Clinical Risk Assessment for People with
Learning Disabilities Who Offend
John Taylor, Simon Halstead
The British Journal of Forensic Practice
ISSN: 1463-6646
Publication date: 1 April 2001
Abstract
The England and Wales National Health Service (NHS)
Executive's guidance on the discharge of mentally
disordered people, including those with learning disabilities,
requires that risk assessment is a component part of the
Care Programme Approach (CPA). The guidance indicates
that whenever possible, risk assessments should be carried
out systematically using a standardised approach. For a
number of reasons, practitioners are resistant to moving
away from reliance on clinical judgements when making
their assessments. This paper explores the issues
underlying this tension. A solution is offered to the difficulty
clinicians often experience in incorporating risk assessment
tools into their clinical practice. A case example is given to
illustrate how clinical assessments of offenders with learning
disabilities can be utilised to estimate the risks presented.
By demonstrating this procedure, a protocol for reaching
clinically defensible decisions about the risks presented by
clients is described, which also allows for the targeting of
priority therapeutic and management interventions.
Citation
Taylor, J. and Halstead, S. (2001), "Clinical Risk
Assessment for People with Learning Disabilities Who
Offend", The British Journal of Forensic Practice, Vol. 3 No.
1, pp. 22-32. https://doi.org/10.1108/14636646200100005
Download as .RIS
Publisher
:
MCB UP Ltd
Copyright © 2001, MCB UP Limited
1.
Home
2. Health
3. A to Z List
4. Learning Disabilities
5. About
6. What are the signs?
Share
Print
What are some signs of learning
disabilities?
Many children have trouble reading, writing, or performing other learning-related tasks at some
point. This does not mean they have learning disabilities. A child with a learning disability often
has several related signs, and they don’t go away or get better over time. The signs of learning
disabilities vary from person to person.
Please note that the generally common signs included here are for informational purposes only;
the information is not intended to screen for learning disabilities in general or for a specific type
of learning disability.
Common signs that a person may have learning disabilities include the following:
Problems reading and/or writing
Problems with math
Poor memory
Problems paying attention
Trouble following directions
Clumsiness
Trouble telling time
Problems staying organized1
A child with a learning disability also may have one or more of the following1:
Acting without really thinking about possible outcomes (impulsiveness)
“Acting out” in school or social situations
Difficulty staying focused; being easily distracted
Difficulty saying a word correctly out loud or expressing thoughts
Problems with school performance from week to week or day to day
Speaking like a younger child; using short, simple phrases; or leaving out words in
sentences
Having a hard time listening
Problems dealing with changes in schedule or situations
Problems understanding words or concepts
These signs alone are not enough to determine that a person has a learning disability. Only a
professional can diagnose a learning disability.
Each learning disability has its own signs. A person with a particular disability may not have all
of the signs of that disability.
Children being taught in a second language may show signs of learning problems or a learning
disability. The learning disability assessment must take into account whether a student is
bilingual or a second language learner. In addition, for English-speaking children, the assessment
should be sensitive to differences that may be due to dialect, a form of a language that is specific
to a region or group.
Below are some common learning disabilities and the signs associated with them:
Reading and Reading Disorders
Reading is a skill that is important for communication, education, and most fields of work.
Reading disorders interfere with people’s ability to read and affect how they learn to read. The
NICHD conducts and supports a variety of research aimed at understanding the process of
reading and identifying the best ways to help people who struggle with reading. The Institute
also aims to understand the mechanisms of reading disorders and the best interventions for
improving reading skills among people with these disorders.
Common Names
Reading disabilities
Reading disorders
Medical or Scientific Names
Reading disabilities
Reading disorders
Developmental reading disorders
Dyslexia
Developmental dyslexia
Alternate Titles
Dyslexia
People with dyslexia usually have trouble making the connection
between letters and sounds and with spelling and recognizing
words.2
People with dyslexia often show other signs of the condition. These
may include3,4:
Having a hard time understanding what others are saying
Difficulty organizing written and spoken language
Delay in being able to speak
Difficulty expressing thoughts or feelings
Difficulty learning new words (vocabulary), either while reading
or hearing
Trouble learning foreign languages
Difficulty learning songs and rhymes
Slow rate of reading, both silently and out loud
Giving up on longer reading tasks
Difficulty understanding questions and following directions
Poor spelling
Problems remembering numbers in sequence (for example,
telephone numbers and addresses)
Trouble telling left from right
A child who has trouble writing or has very poor handwriting and
does not outgrow it may have dysgraphia. This disorder may cause
a child to be tense and twist awkwardly when holding a pen or
pencil.5
Other signs of this condition may include5:
A strong dislike of writing and/or drawing
Problems with grammar
Trouble writing down ideas
Losing energy or interest as soon as they start writing
Trouble writing down thoughts in a logical sequence
Saying words out loud while writing
Leaving words unfinished or omitting them when writing
sentences
Signs of this disability include problems understanding basic
arithmetic concepts, such as fractions, number lines, and positive
and negative numbers.
Other symptoms may include6:
Difficulty with math-related word problems
Trouble making change in cash transactions
Messiness in putting math problems on paper
Trouble with logical sequences (for example, steps in math
problems)
Trouble understanding the time sequence of events
Trouble describing math processes
How are learning disabilities
diagnosed?
Learning disabilities are often identified once a child is in school. The school may use a process
called “response to intervention” to help identify children with learning disabilities. Special tests
are required to make a diagnosis.
Response to intervention usually involves the following1:
Monitoring all students’ progress closely to identify possible
learning problems
Providing children who are having problems with help on
different levels, or tiers
Moving children to tiers that provide increasing support if they
do not show sufficient progress
Students who are struggling in school can also have individual
evaluations. An evaluation can2:
Identify whether a child has a learning disability
Determine a child’s eligibility under federal law for special
education services
Help develop an individualized education plan (IEP) that
outlines help for a child who qualifies for special education
services
Establish benchmarks to measure the child’s progress
A full evaluation for a learning disability includes the following3:
A medical exam, including a neurological exam, to rule out
other possible causes of the child’s difficulties. These might
include emotional disorders, intellectual and developmental
disabilities, and brain diseases.
Reviewing the child’s developmental, social, and school
performance
A discussion of family history
Academic and psychological testing
Usually, several specialists work as a team to do the evaluation.
The team may include a psychologist, a special education expert,
and a speech-language pathologist. Many schools also have
reading specialists who can help diagnose a reading disability.4
School psychologists are trained in both education and psychology.
They can help diagnose students with learning disabilities and help
the student and his or her parents and teachers come up with plans
to improve learning.5
All speech-language pathologists are trained to diagnose and treat
speech and language disorders. A speech-language pathologist can
do a language evaluation and assess the child’s ability to organize
his or her thoughts and possessions. The speech-language
pathologist may evaluate the child’s learning skills, such as
understanding directions, manipulating sounds, and reading and
writing.6
What causes learning disabilities?
Researchers do not know all of the possible causes of learning disabilities, but they have found a
range of risk factors during their work to find potential causes. Research shows that risk factors
may be present from birth and tend to run in families.1 In fact, children who have a parent with a
learning disability are more likely to develop a learning disability themselves.2 To better
understand learning disabilities, researchers are studying how children’s brains learn to read,
write, and develop math skills. Researchers are working on interventions to help address the
needs of those who struggle with reading the most, including those with learning disabilities, to
improve learning and overall health.
Factors that affect a fetus developing in the womb, such as alcohol or drug use, can put a child at
higher risk for a learning problem or disability. Other factors in an infant’s environment may
play a role, too. These can include poor nutrition or exposure to lead in water or in paint. Young
children who do not receive the support they need for their intellectual development may show
signs of learning disabilities once they start school.3
Sometimes a person may develop a learning disability later in life due to injury. Possible causes
in such a case include dementia or a traumatic brain injury (TBI).4
Citations
1. National Center for Learning Disabilities. (2017). Snapshot of learning and attention
issues in the U.S. Retrieved August 7, 2018, from https://www.ncld.org/wp-
content/uploads/2017/03/1-in-5-Snapshot.Fin_.03142017.pdf (PDF – 187 KB)
2. Harstad, E. (n.d.). Are the learning issues in my family genetic? Retrieved August 7,
2018, from https://www.understood.org/en/family/siblings/multiple-children-learning-
issues/are-the-learning-issues-in-my-family-genetic
3. National Center for Learning Disabilities. (2014). The state of learning disabilities:
Facts, trends and emerging issues (3rd ed.).New York: National Center for Learning
Disabilities. Retrieved March 8, 2017, from http://www.ncld.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/11/2014-State-of-LD.pdf (PDF – 6.1 MB)
4. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (n.d.). Dyslexia information
page. Retrieved March 8, 2017, from https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-
Disorders/Dyslexia-Information-Page
