𝐻

Effects of environment on radio wave K = ; standard Skip Distance- shortest distance at which skywave
Wave Propagation “RADI-AR” 3
K<1 ; curvature of earth reverses
signal will be returned to earth measured along the
surface of the earth
Electromagnetic Wave – Composed of Electric Field • Reflection – bouncing back of waves when the wave 3. Sky Wave – ionospheric propagation - distance from the transmitter to the nearest point
and Magnetic Field perpendicular to each other and the hits the surface ( 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 ) - Reflected (actually refracted) from ionosphere where the sky wave returns to earth
direction of propagation. • Absorption – “Practical”
- incident wave perpendicular to surface therefore less Layer H (apparent or Skip Zone – is a zone of silence beyond a zone between
reflection, more transmitted average height of the end of the ground wave and the point where the first
-incident wave near parallel to the surface, max ionized layer) refracted wave returns to earth
reflection F2 300
- if 𝜆 < reflecting surface; reflection occurs *as frequency increases, rate of refraction increases but
F1 200
- if 𝜆 > reflecting surface; diffusion occurs E 120
more loss due to absorption
• Diffraction – bending of waves when it hits D 80
Right Hand Rule: an obstacle Scatter propagation - the transmission of radio waves
- Depends on if 𝜆 D – reflects VLF (for long range communications) far beyond LOD distances by using high power and
- “Shadow Zone” – no received signal E – aids MF a little large transmitting antenna to beam the signal upward
- Low Frequency – More diffraction F – longest propagation capability into the atmosphere and similar large receiving antenna
- High Frequency – Less diffraction F1 – absorbs High Frequency to pick up the portion if the signal that is scattered by
• Interference – any radio disturbances F2 – Provides long range High the atmosphere.
• Attenuation Frequency communications
• Refraction – bending of waves from one - aka beyond the horizon communication or forward
medium to a denser medium scatter propagation or over the horizon communication
𝒄
Wave Propagation or Radio Waves – transfer of EM 𝒏=
𝒗
waves from one point to another *snells law 𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
*incident wave hits surface can be: Temperature Inversion or Ducting
Fundamental Properties of EM Waves -
1. Reflection Created thru:
“Fr. Pol Direct Strength”
2. Absorption
3. Transmitted
• Frequency 1. Cool air sandwiched by warm air
• Polarization – orientation of E. Field as radiated from 2. Warm air above cool air
General Classification of Radio Wave
antenna
1. Ground – surface wave propagation
It can be :
- Vertically polarized wave that travels along the
1. Linear Polarization – Can be vertical or *at night time, D-layer vanishes and F1 F2 combines to F
surface of the earth
horizontal
- Used by VLF ; effective up to 2Mhz Ionosphere – Greatly affects radio wave
2. Circular Polarization also has linear
2. Space Wave – Direct Wave – Tropospheric
components
Propagation
• Direction of Propagation – can be : - Employs LOS or Line of Sight
1. Transverse – Perpendicular to the direction
(TEM, EM)
2. Longitudinal – Parallel to the direction (sound)
• Field Strength – electric field strength

√𝟑𝟎𝑷𝒕
𝑬. 𝑭. = where : Pt = Transmitted
𝒓
Power
r = distance in m 4
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛 = 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛 Stratosphere – very calm; no effect
𝑷𝒕 3
Power Density : 𝑷𝒅 =
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 K-factor = degree of bending and direction Troposphere – all weather condition; affects space
wave
Isotropic Radiator – Point source radiates energy in all
𝑓𝑐
direction (omnidirectional) cos 𝜃𝑐 = OWF = 0.85 MUF
𝑀𝑈𝐹

EIRP – Effective Isotropic Radiated Power – The

𝜃𝑐 = highest angle at which the wave can be propagated
transmitter power that would be needed with an
and still be returned from the ionosphere
isotropic radiator to produce the same power density in
𝑓𝑐 = highest frequency at a given ionization density that
the given direction.
will be returned down to the earth when beamed
𝑬𝑰𝑹𝑷 = 𝑷𝒕 (𝑮𝒕 ) Gt = transmit antenna vertically upward
gain MUF = maximum usable frequency – the highest
𝑬𝑰𝑹𝑷𝒅𝑩𝒎 = 𝑷𝒕 𝒅𝑩𝒎 + 𝟏𝟎𝐥𝐨 𝐠(𝑮𝒕 ) Super Refraction/ducting : K>1 frequency which is returned to earth at a given angle of
𝑬𝑰𝑹𝑷𝒅𝑩𝒎 = 𝑬𝑹𝑷𝒅𝑩𝒎 + 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓 𝒅𝑩 Sub Refraction : K<1 incidence and time of day
K = 1 ; direct path OWF = Optimum Working Frequency
K = ∞; follow earth’s curvature (ducting)
 Fade Margin (or Link Margin) - use to improve time Maximum Radio Range
MICROWAVE availability (how many additional dB are necessary?) 𝑅max(𝑚𝑖)= √2ℎ𝑡(𝑓𝑡) + √2ℎ𝑟(𝑓𝑡)

COMMUNICATION - the level of received power in excess of that required

for a specified minimum level of system performance Distance of Horizon
𝑑ℎ𝑜𝑟 (𝑚𝑖) = 1.414√ℎ𝑓𝑡
- a communication system that utilizes the
𝐹𝑀𝑑𝐵 = 𝑅𝑆𝐿(𝑑𝐵𝑚) -𝑅𝑥𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑(𝑑𝐵𝑚)
radio frequency band spanning from 2 to 60Ghz
𝟔𝟑𝟕𝟎
- point-to-point communication 𝒌=
𝟏−𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟓𝒆𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓𝟕𝟕 𝑵𝒔
- utilize the line-of-sight (LOS)
𝐹𝑀𝑑𝐵 % Reliability
8 90%
< 3Ghz - small capacity 18 99%
3-15Ghz - medium\high capacity 28 99.9%
> 15Ghz - short haul 38 99.99%
48 99.999%
58 99.9999%
Path Clearance or THE (total height extended)
𝑇𝐻𝐸 = 𝐸𝐶𝑓𝑡 + 0.6 𝐹1 + ℎ𝑜
Fresnel Zone - areas of constructive and destructive
Types of Microwave Paths interference where EM wave propagation in free space
is reflected (multipath) or diffracted as the wave
intersects obstacles.
1. Line of Sight Path - no obstruction occurs
2. Grazing Path - microwave beam barely - is the ellipsoid that stretches between the receiving and
touches the obstruction; zero clearance transmitting antennas.
3. Obstructed Path - microwave beam is blocked by
obstruction Even Fresnel Zone - cancellation
Odd Fresnel Zone - reinforcement
*note : Earth Curvature or Earth Bulge - describes 𝐹𝑓𝑡 = 72.1√
𝑑1𝑚𝑖 𝑑2𝑚𝑖
<- First Fresnel Radius
the effect of physical earth curvature along a direct 𝐹𝐺ℎ𝑧 𝐷𝑚𝑖

path between two points on the earth's surface 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹1𝑓𝑡 √𝑛 <- nth Fresnel Zone Radius

Microwave can be : *minimum tower height for microwave design is 0.6F

(condition of no gain, no loss)
1. Analog - additional repeater increase noise; less 𝑑1 𝑑2
𝐸𝐶𝑓𝑡 = 𝐷𝑚𝑖 = 𝑑1𝑚𝑖 + 𝑑2𝑚𝑖
reliability 1.5𝑘
2. Digital - with additional repeater, the noise is
lesser; improve reliability Microwave Repeaters

Total Reliability : 1. Active - intercepts, amplifies, retransmits the

%𝑅𝑡 = (𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 … . . 𝑅𝑛 )𝑥100% signal
2. Passive - bounces the signal from one
Reliability of components in repeater: direction to another
1. Series
%𝑅𝑡 = (𝑅 𝑛 )𝑥100% Diversity
2. Parallel - improve reliability of the link
%𝑅𝑡 = (1 − (1 − 𝑅)𝑛 )𝑥100%
Diversity System - uses multiple transmitters,
𝑃𝑡 √30𝑃𝑡 receivers, or antennas to mitigate the problems caused
𝑃𝑑 = 𝐸𝐹 = by multipath signals. The two most commonly
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟
employed are:
System Gain - it represent the net loss of a radio system
𝐺𝑠(𝑑𝐵) = 𝑃𝑡(𝑑𝐵𝑚) − 𝐶min(𝑑𝐵𝑚) 1. Frequency Diversity - two separate sets of
transmitters and receivers operating on
𝐶min(𝑑𝐵𝑚) = Rx threshold or Rx Sensitivity – provide different frequencies are used to transmit the
usable baseband output same information simultaneously
𝐶 2. Space (or spatial) Diversity - two receive
𝑑𝐵 = 𝐶min(𝑑𝐵𝑚) − 𝑁(𝑑𝐵𝑚) antennas spaced as far apart as possible to
𝑁
receive the signals