Electrical Engineering, Fourth Edition, by Allan R. Hambley.

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-198922-1. © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

APPENDIX

Complex Numbers
In Chapter 5, we learn that sinusoidal steady-state analysis is greatly facilitated if
the currents and voltages are represented as complex numbers known as phasors.
A
In this appendix, we review complex numbers.

Basic Complex-Number Concepts

p
Complex numbers involve the imaginary number j D 1. (Electrical engineers
use j to represent the square root of 1 rather than i , because i is often used for
currents.) Several examples of complex numbers are

3 C j4 and  2 C j5

We say that a complex number Z D x C j y has a real part x and an imaginary

part y . We can represent complex numbers by points in the complex plane, in
which the real part is the horizontal coordinate and the imaginary part is the vertical
coordinate. We often show the complex number by an arrow directed from the origin
of the complex plane to the point defined by the real and imaginary components.
This is illustrated in Figure A.1.
A pure imaginary number, j6 for example, has a real part of zero. On the other
hand, a pure real number, such as 5, has an imaginary part of zero.
We say that complex numbers of the form x C j y are in rectangular form. The
complex conjugate of a number in rectangular form is obtained by changing the sign
of the imaginary part. For example, if

Z 2 D 3  j4

then the complex conjugate of Z 2 is

Z 2Ł D 3 C j4

(Notice that we denote the complex conjugate by the symbol Ł .)

We add, subtract, multiply, and divide complex numbers that are in rectangular
form in much the same way as we do algebraic expressions, making the substitution
j 2 D 1.

Imaginary

y Z

Real
x

Figure A.1 Complex plane.

865
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 Electrical Engineering, Fourth Edition, by Allan R. Hambley.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-198922-1. © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

866 Appendix A Complex Numbers

Example A.1 Complex Arithmetic in Rectangular Form

Given that Z 1 D 5 C j5 and Z 2 D 3  j4, reduce Z 1 C Z 2 , Z 1  Z 2 , Z 1 Z 2 , and Z 1 =Z 2
to rectangular form.
Solution For the sum, we have

Z 1 C Z 2 D .5 C j5/ C .3  j4/ D 8 C j1

Notice that we add (algebraically) real part to real part and imaginary part to
imaginary part.
The difference is

Z 1  Z 2 D .5 C j5/  .3  j4/ D 2 C j9

In this case, we subtract each part of Z 2 from the corresponding part of Z 1 .

For the product, we get

Z 1 Z 2 D .5 C j5/.3  j4/
D 15  j20 C j15  j 2 20
D 15  j20 C j15 C 20
D 35  j5
Notice that we expanded the product in the usual way for binomial expressions.
Then, we used the fact that j 2 D 1.
To divide the numbers, we obtain
Z1 5 C j5
D
Z2 3  j4
We can reduce this expression to rectangular form by multiplying the numerator
and denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator. This causes the
denominator of the fraction to become pure real. Then, we divide each part of the
numerator by the denominator. Thus, we find that
Z1 5 C j5 ZŁ
D ð 2Ł
Z2 3  j4 Z2
5 C j5 3 C j4
D ð
3  j4 3 C j4
15 C j20 C j15 C j 2 20
D
9 C j12  j12  j 2 16
15 C j20 C j15  20
D
9 C j12  j12 C 16
5 C j35
D
25
D 0:2 C j1:4 ■

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 Electrical Engineering, Fourth Edition, by Allan R. Hambley.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-198922-1. © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

867

Exercise A.1 Given that Z 1 D 2  j3 and Z 2 D 8 C j6, reduce Z 1 C Z 2 , Z 1  Z 2 ,

Z 1 Z 2 , and Z 1 =Z 2 to rectangular form.
Answer Z 1 C Z 2 D 10 C j3, Z 1  Z 2 D 6  j9, Z 1 Z 2 D 34  j12, Z 1 =Z 2 D
0:02  j0:36.

Complex Numbers in Polar Form

Complex numbers can be expressed in polar form by giving the length of the arrow
that represents the number and the angle between the arrow and the positive real
axis. Examples of complex numbers in polar form are

Z 3 D 5∠30Ž and Z 4 D 10∠45Ž

These numbers are shown in Figure A.2. The length of the arrow that represents a
complex number Z is denoted as jZ j and is called the magnitude of the complex
number.

Imaginary

Z3
5
30°
Real
45°

10
Z4
Figure A.2 Complex
numbers in polar form.

Complex numbers can be converted from polar to rectangular form, or vice

versa, by using the fact that the magnitude jZ j, the real part x , and the imaginary
part y form a right triangle. This is illustrated in Figure A.3. Using trigonometry,
we can write the following relationships:

jZ j2 D x 2 C y 2 (A.1) Z
y y
tan. / D (A.2) u
x
x
x D jZ j cos. / (A.3)
Figure A.3 Complex number
y D jZ j sin. / (A.4) representation.

These equations can be used to convert numbers from polar to rectangular form, or
vice versa.

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 Electrical Engineering, Fourth Edition, by Allan R. Hambley.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-198922-1. © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

868 Appendix A Complex Numbers

Example A.2 Polar-to-Rectangular Conversion

Convert Z 3 D 5∠30Ž to rectangular form.
Solution Using Equations A.3 and A.4, we have

x D jZ j cos. / D 5 cos.30Ž / D 4:33

and
y D jZ j sin. / D 5 sin.30Ž / D 2:5

Thus, we can write

Z 3 D 5∠30Ž D x C j y D 4:33 C j2:5 ■

Example A.3 Rectangular-to-Polar Conversion

Convert Z 5 D 10 C j5 and Z 6 D 10 C j5 to polar form.
Solution The complex numbers are illustrated in Figure A.4. First, we use Equa-
tion A.1 to find the magnitudes of each of the numbers. Thus,
q p
jZ 5 j D x52 C y52 D 102 C 52 D 11:18
and
q p
jZ 6 j D x62 C y62 D .10/2 C 52 D 11:18

To find the angles, we use Equation A.2.

y5 5
tan.5 / D D D 0:5
x5 10

Taking the arctangent of both sides, we have

5 D arctan.0:5/ D 26:57Ž

Thus, we can write

Z 5 D 10 C j5 D 11:18∠26:57Ž
This is illustrated in Figure A.4.

Z6 Z5
11.18
5 153.43° 5
26.57°
–10 10

Figure A.4 Complex numbers of Example A.3.

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 Electrical Engineering, Fourth Edition, by Allan R. Hambley.
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869

Evaluating Equation A.2 for Z 6 , we have

y6 5
tan.6 / D D D 0:5
x6 10
Now if we take the arctan of both sides, we obtain

6 D 26:57Ž

However, Z 6 D 10 C j5 is shown in Figure A.4. Clearly, the value that we have
found for 5 is incorrect. The reason for this is that the arctangent function is
multivalued. The value actually given by most calculators or computer programs is
the principal value. If the number falls to the left of the imaginary axis (i.e., if the real
part is negative), we must add (or subtract) 180Ž to arctan.y=x/ to obtain the correct
angle. Thus, the true angle for Z 6 is
 
y6
6 D 180 C arctan D 180  26:57 D 153:43Ž
x6
Finally, we can write
Z 6 D 10 C j5 D 11:18∠153:43Ž ■
The procedures that we have illustrated in Examples A.2 and A.3 can be carried
out with a relatively simple calculator. However, if we find the angle by taking
the arctangent of y=x , we must consider the fact that the principal value of the
arctangent is the true angle only if the real part x is positive. If x is negative, we have
y
 D arctan š 180Ž (A.5)
x
Many scientific calculators are capable of converting complex numbers from
polar to rectangular, and vice versa, in a single operation. Practice with your
calculator to become proficient using this feature. It is always a good idea to make a
sketch of the number in the complex plane as a check on the conversion process.

Exercise A.2 Convert the numbers Z 1 D 15∠45Ž , Z 2 D 10∠150Ž , and Z 3 D

5∠90 to rectangular form.
Ž

Answer Z 1 D 10:6 C j10:6, Z 2 D 8:66  j5, Z 3 D j5.

Exercise A.3 Convert the numbers Z 1 D 3 C j4, Z 2 D  j10, and Z 3 D 5  j5 to
polar form.
Answer Z 1 D 5∠53:13Ž , Z 2 D 10∠90Ž , Z 3 D 7:07∠135Ž .

Euler’s Identities
You may have been wondering what complex numbers have to do with sinusoids.
The connection is through Euler’s identities, which state that Equations A.6 through A.9 are
the bridge between sinusoidal
e j C e j currents or voltages and
cos. / D (A.6) complex numbers.
2

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 Electrical Engineering, Fourth Edition, by Allan R. Hambley.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-198922-1. © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

870 Appendix A Complex Numbers

and
e j  e j
sin. / D (A.7)
2j
Another form of these identities is
e j D cos. / C j sin. / (A.8)
and
e j D cos. /  j sin. / (A.9)

Thus, e j is a complex number having a real part of cos. / and an imaginary

part of sin. /. This is illustrated in Figure A.5. The magnitude is
q
je j j D cos2 . / C sin2 . /

By the well-known identity cos2 . / C sin2 . / D 1, this becomes

je j j D 1 (A.10)

Furthermore, the angle of e j is  . Thus, we can write

e j D 1∠ D cos. / C j sin. / (A.11)

Similarly, we have
e j D 1∠ D cos. /  j sin. / (A.12)
 j j
Notice that e is the complex conjugate of e .
A complex number such as A∠ can be written as
A∠ D A ð .1∠ / D Ae j (A.13)

We call Ae j the exponential form of a complex number. Hence, a given complex

number can be written in three forms: the rectangular form, the polar form, and the
exponential form. Using Equation A.11 to substitute for e j on the right-hand side
of Equation A.13, we obtain the three forms of a complex number:
A∠ D Ae j D A cos. / C j A sin. / (A.14)

Imaginary
u
ej
1
sin (u)

Real
cos (u)

Figure A.5 Euler’s identity.

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 Electrical Engineering, Fourth Edition, by Allan R. Hambley.
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871

Imaginary

10
8.66

60°
Figure A.6 See Example A.4. Real
5

Example A.4 Exponential Form of a Complex Number

Express the complex number Z D 10∠60Ž in exponential and rectangular forms.
Sketch the number in the complex plane.
Solution Conversion from polar to exponential forms is based on Equation A.13.
Thus, we have
Z D 10∠60Ž D 10e j60
Ž

The rectangular form can be found by using Equation A.8:

Ž
Z D 10 ð .e j60 /
D 10 ð [cos.60Ž / C j sin.60Ž /]
D 5 C j8:66
The graphical representation of Z is shown in Figure A.6. ■

Exercise A.4 Express Z 1 D 10 C j10 and Z 2 D 10 C j10 in polar and exponential
forms.
Answer Z 1 D 14:14∠45Ž D 14:14e j45 , Z 2 D 14:14∠135Ž D 14:14e j135 .
Ž Ž

Arithmetic Operations in Polar and Exponential Form

To add (or subtract) complex numbers, we must first convert them to rectan-
gular form. Then, we add (or subtract) real part to real part and imaginary to
imaginary.
Consider two complex numbers in exponential form given by
Z 1 D jZ 1 je j1 and Z 2 D jZ 2 je j2
The polar forms of these numbers are
Z 1 D jZ 1 j∠1 and Z 2 D jZ 2 j∠2
For multiplication of numbers in exponential form, we have
Z 1 ð Z 2 D jZ 1 je j1 ð jZ 2 je j2 D jZ 1 jjZ 2 je j .1 C2 /

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 Electrical Engineering, Fourth Edition, by Allan R. Hambley.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-198922-1. © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

872 Appendix A Complex Numbers

As usual, in multiplying exponentials, we add the exponents. In polar form, this is

Z 1 ð Z 2 D jZ 1 j∠1 ðjZ 2 j∠2 D jZ 1 jjZ 2 j∠1 C 2
Thus, to multiply numbers in polar form, we multiply the magnitudes and add the
angles.
Now consider division:
Z1 jZ 1 je j1 jZ 1 j j .1 2 /
D j
D e
Z2 jZ 2 je 2 jZ 2 j
As usual, in dividing exponentials, we subtract the exponents. In polar form, this is
Z1 jZ 1 j∠1 jZ 1 j
jZ 2 j ∠
D D 1  2
Z2 jZ 2 j∠2
Thus, to divide numbers in polar form, we divide the magnitudes and subtract the
angle of the divisor from the angle of the dividend.

Example A.5 Complex Arithmetic in Polar Form

Given Z 1 D 10∠60 and Z 2 D 5∠45Ž , find Z 1 Z 2 , Z 1 =Z 2 , and Z 1 C Z 2 in polar form.
Ž

Solution For the product, we have

Z 1 ð Z 2 D 10∠60Ž ð 5∠45Ž D 50∠105Ž
Dividing the numbers, we have
Z1 10∠60Ž
D D 2∠15Ž
Z2 5∠45Ž
Before we can add (or subtract) the numbers, we must convert them to rectangular
form. Using Equation A.14 to convert the polar numbers to rectangular, we get
Z 1 D 10∠60Ž D 10 cos.60Ž / C j10 sin.60Ž /
D 5 C j8:66
Z 2 D 5∠45Ž D 5 cos.45Ž / C j5 sin.45Ž /
D 3:54 C j3:54
Now, we can add the numbers. We denote the sum as Z s :
Z s D Z 1 C Z 2 D 5 C j8:66 C 3:54 C j3:54
D 8:54 C j12:2
Next, we convert the sum to polar form:
p
jZ s j D .8:54/2 C .12:2/2 D 14:9
12:2
tan s D
D 1:43
8:54
Taking the arctangent of both sides, we have
s D arctan.1:43/ D 55Ž
Because the real part of Z s is positive, the correct angle is the principal value of the
arctangent (i.e., 55Ž is the correct angle). Thus, we obtain
Z s D Z 1 C Z 2 D 14:9∠55Ž ■

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 Electrical Engineering, Fourth Edition, by Allan R. Hambley.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-198922-1. © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Problems 873

Exercise A.5 Given Z 1 D 10∠30Ž and Z 2 D 20∠135Ž , find Z 1 Z 2 , Z 1 =Z 2 , Z 1  Z 2 ,

and Z 1 C Z 2 in polar form.
Answer Z 1 Z 2 D 200∠165Ž , Z 1 =Z 2 D 0:5∠105Ž , Z 1  Z 2 D 24:6∠21:8Ž , Z 1 C
Z 2 D 19:9∠106Ž .

Summary

1. Complex numbers can be expressed in rectangular, 2. Sinusoids and complex numbers are related
polar, or exponential forms. Addition, subtraction, through Euler’s identities.
multiplication, and division of complex numbers
are necessary operations in solving steady-state ac
circuits by the phasor method.

Problems Ł

PA.1. Given that Z 1 D 2 C j3 and Z 2 D 4  j3, PA.5. Express each of these complex numbers in
reduce Z 1 C Z 2 , Z 1  Z 2 , Z 1 Z 2 , and Z 1 =Z 2 to rectangular form and in exponential form:
rectangular form. a. Z a D 5∠45Ž ; b. Z b D 10∠120Ž ; c. Z c D
15∠90Ž ; d. Z d D 10∠60Ž .
PA.2. Given that Z 1 D 1  j2 and Z 2 D 2 C j3, PA.6. Express each of these complex numbers in
reduce Z 1 C Z 2 , Z 1  Z 2 , Z 1 Z 2 , and Z 1 =Z 2 to rectangular form and in polar form: a. Z a D
Ž Ž Ž
rectangular form. 5e j30 ; b. Z b D 10e j45 ; c. Z c D 100e j135 ;
Ž
d. Z d D 6e j90 .
PA.7. Reduce each of the following to rectangular
PA.3. Given that Z 1 D 10 C j5 and Z 2 D 20  j20,
form:
reduce Z 1 C Z 2 , Z 1  Z 2 , Z 1 Z 2 , and Z 1 =Z 2 to
rectangular form. a. Z a D 5 C j5 C 10∠30Ž
b. Z b D 5∠45Ž  j10
PA.4. Express each of these complex numbers in 10∠45Ž
c. Z c D
polar form and in exponential form: a. Z a D 3 C j4
5  j5; b. Z b D 10 C j5; c. Z c D 3  j4; 15
d. Z d D
d. Z d D  j12. 5∠90Ž

*
Solutions to all of these problems can be found on the OrCAD CD and on the website www.myengineeringlab.com

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