LESSON ONE: Definition and Purpose of Art

Learning Outcomes

1. Trace how art was defined in different periods of time

2. Identify the different purposes of art
3. Relate how art was perceived in the Western world to how it was in our country
4. Categorize works of art based on personal experiences
5. Demonstrate an understanding and appreciation of arts in general, including their
function, value, and historical significance

Discussion

Art is indeed a paradox. It is a word which everybody knows yet nobody is capable of defining
substantially. Great thinkers across continents and time frames had tried to set the boundaries of
this term using their own words, but they ended up struggling to find the right ones that could be
deemed universal, or acceptable even. It seems
that coming up with a concrete definition of art
is way more than herculean and almost near
impossible. That is why this book is not at all
aimed at defining art, but instead at opening
one’s mind to how art was perceived through
time, and in turn at understanding the
complexities that art offers, which eventually
leads to appreciating all of its types and forms.

If there is one undebatable thing that can be said

about art, it would be that it expresses human
values and desires. This notion is highly
observable in the Venus of Willendorf
(PICTURE 1) which was created around
30,000 years ago (30,000 Years of Art, Phaidon
Press, 2007).

The size and shape of the Venus of Willendorf

shed some clues on how it played an important
role during the pre-historic times. The sculpture
is not more than four inches tall, and so
archaeologists and art experts agreed that this

PICTURE 1, The Venus of Willendorf, housed at the Natural was carried by our nomadic ancestors wherever
History Museum in Vienna, Austria. Photo downloaded they go. In addition, some parts of the
from the website of the Natural History Musuem
sculpture’s body are more emphasized than
others. The breasts, genitals, buttocks, and the abdomen are more pronounced than other parts
like the hands and the face which is almost non-existent. It can be surmised that the emphasized
parts were deemed most useful and most desired by our nomadic ancestors. Indeed, the Venus of
Willendorf is significant not only because it is one of the earliest manifestations of man’s
creativity, but more importantly because it proved that art is a way to channel what human
beings deem valuable and desirable.

The world we live in is also a huge factor on how art can be perceived. Because of the change in
climate, our ancestors who were once nomadic were forced to find a place that can sustain their
lives—and the uncertain and ever-changing ways of nomadic life transformed into a consistent
pattern of existence. This change brought about a new civilization—one that started along the
banks of the river Nile.

The Nile river not only boasts of being the longest, but also of being consistent in terms of its
tide. This consistency made it possible for the settlers to learn something about irrigation, thus
enhancing their knowledge on agriculture which resulted to the formation of communities that
are stable, sustainable, and organized. During that time, our ancestors stopped wandering around
to find food because they now have the
knowledge and ability to plant and
harvest their own crops.

This system worked for the Egyptians

and so they developed an obsession with
consistency—one thing that is very
evident in the art pieces produced during
those times. It is amazing to note that
Egyptian civilization lasted almost 30
centuries
(www.history.com/topics/ancient-
history), and yet the way art represented
this era never changed. One good
evidence is how the way the human body
was depicted.

In most reliefs found on walls

(PICTURE 2), constancy and precision
were conspicuous. Because of this,
Archaeologists and Egyptologists agreed
that the depictions never changed PICTURE 2, Egyptian Relief, housed at the Metropolitan Museum of
because the Egyptians never really want Art in New York, United States of America. Photo was taken by
Edward John Padilla in 2018
them to (How Art Made the World
Episode 1: More Human than Human, BBC 2005). In this case, art not only recorded the
values and desires of human beings, but it also served as a preserver of culture.

The Egyptians produced some of the most

monumental pieces of art. From the larger
than life size of the sphinx, to the
wondrous pyramids of Giza (PICTURE
3), it cannot be denied that they wanted the
world to know about their achievements.
They erected temples and carved
thousands of intricate images on walls for
posterity, and we can say that they won
their battle against oblivion as evidenced
by the survival of their artistic
masterpieces.

If the Egyptians were content on

preserving what they have, another
civilization was more focused on

PICTURE 3, The Pyramids of Giza. Photo was taken by Lulette Ann discovering and experimenting more—the
Africa in the year 2014 Greeks. Inspired by the breathtaking art of
the Egyptians, the Greeks followed this
kind of tradition until they began to depict human
bodies in a more realistic and dynamic way. This
can be seen in the sculpture Kouros or “young boy”
(PICTURE 4).

It can be observed that the sculpture took a step

forward which brought dynamism in it. In addition,
the attempt to create a more realistic human-like
figure is also very visible. Because of this, it can be
said that art also represents reality and imitates
life.

The creation of the Krition Boy (PICTURE 5) can

be considered as the height of the Greek artistic
revolution which highlights the attempt of
representing and imitating life as realistic as
possible. Unlike the Egyptian reliefs and sculptures,
this marble masterpiece presents an undeniable and
unmistakable verisimilitude to a young man.
PICTURE 4, The Kouros, housed at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art in New York, United States of America.
Photo was taken by Edward John Padilla in 2018.
 After the creation of the Krition Boy, one might
think that there is nothing more to be done, but
contentment doesn’t seem to be part of human
nature. Soon enough, the Greek’s quest to achieve
realism was overshadowed by a great “wanting” to
have something more than what reality has to offer.
Contrary to what Plato has said about art, his
student, Aristotle posited in his book “The Poetics”
that art does way more than to imitate life, he
further added that it completes what nature failed to
finish (further discussion is on the next lesson).
Aristotle was able to put art into a higher position
by elevating it from mere “imitation” to a tangible
and at the same time, an intangible source of
inspiration and awe.

The realism of the Greek sculptures brought about a

lot of issues about art—in one spectrum, it was
received well and the artists were admired for
successfully copying nature; on the other hand it
also bored the spectators and the artists were
criticised for not being able to produce art that inspires.

PICTURE 5, The Krition Boy, housed at the Acropolis

In the year 1972, a chemist named Stefano
Museum in Athens, Greece. Photo downloaded from Mariottini, who was snorkelling along the coast of
The Acropolis Museum Website Riace (Italy), discovered two bronze statues now
(www.acropolismuseum.gr)
known as the Riace Warriors (PICTURE 6). After
stringent examination on the statues, experts posited
that these were made around 460-450 BCE.

If we are to compare the Krition Boy (PICTURE 5)

to the Riace Warriors (PICTURE 6), the difference
can never be more downright. The most obvious
difference would have to be the way the bodies
were represented. As stipulated in the paragraphs
above, the Krition Boy’s body is “realistic”, on the
other hand, this cannot be said about the bodies of
the Riace Warriors. Upon close examination, we
would realize that even if they look like human
beings, there are some parts that are anatomically
impossible to achieve. The legs of the warriors are

PICTURE 6, The Riace Warriors, housed at the Museo

Nazionale della Magna Grecia Reggio Calabria in
Italy. The photo was downloaded from
MadeinSouthItaly.com
extra ordinarily long; there is a very defined looping muscle on the waist; the muscles are all
flexed even though the sculptures seem to be in a relaxed state—these are few of the things that
make the Riace Warriors beautiful, and yet unreal. One may surmise that the “unrealistic”
qualities of the warrior statues will put off the audience from appreciating them, but the truth is
otherwise. Everyone who saw the Riace Warriors couldn’t help but to be inspired by its
overwhelming beauty, therefore it can be said that art does not only imitate life, but it can be a
source of inspiration, as well.

Greek and Roman art dominated

the scene until the dawning of the
middle ages. The medieval times
drastically changed the western
world by rerouting the focus of art
(its subjects and themes) and by
changing the socio-political and
religious landscape. During these
times, Christianity was quickly
spreading, thus overshadowing the
belief systems in ancient Greece
and Rome.

Christianity became even more

popular when the Roman Emperor
PICTURE 7, Byzantine painting, housed at the Metropolitan Museum in New
York, United States of America. Photo was taken by Edward John Padilla in Constantine legalized it in 313 CE
2018 (The Short Story of Art by Susie
Hodge, 2017) and in turn, transferred the capital of the Holy Roman Empire from Rome to
Byzantine (was renamed Constantinople, and is present day Istanbul). Because of this, depictions
of Greek deities were considered pagan which resulted to the massive production of art pieces
that feature Christian characters and saints.

There is also one very obvious change in the way human bodies were depicted in the middle
ages. The figures are very unrealistic to a point of appearing abstracted (PICTURE 7). It can be
observed in the example given that the Christian images don’t resemble real persons. They have
unusually long necks, elongated fingers, exaggerated facial features, and unnatural skin tones, to
mention a few. In addition, there is an undeniable eastern feel to it as observed in the draperies
and patterns found in the painting. Giorgio Vasari, a renowned biographer of Renaissance artists,
even remarked that all of the achievements in art in the classical period were eradicated in
Byzantine tradition.

It may be difficult to understand the reason behind this change, but all leads up to propaganda.
It was posited that the Roman Empire wanted to extend its influence to the East by using religion
and employing “art” as the vehicle. The Eastern world, which was predominantly Muslim, was
known to be iconoclasts, and so Christianity will be faced with harsh criticisms if they will
encourage veneration of holy Christian images. As a result, Christian artists made it certain that
the religious images must be far removed from reality to separate the human from the divine.
They also employed other techniques in art to unrealistically depict Christian saints, and the most
popular is the mosaic.

Another great example of the East and West

merger is the monumental structure, the
Haglia Sophia (PICTURE 8). At first glance,
one might think that this building is an Islamic
mosque because of the domes and the pointed
towers, but in reality, it was commissioned by
another Catholic Roman Emperor named
Justinian. Designed by Isidore Miletus in 532
CE, this magnificent structure gives character
to Istanbul as being the crossroad of two
worlds—the East and the West. This
architectural wonder was also a very effective
way to propagate the Christian faith to the
Eastern world. Indeed, the Haglia Sophia is a
tangible proof of the conglomeration of two
cultures, and at the same time, it is a surviving PICTURE 8, The Haglia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey. The photo
testament on how art can be used as an was taken by Edward John Padilla in 2017

effective propaganda.

The medieval times experienced the height of Catholic power, and that is why most of the art
pieces produced were highly influenced by the church. But as time passes, some artists tried to
break away from the Byzantine tradition by slowly rediscovering the achievements of the Greco-
Roman period. This particular effort of rediscovering the antiquity can be attributed to the works
of the Italian poet Francesco Petrarca when he surveyed some ancient Greek and Roman
documents, and in turn, thought of a new era called “revival of the classics” (History of Art 6th
Edition Volume II, H.W. Janson and Anthony F. Janson, 2001) which we now call
“Renaissance”. This movement did not only center in literature, but to the other art forms, as
well. Painters like Duccio, Cimabue, Giotto, Masaccio, and the sculptor Donatello employed in
their works the ingenuity of the classical masters which inspired all the artists that followed their
footsteps.

Though the subjects were still predominantly religious, the style was very different from the
Byzantine tradition. Artists worked on masterpieces that are awe-inspiring and these pieces
attracted the attention not only of the church but rich families as well. During that time, Rome
and Florence became the key cities of artistic productions because the Catholic church and the
Medici family were two of the most lavish patrons of art. They offered artists great
remunerations for art commissions. Because of this, competition among artists were heightened
and as a result, most of the painters and
sculptors pushed themselves to the limits and in
turn produced unparalleled masterpieces that
are unequalled even up to this day. This period
also gave birth to three of the greatest artists of
all time—Leonardo, Michelangelo, and
Raphael.

The Renaissance indeed was a wonderful time

for art and most especially for artists. Because
of the high demand for “good” art, the career
prospects of painters and sculptors reached new
heights. In this period, more than any of the
periods in the past and even at present time,
artists were put on a pedestal and received
much adulation. Art also became a symbol of
fortune and power. Michelangelo’s “David”
(PICTURE 9) is one great example of how art
can help build the image of a place. The
sculpture “David” was once placed on a public
square in front of Palazzo Vecchio (the seat of civic government) to give the on lookers the
impression that the place is like no other.

It can be surmised that during the Renaissance,

PICTURE 9, David by Michelangelo, housed at the Galleria
the most powerful and influential must have the
dell’ Academia in Florence, Italy. The photo was taken by
Paul Ericson Carillo in 2016 best art pieces by the best artists, thus art is
not only used as a propaganda but as a status symbol as well.

From the Renaissance through the Baroque and Neo-classical periods, subjects of art remained
the same; and in France, a distinguished academy was in charge of cultivating the tradition of
excellence in the field of art. Portraits of leaders, aristocrats, mythological characters, and
religious personas were considered as standard subjects, until one artist rebelled against the
movement—Gustave Courbet. He painted subjects that were rarely depicted in art like workers,
ordinary townspeople, and rural and agricultural landscape.

Most of Courbet’s works were rejected by the Academy of Fine Arts, but he gained support from
the public and some other artists like Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, and Pierre August Renoir.
Courbet, together with his supporters wanted to change the tradition, thus Realism and
Impressionism became the next trends in art. Artists in this tradition no longer dwell with the
heavenly and the divine, instead they focused on what is real, apparent, and present. One
example is Manet’s painting entitled, “Claude Monet and His Family” (PICTURE 10).

It can be
observed in the
picture that the
subject is very
different from
the past artistic
traditions. The
subjects are not
deities, nor
important
societal and
political figures,
but regular folks;
and the scene
was not taken
from a glorious
PICTURE 10, Claude Monet and His Family by Edouard Manet, housed at the Metropolitan Museum
of Art in New York, United States of America. The Photo was taken by Edward John Padilla in 2018
revolution, nor a
scene in the Bible, but a typical afternoon scenario. Therefore, art became not only a status
symbol for the rich and powerful, but also a way to depict realities and experiences of the
common individual—steering away from the metaphorical and the figurative.

Impressionism gained widespread success in the art

world, but the emerging popularity of the camera
challenged this artistic movement. Since the camera can
capture moments more accurately, painters needed to do
something different—something better than what the
camera can do. Soon enough a group of artists started
creating pieces of art that the camera can never capture—
things inside the human mind.

Artists like De Chirico, Magritte, Ernst, and Dali painted

dreamlike (deeply inspired by Sigmund Freud’s theories)
images that are “beyond real”, and in time the movement
Surrealism surfaced. In the painting “The Lovers” by
Rene Magritte (PICTURE 11), it is very evident that the
image is not real and nothing but just a figment of the
imagination. The same can be said about Salvador Dali’s
PICTURE 11, The Lovers by Rene Magritte, most famous work, “Persistence of Memory”
housed at the Museum of Modern Art in New
York City, United States of America. Photo was
taken by Edward John C. Padilla in 2018
(PICTURE 12). If we are to look
closely, we would realize that the
painting cannot exist in the real world.
The objects don’t seem to have logical
connections with each other, and there
are some items that unrecognizable.
Being true to the movement Dali and
Magritte belong to, their works
resemble a dream, and to some extent, a
nightmare. Indeed, the Surrealists
painters proved that art doesn’t only
depict the realities around us, but it
can concretize intangible things like
ideas and dreams, as well.

It can be posited that the “Realism”

fostered by Gustave Courbet paved the PICTURE 12, Persistence of Memory by Salvador Dali, housed at the
way for modern and contemporary art. Museum of Modern Art in New York City, United States of America.
Photo was taken by Edward John Padilla in 2015
Artists are now more free in choosing
what subjects to depict and what themes to employ. Contemporary artists like Andy Warhol,
Mark Rothko, and Jackson Pollock created works that were so different from what was
established hundreds of years ago.

In Jackson Pollock’s painting

(PICTURE 13), one can easily
observe that he did not follow the
art traditions of the past, rather he
made his own style. Just like
Pollock, contemporary artists
believe that art is a powerful
medium of self-expression.
Therefore, art is not only capable
of concretizing the intangible
and the unseen, but ultimately it
is a channel where an individual
can express himself/herself.

This lesson was able to trace how

PICTURE 13, Autumn Rhythm by Jackson Pollock, housed at the Museum of art was perceived through time,
Modern Art in New York City, United States of America. The photo was taken
by Edward John Padilla in 2015
but the most important thing is
your own perception about it.
Hopefully, by surveying the past, you were able to gather enough information for you to come up
with your own ideas about art en route to learning and appreciating art more.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. If you were given the chance to come up with your own definition of art, how will you
define it? Do you agree with the things that were said about art in the discussion? Why?
Why not?
2. What are the purposes of art discussed in the text? Can you think of other purposes?
3. Based on the text, it can be surmised that art is very important in the western world. In
your opinion, do you think our country has the same ideas about art? Do you think
Filipinos value art in the same way the western world values it?
4. Do you think art also played a significant role in our society? Discuss your answer.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Art and the Philippine Society

Using online sources, search for works of the following Filipino artists and try to explain their
significance to the Philippine society.

Filipino Title of Significance to

Artists Works Philippine Society

Juan Luna
(1857-1899)

Victorio Edades
(1895-1985)

Fernando Amorsolo
(1892-1972)

Vicente Manansala
(1910-1981)

Benedicto Cabrera
(1942-Present)
 Art Definitions and Samples

Choose an art sample that represents how art was defined by the following philosophers and
writers.

Philosopher/Writer Definition of Art

Aristotle Art completes what nature failed to finish.
Plato Art is an imperfect imitation of an imitation.
Longinus Art is perfect when it seems to be nature, and nature hits the
mark when she contains art within her.
Immanuel Kant Art is a kind of representation that is purposive in itself and,
though without and end, nevertheless promotes the cultivation
of the mental powers for sociable communication.
Jose Garcia Villa Art is never a means; it is an end itself

ASSESSMENT

Give your own definition of art and choose an art piece by a Filipino artist that best represents
your definition. Explain your definition by relating it to the art sample you have chosen. Use the
space provided below.

Your own definition of art

Title of the art work you have chosen

Discussion:
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VIEWING
“How Art Made the World Episode 1: More Human than Human”
BBC Documentary hosted by Nigel Spivey
Produced by Kim Thomas and Mark Hedgecoe
2005

Guide Questions:
1. What is the importance of the “Herring Gull” experiment in explaining the odd shape of
the Venus of Willendorf? Do you think the “Herring Gull” experiment is still applicable
to our present time?
2. What is the secret of the Egyptians in producing consistently shaped and proportioned
body depictions?
3. How do the ancient Greeks perceive beauty? Do you think their definition of beauty is
still true today?
4. Why do you think human beings are obsessed with unrealistic body depictions?

SOURCES

1. 30,000 Years of Art, Phaidon Press. October 22, 2007

2. The Short Story of Art by Susie Hodge, Laurence King Publishing Ltd. 2017
3. The Essential Dialogues of Plato, translated by Benjamin Jowett, Barnes and Noble. 2005
4. Aristotle’s Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, translated by S.H. Butcher, Dover
Publications. 1951
5. The History of Art Volume 2 Sixth Edition by H.W. Janson and Anthony F. Janson,
Prentice Hall. 2001
6. A Short Guide to Writing about Art by Sylvan Barnet, Scott, Foresman and Company.
1989
7. www.history.com/topics/ancient-history
8. www.encyclopediabritnnica.com
9. www.madeinsouthitaly.com
10. www.theacropolismuseum.gr