged to
the holding tank prior to disposal
2.5.5.8.2 It is essential that all statutory requirements covering effluent from the
station are established and met. Where tankers remove effluent,
adequate capacity must be available so that the full cleaning program
(e.g., rinsing down) is not delayed
2.5.5.8.3 At the planning stage consideration must always be given to
incineration of the effluent in an operational boiler as an alternative to
discharge via the ash lagoons or removal by tankers
2.5.5.9 Analytical Methods
During the course of the clean, it will be necessary to monitor at regular
intervals, dissolved iron, copper, and zinc together with nickel in the
case of power station where cupronickel tubes are fitted. The
recommended methods are given in Sect. 4, ‘Analytical Methods’.
2.5.6 Engineering Aspects
2.5.6.1 Isolation
2.5.6.1.1 Owing to the complexity of most modern power station condensers,
particular care must be taken to ensure that the condenser steam side is
completely isolated prior to cleaning
2.5.6.1.2 If gas bags are used to seal off pipework, check shall be made to ensure
that the bag material will not be degraded by any degreasant used. Such
bags shall always be maintained under positive pressure by an inert gas
(air must not be used)
178 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

2.5.6.2 Air Extraction Pumps

2.5.6.2.1 If air extraction pumps are used to draw off degreasant vapor, steps
must be taken to ensure that the pumps do not draw over any of the
chemical liquor. Any vapor must be discharged to an outside area
inaccessible to personnel
2.5.6.3 Temporary Sight Glass
A temporary sight glass should be provided to indicate the level of
solution in the condenser steam side.
2.5.6.4 Vent
A vent/overflow shall be provided just above the anticipated maximum
solution level.
2.5.6.5 Tube Plugs
Plastic tube plugs fabricated in polythene are not completely resistant to
either approved degreasant and will fail at the nose either during a clean
or on return to service. Such plugs must be replaced with brass plugs
prior to cleaning.

Appendix 2A Hydrochloric Acid Process for Off-load Post-operational

Cleaning of the Water Side of Condensers and Sulphamic
Acid Cleaning for SS Tube Condensers
2A-1 The condenser shall be made available for cleaning with all plant
isolation, depressurizing and draining complete
2A-2 Circulate at ambient temperature a solution containing:
1.5 % W/W hydrochloric acid with an approved inhibitor (see
Appendices 2D and 2E) until the calcium concentration is constant
and an excess of at least 0.5 % W/W of acid still remains. Open the
vents at intervals to release carbon dioxide liberated by the
descaling process.
2A-3 On completion of cleaning, drain the condenser and pass normal
cooling water flow for 30 min. Then, drain and inspect
2A-4 For Stainless Steel Tubes7
Sulphamic acid cleaning has been successfully done, however, at a
higher cost investment.
In practice, inhibited sulphamic acid (2–5 %) has been used at 65–
70 °C without much pressurizing the condenser system. CO2 gas
generated is allowed to leak off from the top vents. The acid
circulation is continued for approximately 8 h and then drained.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 179

The system is refilled with raw water and circulated at 4–5 kg/cm2
pump pressure and drained. Mass flushing is finally done with CW
pumps in service.

Appendix 2B Sulfuric Acid Process for Reduced-Load Post-operational

Cleaning of the Water Side of Condensers
2B-1 The part-condenser to be cleaned shall be made available with
appropriate plant isolators and drained
2B-2 Circulate at ambient temperature a solution containing:
1.5 % W/W sulfuric acid with an approved inhibitor (see Appendices
2D and 2E) until the calcium content is constant and an excess of at
least 0.5 % W/W of acid still remains. The temperature of the cleaning
solution will increase as it takes up heat from the system up to a
maximum of about 40 °C, depending on the particular plant.
2B-3 Open the vents at intervals to release carbon dioxide liberated
2B-4 On completion of cleaning, drain the condenser and return to
service

Appendix 2C Sulfuric Acid Process for On-Load Post-Operational Cleaning

of the Water Side of Condensers
2C-1 As experience of on-load descaling of condensers is successful but
limited, this method should be considered only when off-load or
reduced-load cleaning cannot be applied
2C-2 The method is, therefore, given only in outline in this directive,
and detailed guidance should be sought before undertaking an
on-load cleaning
2C-3 The process consists of adding sulfuric acid to reduce the pH to 2–
2.5 locally within the condenser, yet restricting the total sulphate
concentration of the cooling water to less than 700 mg/kg SO4 and
maintaining the bulk pH above 6.0 to minimize the risk to the
concrete and metals in the cooling water circuit
2C-4 It has been found acceptable, at some locations, to introduce the
acid via the chlorination system with the additional advantage that
the isolating valves facilitate dosage of individual passes of the
condenser
2C-5 For any system, the practical details of on-load cleaning depend upon
the system volume, the severity of scaling, the water analysis and the
individual condenser design. The water quality is kept within the
required limits of sulphate concentration and pH by varying the
duration of acid addition and by purging, when necessary
180 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

2C-6 An assessment of the probable effect of dosing on a given cooling

water chemistry shall be carried out in any situation where on-load
cleaning is being considered

Appendix 2D Recommended Inhibitors

2D-1 General
2D-1.1 If condensers are to be cleaned frequently (i.e., more than once per
year-see Appendix 2E), it is necessary to use inhibited hydrochlo-
ric acid or inhibited sulfuric acid
2D-1.2 The inhibitors which are approved for use during condenser acid
cleaning processes and the recommended concentrations are:
(i) For 1.5 % W/W hydrochloric acid, use 0.25 % W/W
Armohib 28 or 0.025 % W/W Armohib 533 (see Note) or
Indian equivalent/[0.1–0.2 % v/v Rodine 213 (sp)]
(ii) For 1.5 % W/W sulphuric acid, use 0.05 % W/W Armohib
533 (see Note) or Indian equivalent
The inhibitor concentrations are based on the manufacturer’s
recommendations.
2D-1.3 The approved inhibitors must be present under acid conditions at
all times to ensure that they are fully dissolved and not
subsequently precipitated. They must always be added direct to
an acid solution and must not be previously diluted with water or
added to water to which the acid is added later.
2D-1.4 The requirements for the addition of inhibitors to the cleaning
solution as given in Sect. 5, ‘Safety Aspects’ must be strictly
observed.
2D-1.5 Storage and handling of the approved inhibitors must be in
accordance with Sect. 5, ‘Safety Aspects’, Appendices 5A and 5B.
2D-2 For Ferrous Metals Specifically
Hydrochloric acid inhibited with Armohib 28 or Armohib 533, or
sulfuric acid inhibited with Armohib 533, may be used, selected in
accordance with the recommendations given in.
2D-3 For Ferrous Metals and Brass Together
Hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid inhibited with Armohib 533 are
to be used, selected in accordance with the recommendations.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 181

Appendix 2E The Selection of Cleaning Process for the Water Side of

Condensers
Flow of water through condenser tubes gets obstructed mainly due to scale for-
mation or fouling inside the tubes. Condenser water contains dissolved solids that
get precipitated on the inner surface of the tubes. This causes the formation of the
scale. Another way of fouling is due to growth of organic bodies like algae/fungi.
Various cleaning process as given below are adopted depending on the type of
fouling:
On-line
• Mechanical process:
– Taprogge system with sponge rubber balls
• Chemical process:
– scale and corrosion inhibition, dispersants, and biocides
– Lowering pH value of the circulating water.
Off-line
• Mechanical process:
– High pressure water jet
– Molded plastic cleaners/metal cleaners with controlled spring loaded cutting
edge.
• Chemical process:
– Acid or chelate dissolution.
Chemical scale removal is very effective if the scale is silica based.

Appendix 2F Cleaning Method for Removal of Oil-Free Deposits from the

Steam Side of Condensers (see Note)
2F-1 The condenser must be made available for cleaning with all plant
isolation, depressurizing and draining complete
2F-2 Circulate at ambient temperature a solution containing:
(i) 3.6–5.5 % EDTA (added as the Na4 EDTA salt)
(ii) 0.7 % oxalic acid
(iii) Formic acid to give pH of 4.5
Until the iron concentration is constant or until the total metal ion
concentration is 85 % of the available capacity, when further
dissolution rates are minimal.
182 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

2F-3 On completion of cleaning, drain the condenser, rinse, and inspect

Note: Deposits containing less than 5 % oil.

Appendix 2G Cleaning Method for Removal of Oil Containing Deposits from

the Steam Side of Condensers (see Note)
2G-1 The condenser must be made available for cleaning with all plant
isolation, depressurizing and draining complete
2G-2 Circulate at ambient temperature a solution containing:
3.6–5.5 % EDTA (added as the Na4EDTA salt), 0.7 % oxalic acid,
up to 10 % v/v approved degreasant (see Appendix 2H), 1 % v/v
Ethomeen S25 and formic acid to give pH of 4.5.
Until the iron concentration is constant or until the total metal ion
concentration is 85 % of the available capacity, when further
dissolution rates are minimal.
2G-3 On completion of cleaning, drain the condenser, rinse, and inspect

Note: Deposits containing more than 5 % oil.

Appendix 2H Recommended Degreasants

2H-1 Commercially available degreasants suitable for use in the steam
side cleaning of condensers are based on C9 Naptha. As supplied,
the degreasants normally contain C9 Naptha nonylphenyl surfac-
tants and dodecylbenzene sulphonate surfactants
2H-2 A number of commercially available degreasants have been
evaluated, and two have been approved for use in this application
There are:
(i) Industrial polyclenes.
(ii) Banner slove H536.
With both these degreasants, it is necessary to add the
additional surfactant, Ethomeen S25 to obtain the required
emulsion stability for the duration of the clean.
(iii) Non-ionic detergent (SNID-PGN) (Conc. 0.05 %).

Appendix 2-I Selection of Cleaning Process

Let: Cu = average copper burden (g/m2)

Fe = average iron burden (g/m2)
Ni = average nickel burden
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 183

(applicable only if cupronickel

tube fitted) (g/m2)
Zn = average zinc burden (g/m2)
(Cu, Fe, Ni and Zn are determined by chemical cleaning tests)
V = volume of solution required to fill the condenser steam side (liters)
A = total surface area of condenser tubes (m2)
B = total metal ion burden (moles)
 
B ¼ A Cu þ Fe þ Ni þ Zn mol
63:5 56 59 65:4

If: B < 0.048 V use 0.08 M EDTA.

B > 0.048 V use upto 0.13 M EDTA (required concentration = 1.73)
If B > 0.078 V seek specialist advice.
The requirement for a degreasant can be established by solvent extraction and
comparative cleaning tests. Normally, even the presence of a small quantity of oil
will necessitate the use of degreasant. It is extremely important (see 2.5.3) when
determining/fouling burden to ensure that representative tube samples are used.
When establishing the volume of solution required to fill the steam side of the
condenser, consideration should be given (subject to the design of the condenser) to
blanking-off or filling with gas bags ‘dead’ areas thereby reducing solution
requirements.
3.0 Post-Operational Cleaning of the Water Side of Feed Heaters
3.1 Introduction
Pre-operational cleaning of feed heaters was formerly carried out using an
acid/neutralization/passivation sequence much the same as that currently
available for boilers. However, the introduction of ‘at works’ cleaning
followed by preservation of the heaters, by means of vapor phase
inhibition or dehumidification, largely supersedes on-site cleaning, which
was only carried out if there were shortfalls in the performance of the
newer technique.
Where post-operational chemical cleaning of feed heaters is required
solely for the removal of inorganic constituents, this shall be accom-
plished by employing appropriate stages from Appendix 1E. The situation
becomes more complicated, however, when organic contamination is
present due, in particular, to the ingress of turbine lubricating oil to the
feed-water. In passing through the feed system, the oil appears to undergo
progressive degradation. In the LP heaters, it is easily removed by
alkali/detergent treatment, but in the HP system, the deposits may
comprise a mixture of ‘baked’ organic matter and metallic oxides and
resist this treatment. A process has been developed to deal with this,
which is described in Appendix 3A.
184 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

The requirements given in Sect. 5, ‘Safety Aspects’, must be applied

for the post-operational cleaning of feed heaters.
3.2 Objective of Cleaning
The objective of feed-heater cleaning is the restoration of the thermal
performance of feed heaters by removal of contaminant material within
the tubes.
3.3 Criterion for Cleaning
The criterion for cleaning is the loss of heater efficiency due to water-side
fouling. Examination of the samples removed provides a useful check,
especially where there is a history of oil ingress into the feed system.
3.4 Available Cleaning Process
3.4.1 LP Feed Heaters
Deposits of an oily nature present in the LP feed heaters can be readily
removed by using one of the many proprietary alkali/degreasant
treatments which are available.
3.4.2 HP Feed Heaters
3.4.2.1 The processes currently available for post-operational cleaning of HP feed
heaters include:
(i) A chemical process incorporating degreasant and acid stages, fol-
lowed by flushing at full feed water flow, the objective being to
remove both organic and inorganic contaminates. If full feed flow
cannot be achieved, then the chemical cleaning process should not
be used.
(ii) A physical process using high-velocity water jetting.
3.4.2.2 High-velocity water jetting, being a purely mechanical process, is not
covered in this directive, only details of the chemical process are given. It
should be recognized that experience of high-velocity water jetting and its
application is limited and, therefore, due attention shall be given to
Sect. 3.5, ‘Practical Considerations’.
3.5 Practical Considerations
3.5.1 Plant to be Included
The process given in Appendix 3A has been applied to both full HP feed
heater trains and single HP feed heaters. The former can give problems in
ensuring correct and complete circulation in all areas of the plant being
cleaned. Consequently, it may be preferable to clean HP feed heaters
either single or in pairs, if practicable, particularly if the contamination is
localized. Such an approach is justifiable on economic grounds.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 185

3.5.2 Examination of Tubes Prior to Cleaning

The nature of deposits present on the HP feed heater surfaces will vary
considerably according to the source and extent of contamination. The
process given in Appendix 3A has been formulated to deal with a wide
combination of likely contaminant. However, wherever possible, tube
samples should be removed for laboratory trials to assess the effectiveness
of the process, prior to its application. In extreme cases, the cleaning
process may not be completely effective.
3.5.3 Prevention of Ingress of Cleaning Solution to other Plant Items
3.5.3.1 Care must be taken to minimize the risk to other sections of the plant by
secure isolation of the feed system from the boiler and disconnection from
the condenser.
3.5.3.2 Care must also be taken to ensure that all the cleaning solution has been
removed from the plant by full feed flow water flushing before it is
reconnected to the condensing or boiler plant. Particular attention should
be paid to the boiler water analysis when returning the plant to service to
confirm the absence of contamination from the cleaning solution.

Appendix 3A Degreasant/Hydrochloric Acid Process for Post-Operational

Cleaning Of HP Feed Heaters (See Note 1)
3A-1 Circulate a solution of a 50 %, v/v ‘Applied Chemicals 4–43’ (see
Note 2), at a temperature of 80–90 °C for 10 h.
3A-2 Flush to waste at a flow equivalent of full feed flow until a
conductivity of <200 ms/cm is recorded.
3A-3 Circulate a solution of 5 % W/W hydrochloric acid inhibited with
0.25 % W/W armohib 28 at a temperature of 75 °C for 2 h.
3A-4 Flush to waste at a flow equivalent to full feed flow until a
conductivity of <200 us/cm is reached.
3A-5 Repeat 3A.3
3A-6 Repeat flush to waste at a flush equivalent of full feed flow until a
conductivity of <5 ms/cm is reached.
Notes:
1. If the HP feed heaters being cleaned are heavily fouled, it may
be necessary to repeat 3A.1–3A.6
2. An equivalent alkaline detergent may be used if Applied
Chemical 4.-43 is not available.
186 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

4.0 Analytical Methods

4.1 Introduction
The section deals with the analytical methods required for monitoring the
pre- and post-operational cleaning of boilers, super heaters, reheaters, and
the feed system described in clause 1 (4.2) and the post-operational
cleaning of condensers described in clause 2 (4.3).
A list of the methods is given in Appendix 4A. There are a number of
other methods that may be required and although not fully evaluated,
recommended procedures are given below.
4.2 Methods of Analysis to be Used During the Chemical Cleaning of
Boilers, Super Heaters, Reheaters, and Feed Systems
The following methods are to be utilized during various stages of the
chemical cleaning. This sample must be filtered before any analysis is
carried out.
4.2.1 pH
Use method 2 given in BS 1427/ASTM/IS/
4.2.2 Concentration of Hydrochloric Acid or Hydrofluoric Acid
Take 1 mL sample and add 50 mL of demineralized water. Add pH 4.5
indicator and titrate with 0.1 M NaOH.
g/kg Hcl = Titre × 3.65.
g/kg HF = Titre × 2.0.
4.2.3 Total Citrate
4.2.3.1 Take 2 mL sample, make up to 200 mL with distilled water and pass
through a strongly acidic cation exchange column. Discard the first
100 mL and titrate the second 100 mL with 0.1 M NaOH using
phenolphthalene indicator
% total citrate (as citric acid) = Titre × 0.64.
4.2.3.2 Where sodium bromate has been used, an allowance must be made for the
presence of bromic acid after cation exchange. For the addition of 0.5 %
sodium bromate, the calculation becomes:
% total citrate (as citric acid) = (Titre-0.3) × 0.64.
4.2.4 Free Citric Acid
The free citric acid is obtained by deducting from the total citrate
concentration the equivalent of the total iron found in solution.
% free citric acid = % total citrate (3.4 × % total iron).
The dimensions of a suitable ion exchange column are: internal diameter
15 mm, height 200 mm. The resin is in the hydrogen form and the diluted
sample is passed through the column at a rate of about 10 mL/min.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 187

4.2.5 Fluoride
Determine using a fluoride ion selective electrode and an epoxy bodied
reference electrode.
4.2.6 Alkalinity
Take a 100-mL sample, add pH 4.5 indicator and titrate with 0.1 M nitric
acid.
g/kg NaOH = Titre × 0.4.
4.2.7 Sodium
Sodium may be measured flame photometrically. Instruments giving a
full scale deflection for 5 mg/kg or less of sodium will be satisfactory, and
should be operated in accordance with the manufacturer’s instruction.
4.2.8 Total Iron in Citric Acid, Hydrochloric Acid, or Hydrofluoric Acid
4.2.8.1 Dilute the sample to give a final iron concentration in the range
0–60 mg/kg (3 % citric acid saturated with iron will have an approximate
iron concentration of 8500 mg/kg). For most analysis, a hundred-fold
dilution will be adequate. With hydrofluoric acid, dilute with 2 % boric
acid to protect glassware.
4.2.8.2 Determine the total iron by atomic absorption directly on the diluted
sample or take 50 mL of the diluted sample, add 0.5 thioglycollic acid
and 5 mL excess of 0.880 ammonia. Make up to 100 mL. Measure the
colour using a 10 mm cuvette and a 605 filter. Read off the total iron
concentration from a calibration graph prepared under identical
conditions
Total iron and total copper may also be determined by titration method.
For iron 5 mL of filtered sample and dilute with 25 mL of DM water.
Add 2 % KMnO4 solution dropwise till permanent pink colour appears.
Add 15 % hydrazine sulphate solution dropwise till pink colour
disappears. Add 2 drops in excess. Add 5 g of KI crystals and stopper
the flask. Allow to stand for 5 min. Titrate the liberated iodine with 0.1 N
sodium thiosulphate solution using starch indicator.
The method for copper determination is same as for iron except that
before the addition of KI crystals 5 g of ammonium bifluoride is to be
added and mixed well.
4.2.9 Ferric Iron in Citric Acid or Hydrochloric Acid
4.2.9.1 Take 25 mL sample and adjust the pH to 2.5 with approximately normal
Na2C03 solution
4.2.9.2 Dilute the solution to 100 mL and add five drops of 5 % sulphosalicylic
acid solution. Titrate with 0.1 M EDTA until the pink colour just
188 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

disappears. Add a further five drops of indicator and continue the titration
until the pink color disappears
g/kg Fe 3+ = Titre × 223.
4.2.10 Nickel
Place 2 mL of the sample in a separating funnel, add four drops of 10 %
hydrogen peroxide solution, and two drops of phenolphthalein solution.
Then, add 5 mL of 10 % sodium potassium tartrate and mix the contents.
Add 2.5 N sodium hydroxide solution drop-wise until the phenolph-
thalein just turns pink and then add 0.1 N hydrochloric acid drop-wise
until the colour is just discharged. Add 5 mL of 0.15 %
furil-alpha-dioxime followed by 25 mL of 2 N ammonia solution. Swirl
the contents of the flask to mix, and add 15 mL of the chloroform through
a filter paper and measure the absorbance in a suitable size cuvette.
Determine the nickel content from a calibration curve.
4.3 Methods of Analysis to be Used During the Post-operational Cleaning
of Condensers
The iron, copper, zinc, and nickel content of samples of the chemical
cleaning liquor can be determined by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry/suitable equipment available at site using standard
instrument operating conditions.
4.3.1 Instrument Calibration
4.3.1.1 Prepare separate series of calibration standards by appropriate dilution of
1000 mg/kg stock containing:
(i) Iron: 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/kg Fe
(ii) Copper: 0, 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40 mg/kg Cu
(iii) Zinc: 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4 mg/kg Zn
(iv) Nickel: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg/kg Ni
in 2 % v/v ‘AR’ nitric acid
4.3.1.2 Measure the absorbance of each standard, using the manufacturer’s
recommended instrument conditions, at the following wave lengths:
(i) Fe: 372.0 nm
(ii) Cu: 217.9 nm
(iii) Zn: 213.9 nm
(iv) Ni: 232.0 nm
and construct calibration curves for reference purposes.
4.3.1.3 When used in conjunction with the following analytical procedure, the
above concentrations will correspond to 0–2500 mg/kg Fe; 0–2000 mg/kg
Cu; 0–200 mg/kg Zn, and 0–500 mg/kg Ni in the original cleaning liquor.
Two procedures are available, one for determining total metal removed in
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 189

a clean and the other for following the progress during the chemical
cleaning operation
4.3.2 Determination of the Total Amount of Iron, Copper, Zinc, and Nickel
Removal in a Cleaning
Mix the final cleaning liquor sample well. Transfer 5 mL of the sample to
clean dry 50 mL conical flask. Add 5 mL concentrated nitric acid (AR).
Heat to boiling on a moderate hot plate and gently reflux for 15 min with
occasional swirling of the flask. Allow to cool and add approximately
30 mL deionized water. Warm the solution on a hot plate and transfer the
contents of the flask quantitatively to a clean 250 mL graduated flask.
Dilute to the mark with deionized water and mix the solution well.
Determine the Fe, Cu, Zn, and Ni content solution by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry using the instrument operating conditions and cali-
bration procedure previously described.
4.3.3 Rapid Method for Following the Progress of the Chemical Cleaning
Operation
Transfer 5 mL of the chemical cleaning liquor (free from suspended
matter) to a clean 250 mL graduated flask. Add 5 mL ‘AR’ concentrated
nitric acid, dilute to the mark with deionized water and mix well.
Determine the Fe, Cu, Zn, and Ni content of the sample by atomic
absorption using the instrument conditions and calibration procedure
described above.

Appendix 4A List of Analytical Methods used IN Analysis of Chemical

Cleaning Solutions
Determinant Solution Method
Free citric acid Acid cleaning Selective ion electrode
Fluoride Acid cleaning Selective ion electrode
Fluoride Flushing Colorimetric
Chloride 3 % citric acid Selective ion electrode
Chloride 50 % citric acid Turbidimetric
Chloride 0.880 sg. ammonia Selective Ion electrode
Chloride Water Selective Ion electrode
Chloride Water/hydrazine Colorimetric
Chloride Flushing Selective ion electrode
Chloride Flushing Colorimetric
Silica Acid cleaning Colorimetric
Silica Acid cleaning Atomic absorption
Stannine LTP Acid cleaning UV absorbance
Active inhibitor Extract from 5A Colorimetric
(continued)
190 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

(continued)
Determinant Solution Method
Armohib 28 Acid cleaning Colorimetric
Bromate/copper Alkali cleaning Titration
Nitrite Copper stripping Colorimetric
Nitrite Flushing Colorimetric
Copper Alkali cleaning Colorimetric
Trisodium phosphate Alkali boil-out Titration
Phosphate Cleaning Colorimetric
Phosphate Alkali boil-out Colorimetric
Hydrazine Water Colorimetric

5.0 Safety Aspects

5.1 Introduction
This section describes the precautions necessary for the safe handling,
storage and use of chemicals used in the cleaning processes and also
describes the procedures for entry into the plant after cleaning and
disposal of residues. The recommendations contained in this Section shall
be considered in conjunction with the (then) CEGB Safety Rules, the
National Safety Code of Practice GS-EH162. “The implementation of
Control of Substance Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulation 1988”,
and the other Sections of this directive.
The storage used and handling of the chemicals required for the chemical
cleaning process are potentially hazardous to the personnel involved.
These hazards are listed along with storage requirements, in Appendix
5A. The officer responsible for the safety aspects of chemical cleaning
and for ensuring that safety precautions are strictly observed shall make
himself familiar with appropriate (then) CEGB safety documentation.
A summary of suitable protective equipment is given in Appendix 5B, but
this should not discourage reference to the documentation itself.
Emergency provisions and first-aid treatment are given in Appendix 5C.
5.2 All Items of Plant
5.2.1 Supervision
5.2.1.1 The officer responsible for the overall safety aspects of chemical cleaning
shall be the Project Site Manager in the case of pre-commissioning
cleaning, and the Location Manager where post-commissioning cleaning
is being carried out. In both circumstances, the Station Chemist or a
nominated deputy shall act as adviser to the officer responsible for safety
and shall be the Supervising Officer in so far as it is necessary to ensure
that the safety precautions are strictly observed and to ensure that suitable
hygiene and first-aid facilities are available. The Supervising Officer shall
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 191

consult with the medical service (normally the Nursing Officer) with
respect to first-aid facilities. Supervision of the required safety precau-
tions by the Station Chemist shall also include supervising the chemical
cleaning contractor’s employees and any failure to comply with the safety
requirements shall be notified immediately to the Project Site Manager or
Location Manager as appropriate. The Supervising Officer or his deputy
shall be present at the scene of operation whenever chemicals are being
received or are in the cleaning system or during subsequent inspection
5.2.1.2 The Station Chemist shall ensure that chemicals are introduced in the
correct manner to the cleaning circuit and that the ventilation and
temperature requirements before entry into the plant for inspection or
working have been complied with (see 5.2.6)
5.2.2 General Philosophy
5.2.2.1 The manual handling of chemicals should be avoided as far as practicable
and wherever possible, mechanical methods should be used for
transporting, dispensing, and transferring chemicals
5.2.2.2 Protective clothing for skin and eye protection must be worn and if not
adequately ventilated, breathing apparatus must be worn when:
(i) Mixing chemicals
(ii) Dealing with leaks, spillages, splashes and
accumulated vapors
(iii) Approaching the plant
(iv) Post-cleaning inspection is carried out
5.2.3 General Precautions and Personal Hygiene
Wherever and whenever there is danger of contact with chemicals, all
personnel must:
(i) Be warned of the nature of the potential hazards and the necessary
precautions and be instructed in the correct use of protective
clothing and equipment by the Supervising Officer
(ii) Observe a high standard of personal hygiene avoiding contact with
chemicals, their vapors or contaminated residues
(iii) Not eat, drink, or smoke
(iv) Avoid wiping nose, eyes or face other than with clean paper tissues
(v) Place all debris and chemical residues removed from the plant in
clearly labeled polythene bags for subsequent disposal
(vi) On leaving the plant, remove their protective clothing for cleaning
before re-use, and clean themselves and their equipment, using
disposable materials
(vii) Wash thoroughly as soon as possible after leaving the operational
area (see 5.2.8)
192 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

5.2.4 Storage of Chemicals

Chemicals shall always be stored in a cool, well ventilated and secure
building which, as far as possible, is free from fire. Because of their risk,
particular properties and in some cases, their incompatibility, some
chemicals require special storage precautions to be taken; these are given
in Appendix 5A. If any chemical not listed there is to be used, then the
advice of the Chief Medical Officer must be sought and the ‘Head of
Industrial Safety Management Group’ notified so that Appendix 5A can
be accordingly modified. Chemical containers must be clearly labeled at
all times.
5.2.4.2 The Supervising Officer must ensure that notices detailing the action to be
taken in the event of spillage, the emergency provisions and first-aid
treatment, are prominently displayed in the chemical storage and
operating area. The notice must state the location of equipment necessary
to deal with spillage or personal contamination
5.2.4.3 An adequate water supply must be available to deal with any leakage or
spillage of chemicals
5.2.4.4 Stock control shall be implemented so that there is a sequential turnover
of chemicals
5.2.4.5 The chemical cleaning contractor must provide equipment and chemicals
for the treatment of spillages or personal contamination, which is readily
available and properly maintained
5.2.5 Precautions during the Cleaning Process
5.2.5.1 The chemical handling, mixing and temporarily hazardous areas must be
roped off, cleared of extraneous matter, and have proper warning notices
erected and authorized by the Supervising Officer. Persons not concerned
with the cleaning process must be excluded from the area. Whenever
chemical solutions are in the plant, the entire circuit both temporary and
permanent, must be periodically examined for leaks. Any leaks should be
stopped as quickly as possible and the contaminated area thoroughly
sluiced down. If the Supervising Officer deems the leak to be dangerous
to personnel, the process must be suspended and the affected circuit
drained and flushed prior to repair. Appropriate protective clothing must
be worn while checking for leaks and when using appropriate equipment
for dealing with leaks (see Appendix 5B)
5.2.5.2 Entry into any confined space into which solutions or vapor can leak from
the cleaning circuit during the process should be avoided as far as is
reasonably practicable. If entry into such spaces must be made, the
precautions given in 5.2.7 shall be observed
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 193

5.2.5.3 Whilst chemical cleaning operations are in progress, venting of the boiler,
including the vent from the constant head overflow, must be to the outside
of the building, inaccessible to personnel and well away from other vents
or intakes to avoid the possibility of vapor reentering the building
5.2.6 Approach to the Plant (Excluding Bodily Entry) After any Stage of
the Cleaning Process
5.2.6.1 When the plant is to be opened up after the passivation stage or after any
acid stage during the process, the precautions given in 5.2.6.2–5.2.6.6
shall be observed
5.2.6.2 The chemical cleaning circuits must be drained to the approved disposal
point taking care to minimize spillage, splashing of solutions or
accumulation of vapor. If chemicals are drained into a holding vessel,
care must be taken that mixing of chemicals from different stages does not
occur in the vessel. It is particularly important to avoid acidifying
solutions containing nitrite or bromate, or mixing strong acids and alkalis
or strong oxidizing and reducing agents
5.2.6.3 Vapors issuing from plant openings should be dispersed by blowing clean
air through the access point using the best possible ventilation to obtain a
high dilution rapidly. The breaking open of access points should be
carried out by personnel wearing an approved type of overall and gloves
and breathing apparatus incorporating a hood to give a full protection to
the head. Suitable equipment is given in Appendix 5B. Contact with
surfaces which are or have been wetted by chemicals should be avoided
as far as is reasonably practicable
5.2.6.4 Components which are contaminated with chemicals should be placed on
impervious sheets for cleaning prior to replacement
5.2.6.5 Personnel should not expose themselves to risk by making a quick
observation of the plant interior (without bodily entry) when the access
points are first opened
5.2.7 Entry of Personnel into Plant That has been Chemically Cleaned
5.2.7.1 The precautions given in 5.2.7.2–5.2.7.5 are necessary if entry is to be
made into the plant after any acid cleaning or passivation stage in the
process
5.2.7.2 Entry to the plant shall be restricted to the minimum number of people
necessary. During the time that personnel are inside the plant, a stand-by
man must be positioned at the point of entry
5.2.7.3 Before entering the plant after chemical cleaning, either after the
passivation stage at the end of the process, or after any acid stage during
the process, or to carry out reinstatement work such as the removal of
flow restrictors, there must be an absolute minimum delay of 3 h after
194 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

opening all entry points, unless full protective clothing is worn and an
air-line breathing apparatus is used. During this period, ventilation of the
plant should be carried out at a rate of at least ten air changes/h using a
filtered air supply. It is essential that this 3-h delay period is observed,
even if a higher ventilation rate is adopted. Ventilation of the plant at a
rate of at least 10 air changes per hour should be continued while
personnel are in the plant for inspection or to carry out reinstatement work
such as removal of flow restrictors
5.2.7.4 Additionally before personnel enter plant, the temperature should be
ambient temperature. If the conditions above in 5.2.2 and 5.2.5 have been
fully complied with personnel can enter the plant wearing coveralls,
gloves, and carefully fitted eye-goggles as detailed in Appendix 5B.
Where such conditions have not been fully complied with, personnel
entering the plant must wear overalls, PVC gloves, rubber boots, a
breathing apparatus, and hood attachment giving full protection to the
head as detailed in Appendix 5B
5.2.7.5 Removal of debris or chemical residues from the plant must be carried out
by personnel wearing full protective equipment and in such a manner as
to avoid contamination of external surfaces. The residues should be
extracted into impervious containers which are then passed to persons
wearing gloves and goggles, as detailed in Appendix 5B
5.2.8 Exit of Personnel and Materials from Plant Containing Hazardous
Residues After Chemical Cleaning
5.2.8.1 The personnel collecting debris and chemical residues must place them in
clearly labeled polythene bags within the plant
5.2.8.2 For disposal, debris and chemical residues must be washed into a system
where considerable dilution can be achieved. Equipment used for
handling chemicals and the inhibitor must also be cleaned after use by
washing into a disposal system where considerable dilution can be
achieved (see 5.2.9)
5.2.8.3 The same personal clothing should be used until the end of the work
period on which a particular operator is engaged and then thoroughly
cleaned. Upon leaving the plant, the operator should remove the
protective clothing for subsequent cleaning before re-use and proceed
directly to the showers, paying particular attention to washing the hands
and face
5.2.9 Disposal of Chemical Waste
Disposal of all surplus solutions and chemical waste must be by an
approved route. The appropriate waste disposal and water authorities
should be consulted.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 195

Notes:
1. Where Emergency Action is Required For Dealing With Spillage Or
Escape Of Chemicals, Maximum Ventilation and Water-Washing
Facilities Must Be Used
2. Personnel using self-contained and air-line breathing apparatus must
be properly trained and experienced in the use of such apparatus
3. The standard procedure outlined in documents with regard to the
removal of protective clothing must be strictly observed
4. Particular care must be exercised when opening drums of 0.880
ammonia solution, particularly where these have been in a warm
atmosphere, because the contents are likely to be under pressure
5.3 Boilers, Super Heaters, Reheaters, and Feed Systems
Where there is a choice, preference should be given in using inhibitors
having a lower perceived risk.
5.3.1 In addition to the safety considerations given for all items of plant, the
following specific provisions apply to the chemical cleaning of boilers,
super heaters, reheaters, and feed systems
5.3.2 The substituted thio-ureas present in some inhibitors specified in
Appendix IF can lead to the formation of carbodiimides, which cause
temporary blindness and sensitivity to light. To minimize the risk of eye
toxicity, it is essential to adhere to the recommendations in Sect. 5.2, ‘All
Items of Plant’, particularly regarding the addition of the inhibitor to the
cleaning solution (5.2.5) and approach and entry into the plant (5.2.6 and
5.2.7). The recommendations on supervision (5.2.1) handling, storage,
and disposal of chemicals (5.2.2, 5.2.4, 5.2.5 and 5.2.9) must be strictly
observed
5.4 Condensers
5.4.1 Cooling Water Side
5.4.1.1 The provisions given in Sect. 5.2 also apply to the chemical cleaning of
the CW of the condensers
5.4.1.2 While it is believed that eye toxicity due to carbodiimide is not possible
with the inhibitors currently specified for condensers in Appendices 2D
and 2E, it is nevertheless essential to flush out all traces of inhibitor using
the full flow of the main CW pumps for at least 3 h before entering the
plant. The precautions during cleaning (5.2.5) and the approach and entry
into the plant (5.2.6 and 5.2.7) must be strictly applied
196 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

5.4.1.3 The health precautions stated in the IS Safety Code of Practice on the
maintenance of cooling water and other auxiliary water must be followed
to minimize the risk of infection from Legionella
5.4.2 Steam Side
Inhibitors are not used in current practice for cleaning the steam side of
condensers, therefore, no special precautions are required in this respect.
5.4.2.2 However, large volumes of acid cleaning liquids and solvents are used
and the provisions given for supervision (5.2.1). Handling storage and
disposal of chemicals (5.2.2, 5.2.4 and 5.2.9) must be applied. Some
solvents are flammable and/or toxic, and precautions must be taken to
ensure that no explosion hazard or toxicity risk can arise. Ventilation
equipment should be selected and positioned taking into account risks to
personnel and explosion risks in accordance with ‘National Power Safety
Rules Code of Practice in Confined Spaces’
5.5 Feed Heaters
The provisions given for supervision (5.2.1); the addition of inhibitors to
the cleaning solutions (5.2.5); approach and entry into the plant (5.2.6 and
5.2.7), and the handling, storage, and disposal of chemicals (5.2.2, 5.2.4
and 5.2.9) must be strictly observed. Solvents are also used and
precautions must be taken to ensure that no explosion hazard can arise
and that the plant is suitably ventilated to prevent risks to personnel (see
5.4.2.2).

Appendix 5A Summary of Main Chemical Hazards and Special Storage

Requirement

Chemicals OEL (note 1) Main hazards Special storage

requirements
Acetic acid 10 ppm Corrosive, irritant can cause severe Store away from
burns flammable chromic and nitric acids
Ammonia 25 ppm (as Corrosive, severe irritant Store away from acids
NH3) and/or bromate
Ammonium bifluoride Corrosive, reacts with mineral acids Avoid contact with
to produce HF gas. Highly irritating acids and fire risk
to skin, eyes and nose
Applied chemicals 4–43 Can cause skin and eye irritation; if Store away from
swallowed gastro-intestinal irritation sources of heat or strong
acids
C9 Naphtha degreasant Flammable (see supplier's data Store away from fire
sheet) risk in a well ventilated
area
(continued)
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 197

(continued)
Chemicals OEL (note 1) Main hazards Special storage
requirements
Citric acid Powder and solution can cause eye Store away from
injury oxidizing agent
Chromic acid 0.05 mg/m3 Can cause severe burns Store away from
(as Cr) Can cause violent oxidizing agents and
explosion in contact with reducing any fire risk
agents
Dipotassium hydrogen Produces toxic, irritant fumes when
phosphate heated
Disodium hydrogen Produces toxic, irritant fumes when
phosphate heated
Ethomean S25 – Skin and eye irritant (See Supplier's
data sheet)
Formic acid 5 ppm Corrosive. Can cause severe burns Store in a
well-ventilated area
Inhibitors (Armohib 28, Can cause skin and eye irritation –
Hibron armohib 533, (some severe). Some combus-
Stannine LTP, Dodigen Tible/toxic/corrosive
95, etc.) Rodine, Lith
solvent, coronil. etc.
Hydrazine 0.1 ppm Strongly caustic. Irritant Store separately. See
May cause damage to liver and national safety code of
kidneys practice GS-C1 0.15
Hydrochloric acid 5 ppm Corrosive and irritant. Store in a
well-ventilated area
Hydrogen peroxide 1 ppm Oxidizing and corrosive Store separately, and
Can cause severe damage to eyes away from all
and skin combustible materials in
May explode in contact with dust a cool area
Hydrofluoric acid 3 ppm Toxic and corrosive. Can cause Store in a
severe burns well-ventilated area
Nitric acid 2 ppm Oxidizing and corrosive can cause Store away from acetic
severe burns acid, ammonia and
combustible materials
Oxalic acid 1 mg/m3 Corrosive. Avoid breathing dust or Store away from
vapor oxidizing agents
Potassium hydroxide 2 mg/m3 Highly corrosive. Irritant. Inhalation Severe store away from
(caustic potash) (Note 2) of dust or mist causes intense acids
irritation
Potassium or sodium – Eye/skin irritant, with acid solutions Store away from acids
dichromate toxic gases can be produced and combustible
materials
Possible explosion hazard on contact
with organic materials
(continued)
198 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

(continued)
Chemicals OEL (note 1) Main hazards Special storage
requirements
Potassium or sodium – Oxidizing agent. Eye/skin irritant. Store away from acids,
bromate With acid solutions toxic gases are combustible materials
produced and ammonia
Possible explosion hazard with
ammonia and contact with organic
materials
Potassium or sodium – Eye/skin irritant. With acid solutions Store away from acids
chromate toxic gases can be produced. and combustible
Possible explosion hazard on contact materials
with organic materials
Potassium or sodium Eye skin irritant with acid solutions Store away from acids
nitrite nitrons fumes are produced. Possible and combustible
explosion hazard on contact with materials
organic materials
Sodium carbonate (soda Skin irritant. Dust or mist, irritating Store away from acids
ash) to upper respiratory tract
Sodium fluoride 2.5 mg/m3 If heated or in contact with acids, Store away from acids
(as F) emits highly toxic fumes and combustible
materials
Sodium hydroxide 2 mg/m3 Highly corrosive. (note 2) irritant. Severe store away from
(caustic soda) Dust acids
or mist can cause irritation to upper
respiratory tract
Sulphamic acid – Emits toxic fumes when heated. Store away from heat
Irritant
Sulphuric acid 1 mg/m3 Extremely irritant and corrosive. Store away from alkalis
Cause severe burns
Tetra sodium ethylene – Concentrated solution is caustic. Store away from acids
diamine tetra Skin
acetate and eye irritant
Tripotassium phosphate – Skin irritant. If heated highly toxic –
fumes
Trisodium phosphate – Skin irritant. If heated emits highly –
toxic fumes.
Wetting agents – May cause eye and skin irritation –
(Dissapol, Teepol, etc.)
Notes
1. OEL—Occupational Exposure Limit (8-h TWA value)
2. Confirm by reference to the most recent HSE Guidance Note eH 4016
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 199

Appendix 5B Summary of the Protective Equipment to be Used When

Handling Chemicals
Conditions Protective equipment
B-1 Normal handling of the following chemicals:
Ammonia a. Chemical safety goggles.
Ammonium bifluoride b. PVC apron.
Applied Chemicals 4–43 c. PVC gloves.
Armohib 28 d. Rubber boots (molded).
C-9 Naphtha degreasant
Citric acid In addition, for particulate chemicals
Diaminetetra acetic acid
Ethomeen S 25 e. Dust respirator
Formic acid
Hydrazine In addition, for formic acid, hydrochloric
acid and sulfuric acid
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrofluoric acid
Lissapol C
Lissapol N f. Vizor.
Oxalic acid
Sodium bromate
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium nitrite
Stannine LTP
Sulfuric acid
Tetra sodium ethylene
Trisodium phosphate
5B-2 (i) For entry into plant chemical cleaning a. Chemical safety goggles
in which the requirements for inhibitor b. One-piece cotton/polyester overall with
additions and ventilation and temperature hood or one-piece disposable overall in
have been fully complied with PE-coated tyrek
c. PVC gloves
d. Rubber boots (molded).
(ii) For handling debris and chemical As for 5B.2(i) above.
residues removed from chemical cleaned
plant
(continued)
200 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

(continued)
Conditions Protective equipment
5B-3 (i) For entry into plant after chemical a. Compressed air-line breathing apparatus
cleaning in which the requirements for b. One-piece cotton/polyester overall with
inhibitor additions and ventilation and hood or one-piece disposable PE-coated
temperature have been fully complied with tyrek
c. PVC gloves
d. Rubber boots (molded)
(ii) When breaking open access points a. Compressed air-line breathing apparatus
after chemical cleaning (if entry also required).
b. Open-circuit self contained breathing
apparatus (if entry not required)
c. One-piece cotton/polyester overall with
hood or one-piece disposable Tyrek
d. PVC gloves
e. Rubber boots (molded)
(iii) Where contact with vapor and As per 5B.3 (ii)
merging from drains or vents during a
chemical process is unavoidable
(iv) Where severe spillage or escape of the a. Open-circuit self-contained breathing
following chemicals has taken place: apparatus
Sodium bromate, Nitrous fumes, b. Compressed air-line breathing
Stannine LTP and Armohib 28
c. PVC gloves
d. Rubber boots (molded)
e. One-piece cotton/Polyester coverall
with hood or one-piece disposable overall
in PE-coated tyrek (alternatively, PVC
chemical splash suit)

Appendix 5C Emergency Provisions and First-Aid Treatment

5C-1 Emergency Provisions
Flushing and washing (i) Ample supplies of tepid flushing and washing water shall be provided
water supplies at all possible points of discharge, spillage or escape of chemicals
(ii) Adequate provision shall be made for emergency treatment of the
eyes, comprising eyewash bottles, located conveniently to places where
discharge, spillage, or escape of chemicals can occur
First-aid room A suitable first-aid treatment room with outside telephone facilities shall
be provided within a reasonable distance of the place where chemicals
are being used
Store room A suitable room shall be provided for housing the protective clothing and
apparatus required for emergency use
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 201

5.C-2 First-Aid Treatment

Injury Chemicals Treatment
Splashes in All chemicals (i) Immediately flood the eye with water. To be effective,
the eye the eye must be opened
After a quick preliminary swill to wash away fluid
around the eye, the eyelids should be pushed apart using
the thumb and index finger of the left hand. The casualty
will probably not be able to open the eye themselves
because of painful spasms
If an eyewash bottle is used, the jet would not be directed
at the front of the eye but should be directed in from the
side, so that flow is over the surface of the eye
(ii) Irrigation should be continued for 5−10 min, after
which the casualty should be taken to the first-aid room
(iii) Irrigation should be continued in the first-aid room.
Remember, vision is saved by thorough irrigation, no
other treatment can prevent damage if this is omitted
(iv) After thorough irrigation, the eye should be covered
with a pad: the patient should be referred for medical
opinion
Irritation of All chemicals If signs of skin irritation occur, the person should be
the skin removed from contact and referred for medical opinion
In the event of splashing of the skin with chemicals, the
affected area should be washed thoroughly avoiding
spreading contamination to the face and eyes
Gassing All chemicals Bring person to fresh air, remove contaminated clothing,
cover with blanket and keep person still and under
observation. Refer for medical opinion
Ammonia or In addition to the above, if breathing is distressed, give
nitrogen. Bromine oxygen. If breathing fails, give artificial respiration.
from sodium Summon doctor to site. dioxide from sodium nitrite
bromate. Nitrogen

N.B. Oxygen can only be issued by a doctor or an occupational first-aider

holding the appropriate certificates
Appendix 5D Inhibitor Efficiency Test Procedure
5D-1 The selected inhibitor for acid cleaning of pre-boiler and boiler
parts is to be checked for its efficiency. This can be done in two
ways. The first is the laboratory test method, which confirms the
efficiency of the inhibitor and also helps in arriving at the desired
concentration of inhibitor required for effective results. The second
is a field test method which can be used during acid cleaning at
intermediate intervals so that necessary changes, if any in the
inhibitor concentration may be made from time to time
202 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

5D-2 Laboratory Test Method

The relative corrosivity of inhibited solutions used for chemical
cleaning can be checked in laboratory under static conditions at
temperature of 65–70 °C. The test can be conducted on metal
coupons, preferably water wall tube samples, under clean condi-
tions. The test consists of exposing metal coupons to cleaning
solvent under controlled conditions. The coupons are weighed
before and after the test and the corrosion rate is calculated from
the weight loss method. Reagent grade chemicals and DM water
should be used in all tests.
5D-2.1 Metal Coupon Preparation
A convenient metal coupon dimension is 13 × 100 × 3 mm
(0.5 × 4.0 × 0.125 in.). Other shapes and sizes of test coupons are
acceptable provided the total area is about 2600 mm2 (4 in2) or
greater. The principal requirement is to keep the flat surface area
large when compared with the edge area. The surface finish of the
metal coupons should be carried out with No. 120 abrasive paper
or cloth of the equivalent grit grade unless the surface is to be
tested in the mill finished condition.
5D-2.2 Surface Area-Volume Ratio
Specific coupon surface area to solution volume ratio is to be
maintained for the test. For comparative results, a recommended
ratio of surface area to solution volume (S/V) is 0.35 cm2/cm3.
Other S/V ratios may be used to match the S/V ratio of a test to a
specific application for which the cleaning solution is intended. For
example, chemical cleaning solutions may also be tested at a typical
S/V ratio of 0.6 cm2/cm3 for drum-type boilers or 1.3 cm2/cm3 for
once-through boilers. The S/V ratio for specific equipment can be
calculated by the examiner. It is important that the test S/V ratio be
recorded and maintained during the test.
5D-2.3 Test Procedure
5D-2.3.1 Prepare a sufficient quantity of solution to conduct all the planned
tests for one day. Place the solution in individual glass or plastic
test vessel (plastic test vessels must be used if the solvent contains
fluoride). The test vessel should be resistant to both the chemical
cleaning solution and the test temperature. Note that the corrosion
inhibitor should be added to the solution just prior to testing.
5D-2.3.2 Add the amount of solution to the test vessel and record the S/V
ratio and maintain it during the test.
Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning … 203

5D-2.3.3 Place the test vessel in a constant temperature bath and allow it to
equilibrate to the test temperature.
5D-2.3.4 Weigh the coupon to the nearest tenth of a milligram. The coupon
should not be added to the test vessel containing the solution until
the solution reaches the test temperature. Totally immerse the
coupon in the test solution. Any supports or hangers used should
be electrically nonconductive material.
5D-2.3.5 The duration of test should be 6 h.
5D-2.3.6 Duplicate tests must be performed to confirm results and to
minimize the possibility of random errors. Duplicate tests should
be conducted separately so that any errors made in one test will not
be repeated in duplicate.
5D-2.3.7 After completion of the test, rinse the coupons in DM water and
then rinse them with acetone or methanol to remove the inhibitor
film. Scrub the test coupons using a nylon brush and soap solution.
Rinse with DM water and follow with an acetone or alcohol rinse
to replace the water and dried in oven at a temperature of about
105 °C for about 15 min. Store the coupons in a desiccator for a
minimum period of 1 h prior to re-weighing.
5D-2.3.8 Calculation of Corrosion Rate
After cleaning, the coupon should be re-weighed to the nearest
tenth of a milligram. The corrosion rate, as on average penetration,
based on weight loss should then be calculated in the units of
mg/cm2/h.
5D-2.3.9 Criteria for Acceptance
The weight loss should not be more than 0.1 mg/cm2/hr at 65 °C
for carbon steel and mild steel sample.
5D-3 Field Test Method
A small ball of steel wool (about 0.1 gm) is degreased with
acetone and added to a sample of inhibited acid solution in the acid
tank solution during cleaning process.
5D-3.1 Criteria
Inhibitor efficiency is judged to be adequate if the wire wool ball
does not float after 1 min in ammoniated citric acid or after 2 min
in hydrochloric acid.
204 Appendix A: The Operational and Safety Aspects of Chemical Cleaning …

5D-4 Notes:
1. The expiration date of the inhibitor is to be checked before
starting use.
2. In the event that the test fails, the test is to be conducted at a
higher concentration so as to conclude at what concentration
the efficiency is acceptable and accordingly concentration of
inhibitor in acid cleaning procedure is to be adopted.
Appendix B
Fire Protection of Power Stations

1.0 Introduction
Plant is exposed to onerous operating conditions and the combinations of
flammable material in large quantities and ignition sources which can lead to
the incidence of fires. This Guidance Note applies the principles and gives
specific recommendations to achieve a satisfactory level of protection,
methods to prevent fires, and routine checks/maintenance jobs for operational
station at risk from fire.
2.0 Any previous Guidelines
Nil
3.0 Scope
This Guidance Note is specifically geared at fixed fire detection and
protection systems. The provision and use of portable equipment, such as
hose pipes/reels and extinguishers by a fire fighting team is covered by the
TAC/CISF Fire Manual.
Recommendations are made for prevention/detection/protection against fire,
for inspection, for testing and maintenance, and for operational needs
pertaining to the fire detection and protection equipment.
4.0 Fire Hazards and Prevention
The various hazards in a power station and the methods to prevent these are
given in the following table.

© Springer India 2016 205

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9
206 Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations

S. No. Area Fire hazard Fire prevention

4.1 Coal stockyard Self-ignition due to coal air 1. Coal to be visible as wet while
interaction (dry coal-wet air stacking
from the period of March to 2. Fresh coal not to be stacked over
June is the most critical old coal
combination and moist coal-dry 3. Coal to be stacked layer by layer
air the most favorable (each of 1–1.5 M height) with
combination) compaction of each layer
4. Regular spray of water over coal
yard to be done
5. Stacking to be done in
trapezoidal stockpile and not in
conical form
6. Proper records of period of
stacking to be maintained and the
principle of FIFO (First In First
Out) to be adopted
4.2 Bulldozers, Coal dust and oil deposits Regular cleaning of engine
pay-loaders, etc. combined with hot exhaust compartment, inspection to check
pipes, fuel oil tank, fuel oil for any fuel leakage
leakages, cables
4.3 Coal conveyors 1. Maintenance activities 1. Regular cleaning and inspection
involving welding/gas cutting of all areas of CHP
leading to weld spatter on 2. Chute block switches to be kept
coal/conveyor in service to alarm chute choking
2. Friction caused by 3. Pulley, idlers, gear boxes, fluid
(a) Belt with steel frame couplings not to be over
(b) Jammed idler greased/over filled
(c) Jammed conveyor belt 4. System of hot work permit to be
due to choking of chute but followed during welding/cutting job
pulley rotating in bunker floor. CISF man to be
3.Fluid coupling failures present along with portable
4. Overfilled gear box extinguishers, ready hose, etc
5. Self-ignition of accumulated 5.Only fire retardant (FR grade) belt
coal dust at concave contours of to be used including bunker sealing
conveyors belt, ILMS belt
6. Loosely laid 6. Belt not to rub steel work
wires/cables/welding cables 7. While welding any chute/hopper
with exposed joints lined with rubber/polymer liners,
special care to be taken to cool the
liner
8. Adequate illumination in all areas
of CHP
9. Coal dust accumulation on
magnets and its cleaning belt to be
avoided as temperatures are high
there
10. Loose wires/cable/welding
leads with open joints to be avoided
11. Belt flapping to be avoided by
installing rollers mounted on
carrying side
(continued)
Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations 207

(continued)
S. No. Area Fire hazard Fire prevention
4.4 Coal bunkers 1. Feeding of hot coal from 1. Residual, compacted coal should
stockyard, which may be about be avoided in bunkers and bunkers
to burn should be emptied and cleaned
2. Residual coal sticking to thoroughly during overhaul of unit
bunker walls for a long periods 2. Bunker gates to be maintained to
resulting in self-ignition ensure that they close properly
3. Any draught of air through when bunker is not in use
the coal in bunkers, particularly 3. Hot coal should not be fed into
compressed air from air blast the bunkers from stockyard
equipment 4. System of hot work permit to be
4. Low bunker level coupled followed during welding/cutting job
with unsatisfactory isolation in bunker floor
from feeder/mill with 5. Availability of bunker level
subsequent pressurization of indication along with annunciation
furnace causing hot gases to for low bunker level to be ensured
pass through the bunker
5. Bunker conveyor fires
4.5 Coal feeders 1. Hot or burning coal passing 1. Routine cleaning of feeder from
from coal bunkers inside to reduce extent of residual
2. Fires in mills particularly coal left compacted in dead spaces
during start-up or shut-down within the feeder
periods 2. Bunker gates and mill dampers to
3. Friction due to mechanical be maintained to prevent passage of
failure combustion products from fires into
4. Welding/gas cutting etc. the feeders or elsewhere in the
5. Residual coal in pockets of system
feeder 3. The system of hot work permit to
be strictly followed during
welding/gas cutting jobs
4. Periodic checking of feeder
protection on “No coal on belt” to
be ensured
4.6 Coal mills and P. 1. High mill outlet temperature 1. Appropriate fire detection system
F. piping due to coal flow interruption to be maintained in both running
2. Low level of coal in ball and standby mills
mills 2. Instrumentation of
measuring/maintaining level of coal
in ball mills and of measuring
sound level to be maintained
3. Proper start-up and shut-down
procedures to be maintained
4. Mill inerting system to always be
kept in service
5. Auto closing of HAG from mill
outlet temperature high protection
is to be kept in service
(continued)
208 Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations

(continued)
S. No. Area Fire hazard Fire prevention
4.7 Boiler burner 1. Ignition of preheated fuel oil 1. Steam pipes for oil atomization
fronts on hot boiler casing/steam pipes are to be thoroughly insulated
2. Rupture of flexible hoses 2. Prompt attention to defects on
3. Leakage of PF pipes burner connecting hoses and pipe
4. Faulty ignitors coupled with work
leaking oil 3. No spillage of oil around burner
area during removal of burner
carrier for tip cleaning. In case of
oil leakage, soaked insulation to be
removed and re-insulation to be
completed
4. Minimum electrical
equipment/cables/junction boxes
near burners to be located
5. Ignitor faults to be immediately
attended
6. Oil waste, rag, and combustible
materials should not to be allowed
to accumulate
7. Periodic checking of igniter
effectiveness to be done
4.8 Fuel oil storage 1. Greater risk during venting, 1. Precautions to be taken during
tanks gassing, and filling operations tank emptying, cleaning, tank
of light fuel oil inspections, vent inspections, and
2. Leakage of tank other maintenance work (including
3. Dry grass around tanks electrical/lighting work).
4. Oil spillage Welding/cutting to be avoided. If
5. Unclean surroundings carried out, all precautions must be
6. Soaked insulation taken
7. Electrical tracing 2. Entry to bunded area to be
restricted to authorized persons
only
3. Filling lines to be purged and
road tanker connections should be
kept secure when not in use
4. Recycled oil to be cooled to
below the flash point before
returning to storage tanks
5. Excess temperature safety
systems and alarms to be installed
on heater banks
6. All areas within the bund walls
must be free of vegetation and other
combustible materials
(continued)
Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations 209

(continued)
S. No. Area Fire hazard Fire prevention
4.9 Fuel Oil unloading 1. Oil spillage or leakage due to 1. There should be adequate
and transfer pump failure of joints or of venting ventilation in the enclosed pump
house due to overheating or house to keep the concentration of
restrictions in system oil vapors within safe levels
2. Heaters 2. Proper smoke vents and
3. Loosely laid electrical adjustable louvers at high and low
cables/welding cables level
4. Drain oil stagnant in 3. Proper earthing of all electrical
unloading pipe trenches and systems
surface drains 4. Use of flame proof
lighting/electrical appliances only
in the pump house
5. Trenches to be filled with sand
and PCC on top to prevent
contamination with oil
6. Oil waste, rag, other combustible
materials not to be allowed to
accumulate
7. No spillage of oil
8. Prompt attention to defects on oil
pipes and heaters etc.
9. If used, oil absorbing granules
should be removed immediately
after use. Wood dust not to be used
as it is an oil-absorbing medium
4.10 Naphtha tanks and 1. Leak in the system, whether 1. Gas leak detection system to be
piping from bulk storage, the kept operational
distribution network, control 2. Entry to storage areas should be
valves, or naphtha pipelines at restricted to authorized persons
combustion chambers only
2. Venting or leaking Naphtha 3. Areas around tanks to be kept
gas getting ignition due to free of vegetation and any other
discharge of static electricity combustible materials
during tank filling 4. Earthing of tanks, other
equipment to be checked regularly
5. Filling lines to be purged and
road tanker connections to be kept
secure when not in use
6. Prompt attention to leakage
defects
4.11 Regenerative Air 1. Carry over of unburnt liquid 1. Frequent inspection and water
Heaters fuel onto the internal heat washing of air heater
exchanger surfaces during cold 2. Soot blowing of air heaters
start-up specially during start-up
2. Slow build-up of deposits of immediately after bringing boiler
unburnt fuel in the absence of into service and cleaning regularly
soot blowing for a period of at least once per shift at a minimum
time 3. Oil to be burnt with maximum
attainable efficiency in the furnace
by appropriate cleaning and
adjustment of burners to minimize
the quantity of unburnt particles,
elimination of tramp air, and
consequent chilling of the flame and
(continued)
210 Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations

(continued)
S. No. Area Fire hazard Fire prevention
by ensuring that combustion
chambers are gas tight
4. Air heaters can be put under
observation during light up with the
help of digital camera
5. Regular cleaning, maintenance
and testing of oil burners
6. Thermo-couple type fire
detection system which has been
found to be more reliable to be kept
in service for monitoring air heater
temperatures
7. Infra-red fire detection system,
wherever provided, also to be
maintained for prompt hot spot
detection
8. Burner flushing and testing for
their sprayer leakage and
atomization to be done
4.12 Turbine-generator 1. Minor leakage of lubricating 1. Oil leaks, if any, should be
and control fluids into collected nearest to the leak
inaccessible areas, lagging, 2. Prompt attention to oil leakages
drain trenches and coming in 3. Good housekeeping.
contact with hot surfaces Accumulation of rubbish should be
2. Heavy oil leakage in the form avoided
of spray onto bare hot metal 4. Dispensing point of flammable
caused by bursting of liquid to be kept away from turbine
pipe/flange hall
3. Leakage of hydrogen to 5. Seepage of oil into insulation
atmosphere should be avoided
4. Leakage of hydrogen into 6. Any increase in consumption of
bus duct coupled with choking hydrogen to be thoroughly
of vents of bus duct investigated and rectified
5. Cables laid near hot 7. Adequate ventilation of TG hall
equipment 8. Any welding/gas cutting work to
6. Looseness of current carrying be done only after issue of hot work
bolts, carbon brushes permit
9. Steam pipes to be thoroughly
insulated
10. In case of oil leakage, soaked
insulation to be removed and
re-insulation to be done
4.13 Mineral oil filled 1. Electrical faults inside the 1. Oil leakages to be promptly
transformers transformers including tap attended to
changer failures 2. Vegetation, rags, etc. should not
2. Oil leakage from be allowed around transformer
transformers 3. Routine checking of cooling fans
3. Bushing failure and pumps, operational parameters
4. Rupture of transformer tank 4. Soaking pit to be inspected
body caused by internal faults regularly and cleared as necessary
so as to avoid saturation
5. DGA (dissolved gas analysis) to
be done regularly for transformers,
(continued)
Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations 211

(continued)
S. No. Area Fire hazard Fire prevention
and any defect indicated should be
attended to as early as practicable
6. Condition monitoring of
transformers by thermo-vision
cameras, acoustics methods should
be done
4.14 Cable 1. Overheating of cables/cable 1. Cable galleries/vaults to be kept
(a) galleries/vaults joints up to temperature clean and free of all extraneous
conditions high enough to bring combustible materials and not to be
the plasticizers of PVC used as storage and office areas
compound into a volatile state Regular inspection of cable
2. Short-circuit creating galleries
sufficient heat 2. Access to cable galleries to be
3. Accumulation of coal dust, restricted
flammable debris, cardboard 3. Proper ventilation to be provided.
packages, fuel and lubricating 4. All cable entry points to cable
oils gallery to be fire sealed
4. Welding/cutting inside cable 5. Fire barrier walls to be provided
gallery between cable tunnels of units and
5. Heating during installation of fire doors to be kept closed
heat-shrinkable cable joints 6. Loosely laid wires to be avoided
7. Lighting fittings, lighting wires to
be inspected regularly
8. No welding work to be done in
cable galleries
9. Any leakage of fuel/lubricating
oil into cable gallery to be
immediately attended
10. Ingress of coal dust from boiler
side must be avoided
11. Any overheated joint should be
repaired at the earliest
12. Proper illumination in the cable
gallery to be maintained
4.14 Cables in trays in 1. Accumulation of coal dust, 1. Cable trays to be covered with
(b) boiler area flammable debris, cardboard aluminum sheet from top
packages, fuel, and lubricating 2. Cable trays to be regularly
oils inspected and cleaned
2. Welding/cutting inside cable 3. Loosely laid wires to be avoided
gallery 4. Care to be taken during gas
3. Hot flue gas/ash from boiler cutting/welding near/above cable
furnace during furnace trays
pressurization 5. Any leakage of fuel
4. Heat radiation/high oil/lubricating oil on cables to be
temperature due to vicinity of immediately attended
furnace, p.c. pipes, hot air ducts
(continued)
212 Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations

(continued)
S. No. Area Fire hazard Fire prevention
4.14 Cables in trays 1. Accumulation of coal dust, 1. Cable trays to be covered with
(c) near bottom ash flammable debris, cardboard aluminum sheet from top
hoppers packages, fuel, and lubricating 2. Cable trays to be regularly
oils inspected and cleaned
2. Welding/cutting inside cable 3. Loosely laid wires to be avoided
gallery 4. Care to be taken during gas
3. Hot flue gas/ash from boiler cutting/welding near/above cable
furnace during furnace trays
pressurization 5. Any leakage of fuel
4. Heat radiation/high oil/lubricating oil on cables to be
temperature due to vicinity of immediately attended
furnace, p.c. pipes, hot air ducts 6. Cables trays can be insulated
5. Hot bottom ash falling on with refractory material for limited
cables during abnormal lengths keeping in view derating
operation factors as per cable manufacturers
(Cables may have to be replaced by
higher size)
4.15 Switch-gears 1. Insulating oil of circuit 1. Switchgear rooms to be kept
breakers clean and free of flammable debris
2. PVC cables, epoxy resin 2. Regular inspection of switchgear
based and paxolin/melamine rooms to be done
insulating material, PVC 3. Switchgear rooms not to be used
wiring, solenoids, and plastic as storage areas or office space
encased relays 4. Proper maintenance of
switchgears and regular testing of
protection relays
5. Proper ventilation of switchgear
rooms
4.16 Gas turbines 1. Leakage of gas, Naphtha 1. Gas leak detectors to be kept in
from joints, covers etc. service always and to be regularly
2.Improper burning of liquid tested
fuel leading to its accumulation 2. Gas/liquid fuel leak should be
in the duct promptly given attention
3.Leakage of 3. Lubricating oil/jacking oil leak
lubricating/jacking oil should be attended at the earliest
possible time
4. No flammable materials should
be allowed to be stored in the
turbine hall
5. Liquid fuel should be fired to
maximum attainable efficiency
6. Good housekeeping.
Accumulation of rubbish to be
avoided
7. Dispensing point of flammable
liquid to be kept away from turbine
hall
8. Any welding/gas cutting work to
be done only after issue of hot work
permit
9. Seepage of oil into insulation to
be avoided
10. Adequate ventilation of TG hall
(continued)
Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations 213

(continued)
S. No. Area Fire hazard Fire prevention
4.17 Diesel Generators 1. Leakage of fuel oil 1. Permanent natural ventilation
and Diesel 2. Lubricating oil getting should be provided in the diesel
Engines Driven overheated and leaked engine room at high and low levels
Fire Pumps 3. NRV of diesel return line to to disperse vapors and fumes
tank not working 2. Exhaust pipes should be suitably
insulated to prevent ignition of
flammable materials
3. Fuel, lubricating oil leakages
should be immediately attended to
4. Fuel tanks should preferably be
positioned outside the building
5. Instrumentation and controls of
diesel engine to be regularly
checked and maintained
6. Overloading should be avoided
7. NRV of diesel return line to tank
to be checked regularly
8. Engine oil sample to be tested
regularly
9. Battery and diesel tank should be
sufficiently apart

5.0 Fire Detection and Protection Systems

Power stations must be provided with fire detection and protection systems in
all hazardous areas. There are certain variations with regard to the type of
systems due to change of technology from time to time. Common types of fire
detection and protection systems are described in the following table

Fire Detection and Protection System

SN Area Detection system Protection system Remarks

5.1 Main plant TG building/block
a. Unit Turbine lube oil Quartzoid bulb type Automatic HVW
tanks, coolers and heat detectors (with spray system and fire
purifiers hydraulic detection extinguishers
pipe network)
b. (i) Gas turbine enclosures Heat detectors and Automatic carbon
(If any enclosures are vapor detectors as dioxide gas
provided) per manufacturer’s extinguishing system
(ii) Gas turbine practice or automatic inert gas
combustion chambers extinguishing system
(continued)
214 Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations

(continued)
SN Area Detection system Protection system Remarks
c. (i) Unit Turbine lube oil Quartzoid bulb type Automatic HVW
tanks, coolers, and heat detectors (with spray system and fire
purifiers hydraulic detection extinguishers
(ii) Turbine lube oil tank pipe network)
assembly in auxiliary
compartment of gas
turbines (design without
GT enclosure)
d. Central lube oil tanks - do - - do -
assembly and purifiers
e. Turbine lube oil pipes (in - do - (optional) Automatic HVW Feasibility to be
oil canal) spray system checked as per
(optional) layout for each
project
f. Lube oil system (tanks, - do - Automatic HVW
piping if any) of TD- spray system and fire
boiler feed pump extinguishers
g. Generator seal oil system - do - - do -
h. Cable galleries/cable vault (a) Linear heat (a) Automatic MVW (b) Not being
sensing cable type spray system and fire provided in new
heat detectors; extinguishers projects
ionization and (b) TES type water
photoelectric type spray system
smoke detectors
(b) - do - plus TES
type
sprinkler bulbs (for
local/auto spray)
i. Cable vault (above false Linear heat sensing Fire extinguishers; Indicator of the
roof and below false cable type heat automatic carbon photo-electric
flooring of unit control detectors; ionization dioxide gas and ionization
rooms) and photoelectric extinguishing system type smoke
type smoke detectors or automatic inert gas detectors to be
extinguishing system mounted at false
roof
j. Battery rooms (C&I and Electrical spot type Fire extinguishers
electrical) heat detector and
ionization type
smoke detectors
k. Steam turbine bearing (a) Quartzoid bulb (a) Manual HVW To be provided in
housing, turbine type heat detectors spray system and fire consultation with
enclosure (with hydraulic extinguishers manufacturer
detection pipe (optional)
network) (optional) (b) Automatic inert
(b) Flame detectors, gas extinguishing
gas detectors system
(continued)
Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations 215

(continued)
SN Area Detection system Protection system Remarks
l. All MCC and Switchgear Ionization type Fire extinguishers
rooms (LT/HT) smoke detectors
m. UCB and its adjoining Ionization and photo Automatic Inert gas
office space, Control electric type smoke (‘INERGEN’ or
equipment rooms, UPS, detectors ‘ARGONITE’)
inverter rooms, extinguishing system;
marshalling cabinet area automatic inert
system
n. SWAS rooms – Fire extinguishers
o. Service building/facilities Smoke detection Sprinkler system, fire
building system extinguishers
p. Along the periphery – Hydrant system Hydrant valves
and individual
hose boxes/hose
reels
q. Stair cases – Hydrant system and Landing valves
fire extinguishers and individual
hose boxes
5.2 Main plant boiler/WH RB block
a. Electro-static-precipitator – Hydrant system, Landing valves
water monitors and individual
around ESPs and hose boxes, hose
WHRB reels
b. Gas turbine fuel syst. Quartzoid bulb type Automatic HVW
skids heat detectors (with spray system and fire
(gas/Naphtha/NGS/HSD) hydraulic detection extinguishers
for metering/filtering etc. pipe network)
c. Boiler burner front Quartzoid bulb type Automatic HVW
heat detectors (with spray system and fire
pneumatic detection extinguishers
pipe network) or
electrical spot type
detector
d. All control rooms, MCC Ionization type Fire extinguishers
and switchgear rooms smoke detectors
(ESP/VFD, ash handling
plant and other buildings)
e. Cable galleries (ESP and Linear heat sensing Automatic MVW
VFD building) cable type heat spray system and fire
detectors; ionization extinguishers
and photoelectric
type smoke detectors
f. Boiler staircases – Hydrant system, Landing valves
water monitors on and individual
either side of boilers hose boxes
and fire extinguishers
(continued)
216 Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations

(continued)
SN Area Detection system Protection system Remarks
g. Coal Bunkers – Bunker inerting by
CO2/inert gas/steam
(optional)
h. Along the periphery – Hydrant system Hydrant valves
and individual
hose boxes
5.3 Transformer yard area
a. All transformers Quartzoid bulb type Automatic HVW Hydrant valves
heat detectors (with spray system hydrant and individual
hydraulic/pneumatic system and fire hose boxes
detection pipe extinguishers
network)
b. Along the periphery – Hydrant system Hydrant valves
and individual
hose boxes
c. DG set/black start DG Quartzoid bulb type Automatic MVW
area heat detectors (with spray system and fire
hydraulic detection extinguishers
pipe network)
d. All control rooms, MCC Ionization type Fire extinguishers
and switchgear rooms smoke detectors
(compressor house, DG
set area or any other local
MCC/switchgear rooms)
5.4 Coal handling plant
a. Coal Conveyors (a) - (a) Hydrants/monitors Hoses to be
(b) LHS cable type (b) (i) Sprinkler provided in
heats detectors and system central hose
infrared type heat (ii) Solenoid operated houses
detectors automatic MVW
(c) Linear heat spray system and
sensing cable type hydrant system
heat detectors, (c) Automatic MVW
quartzoid bulb type spray system and
heat detectors (with hydrant system
hydraulic/pneumatic
detection pipe
network) and
infra-red type heat
detectors
b. Transfer points and Quartzoid bulb type (a) Automatic MVW
crusher houses heat detectors spray/sprinkler
system and hydrant
system (landing
valves and/or water
monitors)
(b) Hydrants
(continued)
Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations 217

(continued)
SN Area Detection system Protection system Remarks
c. Coal handling plant Ionization type (a) Fire extinguishers
control rooms, MCC and smoke detectors (b) Hydrants (outside)
switchgear rooms
d. Cable galleries in CHP Linear heat sensing (a) Automatic MVW
control/switchgear rooms cable type heat spray system and fire
(if any) detectors; ionization extinguishers
and photoelectric (b) Hydrants (outside)
type smoke detectors
e. Transformers of rating 10 Quartzoid bulb type Automatic HVW Hoses to be
MVA and above within heat detectors (with spray system and fire provided in
the plant premises hydraulic detector extinguishers hydrant central hose
pipe network) system houses
5.5 Fuel oil handling
a. Fuel oil tanks Linear heat sensing Foam injection
(NAPTHA/NGL/HSD) cable type heat system and
HFO/LDO detectors, quartzoid automatic/manual
bulb type (with MVW spray system
pneumatic detection (for uninsulated
pipe network) heat tanks)
detectors
b. Fuel oil dyke – Hydrant system Hoses to be
(hydrants and water provided in
monitors); central hose
foam water houses
hydrants/monitors
c. Fuel oil pump house ‘Quartzoid bulb’ (a) Automatic
equipment type heat detectors MVW/foam spray
(with hydraulic system
detector pipe (b) Fire extinguishers,
network) foam hydrants
d. Control rooms, Ionization type Fire extinguishers
MCC/switchgear rooms if smoke detectors
any
e. Transformers of rating Quartzoid bulb type Automatic HVW Hoses to be
10 MVA heat detectors (with spray system and fire provided in
hydraulic detector extinguishers hydrant central hose
pipe network) system houses
5.6 All Other off site area
a. All pump – Hydrant system Hoses to be
houses/permanent (hydrants and/or provided in
structure such as WTP, water monitors) fire central hose
PT Plant etc. (other than extinguishers houses
cooling towers)
(continued)
218 Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations

(continued)
SN Area Detection system Protection system Remarks
b. Miscellaneous Ionization type Hydrant system
switchgear/MCC and smoke detectors (hydrants and/or
control rooms water monitors) and
fire extinguishers
c. Transformers of rating 10 Quartzoid bulb type Automatic HVW Hoses to be
MVA and above within heat detectors (With spray system, hydrant provided in
the plant premises hydraulic detector system and fire central hose
pipe network) extinguishers houses
d. Administration building – Hydrant system Hydrant valves
(periphery) and individual
hose boxes
e. Administration building – Hydrant system and Landing valves
(staircases) rire extinguishers and individual
hose boxes
f. Communication Ionization type Fire extinguishers
building/SATCOM smoke detectors
building if any switchgear
room, control/cubicle
room
g. Communication – Hydrant system Hydrant valves
building/SATCOM and individual
building (periphery) hose boxes

6.0 Inspection, Testing and Maintenance Requirements of Fire Detection

and Protection Systems
The recommended inspection, testing, and maintenance requirements for fire
detection and protection systems are given below.
6.1 Inspection, Testing and Maintenance Requirements for Hydrant System
and Fire Water Pump House
Frequency Checks
Daily 1. Check and record discharge pressure of each electric and diesel driven pump
(including booster pumps) after running it at least for 5 min daily
2. Check and record pressure gauge reading of firewater header
3. Check and record pressure gauge readings of hydrant system at the highest
and farthest points and other strategic points. These should be 3.5 kg/cm2
(minimum)
4. Check level of water in the priming tanks to ensure that the foot valve of the
pump is not leaking
5. Check main firewater header, pipes in the pump house for any
leakage/damage
(continued)
Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations 219

(continued)
Frequency Checks
Weekly 1. All hydrant valves and monitors to be examined systematically to ensure that
all valves and spring catches are maintained in good condition along with
hand-wheels, couplings, lugs, etc.
2. Inspect hydrants for any obstruction of approach to these due to vehicles, etc.
3. Open randomly selected valves one by one and observe flow of water for a
short time. Close the valves. The whole operation of valves should be smooth
and there should not be any leakage
4. Inspect all hose boxes to ensure that these contain the required number of
hoses, branch pipes, and nozzles
5. Open air release valves on the main pipes in order to expel trapped air
6. Inspect hose reel installations and ensure that their isolating valves are closed
7. Inspect isolating valves for valve position and for any leakage
8. Check valve pit for proper cleanliness and ensure that it is not flooded and is
in good repair, readily operable condition
Frequency Checks
9. Check level and specific gravity of electrolyte in the batteries of diesel
engines
10. Check that automatic start sequence of diesel engine-driven pump is
operative. Run each diesel engine for about 30 min under load (not less than
60 % operating load) until the time operating parameters such as exhaust
temperature, closed circuit water temperature, lubricating oil temperature,
lubricating oil pressure, etc. are stabilized. Check whether operating parameters
are within recommended range
Check exhaust pipes of each diesel engine for leakage, chokage, and
overheating when the pump is running
11. Check battery charger panels for proper functioning
12. Check fire pumps control-cum-annunciation panel for proper functioning
and alarm/annunciation
13. Check temperature of pump house
14. Check all auxiliary equipment such as battery charger, compressor, water
pumps, and diesel fuel level
15. Carry out flow test as detailed below:
(a) Select hydraulically most remote hydrant and place a pressure gauge
mounted on a blank cap adjacent to it
(b) Connect two or more hose pipes with nozzles each 30 m long at
hydraulically most remote hydrant and adjacent valves
(c) With a pump running at its maximum pressure, with other hydrant valves
closed, flow water through the hose reels with valves fully open. Note down
readings of pressure gauges mounted adjacent to hydraulically most remote
hydrant valve and in the pump house. The running pressure should be between
3.5–5 kg/cm2. This test should be repeated with different pump next week by
rotation. (Alternatively, the pressure gauge can be mounted at the hydraulically
most remote hydrant also instead of adjacent one). Test should be rotated for
different locations which are hydraulically far or are hazardous
16. Change over to other pumps as per ‘Change Over Schedule’
(continued)
220 Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations

(continued)
Frequency Checks
Monthly 1. Clean strainers of spray pumps (in case of clarified fire water site may change
the frequency of cleaning the strainers)
2. Check that connectors of battery are clean and free from corrosion and
properly connected. Smear a little petroleum jelly on them and on the battery
terminals
3. Top up cells with distilled water, if required
4. Carry out monthly maintenance of diesel engine as per manufacturer’s
recommendation
5. Measure vibrations of pumps and gear boxes
Quarterly 1. Clean and examine pump coupling for signs of wear, general damage,
looseness, and misalignment
2. Carry out quarterly maintenance of pump and motor and diesel engine as per
manufacturer’s recommendations
3. Inspect fan belts of diesel engine for slackness and wear. Adjust/replace if
necessary
4. Clean crankcase breather (use clean fuel for cleaning) by using air
Frequency Checks
5. Remove air filter element and shake out excess dirt by gently tapping on a flat
clean surface
6. Inspect exhaust pipe work for any damage, leakage, or choking and clean it
thoroughly.
7. Check and clean terminals of electric motors. Tighten connections, if required
8. Reassemble air compressors using new gaskets
9. Inspect compressor delivery filter
10. Carry out quarterly maintenance of air compressors as per manufacturer’s
recommendations
11. Adjust the gland assembly by tightening the gland adjusting nuts on either
side of split gland collar. Replace gland packing if it has hardened
Yearly 1. Overhauling of pump and motor to be performed per manufacturer’s
recommendation
2. Yearly maintenance of diesel engine to be done per manufacturer’s
recommendations including:
(a) Inspection and cleaning of fuel injectors
(b) Thorough checking of diesel engine cooling system for leaks, blockages
(flushing, if required, to be done with clean water)
(c) Inspection of starter motor and replacement of carbon brushes, if necessary
(d) Inspection and cleaning of engine exhaust manifolds and pipes and
replacement, wherever necessary
(e) Inspection of air filter and replacement of air filter element, if required
3. Painting of stand posts, overground pipes, and risers is recommended
4. Carry out hydraulic test of pipelines to detect leakages
5. Remove suction filter, cylinder head and valve plate assembly of air
compressors and clean. Inspect valve plates and counter plates. Replace, if
necessary
Every 2 1. All isolating valves to be dismantled and thoroughly overhauled
years 2. Various pressure/temperature switches/gauges to be calibrated
Every 5 Drain, clean, repair, and return to service all pump suction tanks for the systems
years
Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations 221

6.2 Inspection, Testing and Maintenance Requirements for Sprinkler

System
Frequency Checks
Weekly 1. Check water pressure gauge to ensure that required
pressure is maintained
2. Check that sluice valves are strapped to their normal
operating mode
3. Check that alarm(s) is operative
4. Check alarms function correctly
Quarterly (in addition to 1. Check that water supply arrangements (including back-up
weekly requirements) supplies) are in order. Operate valves and carry out a valve
discharge test
2. Operate main stop and zone isolating valves over full
range. A non-hardening packing should be used in valve
glands. Restart valves
3. Check back pressure valves for correct function. Inspect all
sprinkler heads for freedom from corrosion and correct
orientation
4. Painted sprinkler heads should be replaced
Annually 1. Replace a few sprinklers by opening nozzles to start spray.
Measure the running
pressure at the hydraulically most remote point. It should be
more than 1.4 kg/cm2
2. Carry out hydraulic test of pipelines to detect leakages
3. Various pressure/temperature switches/gauges to be
calibrated.
Every statutory outage Pressure vessels should be examined internally and the
opportunity taken to repaint with rust-resisting paint
Every 5 years Drain, clean, repair and return to service all pump suction
tanks for the systems

6.3 Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance Requirements for High- and

Medium-Velocity Systems
Frequency Checks
Weekly 1. Check main water and air/water detection line pressure gauges to
ensure that required pressure is maintained
2. Check that sluice valves are strapped to their normal operating
mode
3. Open air line drain valve and blow out condensate
4. Check tank water level
5. Check that alarm(s) is operative
6. Test alarms
7. Operate drains and main vent valves
8. Check for any leakage of air/water from detection/main lines
9. Check for correct position of local/manual selector switch
(continued)
222 Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations

(continued)
Frequency Checks
Monthly 1. Check for proper functioning of solenoid valves for
remote/manual operation and local/manual operation by energizing
solenoid valves but not allowing spray to take place
2. Check quartzoid bulbs and spray nozzles for proper
positioning/orientation
Quarterly (in addition to 1. Check that water supply arrangements (including back-up
weekly requirements) supplies) are in order and operate valves and carry out a valve
discharge test
2. Operate main stop and zone isolating valves over full range.
A non-hardening packing should be used in valve glands. Restart
valves. Trip and reset deluge valves
3. Test the deluge system by doing actual spray. Where plant
operations prevent routine testing of fixed water sprays,
consideration should be given to conducting a trial of the equipment
during a plant overhaul
4. Check back-pressure valves for correct function. Inspect all
sprays and nozzles for freedom from corrosion and correct
orientation. Painted detector heads should be replaced
5. Examine piping to ensure that it is corrosion free, is properly
supported and is painted
6. All electrical and hydraulic alarms and their initiation devices
should be checked
7. Check spray nozzles for proper orientation
8. Operate water spray system by releasing pressure from detection
line after taking precautionary measures. Observe the spray
coverage and nozzles for any choking, wrong directional mounting
In the case of spray system of transformers, check that the top of
spray cones are below turret of bushings. Reset deluge valve
9. Clean strainers after the spray
Annually 1. Overhaul all control valves, isolating valves and deluge valves
2. Alarm valves, isolating valves to be dismantled and overhauled
3. Various pressure/temperature switches/gauges to be calibrated
4. Flush detection and spray lines and clean all nozzles
5. Carry out hydraulic test of pipelines to detect leakages
Every statutory outage 1. Pressure vessels should be examined internally and the
opportunity taken to repaint with rust-resisting paint
2. Test the deluge system by doing actual spray. Where plant
operations prevent routine testing of fixed water sprays,
consideration should be given to conducting a trial of the equipment
during a plant overhaul
3. Carry out a full flow pump test for a minimum of 6 h
4. Adequate steps should be taken to prevent vulnerable items
suffering damage from water ingress and to ensure that spray
pipework is completely drained afterward
Every 15 years Drain, clean, repair and return to service to service all pump suction
tanks for the system
Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations 223

6.4 Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance Requirements for Foam Systems

Frequency Checks
Weekly 1. Check level of foam in tanks
2. Check position of valves
3. Check for any leakage etc. of foam
4. Check yard foam spray hydrant valves for hand wheel, coupling and its
lug etc.
Quarterly 1. Check all pressure gauges register properly. All control valves should
be properly set and access to valves, pumping in points and proportioning
equipment is maintained. Manipulate and repack valves
2. Inspect and clean strainers, check alarms auto control valves, indicators,
manual tripping devices, vapor seals, piping, level of foam liquid and level
of liquid and level of liquid in any gas cylinders
3. Inspect external surfaces of the foam concentrate tank for signs of
leakage and corrosion
Every 6 months 1. Sample and test foam concentrate
2. Withdraw a sample of foam concentrate from the foam tank and test it
3. Turn foam maker by 180° so that the foam will come out on ground and
open the isolating valve of foam/water line for 5 min. Observe the quality
of foam being made and the rate at which foam is being sucked by
venturi/pump
4. Compare it with designed value
Annually 1. Replace the foam concentrate as and when the life guaranteed by
supplier or as per test, expires
2. Inspect internal surface of foam concentrate tank before replacement of
foam tank concentrate to ensure that it is free from dirt or foreign materials
and the epoxy coating is intact. If required, touch up amounts of epoxy
(not the ordinary paint) may be applied
3. Clean and service all valves, pipes, in-line inductor/pump
4. Carry out hydraulic test of pipelines to detect leakages
5. Various pressure/temperature switches/gauges to be calibrated
Every statutory Discharge test, flush, and reinstate
outage

6.5 Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance Requirements for CO2 Systems

Frequency Checks
Quarterly Check pressure gauges register properly, all control valves are properly set and
access to valves is not obstructed. Examine cylinder contents level and replace
cylinders as necessary
Twice Check that correct number of cylinders are in service; piping, alarms, lock-offs
Annually manual and emergency releases drop curtains etc. are properly located and
function correctly, also that any interlocks operate properly
At 10 Years Deluge test, return cylinders for stretch test and refill
224 Appendix B: Fire Protection of Power Stations

6.6 Inspection, Testing and Maintenance Requirements for Halon Systems

Frequency Checks
Quarterly Check pressure gauges register properly, all control valves are properly set
and access is not obstructed. Examine cylinder content level and replace
cylinders as necessary
Twice Check that correct number of cylinders are in service; piping alarm lock-offs
annually manual and emergency releases, drop curtains, etc., are properly located and
function correctly, also that any interlocks function correctly
5 times a year Withdraw and pressure test cylinders
Discharge Consult Industrial Safeguards Branch
testing

6.7 Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance Requirements for Detection

Systems
Frequency Checks
Monthly 1. Functional test of detection system, if required, as part of the protection
system. Testing in a particular area
2. Inspect physical position of LHS cable, IRD type detection systems for any
damage and test these by simulation and observe annunciation. In case of IRD,
a moving heat source can be used to generate fire signal
Quarterly 1. Functionality test
2. Check better condition, where applicable
3. Check and test all control/annunciation panels, i.e.,
- Main fire alarm panels
- Local fire alarm panels
- Fire station repeater panel
- Coal conveyor belt stooping panel
- Cable gallery TES/Zone operating panel.
Annually 1. Check detectors (except once only detectors) by an in situ test using heat or
smoke as appropriate. Withdraw air heater poles for this test
2. Check system integrity
Every 4 Carry out electrical checks as specified in IEE regulations
Years
Appendix C
System for Plant Modifications

1.0 Purpose
The directive specifies the system for modifications in plant/equipment at
the power station.
2.0 Scope
2.1 This directive shall be applicable to all modifications (or design change)
to plant/equipment/systems/components of existing power stations after
the date of issue of the directive. For modifications made prior to issue of
this revision, procedure described at clause no 5.7 should be followed
2.2 In the case of power stations set up after the date of issue of this directive,
the directive shall apply from the date the PG test is conducted or date of
completion of warranty of the contractor, whichever is later
2.3 The directive shall not be applicable to modifications/design change to be
carried out under contractual obligations of the contractor under the
contract irrespective of the period when such modification is carried out.
However, in such cases where modification is necessary to be carried out
before expiry of the warranty period or before PG Test, whichever is later,
written consent of the contractor for such proposed modification should
be obtained before carrying out the modification. In all such cases, an
approval from the Engineering Department must be obtained, which shall
be routed through Operation Services (OS)
2.4 The reference design or datum for each plant/equipment/system/
component of the power station shall be as per the last document
approved by Engineering or the original design drawings
2.5 The directive shall not be applicable to ‘defects’ or ‘repairs’ which require
equipment to be reinstated to the original condition
2.6 For the purpose of this directive, system, or component shall also include
load-bearing structures

© Springer India 2016 225

P. Chanda and S. Mukhopaddhyay, Operation and Maintenance
of Thermal Power Stations, Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2722-9
226 Appendix C: System for Plant Modifications

3.0 Previous Guidelines

If any
4.0 Records of Revision
The entire document has been redrafted after review by the System
Review Group
5.0 Process
5.1 Definition
5.1.1 For the purpose of this directive, the term modification or design change
shall have the following meaning or interpretation:
5.1.1.1 ‘Modification’ shall include
(i) A repair or replacement of a system/equipment/component where it
involves a change to its reference design or datum, geometry, or
materials.
(ii) Any change to the settings, or mode of operations, of a component
in a control, interlock or protection system (including computer
software).
(iii) Any addition or deletion of a system, component, or of a complete
system or complete equipment.
5.1.1.2 The following shall not be construed as modifications for the purpose of
this directive:
(i) The repair/replacement/modification of minor components or
equipment as may be specified by the Head of the Station in the
Location Management Instruction issued for implementation of this
directive. However, details of these shall be intimated to COS.
(ii) The overriding of any interlock (protection by pass) or any change to
the settings or mode of operation of any component in a control,
interlock, or protection system (including computer software) which
is authorized, implemented, and recorded in accordance with a
Location Management Instruction, provided that no such override or
change remains in place for a period exceeding 72 h. If it is to
exceed 72 h, it will be treated as a modification and will require
registration and assessment in accordance with this directive.
5.2 Need for Modification
The need for modification or design change may arise from:
• Recommendations of an enquiry report/audits.
• Proven best practice elsewhere in the utilities known globally.
• Improvement in efficiency/commercial parameters.
• Statutory/legal requirements.
Appendix C: System for Plant Modifications 227

• Feedback from major failures/trip analysis.

• Constraints faced during plant operation.
5.3 Proposal
5.3.1 In order to maintain a record of all modifications or design changes to
plant/equipment/systems/components, all proposals for modifications
shall be registered with the Station Planning department. Furthermore,
to ascertain the suitability of the modifications, all proposals will be
assessed technically as per the system laid down hereunder:
5.3.2 A format for registration of all proposals for modification or design change
is given in Appendix I (Modification Registration Performa/Design
Change Request).
5.3.3 The proposal for modification/design change may be initiated by the
concerned department at station/engineering/research and development
others, and sent to Incharge O&M of the station for formal initiation. The
proposal shall give sufficient details of modification i.e., name of the
plant/equipment/component/system, its location, name of the
supplier/manufacturer, reasons for modification, approving authority, etc.
The details of modification shall be maintained by the Head of Planning
department of the power station in the Performa (request for design change)
given in Appendix 1. A flow diagram showing the process of the system for
plant modification/design change is shown in Appendix 2.
5.4 Categorization of Modifications
The category of technical assessment required i.e., internal or external to
the station, shall be approved by the appropriate authority based on the note
giving details of modifications received from the head of the power station.
5.4.1 For the purpose of this directive, technical assessment of proposals shall
be of two types, i.e., Category A (requiring external assessment) and
Category B (requiring internal assessment).
5.4.2 Category A assessment will be required in case of all proposals which, if
inadequately conceived or executed, could lead to the following:
• A major safety/environmental implication.
• A major plant failure (boiler, turbine, generator, transformer, cooling
water system, ash disposal system, coal handling plant, switch yard).
228 Appendix C: System for Plant Modifications

Category A assessment will also be required in case of

• Any change in the protection scheme for main equipment i.e., boiler,
turbine, or generator.
• Modifications related to improvement of efficiency commercial
parameters of major equipment.
5.2.3 Category A assessment may not be required:
(i) If repair/replacement of any system or component or equipment is
carried out without changing the original design or datum and using
approved procedures relevant to such repair.
(ii) If replacement of any system or component or equipment is being
done due to age or obsolescence by a modern equivalent with no
change in original design or datum, materials or operating
environment.
5.5 Category A Assessment
The proposals for modification of all Category A proposals as defined
above will be submitted for technical approval to the Engineering
department by the power station. Engineering may seek the comments of
other departments of Corp. Centre e.g., R&D, Safety, etc. Technical
approval from Engineering will be sent to the station. Thereafter, the
proposal should be submitted for approval of Competent Authority by the
power station as per DOP. If required, detailed engineering will be done
by the Engineering department and sent to the station for implementation
of the modification.
5.6 Category B Assessment
Proposals which do not qualify for category A assessment will be
categorized as Category B. The proposals involving category B
assessment will be scrutinized and assessed by a team comprising
representatives of O&M, FQA, and Technical Services departments at the
station in consultation with Operation Services & Engineering, and
approved in accordance with DOP if any costs are involved. After the
modification has been completed, a post facto approval will be sought by
the station in charge from the Engineering department detailing the
requirement for the modification, implementation status, etc. Any
recommendations from Engineering shall be implemented by the Station.
Appendix C: System for Plant Modifications 229

5.7 Modification Made Prior to this Directive

The station will compile the modification with relevant details made prior
to the issue of this document. For all the modifications which have not
been vetted or approved by Engineering, the station will be required to
intimate the same to Engineering with the relevant details, pre- and post
modification assessment and amendment to documents and drawings
wherever applicable. Any recommendations from Engineering shall be
implemented by the station.
5.8 Implementation of the Directive
Each head of the power station is responsible for ensuring that the
directive is implemented at the power station by issuance of location
management instructions (LMI).
5.9 Amendment of Station Documentation
All relevant drawings, operation and maintenance instructions, details in
the stores catalog, and other requirement for modified
equipment/system/component will be amended before the first modified
system or component is commissioned. The amended documentation as
built drawings must be approved by the same authority that initially
approved the documentation/drawing. The master list of documents and
drawings must be revised accordingly. The issue of these modified
documents as stated above shall be controlled and the old version will be
stamped as superseded. Where the modification is to be progressive,
covering various areas of the power station, then care must be taken to
clearly identify the system or component or equipment to which the
amended documentation applies. The necessary records will be updated
in the Modification Register Performa.
5.10 Execution of the Plant Modification
After the receipt of the detailed Engineering report, the Planning
department will find out whether any procurement is required. If
procurement is required, then the Maintenance department will initiate
the procurement. After receipt of the material, the Maintenance depart-
ment will execute the modification with relevant quality checks by the
Field Quality department. Commissioning will be done by the Operations
department. Reports, as required, will be generated and given to the
Planning department for consolidation.
230 Appendix C: System for Plant Modifications

5.11 Post Modification Assessment

After the system or component has been commissioned, an assessment
shall be carried out by the head of O&M of the power station to determine
(i) that the modification has been implemented in accordance with the
approval.
(ii) the resulting change in performance as compared to that proposed
originally.
(iii) that the integrity of plant safety has not been impaired.
5.11.1 Where appropriate, this assessment shall include such tests and trials
specified in the approval.
5.11.2 A report shall be generated by the head of O&M of the station stating the
improvement after the modification with respect to pre-modification status
and shall be sent to the head of Operation Services (OS). Final acceptance
of the modification shall be given by OS in association with Engineering.
In case of non-acceptance of the modification, necessary analysis shall be
done by Planning along with the concerned department(s). Either
corrective action is taken and post modification assessment is carried
out or pre-modification status is restored. The site may also initiate a fresh
proposal for modification.
5.11.3 The Modification Register Performa should then be updated completely
and shall be circulated to all concerned.
5.12 Compliance of Directive
Compliance of this directive shall be verified during the course of internal
and external LMI audits and a technical audit of the station by OS.
5.13 Records
The following records shall be maintained by the Planning department at
the station:
• Records of modifications as per Modification Registration Proforma.
• Records of approval of modification.
• Reports of post modification Assessment.
6.0 Review
The head of Corporate Operation Services will be responsible for
reviewing the document on a 3-year basis or as necessary.
Appendix C: System for Plant Modifications 231

Appendix 1 Modification Register Proforma/Design Change Request

MODIFICATION REGISTER Serial No.:

For Plant, Apparatus and Structure Date Proposed:

1. PROPOSED FOR MODIFICATION AT POWER STATION

Station Code:
Purpose of Modification
Component / System: (State justification)

Manufacturer :

Details of Proposal (including time schedule):

a) Whether the modification suggested is for phasing out Effect on
an obsolete item, if so, details. interchangeability
b) Whether the modification suggested is for
indigenisation, if so, details.

Any identified safety hazard / Environment impact on account of the Plant Modifications

Requirement for amending documents Yes No

Pre-modification Condition (e.g. Operational Performance, Emissions, Plant Life. etc.):

Approval of Head of O&M Date:

Approval Head of Power Station Date:

2. REVIEW BY APPROPRIATE AUTHORITY & CATEGORIZATION

Category of modification as per note ref. no. received.

Date
232 Appendix C: System for Plant Modifications

3. APPROVALS

Final approval from Engineering Note Ref. Date:

i) Not Approved Note Ref. etc. Date:

4. IMPLEMENTATION
(After work has been completed, record the means by
which modification has been achieved. State Contract Signature:
Number, etc.) Concerned Dept. I/C
Date:
5. COMMISSIONING

Confirm that commissioning has been done as per Signature:

procedure and the relevant protocol; has been filled up. Operation Dept. I/C
Date:
6. AMENDMENTS TO DOCUMENTATION
Confirm the completion of amendments to
operating/maintenance Instructions, station manuals, plant Signature:
status records, stores records, drawings, training Concerned Dept. I/C
programmes, etc. Date:
7. POST MODIFICATION DATA
Date of modification
Confirm completion of commissioning and
state the condition after modification Relevant Signature of Initiator of
compared to the original data recorded in Report Ref. Proposal: Date:
Section 1 etc
8. CIRCULATION
TO DATE SIGNATURE

Note:
1. This Directive applies only to modifications; it does not apply to `defects' or
repairs which require equipment to be reinstated to the original condition.
2. Section 2 `Categorization'-The selection of Assessment Category is the
responsibility of the Appropriate authority.
Appendix C: System for Plant Modifications 233

Appendix 2 Flow Diagram for Process of Modification/Design Change

Appendix II