T.K.

Lim

Edible Medicinal
and Non
Medicinal Plants
Volume 8, Flowers
Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal
Plants
T.K. Lim

Edible Medicinal
and Non Medicinal
Plants
Volume 8, Flowers
ISBN 978-94-017-8747-5 ISBN 978-94-017-8748-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London

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Acknowledgments

Special thanks for digital images and visitation are accorded to Louis Landry
(Agastache foeniculum, Galium odoratum); Stephanie Wee, Malaysia
(Malvaviscus arboreus, Ixora chinensis); G. F. Chung Malaysia (Azadirachta
indica); Christine and Ian Macmillan’s Saffron Farm Bungendore NSW
(visitation).

v
Disclaimer

The author and publisher of this work have checked with sources believed to
be reliable in their efforts to confirm the accuracy and completeness of the
information presented herein and that the information is in accordance with
the standard practices accepted at the time of publication. However, neither
the author nor publishers warrant that information is in every aspect accurate
and complete and they are not responsible for errors or omissions or for
consequences from the application of the information in this work. This book
is a work of reference and is not intended to supply nutritive or medical
advice to any individual. The information contained in the notes on edibility,
uses, nutritive values, medicinal attributes and medicinal uses and suchlike
included here are recorded information and do not constitute recommenda-
tions. No responsibility will be taken for readers’ own actions.

vii
Contents

Introduction ........................................................................................... 1

Geraniaceae

Pelargonium crispum ............................................................................. 72

Iridaceae

Crocus sativus ........................................................................................ 77

Freesia leichtlinii subsp. alba................................................................ 137
Gladiolus dalenii .................................................................................... 141
Gladiolus grandiflorus ........................................................................... 144

Lamiaceae

Agastache foeniculum............................................................................ 151

Lavandula angustifolia .......................................................................... 156
Lavandula dentata.................................................................................. 186
Lavandula stoechas ................................................................................ 192
Salvia elegans ......................................................................................... 202
Sideritis scardica .................................................................................... 207

Liliaceae

Lilium lancifolium ................................................................................. 215

Tulip gesneriana..................................................................................... 221

Limnocharitaceae

Limnocharis flava .................................................................................. 232

ix
x Contents

Magnoliaceae

Magnolia denudata ................................................................................ 236

Magnolia grandiflora ............................................................................. 243

Malvaceae

Abutilon indicum.................................................................................... 276

Abutilon megapotamicum ...................................................................... 290
Alcea rosea ............................................................................................. 292
Hibiscus mutabilis .................................................................................. 300
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis............................................................................ 306
Hibiscus sabdariffa ................................................................................ 324
Hibiscus schizopetalus ........................................................................... 371
Hibiscus syriacus.................................................................................... 374
Hibiscus taiwanensis .............................................................................. 381
Hibiscus tiliaceus ................................................................................... 385
Malva sylvestris ...................................................................................... 395
Malvaviscus arboreus ............................................................................ 405

Meliaceae

Azadirachta indica ................................................................................. 409

Myrtaceae

Corymbia calophylla .............................................................................. 456

Syzygium aromaticum ............................................................................ 460

Nyctaginaceae

Bougainvillea glabra .............................................................................. 483

Bougainvillea spectabilis ....................................................................... 489
Mirabilis jalapa ...................................................................................... 497

Nymphaeaceae

Nymphaea lotus ...................................................................................... 514

Nymphaea nouchali ............................................................................... 519
Contents xi

Oleaceae

Forsythia × intermedia ........................................................................... 526

Jasminum sambac .................................................................................. 529
Syringa vulgaris ..................................................................................... 541

Onagraceae

Fuchsia × hybrida .................................................................................. 548

Oenothera speciosa ................................................................................ 552

Orchidaceae

Dendrobium bigibbum ........................................................................... 555

Paeoniaceae

Paeonia lactiflora ................................................................................... 559

Paeonia × suffruticosa ........................................................................... 597

Papaveraceae

Eschscholzia californica ........................................................................ 622

Plantaginaceae

Antirrhinum majus ................................................................................ 633

Poaceae

Saccharum spontaneum var. edulis ...................................................... 640

Polygonaceae

Antigonon leptopus ................................................................................ 643

Primulaceae

Primula × polyantha .............................................................................. 650

Proteaceae

Banksia grandis...................................................................................... 655

Banksia integrifolia................................................................................ 658
Telopea speciosissima............................................................................. 661
xii Contents

Ranunculaceae

Aquilegia caerulea ................................................................................. 664

Rosaceae

Rosa × hybrida ....................................................................................... 668

Rosa × rugosa ......................................................................................... 682

Rubiaceae

Galium odoratum ................................................................................... 700

Gardenia jasminoides ............................................................................ 705
Ixora chinensis ....................................................................................... 730
Ixora coccinea ........................................................................................ 734
Ixora javanica ........................................................................................ 745

Rutaceae

Boronia megastigma .............................................................................. 748

Solanaceae

Petunia hybrida ...................................................................................... 755

Theaceae

Camellia japonica .................................................................................. 764

Tropaeolaceae

Tropaeolum majus ................................................................................. 777

Typhaceae

Typha orientalis ...................................................................................... 788

Violaceae

Viola hederacea ...................................................................................... 792

Viola odorata .......................................................................................... 795
Viola tricolor........................................................................................... 808
Viola × wittrockiana ............................................................................... 818
Contents xiii

Xanthorrhoeaceae

Hemerocallis fulva ................................................................................. 822

Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus................................................................. 830

Zingiberaceae

Etlingera elatior ..................................................................................... 834

Etlingera hemisphaerica ........................................................................ 844
Hedychium coronarium ......................................................................... 847
Zingiber zerumbet .................................................................................. 857

Author’s Blurb....................................................................................... 877

Medical Glossary................................................................................... 879

Scientific Glossary ................................................................................. 953

Common Name Index ........................................................................... 977

Scientific Name Index ........................................................................... 1001

 Introduction

This book continues as volume 8 of a multi- other plant parts, imparting a wide array of
compendium on Edible Medicinal and Non- health benefits and pharmacological properties.
Medicinal Plants. It covers plants with edible According to the Global Industry Analyst Inc.,
flowers whose floral parts including the stalk global nutraceuticals market is anticipated to
and flower nectar are eaten as conventional or exceed US 243 billion by 2015 (GIA 2012).
functional food and as spices and may provide a The United States, Europe and Japan dominate
source of food colorant, additive or nutraceuticals. the global market, accounting for a combined
Functional food has been described as being market share of more than 85 %. Spurred by the
similar in appearance to, or may be, a conven- growing affluence, rising disposable income and
tional food that is consumed as part of a usual diet increasing awareness, particularly in China and
and is demonstrated to have physiological benefits India, the Asia Pacific region is projected to see
and/or reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond significant growth in the long term. Functional
basic nutritional functions, i.e. they contain bio- foods that constitute the faster-growing segment
active compounds (Health Canada 2002). A in the nutraceuticals market are rising in popu-
nutraceutical can be defined as a product isolated larity, as the segment offers a cheaper alternative
or purified from foods that is generally sold in to dietary supplements. Value-added food pro-
medicinal forms not usually associated with foods ducts that feature edible flowers offer additional
and is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit marketing opportunities.
or provide protection against chronic disease. This volume covers such plants with edible
Biologically active components in functional foods flowers from families Geraniaceae to
that may impart health benefits or desirable physio- Zingiberaceae in a tabular form (Table 1) and
logical effects include carotenoids (β-carotene, eighty such species from 32 families such as
lutein, lycopene), dietary fibres (β-glucans, soluble Geraniaceae, Iridaceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae,
fibre), fatty acids (omega fatty acids, conjugated Limnocharitaceae, Magnoliaceae, Malvaceae,
linoleic acid), flavonoids (anthocyanins, flava- Meliaceae, Myrtaceae, Nyctaginaceae,
nols, flavanones, flavonols, proanthocyanidins), Nymphaeaceae, Oleaceae, Onagraceae,
isothiocyanates, phenolic acids, plant sterols, Orchidaceae, Paeoniaceae, Papaveraceae,
polyols and prebiotics/probiotics (fructo- Plantaginaceae, Poaceae, Polygonaceae,
oligosaccharides – inulin), vitamins and phytoes- Primulaceae, Proteaceae, Ranunculaceae,
trogens (isoflavones – daidzein, genistein). Many Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Solanaceae,
plants with edible flowers contain many of these Theaceae, Tropaeolaceae, Typhaceae, Violaceae,
bioactive components and essential mineral Xanthorrhoeaceae and Zingiberaceae in detail.
elements (Mlcek and Rop 2011; Rop et al. 2012), Some plants with edible flowers but are better
carbohydrates and amino acids in the flowers and known for their edible fruits have been covered in

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 1
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_1, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
 2
Table 1 Plants with edible flowers in the families Geraniaceae to Zingiberaceae
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Geraniaceae
Geranium bicknellii Britton Bicknell’s Cranesbill, Northern Flowers eaten raw as garnish for salads Schofield (2003)
Cranesbill
Geranium erianthum DC. Wooly Geranium, Cranesbill Flowers eaten raw as garnish for salads Schofield (2003)
Geranium × fragrans Dum. Cours. Scented Pelargonium The leaves have a powerful citrus fragrance Anonymous (2012a)
and will add flavour to cakes and meringue
roulades. The flowers have a faint citrus
flavour similar to the leaves and are ideal
when crystallized and scattered on desserts
Geranium graveolens Stokes = Geranium Scented Pelargonium, Rose-Scented The flowers have a faint citrus flavour Anonymous (2012a) and Roberts (2000)
robertianum L. Geranium, Herb Robert, Storkbill similar to the leaves and are ideal when
crystallized and scattered on desserts
Geranium incanum Burm.f. Carpet Geranium, Creeping Flowers used, as for other geranium Roberts (2000)
Geranium, Wild Geranium; Horlosies, flowers, in salads and desserts
Vrouetee, Bergtee (Afrikaans)
Geranium quercifolium L.f. =Pelargonium Scented Pelargonium Flowers used as above Anonymous (2012a)
quercifolium (L.f.) L’Her.
Geranium robertianum L. Herb Robert, Storkbill Flowers eaten raw as garnish in salads Schofield (2003)
Geranium tomentosum Scented Pelargonium The flowers have a faint citrus flavour Roberts (2000) and Anonymous (2012a)
Andrews = Pelargonium ovale similar to the leaves and are ideal
(Burm.f.) L’Her. when crystallized and scattered
on desserts
Geranium viscosissimum Sticky Geranium, Sticky Purple Flowers edible raw, used as garnish Facciola (1990) and Schofield (2003)
Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Geranium for salads or used to decorate hors
d’oeuvres
Pelargonium crispum (L.) L’Her. Crisped Leaf Pelargonium, Curled Flowers used in salads, dessert, drinks Barash (1997), Roberts (2000),
Leaved Cranesbill, Finger Bowl and jellies and Deane (2007–2012j)
Geranium, Lemon Geranium,
Lemon-Scented Geranium
Pelargonium graveolens L’Her. Rose Geranium, Old Fashion Rose Flowers edible raw, added to salads and Bryan and Castle (1975), Larkcom
Geranium, Rose-Scented Geranium to lend flavour and fragrance to juice, wine, (1980), Facciola (1990), Barash (1997),
desserts, cakes, ice cream, soups, sugar, and Roberts (2000)
vinegar, sauces, custards and canned and
baked fruits
Pelargonium spp. Scented Geraniums Scented flowers used in salads, desserts, Barash (1997), Newman and O’Connor
Introduction

jellies and drinks (2009), and Deane (2007–2012j)

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Pelargonium tomentosum Jacq. Pennyroyal Pelargonium, Flowers used to flavour cakes, jellies, Gessert (1983) and Facciola (1990)
Peppermint-Scented puddings, pies, cookies, tarts, teas
Pelargonium and other desserts
Introduction

Pelargonium × nervosum Sweet Lime Geranium, Scented Geranium Flowers used to flavour cakes, jellies, Gessert (1983) and Facciola (1990)
puddings, drinks, vinegar, wine and soups
Gnetaceae
Gnetum gnemon L. Gnetum, Joint Fir, Kampong Tree, Inflorescences/flowers cooked in sayur, Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink
Spanish Joint Fir; Blinjau, Meninjau soups and in curries in Indonesia (1980), Facciola (1990), and Lim
(Malaysia); Melinjo, Belinjo (2012a)
(Indonesia)
Grossulariaceae
Ribes aureum Pursh. Golden Currant Flowers eaten raw and have a very Harrington (1974) and Deane
sweet flavour (2007–2012j)
Ribes cereum Douglas Wax Currant As above Harrington (1974), Clarke (1977),
Facciola (1990), and Deane (2007–2012j)
Ribes nigrum L. Black Currant Flower buds used in ice cream and liqueurs Deane (2007–2012j)
Ribes odoratum H.L. Wendl. = Ribes Golden Currant, Buffalo Currant Flowers eaten raw, has a sweet taste Harrington (1974) and Facciola (1990)
aureum var. villosum DC.
Hamamelidaceae
Corylopsis himalayana Griff. Dieng-Piu Flowers eaten in Meghalaya, India Sawian et al. (2007)
Helwingiaceae
Helwingia chinensis Batalin Zhong Hua Qing Jia Ye (Chinese) Flowers and leaves are edible Kunkel (1984)
Helwingia japonica (Thunb.) F. Dietr. Hana-Ikada (Japanese) Young flowers and young shoots are eaten Read (1946), Uphof (1968), Tanaka
(1976), and Facciola (1990)
Hyacinthaceae
Muscari atlanticum Boiss. & Musk Hyacinth, Nutmeg Hyacinth Flowers and flower buds can be pickled Newman and O’Connor (2009)
Reut. = Muscari neglectum Guss. ex Ten. in vinegar
Muscari botryoides (L.) Mill. Italian Grape Hyacinth As above Crowhurst (1972), Facciola (1990),
and Newman and O’Connor (2009)
Muscari neglectum Guss. ex Ten. Musk Hyacinth, Nutmeg Hyacinth The flowers, sprinkled over rhubarb, Hedrick (1972) and Facciola (1990)
add a wonderful scented flavour
Hydrocharitaceae
Hydrocharis dubia (Blume) Backer Frogbit; Tochi-Kagami (Japanese) Young inflorescence is eaten Van den Bergh (1994b)
Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. Mizu Obako (Japanese); Young leaves and flowers are eaten raw Jircas (2010)
Santawa (Thai) with chilli sauce and used as side dish
3

(continued)
 4
Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Hypericaceae
Cratoxylum formosum Benth. & Hook. f. ex Pink Mempat; Tiew (Thai) Flowers are edible Tangkanakul et al. (2005)
Dyer
Hypericum perforatum L. St. John’s Wort, Amber, Goat Weed, Flowers used for making mead Crowhurst (1972), Facciola (1990),
John’s Wort, Chase Devil, Klamath and can be tossed into salads and Roberts (2000)
Weed, Rosin Rose, Tipton Weed
Iridaceae
Crocosmia aurea (Pappe ex Hook.) Planch. Falling Stars, Valentine Flower, Flowers source of yellow dye, used Uphof (1968) and Facciola (1990)
Montbretia as substitute for saffron
Crocus sativus L Saffron, Autumn Crocus, Spanish Dried filaments and styles used Hedrick (1972), Morton (1976), Kunkel
Saffron, Dyer’s Saffron for colouring and flavouring food (1984), Garland (1993), Facciola (1990),
and saffron tea and Wessel-Riemens (1992)
Crocus serotinus Salisb. Late Crocus, Ornamental Crocus Flowers used as saffron substitute Tanaka (1976)
in colouring food
Freesia alba (G.L. Mey.) Gumbl. Fressia, Kammetjie; Ruikpypie Flowers used raw in salads Deane (2007–2012h)
(Afrikaans)
Freesia leichtlinii subsp. alba (G.L. Mey.) Fressia, Kammetjie, Ruikpypie Edible flowers used raw in salads. Wickes (2004) and Deane (2007–2012h)
J.C. Manning & Goldblatt They are reported to be excellent,
infused with a sugar syrup and are
used in sorbets for flavouring
Freesia spp. Freesia Highly scented flowers are used in salads Deane (2007–2012h)
raw or as a garnish. They are reported
to be excellent, infused with sugar syrup
and added in sorbets for flavouring
Gladiolus cruentus T. Moore Blood Lily, Blood-Red Gladiolus, Flowers eaten raw or cooked, added Fox et al. (1982) and Facciola (1990)
Blood Flag, Gladiolus to salads or used as a boiled vegetable
Gladiolus dalenii Van Geel African Gladiolus, Parrot-Beaked Flowers eaten raw or cooked. The anthers Fox et al. (1982) and Facciola (1990)
Gladiolus; Papegaai-Gladiolus are removed and the flowers are added
(Afrikans) to salads or used as a boiled vegetable.
Children suck the flowers for their copious
quantities of nectar
Gladiolus ecklonii Lehm. Sheathed Gladiolus Flower eaten raw or used in potherb Fox et al. (1982) and Facciola (1990)
Gladiolus hortulanus L.H. Bailey Garden Gladiolus, Gladiolus, Glads Petals eaten raw or cooked, rather bland Deane (2007–2012b)
Gladiolus spp. Gladiolus As above Newman and O’Connor (2009)
Introduction

Tritonia crocata (L.) Ker-Gawl. Orange Tritonia, Kalkoentjie Flowers used to adulterate saffron Kunkel (1984) and Facciola (1990)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Lamiaceae
Acinos arvensis (Schur) Basil Thyme Flowering tops used to season jugged Grieve (1971), Kunkel (1984), Facciola
Dandy = Clinopodium acinos (L.) Kuntze hare and used in salads (1990), and Bown (1995)
Introduction

Aeollanthus pubescens Benth. Leaves, flowers used as spice (analogue Seidemann (2005)
of basil)
Agastache anethiodora Nutt. & Britton Anise Hyssop Aromatic leaves and flowers are used in Roberts (2000) and Deane
salads for flavouring and in tea and punch (2007–2012m)
Agastache cana (Hook.) Wooton & Standl. Texas Hummingbird Mint, Mosquito Aromatic leaves and flowers are used in Deane (2007–2012m)
Plant, Wild Hyssop salads for flavouring and tea
Agastache foeniculum (Pursh) Kuntze Anise Hyssop, Blue Giant Hyssop, Flowers used in desserts—cakes, custard, Morton (1976), Facciola (1990), Barash
Blue Giant Hyssop, Lavender Hyssop, cookies; Flowers have an anise or liquorice (1997), Lauderdale and Evans (1999),
Licorice Mint, Wonder Honey Plant flavour used for salad or drinks and tea and Newman and O’Connor (2009)
Agastache mexicana (Kunth) Lint & Epling Mexican Hyssop Aromatic leaves and flowers are used Deane (2007–2012m)
in salads for flavouring and tea
Agastache neomexicana (Briq.) New Mexico Giant Hyssop As above Deane (2007–2012m)
Standl. = Agastache pallidiflora subsp.
neomexicana (Briq.) Lint & Epling
Agastache rugosa (Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) Korean Hyssop, Korean Mint As above Roberts (2000) and Deane (2007–2012m)
Agastache urticifolia (Benth.) Kuntze Giant Hyssop, Nettle Leaf Giant Hyssop Dried flowers used to make herbal tea Yanovsky (1936) and Facciola (1990)
Calamintha ascendens Jord. = Clinopodium Calamint, Common Calamint, Calamint tea, calamint conserve, peach Roberts (2000)
menthifolium subsp. ascendens (Jord.) Mountain Calamint, Mountain Balm and calamint dessert
Govaerts
Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi = Clinopodium Calamint, Lesser Calamint, Roberts (2000)
nepeta (L.) Kuntze Cornemint, Mountain Mint
Calamintha officinalis Calamint, Cornemint, Mill Mountain, Calamint tea Roberts (2000)
Moench = Clinopodium nepeta subsp. Mountain Balm, Basil Thyme,
glandulosum (Req.) Govaerts Mountain Mint
Calamintha sylvatica Bromf. = Clinopodium Calamint, Woodland Calamint Flowers used for conserve Morton (1976) and Facciola (1990)
menthifolium subsp. menthifolium
Clerodendrum japonicum (Thunb.) Sweet Japanese Glorybower, Kaempfer’s Flowers are edible Kunkel (1984)
Glorybower
Clerodendrum serratum Spreng. var. Glorybower, Bagflower, Inflorescences are boiled or cooked Tanaka (1976), Ochse and van den Brink
wallichii C. B. Clarke = Rotheca serrata (L.) Bleeding-Heart; Akkhi Thawan, with curry in India. Young inflorescences (1980), Facciola (1990), Sawian et al.
Steane & Mabb. Charak Pa (Thai); Bharangi with unexpanded flowers are eaten as lalab, (2007), and JIRCAS (2010)
(Indonesia); Akalbih, Akla Brikhsa side dish with rice in Indonesia
(Assamese)
5

(continued)
 6
Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Clerodendrum spicatum Cat’s Whiskers, Java Tea, Kidney Flowers cooked as vegetable; flowers Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985)
Thunb. = Orthosiphon aristatus Tea Plant; Ya Nuat Suea (Thai) that are bitter are cooked and eaten
var. aristatus as good vegetable
Clinopodium brownie (Sw.) Kuntze Browne’ Savoury, Creeping Charlie, Flowers are edible Deane (2007–2012l)
Mint Charlie
Elsholtzia blanda (Bentham) Bentham Llomba, Lengmaser (Manipur) Flowers dried and stored for months, Hauzel (2012) and Yumnam and Tripathi
used for garnishing vegetarian (2012)
and non-vegetarian dishes; used in
a dish made of arbi (Colocasia)
Elsholtzia strobilifera (Benth.) Benth. Rengma Ser, Langtu (Assamese) Inflorescence eaten in Assam Medhi and Borthakur (2012)
Gmelina arborea Roxb. Yunnan Gemlina; Tian Shi Zi Fragrant flower gathered by Thai ethnic Hu (2005) and Patiri and Borah (2007)
(Chinese); Gomari, Gameri group of southern Yunnan for flavouring
(Assamese) and colouring pastries. In Assam, flowers
eaten cooked
Hedeoma drummondii Benth. Drummond’s False Pennyroyal Infusion of flowering tops used as beverage Yanovsky (1936)
in Texas
Hyssopus officinalis L. Hyssop Flowers, raw. Added to salads Facciola (1990), Deane (2007–2012n),
or made into syrup and Newman and O’Connor (2009)
Koellia virginiana (L.) Virginia Mountain Mint Flowers and buds used for seasoning Yanovsky (1936)
Kuntze = Pycnanthemum virginianum (L.) meat or broth by Chippewa Indians
T. Durand & B.D. Jacks. ex B.L. Rob. &
Fernald.
Lamium amplexicaule L Greater Henbit, Henbit Deadnettle Flowering tips eaten in salad, boiled Fernald et al. (1958), Tanaka (1976),
as potherb, cooked in rice gruel or used and Facciola (1990)
in dumplings
Lamium galeobdolon (L.) Crantz Yellow Archangel, Golden Deadnettle Young flowering tips cooked Fern (1992–2003)
Lamium purpureum L. Archangel Red Dead Nettle Flowering tips boiled or candied Hedrick (1972), Kunkel (1984),
and Facciola (1990)
Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Lavender, English Lavender, Flowers make into conserve, crystallized Morton (1976), Larkcom (1980),
True Lavender and used on cakes; fresh or dried flowers Facciola (1990), Garland (1993), Burnie
used in salads or to flavour sugar and and Fenton-Smith (1996), Barash (1997),
jellies; fresh or dried flowers brewed Roberts (2000), and Newman and
into tea; lavender flowers used in both O’Connor (2009)
in sweet or savoury dishes
Lavandula dentata L. Fringed Lavender, French Lavender As above Garland (1993) and Roberts (2000)
Introduction
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Lavandula latifolia Medik. Spike Lavender, Dutch Lavender Flowers source of essential oil used Tanaka (1976), Facciola (1990),
for flavouring salads and jellies and Roberts (2000)
Lavandula multifida L. Fernleaf Lavender, Egyptian Lavender Use lavender flowers, both in sweet Anonymous (2012a)
or savoury dishes. Make a delicious
Introduction

lavender sugar and add to biscuits, sorbets,

jams or jellies
Lavandula spp. Lavender Flowers make into conserve, crystallized Garland (1993), Burnie and
and used on cakes; fresh or dried flowers Fenton-Smith (1996), Barash (1997),
used in salads; or to flavour sugar, jellies, Lauderdale and Evans (1999),
ice cream, sorbet, cookies and Roberts (2000)
Lavandula stoechas L. French Lavender, Spanish Lavender, As above Garland (1993), Roberts (2000),
Topped Lavender and Anonymous (2012a)
Lavandula × allardii Hy = Lavandula × Blind Lavender, Allard’s Lavender As above Roberts (2000)
heterophylla Viv.
Leonotis nepetifolias (L.) R.Br. Giant Lion’s Ear, Lion’s Ear, Annual Flowers eaten in Tanzania Facciola (1990)
Lion’s Ear, Christmas Candlestick,
Bald Head, Bird Honey, Lion’s Tail
Leonurus cardiaca L. Throw Wort, Lion’s Ear, Motherwort, Flowering tops are used for flavouring Crowhurst (1972) and Facciola (1990)
Common Motherwort, Lion’s Tail beers, ales and stout. Fresh or dried flowers
can also be added to soups, e.g. split pea
soups, and can be brewed into tea
Leucas plukenetii (Roth) Spreng. = Leucas Common Leucas; Doron, Kansisa Flower buds, used as vegetables in Assam Patiri and Borah (2007)
aspera (Willd.) Link (Assamese)
Melissa officinalis L. Balm, Lemon Balm, Erva Cidrera, Flowers used in salads Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996)
Common Balm, Cytria and Newman and O’Connor (2009)
Mentha × piperita L. Peppermint Flowers used to flavour sauces, ice cream Barash (1997), Roberts (2000),
or as garnish. These tiny flowers pack and Anonymous (2012a)
a real punch and add that something
extra to green salads, fruit salads,
fresh strawberries, chocolate mousse
or chocolate cake. Can also be used
to decorate and flavour lamb dishes
Mentha aquatica L. Water Mint Flowers edible Barash (1997)
Mentha aquatica var. citrata (Ehrh.) Benth. Bergamot Mint, Eau de Cologne Mint, Flowers of lemon bergamot mint are edible Facciola (1990) and Roberts (2000)
Lemon Mint, Lime Mint
Mentha arvensis L. Field Mint, Corn Mint, Japanese Mint, Flowers edible Barash (1997)
Pudina
7

(continued)
 8

Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Mentha arvensis L. forma piperascens Japanese Mint, Japanese Field Mint Flowers used for scenting tea Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Malinv. ex Holmes = Mentha canadensis L.
Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Biblical Mint, Horse Mint, Wild Mint Leaves and flowering tops source Altschul (1973), Tanaka (1976),
of peppermint-like essential oil used and Facciola (1990)
for flavouring candy
Mentha pulegium L. English Pennyroyal, European Tiny flowers pack a real punch and add Barash (1997) and Anonymous (2012a)
Pennyroyal, Pennyroyal that something extra to green salads,
fruit salads, fresh strawberries,
chocolate mousse or chocolate cake;
can also be used to decorate and flavour
lamb dishes
Mentha spicata L. Spearmint, Lamb Mint, Garden Mint Flowers used to flavour sauces, ice cream, Grieve (1971), Facciola (1990),
salads, soups, fruit drinks, desserts, Barash (1997), Roberts (2000),
dressings and vegetable dish or as garnish and Anonymous (2012a)
Mentha spp. Mint Flowers used to flavour ice cream Barash (1997), Lauderdale and Evans
or as garnish (1999), and Newman and O’Connor
(2009)
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. Apple Mint As for spearmint Roberts (2000) and Anonymous (2012a)
Mentha × gentilis L. Ginger Mint, Scotch Mint Flowers used to flavour sauces Barash (1997)
and ice cream or as a garnish
Mentha × gracilis Sole = Mentha × gentilis L. As for apple mint Anonymous (2012a)
Mentha × citrata Erh. = Mentha × piperita L. Orange Bergamot Mint, Orange Mint, As for ginger mint Barash (1997) and Roberts (2000)
Eau de Cologne Mint, Pineapple
Mint, Lemon Mint, Water Mint, Lime
Mint
Micromeria sp. Emperor’s Mint Flowers edible Roberts (2000)
Monarda citriodora Cerv. ex Lag. subsp. Lemon Bee Balm, Lemon Mint As well as being colourful, the petals Anonymous (2012a)
austromontana (Epling) Scora = Monarda have a sweet, spicy flavour and will
citriodora Cerv.ex Lag. var. austromontana enhance salads, jellies and stuffings, rice
(Epling) B.L. Turner and pasta dishes. Fresh or dried leaves can
Introduction

be used to make delicious bergamot tea

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Monarda didyma L. Bergamot, Bee Balm, Crimson Bee Flowers eaten raw; added as an attractive Uphof (1968), Tanaka (1976), Facciola
Balm, Scarlet Bee Balm, Scarlet garnish to salads. An excellent aromatic (1990), Phillips and Foy (1992), Bown
Monarda, Oswego Tea tea or lemonade is made from the fresh (1995), Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996),
or dried leaves and flower heads; also used Barash (1997), Lauderdale and Evans
in cakes, ice cream, teas, tartlets, jellies (1999), Roberts (2000), Lust (2001),
Introduction

and stuffings, rice and pasta dishes. Fresh Newman and O’Connor (2009),
or dried leaves can be used to make and Anonymous (2012a)
delicious bergamot tea
Monarda fistulosa L. Wild Bergamot, Bee Balm The flowers make an attractive edible Facciola (1990)
garnish in salads
Monardella odoratissima Benth. Mountain Pennyroyal, Mountain Flower heads make a clear refreshing Clarke (1977) and Facciola (1990)
Monarda mint-like tea
Monardella villosa Benth. Coyote Mint As above Clarke (1977) and Facciola (1990)
Nepeta cataria L. Catnip, Catswort, Catmint Flowers edible, have an aromatic, strong McVicar (2003), Anonymous (2012a),
mint/spice flavour so should be used and Deane (2007–2012l)
sparingly when cooking; ideal for adding
a bit of bite to pasta or rice dishes and all
types of vegetables; also makes a tasty
complement to meat dishes like lamb
Ocimum basilicum L. Basil, Sweet Basil Nice salad sprinkle; young leaves Morton (1976), Facciola (1990),
and flowering heads both fresh and dried Lauderdale and Evans (1999), Aguilar
are used for seasoning tomato sauce, et al. (1999), Newman and O’Connor
vinegar, soups, salads and omelettes; (2009), and Anonymous (2012a)
flowers also used as garnish; delicious
when added to salads, soups or pasta
Ocimum canum Sims = Ocimum Hoary Basil, Lime Basil; Mayanba Young shoots and inflorescence Yumnam and Tripathi (2012)
americanum L. (Manipur)
Ocimum minimum L. Greek Basil, Bush Basil The flowers are delicious when added Anonymous (2012a)
to salads, soups or pasta
Ocimum × citriodorum Vis. = Ocimum × Basil Lime, Basil Lemon, As above Anonymous (2012a)
africanum Lour. Variegated Basil
Origanum dictamnus L. Dittany of Crete, Cretan Dittany, Flowering tops dried brewed into tea Morton (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Hop Majoram
Origanum majorana L. Sweet Majoram, Knotted Majoram Flowering tops used for flavouring Morton (1976), Facciola (1990), Garland
and preservative for ales, flowers used (1993), Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996),
in salads, stuffing for meat, poultry de Guzman and Jansen (1999), Newman
or marinades, dried flower used for herbal and O’Connor (2009), and Brown (2011)
tea; combines well with all chicken dishes
and many fish recipes; can also be made
9

into a flavoursome hot tea

(continued)
 10

Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Origanum onites L. Turkish Oregano, Pot Marjoram Flowering tops used for flavouring Garland (1993)
and preservative for ales
Origanum spp. Oregano Flowering tops used for seasoning Newman and O’Connor (2009)
Origanum syriacum L. Syrian Oregano, Lebanese Oregano, Flowering tops used for seasoning Bailey (1949) and Facciola (1990)
Biblical Hyssop
Origanum vulgare L. Marjoram, Oregano, Wild Majoram, Flowering tops used for flavouring Grieve (1971), Hedrick (1972),
Spanish Thyme, Greek Oregano and preservative for beer and ales Facciola (1990), Garland (1993),
Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996),
and de Guzman and Jansen (1999)
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton Perilla, Beefsteak Plant, Chinese Flowers popularly used for flavouring Yashidora (1968), Tanaka (1976),
Basil, Purple Mint, Wild Sesame; or as garnish in Vietnamese, Japanese Facciola (1990), de Guzman
Shiso, Egoma, Shisonoha (Japanese); and Korean cooking; flower clusters and Siemonsma (1999), and Medhi
Kkaennip Namul (Korean); Lá Tía Tô, serve as garnish for soups and tofu, and Borthakur (2012)
Rau Tía Tô, Tía Tô (Vietnamese) while older ones fried
Perovskia atriplicifolia Benth. Russian Sage The small lavender flowers have a sweet Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
flavour and can be eaten in salads or used and Facciola (1990)
as a garnish
Poliomintha incana (Torr.) A. Gray Frosted Mint Flowers used for flavouring in Arizona Yanovsky (1936) and Facciola (1990)
Prunella vulgaris L. Selfheal, Lance Selfheal, Aleutian Dried inflorescence used in herbal tea Hu (2005)
Selfheal, Heal-All; Xia-Ku-Kao
(Chinese)
Pycnanthemum virginianum (L.) T. Durand Virginia Mountain Mint Chippewa Indians used the flowers Yanovsky (1936) and Facciola (1990)
& B.D. Jacks. ex B.L. Rob. & Fernald and buds for seasoning meat
and broth
Rosmarinus officinalis L Rosemary Rosemary oil distilled from flowering Grieve (1971), Morton (1976),
tops and leaves, fresh flower good Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996),
in salads or as decorations for puddings De Guzman (1999), Facciola (1990),
and desserts; flowers candied, preserved Newman and O’Connor (2009),
or added to jellies, honey, vinegar and Brown (2011)
and wine; flowers and leaves can be
used with poultry or pork
Salvia ballotaeflora Benth. = Salvia Shrubby Blue Sage Infusion of flowering tops used as beverage Yanovsky (1936)
ballotiflora Benth. in Texas
Salvia dorisiana Standl. Fruit Sage, Peach Sage, Fruit-Scented Flowers edible Roberts (2000)
Introduction

Sage
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Salvia elegans Vahl Pineapple Sage Flowers used in salad, cookies or garnish Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996),
Barash (1997), Lauderdale and Evans
(1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
Introduction

and Deane (2007–2012f)

Salvia japonica Thunb. Japanese Woodland Sage; Shu Wei Children suck the flowers for the sweet Kunkel (1984) and Facciola (1990)
Cao (Chinese); Aki-No-Tamura-Sou nectar
(Japanese)
Salvia officinalis L. Sage, Common Sage, Garden Sage, Flowers used in salad or garnish; flowers Grieve (1971), Hedrick (1972),
Golden Sage, Kitchen Sage, True eaten raw, boiled, pickled or eaten in bread Morton (1976), Facciola (1990),
Sage, Culinary Sage, Dalmatian Sage, and butter sandwiches Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996),
Broadleaf Sage Roberts (2000), and Newman
and O’Connor (2009)
Salvia plebeia R.Br. Australian Sage, Small-Flowered Sage Flowers edible Tanaka (1976)
Salvia sclarea L. Amaro, Clarry, Clary, Clary Sage, Flowers used in salad or garnish; flowers Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996), Grieve
Clear Eye have a very aromatic flavour and, being (1971), Morton (1976), Facciola (1990),
pastel shades, make a lovely contrast Deane (2007–2012l), and Anonymous
when added to salads (2012a)
Salvia verbenaca L. Wild Clary, Vervain Sage, Wild Sage Flowers eaten raw for flavouring in salads Kunkel (1984) and Facciola (1990)
Satureja hortensis L. Summer Savoury Flowers edible Huyen and Brink (1999) and Newman
and O’Connor (2009)
Satureja montana L. Winter Savoury Flowering tops used for seasoning soups, Grieve (1971), Morton (1976), Facciola
salads, sauces, fish, stuffings, egg dishes, (1990), and Newman and O’Connor
poultry, meat, vegetables (2009)
Sideritis perfoliata L. Ironwort, Mountain Tea, Inflorescences and leaves used in herbal Petreska et al. (2011)
Shepherd Tea tea and beverages
Sideritis raeseri Boiss. & Heldr. Ironwort, Mountain Tea, Shepherd Tea As above Petreska et al. (2011)
Sideritis scardica Griseb. Bulgarian Sideritis, Ironwort, Inflorescences and leaves used in herbal Qazimi et al. (2010)
Mountain Tea, Sheperd Tea tea and beverages
Sideritis syriaca L. Ironwort, Mountain Tea, Sheperd Tea As above Petreska et al. (2011)
Sideritis taurica Steph ex Willd. Ironwort, Mountain Tea, Sherpherd Tea As above Petreska et al. (2011)
Stachys officinalis (L.) Trevis. Betony, Purple Betonybishops Wort Infusion of flowering tops makes Macnicol (1967), Morton (1976),
a refreshing, aromatic beverage and Facciola (1990)
Teucrium scorodonia L. Wood Germander, Sage-Leaved Infusion of leaves and flowers called Grieve (1971), Hedrick (1972), Morton
Germander ambroise used in France and Channel (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Islands as a substitute for hops
in flavouring
11

(continued)
 12

Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Thymus caespititius Brot. Cretan Thyme, Azores Thyme, Aromatic leaves and flowers used locally Lauderdale and Evans (1999), Widodo
Mountain Thyme, Tiny Thyme as condiment (1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010)
Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmanns. Headed Savoury, Conehead Thyme Aromatic leaves and flowers used locally Lauderdale and Evans (1999), Widodo
& Link = Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. as condiment (1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010)
Thymus citriodorus Schreb. = Thymus Lemon Thymes, Orange Thymes, Fresh flowers in salads or garnish Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996),
serphyllum subsp. serphyllum Lime Thyme or as flavouring for honey Lauderdale and Evans (1999), Widodo
(1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010)
Thymus herba-barona Loisel. Caraway Thyme Fresh flowers in salads or garnish Widodo (1999), Lauderdale and Evans
or as flavouring for honey (1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010), burnie
Thymus mastichina (L.) L. Mastic Thyme, Mejorana, Pine Aromatic leaves and flowers used locally Lauderdale and Evans (1999),
Scented Thyme, Spanish Marjoram, as condiment Newman and O’Connor (2009),
Spanish Wood and Stradley (2010)
Thymus praecox Opiz Creeping Thyme, Mother of Thyme, As above Widodo (1999), Lauderdale and Evans
Wild Thyme (1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010)
Thymus praecox subsp. arcticus (Durand) Mother of Thyme, Wild Thyme, Dried flowers steeped for tea Morton (1976), Facciola (1990),
Jalas = Thymus praecox Opiz subsp. Creeping Thyme Lauderdale and Evans (1999),
britannicus (Ronninger) Holub Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010)
Thymus pulegioides L. Broad-Leaved Thyme, Lemon Thyme Aromatic leaves and flowers used locally Widodo (1999), Lauderdale and Evans
as condiment (1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010)
Thymus quinquecostatus Celak. Japanese Thyme, Five-Ripped Thyme Flowers edible Widodo (1999), Lauderdale and Evans
(1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010)
Thymus serphyllum L. Breckland Thyme, Wild Thyme, Flowers edible Widodo (1999), Lauderdale and Evans
Creeping Thyme (1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010)
Thymus spp. Thyme Flowers edible Lauderdale and Evans (1999),
Newman and O’Connor (2009),
Introduction

and Stradley (2010)

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Thymus vulgaris L. Common Thyme, Garden Thyme, Fresh flowers in salads or garnish Morton (1976), Facciola (1990), Burnie
Rubbed Thyme, Thyme or as flavouring for honey. Flowering tops and Fenton-Smith (1996), Lauderdale
used for flavouring stuffings, soups, cheese, and Evans (1999), Widodo (1999),
vinegar, gravies, sausages, etc. Roberts (2000), Newman and O’Connor
Introduction

(2009), and Stradley (2010)

Thymus × citriodorus (Pers.) Lemon-Scented Thyme, Lemon Aromatic leaves and flowers used locally Widodo (1999), Lauderdale and Evans
Schreb. ex Schweigg. & Koe. Thyme as condiment (1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010)
Thymus zygis L. Moroccan Wild Thyme, Sauce Thyme As above Widodo (1999), Lauderdale and Evans
(1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Stradley (2010)
Lauraceae
Lindera obtusiloba Blume Japanese Spicebush, Blume Young buds used as tea substitute called Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
jaku-zetsu cha
Lecythidaceae
Barringtonia edaphocarpa Gagnep. = Barringtonia, Stream Barringtonia, Young leaves and flowers eaten as fresh Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985)
Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. subsp. Indian Oak; Chiknma Chik Nom Yam vegetables
acutangula (Thai)
Careya sphaerica Roxb. = Careya arborea Tummy Wood; Kra Don, Phak The shoots are eaten raw with chilli JIRCAS (2010) and Maisuthisakul (2012)
Roxb. Kadron, Kradonbok, Kradonkhon, sauce (nam phrik). The flowers are
Khui, Phuk Kui, Puikradon, also served raw with nam phrik
Pui-Khao (Thai) or with vermicelli and fish curry.
The fruit is eaten fresh
Liliaceae
Calochortus aureus S. Watson Mariposa Lily, Golden Mariposa Lily Flowers edible Moerman (1998)
Calochortus gunnisonii S. Watson Mariposa Lily, Gunnison’s Mariposa Flower buds eaten raw, added to salads Harrington (1974) and Facciola (1990)
Lily
Calochortus macrocarpus Douglas Sagebrush Mariposa Lily Flower buds eaten raw, has a sweet flavour Moerman (1998)
Calochortus nuttallii Torr. Sego Lily Flowers and flower buds eaten raw, Clarke (1977) and Facciola (1990)
a tasty addition to the salad bowl
Erythronium albidum Nutt. White Trout Lily, White Fawn Lily, Flowers, flower buds and flower stems Facciola (1990)
White Dogtooth Violet eaten raw or cooked
Erythronium americanum Ker. Gawl Dogtooth Violet, Trout Lily, Yellow Flower buds and flower stems eaten raw Facciola (1990)
Adder’s Tongue or cooked
Fritillaria verticillata Willd. Fritillaria, Fritillary, Baimo Petals and flower buds cooked, used Facciola (1990); Tanaka (1976)
in soups
Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch. Plantain Lily Flowers cooked as a delicacy but requiring Hu (2005)
13

parboiling to detoxify
(continued)
 14
Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Lilium amabile Palibin Koma-Yuri, Korean Lily Flower buds eaten cooked Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
and Facciola (1990)
Lilium brownii F.E. Br ex Meillez Hong Kong Lily The dried flower petals are used Herklots (1972), Altschul (1973),
as a flavouring in soups and Facciola (1990)
Lilium concolor Salisb. Morning Star Lily Flowers edible Stuart (1979)
Lilium dauricum Ker.-Gawl. = Lilium Dauricum Lily, Candlestick Lily Flowers edible Komarov (2006)
pensylvanicum Ker Gawl.
Lilium formosum Lem. = Lilium Candlestick Lily Flowers, also bulbs, leaves and stems King (2007)
pensylvanicum Ker Gawl. are edible
Lilium lancifolium Thunb. Tiger Lily Flowers eaten raw or cooked, used fresh Herklots (1972), Bryan and Castle (1975),
or dried in salads, soups, rice dishes, etc. Tanaka (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Lilium longiflorum Thunb. White Trumpet Lily, Trumpet Lily, Flower buds eaten Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
Easter Lily and Facciola (1990)
Lilium maculatum Thunb. Maculatum Lily; Sukashiyuri Flower buds cooked Tanaka (1976)
(Japanese)
Lilium sargentiae E.H. Wilson Sargent’s Lily Flowers consumed in parts of China Uphof (1968), Tanaka (1976),
and Facciola (1990)
Tulipa gesneriana L. Tulip Flowers consumed as below Roberts (2000) and Deane (2007–2012b)
Tulipa spp. Tulip Flowers used in salads, crystallized, Lauderdale and Evans (1999),
garnish stuff whole flowers with a shrimp Roberts (2000), Mlcek and Rop (2011),
or chicken salad; add strips of petals and Deane (2007–2012b)
to salads or sandwiches for that added
touch of colour
Loranthaceae
Nuytsia floribunda R.Br.ex G. Don Christmas Tree Flowers soaked in water to make a sweet SERCUL (2011)
drink
Tupeia antarctica (G.Forst.) Taapia, Tupia, White Mistletoe Flowers edible Brooker et al. (1989), Crowe (1990),
Cham. & Schltdl. and Fern (1992–2003)
Lythraceae
Punica granatum L. Pomegranate, Granada, Anar Flowers eaten in Thailand Wongwattanasathien et al. (2010)
Sonneratia caseolaris Gaerth Mangrove Apple, Crabapple As above Wessapan et al. (2007)
Mangrove, Red-Flowered Apple
Mangrove
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. Fire-Flame Bush, Shinajitea, In India (Garhwal Himalayas) flowers Gupta (1962)
Introduction

Woodfordia sucked for nectar

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Magnoliaceae
Liriodendron tulipifera L. Tulip Tree, American Tulip Tree, Flowers abound in honey which can Deane (2007–2012o)
Tulip Poplar, Whitewood, Fiddle Tree, be drunk directly from the blossoms
Yellow Poplar
Introduction

Magnolia coco (Lour.) DC. Chinese Magnolia; Yeh-Ye-Hua Flowers used to scent tea Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
(Chinese)
Magnolia denudata Desr. Yulan Magnolia White Magnolia; Fresh petals of partially opened flowers Hedrick (1972), Facciola (1990),
Bai-Yu-Lan (Chinese) dipped in batter and deep-fried, calyx and Hu (2005)
removed from flower bud, pickled
and used for flavouring
Magnolia grandiflora L. Southern Magnolia, Evergreen Flowers are pickled in some parts Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976),
Magnolia, Loblolly Magnolia of England and are also said to be and Facciola (1990)
used as a spice and a condiment
Magnolia kobus DC. Kobushi Magnolia, Northern Flowers and flower buds eaten cooked Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
Japanese Magnolia, Kobus Magnolia, and Facciola (1990)
Mountain Magnolia; Kobushi, Hsin-I
(Japanese)
Michelia alba DC. Joy Perfume Tree, White Champak, Flowers used for scenting tea Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
White Jade Orchid Tree, Pak-Lan,
Banana Shrub; Ginko-Boku (Japanese)
Malvaceae
Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik. Sunset Hibiscus, Sunset Muskmallow, Flowers used in soups, flower buds eaten Tanaka (1976), Ochse and van den Brink
Sweet Hibiscus; Qiu Kui (Chinese) (1980), Facciola (1990), and Hu (2005)
Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench Okra, Gumbo, Lady’s Finger Blossoms are shy on taste but add colour Hedrick (1972), Halpin (1978), Facciola
and texture to salads as well as an attractive (1990), Lauderdale and Evans (1999),
garnish; flower buds, flowers and calyces Newman and O’Connor (2009),
cooked as greens and Deane (2007–2012g)
Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Musk Okra, Musk Mallow Edible flower pigment and used Puckhaber et al. (2002)
in flower tea
Abutilon esculentum Purple-Flowered Indian, Mallow Brazilians eat the petals as vegetables Hedrick (1972)
A. St. Hil. = Bakeridesia Night Flowering Maple
esculenta (A.St.-Hil.) Monteiro
Abutilon guineense (Schumach.) Country Mallow, Monkey Bush Flowers eaten raw Uphof (1968), Hedrick (1972), Tanaka
Baker f. & Exell = Abutilon indicum (1976), and Facciola (1990)
var. guineense (Schumach.) K.M.Feng
Abutilon indicum (Link) Sweet Indian Abutilon, Indian Mallow Flowers eaten in Andhra Pradesh, India, Hedrick (1972) and Reddy et al. (2007)
raw flowers eaten in Arabia
15

(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
16

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Abutilon megapotamicum (A. Spreng.) Trailing Abutilon Flowers eaten cooked as a vegetable Lovelock (1973), Facciola (1990),
St. Hil. & Naudin and Fern (1992–2003)
Abutilon ochsenii (Phil.) Phil. = Abutilon; Chile-Samtpappel (German) Flowers edible Hedrick (1972) and Fern (1992–2003)
Corynabutilon ochsenii (Phil.) Kearney.
Abutilon purpurascens (Link.) Purple-Flowered Indian, Mallow Flowers cooked as vegetable Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976),
Schum. = = Bakeridesia esculenta Night Flowering Maple and Kunkel (1984)
(A.St.-Hil.) Monteiro
Abutilon vitifolium (Cav.) C. Abutilon, Chinese Bell Flower, Flowers edible raw Fern (1992–2003)
Presl = Corynabutilon vitifolium (Cav.) Flowering Maple
Kearney
Abutilon × hybridum hort. ex Voss Chinese Lantern, Flowering Maple, Flowers eaten raw or cooked on their own Fern (1992–2003)
Parlour Maple or as part of a mixed salad
Abutilon × milleri auct. Trailing Abutilon Flowers eaten raw or cooked on their own Fern (1992–2003)
or as part of a mixed salad
Abutilon × suntense Indian Mallow, Flowering Maple Flowers edible raw Fern (1992–2003)
C.D. Bricknell = Corynabutilon ×
suntense (C. Bricknell) Fryxell
Adansonia digitata L. African Baobab, Baobab, Bottle Tree, Flowers eaten raw or used to flavour drinks Lim (2012a)
Cream of Tartar Tree, Dead-Rat Tree,
Ethiopian Sour Tree, Judas Fruit,
Monkey Bread Tree, Senegal
Calabash, Sour Gourd, Upside Tree
Alcea rosea L. Hollyhock Flower petals and flower buds eaten raw; Hedrick (1972), Lust (2001), Tanaka
added to salads; a refreshing tea is made (1976), Kunkel (1984), Kasumov (1984),
from the petals Facciola (1990), Roberts (2000),
Lauderdale and Evans (1999), Newman
and O’Connor (2009), and Deane
(2007–2012h)
Althaea officinalis L. Marsh Mallow, Common Flowers eaten raw or cooked; a tea is made Macnicol (1967), Hedrick (1972),
Marshmallow from the flowers, flowers were the base Facciola (1990), and Deane
of a famous confection pâté de gimauve (2007–2012h)
Althaea rosea (L.) Cav. = Alcea rosea (L.) Hollyhock As for Alcea rosea As for Alcea rosea
Cav.
Bombax buonopozense P.Beauv Red-Flowered Silk Cotton Tree Fleshy mucilaginous calyces eaten Dalziel (1937), Uphof (1968),
in soups or used in sauces as substitute and Facciola (1990)
Introduction

for roselle
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Bombax ceiba L. Kapok Tree, Bombax, Red Silk Buds and flowers cooked and pickled. Gupta and Kanodia (1968), Saxena
Cotton Tree, Kapok, Tree Cotton; The dried stamens are collected during (1979), Hu (2005), JIRCAS (2010),
Mu Mian (Chinese); Sémul (Indian); dried season and are added in curry dishes Kapitany (2012), and Freedman (2013)
Ngieo-Daeng (Thai) as spice, in typically northern Thai style
Introduction

of cooking. In China, fleshy flowers

popular for curries, herbal tea; dried
flowers used as ingredient of five flower
tea wu hua chai. In western Rajasthan,
India, flowers are dried, pounded and
used in the preparation of bread—with
or without the addition of corn flour
Bombax ceiba var. leiocarpum As above As above
Robyns = Bombax ceiba L.
Bombax malabaricum Kapok Tree, Bombax, Red Silk As above Gammie (1902) and Gupta (1962)
DC. = Bombax ceiba L. Cotton Tree, Kapok, Tree Cotton;
Mu Mian (Chinese); Sémul (Indian);
Ngieo-Daeng (Thai)
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Cotton Tree Kapok Tree, The flowers are used in curries Lim (2012a) and Deane (2007–2012f)
Silk Cotton Tree for flavour and to add some colour.
In West Cameroons, the whole flower
or more usually the calyx is eaten
Dombeya rotundifolia Planch. Wild Pear Flowers cooked and eaten as side dish Kunkel (1984) and Facciola (1990)
Durio zibethinus Murray Durian Flowers eaten in curries, soups Burkill (1966) and Lim (2012a)
Hibiscus acetosella Welw. ex hiern False Roselle, African Rosemallow, Flowers edible Deane (2007–2012a)
Cranberry Shield, Red Leaf Hibiscus,
Red Leaf Maple
Hibiscus aculeatus Walter Comfort Root, Pinelands Mallow Fresh flowers used in salads and garnishes, Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
or dried and used in processed food
products, nutraceuticals, dietary
supplements, flower tea and natural food
colorants as it yields an edible flower
pigment. Flowers have commercialization
potential of flower teas, vinaigrettes, bulk
dried petals and concentrated edible petal
pigment extracts
Hibiscus calyphyllus Cav. Hibiscus, Sun Hibiscus, As above Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
Lemon-Yellow Rosemallow
Hibiscus coccineus Walter Great Red Hibiscus, Scarlet Hibiscus, As above Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
17

Scarlet Rose Mallow

(continued)
 18

Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Hibiscus divaricatus Graham Hibiscus Buds of young plants eaten raw Irvine (1957) and Freedman (2013)
Hibiscus diversifolius Jacq. Swamp Hibiscus, Cape Hibiscus Flowers eaten raw or cooked with other Kunkel (1984), Fox et al. (1982),
foods, e.g. groundnuts and Facciola (1990)
Hibiscus grandiflorus Michx. Giant Rose Mallow, Swamp Hibiscus, As for Hibiscus aculeatus Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
Velvet Mallow, Giant Hibiscus
Hibiscus hamabo Siebold & Zucc. Hamabo (Japanese) As for Hibiscus aculeatus Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
Hibiscus heterophyllus Vent Coral Hibiscus, Native Rosella, Wild Young shoots, roots, leaves and flowers Wrigley and Fagg (1979), Cribb and Cribb
Rosella, Native Cottonwood, Toilet eaten (leaves need to be cooked); (1987), and Low (1989)
Paper Bush flowers and flower buds eaten raw
in salads or cooked; flower buds
made into jams
Hibiscus laevis All. Smooth Rose Mallow, As for Hibiscus aculeatus Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
Halberd-Leaved Rose Mallow
Hibiscus martianus Zucc. Heartleaf Hibiscus, Heartleaf Rose As for Hibiscus aculeatus Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
Mallow, Tulipan del Monte
Hibiscus moscheutos L. Common Rose Mallow, Swamp Rose As for Hibiscus aculeatus Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
Mallow
Hibiscus mutabilis L. Confederate Rose, Cotton Rose, As for Hibiscus aculeatus Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
Common Rose Mallow,
Changeable Rose
Hibiscus paramutabilis L.H. Bailey Shanghai Pink Mallow As for Hibiscus aculeatus Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
Hibiscus pentaphyllus F. von Mueller Hibiscus, Five-Fingered Mallow Young buds eaten raw Irvine (1957) and Freedman (2013)
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Chinese Hibiscus, China Rose, The slightly acidic petals are used Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976), French
China Shoe Flower, Lipstick Flower, sparingly in salads or as garnish. (1986), Johansson (1989), Reddy
China Rose, Shoeback Plant; Bunga Flowers are reported eaten as pickles et al. (2007), Wongwattanasathien
Raya (Malaysia) and the young leaves are eaten cooked et al. (2010), Facciola (1990),
in Papua New Guinea. The flowers and Duke (2012)
are eaten in salads in the Pacific Islands.
In Andhra Pradesh, India, the flowers
are pounded into a paste and used
as chutney. The flowers also used
Introduction

in herbal teas and as food colouring

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Roselle, Red Roselle, Jamaica Sorrel, Fleshy red calyx used fresh in salad and Burkill (1966), Tanaka (1976), Duke
Sorrel, Roselle, Florida Cranberry, for making roselle wine, jelly, syrup, (1983), Chopra et al. (1986), Morton
Rosella, Indian Sorrel gelatin, refreshing beverages, puddings, (1987), Facciola (1990), Boonkerd
chutneys, pickles, cakes, herbal teas, jellies, et al. (1994), Rao (1996), Roberts
marmalades, ices, ice cream, sherbets, (2000), Woodward (2000), Duke
Introduction

butter, pies, sauces, tarts and other desserts et al. (2002), Mohamad et al. (2002),
Hu (2005), Tanaka and Nguyen
(2007), Mohamed et al. (2007),
and Wikipedia (2013)
Hibiscus schizopetalus (Dyer) Hook.f. Lantern Flower, Coral Hibiscus, Flowers used in food in Taiwan Hu (2005)
Japanese Lantern, Fringed
Rosemallow, Chinese Lantern,
Skeleton Hibiscus
Hibiscus sinosyriacus L.H. Bailey Rose of Sharon Flowers eaten raw or cooked or made Grieve (1971), Kunkel (1984), Tanaka
into tea (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Hibiscus striatus Cav. Striped Hibiscus As for Hibiscus aculeatus Puckhaber et al. (2002) and Bost (2004)
Hibiscus syriacus L. Rose of Sharon, Shrub Althea; Flowers eaten raw or cooked, used in soups Grieve (1971), Kunkel (1984), Tanaka
Mgunghwa (Korean) and also to make tea, flower pigment edible (1976), Chopra et al. (1986), Facciola
(1990), Hu (2005), Bost (2004), Puckhaber
et al. (2002), Newman and O’Connor
(2009), and Deane (2007–2012d)
Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Sea Hibiscus, Cotton Tree, Beach Buds, flower and young shoots are eaten Burkill (1966), Cribb and Cribb (1987),
Hibiscus, Coastal Cottonwood, Facciola (1990), Puckhaber et al. (2002),
Cottonwood Bost (2004), and Duke (2012)
Kleinhovia hospita L. Guest Tree, Timanga Tree, Flowers cooked and eaten Burkill (1966), Hedrick (1972),
Apong-Apong Tanaka (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Kosteletzkya pentacarpos (L.) Ledeb. Seashore Mallow, Virginia Saltmarsh Flowers eaten raw, added to salads Usher (1974)
Mallow
Kosteletzkya virginica (L.) Virginia Saltmarsh Mallow, Virginia Leaves used as potherbs; flowers eaten Puckhaber et al. (2002)
C.Presl ex A.Gray Fen-Rose, Seashore Mallow, Salt uncooked; roots cooked as vegetables;
Marsh Mallow, Pink Marsh Mallow teas made from flower, edible pigment
from flower; plant parts boiled used
as an egg white substitute for making
meringues
Lavatera thuringiaca L. = Malva Lavatera, Pink Tree Mallow, Garden Flowers have a pleasant mild flavour; Fern (1992–2003)
thuringiaca (L.) Vis. Tree Mallow they make a decorative addition to
the salad bowl. Many named cultivars
have considerably larger flowers than
the type species and are thus worthwhile
19

for the salad bowl

(continued)
 20
Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Malva alcea L. Vervain Mallow, European Mallow, Flowers edible raw Fern (1992–2003)
Hollyhock Mallow
Malva excisa Rchb. = Malva alcea L. Vervain Mallow, European Mallow, Flowers eaten raw, provide a decorative Fern (1992–2003)
Hollyhock Mallow addition to the salad bowl
Malva sylvestris L. Common Mallow, High Mallow, Tall Flowers eaten raw; added to salads or used Hedrick (1972) and Facciola (1990)
Mallow, Blue Mallow, Cheese Cake, as a garnish; flowers can be crystallized
Cheeses, Pick-Cheese, Round Dock,
Country Mallow, Wild Mallow
Malvastrum lateritium G. Nicholson Malvastrum, False Mallow, Creeping Flowers eaten raw Fern (1992–2003)
Mallow
Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. Sleeping Hibiscus, Firecracker Flowers used in salad and in light curry Kaisoon et al. (2011)
Hibiscus, Wax Mallow, Turk’s Cap;
German Wachsmalve; Chaba (Thai)
Malvaviscus arboreus var. drummondii Turk’s Cap, Wax Mallow, Texas Edible flower pigment and flower tea Puckhaber et al. (2002)
(Torr. & A.Gray) Schery Mallow, Manzanilla, Sleeping Hibiscus
Malvaviscus arboreus var. mexicanus Turk’s Cap Hibiscus, Mexican Turk’s Edible flower pigment and flower tea Puckhaber et al. (2002)
Schltdl. Cap, Sleepy Hibiscus, Lipstick
Hibiscus
Pachira aquatica Aubl. Malabar Chestnut, Guiana Chestnut, Flowers edible raw Hedrick (1972), Menninger (1977),
Provision Tree, Money Tree, Saba Nut and Facciola (1990)
Pachira insignis (Sw.) Savigny Malabar Chestnut, Wild Chestnut, Flowers edible raw Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976),
Wild Breadnut Menninger (1977), and Facciola (1990)
Pavonia hastata Cav. Pink Pavonia, Cape Mallow, Spearleaf Edible flower pigment and flower tea Puckhaber et al. (2002)
Swamp Mallow
Pavonia lasiopetala Scheele Texas Swamp Mallow, Wright Pavonia Edible flower pigment and flower tea Puckhaber et al. (2002)
Pterospermum acerifolium (L.) Willd. Maple-Leaved Bayur Tree, Flowers edible Burkill (1966), Tanaka (1976),
Maple Twist and Facciola (1990)
Quararibea funebris (La Llave) Visch. Flor de Cacao, Rosita de Cacao, Dried flowers afford a highly pungent Jansen (1999)
Madre de Cacao (Spanish) spice. In Mexico, the flower spice is used
to flavour ‘ponzonque’ or ‘tejate’, a frothy,
thick, aromatic beverage made with
chocolate, finely ground maize meal
and water
Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Red Cotton Silk Tree, Silk Cotton Flowers and buds eaten as vegetables. Watt (1908), Burkill (1966), Tanaka
Schott. & Endl. = Bombax ceiba L. Tree, Kapok Tree, Semal, Pan-Ya Fleshy calyces of large, red flowers (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Introduction

are used in curries

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Sida spinosa L. Arrowleaf Sida, Paddy’s Lucerne, Edible flower pigment and flower tea Puckhaber et al. (2002)
Jelly Leaf
Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalzell & Hairy Portia Tree, Xiao Jin (Chinese) Young shoots and flowers are eaten Hu (2005)
A.Gibson in China
Introduction

Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa Milo, Portia Tree, Pacific Rosewood, Flowers, flower buds, also young leaves, Burkill (1966), Kunkel (1984), Facciola
Seaside Mahoe, Indian Tulip Tree; are fried and eaten in Assam or boiled (1990), and Patiri and Borah (2007)
Paras Pipal (Assamese) and put into soup
Tilia cordata Mill. Lime, Linden, Small Leaved Lime, Flowers and bracts dried used for lime tea Uphof (1968), Facciola (1990), Garland
Little Leaf Linden, Basswood Tree (1993), Barash (1997), and Deane
(2007–2012c)
Tilia japonica (Miq.) Simonk. Japanese Lime; Shona-No-Ki Flowers are parboiled to remove the Kunkel (1984) and Facciola (1990)
(Japanese) bitterness and used as greens or added
to soups; a tea is made from the flowers
Tilia platyphyllos Scop. Large-Leaved Lime, Broad-Leaved Flowers and bracts dried and used Garland (1993) and Barash (1997)
Lime, Linden for lime tea
Tilia spp. Linden Linden flower tea
Tilia × europaea L. Common Lime, Common Linden, Flowers and bracts dried and used for lime Garland (1993), Tanaka (1976),
European Lime, European Linden tea. Flowers have a honey-like fragrance and Facciola (1990)
and make excellent tea sold as ‘yilleul’
in France
Urena lobata L. Caesar Weed Cadillo, Pink Flowered Nigeria (Kano State, northern), leaves, Mortimore (1989) and Deane
Chinese Burr, Urena Burr, calyces and flowers are eaten. Pink (2007–2012q)
Caesarweed, Candillo, Congo Jute, blossoms toss in salads and eaten raw
Burr, Urena, Pink Flowered Chinese,
Aramina Plant, Aramina, Urena
Weed, Pink Burr, Bur Mallow;
Yakuwa (Nigeria–Hausa); Karasu
(Nigeria–Kanuri)
Marantaceae
Calathea allouia (Aubl.) Lindl. Guinea Arrowroot, Sweet Corn Root Young flower clusters cooked Deane (2007–2012o)
Curcuma sessilis Gage = Calathea micans Calathea Flowers edible Wongwattanasathien et al. (2010)
(L. Mathieu) Korn.
Thalia geniculata L. Alligator Flag, Alligator Flag, Flowers edible Wetwitayaklung et al. (2008)
Arrowroot, Bent Alligator Flag, Bent
Alligator Flag, Fire Flag, Fire Flag,
Giant Water Canna, Greater Thalia,
Hardy Water Canna, Water Canna
21

(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
22

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Melastomataceae
Melastoma polyanthum Blume = Melastoma Native Lasiandra, Indian Flowers edible King (2007)
malabatrichum L. Rhododendron, Harendog, Malabar
Melastome, Straits Rhododendron,
Rhodendron, Blue Tongue, Lasiandra
Meliaceae
Aglaia odorata Loureiro Mock Lime, Chinese Perfume Plant; Flowers used in Hebei for flavouring tea Burkill (1966), Hedrick (1972), Facciola
Mi Zai Lan (Chinese) (1990), and Hu (2005)
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Bead Tree, Burmese Neem Tree, Young shoots and young inflorescences Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985),
Chinaberry, Indian Cedar, Indian are eaten raw or steamed and dipped Rojanapo and Tepsuwan (1992, 1993),
Lilac, Margosa, Margosa Tree, Neem, in sweet, sour and hot sauce Kusamaran et al. (1998a, b), Tanaka
Neem Tree, Nimtree; Sadao (Thai); and Nguyen (2007), Maisuthisakul
Geed Hindi (Somalia) et al. (2008), Anonymous (2010), and
Maisuthisakul (2012)
Melia azedarach L. Chinaberry, Persian Lilac, Bitter flowers eaten as vegetables Patiri and Borah (2007)
White Cedar, Texas Umbrella, in Assam; some tribes of western and Hauzel (2012)
Bead Tree, Cape Lilac, Tulip Cedar, Assam prepare dishes from the flowers
Karabil; Ghoraneem (Assamese) with pounded rice
Melianthaceae
Melianthus major L. Cape Honey Flower, Giant Honey Flower nectar collected and eaten Hedrick (1972) and Facciola (1990)
Flower, Honey Bush
Melianthus minor L. Dwarf Honey Flower, Honey Flower, Flower nectar collected and eaten Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Lesser Honey Bush
Menyanthaceae
Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze Water Snowflake, Floating Hearts, Flower buds used as potherb Tanaka (1976), Facciola (1990),
Marshwort; Thariktha Macha and Yumnam and Tripathi (2012)
(Manipur)
Nymphoides peltata (S.G. Gmelin) Kuntze Water Snowflake Water Fringe, Flower buds cooked as a potherb Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Fringed Water Lily, Entire Marshwort,
Yellow Floating Heart
Montiaceae
Claytonia acutifolia Pall.ex Schult. Bering Sea Spring Beauty Flowers edible raw as garnishes Schofield (2003)
Claytonia megarhiza (A. Gray) Alpine Spring Beauty Leaves and flowering tops eaten raw Facciola (1990), Harrington (1974),
Parry ex S. Watson or cooked as a potherb; succulent, and Schofield (2003)
juicy and mild in flavour
Introduction
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Claytonia perfoliata Donnex Willd. Miner’s Lettuce, Winter Purslane, Flowers and stalks eaten raw Larkcom (1980)
Indian Lettuce
Introduction

Claytonia scammaniana Hulten Scamman’s Claytonia, Scamman’s Flowers edible raw as garnishes Schofield (2003)
Springbeauty
Claytonia sibirica L. Pink Purslane, Siberian Miners Flowers edible raw as garnishes Schofield (2003)
Lettuce, Candy Flower, Siberian
Purslane
Claytonia tuberosa Pall. ex Schult. Tuberous Spring Beauty Flowers edible raw as garnishes Schofield (2003)
Claytonia umbellata S. Watson Great Basin Spring Beauty Flowers edible raw as garnishes Schofield (2003)
Claytonia virginica L. Spring Beauty, Virginia Spring Beauty Flowers and aerial parts edible raw Deane (2007–2012p)
or cooked
Montia perfoliata (Donn ex Willd.) Winter Purslane, Miner’s Lettuce, Flowers edible, excellent when tossed Larkcom (1980) and Facciola (1990)
Howell = Claytonia perfoliata Indian Lettuce in salads
Donn ex Willd.
Montia sibirica (L.) Howell = Claytonia Pink Purslane, Siberian Purslane, Flowers used in salad or cooked Schofield (2003)
sibirica L. Siberian Miners Lettuce, Candy
Flower
Moraceae
Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson ex F.A. Zorn) Breadfruit Male inflorescences eaten as vegetable Facciola (1990) and Morton (1987)
Fosberg or used in the preparation of sweet meat
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Jackfruit Young male inflorescences mixed Facciola (1990), Morton (1987),
with chillies, fish paste, sugar, salt, etc. and Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. Red Jackfruit, Monkey Jack; Lakuchi Male inflorescence acid and astringent Morton (1987), Kunkel (1984), Facciola
(India); Dewa Chali, Bohot used as pickles (1990), and Patiri and Borah (2007)
(Assamese); Tampang (Malaysia)
Broussonetia kazinoki Siebold Kozo, Hime Kozo (Japanese) Flowers edible Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
and Facciola (1990)
Broussonetia kurzii (J.D. Hooker) Corner Sa Lae (Thai) Flowers edible Tangkanakul et al. (2005)
Broussonetia luzonica (Blanco) Bureau Birch Flower; Alokon, Alakon, Male inflorescences used as an ingredient Van den Bergh (1994a, b) and Rojo
Alucon, Himbabao (Philippines); in vegetable stews to add texture and (1999)
Ragantulu (Indonesia) aroma. Both inflorescence and young
leaves commonly consumed in north-east
Luzon, Philippines
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Paper Mulberry Flowers edible Read (1946)
L’Her. ex Vent.
23

(continued)
 24

Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Moringaceae
Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringa, Horseradish Tree, In Sudan, small leaflets are stripped from Gupta and Kanodia (1968), Morton
Drumstick Tree; Wasabinoki the leaf stalks and eaten raw in salads. (1976, 1991), Ochse and van den Brink
(Japanese); Maroom (Thai); Kelor Young pods are eaten like green beans (1980), Facciola (1990), Abdelmuti
(Malay); Shekta (India); Sajin and the flowers and leaves are eaten as (1991), Polprasid (1994), Woodward
(Assamese) vegetables in India (Rajasthan, western). (2000), Sawian et al. (2007), JIRCAS
Flowers cooked as vegetable or in soup (2010), and Hauzaul (2012)
in Thailand; young fruits and young shoots
are usually put in kang som (sour and
sweet curry); young shoots and
inflorescence are boiled or blanched
and served with chilli sauce
Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. = Moringa Moringa, Horseradish Tree, As above Gammie (1902)
oleifera Lam. Drumstick Tree; Wasabinoki
(Japanese); Maroom (Thai); Kelor
(Malay); Shekta (India)
Musaceae
Musa acuminata Colla Wild Banana, Dwarf Banana; Banana blossoms and core of stem eaten Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985)
Kluai-Pa (Thai); Pisang Utan and Noweg et al. (2003)
(Sabah, Malaysia)
Musa balbisiana Colla Wild Banana; Athia Kol, Guti Kol Inflorescences eaten as vegetables Patiri and Borah (2007)
(Assamese)
Musa brachycarpa Backer = Musa Pisang Klutuk (Java) Terminal buds of inflorescence eaten Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
balbisiana var. brachycarpa (Backer)
Häkkinen
Musa campestris Becc. Pisang Hutan, Kelalang Banana blossoms and core of stem eaten Noweg et al. (2003)
Musa glauca Roxb. = Ensete glaucum Seeded Sweet Banana; Pisang Pidak Terminal male buds eaten Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
(Roxb.) Cheesman (Java)
Musa hirta Becc. Tangutui (Sabah, Malaysia) Banana blossoms and core of stem eaten Noweg et al. (2003)
Musa laterita Cheeseman Bronze Banana Terminal male buds eaten
Musa paradisiaca L. = Musa (AAB group) Plantain Banana; Laphu Tharo Terminal male inflorescences eaten Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
French Plantain (Manipur); Koldil (Assamese) in Indonesia. In Manipur, flowers used and Hauzel (2012)
with chillies and dry fish in a dish called
ironba; in Assam it is used as a vegetable
Introduction

and eaten pickled

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Musa salaccensis H. Zollinger Javanese Wild Banana Terminal male inflorescences eaten Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
in Indonesia
Musa spp. Banana Flowers; Kluai (Thai) Young fruits, young pseudostem Nasution (1994), Valmayor and Wagih
and inflorescence are common ingredients (1996), Roberts (2000), and JIRCAS
Introduction

of various local dishes throughout (2010)

Thailand. Young inflorescences are
sometimes eaten raw with local hot
and spicy dishes. They are normally
cooked as a main ingredient of curries.
Some recipes include banana flower paella,
banana flower kari-kari, banana flower
and mushroom sauce
Musa textilis Nee Manila Hemp, Abaca; Punti Unopened flowers are eaten Kulip (2003)
(Sabah, Malaysia)
Musa velutina H. Wendl & Drude Dwarf, Banana, Pink Banana, Velvet Inflorescences or pink flowering parts Patiri and Borah (2007)
Banana, Velvel Pink Banana, Baby and young stems are cooked as vegetables
Pink Banana, Hairy Banana in Assam
Musa violascens Ridley Pisang Hutan Banana blossoms and core of stem eaten Noweg et al. (2003)
Musa zebrina Van Houtte ex Blood Banana Terminal male inflorescences eaten Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
Planchon = Musa acuminata ssp. in Indonesia
zebrina(Van Houtte) R.E. Nasution
Myricaceae
Myrica gale L. Bog Myrtle, Sweet Gale Compact flower buds used as spice, dried Schofield (2003)
grind for seasoning stews (meat), poultry
Myrtaceae
Acca sellowiana (O. Berg) Burret Pineapple Guava, Feijoa, Guavasteen Flowers eaten raw; petals are sweet, crisp Taylor (1990), Facciola (1990), Barash
and delicious and are used in fruit salads (1997), Roberts (2000), and Newman
and sorbets and O’Connor (2009)
Baeckea frutescens L Shrubby Baeckea Flowers used in herbal tea to refresh Burkill (1966)
Callistemon spp. Bottlebrush Pour a cup of warm water over the flower Schaeffer and Fletcher (2012)
spike to get the nectar.
Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Water Banyan; Vối (Vietnamese) Inflorescence; the leaves and buds are Hu (2005), Nguyen (1994), and Truong
Merr. & L.M. Perry = Syzygium nervosum harvested, dried and brewed as an herbal and Nguyen (2007)
A. Cunn. ex DC. tea in Vietnam known as ‘nước vối’
Corymbia calophylla (R.Br. ex Lindl.) Marri, Red Gum, Port Gregory Gum Flowers rich in nectar soaked in water SERCUL (2011)
K.D. Hill & L.A.S. Johnson to make a sweet drink
Corymbia gummifera (Gaertn.) Red Bloodwood, Pale Bloodwood Flowers useful source of nectar Steenbeeke (2001)
25

K.D. Hill & L.A.S. Johnson

(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
26

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Eucalyptus gummifera (Gaertn.) Red Bloodwood, Pale Bloodwood Flowers sucked for nectar or mixed Cribb and Cribb (1987) and Facciola
Hochr. = Corymbia gummifera with water to make a sweet drink (1990)
(Gaertn.) K.D. Hill & L.A.S. Johnson called ‘bool’
Eucalyptus intermedia F.Muell ex Pink Bloodwood Flowers sucked for nectar or mixed Cribb and Cribb (1987) and Facciola
R.T. Baker = Corymbia intermedia (F. Muell with water to make a sweet drink (1990)
ex R.T. Baker) K.D. Hill & L.A.S. Johnson
Eucalyptus pachyphylla F. Muell. Red Bud Malee, Thick-Leaved Mallee Flowers sucked for nectar or mixed Cribb and Cribb (1987) and Facciola
with water to make a sweet drink (1990)
Feijoa sellowiana (O. Berg) O. Berg = Acca Pineapple Guava, Feijoa, Guavasteen Spicy, sweet petals nibble or added Clarke (1977), Morton (1987), Facciola
sellowiana (O. Berg) Burret to fruit salads (1990), Taylor (1990), and Barash (1997)
Leptospermum corsiacum Cheel. None Recorded In South Australia: blossoms sucked Irvine (1957)
for nectar by aborigines
Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Narrow-Leaved Paperbark, Flowers with nectar dipped in water Harden (1991) and Steenbeeke (2001)
Cheel Narrow-Leaved Tea Tree, Narrow- to make a sweet drink
Leaved Ti Tree, Snow in Summer
Melaleuca armillaris (Sol. ex Gaertn.) Sm. Bracelet Honey Myrtle Flowers with nectar dipped in water Harden (1991) and Steenbeeke (2001)
to make a sweet drink
Melaleuca bracteata F. Muell. Black Tea Tree, Mock Olive, River Flowers with nectar dipped in water Harden (1991) and Steenbeeke (2001)
Tea Tree to make a sweet drink
Melaleuca densispicata Byrnes Miles Honey Myrtle Flowers with nectar dipped in water Harden (1991) and Steenbeeke (2001)
to make a sweet drink
Melaleuca erubescens Nees Blush Honey Myrtle, Rosy Paperbark, Flowers with nectar dipped in water Harden (1991) and Steenbeeke (2001)
Pink Honey Myrtle to make a sweet drink
Melaleuca hypericifolia Sm Hillock Bush, Red-Flowered Flowers with nectar used to make a sweet, Fairley and Moore (2000)
Paperbark, Red Honey Myrtle cool drink
Melaleuca linariifolia Sm. Flax-Leaved Paperbark, Snow in Nectarous white blossoms can be used Fairley and Moore (2000)
Summer Budjur (Gadigal) to make a sweet cool drink
Melaleuca nodosa (Sol. ex Gaertn.) Sm. Prickly Leaved Paperbark, Honey Yellow, nectarous blossoms that can be Fairley and Moore (2000)
Ball Myrtle used to Make a sweet cool drink.
Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T. Blake Paperbark Tea Tree, Broad-Leaved Blossoms steeped in water to prepare tangy Low (1989) and Deane (2007–2012q)
Paperbark, Melaleuca, Paperbark, brew and to make a sweet tea
Cajeput, Punk Tree
Melaleuca spp Paperbarks, Tea Tree Nectar of blossoms, Pollen from flowers Cribb and Cribb (1987) and Schaeffer
can be eaten. and Fletcher (2012)
Introduction

Melaleuca styphelioides Sm. Prickly Paperbark, Prickly Leaved Tea Nectarous white blossoms that can be Fairley and Moore (2000)
Tree used to make a sweet drink
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Melaleuca thymifolia Sm. Thyme Honey Myrtle, Thyme-Leaved Flowers with nectar dipped in water Steenbeeke (2001)
Bottlebrush to make a sweet drink
Melaleuca tortifolia Byrnes Twist Leaf Paperbark Flowers with nectar dipped in water Steenbeeke (2001)
to make a sweet drink
Introduction

Myrtus communis L. Myrtle, Common Myrtle, True Myrtle In Italy the flower buds are eaten. Tanaka (1976), Morton (1976), Facciola
The flowers have a sweet flavour (1990), and Chevallier (1996)
and are used in salads
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry Clove, Cloves Dried Flower buds used as spice Burkill (1966), Tanaka (1976), Morton
to season ham, sausages, baked apples, (1976), Ochse and van den Brink (1980),
mincemeat, pies, casserole, stews, Facciola (1990), Garland (1993), Verheij
preserves, pickles, etc. and Snijders (1999), and Hu (2005)
Syzygium formosum (Wall.) Masam Bhukua Chepa, Labung Garai Fleshy calyces are eaten cooked Patiri and Borah (2007)
(Assamese) with fish or other vegetables
Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston Rose Apple, Malabar Plum, Flowers candied Uphof (1968), Hedrick (1972), Morton
Pomarossa (1987), and Facciola (1990)
Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & Malay Apple, Pomerac, Mountain Flowers eaten in Thailand; flowers Hedrick (1972), Ochse and van den
L.M. Perry Apple, Pink Satinash preserved in syrup or eaten in salads Brink (1980), Morton (1987), Facciola
(1990), Wetwitayaklung et al. (2008),
and Wongwattanasathien et al. (2010)
Nelumbonaceae
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Sacred Lotus Sacred Water Lotus; Petals used in salad, soups frying, flower Tanaka (1976), Facciola (1990),
Bua Luang (Thai); Thambul stalk. Stamen used for flavouring tea, Woodward (2000), McCullough (2007),
(Manipur) petals floated in soups Wongwattanasathien et al. (2010),
Kaisoon et al. (2011), and Yumnam
and Tripathi (2012)
Nyctaginaceae
Bougainvillea glabra Choisy Bougainvillea, Paper Flower, Lesser Stewed bracts to colour drinks violet Kaisoon et al. (2011, 2012)
Bougainvillea Floral bracts are edible, used in salad
and drinks
Bougainvillea hybrida (not an acceptable Bougainvillea, Paper Flower; Fuengfa Flowers used in salad and stir-fried Kaisoon et al. (2011)
binomial name) (Thai)
Bougainvillea sp. Bougainvillea, Paper Flower Stewed bracts to colour drinks violet King (2007) and Kaisoon et al. (2011)
Salad frying
Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Bougainvillea, Great Bougainvillea Stewed bracts to colour drinks violet Kaisoon et al. (2012)
Salad frying
Mirabilis jalapa L. Marvel of Peru, Four o’clock Flower, Edible flower pigment used for colouring Uphof (1968), Usher (1974), Tanaka
Beauty of the Night, Jalap, Bonina, cakes and jellies (1976), Kunkel (1984), and Facciola
27

Bonita (1990)
(continued)
Table 1 (continued) 28

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Nymphaeaceae
Nuphar luteum Sibth. & Sm. Yellow Water Lily, Yellow Pond Lily, Flowers make a refreshing drink Macnicol (1967), Hedrick (1972),
Cow Lily, Spatterdock and Facciola (1990)
Nymphaea alba L. White Lotus, Water Lily, European Edible flowers Roberts (2000)
White Water Lily, Nenuphar
Nymphaea caerulea Savigny = Nymphaea Blue Water Lily, Blue Lotus of Egypt, Flowers used as vegetables Tanaka (1976), Fox et al. (1982),
nouchali var. caerulea (Savigny) Verdc. Egyptian Blue Water Lily, Blue Lily and Facciola (1990)
of the Nile, Egyptian Louts
Nymphaea lotus L. Water Lily Tiger Lotus, White Lotus, The stalks of the flowers are edible. Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976),
Egyptian White Water Lily; They are eaten raw with chilli sauce or Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985),
Nettai Suiren (Japanese); Bua Kin added to kaeng som (sweet and sour curry) Facciola (1990), and JIRCAS (2010)
Saai (Thai) or cooked with mackerel in curry or fried
with pork, prawns or shrimp
Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. Indian Water Lily, Red and Blue Flower stalk and flowers are eaten Van den Bergh (1994a, b), Tanaka
Water Lily, Blue Water Lily, Blue and Nguyen (2007), and Yumnam
Lotus of India; Bông Súng Lam and Tripathi (2012)
(Vietnamese); Thariktha (Manipur)
Nymphaea odorata Aiton Fragrant Water Lily, Beaver Root Flower buds cooked as a vegetable Harris (1975), Tanaka (1976),
or pickled; young flowers eaten raw Kunkel (1984), Facciola (1990),
and Deane(2007–2012h)
Nymphaea pubescens Willd. Hairy Water Lily, Pink Water Lily, Flower stems and flowers edible Tanaka and Nguyen (2007) and Yumnam
Red Water Lily; Tharo (Manipur) and Tripathi (2012)
Nymphaea stellata Willd. = Nymphaea Indian Water Lily, Red and Blue Flowers are eaten Uphof (1968), Hedrick (1972), Tanaka
nouchali Burm.f. Water Lily, Blue Water Lily, Blue (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Lotus of India; Bông Súng Lam
(Vietnamese)
Olacaceae
Ximenia americana L. Wild Olive, Tallow Wood, Yellow Flower petals eaten in soup Facciola (1990)
Plum, Sea Lemon
Oleaceae
Forsythia sp. Golden Bells The blossoms are spicy, minty and slightly Deane (2007–2012d) and Anonymous
bitter. They add a cheery garnish to salads. (2012b)
These beautiful flowers can be steamed
and dried, used in decoctions and infusions
and made as a tea or forsythia syrup
Forsythia x intermedia Zabel Border Forsythia, Forsythia, As above (Deane 2007–2012; Anonymous 2012a)
Introduction

Golden Bells, Showy Forsythia

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Jasminum multipartitum Starry Wild Jasmine; Flowers used in herbal tea Roberts (2000)
Sterretjies-Jasmyn (Afrikaans)
Jasminum odoratissimum L. Madeira Jasmine, Yellow Jasmine Flowers used for scenting tea Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Jasminum officinale L. Jasmine, Poet’s Jasmine, True Flowers eaten or used to flavour or scent Kunkel (1984), Facciola (1990),
Introduction

Jasmine, White Jasmine tea; dried flowers also used as tea Bown (1995), Morton (1976),
substitute. Flowers added to dry ingredients and Roberts (2000)
(e.g. tea, rice) for fragrance. An essential
oil from the flowers is used as a condiment
in various foods, especially maraschino
cherries but also baked goods, ice cream,
sweets, chewing gum, etc. It imparts
a bittersweet floral tone
Jasminum paniculatum Roxb. = Jasminum Jasmine; Sieu Hing Hwa (Chinese) Flowers used for scenting tea Grieve (1971), Hedrick (1972),
lanceolaria subsp. lanceolaria in combination with Jasminum sambac and Facciola (1990)
Jasminum sambac (L.) Sol. Jasmine, Arabian Jasmine, Tuscan Jasmine flowers are edible, primarily Grieve (1971), Morton (1976), Tanaka
Jasmine; Mo Li Hua (Chinese) used in teas and flavouring; the flowers (1976), Facciola (1990), Barash (1997),
are also source of an essential oil employed Creasey (1999), Roberts (2000), Hu
as flavouring. Flowers also added to dry (2005), Wetwitayaklung et al. (2008),
food stuff (tea, rice) for fragrance and Mittal et al. (2011)
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Night Flowering Jasmine, Night Flowers fresh and dried are eaten as Uphof (1968), Facciola (1990),
Jasmine, Coral Jasmine; Sewali, vegetable. Flower is also a source of yellow Patiri and Borah (2007),
Sewali Phul (Assamese) dye food colorant. Flower is a popular and Hauzel (2012)
cooking ingredient in Assamese homes.
The flower is slightly bitter and can be
used to make a dry subji
Osmanthus americana (L.) Benth. ex Devilwood, American Olive, Flowers used to flavour tea, wine, liqueurs Tanaka (1976) and Deane (2007–2012m)
Hook.f. =Osmanthus americanus (L.) Wild Olive; Yen-Kuei (Chinese) and confections. The blossoms can be
A. Gray preserved in a salty brine or made into
a sugary paste
Osmanthus fragrans Lour. Tea Olive, Fragrant Olive, Sweet Flowers used for flavouring tea, mixed Hu (2005), Tanaka (1976),
Olive, Sweet Osmanthus; Gui-Hua, with honey or sugar, bottled and used and Facciola (1990)
Kwei Hua (Chinese) for making pastries regarded as a delicacy.
Flowers also added to rice gin for preparing
gui-hua liquor. Fragrant flowers impart
pleasant aroma to tea, wine sweets such as
lotus seed soup, pastries and steamed pears.
In the United States, flowers available
in oriental food stores preserved
29

in sweetened brine or as a sugary paste

called cassia blossom jam
(continued)
Table 1 (continued) 30

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Syringa microphylla Diels = Syringa Little Leaf Lilac; Sung Lo Cha Flowers used as substitute for tea in China Altschul (1973) and Facciola (1990)
pubescens subsp. microphylla (Diels) (Chinese)
M.C. Chang & X.L. Chen
Syringa vulgaris L. Lilac, Common Lilac, French Lilac Flowers edible raw or folded into Macnicol (1967), Facciola (1990),
batter and fried to make fritters and used Barash (1997), and Lauderdale
in yogurt and Evans (1999)
Onagraceae
Epilobium angustifolium L. Fireweed, Rosebay Willowherb, Flower bud stalks eaten raw or cooked, Harrington (1974), Schofield (2003),
Great Willowherb, Spiked Willowherb added to salads and McCullough (2007)
Epilobium latifolium L. River Beauty As above Harrington (1974), Schofield (2003),
and Facciola (1990)
Fuchsia corymbiflora Ruiz & Pav. Cluster-Flowered Fuchsia, Peruvian Blossoms edible Roberts (2000)
Berry Bush
Fuchsia excorticata (G. Forst.) L.f. Tree Fuchsia, Kotukutuku, New Blossoms edible Facciola (1990)
Zealand Fuchsia
Fuchsia magellanica Lam. Hardy Fuchsia, Fuchsia Blossoms edible Facciola (1990) and Roberts (2000)
Fuchsia spp. Fuchsia Blossoms edible Roberts (2000) and Deane (2007–2012b)
Fuchsia × hybrida Voss Fuchsia, Lady’s Eardrops, Hardy Flowers eaten in salad or crystallized Deane (2007–2012e) and Rop
Fuchsia, Hybrid Fuchsia et al. (2012)
Oenothera biennis L. Evening Primrose, Evening Star Flowers sweet eaten raw or cooked, Fernald et al. (1958), Facciola (1990),
in salads or as a garnish and King (2007)
Oenothera macrocarpa Nutt. Missouri Evening Primrose, Pink The flowers have a similar taste to lettuce Anonymous (2012a)
Evening Primrose so will make a fine addition to any green
salad while also adding some colour
Oenothera missouriensis Sims = Megapterium Sundrop Ozark As above Anonymous (2012a)
missouriensis (Sims) Spach.
Oenothera odorata Jacq. Fragrant Evening Primrose, Scented As above Anonymous (2012a)
Evening Primrose
Oenothera speciosa Nutt. Pink Ladies, Showy Evening As above Anonymous (2012a)
Primrose, Pink Primrose
Oenothera versicolor Lehm. Evening Primrose As above Anonymous (2012a)
Opiliaceae
Melientha suavis Pierre Phak Waan Paa, Pak Wan (Thai); The young shoots, leaves and flowers highly Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985),
Rau Sắng, Rau Ngót Núi, Ngót Rừng, esteemed as vegetables; used in soup or dried Nguyen (1994), and JIRCAS (2010)
Phắc Van (Vietnamese) fish curry. People eat this plant as delicacy
Introduction

and it is one of the most expensive indigenous

vegetable in Thailand and Vietnam
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Urobotrya latisquama (Gagnep.) Hiepko Mountain Mustard Blue; Young inflorescences and flowers Hu (2005)
Shan-Jie-Lan (Chinese); Ðuôi Vảy; eaten as delicacy
Lân Vĩ Vẩy Rộng (Vietnamese)
Orchidaceae
Introduction

Cymbidium elegans Lindl. Elegant Cymbidium; Suo Cao Lan Buds used by Bhutanese as ingredient Du Puy and Cribb (2007) and Sotirov
(Chinese) in curries (2012)
Cymbidium hookerianum Rchb.f. Hooker’s Cymbidium As above Rao (2004), Du Puy and Cribb (2007),
Thapa (2009), and Sotirov (2012)
Dendrobium bigibbum Lindl. Cooktown Orchid, Two-Humped Flowers are sold in the United States Sotirov (2012)
Dendrobium as edible decorations for food
Dendrobium chrysotoxum Lindl. Golden Bow Dendrobium Flowers dried and consumed as tea for Pfingst and Hensel (2010) and Sotirov
good health and pleasure in Tianzi, China (2012)
Dendrobium longicornu Lindl. Long-Horned Dendrobium; Flowers used by Tamang communities Sotirov (2012)
Bawar (Nepali) in Nepal as pickles
Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Noble Dendrobium Blossoms and stems are edible Wang et al. (2010) and Sotirov (2012)
Dendrobium phalaenopsis Dendrobium Orchid Blossoms used in salads and as a garnish Deane (2007–2012h)
Fitzg. = Dendrobium bigibbum Lindl.
Dendrobium spp. Dendrobium Orchid In Thailand, Dendrobium flowers are dipped Wetwitayaklung et al. (2008)
in batter and deep-fried, while many European and Sotirov (2012)
cooks garnish desserts and cakes with them.
In Hawaii, locals use orchids to prepare salad
dishes, sugar coated candies and main
Orchid dishes cooked with scallops
Orobanchaceae
Castilleja linariifolia Benth. Narrow-Leaved Indian Paintbrush, Flowers eaten raw Facciola (1990)
Desert Paintbrush, Wyoming Desert
Paintbrush, Wyoming Indian
Paintbrush, Linaria-Leaved Indian
Paintbrush, Indian Paint Brush
Pedicularis kanei Durand = Pedicularis Wooly Lousewort Sweet flowers made a delightful salad Schofield (2003)
lanata Willd. ex Steven garnish. Young flowering tops fermented
in water like sauerkraut. Sometimes
they are eaten with oil and sugar.
Oxalidaceae
Averrhoa bilimbi L. Bilimbi, Cucumber Tree, Tree Sorrel Flowers made into conserve Hedrick (1972), Popenoe (1974), Morton
(1987), and Facciola (1990)
Averrhoa carambola L. Star Fruit, Carambola, Five Corner As above Hedrick (1972), Popenoe (1974), Morton
31

(1987), and Facciola (1990)

(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
32

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Oxalis acetosella L. Wood Sorrel, Common Wood Sorrel Flowers edible raw, a decorative addition Fern (1992–2003)
to salads
Oxalis articulata Savigny Pink Sorrel, Pink Wood Sorrel Leaves and flowers edible raw or cooked, Fern (1992–2003)
impart a pleasant lemony flavour to salads
Oxalis corniculata L. Yellow Sorrel, Creeping Wood Sorrel, Flowers edible raw, impart nice acid Fern (1992–2003)
Procumbent Yellow Sorrel, Sleeping flavour to the salad
Beauty
Oxalis corymbosa DC. = Oxalis debilis Pink Wood Sorrel, Pink Woodsorrel, As above Fern (1992–2003)
var. corymbosa (DC.) Lourteig Lilac Oxalis Pink Shamrock
Oxalis deppei Loddiges ex Sweet Iron Cross Plant, Lucky Clover, Good Flowers have a delicious lemony flavour; Grieve (1971), Facciola (1990),
Luck Plant, Good Luck Leaf they make a delightful thirst-quenching and Fern (1992–2003)
munch and impart excellent flavouring
to salads
Oxalis enneaphylla Cav. Scurvy Grass, Scurvy Grass Sorrel Flowers edible raw or cooked Fern (1992–2003)
Oxalis exilis A. Cunn. Least Yellow Sorrel, Shady Flowers, raw. A nice acid flavour Fern (1992–2003)
Wood Sorrel and a pleasant addition to the salad
bowl[K]
Oxalis magellanica G.Forst. Snowdrop Wood Sorrel Flowers edible raw, a pleasant Fern (1992–2003)
and decorative addition to salad
Oxalis oregana Nutt. Redwood Sorrel, Oregon Wood Sorrel As above Fern (1992–2003)
Oxalis pes-caprae L. Cape Sorrel, Bermuda Buttercup, Flowers edible raw with a pleasant acid Roberts (2000)
Soursob, Sour Grass, Suring flavour; they make an attractive addition
to the salad bowl and pickled fish
Oxalis spp. Flowers edible McCullough (2007)
Oxalis stricta L. Yellow Wood Sorrel, Yellow Oxalis, Flowers eaten in Nebraska Yanovsky (1936) and Facciola (1990)
Upright Yellow Sorrel, Lemon Clover,
Pickle Plant
Oxalis tetraphylla Cav. Four-Leaved Pink Sorrel, Goodluck Flowers edible raw, a pleasant Fern (1992–2003)
Plant, Lucky Clover, Mexican Wood and decorative addition to salad
Sorrel
Oxalis triangularis A. St. Hil False Shamrock, Love Plant, Purple Flowers edible raw, a pleasant Fern (1992–2003)
Shamrock, Lucky Shamrock and decorative addition to salad
Oxalis tuberosa Molina Oca, Oka, New Zealand Yam Edible young leaves and flowers eaten raw Masefield et al. (1969) and Heywood
or cooked [34, 37, 103] (1993)
Oxalis violacea L. Violet Wood Sorrel, Shamrock Flowers eaten by children in Nebraska; Yanovsky (1936), Tanaka (1976),
Introduction

flowers make attractive garnish and Facciola (1990)

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Paeoniaceae
Paeonia delavayi Franch Tree Peony, Victorian Tree Peony Flowers eaten cooked Uphof (1968), Kunkel (1984),
and Facciola (1990)
Paeonia japonica (Makino) Miyabe & Japanese Peony; Yama-Shakuyaku Flowers edible Kunkel (1984)
Introduction

H.Takeda = Paeonia obovata Maxim. (Japanese)

Paeonia lactiflora Pall. Chinese Peony, Common Garden Petals are edible and used in salad Deane (2007–2012e) and Steenbergs
Peony or floated in punches and lemonade. Bottle Organic (2012)
of Steenbergs Dried Peony Flowers are
a beautiful rose pink coloured, natural flower
that look great in salads or used in home
baking or added as a flourish over fruit salads
Paeonia lutea Delavay ex Franch = Paeonia Tree Peony As for Paeonia × suffruticosa Fern (1992–2003)
delavayi Franch
Paeonia officinalis L. Common Peony, European Peony, Flowers cooked as a vegetable Macnicol (1967), Kunkel (1984),
Peony or to scent tea and Facciola (1990)
Paeonia ostii T. Hong & J.X. Zhang Tree Peony, Osti’s Moutan Peony, Flowers eaten cooked Uphof (1968), Usher (1974), and Kunkel
Osti’s Tree; Feng Dan Bai (Chinese) (1984)
Paeonia potaninii Komar = Paeonia Tree Peony Flowers eaten cooked Uphof (1968), Usher (1974), and Kunkel
delavayi Franch. (1984)
Paeonia szechuanica W.P. Fang = Paeonia Tree Peony Flowers eaten cooked Uphof (1968), Usher (1974), and Kunkel
decomposita Hand.-Mazz. (1984)
Paeonia × suffruticosa Andrews Moutan, Moutan Peony, Tree Peony Since ancient times, the flowers of tree Uphof (1968), Usher (1974), Kunkel
peony have been used to prepare traditional (1984), Tanaka (1976), Facciola (1990),
food such as casseroles, cakes, herbal tea and Voon et al. (2013)
and drinks. The petals are also reported
to be parboiled and sweetened for tea-time
delicacy or cooked in various dishes
Pandanaceae
Freycinetia marquisensis F.Br = Freycinetia Marquesas Islands: fleshy floral bracts Currey (1980)
demissa Benn. eaten raw
Freycinetia monticola Rendle ‘Le,’Le’ie (Hawaian) Austral Islands: fleshy floral bracts eaten Currey (1980)
Pandanus fascicularis Lam. = Pandanus Pandan Laut (Indonesian, Malay); Tender floral leaves are eaten raw, Gammie (1902) and Facciola (1990)
odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze Keteki (Assamese); Ketaki, Keya or cooked with various condiments
(Bengali)
Pandanus odoratus Salisb. = Pandanus Frgrant Screwpine; Thalay (Tamil); Floral leaves eaten raw or cooked Shortt (1887–1888)
odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze Mogheli (Telugu)
Pandanus tectorius Parkinson ex Du Roi Pandanus, Coastal Screwpine,Thatch Flowers and pollen edible. Infloresence Uphof (1968), Tanaka (1976),
33

Screwpine; Hala (Hawaiian) bracts used for scenting coconut oil and Facciola (1990)
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
34

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Papaveraceae
Eschscholzia californica Cham. California Poppy, Golden Poppy, Flowers used in teas, salads, aubergine Roberts (2000)
California Sunlight, Cup of Gold stir-fried
Papaver rhoeas L. Corn Poppy, Corn Rose, Field Poppy, A syrup can be prepared from the scarlet Grieve (1971) and Facciola (1990)
Flanders Poppy, Red Poppy, flower petals; it is used in soups, gruels,
Red Weed etc. A red dye from the petals is used
as a food flavouring, especially in wine;
petals used as garnish
Passifloraceae
Passiflora biflora Lam. Twoflower Passionflower, Two-Lobed Flowers and flower buds are eaten Van den Burgh (1994b)
Passionflower, Boomerang
Passionvine, Passion Vine
Passiflora caerulea L. Blue Crown Passionflower, Blue Flowers can be made into a syrup Crowhurst (1972), Kunkel (1984),
Passion Flower and Facciola (1990)
Passiflora edulis Sims Purple Granadilla, Purple Grenadilla, Flowers edible Roberts (2000)
Purple Passionfruit, Passion Fruit,
Common Passionfruit
Passiflora incarnata L. Maypop, Purple Passionflower, Flowers cooked as a vegetable or made Fernald et al. (1958) and Facciola (1990)
Apricot Vine into syrup
Passiflora lunata Willd. = Passiflora Twoflower Passionflower, Two-Lobed Flower buds and flowers much sought after Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
biflora Lam. Passionflower, Boomerang Passionvine, for sambal goreng
Passion Vine
Passiflora spp. Passion flower Flowers edible Lauderdale and Evans (1999)
Paulowniaceae
Paulownia tomentosa Steud. Empress Tree, Karri, Foxglove Tree, Flowers eaten with miso Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
Princess Tree, Paulownia
Phyllanthaceae
Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. Sweet Leaf Bush, Star Gooseberry, Leaves, immature fruits, flowers cooked Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
Chinese Malunggay and eaten as potherb and Facciola (1990)
Pinaceae
Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. Norway Spruce, Common Spruce Young male catkins eaten raw Schofield (2003)
or cooked and used as flavouring.
Immature female cones eaten cooked;
the central portion, when roasted, is sweet
and syrupy
Introduction

Picea asperata Mast. Chinese Spruce, Dragon Spruce As above Schofield (2003)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Picea brachytyla (Franch.) E.Pritz Sargent Spruce, Chinese Weeping As above Schofield (2003)
Spruce
Picea breweriana S. Watson Brewer’s Spruce, Weeping Spruce As above Schofield (2003)
Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm. Engelmann Spruce, Mountain Spruce As above Schofield (2003)
Introduction

Picea glauca (Moench) Voss White Spruce, Western White Spruce, As above Fernald et al. (1958), Kunkel (1984),
Cat Spruce, Canadian Spruce, Black Facciola (1990), Moerman (1998),
Hills Spruce and Schofield (2003)
Picea glehnii (F. Schmidt) Mast. Sakhalin Spruce As above Schofield (2003)
Picea jezoensis (Siebold & Zucc.) Carrière Yezo Spruce As above Schofield (2003)
Picea mariana (Mill.) Britton, Sterns & Black Spruce, Bog Spruce, Swamp As above Schofield (2003)
Poggenb. Spruce
Picea omorika (Pančić) Purk. Dwarf Serbian Spruce,Serbian As above Schofield (2003)
Spruce
Picea orientalis (L.) Peterm. Caucasian Spruce, Oriental Spruce As above Schofield (2003)
Picea pungens Engelm. Colorado Spruce, Colorado Blue As above Schofield (2003)
Spruce, Blue Spruce
Picea purpurea Mast. Purple-Coned Spruce As above Schofield (2003)
Picea rubens Sarg. Red Spruce, Yellow Spruce, West As above Schofield (2003)
Virginia Spruce
Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carrière Sitka Spruce As above Schofield (2003)
Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss Morinda Spruce, Himalayan Spruce As above Schofield (2003)
Pinus banksiana Lamb. Jack Pine, Eastern Jack Pine, Black Young cones cooked Kunkel (1984)
Jack Pine, Black Pine, Jerry Pine,
Prince’s Pine
Pinus densiflora Siebold. & Zucc. Japanese Red Pine, Dragon’s-Eye The male catkins can be eaten Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Japanese Red Pine
Pinus edulis Engelm. Colorado Pinon, Rocky Mountain Soft centres of green immature cone Harrington (1974) and Facciola (1990)
Nut Pine when roasted afford a syrupy food
Pinus sabiniana Douglas Digger Pine, Gray Pine The green cones, roasted for about 20 min Facciola (1990)
are soft and syrupy in their centre
Pinus strobus L. White Pine, Eastern White Pine The firm unexpanded male cones Fernald et al. (1958), Kunkel (1984),
can be boiled and used as a flavouring and Facciola (1990)
Piperaceae
Macropiper excelsum (G. Forst.) New Zealand Pepper Tree, Kawakawa In Polynesia, the flower clusters Lovelock (1973) and Facciola (1990)
Miq. = Piper excelsum G. Forst. are eaten raw
Piper cubeba L.f. Cubeb, Tailed Pepper Dried infructescense used as spice are used Uphof (1968), Morton (1976), Facciola
35

as a spice for curries, preserves and pickles (1990), and Lim (2012b)
(continued)
 36

Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Piper excelsum G. Forst. New Zealand Pepper Tree, Kawakawa In Polynesia, the flower clusters Lovelock (1973) and Facciola (1990)
are eaten raw
Piper guineense Schumach. & Thonn. Ashanti Pepper, Benin Pepper, False Dried infructescense used as spice Dalziel (1937), Kunkel (1984),
Cubeb Pepper, Guinea Cubeb, and Facciola (1990)
West-African Black Pepper
Piper longum L. Indian Long Pepper, Long Pepper, Dried infructescence used as spice Hedrick (1972), Morton (1976),
Pippali, Pipal and Facciola (1990)
Piper retrofractum Vahl Long Pepper, Balinese Long Pepper, Dried unripe and ripe infructescences Maisuthisakul et al. (2008),
Javanese Long Pepper, Javanese are used as a spice for curries, preserves Maisuthisakul (2012), and Lim (2012b)
Pepper and pickles
Piper sarmentosum Roxb. Wild Betel; Kadok, Sirih Tanah, Dried infructescence used as spice Jansen (1999)
Chabei (Malay)
Plantaginaceae
Adenosma indianum (Lour.) Merr. Qiu Hua Mao She Xiang (China); Prik Dried inflorescences used as spice; JIRCAS (2010)
Kra Taai (Thai) added to chilli paste. Dried inflorescences
are found on sale in local markets
in Thailand
Antirrhinum majus L. Snapdragon Flowers have been reported to be used Anonymous (2004), Lauderdale
in a moderate way in salads or crystallized and Evans (1999), Roberts (2000),
Stradley (2010), and Rop et al. (2012)
Plantago media L. Hoary Plantain, Lanceleaf Plantain Inflorescence is sweet and is sucked Kunkel (1984) and Facciola (1990)
by children
Veronica americana Schwein.ex Benth. American Veronica, Speedwell, Flowers can be steeped for tea Schofield (2003)
American Speedwell, American
Brooklime
Poaceae
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Cogongrass, Blady Grass, Young inflorescence and young shoots Read (1946) and Kunkel (1984)
Santintail, Alang-Alang, Lalang, cooked
Kunai, Paillotte
Miscanthus floridulus (Labill.) Warb.ex Giant Chinese Silver Grass, Unopened flower spikes are edible Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
K. Schum. & Lauterb. Giant Miscanthus, Giant Eulalia
Grass, Japanese Silver Grass,
Amur Silver Grass, Pacific Island
Silver Grass
Introduction
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Saccharum edule Hassk. Lowland Pitpit, Fiji Asparagus, Young contracted panicles enclosed within Herklots (1972), Ochse and van den
Duruka, Pitpit, Coastal Pitpit, leaf sheaths are eaten raw, steamed, roasted, Brink (1980), Facciola (1990),
Vegetable Cane fried, added to soups or cut into pieces and Saidin (2000)
and added to meat and stuffed poultry
Introduction

and eaten cooked. In Malaysia, the young

inflorescence is eaten in ulam, in creamy
coconut dish or in mixed vegetable soup
Saccharum spontaneum L. Wild Sugarcane, Egyptian Sugarcane Young inflorescence enclosed in leaf Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
sheaths eaten as lalab raw or cooked and Facciola (1990)
Setaria palmifolia (J. Konig) Stapf Highland Pitpit, Palm-Leaved Setaria, In the highlands of New Guinea, it is much French (1986), Shrivastava (1995),
Palmgrass, Palm Grass, Broad-Leaved cultivated in gardens where the malformed and King (2007)
Bristlegrass, Hailans Pitpit, inflorescence consisting only of tender
Short Pitpit leaflets rolled in the upper part of the tillers
is eaten as vegetable
Zea mays L. Corn, Maize Young tassels boiled and eaten; pollen Uphof (1968), Tanaka (1976), Facciola
used as ingredient in soups. Fresh succulent (1990), and Duke (2012)
silks are chopped fine and mixed with
massa in making tortillas
Zea mexicana (Schrad.) Kuntze Mexican Teosinte, Teosinte, Annual Young flowering spikes are eaten before Altschul (1973), Tanaka (1976),
Teosinte seeds have mature and Facciola (1990)
Zizania latifolia (Griseb.) Turcz. ex Stapf. Water Bamboo, Manchurian Wild Young inflorescences cooked and used Fernald et al. (1958), Herklots (1972),
Rice, Canada Rice, Indian Rice, as a vegetable Tanaka (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Water Oats; Coba, Kuw-Sun,
Kwo-Bai, Jiao-Bai (China, Taiwan);
Makomo Dake (Japan)
Polemoniaceae
Phlox paniculata L. Garden Phlox, Summer Phlox, Fall Flowers added to fruit and floral salads Anonymous (2012a) and Deane
Phlox, Perennial Phlox, Tall Phlox and a colourful addition to any floral salad. (2007–2012d)
Flowers are small and colourful; they are
superb when crystallized and added as
decoration to cakes or desserts
Polygonaceae
Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn. Coral Vine, Chain of Love, Queen’s In Thailand, the leaves and flowers Uphof (1968), Facciola (1990),
Wreath; Puangchompoo (Thai) are dipped in flour, fried and served Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985),
with vermicelli. The flowers are also Wessapan et al. (2007), Wetwitayaklung
mixed into omelettes. Herbal teas et al. (2008), Vanisree et al. (2008),
are made from the leaves and blossoms and Wongwattanasathien et al. (2010)
Calligonum comosum L’Hér. Abal Flowers eaten in Spring McCullough (2007)
37

(continued)
Table 1 (continued) 38

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Calligonum polygonoides L. Phog (Hindi) Western Rajastha: fruit usually eaten raw; Bhandari (1974), Saxena (1979),
buds and flowers eaten as vegetable; and Singhi and Joshi (2010)
flowers made into bread or cooked
with ghee (clarified butter) or coconut oil
Fagopyrum esculentum Moench Buckwheat Flowers make a pleasant tea Roberts (2000)
Polygonum densiflorum Meisn. = Persicaria Smartweed, Dense Knotweed Hot spicy flavour seasoning, soups Deane (2007–2012v)
glabra (Willd.) M Gomez and perhaps salads
Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx. = Waterpepper, Swamp Smartweed Hot spicy flavour seasoning, soups Deane (2007–2012v)
Persicaria hydropiperoides (Michx.) Small and perhaps salads
Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. = Fallopia Chinese Knotweed, Climbing Flowers eaten in China Read (1946)
multiflora (Thunb.) Haraldson Knotweed, Flowery Knotweed;
He Shou Wu (Chinese)
Polygonum persicaria L. = Persicaria Lady’s Thumb, Red Leg Leaves, flowers and shoots can be eaten Brill (1994)
maculosa A.Gray raw or cooked and are mild tasting, similar
to lettuce.
Polygonum punctatum Elliot = Persicaria Smartweed, Dotted Smartweed, Water Flowers with hot spicy flavour used Deane (2007–2012r)
punctata (Elliot) Small Pepper for seasoning, soups and perhaps salads
Rheum rhabarbarum L. Rhubarb, Garden Rhubarb Young inflorescence resembles cauliflower Grieve (1971) and Facciola (1990)
and may be deep-fried or boiled and served
as ‘au gratin’ with cream sauce
Rheum rhaponticum L. Rhubarb, False Rhubarb, Rutabaga The young flower pouch, harvested before Hedrick (1972)
the flowers open, is said to form a dish
of great delicacy
Rheum tataricum L.f. Tartarian Rhubarb Unexpanded flower clusters are eaten Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976),
cooked Kunkel (1984), and Facciola (1990)
Rheum × cultorum Thorsrud. & Reis Rhubarb Immature flowers cooked and used like Facciola (1990)
cauliflower
Rumex acetosa L. Common Sorrel, Spinach Dock, Flowers cooked as a vegetable or used Grieve (1971) and Facciola (1990)
Narrow-Leaved Dock as a garnish
Pontederiaceae
Eichornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Water Hyacinth, Floating Water Young leaves, petioles and inflorescence Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
Hyacinth; Luc Binh (Vietnamese) sometimes eaten after cooking in Java and and Tanaka and Nguyen (2007)
Indo-China In the Mekong delta in Vietnam,
the cores of young shoots and flowers
are eaten as vegetable, fresh or boiled in
steam-boat dishes. Javanese sometimes cook
Introduction

and eat the green parts and inflorescence

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms-Laub. Arrowleaf Pondweed, Arrowleaf Flowers, leaves and petioles are cooked Burkill (1966), Ochse and van den Brink
Monochoria, Hastate-Leaf Pondweed, and consumed as vegetables in southeast (1980), Pongpangan and Poobrasert
Monochoria; Phak Top (Thai); Janki Asia but the flowers can also be eaten raw. (1985), and Patiri and Borah (2007)
Phul (Assamese) The leaves and inflorescences are eaten raw
Introduction

or cooked by steam or boiling and served

cold in vinegar; for lalab the inflorescence
is used to prepare sayur. Flowers and young
inflorescences are eaten cooked as vegetable,
or with fish by Bodos, Koch-Rajbongshis
people in lower Assam, India
Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) C. Presl. Monochoria, Oval-Leaf Monochoria, As above Burkill (1966), Ochse and van den Brink
Pickerelweed; Bhat Meteka (1980), Pongpangan and Poobrasert
(Assamese) (1985), and Patiri and Borah (2007)
Portulacaceae
Portulaca oleracea L. Common Purslane, Verdolaga, Leafy vegetable eaten along with the stem Hauzel (2012) and Deane (2007–2012f)
Pigweed, Little Hogweed, Pusley, and flowers in Manipur; used in saag,
Moss Rose; Leibak Kundo (Manipur) a dry-fry side dish
Primulaceae
Ardisia boissieri A.DC. = Ardisia purpurea Ardisia Flowers used as flavouring for fish dishes Brown (1954), Uphof (1968),
Reinw. ex Blume and Facciola (1990)
Ardisia griffithii (C.B. Clarke) Kuntze Dieng Pylieng Flowers eaten in Meghalaya, India Sawian et al. (2007)
Ardisia squamulosa C. Presl. = Ardisia Ardisia, Shoebutton Ardisia Flower used as flavouring for fish dishes Jansen (1999)
elliptica Thunb.
Lysimachia clethroides Duby Gooseneck Loosestrife Fruits and flowers are said to be edible Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
and Facciola (1990)
Lysimachia nummularia L. Moneywort, Creeping Jenny Flowers used as tea Uphof (1968) and Facciola (1990)
Primula denticulata Sm. Drumstick Primula, Tooth-Leaved Flowers edible raw, make a very attractive Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
Primula, Purple Nepal Cowslip, addition to salads and Facciola (1990)
Indian Primrose
Primula veris L. Buckles, Cowslip, Cowslip Primrose, Flowers eaten raw or cooked, used Grieve (1971), Hedrick (1972),
Crewel, Fairy Cups, Herb Peter, Herba in salads, conserves, garnish, conserve. Facciola (1990), Bown (1995),
Sancti Petri, Key Flower, Key of Flowers can be crystallized or use and Anonymous (2012a)
Heaven, Mayflower, Our Lady’s Keys, for cakes, pancakes, etc.
Paigle, Palsywort, Password, Peggle,
Petty Mulleins, Plumrocks, Primavera,
Yellow Star of Bethlehem
(continued)
39
Table 1 (continued)
40

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Primula vulgaris Huds. English Primrose, Common Primrose Flowers eaten raw or cooked. They Grieve 1971, Facciola (1990),
make an attractive garnish to salads Bown (1995), Hedrick (1972), Deane
and can also be used as a cooked vegetable (2007–2012a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l,
or in conserves, etc. The blossoms when m, n, o, p, q), and Anonymous (2012a)
fermented with water and sugar make
a very pleasant and intoxicating wine.
Both the flowers and the leaves can be
made into a syrup or a tea. Flowers can
be crystallized or use in pancakes
or cakes
Primula polyantha Mill. Polyanthus Primrose As above Anonymous (2012a)
Proteaceae
Banksia attenuata R. Br. Candle Banksia, Candlestick Banksia, Flowers rich in nectar, soaked in water Cribb and Cribb (1987) and Zanthorrea
Slender Banksia, Biara to produce a sweet, high energy rich drink Nursery (2012)
Banksia cunninghamii Sieber ex Rchb. Shrubby Honeysuckle As above Cribb and Cribb (1987)
and Harden (1991)
Banksia ericifolia L.f. Heath Banksia, Heath-Leaved Banksia; As above Cribb and Cribb (1987)
Wadanggari (Australia—Cadigal) and Harden (1991)
Banksia grandis Willd. Bull Banksia, Giant Banksia, As above Zanthorrea Nursery (2012) and SERCUL
Mangite; (2011)
Poolgarla (Australia—Aboriginal)
Banksia intergrifolia L.f. Coast Banksia, Coastal Banksia, The flowers are rich in nectar and this is Cribb and Cribb (1987), Low (1989),
Mountain Banksia sometimes harvested as a food. The flowers and Harden (1991)
can be sucked or soaked in water in order
to obtain the nectar
Banksia marginata Cav. Silver Banksia, Warrock Nectar sucked from flowers or washed Cribb and Cribb (1987), Facciola (1990),
out with water to make a drink Harden (1991), and Schaeffer
and Fletcher (2012)
Banksia serrata L.f. Old Man Banksia, Saw Banksia, Pour a cup of warm water over the flower Cribb and Cribb (1987) and Schaeffer
Sawtooth Banksia, Red Honeysuckle spike to get the nectar and Fletcher (2012)
Banksia spinulosa Sm. Hairpin Banksia Nectar sucked from flowers Cribb and Cribb (1987)
and Harden (1991)
Banksia spp. Banksias Nectar sucked Cribb and Cribb (1987)
Grevillea australis R. Br. Alpine Grevillea, Southern Grevillea Nectar can be sucked, flowers used Schaeffer and Fletcher (2012)
as a garnish on salads
Grevillea eriostachya Lindl. Honey Grevillea, Desert Grevillea, Nectar sucked Cribb and Cribb (1987)
Introduction

Yellow Flame Grevillea

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Grevillea juncifolia Hook. Honeysuckle Grevillea, Tarrakirra Flowers and nectar eaten, flower nectar O’Connell et al. (1983), Cribb and Cribb
sipped directly or mixed with water (1987), and Facciola (1990)
to make a sweet drink
Grevillea kennedyana F. Muell. Flame Spider Flower Nectar sucked Cribb and Cribb (1987)
Introduction

Grevillea pteridifolia Knight Fernleaf Grevillea, Golden Tree, Nectar sucked Cribb and Cribb (1987)
Ferny Leaved Silky Oak, Silky
Grevillea, Fernleaf Woodland Oak,
Kimberley Christmas Tree, Golden
Grevillea
Grevillea robusta A. Cunn.ex R. Br. Silky Oak, Australian Silver Oak, Nectar sucked and fermented to produce Cribb and Cribb (1987), Facciola (1990),
Southern Silky Oak an intoxicating drink and Steenbeeke (2001)
Hakea eriantha R. Br. Tree Hakea Flowers useful source of nectar Steenbeeke (2001)
Hakea fraseri R. Br. Corkwood Oak, Fraser’s Hakea Flowers useful source of nectar Steenbeeke (2001)
Hakea pulvinifera L.A.S. Johnson Corkwood, Crokbark, Keepit Hakea Flowers useful source of nectar Steenbeeke (2001)
Hakea suberea S. Moore Corkwood Flowers rich in nectar crushed and soaked Cribb and Cribb (1987)
in water to make a sweet drink and Facciola (1990)
Hakea tephrosperma R. Br. Hooked Needlewood Flowers useful source of nectar Steenbeeke (2001)
Lambertia formosa Sm. = Lambertia Mountain Devil, Red-Flowered The flowers are a useful source of nectar, Low (1989), Facciola (1990),
proxima Gand. Lambertia the whole inflorescence is picked and the and Harden (1991)
bottom is pinched off so the nectar can be
sucked out of the tubular flowers
Protea cynaroides (L.) L. King Protea, Giant Protea Flower nectar consumed directly Schery (1972) and Facciola (1990)
Protea repens L. Honey Flower, Common Sugarbush, Flower nectar consumed directly or made Fox et al. (1982) and Facciola (1990)
Sugarbush into delicious syrup
Telopea aspera Crisp & P.H. Weston Gibraltar Range Waratah Flowers sucked for nectar Steenbeeke (2001)
Telopea speciosissima R. Br. Waratah, New South Wales Waratah Flowers sucked for nectar or made into Cribb and Cribb (1987), Low (1989),
a sweet drink and Facciola (1990)
Telopea truncata (Labill.) R. Br. Tasmanian Waratah Flowers sucked for nectar Schaeffer and Fletcher (2012)
Ranunculaceae
Aquilegia brevistyla Hook. Blue Columbine, Smallflower Flowers eaten raw; sweet and delightful, Fern (1992–2003) and Schofield (2003)
Columbine they make a very attractive addition
to mixed salads and can also be used
as a thirst-quenching munch
Aquilegia buergeriana Siebold. & Zucc. Columbine; Yama Odamaki As above Facciola (1990), Tanaka (1976),
(Japanese) Fern (1992–2003), and Schofield (2003)
Aquilegia caerulea E. James Rocky Mountain Columbine, The nectar-heavy flowers are eaten as a Deane (2007–2012u)
Colorado Blue Columbine snack or tossed into salads. They
41

also make a good jelly

(continued)
Table 1 (continued) 42

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Aquilegia caerulea var. flavescens Rocky Mountain Columbine, Flowers eaten raw, sweet and delightful, Schofield (2003)
(S. Watson) M.E. Jones = Aquilegia Colorado Blue Columbine added to salads
flavescens S. Watson
Aquilegia canadensis L. Wild Columbine, Canada Columbine As above Schofield (2003)
Aquilegia flabellata Sieb. & Zucc. Fan Columbine As above Schofield (2003)
Aquilegia flavescens S. Watson Yellow Columbine, Granny’s Bonnet, As above Schofield (2003)
Columbine
Aquilegia formosa Fisch. ex DC. Crimson Columbine, Western As above Schofield (2003)
Columbine
Aquilegia formosa var. truncata Western Columbine, Crimson As above Schofield (2003)
(Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) Payson = Aquilegia Columbine, Columbine
formosa Fisch. ex DC.
Aquilegia jonesii Parry Blue Limestone Columbine, As above Schofield (2003)
Columbine
Aquilegia karelinii (Baker.) Afghan Columbine As above Fern (1992–2003)
O. & B. Fedtsch.
Aquilegia pubescens Coville. Columbine, Sierra Columbine, As above Fern (1992–2003) and Schofield (2003)
Coville’s Columbine, Yellow
Columbine
Aquilegia shockleyi Eastw. Desert Columbine As above Fern (1992–2003) and Schofield (2003)
Aquilegia vulgaris L. European Columbine, Common As above Kunkel (1984), Fern (1992–2003),
Columbine, Granny’s Nightcap, and Schofield (2003)
Granny’s Bonnet
Caltha biflora DC = Caltha leptosepala Alpine White Marsh Marigold, Buds eaten raw, cooked or pickled Schofield (2003)
var. howellii Huth. Two-Flowered Marsh Marigold and used as a caper substitute
and fermented for wine making
Caltha leptosepala DC. Western Marsh Marigold, White As above Harrington (1974), Tanaka (1976),
Marsh Marigold Facciola (1990), and Schofield (2003)
Caltha leptosepala var. howellii Huth Howell’s Marsh Marigold As above Schofield (2003)
Caltha natans Palls Floating Marsh Marigold As above Schofield (2003)
Caltha palustris L. Yellow Marsh Marigold, As above Fernald et al. (1958), Crowhurst (1972),
Marsh Marigold, King Cup, Facciola (1990), and Schofield (2003)
Mayflower, May Blobs, Waster
Bubbles, Gollins
Caltha palustris var. barthei Hance Marsh Marigold, Ezo-Ryukin-Ka Flowers eaten with miso in Japan Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
(Japanese)
Introduction
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Clematis maximowicziana Franch. & Sweet Autumn Clematis Young buds pickle, flowers edible Tanaka (1976), Facciola (1990),
Sav. = Clematis terniflora DC. and Deane (2007–2012p)
Clematis paniculata J.F.Gmel. White Clematis, Puawananga, Sweet China: leaves and flowers eaten Read (1946)
Autumn Clematis
Introduction

Clematis terniflora DC. Sweet Autumn Clematis, Autumn Flowers eaten Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Clematis, Japanese Clematis,
Sennin-So (Japanese)
Ranunculus bulbosus L. St. Anthony’s Turnip, Bulbous Young flowers pickled Fernald et al. (1958), Facciola (1990),
Buttercup and Deane (2007–2012p)
Ranunculus ficaria L. = Ficaria verna Fig Buttercup, Lesser Celandine, Flower buds make good substitute Uphof (1968), Launert (1981),
Huds. Pilewort for capers and Facciola (1990)
Ranunculus kochii Ledeb. Crowfoot, Buttercup Petals eaten Kunkel (1984)
Resedaceae
Reseda odorata L. Mignonette, Common Mignonette, Flowers occasionally floated into Burkill (1966), Macnicol (1967),
Garden Mignonette a bowl of wine and Facciola (1990)
Rhamnaceae
Ceanothus cuneatus (Hook.) Nutt. Buckbrush, Wedgeleaf Ceanothus, Flowers steeped in boiling water make Facciola (1990)
Buckbrush Ceanothus, an excellent tea
Ceanothus ovatus Desf. = Ceanothus Smaller Red Root, Jersey Tea, As above Fernald et al. (1958), Harrington (1974),
herbaceus Raf. New Jersey Tea and Facciola (1990)
Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Jujube; Bordi (Rajasthan) The locals in Rajasthan used to distill Singhi and Joshi (2010)
Wight & Arn. liquor from fruit, flowers, bark and roots
Rosaceae
Agrimonia eupatoria L. Agrimony, Hurch Steeples, Harvested flowers make a refreshing tea Macnicol (1967), Grieve (1971),
Churchsteeples, Cockleburr, and Facciola (1990)
Sticklewort, Stickwort
Amygdalus persica L. = Prunus persica (L.) Peach Flowers eaten in salads, used as garnish Macnicol (1967), Grieve (1971),
Batsch or brewed into tea Tanaka (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Armeniaca mume Siebold Mume, Ume, Mei Flower, Flowers used for scenting tea in China Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976),
Chinese Plum, Japanese Apricot and Facciola (1990)
Armeniaca vulgaris Lam. = Prunus Apricot, Armenian Plum Buds of cultivar ‘Ansu’ eaten Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
armeniaca L.
Crataegus monogyna Jacq. Hawthorn, May, Whitethorn, The flowers are used in syrups and sweet Facciola (1990), Roberts (2000),
Red Haw; Mayflower Maythorn, puddings, tea and drinks. Country children and Deane (2007–2012f)
Quickthorn, Bread & Butter Tree love eating the flowers in their springtime
abundance
43

(continued)
 44
Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Crataegus oxyacantha L. = Crataegus English Hawthorn, May Blossom, As above Roberts (2000)
curvisepala Lindm. May Bush, May Tree, Quickset,
Thornapple Tree, Weissdorn,
Whitethorn, Bread & Butter Tree
Cydonia oblonga Mill. Quince, Cydonian Apple, Elephant Flowers eaten Facciola (1990)
Apple, Pineapple Quince
Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim. Meadowsweet, European Young leaves, flowers and roots Macnicol (1967), Morton (1976),
Meadowsweet, Lady of the Meadow, are brewed into a tea. The flowers Facciola (1990), and Garland (1993)
Meadow Queen, Meadow Wort, are used as flavouring in various
Meadsweet, Queen of the Meadow, alcoholic beverages and in stewed fruits
Pride of the Meadow, Bridewort Flowers used to flavour liquor and wine
tea, herbal tea, drinks or made into a syrup
and used in cooling drinks and fruit salad
or used as toppings for ice cream
Fragaria × ananassa (Weston) Duchesne Strawberry The flowers retain their strawberry fragrance Anonymous (2012a, b, c)
as well as a milder strawberry flavour. Petals and Roberts (2000)
floated in drinks, added to salads or candied
and added to desserts for decoration
Fragaria vesca L. Wild Strawberry, Alpine Strawberry, As above Anonymous (2012a, b, c)
Woodland Strawberry
Fragaria virginiana Duchesne Wild Strawberry, Virginia Strawberry Flowers edible Deane (2007–2012h)
Malus domestica Borkh. Apple Apple blossoms have a slightly floral Barash (1997), Deane (2007–2012b),
taste and the petals are lovely in salads and Anonymous (2012a)
and fruit dishes. Infuse petals in whipped
cream or ice cream to go over an apple tart.
Blossoms look attractive when floated
in a fruit punch
Malus floribunda Siebold ex Van Houtte Japanese Crab Apple, Japanese Flowers edible Roberts (2000)
Flowering Crab Apple, Purple
Chokeberry, Showy Crab Apple
Malus pumila Mill. Paradise Apple Flowers dipped in batter, deep-fried Macnicol (1967), Uphof (1968), Tanaka
and served sprinkled with sugar or added (1976), Facciola (1990), Barash (1997),
to batter. Also used in fruit dishes and Roberts (2000)
Malus × robusta (Carriere) Rehder Crab Apple, Siberian Crab Apple As for Malus domestica Anonymous (2012a)
Malus spp. Apple Flowers use in fruit dishes, as garnish and Barash (1997), Lauderdale and Evans
Introduction

candied (1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),

and Deane (2007–2012b)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Malus zumi (Matsum.) Rehder Zumi Crab Apple, Ō-Zumi (Japanese) As for Malus domestica Anonymous (2012a)
Poterium sanguisorba L. = Sanguisorba Salad Burnet, Garden Burnet, Small Blossoms edible Newman and O’Connor (2009)
minor Scop. Burnet, Burnet and Deane (2007–2012c)
Prunus angustifolia Marshall Chickasaw Plum, Cherokee Plum, Blossoms edible Deane (2007–2012f)
Introduction

Florida Sand Plum, Sandhill Plum

Prunus domestica L. European Plum, Plum, Damson The flowers are eaten, used as a garnish Facciola (1990), Macnicol (1967),
for salads and ice cream or brewed Uphof (1968), and Roberts (2000)
into a tea
Prunus grayana Maxim. = Padus grayana Japanese Bird Cherry, Gray’s The salted flower buds and young Uphof (1968), Tanaka (1976),
(Maxim.) C.K. Schneid. Chokecherry fruits are eaten in Japan. They have and Facciola (1990)
a pungent taste
Prunus hortulana L.H. Bailey Hortulan Plum Flower buds eaten Uphof (1968)
Prunus jamasakura Japanese Mountain Cherry; The flowers are pickled in salt and Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
Siebold. ex Koidz. = Cerasus jamasakura Yamazakura (Japanese) consumed in tea or with rice gruel and Facciola (1990)
(Siebold ex Koidz.) Ohba.
Prunus lannesiana (Carrière) Oshima Cherry; Ukon-Zakura Flowers preserved in salt and used in tea Facciola (1990)
E.H. Wilson = Cerasus serrulata var. (Japanese)
lannesiana (Carrière) T.T. Yu & C.L. Li
Prunus maximowiczii Rupr. = Cerasus Miyama Cherry, Korean Cherry Flowers preserved in salt and used as a Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
maximowiczii (Rupr.) Kom. condiment and Facciola (1990)
Prunus mume (Siebold.) Siebold. ex Mume, Ume, Mei Flower, Chinese Flowers are used as a flavouring in tea Hedrick (1972) and Facciola (1990)
Koidz. = Armeniaca mume var. mume Plum, Japanese Apricot
Prunus padus L. = Padus avium var. avium Bird Cherry, Hackberry Flowers edible Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976), Kunkel
(1984), and Facciola (1990)
Prunus persica var. nucipersica (Suckow.) Nectarine Flowers eaten raw or cooked, added to Facciola (1990)
C.K. Schneid. salads or used as a garnish
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Peach Flowers eaten raw or cooked, added Facciola (1990) and Roberts (2000)
to salads or used as a garnish. They can
also be brewed into a tea. The distilled
flowers yield a white liquid which can be
used to impart a flavour resembling the seed
Prunus pseudocerasus Lindl. = Cerasus Cambridge Cherry Flowers salted and used as tea Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
pseudocerasus (Lindl.) Loudon
Prunus serrulata Lindl. = Cerasus serrulata Japanese Cherry, Hill Cherry, Oriental The flowers are pickled in salt and Kunkel (1984) and Facciola (1990)
var. serrulata Cherry, East Asian Cherry consumed in tea or with rice gruel
Prunus spinosa L. Sloe, Blackthorn, Sloe Berry, Sloe The flowers are edible and can be Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976), Launert
Flower, Wild Plum Flower crystallized or candied (1981), and Facciola (1990)
Prunus spp. Plum Flowers edible Newman and O’Connor (2009)
45

(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
46

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Prunus subhirtella Miq. = Cerasus Rosebud Cherry, Higan Cherry, The flowers are preserved in salt and added Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
subhirtella var. subhirtella Weeping Higan Cherry Spring Cherry, to tea and Facciola (1990)
Winter Flowering Cherry
Prunus tomentosa Thunb. = Cerasus Nanking Cherry, Korean Cherry, Buds cooked and eaten Uphof (1968), Hedrick (1972), Tanaka
tomentosa (Thunb.) Wall. ex T.T. Yu & Manchu Cherry, Downy Cherry, (1976), and Facciola (1990)
C.L. Li. Shanghai Cherry, Ando Cherry,
Mountain Cherry, Chinese Bush
Cherry, Chinese Dwarf Cherry,
Hansen’s Bush Cherry
Pyrus betulifolia Bunge Birch-Leaved Pear, Birch Leaf Pear China: sun-dried flowers powdered and Read (1946), Hedrick (1972),
baked into ‘cakes’ and Facciola (1990)
Rosa arkansana Porter Low Prairie Rose, Dwarf Prairie Rose, Flower petals used for tea Turner et al. (1980) and Facciola (1990)
Prairie Rose, Prairie Wild Rose
Rosa blanda Aiton Labrador Rose Flowers eaten raw or cooked. They can be Turner et al. (1980) and Facciola (1990)
processed into rose water or used in cakes,
sweets, desserts, etc.
Rosa canina L. Dog Rose, Haggebutt, Wild Rose, Petals used in salad, sandwiches, cooked in Hedrick (1972), Launert (1981), Facciola
Brier Rose, Brier Hip, Witches Brier, jams, jellies, used for flavouring butter, (1990), and Garland (1993)
Hip Tree, Wild Brier vinegar or desserts
Rosa carolina L. Prairie Rose, Carolina Rose, Pasture Flowers eaten raw in salads or cooked Crowhurst (1972) and Facciola (1990)
Rose
Rosa chinensis Jacq. China Rose, Chinese Tea Rose; Yue Ji Flower buds and flowers are parboiled and Read (1946), Kunkel (1984),
Hua (Chinese) eaten as potherbs or added to soups or and Facciola (1990)
preserved
Rosa gallica L. Apothecary Rose; Xiao Jin Ying Petals used to flavour vinegar Morton (1976), Tanaka (1976), Facciola
(Chinese) or crystallized and eaten or preserved (1990), and Burnie and Fenton-Smith
in syrup. Flowers also dried and (1996)
used to impart flavour and fragrance
to teas, beverages, cakes, honey
and liqueurs
Rosa gigantea Collett. ex Manipur Wild, Tea Rose, Giant Petals very fragrant, used as a flavouring Facciola (1990)
Crép. = Rosa × odorata nothovar. gigantea Tea Rose in sorbets, confections, etc.
(Collett ex Crep.) (Rehder & E. H. Wilson)
Rosa gymnocarpa Nutt. Wood Rose, Baldhip Rose, Petals used in salads, sandwich spread Schofield (2003)
Dwarf Rose and omelettes, steep in hot water
for tea
Introduction
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Rosa majalis Herrmann Cinnamon Rose, Double Cinnamon Petals used in making jam Komarov (2004)
Rose
Rosa moschata Mill. Musk Rose Flowers consumed fresh or cooked Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
and Facciola (1990)
Introduction

Rosa nutkana C. Presl Nootka Rose, Bristly Rose, Wild Rose As for Rosa gymnocarpa Schofield (2003)
Rosa odorata (Andrews) Sweet Tea Rose Flowers edible Rop et al. (2012)
Rosa rubiginosa L. Sweet Briar, Briar Rose, Wild Rose Petals eaten raw or cooked. Mixture Uphof (1968), Kunkel (1984), Facciola
of flower petals and honey called (1990), and Schofield (2003)
gulangabin is used in confectionery
Rosa spp. Rose Petals used in salads, sauces, sherbet, Barash (1997), Schofield (2003),
sandwich spread and omelettes, steep in Newman and O’Connor (2009), Brown
hot water for tea and rose water. The ‘Mon’ (2011), and Mlcek and Rop (2011)
rose petals are also used to decorate
desserts, such as Woon Ga-thi (pandan jelly
with coconut cream) and Ta-go (coconut
pudding). Another dish that incorporates
the Mon rose is Yam Kularb sai Goong
(rose salad with shrimps). Rosehips and
petals can both be used in jellies and jams.
When crystallized, flowers make attractive
cake decorations
Rosa virginiana Mill. Prairie Rose, Virginia Rose, Common Buds eaten by Chippewa Indians Yanovsky (1936) and Facciola (1990)
Wild Rose
Rosa woodsii Lindl. Western Wild Rose, Woods Rose, Petals eaten raw after removal of bitter Schofield (2003)
Common Wild Rose, Mountain Rose white base
Rosa × centifolia L. Provence Rose, Burgundy Rose, The blossoms are used for scenting tea. Uphof (1968), Hedrick (1972), Tanaka
Cabbage Rose, Holland Rose, Pale The petals are preserved in sugar (1976), Morton (1976), Kunkel (1984),
Rose, Rose De Mai and used as a delicacy. They can also and Facciola (1990)
be added to fruit pies as a flavouring
Rosa hybrida Rose, Hybrid Rose As for Rosa spp. Barash (1997), Newman and O’Connor
(2009), and Brown (2011)
Rosa × damascena Damask Rose Petals source of ‘attar of rose’, rose Uphof (1968), Morton (1976), Tanaka
absolute and rose water and use as (1976), Ochse and van den Brink (1980),
flavouring for beverages, candy, ice cream, Facciola (1990), Komarov (2004), and
bakery goods and also used to make jam Wetwitayaklung et al. (2008)
Rosa × rugosa Thunb. Rugosa Rose, Japanese Rose, Flowers edible raw nibbled or prepared Fernald et al. (1958), Harrington (1974),
Ramanas Rose as a salad, candied or used for jams, tea and Facciola (1990)
and syrups; an aromatic flavour, they are
47

also used in jellies and preserves

(continued)
 48

Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Rubus arcticus L. Arctic Bramble, Nagoon Berry Flowers sweet and delicious eaten raw Schofield (2003)
Rubus caesius L. European Dewberry, Dewberry As above Schofield (2003)
Rubus chamaemorus L. Cloudberry, Bakeapple Flowers eaten raw, added to salads Schofield (2003)
Rubus parviflorus Nutt. Salmonberry, Thimbleberry, As above Schofield (2003)
Flowering Raspberry, Western
Thimbleberry
Rubus pedatus Sm. Trailing Wild Raspberry, Five-Leaved As above Schofield (2003)
Bramble, Strawberryleaf Raspberry,
Creeping Raspberry
Rubus rosifolius Sm. Australian Raspberry, West Indian As above stgmagazine
Raspberry, Ola’a, Roseleaf Raspberry,
Roseleaf Bramble, Thimbleberry
Rubus spectabilis Pursh Salmonberry As above Schofield (2003)
Sanguisorba minor Scop. Salad Burnet, Garden Burnet, Small Flowers used for tea Schofield (2003)
Burnet, Burnet
Sanguisorba officinalis L. Great Burnet, Garden Burnet, Flower buds eaten in salads or parboiled Macnicol (1967), Grieve (1971), Tanaka
Common Burnet, Greater Burnet, and eaten fried added to soups or preserved (1976), Morton (1976), and Facciola
Italian Burnet, Italian Pimperne in salt (1990)
Sorbus aucuparia L. Rowan Tree, Rowan, Cardinal Royal, Flowers used to adulterate tea Grieve (1971), Launert (1981),
European Mountain Ash and Facciola (1990)
Spiraea × pyramidata Greene = Spiraea Pyramid Spirae Flowers boiled to make beverage Yanovsky (1936)
menziesii var. pyramidata Piper
Rubiaceae
Burchellia bubalina (L.f.) Sims Wild Pomegranate Flowers sucked for the rich nectar Facciola (1990)
Galium aparine L. Cleavers, Clivers, Goosegrass, Kisses, Flowers edible Deane (2007–2012g)
Stickyweed, Stickybud, Sticky Willy
Galium odoratum (L.) Scop. Sweet Woodruff, Sweet White The sweet-scented flowers are eaten Morton (1976), Facciola (1990), Barash
Woodruff, Wild Baby’s Breath or used as a garnish, in wine, ice cream, (1997), Lauderdale and Evans (1999),
yogurt, custard and Newman and O’Connor (2009)
Galium verum L. Curdwort, Yellow Bedstraw, Cheese Flowering tops used in preparation Fernald et al. (1958), Grieve (1971),
Rennet, Lady’s Bedstraw, Maid’s of a refreshing acid drink Hedrick (1972), Morton (1976),
Hair, Yellow Cleavers, Bedstraw and Facciola (1990)
Gardenia augusta Merr. = Gardenia Togor (Assamese) Flower petals fried and eaten with rice Patiri and Borah (2007)
Introduction

jasminoides J. Ellis or gram in Assam

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Gardenia coronaria Buch.-Ham. Golden Gardenia, Malaysian Tree Flowers edible, used for aroma Wetwitayaklung et al. (2008)
Gardenia; Hageir, Ring-Hkat-Ping, (volatile oil)
Hkhinkang, Mai-Yan-Kat, Thit-Gan,
Yin-Gat-Gyi (Burmese)
Introduction

Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis Common Gardenia, Cape Jasmine The mild sweet gardenia blossoms are Altschul (1973), Tanaka (1976), Facciola
Cape Jasmine; Phut Nam But (Thai) edible and used dried or fresh to impart (1990), Sangat-Roemantyo
fragrance to jasmine tea in the far east. and Wirdateti (1992), Roberts (2000),
Blossoms tucked into rice, oats and sago Anonymous (2012a), and Deane
will impart the same mild sweet fragrance. (2007–2012h)
Gardenia flowers can be added to sugar,
drinks, fruit salads, cakes, desserts and
syrups. Gardenia flowers are also eaten raw
as delicacy, pickled or preserved in honey
when they are called mi-ts’ai
Ixora chinensis Lam. Chinese Ixora West Indian Jasmine, Fresh flowers boiled with pork chops for Hu (2005) and Kaisoon et al. (2011)
Jungle Flame, Needle Flower; Long soup in Guangdong. Flowers used in salad
Chuan Hua (Chinese) and fried dishes in Thailand
Ixora coccinea L. Jungle Flame, Needle Flower, Flame Flowers edible, used as condiment Wongwattanasathien et al. (2010),
of the Woods, Jungle Geranium Altss-chul (1973), Burkill (1966),
and Facciola (1990)
Ixora congesta Roxb. Malayan Ixora Appetite stimulant, constipation, red-eye Wetwitayaklung et al. (2008)
symptom, anthelmintic (leaf)
Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. Jungle Flame, Jungle Geranium, Young flowers popularly used in Thai King (2007)
Javanese Ixora vegetable soup
Ixora subsessilis Dieng Jowat Flowers, shoots, roots eaten in Meghalaya, Sawian et al. (2007)
Wall. Ex G. Don India
Mussaenda frondosa L. Flag Bush, Dhoby Bush, Dobi Tree, Young tops, flowers and flower buds eaten Watt (1908) and Ochse and van den
White Mussaenda; Balik Adap in Indonesia. In India (Deccan), flowers are Brink (1980)
(Indonesia) also eaten
Mussaenda roxburghii Hook.f. Flowers eaten in Meghalaya, India Wessapan et al. (2007)
Nauclea latifolia Sm. = Sarcocephalus Negro Peach, African Peach, Bishop’s Flower heads eaten as vegetable in tropical Uphof (1968), Hedrick (1972),
latifolius (Sm.) E.A. Bruce Head, Pin-Cushion Fruit Africa and Facciola (1990)
Paederia foetida L. Skunkvine, Stinkvine, Chinese Fever Young leaves and flowers cooked Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985)
Vine; Ya Tod Ma (Thai) as vegetables
Pavetta indica L. Indian Pavetta, Indian Pellet Shrub; Flowers used in curries in Andhra Pradesh, Reddy et al. (2007)
Kankara, Paapidi (India) India
(continued)
49
Table 1 (continued)
50

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Rutaceae
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Bengal Quince, Stone Apple, Bael, Young leaves and young inflorescences Morton (1987), Facciola (1990),
Bael Fruit Tree, Baeltree, Belfruit are sometimes eaten with chilli sauce and JIRCAS (2010)
Tree, Bengal Quince, Elephant Apple, by the locals in the north-east Thailand.
Golden Apple, Indian Bael Fruit, Flower infusion afford a refreshing
Indian Quince, Japanese Bitter beverage
Orange, Quince-Apple of India, Wood
Apple; Matoom (Thai)
Boronia megastigma Nees ex Bartlett Brown Boronia Fragrant flowers—as source of essential oil Morton (1976), Facciola (1990),
with an aroma of cinnamon and tobacco, and Plummer et al. (1996)
sold as boronia absolute used in food
manufacture to create black currant flavour
and to enrich other fruit flavours in beverages,
ice creams, candy and baked products
Citrus × bergamia Risso & Bergamot Orange In Morocco, the flowers are preferred Uphof (1968), Morton (1976), Tanaka
Poit. = Citrus × limon (L.) Osbeck for making orange flower water (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle Key Lime, Mexican Lime, West Citrus flowers are overwhelming in scent Anonymous (2012a)
Indian Lime, Acid Lime and flavour and go really well with many
different foods from stir-fries to puddings.
They are also ideal for crystallizing and
decorating cakes or desserts
Citrus aurantium L. Sour Orange, Bitter Orange, Seville Flowers used for scenting tea, citrus Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Orange, Bigarade Orange, Marmalade flowers are overwhelming in scent and
Orange flavour and go really well with many
different foods from stir-fries to puddings.
They are also ideal for crystallizing and
decorating cakes or desserts
Citrus aurantium var. amara L. = Citrus Bitter Orange, Neroli; Dai Dai Hua Fresh and dried flowers used for tea Hu (2005) and Deane (2007–2012b)
aurantium L. (Chinese) or flavouring in cooking
Citrus japonica Thunb. Kumquats Blossoms edible Deane (2007–2012b)
(Tanaka ex Yu.) Tanaka Tahitian Lime As for Citrus aurantium Deane (2007–2012b) and Anonymous
(2012a)
Citrus × limon (L.) Burm.f. Lemon As for Citrus aurantium Tanaka (1976), Uphof (1968),
Morton (1987), Facciola (1990),
Barash (1997), Newman and O’Connor
(2009), Deane (2007–2012b),
Introduction

and Anonymous (2012a)

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Citrus maxima (Burm.) Osbeck Pummelo, Pomelo, Pommel, Petals edible Deane (2007–2012b)
Shaddock
Citrus × microcarpa Bunge Calamondin Petals edible Deane (2007–2012b)
Citrus reticulata Blanco Mandarin, Satsuma, Tangerine Petals edible Deane (2007–2012b)
Introduction

Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck Sweet Orange, Navel Orange, Flowers cooked as a vegetable or made Morton (1987), Facciola (1990),
Valencia Orange into a tea Newman and O’Connor (2009),
and Deane (2007–2012b)
Clausena excavata Brum. f. Pink Wampee; Samui, Mui (Thai) Young leaves and flowers are aromatic Burkill (1966), Tanaka (1976),
and used to flavour curries and other food Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985),
and Facciola (1990)
Feroniella lucida (Scheff.) Swingle Wood Apple, Java Feroniella; Flowers eaten Tangkanakul et al. (2005)
Ma Sung (Thai)
Micromelum pubescens Blume Thnk pui Young shoots with inflorescence eaten as Medhi and Borthakur (2012)
vegetables
Murraya koenigii (L.) Sprengel = Bergera Curry Tree, Curry Leaf India (Madras Presidency): the deciduous, Shortt (1887–1888)
koenigii L. fleshy corolla is eaten raw or roasted.
Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack Mock Orange, Jasmine Orange, Fragrant flowers used for scenting tea Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976),
Orange Jessamine and Facciola (1990)
Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC. Japanese Pepper, Japanese Pepper Flowers pickled or preserved in soy sauce Yashidora (1968), Morton (1976),
Tree, Japanese Pricklyash; Sansho and Facciola (1990)
(Japanese)
Salicaceae
Populus balsamifera L. Balsam Poplar, East Asian Balsam Catkins have a bitter flavour, eaten raw Schofield (2003)
Poplar, Korean Poplar, Canadian or cooked, added to soups and stews
Poplar, Western Balsam, Black
Cottonwood
Populus deltoides subsp. wislizenii Rio Grande Cottonwood Catkins eaten raw. The cotton from Uphof (1698), Usher (1974), Tanaka
(S. Watson) Eckenw. = Populus deltoides the pistillate catkins has been used (1976), and Moerman (1998)
var. wislizeni (S. Watson) Dorn by children as a chewing gum
Populus fremontii S. Watson Fremont Cottonwood, Alamo Catkins eaten raw or cooked, eaten Coon (1958), Moerman (1998),
Cottonwood as a snack and Elias and Dykeman (2009)
Populus tremuloides Michx. American Aspen, Quaking Aspen Catkins have a bitter taste, eaten raw Schofield (2003)
or cooked, added to soups and stews
Populus trichocarpa Torr. & Gray Black Cottonwood, Western Balsam As above Schofield (2003)
Poplar, California Poplar
Salix aegyptiaca L. Willow, Musk Willow Male catkins candied. A perfumed drink Bean (1970), Kunkel (1984),
is made from the catkins and Facciola (1990)
51

(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
52

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Salix babylonica L. Babylon Willow, Weeping Willow Flower buds parboiled and eaten Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Salix daphnoides Vill. Violet Willow Young catkin-bearing shoots eaten raw Facciola (1990)
or cooked in seal oil by Eskimos of Alaska
Salix gooddingii C.R. Ball Goodding’s Willow The catkins can be eaten raw Moerman (1998)
Salix gracilistyla Miq. Rosegold Pussy Willow, Japanese Flowers parboiled and eaten as vegetables Tanaka (1976)
Pussy Willow
Salix pulchra Cham. = Salix planifolia Diamondleaf Willow, Tealeaf Willow, Catkins eaten Kunkel (1984)
subsp. pulchra (Cham.) Argus Thin Red Willow
Sapindaceae
Acer macrophyllum Pursh Oregon Maple, Big Leaf Maple Yellow flower clusters are sweet Facciola (1990)
with nectar and are eaten raw
Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig Akee, Akee Apple Flowers used in preparation of an aromatic Morton (1987) and Facciola (1990)
water
Paullinia pinnata L. Barbasco, Timbo Flowers edible Facciola (1990)
Xanthoceras sorbifolium Bunge Yellowhorn, Shiny Leaf Yellowhorn, Flowers cooked China: leaves and flowers Read (1946), Hedrick (1972), Tanaka
Goldenhorn, Chinese Flowering boiled and eaten (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Chestnut
Sapotaceae
Bassia latifolia Roxb. = Madhuca longifolia Indian Butter Tree, Honey Tree; India: sun-dried fruits and flowers eaten Shortt (1887–1888), Gammie (1902),
var. latifolia (Roxb.) A. Chev. Mahwa, Mahua (Hindi) and Watt (1908)
Bassia longifolia J. Konig. ex L. = Madhuca Indian Butter Tree, Honey Tree, As above Shortt (1887–1888), Gammie (1902),
longifolia (J. Konig ex L,) J.F. Macbr. Mahwa, Mahua (Hindi) and Watt (1908)
Butyrospermum paradoxum ssp. parkii Shea Butter Tree Nigeria: flowers eaten Mortimore (1989)
(G. Don) Hepper = Vitellaria subsp. paradoxa
Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel. = Madhuca Indian Butter Tree, Honey Tree, India (Rajasthan, western): ripe fruit eaten, Gupta and Kanodia (1968) and Patiri
longifolia var. latifolia (Roxb.) A. Chev. Mahwa, Mahua (Hindi) also fleshy corolla of flower eaten raw or and Borah (2007)
roasted; juice of the corolla used for making
a beverage
Madhuca longifolia (J. König ex L.) Indian Butter Tree, Honey Tree, Fleshy edible flowers are eaten dried, Macmillan (1956), Hedrick (1972),
J.F. Macbr. Mahwa, Mahua (Hindi) roasted or made into jelly, sugar or wine Tanaka (1976), and Facciola (1990)
Saxifragaceae
Saxifraga stolonifera Curtis Creeping Saxifrage, Strawberry Flower scapes said to be tasty when salted Yashidora (1968) and Tanaka (1976)
Saxifrage, Creeping Rockfoil,
Strawberry Geranium; Yuki-No-Shita
(Japanese)
Introduction
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Scrophulariaceae
Buddleja asiatica Lour. Dog Tail, Dog Tail, Asian Butterfly Flowers eaten in Assam and Meghalaya, Patiri and Borah (2007) and Sawian et al.
Bush; Agiachita, Posutia, Bonchini north-east India (2007)
(Assamese)
Introduction

Capraria biflora L. Goat Weed, Stow Weed, Hairy Flowers edible Hedrick (1972), Altschul (1973),
Capraria and Tanaka (1976)
Eremophila latrobei F. Muell. Crimson Turkey Bush, Emu Bush, Flower nectar sucked Cribb and Cribb (1987)
Spotted Fuchsia
Eremophila oldfieldii F. Meull. Pixie Bush, Silky Eremophila As above Cribb and Cribb (1987)
Mimulus guttatus Fisch.ex DC. Yellow Monkey Flower, Seep Blossom added to gelatin moulds Schofield (2003)
Monkey Flower, Common Monkey
Flower
Mimulus lewisii Pursh Great Purple Monkey Flower, Lewis’ Blossom added to gelatin moulds Schofield (2003)
Monkey Flower
Sutera atropurpurea Hiern Cape Saffron Flowers used as spice Seidemann (2005)
Verbascum thapsus L. Great Mullein, Common Mullein, Flower infusion in water or milk Crowhurst (1972), Facciola (1990),
Aaron’s Rod, Blanket Weed drank for cold and cough. An aromatic and Garland (1993)
tea can be brewed from fresh or dried
flowers
Solanaceae
Capsicum annuum L. Sweet Pepper, Bell Pepper Flowers eaten raw or cooked Allardice (1993)
Petunia grandiflora Juss. Petunia Flowers used in salad as garnish Deane (2007–2012i)
Petunia × hybrida hort. ex Vilm. Petunia Flowers edible, used in salads or as garnish Coyle (1999), Deane (2007–2012i),
and Rogala and Pothour (2013)
Staphyleaceae
Staphylea colchica Stev Bladdernut, Colchis Bladdernut Flower buds eaten Komarov (2006)
Staphylea pinnata L. Bladdernut, European Bladdernut Flower bud used as condiment, used Seidemann (2005)
as substitute for capers
Theaceae
Camellia japonica L. Camellia, Japanese Camellia Dried flowers cooked, used as a vegetable Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
or mixed with gelatinous rice to make
a Japanese food called ‘mochi’
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze Tea Flowers made into tempura Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Camellia thea Link = Camellia sinensis (L.) Tea Flowers cooked Deane (2007–2012k)
Kuntze
(continued)
53
Table 1 (continued)
54

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Tiliaceae
Tilia americana L. American Linden, American Flowers, sweet and fragrant, can be added Fernald et al. (1958), Tanaka (1976),
Basswood, Whitewood, Bee Tree to salads or used as a tea substitute. A very Hedrick (1972), Kunkel (1984), Facciola
Linden, White Basswood good chocolate substitute is made from (1990), and Barash (1997)
a paste of the ground fruits and flowers
Tilia spp. Linden Flowers used as above Lauderdale and Evans (1999)
Tropaeolaceae
Tropaeolum majus L. Nasturtium, Garden Nasturtium, Nasturtium flower is one of the most Tanaka (1976), Larkcom (1980),
Indian Cress popular and best-known edible flowers Facciola (1990), Mackin (1993), Garland
with attractive blossoms that have a sweet, (1993), Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996),
peppery spicy flavour similar to watercress. Lauderdale and Evans (1999), Roberts
Buds and flowers can be added to salads, (2000), Friedman et al. (2005),
sandwich spread, vegetable dishes, butter; Anonymous (2012a), Rop et al. (2012),
to flavour vinegar, stuffed or crystallized. and Newman and O’Connor (2009)
Flowers combine well with cream cheese
or butter in canapés, or in a cheese and
tomato sandwich. The buds can be used
as caper substitute. The blossoms can
make a nutritious addition to salads and
an attractive, decorative garnish to steak
and casseroles
Tropaeolum minus L. Dwarf Nasturtium, Bush Nasturtium As above Hedrick (1972), Facciola (1990),
and Anonymous (2012a)
Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz. & Pav. Anu, Mashua Flowers eaten raw in salads Herklots (1972), Popenoe (1974),
Facciola (1990), and Groen et al. (1996)
Typhaceae
Typha angustata Bory & Chaub. = Typha Bulrush, Southern Cattail, Inflorescences are eaten Patiri and Borah (2007)
domingensis Pers. Long-Bracted Cattail, Narrow-Leaved
Cumbungi
Typha angustifolia L. Small Reedmace, Cattail, Lesser As for Typha orientalis Tanaka (1976), Morton (1977), Launert
Bulrush, Lesser Reedmace, (1981), Facciola (1990), and Schofield
Narrow-Leaf Cattail, Narrow-Leaved (2003)
Cattail, Reedmace, Small Bulrush,
Cumbungi (Australia—Aboriginal)
Typha australis K. Schum. & Southern Cattail, Bulrush, Nigeria (Bornu): the immature spikes, Irvine (1957) and Uphof (1968)
Thonn. = Typha domingensis Pers. Narrow-Leaved Cumbungi, called Laka, are eaten with a local variety
Introduction

Cumbungi (Australia—Aboriginal) of salt called Manda

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Typha bungeana Presl Cattail As for Typha orientalis Launert (1981) and Facciola (1990)
Typha capensis (Rohr.) N.E. Br. Cape Bulrush, Common Bulrush, Male inflorescence used as food Fox et al. (1982), Kunkel (1984),
Cossack Asparagus and Facciola (1990)
Typha davidiana (Kronf.) Hand.-Mazz As for Typha orientalis Launert (1981) and Facciola (1990)
Introduction

Typha domingensis Pers. Southern Cattail, Bulrush, As for Typha orientalis Launert. E. Edible and Medicinal Plants.
Narrow-Leaved Cumbungi, Tanaka (1976), Facciola (1990),
Cumbungi (Australia—Aboriginal) and Schofield (2003)
Typha elephantina Roxb. Elephant Grass In Sindh, India, a bread called booree Uphof (1968), Hedrick (1972),
or booratoo is made from the pollens and Facciola (1990)
Typha latifolia L. Bulrush, Broadleaf Cattail, As for Typha orientalis Yanovsky (1936), Facciola (1990),
Broad-Leaved Cattail, Cattail, and Schofield (2003)
Cat’s Tail, Common Cattail, Great
Reedmace, Marsh Pestle
Typha laxmannii Lepech. Graceful Cattail As for Typha orientalis Facciola (1990)
Typha orientalis C. Presl Broad-Leaved Cumbungi, Cumbungi Young flowering spikes before the pollen Launert (1981), Cribb and Cribb (1987),
(Australia—Aboriginal); Dong Fang is shed, can be eaten either raw or cooked; Brooker et al. (1989), Crowe (1990),
Xiang Pu (Chinese); Ko Gama they are best served with butter like corn Facciola (1990), and Low (1991)
(Japanese) on the cob, the hard central core being
discarded. The young flowering, green
stalk is eaten raw or cooked. Pollens
released from the stamens can be collected,
eaten raw or cooked or baked into cakes;
the protein-rich pollens can be mixed
with milk or flour and fried into crumbly
pancakes or made into bread and porridge
Typha spp. Bulrush, Cattails As above Cribb and Cribb (1987)
Typha × glauca Godr. Hybrid Cattail, Glaucus Cattail, White As above Tanaka (1976), Launert (1981), Facciola
Cattail (1990), and Schofield (2003)
Urticaceae
Cecropia palmata Willd. Trumpet Tree, Indian Snake Tree, Young buds eaten as potherb Kunkel (1984) and Facciola (1990)
Snakewood
Cecropia peltata L. Trumpet Tree, Pumpwood, Trumpet Young buds eaten as potherb Hedrick (1972) and Kunkel (1984)
Tree, Snakewood, Congo Pump, Wild
Pawpaw, Pop-a-Gun
Dendrocnide sinuata (Blume) Chew. Fever Nettle, Elephant Nettle; Torash, Flowers are picked and used as vegetable Patiri and Borah (2007)
Sorot Gosh (Assamese) with fish, considered as medicinal by Bodo
people in Assam, India
55

(continued)
Table 1 (continued) 56

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Verbenaceae
Aloysia triphylla (L’Her.) Britton Lemon Verbena, Lemon Beebrush Tiny cream-coloured citrus-scented McVicar (2003)
blossoms and leaves can be steeped
as an herbal tea and used to flavour
custards and flans
Lippia graveolens Kunth Fresh or dried leaves as well as flower used Ong and Brink (1999)
for seasoning, suitable for fish, sausages,
tomato sauce
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl Blue Porterweed, Blue Snakeweed, Flowers used as flavouring, for tea, Deane (2007–2012b)
Brazilian Tea, Jamaica Vervain, beer, etc.
Bastard Vervain
Stachytarpheta urticifolia (Salisb.) Sims Blue Porter Weed, Blue Rat’s Tail, As above Deane (2007–2012b)
Nettleleaf Velvetberry
Verbena officinalis L. Vervain, Simpler’s Joy, Holy Herb The flowers used as a garnish or fermented MacNicol (1967), Tanaka (1976), Kunkel
into wine. In Turkey salt flavoured with (1984), Facciola (1990), and Garland
vervain flowers is popular. Flowering top (1993)
infuse in water is drank as herbal medicine
Violaceae
Viola acuminata Ledeb. Acuminate Violet; Ezo-No- Young leaves and flower buds eaten raw Tanaka (1976)
Tachitsubo-Sumire (Japanese) or cooked
Viola adunca Sm. Western Dog Violet, Hookedspur As above Kunkel (1984) and Facciola (1990)
Violet, Sand Violet
Viola banksii K.R. Thiele & Prober Native Violet, Wild Violet, Tasmanian Flowers used in salads, butter King (2007)
Violet or crystallized
Viola biflora L. Twoflower Violet Flowers eaten raw added to salads Schofield (2003)
Viola brevistipulata (Franch. & Sav.) Miyama-Ki-Sumire (Japanese) Young leaves and flower buds eaten raw Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
W. Becker or cooked
Viola canadensis L. Canada Violet As above Harrington (1974), Kunkel (1984),
and Facciola (1990)
Viola canina L. Dog Violet As above Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
Viola collina Besser Maruba-Ke-Sumire (Japanese) As above Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
Viola cornuta L. Horned Violet, Horned Pansy Flowers have a lettuce-like flavour Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
and make a decorative addition to a green and Anonymous (2012a, b, c)
salad or to garnish a pâté or dessert. They
can be crystallized and used on cakes,
cookies or creamy desserts or used
Introduction

in syrup, butter, vinegar

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Viola cucullata Aiton Hooded Violet, Marsh Blue Violet Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Usher (1974) and Tanaka (1976)
Viola diffusa Ging. = Viola cerasifolia Tsukushi Violet, Tsukushi-Sumire As above Tanaka (1976)
Saint-Hilarie (Japanese)
Viola epipsila Ledeb. = Viola palustris L. Dwarf Marsh Violet, Northern Marsh Raw added to salads Schofield (2003)
Introduction

Violet
Viola glabella Nutt. Stream Violet, Yellow Wood Violet, Raw added to salads Schofield (2003)
Pioneer Violet
Viola grypoceras A. Gray Ko-Tachi-Tsubo-Sumire (Japanese) Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
Viola hederacea Labill. Curtis’ Violet, Ivy-Leaf Violet, Native
Flowers can be used in a salad or as a King (2007), Haslam (2011),
Violet garnish. Flowers coated with beaten egg and Schaeffer and Fletcher (2012)
white and dust with icing sugar. Great
for cakes or ice cream or deserts
Viola hybrida Schur Viola Flowers have a lettuce-like flavour Anonymous (2012a, b, c)
and make a decorative addition to a green
salad or to garnish a pâté or dessert. They
can be crystallized and used on cakes,
cookies or creamy desserts
Viola japonica Langsd. ex DC. Ko-Sumire (Japanese) Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Tanaka (1976)
Viola keiskei Miq. Maruba Sumire (Japanese) As above Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
Viola labradorica Shrank Labrador Violet As above Tanaka (1976)
Viola langsdorffii Fisch. ex Ging. Alaska Violet Flowers edible raw added to salads Schofield (2003)
Viola mandschurica W. Becker Manchurian Violet; Jebikkot (Korean) Jebikkot hwajeon cake Anonymous (2012c)
Viola mirabilis L. Wonder Violet Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Tanaka (1976)
Viola obtusa (Makino) Makino Blunt Violet; Nioi-Tachi-Tsubo-Sumire As above Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
(Japanese)
Viola odorata L. Sweet Violet, Ordinary Violet, Young leaves, flower buds and flowers are Macnicol (1967), Morton (1976),
Garden Violet edible raw or cooked. The flowers have a Facciola (1990), Garland (1993), Mackin
sweet mild, lettuce-like flavour with a (1993), Burnie and Fenton-Smith (1996),
delicate fragrance and can be used in salads, Barash (1997), Lauderdale and Evans
desserts, butter and vinegar; added to (1999), Newman and O’Connor (2009),
drinks or as a decorative addition to a green Mlcek and Rop (2011), and Anonymous
salad or to garnish a pâté or dessert. Flowers (2012a, b, c)
are also used fresh to flavour and colour
confectionery. They can be crystallized and
used on cakes, cookies or creamy desserts
or eaten as sweet treats. Flower infusion or
syrup with added sugar is used to flavour
57

cream puddings, sorbets, syrup, cakes or ices

(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
58

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Viola palmata L. Palmate Violet Flowers used as tea Fern (1992–2003)
Viola papilionacea Pursh. = Viola sororia Blue Violet, Common Blue Violet, Flowers made into jams, jellies, Crowhurst (1972) and Facciola (1990)
var. sororia Common Meadow Violet sweetmeats, syrup and used in salads
Viola patrinii Ging. China Violet Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Read (1946) and Tanaka (1976)
Viola pedata L. Bird’s Foot Violet, Crowfoot Violet, Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Tanaka (1976) and Facciola (1990)
Pansy Violet or candied
Viola pedunculata Torr. & A. Gray Grass Pansy, Yellow Pansy, Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
Johnny-Jump-Up, California Golden and Yanovsky (1936)
Violet, Yellow Violet
Viola pinnata L. Finger Leaved Violet As above Tanaka (1976) and Stuart (1979)
Viola prionantha Bunge As above Tanaka (1976)
Viola renifolia A. Gray = Viola blanda var. Hite Violet, Kidneyleaf Violet Flower buds and flowers eaten raw or cooked, Schofield (2003)
renifolia (A.Gray) A. Gray in salad and casserole and also for tea
Viola riviniana Rchb. Wood Violet Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Harrington (1974) and Tanaka (1976)
Viola selkirkii Pursh ex Goldie Great-Spurred Violet, Northern Violet, Flower buds and flowers eaten raw or cooked, Schofield (2003)
Selkirk’s Violet in salad and casserole and also for tea
Viola sempervirens Greene Redwood Violet As above Schofield (2003)
Viola sororia Willd. Wooly Blue Violet, Marsh Blue Violet Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Fernand et al. (1958), Crowhurst (1972),
and Facciola (1990)
Viola tokubuchiana Makino Arage-Sumire (Japanese) As above Fernand et al. (1958), Crowhurst (1972),
Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
and Facciola (1990)
Viola tricolor L. Johnny-Jump-Up, Heartsease, Heart’s Young tender leaves; flower buds and Tanaka (1976), Launert (1981), Facciola
Ease, Heart’s Delight, Tickle-My- flowers are eaten raw or cooked. The (1990), Barash (1997), Mackin (1993),
Fancy, Jack-Jump-Up-and-Kiss-Me, attractive small flowers are added to salads Lauderdale and Evans (1999), and
Come-and-Cuddle-Me, Three Faces in or used as a garnish and to embellish Anonymous (2012a, b, c)
a Hood, Love-in-Idleness desserts—frosted cakes, sorbets, etc. and
iced drinks. They also can be crystallized,
eaten as a sweet treat and used on cakes,
cookies or creamy desserts. Some common
recipe names include crystallized violets,
triple violet salads, violet–lavender sorbet,
wild spring flower salad
Viola vaginata Maxim. Sheathed Violet; Sumire Saishin Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Tanaka (1976)
(Japanese)
Introduction

Viola variegata Fisch. ex Link Genji-Sumire (Japanese) As above Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Viola verecunda A. Gray Tsubo-Sumire (Japanese) As above Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
Viola violacea Makino Makino-Sumire, Shihai-Sumire As above Tanaka (1976) and Kunkel (1984)
(Japanese)
Viola × wittrockiana Gams Pansy, Ladies Delight The attractive flowers are added to salads MacNicol (1967), Larkcom (1980),
Introduction

or used as a garnish and to embellish Facciola (1990), Mackin (1993),

desserts—frosted cakes, sorbets, etc. Lauderdale and Evans (1999),
and iced drinks. They also can be Newman and O’Connor (2009),
crystallized and eaten as a sweet treat and Rop et al. (2012)
Viola yezoensis Maxim. Chinese Violet Young leaves and flower buds eaten raw Tanaka (1976)
or cooked
Vitaceae
Vitis vinifera L. Grapes, Table Grapes, Wine Grapes Flower clusters are used as a vegetable Macnicol (1967), Bryan and Castle
(1975), and Facciola (1990)
Xanthorrhoeaceae
Asphodeline lutea (L.) Rchb. Yellow Asphodel, King’s Spear Flowers eaten on its own or in salad or Toensmeier (2007) and Deane
steamed with butter (2007–2012o)
Hemerocallis altissima Stout = Hemerocallis Tall Daylily Flower buds eaten Erhardt (1992)
citrina Baroni
Hemerocallis aurantiaca Orange-Fulvous Daylily; Tou-Kanzo Flowers and flower buds eaten raw Erhardt (1992)
Baker = Hemerocallis fulva var. aurantiaca (Japanese) or cooked
(Baker) M. Hotta
Hemerocallis bulbiferum L. Daylily Flowers and flower buds eaten raw or cooked Erhardt (1992)
Hemerocallis citrina Baroni Daylily; Jin-Zhen-Cai (Chinese) Mature flower bud eaten, steamed Hu (2005)
sund-ried
Hemerocallis coreana Nakai = Hemerocallis Long Yellow Daylily Flowers and flower buds eaten raw Kunkel (1984) and Erhardt (1992)
thunbergii Baker or cooked
Hemerocallis darrowiana S.Y. Hu Daylily As above Erhardt (1992)
Hemerocallis dumortieri C. Morren Daylily As above Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984),
and Erhardt (1992)
Hemerocallis exaltata Tobishima-Kanzō (Japanese) As above Kunkel (1984) and Erhardt (1992)
Stout
Hemerocallis forrestii Diels Forrest’s Daylily Flowers and flower buds—raw or cooked Fern (1992–2003)
Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L. Orange Daylily, Tawny Daylily, Tiger Young buds, fresh, dried flowers eaten raw Read (1946), Harrington (1974), Tanaka
Daylily, Ditch Lily or cooked. The petals are thick and (1976), Facciola (1990), Erhardt (1992),
crunchy, making very pleasant eating raw, Roberts (2000), Woodward (2000), Hu
with a nice sweetness at the base because (2005), McCullough (2007), Tanaka
of the nectar. The flowers can also be dried and Nguyen (2007), and Newman
59

and used as a thickener in soups and O’Connor (2009)

(continued)
 60

Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Hemerocallis fulva var. longituba (Miq.) Yellow Daylily; Chang Guan Xuan As above Kunkel (1984) and Erhardt (1992)
Maxim. = Hemerocallis fulva var. Cao (Chinese)
angustifolia Baker
Hemerocallis graminea Grassleaf Daylily Flowers and flower buds eaten raw or Kunkel (1984) and Erhardt (1992)
Andrews = Hemerocallis minor Mill. cooked
Hemerocallis hakuunensis Nakai Hakuun-Kisuge (Japanese) As above Erhardt (1992)
Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus L. Yellow Daylily, Lemon Lily, Lemon Flower buds and flowers are eaten raw Tanaka (1976), Gessert (1983),
Daylily or cooked. They are mildly sweet and are Facciola (1990), Erhardt (1992),
use for crowning a frosted cake or used Roberts (2000), Hu (2005), and Tanaka
as a dramatic garnish, or the succulent and Nguyen (2007)
petals can be added to spring salads.
Flowers and buds dipped in batter of milk,
flour and eggs, seasoned and browned like
fritter in oil or butter. In China and
southeast Asia, the flowers are harvested
just before they open and are boiled or
steamed and then dried as a traditional food
(spice or condiment) called Kum Cham in
Cantonese or Jīnzhēn, in pinyin, meaning
‘golden needles’. Dried flowers give
flavour to soups, stir-fries and noodle dishes
Hemerocallis littorea Coastal Daylily Flowers and flower buds eaten raw Erhardt (1992) and Kunkel (1984)
Makino = Hemerocallis fulva var. littorea or cooked. They can be dried and used
(Makino) M. Matsuoka & M. Hotta as a thickener in soups
Hemerocallis micrantha Hakuun-Kisuge (Japanese) As above Erhardt (1992) and Kunkel (1984)
Nakai = Hemerocallis hakuunensis Nakai
Hemerocallis middendorffii Trautv. & Amur Daylily As above Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984), Erhardt
C.A. Mey. (1992), and Facciola (1990)
Hemerocallis middendorffii var. esculenta Daylily As above Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984), Erhardt
(Koidz,) Ohwi = Hemerocallis esculenta (1992), and Facciola (1990)
Koidz.
Hemerocallis minor Mill. Grassleaf Daylily Mature flower bud steamed and sun-dried. Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976), Gessert
Flowers eaten as a relish with meat, (1983), Facciola (1990), and Hu (2005)
Introduction

or dried and used in soups and stir-fries

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Hemerocallis multiflora Stout Daylily Flowers and flower buds eaten raw or Erhardt (1992) and Fern (1992–2003)
cooked. Flowers are crisp with a pleasant
sweetness and no aftertaste; they make a
delicious addition to salads. The flowers
Introduction

can also be dried and used as a thickener

in soups
Hemerocallis pedicellata Daylily Flowers and flower buds eaten raw or Erhardt (1992)
Nakai = Hemerocallis esculenta Koidz. cooked
Hemerocallis plicata Stapf. Daylily As above Erhardt (1992)
Hemerocallis spp. Daylily, Lily of a Day Petals edible Low (1989), Lauderdale and Evans
(1999), and Mlcek and Rop (2011)
Hemerocallis thunbergii Baker Late Yellow Daylily, Thunberg’s Mature flower buds steamed, sun-dried Hu (2005)
Daylily; Asama-Kisuge, Yusuge and used for cooking
(Japanese)
Hemerocallis yezoensis H. Hara Ezo-Kisuge (Japanese) Flowers and flower buds eaten raw Erhardt (1992)
or cooked. They can be dried and used
as a thickener in soups
Lomandra longifolia Mat Rush, Long-Leaved Mat Rush Flowers edible raw or cooked Low (1989, 1991)
Phormium tenax J.R. Forst. & G. Forst. New Zealand Flax, New Zealand Nectar sucked from flowers makes Natusch (1979) and Facciola (1990)
Hemp wholesome eating
Xanthorrhoea acaulis (A.T. Lee) Ground Blackboy, Tussock Grass Tree The flowers produce nectar that may be Harden (1993) and Steenbeeke (2001)
D.J. Bedford licked from the opened flowers, or the spike
may be soaked in water and then drunk
fresh or after a short period of fermentation
Xanthorrhoea glauca subsp. angustifolia Grass Tree, Blackboy As above Harden (1993) and Steenbeeke (2001)
D.J. Bedford
Xanthorrhoea glauca subsp. glauca Grass Tree, Blackboy As above Harden (1993) and Steenbeeke (2001)
D.J. Bedford
Xanthorrhoea johnsonii A.T. Lee Johnson’s Grass Tree As above Harden (1993) and Steenbeeke (2001)
Xanthorrhoea spp. Grass Tree, Blackboy As above Cribb and Cribb (1987) and Schaeffer
and Fletcher (2012)
Zamiaceae
Encephalartos caffer (Thumb.) Lehm. Kaffir Bread Female cone source of starch to make Uphof (1968), Hedrick (1972),
bread and Facciola (1990)
(continued)
61
Table 1 (continued)
62

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Zingiberaceae
Achasma sphaerocephalum (Baker) Kha-Daeng (Thai) Flowers aromatic and sour, used to flavour Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985)
Holttum = Etlingera metriocheilos (Griff.) food
R.M. Sm
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. Galanga, Galanga Major, Galangal, Young rhizomes, young shoots, flower Morton (1976), Ochse and van den Brink
Greater Galanga, Languas, Laos Root, buds, opened flowers and young (1980), Facciola (1990), and Scheffer
Siamese Ginger, Spice Ginger; Khaa, inflorescences are eaten as vegetable and Jansen (1999)
Kha Taa Daeng (Thai); Lengkuas either fresh or cook, steamed, pickled,
(Malay) added to soups or mixed with chilli paste
Alpinia nigra (Gaertn.) Burtt Derangong, Aihre don Inflorescence eaten in Assam Medhi and Borthakur (2012)
Alpinia regia K. Heyne ex R.M. Smith Flowers edible Van den Bergh (1994b)
Alpinia speciosa (Blume) D. See Etlingera elatior As for Etlingera elatior Burkill (1966), Tanaka (1976),
Dietr = Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M. Sm. and Facciola (1990)
Amomum maximum Roxb. Java Cardamom, Winged Java Young inflorescences eaten cooked Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
Cardamom; Resak (Indonesia) with rice and Woodward (2000)
Amomum xanthophlebium Baker Luchol, Halia Jacus, Halia Landak Flower used for flavouring curries Jansen (1999)
(Malaysia)
Achasma megalocheilos Griff. = Etlingera Tepu Heart of young shoots, flower buds Noweg et al. (2003)
megalocheilos (Griff.) A.D. Poulsen and fruits eaten
Curcuma aurantiaca Zijp Temu blobo, Temu Purut (Javanese) Young inflorescences are eaten in Java Burkill (1966)
Curcuma alismatifolia Gagnep. Thai Tulip Flower bracts are widely eaten as vegetable King (2007)
Curcuma longa L. Turmeric, Turmeric Root, Indian Flowers eaten as vegetable Woodward (2000)
Saffron, Kunyit
Curcuma mangga Valeton & Zijp Mango Ginger; Temu Mangga, Kunyit Young inflorescences are eaten raw Morton (1976), Ochse and van den Brink
Putih (Malay); Khamin-Khao (Thai) with many kinds of hot and spicy (1980), Facciola (1990), Van den Bergh
(1994a, b), and JIRCAS (2010)
Cucurma parvifolia Wall. Inflorescence is eaten as vegetable Sirirugsa (1997)
Curcuma spp. Hidden Ginger Lilies Flower bracts are widely eaten King (2007)
as a vegetables
Curcuma zanthorrhiza Roxb. False Turmeric, Giant Curcuma, Inflorescences eaten cooked with rice Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
Javanese Turmeric; Temu Lawak,
Temu Putih (Malay, Javanese);
Koneng Gede (Sundanese); Temu
Labak (Madurese)
Introduction
Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference
Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M. Sm. Torch Ginger, Ginger Flower, Red Flower petal, and receptacle, hearts of Burkill (1966), Tanaka (1976), Facciola
Ginger Lily, Torch Lily, Philippine young leafy shoots, flower buds, fruit seed (1990), Ochse and van den Brink (1980),
Wax Flower, Indonesian Tall Ginger, and rhizome are used as condiments eaten Noweg et al. (2003), Wetwitayaklung
Boca De Dragón, Rose De Porcelaine, raw as salad, or cooked in various ways, et al. (2008), and Chan et al. (2011)
Introduction

Porcelain Rose; Xiang Bao Jiaing or pickled. Flower petals and half-ripe
(Chinese); Bunga Combrang, Honje fruiting shoots are widely used in curries,
(Indonesia); Bunga Kantan (Malay); particularly in penang laksa, nasi ulam,
Daalaa (Thai) nasi kerabu, rojak or cooked in mixed
vegetables. They are also eaten fresh
as ulam. In North Sumatra, the flower
buds are used for a dish called arsik
ikan mas (Andaliman/Szechuan pepper
Spiced Carp). In North Sumatra, another
common Karo dish with the flower bud
is asam cekala
Etlingera hemisphaerica (Blume) R.M. Sm. Kantan Liar (Malay); Honje Hutan, Inflorescences used for sayur lodeh Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
Honje, Ondje (Indonesia)
Etlingera littoralis (J. König) Giseke Earth Ginger In Sabah, Malaysia, the hearts of young Noweg et al. (2003)
shoots, flower buds and fruits are eaten
Etlingera maingayi (Baker) R.M. Smith Malay Rose Flowers are eaten as vegetables Sirirugsa (1999)
Etlingera punicea (Roxb.) R.M. Sm. Tuhau, Tepu, Tutubuh Heart of young shoots, flower buds Noweg et al. (2003)
and fruits eaten
Etlingera rubrolutea (Baker) Wild Ginger In Sabah, Malaysia, the hearts of young Noweg et al. (2003)
C.K. Lim = Etlingera megalocheilos (Griff.) shoots, flower buds and fruits are eaten
A.D. Poulsen
Hedychium coronarium J. König Butterfly Ginger, Butterfly Ginger Young flowers and buds steamed Tanaka (1976), Kunkel (1984), Facciola
Lily, White Garland Lily, Garland Used as vegetable and flavouring (1990), Sirirugsa (1997), and Hu (2005)
Flower, White Ginger; Li-Ji
(Chinese)
Hornstedtia sp. Talirusan Heart of young shoots, flower buds Noweg et al. (2003)
and fruit seeds are eaten
Kaempferia galanga L. Cekur (Malay) Inflorescence bracts used in ulam Saidin (2000)
or as flavouring in mixed vegetables
Nicolaia elatior (Jack) Horan = Etlingera See Etlingera elatior As for Etlingera elatior See Etlingera elatior
elatior (Jack) R.M. Sm.
(continued)
63
Table 1 (continued)
64

Scientific name English/Common vernacular name Flower edible uses Reference

Phaeomeria atropurpurea (Teijsm. & See Etlingera hemisphaerica Inflorescence used for sayur lodeh See Etlingera hemisphaerica
Binn.) K. Schum = Etlingera hemisphaerica
(Blume) R.M. Sm.
Phaeomeria speciosa (Blume) See Etlingera elatior See Etlingera elatior See Etlingera elatior
Koord. = Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M. Sm.
Scaphochlamys sp. Kua-Kabig (Thai) Young shoots and flowers cooked as Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985)
vegetables
Zingiber amaricans Blume = Zingiber Shampoo Ginger, Bitter Ginger, Young flower spikes eaten raw or cooked Ochse and van den Brink (1980),
zerumbet subsp. zerumbet Pinecone Ginger as lalab. Young flowers used as spice, eaten Facciola (1990), and Wolff et al. (1999)
raw or cooked
Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. = Zingiber Cassumunar Ginger, Phlai, Bpulai, Flowers eaten Wetwitayaklung et al. (2008)
montanum (J. Konig) Link exA. Dietr. Wan-Fai (Thai)
Zingiber mioga (Thunb.) Roscoe Japanese Ginger, Mioga Ginger; Flowers and buds used for flavouring Wolff et al. (1999) and Hu (2005)
Myoga (Japanese)
Zingiber odoriferum Blume Balakatoa, Tolol, Tongkak (Indonesia) Flower buds eaten raw or cooked Ochse and van den Brink (1980)
Zingiber officinale Roscoe Ginger, Common Ginger, Cooking Ginger blossoms are gingery and fragrant. Deane (2007–2012m) and Medhi
Ginger, Canton Ginger; Hajing, They can be eaten raw and Borthakur (2012)
Aithing, Theing, Kaphul Kebeb
(Assam)
Zingiber sp. Kham Noi (Thai) Young inflorescence and shoot eaten Pongpangan and Poobrasert (1985)
cooked
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith Pinecone Ginger, Shampoo Ginger The flower buds are eaten boiled Sirirugsa (1997)
as vegetable
Zygophyllaceae
Larrea tridentata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Creosote Bush, Chaparral Flower buds pickled in vinegar and used Uphof (1968), Clarke (1977), Kunkel
Coville like capers (1984), and Facciola (1990)
Zygophyllum fabago L. Syrian Bean Caper Flower buds pickled and used as caper Hedrick (1972), Tanaka (1976),
substitute and Facciola (1990)
Introduction
Introduction 65

earlier volumes and plants better known for other herb garden (e.g. chives, Mentha spp. borage,
non-floral parts will be covered in subsequent rosemary, chamomile).
volumes. The edible flower species dealt with in Edible flowers can be used raw or fresh as a
this volume include both lesser-known, wild and garnish or as an integral part of a dish, such as a
underutilized plants and also common and widely vegetable or fruit salad. Today, many restaurant
grown ornamentals. chefs and innovative home cooks garnish their
As in the preceding seven volumes, topics entrees with flower blossoms for a touch of
covered include taxonomy (botanical name and elegance. Many flowers can be fried in light
synonyms); common English and vernacular batter or cornmeal, e.g. squash, zucchini flowers
names; origin and distribution; agro-ecological or in fritters (e.g. Acacia blossoms). Some flowers
requirements; edible plant part and uses; plant can be steamed, boiled, grilled or used in soups
botany; nutritive and medicinal/pharmacological and curries. Some flowers can be stuffed or used
properties with up-to-date research findings, tra- in stir-fry dishes. Edible flowers can be crystal-
ditional medicinal uses; other non-edible uses; lized, candied; frozen in ice cubes and added
and selected/cited references for further reading. to beverages; made into jellies and jams; used to
make teas or wines; to flavour liquors, vinegar,
oil, honey, scented sugars; added to punch, cock-
Use of Edible Flowers tail, ice cream, sorbet and other beverages; and
minced and added to cheese spreads, herbal but-
Since antiquity right through the Middle Ages ters, pancakes, crepes and waffles. Many flowers
and the seventeenth century, flowers have been can be used to make vinegars for cooking, mari-
featured as an integral part of human nutrition nades or dressings for salads.
in Europe—ancient Rome, medieval France, Some important rules on the use of edible
Victorian England, Middle East and in Asia par- flowers are:
ticularly in China, India, Thailand and Japan. – Flowers have to be accurately identified before
Flowers have long been used as decorations in eating.
food prepared for the nobility. Today, consump- – Do not eat flowers from florists, nurseries, gar-
tion of edible flowers is increasing worldwide den centres, fruit orchards or flowers from
(Mlcek and Rop 2011; Rop et al. 2012). Edible plants found on the side of the road and in
flowers are becoming more popular as evidenced murky waterways because of possible contam-
by the profusion of cookbooks and scientific ination from pesticide sprays, vehicle carbon
papers on edible flowers and plenitude of edible emissions and industrial and effluent runoff.
flower recipes presented in culinary magazines, – Harvest/pick flowers that are free from dis-
newspaper and on-line articles, radio and televi- eases, insects, insect damage and soil particles.
sion shows. Flowers are consumed in various – Pick young fresh flowers and buds on dry
forms, colours and flavours to enhance the nutri- mornings, before the sun becomes too strong,
tional and sensory qualities of foods. Its quali- to retain the bright colours and intense
ties, freshness and safety depend on the care flavours.
taken in its harvesting and storage. Many of the – Use flowers immediately for best results or
lesser-known edible flowers are harvested in the refrigerate in a plastic bag for a few days.
wild from plants in the forests, wastelands, dis- Dried, frozen or freeze-dried flowers are best
turbed sites, near waterways and roadsides often used in infusions or cooked.
occurring as weeds (e.g. Limnocharis, milk- – For medium and large flowers like hollyhocks,
weeds, beggarticks, dandelion, Acacia spp). In roses, lilies, calendula, chrysanthemum, laven-
contrast, many of the commonly known edible der, rose, tulip, yucca, hibiscus, lavender, tulip
flowers (e.g. roses, chrysanthemums, carnations, and marigolds, use only the petals and discard
marigolds, daylilies, cornflower) are harvested stamens, pistil and calyx. The bitter ‘heel’ at
from cultivated garden ornamentals or culinary the base of the petal should be removed.
66 Introduction

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 Pelargonium crispum

Scientific Name German: Orangenpelargonie, Zitronengeranie,

Zitronenpelargonie
Pelargonium crispum (L.) L’Hér. Italian: Geranio Crispum

Synonyms Origin/Distribution

Anisopetala crispa (P.J. Bergius) Walp., Lemon Geranium is a native of South Africa.
Geraniospermum crispum (P.J. Bergius), It occurs from Worcester to Bredasdorp in south
Geranium crispum P.J. Bergius Western Cape.

Family Agroecology

Geraniaceae In its native habitat, it occurs on rocky lower

mountain or hill slopes, growing in the shelter
of boulders in fairly dry sandy soils. Lemon
Common/English Names Geranium prefers well-drained, light-textured
neutral to alkaline soil in a sunny position,
Crisped Leaf Pelargonium, Curled Leaved although it is tolerant of partial shade. It tolerates
Cranesbill, Finger Bowl Geranium, Lemon low temperatures down to about −3 °C.
Geranium, Lemon-Scented Geranium, Lemon-
Scented Leaved Geranium, Variegated Lemon-
Scented Pelargonium Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The leaves have a pleasant lemon aroma and

Vernacular Names are used to flavour soups, fruit dishes, jellies,
sorbets, ice cream, cakes, etc. (Facciola 1990;
Afrikaans: Dassiepoeier Bown 1995). Cake pans can be lined with the
Czech: Muskát Stojaty leaves and the pastry will be infused with their
Danish: Citrongeranie, Geranie essence. An infusion of the leaves is used as a
Estonian: Kähar Pelargoon tea (Bown 1995). The scented geranium flowers

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 72
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_2, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Pelargonium crispum 73

are also edible. They are used in salads, desserts,

drinks and jellies (Barash 1997; Roberts 2000;
Deane 2007–2012).

Botany

An erect, small, much-branched shrub growing

100 cm high with an extensive spreading super-
ficial root system. Stems soft, green, pubescent
becoming darker and woody with age. Leaves
opposite, lemon scented, fan shaped in outline
with palmatifid lamina, hirsute with glandular Plate 1 Pink flowers and palmatifid leaves of red-styled
cultivar
and non-glandular hairs, soft, green with cordate
base, lobes obtuse to acute apexes with crisped,
serrated to irregularly dentate margins (Plates 1
and 2). Flowers borne in terminal, 2–4 flowered
pseudo-umbel inflorescences. Flowers are zygo-
morphic, pentamerous and rose-violet; receptacle
forming a hypanthium which houses a nectarifer-
ous gland in a nectariferous spur opening at base
of the posterior sepal; sepals lanceolate, imbri-
cate, unequal, connate at base, green-brown;
petals free, spatulate, 2 posterior larger than the
3 anterior ones; stamens 10, connate at base,
staminodial; ovary superior, 5-lobed, style filiform,
stigma with 5 recurved, red or pink thin branches
(Plates 1 and 2).

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Pelargonium species including P. crispum had

been reported to accumulate tartaric acid
(Stafford 1961). Studies by Wagner and Loewus
(1973) found that in P. crispum cv. Prince Albert
(Lemon Geranium), L-galactono-1,4-lactone was Plate 2 Pink flowers and palmatifid leaves of pink-style
readily converted to L-ascorbic acid which was cultivar
found to be a precursor of tartaric acid and oxalic
acid. D-glucose-6-14C was found to be a better L-ascorbic acid in detached apices of Pelargonium
source of label to tartaric acid than D-glucose-l- crispum (L.) L’Hér cv. Prince Rupert (Lemon
16
C in Pelargonium crispum. In Lemon Geranium Geranium) was accompanied by complete loss of
apices, L-[4-(14)C]ascorbic acid yielded internal tritium in the product (Grün et al. 1982). Chemical
labelled (+)-tartaric acid, while L-[6-(14)C]ascorbic degradation of D-glucose which was recovered
acid gave an equivalent conversion to carboxyl from the labelled apices yielded D-glyceric acid.
labelled (+)-tartaric acid (Williams and Loewus Sucrose and fructose were also identified in the
1978). Conversion of d-[5-(3)H,6-(14)C]glucose to apices. Metabolic product derived from cleavage
74 Geraniaceae

of ascorbic acid from carbons 2 and 3 yielded the response of human leukaemia cells to chrysin and
2-carbon compound, oxalic acid. L-threonic acid raise the possibility that combined interruption of
and L-tartaric acid were the C4 products of ascor- chrysin and PI3K/Akt-related pathways may
bic acid cleavage at the carbon 2/carbon 3 bond. represent a novel therapeutic strategy in haemato-
L-threonic acid is a natural constituent in the leaves logical malignancies. Pretreatment with chrysin
of Pelargonium crispum (Helsper and Loewus greatly sensitized various human cancer cells to
1982). They demonstrated that detached leaves tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-induced
of P. crispum oxidized l-[U-(14)C]threonate to apoptosis (Li et al. 2010). Pretreatment with
l-[(14)C]tartrate. A small quantity of [(14)C] chrysin inhibited TNF-α-induced degradation of
glycerate was also produced which suggested a inhibitor of kappaB (IκB) protein and subsequent
process involving decarboxylation of l-[U-(14)C] nuclear translocation of p65. As a result, chrysin
threonate. Tannins, namely, proanthocyanidins and suppressed the expression of NF-κB-targeted
ellagitannins (in 53 % of taxa) and free ellagic acid anti-apoptotic gene; c-FLIP-L pretreatment with
(in 50 %), were major components of the leaves chrysin greatly sensitized various human cancer
of Pelargonium species including P. crispum. cells to tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-
Myricetin (in 38 %), flavone C-glycosides induced apoptosis (Li et al. 2010).
(in 36 %) and luteolin (in 49 % of taxa) were
other regular constituents. Myricetin was also
found in P. crispum. Antiviral Activity
Chrysin (5,7-dihydroxyflavone) and a related
C-methylflavanone were identified as major leaf Chrysin inhibited HIV expression in TNF-α-
surface constituents of P. crispum (Williams et al. treated OM-10.1 cultures (Critchfield et al. 1996).
1997). Many in vitro studies reported that chrysin Chrysin also inhibited HIV expression in response
possessed potent anti-inflammatory, anticancer to PMA in OM-10.1 cells, in ACH-2 cells stimu-
and antioxidative properties (Woo et al. 2005). lated with either TNF-α or PMA and in 8E5
cultures.

Antioxidant Activity
Anti-inflammatory Activity
In-vitro studies showed that significant cell
protection was observed upon preincubation of Chrysin demonstrated concentration-dependent
pancreatic beta cells with chrysin, quercetin, inhibitory or modulatory effects in a fibroblast cell
catechin or caffeic acid (50 μM, each) prior to culture model but was less potent than apigenin
application of oxidative stress (Lapidot et al. 2002). (Koganov et al. 1999). Of the compounds tested,
apigenin, chrysin and kaempferol significantly
stimulated peroxisome proliferator-activated
Anticancer Activity receptor (PPAR)gamma transcriptional activity
in a transient reporter assay (Liang et al. 2001).
Of the flavones tested, chrysin and apigenin PPARgamma transcription factor had been
markedly augmented the cytotoxicity of tumour implicated in anti-inflammatory response. Moreover,
necrosis factor-α (TNF) in L-929 tumour cells, these three flavonoids strongly enhanced the inhi-
while luteolin showed a weak protective effect bition of inducible cyclooxygenase and inducible
(Habtemariam 1997). Studies showed that nitric oxide synthase promoter activities in
chrysin induced apoptosis U937 human leukemic lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages which
promonocytic cells in association with the activation contain the PPAR-gamma expression plasmids.
of caspase-3 and Akt signal pathway (Woo et al. Studies by Cho et al. (2004) found that nitrate
2004). The results suggested that Akt pathway production triggered by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
played a major role in regulating the apoptotic was suppressed by treatment of cultured Raw264.7
Pelargonium crispum 75

cells (mice macrophage/monocyte) with chrysin

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citronellic acid, geraniol, linalool and α-pinene. 70(5):1233–1235
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enhancers of the cytotoxicity of tumor necrosis factor-
were neral, geranial and sesquiterpenes. alpha in L-929 tumor cells. J Nat Prod 60:775–778
Helsper JP, Loewus FA (1982) Metabolism of L-threonic
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(L.) L’Hér. Plant Physiol 69(6):1365–1368
Traditional Medicinal Uses Koganov MM, Dueva OV, Tsorin BL (1999) Activities of
plant-derived phenols in a fibroblast cell culture
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prooxidant effects of phenolics on pancreatic beta-
cells in vitro. J Agric Food Chem 50:7220–7225
Other Uses Li X, Huang Q, Ong CN, Yang XF, Shen HM (2010)
Chrysin sensitizes tumor necrosis factor-α-induced
An essential oil is obtained from the leaves and apoptosis in human tumor cells via suppression of
nuclear factor-kappaB. Cancer Lett 293(1):109–116
young shoots are used in perfumery and soap
Liang YC, Tsai SH, Tsai DC, Lin-Shiau SY, Lin JK
making (Usher 1974). The leaves are dried for (2001) Suppression of inducible cyclooxygenase
potpourri and for making herb pillows (Bown 1995). and nitric oxide synthase through activation of per-
oxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma by
flavonoids in mouse macrophages. FEBS Lett
496(1):12–18
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(1998) Comparative antibacterial effects of novel
Pelargonium crispum can be readily grown from Pelargonium essential oils and solvent extracts. Lett
Appl Microbiol 27(3):135–141
cuttings.
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Roberts MJ (2000) Edible & medicinal flowers. New Williams CA, Harborne JB, Newman M, Greenham J,
Africa Publishers, Claremont, 160 pp Eagles J (1997) Chrysin and other leaf exudate
Stafford HA (1961) Distribution of tartaric acid in the flavonoids in the genus Pelargonium. Phytochemistry
Geraniaceae. Am J Bot 48:699–701 46(8):1349–1353
Usher G (1974) A dictionary of plants used by man. Williams CA, Newman M, Gibby M (2000) The applica-
Constable, London, 619 pp tion of leaf phenolic evidence for systematic studies
Van der Walt JAA (1985) A taxonomic revision of the within the genus Pelargonium (Geraniaceae). Biochem
type section of Pelargonium L’Hérit. (Geraniaceae). Syst Ecol 28(2):119–132
Bothalia 15:345–385 Woo KJ, Jeong YJ, Park JW, Kwon TK (2004)
Van der Walt JJA, Vorster PJ (1988) Pelargoniums of Chrysin-induced apoptosis is mediated through
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Botanical Gardens, Cape Town leukemia cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun
Wagner G, Loewus F (1973) The biosynthesis of 325(4):1215–1222
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52(6):651–654 Chrysin suppresses lipopolysaccharide-induced cyclo-
Williams M, Loewus FA (1978) Biosynthesis of oxygenase-2 expression through the inhibition of
(+)-tartaric acid from l-[4-C]ascorbic acid in grape nuclear factor for IL-6 (NF-IL6) DNA-binding activity.
and geranium. Plant Physiol 61(4):672–674 FEBS Lett 579(3):705–711
 Crocus sativus

Scientific Name Amharic: Safron

Arabic: Jafrana, Krûkû, Kurkum, Quste Talkh,
Crocus sativus L. Za’farân, Zaafaran, Zahafaran
Aramaic: Kurkam, Zapran
Armenian: Kerkoom, Kerkum
Synonyms Azeri: Zəfəran
Basque: Azafraia, Azaparán, Hupa
Crocus autumnalis Sm. (Illeg.), Crocus officina- Belarusian: Shafran
lis (L.) Honck., Crocus orsinii Parl., Crocus pen- Brazil: Açafrão Verdadeiro
dulus Stokes, Crocus sativus var. cashmerianus Breton: Safron
Royle, Crocus sativus var. officinalis L., Crocus Bulgarian: Shafran
sativus var. orsinii (Parl.) Maw, Crocus sativus Burmese: Koan°-ku-man°
subsp. orsinii (Parl.) K. Richt., Crocus setifolius Catalan: Safrà
Stokes, Geanthus autumnalis Raf., Safran offici- Chinese: Faan Hunhg Faa, Fān Hóng Huā, Xi
narum Medik. Hong Hua, Zàng Hóng Huā
Croatian: Vrtni Šafran
Czech: Šafrán, Šafrán Setý
Family Danish: Høstkrokus, Safran-Krokus, Saffran
Dutch: Krokus Sort, Saffraan, Saffraankrokus,
Iridaceae Saffraankrokus Soort
Estonian: Krookus, Safran, Safrankrookus
Esperanto: Safrano
Common/English Names Finnish: Maustesahrami, Sahrami
French: Crocus Cultivé, Safran, Safran Cultivé
Asian Saffron, Bulgarian Saffron, Greek Saffron, Gaelic: Crò, Cròch, Cròdh
Indian Saffron, Italian Saffron, Persian Saffron, Galician: Azafrán
Saffron, Saffron Cress, Saffron Crocus, True German: Echter Krokus, Echter Safran, Echter
Saffron Saffran, Krokus, Safran, Saffran
Georgian: Zaprana, Zaphrana
Greek: Ktokos, Safrani, Zaforá
Vernacular Names Hebrew: Karkom, Safran, Za’afran, Zafran
Hungarian: Füszersáfrány, Jóféle Sáfrány, Sáfrány,
Afrikaans: Saffraan Valódi Sáfrány
Albanian: Kaçe, Shafran Icelandic: Saffran

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 77
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_3, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
78 Iridaceae

India: Jafaran, Kunkum, Kungkum (Assamese), Iran: Larkimasa, Za’farân, Zaafaran (Farsi), Kurkum
Jafran, Japhran, Keshar (Bengali), Kukum (Pahlavi)
(Dhivehi), Keshar (Gujarati), Kesar, Saphran, Italian: Croco, Croco Fiorito, Croco Senza Fiori,
Zaffran, Zafraan (Hindi), Agnishikhe, Kaesari, Fior Cuculo, Giallone, Grogo Domestic,
Kesari, Kunkuma-Kesara, Kunkuma kesari Zafferano, Zafferano Domestic, Zafferano
(Kannada), Kashmeeran, Kashmiran, Vero
Kungumampoovu, Kunkumapu (Malayalam), Japanese: Bankōka, Bankoka, Safuran
Kesar, Keshar, Kung-Kum (Manipuri), Kaesar, Kashmiri: Kung, Zafran
Kesar, Kesara (Marathi), Kesara, Kumkuma Kazakh: Jawqazın, Zağıparan, Zapırangül
Phul (Oriya), Keshar (Punjabi), Agneeshekhar, Khmer: Romiet
Agnishekhara, Agnishikha, Aruna, Asra, Korean: Saphran, Sapuran, Syapuran
Asrika, Asrugvar, Bahlikabc, Balhika, Laos: Ya faran, Yafan
Bhavarakta, Chandana, Charu, Dhira, Dipaka, Latvian: Safrāns, Safrāna Krokuss, Safrānaugs
Gaura, Ghasra, Ghusriam, Ghusrna, Ghusruna, Lithuanian: Šafranas, Šafronas
Harichandana, Jaguda, Kaisara, Kaleyaka, Macedonian: Safran
Kanta, Kashmara, Kashmiraja, Malaysia: Kuma-Kuma, Kunyit Kering, Sapran
Kashmirajanma, Kasmira, Kashmiria, Maltese: Żagħfran, Żafran
Kasmiraja, Kasmirajanma, Kesara, Kesaram, Nepal: Kaashmirii Keshara, Kashmiri Keshar,
Kesaravara, Keshara, Khala, Ksataja, Kesari, Keshara, Keshar, Kung Kum
Kumkuma, Kumkumam, Kunkuma, Norwegian: Safran, Safrankrokusen,
Kunkumam, Kusrunam, Kusumatmaka, Safrankrokus
Lohita, Mangal, Mangalya, Pishuna, Pitaka, Pashto: Zaffaron
Pitana, Raja, Rakta, Raktachandana, Philippines: Kashubha (Tagalog)
Raktasanjna, Ruchira, Rudhira, Sankoca, Polish: Krokus Uprawny, Szafran, Szafran
Sankocha, Sankochapishuna, Saubhara, Uprawny
Saurab, Shatha, Shonit, Shonita, Shonitavhaya, Portuguese: Açaflor, Açafrão
Valhika, Vara, Varabalhika, Varenya, Vira Provencal: Safran
(Sanskrit), Akkinicekaram, Avakam, Avam, Romanian: Safran, Şofran;
Cankocapicunam, Catikecam, Catimaracam, Russian: Shafran, Schafran
Centurukkam, Cukkilapputta, Irattam, Serbian: Šafran
Irattancapittam, Kacimiram, Kasmiram, Slovašcina: Pravi Žafran, Žafran
Kecaram, Kecaravaram, Kecari, Kecarippu, Slovencina: Šafrán, Šafran Siaty
Khoongoomapoo, Kirucan, Klungumapu, Spanish: Azafrán, Azafrí, Croco, Hupa, Rosa
Kucumpam, Kungu Mappoo, Kungumappoo, Del Azafrá
Kungumapu, Kunkumam, Kunkumappu, Sri Lanka: Kaha Mal (Sinhala)
Malam, Marali, Maralukam, Maravam, Swahili: Zafarani
Maravatam, Mavacciram, Mavananki, Nalal, Swedish: Saffran, Saffranskrokus
Nalalpu, Nalarpu, Naravam, Naravucaram, Thai: Ya Faran, Yafan
Palapaliriti, Piriyakam, Pumalekinam, Tibetan: Gur-Gum, Gur-kum, Kha Che, Kha-che
Putpika, Turukkam, Turumam, kye
Ulokitacantanam, Ulukalam, Vallapetam, Turkish: Safran, Zafran, Zağferan
Vanita, Vanmikam, Vareniyam, Vatankura Ukrainian: Krokus, Shafran
(Tamil), Kunkuma-Puvva, Kunkumamu, Uzbek: Zafaron
Kunkumapave, Kunkumapuvve, Kunkumma- Vietnamese: Mau Vang Nghe, Nghe Tay, Qui
Purru (Telugu), Kesari (Tulu), Jafranekar, Nghe
Kisar, Safran, Zafran, Zafran Sayida (Urdu) Welsh: Saffrwm
Indonesia: Kuma-Kuma, Kunti Kering, Sapran Yiddish: Zafren, Zafron
Crocus sativus 79

cultivated species (Alavi-Kia et al. 2008). Thus,

Origin/Distribution the Mediterranean region was deduced to be one
of the probable sites of saffron origin; another
There are two different views on the geographical site could be in the East, in Turkey, Iran and
origin of Crocus sativus, a Mediterranean origin India, where saffron had been cultivated for thou-
(Greece) versus the Western–Central Asia origin, sands of years (Grilli Caiola and Canini 2010).
and mixed views on its parental ancestry. Today almost all saffron grows in a belt
Botanical research by Mathew (1977) appeared bounded by the Mediterranean in the West and
to suggest Crete, Eastern Greece, as the centre of the rugged region encompassing Iran, Turkey and
origin, disproving the view of a Western or Kashmir and Kishtwar in Jammu, India, in the
Central Asia origin. However, more recent stud- East. Elsewhere in other continents, except
ies suggested that saffron may have originated in Antarctica, comparatively insignificant amounts
Mesopotamia (Alavi-Kia et al. 2008). Crocus are being produced.
sativus is a triploid species (Karasawa 1933;
Pathak 1940) with a karyotype similar to diploid
C. cartwrightianus and C. thomasii, both native Agroecology
to the Mediterranean region (Grilli Caiola and
Canini 2010). Comparative morphological, cyto- In its native range, Crocus sativus thrives in a
logical, cytogenetical and phenological studies Mediterranean environment characterized by cool
(Karasawa 1933; Pathak 1940; Feinbrun 1958; to cold winters and warm, dry summers with sparse
Brighton 1977; Mathew 1977, 1982; Ghaffari autumn–winter–spring rainfall (400–500 mm per
1986; Brandizzi and Grilli Caiola 1996, 1998; annum) (Deo 2003). It can withstand considerable
Grilli Caiola et al. 2004) lend support to the frosts (−10 °C) and can tolerate occasional snow in
hypothesis that the most probable ancestors of the winter. Saffron is also grown successfully under
C. sativus were C. cartwrightianus (Mathew nonirrigated conditions (1,000–1,500 mm per
1982) or C. thomasii (Chichiriccò 1989) from annum) in Kashmir, India. Rain immediately pre-
which saffron may be derived by polyploidy. ceding flowering boosts saffron yields, whereas
Quantitative and qualitative DNA analysis stud- rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes
ies (Brandizzi and Grilli Caiola 1996, 1998; disease and reduces yields.
Grilli Caiola et al. 2004) indicated that the DNA C. sativus thrives in full sun and prefers fria-
composition of C. sativus was more similar to ble, deep, low-density, well-watered and well-
that of C. cartwrightianus, from which it could drained clay-calcareous soils with high organic
have been originated by polyploidy or mutation content and loose textures that allow easy root
and polyploidy. Further data from several studies penetration.
supported the alloploidy of C. sativus, the parents
being C. cartwrightianus and C. hadriaticus,
both with 2n = 16 and found in Greece but not in Edible Plant Parts and Uses
overlapping areas (Frello and Heslop-Harrison
2000 ). However, other possible parents, e.g. Saffron is the dried, brilliant, orange-red style
C. thomasii from Italy and Croatia, C. mathewii and stigmata of Crocus sativus flowers, widely
from Turkey and C. pallasii ssp. haussknechtii used in food as spice and colouring agent
from Iran, cannot be excluded (Frello and Heslop- (Plates 5 and 6). Saffron’s aroma is described by
Harrison 2000; Grilli Caiola et al. 2001, 2004). food aficionado as evocative of honey, with
More recent DNA studies using inter- grassy, hay-like and metallic notes, while its taste
retrotransposon amplified polymorphism sug- has also been described as hay-like and sweet.
gested that Iranian C. almehensis and Saffron imparts a luminous yellow-orange
C. michelosnii are the closest relatives of saffron colouring to foods and is used globally in
and probably the possible wild ancestors of this everything from cheeses, confectioneries, liquors
80 Iridaceae

to baked food, curries, rice, meat dishes and flowers (synanthous), erect, green, linear, 1.5–
soups. Saffron is widely featured in Persian, 2(–3) mm broad (Plates 1 and 2), with a white
European, Arabic, Turkish, North African and median stripe above, keeled below, glabrous or
Asian cuisines, for example, from the Milanese ciliate. Flowers 1–3, bisexual, regular, each on
risotto of Italy or the bouillabaisse of France to a short subterranean pedicel, subtended by
Indian biryani with various meat accompani- membranous bracts; perianth with a long cylin-
ments in South and Southeast Asia. drical tube 4 cm long and six oblanceolate seg-
ments in two whorls, 2.5–4 cm × 1–2 cm, deep
lilac-purple or mauve coloured with darker
Botany veins, white or lilac in the throat and pubescent,
apex obtuse; stamens with 3 short (1mm) fila-
Small, stemless, erect, perennial, herbaceous ments, anthers linear, erect, 2 cm long and
geophyte 20–30 cm tall, with a depressed- bright yellow; ovary inferior, style 2.5–3.5 cm
globose subterranean corm 3–5 cm in diameter, long, brilliant orange-red dividing into three
surrounded by a finely reticulate-fibrous tunic branches with expanded tips bearing the stig-
and rooting at the flattened base. Cataphylls up mas (Plates 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). Capsules and seeds
to 5, membranous, white, enclosing the aerial have been only rarely reported, saffron being
shoot. Leaves about 8, usually appearing with considered a sterile species.

Plate 1 Flowering saffron plants with unopened flowers Plate 3 Close-up of opened saffron flower

Plate 2 Saffron flowers at different opening stages Plate 4 Harvested saffron flowers
Crocus sativus 81

of the bitter taste in saffron; and (3) safranal, the

volatile oil constituent responsible of the charac-
teristic saffron odour and aroma. Furthermore,
saffron had also been reported to contain pro-
teins, sugars, vitamins, flavonoids, amino acids,
mineral matter, gums and other chemical
compounds.
Proximate nutrient composition (per 100 g
edible portion) of saffron had been reported as
follows: water 11.90 g, energy 310 kcal
(1,298 kJ), protein 11.43 g, fat 5.85 g, ash 5.45 g,
carbohydrate 65.37 %, total dietary fibre 3.9 g,
Ca 111 mg, Fe 11.10 mg, Mg 264 mg, P 252 mg,
Plate 5 Mass of saffron styles and stigmata removed K 17.24 mg, Zn 1.09 mg, Cu 0.328 mg, Mn
from the flowers 28.408 mg, Se 5.6 μg, vitamin C 80.8 mg, thia-
min 0.115 mg, riboflavin 0.267 mg, niacin
1.460 mg, vitamin B6 1.010 mg, total folate
93 μg, vitamin A 27 μg RAE, vitamin A 530 IU,
total saturated fatty acids 1.586 g, 14:0 (myristic
acid) 0.006 g, 16:0 (palmitic acid) 1.157 g, 18:0
(stearic acid) 0.247 g, total monounsaturated
fatty acids 0.429 g, 16:1 undifferentiated (palmi-
toleic acid) 0.003 g, 18:1 undifferentiated (oleic
acid) 0.390 g, 20:1 (gadoleic acid) 0.006 g, total
polyunsaturated fatty acids 2.067 g, 18:2 undif-
ferentiated 0.754 g (linoleic acid), 18:3 undiffer-
entiated (linolenic acid)1.242 g, 20:4
Plate 6 Close-up of saffron style and stigmata
undifferentiated (arachidonic acid) 0.013 g and
22:5 n-3 (DPA) (docosapentaenoic acid) 0.006 g
(USDA 2013). Earlier, saffron was found to be
the richest known source of riboflavin and also
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties contained thiamin (Bhat and Broker 1953). A
chitinase named SafchiA was isolated from
Saffron Flower Phytochemicals C. sativus (Castillo et al. 2007). SafchiA protein
shared close similarities with chitinases belong-
Saffron had been found to contain more than 150 ing to family 19 of glycosyl hydrolases, although,
volatile and several non-volatile compounds; some changes in the enzyme catalytic domain
approximately 40–50 constituents had already were present.
been identified (Abdullaev 2002). Studies showed Saffron contained a complex mixture of vola-
that saffron contained three main pharmacologi- tile and non-volatile compounds responsible for
cally active metabolites (Rödel and Petrzika its overall aroma and flavour (Tarantilis and
1991; Abdullaev 2002): (1) saffron-coloured Polissiou 1997). The major components of
compounds called crocins, unusual water-soluble saffron reported were the apocarotenoids
carotenoids (mono- and diglycosyl esters of a cis-crocins, trans-crocins, picrocrocin (β-D-
polyene dicarboxylic acid, named crocetin); the glucopyranoside of hydroxyl-β-cyclocitral) and
digentiobiosyl ester of crocetin—α-crocin—had its degradation product, the odour-active safranal
been reported as the major component of saffron; (Kanakis et al. 2004). However, studies revealed
(2) picrocrocin, the main substance responsible a different volatile composition in unprocessed,
82 Iridaceae

natural stigma tissues (Rubio et al. 2009; Moraga Moraga et al. (2009b) found that the main com-
et al. 2009b), suggesting the presence of a degra- pounds that accumulated throughout C. sativus
dation process responsible for the organoleptic stigma development were crocetin, its gluco-
properties of saffron from preformed apocarot- side derivatives and picrocrocin, all of which
enoid compounds (D’Auria et al. 2006). The con- increased as stigmas reached a fully developed
centration of volatiles changed with saffron stage. The volatile composition of C. sativus stig-
stigma development from orange, red and scarlet mas changed markedly as stigmas developed
pre-anthesis (−2days), anthesis (day) and post- with each developmental stage being character-
anthesis (+3days), with the highest levels in the ized by a different volatile combination. In red
latest stages (up to 13 % by fresh weight) (Rubio stigmas, β-cyclocitral, the 7,8 cleavage product
et al. 2009). Nine individual volatiles were stud- of β-carotene, was abundantly produced, sug-
ied:9-apo-β-caroten-9-one(β-ionone),7,8-dihydro- gesting the implication of both β-carotene and
β-ionone, 6,10-dimethyl-3,5,9-undecatrien-2-one zeaxanthin in crocetin formation. As stigmas
(pseudoionone), 9-apo-α-caroten-9-one (α-ionone), matured, hydroxy-β-ionone and β-ionone were
6,10-dimethyl-5,9-undecadien-2-one (geranylac- produced, while safranal, the most typical aroma
etone),megastigma-4,6,8-triene,4-(2,6,6-trimethyl- compound of the processed spice, was only
cyclohexa-1,3-dienyl)but-2-en-4-one (damasce- detected at low levels. However, a safranal-
none), 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (6-methyl-5- related compound 2,2,2-trimethyl-2-cyclo-
hepten-2-one) and 2,6,6-trimethyl-1,3-cyclo hexene-1,4-dione (4-oxoisophorone) increased
hexadiene-1-carboxaldehyde (safranal). With the rapidly at the anthesis stage and also in senescent
exception of safranal, the other eight compounds stigmas. Monoterpenes were mainly emitted at
were selected because they were the known the time of anthesis, and the emission patterns
9,10(9′,10′)- and 5,6(5′,6′)-carotenoid dioxygen- followed the expression patterns of two putative
ase products that may potentially be generated terpene synthases CsTS1 and CsTS2. Fatty acid
depending on the availability of specific carot- derivatives, which predominated at the earlier
enoids in the stigma. In the yellow, orange and developmental stages, were observed at low
red stigma stages, apocarotenoid C13 volatiles levels in later stages. From Crocus sativus stig-
were practically undetectable. Similarly, mas, eight glycosides were isolated including a
geranylacetone and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one new safranal glycoside, (4R)-4-hydroxy-2,6,6-
were detected at low levels even in the more trimethylcyclohex-1-enecarbaldehyde 4-O-[β-D-
advanced developmental stigma stages. β-Ionone, glucopyranosyl(1→3)-β- D -glucopyranoside],
7,8-dihydro-β-ionone and megastigma-4,6,8-tri- and a new carotenoid pigment, trans-crocetin-
ene were detected prior to anthesis, and their lev- 1-al 1-O-β-gentiobiosyl ester, along with
els increased up to the time of anthesis, rapidly picrocrocin, crocetin mono(β-gentiobiosyl) ester
decreasing thereafter. The presence of these vola- (crocin-3), crocin, crocetin-(-β-D-glucosyl)-
tiles indicated β-carotene to be the principal pre- (β-gentiobiosyl) ester (crocin-2), kaempferol-7-
cursor of the monoterpene volatiles in the sophoroside and sophoraflavonoloside (Tung and
developed stigma. Additionally, four carotenoid Shoyama 2013).
cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) genes, CsCCD1a, Numerous studies had reported on the sepa-
CsCCD1b, CsCCD4a and CsCCD4b, were iso- ration and characterization of the volatile and
lated. CsCCD1a was constitutively expressed, non-volatile components of the dried stigmas
CsCCD1b was unique to the stigma tissue, but of Crocus sativus (saffron) (Liakopoulou-
only CsCCD4a and CsCCD4b had expression Kyriakides and Kyriakidis 2002). The volatiles
patterns consistent with the highest levels of with a very strong odour comprised more than 34
β-carotene and emission of β-ionone derived components, mainly terpenes, terpene alcohols
during the stigma development. The CsCCD4 and their esters. Non-volatiles included crocin-1,
enzymes were localized in plastids and more crocin-2, crocin-3 and crocin-4 responsible for the
specifically were present in the plastoglobules. red or reddish brown colour of stigmas together
Crocus sativus 83

with carotenes; crocetin; picrocrocin (a glyco- 3H-isobenzofuran-1-one O-β-D-glucopyranoside;

sidic precursor of safranal), the bitter substance; (1R,5S,6R)-5-(hydroxymethyl)-4,4,6-trimethyl-
and safranal, the major organoleptic principle of 7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]heptan-2-one O-β-D-gluco-
the stigmas. pyranoside and (1R)- 3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-
The following carotenoid glycosides were 3-enol O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Straubinger
detected in saffron: crocin = crocetin-di-(β-D- et al. 1998). The following crocetin derivative
gentiobiosyl)-ester (I), crocetin-(β-D-gentiobiosyl)- compounds were found in saffron stigma:
(β-D-glucosyl)-ester(II),crocetin-di-(β-D-glucosyl)- all-trans-crocetin di(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester; all-
ester (III), crocetin-di-(2,3,4,8,9,10,12-hepta-O- trans-crocetin β-D-gentiobiosyl-β-D-glucosyl
acetyl-β-D-gentiobiosyl)-ester (IV) and crocetin- ester; all-trans-crocetin di(β-D-glucosyl) ester
di-(2,3,4,6-tetra- O -acetyl-β- D -glucosyl)-ester and all-trans-crocetin mono(β-D-gentiobiosyl)
(VI) (Pfander and Wittwer 1975). The following ester, as well as 13-cis-crocetin di(β-D-
carotenoids were isolated from C. sativus: gentiobiosyl) ester and 13-cis-crocetin β-D-
phytoene, phytofluene, tetrahydrolycopene, gentiobiosyl-β-D-glucosyl ester (Van Calsteren
β-carotene, zeaxanthin and crocetin (Pfander and et al. 1997). The following glycoconjugates were
Schurtenberger 1982). Rios et al. (1996) reported isolated and identified from fractions of saffron
the following crocins in C. sativus flowers: methanolic extract: the β-D-glucosides of (4R)-4-
crocetin tri(β-D-glucosyl)-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester; hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-2-enone, (4S)-
crocetin di(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester; crocetin (β-D- 4-hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-2-enone and
glucosyl)-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester; crocetin (β-D- (4S)-4-(hydroxymethyl)-3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-
gentiobiosyl) ester; crocetin di(β-D-glucosyl) 2-enone, as well as the β-D-gentiobiosyl ester
ester; crocetin (β-D-glucosyl) ester; crocetin; of 2-methyl-6-oxohepta-2,4-dienoic acid and
picrocrocin; sinapic acid derivative; sinapic known saffron constituents, di-β-D-gentiobiosyl
acid, crocusatin B; crocusatin C and safranal. and β-D-gentiobiosyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl esters
Montoro et al. (2012) identified crocetin di(β-D- of crocetin (Straubinger et al. 1997a). Ten saffron
gentiobiosyl) ester; crocetin (β-D-glucosyl)-(β-D- metabolites responsible for the taste, flavour
gentiobiosyl) ester; crocetin (β-D-gentiobiosyl) and colour were identified in commercial
ester; crocetin di(β-D-glucosyl) ester; crocetin saffron: picrocrocin, 4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-
(β-D-glucosyl) ester; crocetin; picrocrocin and 1-cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde (HTCC), 3-
sinapic acid derivative in C. sativus petals and gentiobiosyl-kaempferol, α-crocin, crocin-2,
found only sinapic acid derivative in the stamen crocin-3, safranal, crocin-4, crocin-5 and
and flower. crocin-6 (Lozano et al. 1999). Twelve components
Five major biologically active ingredients of were isolated from saffron: crocin-1, crocin-2,
saffron, namely, crocin-1, crocin-2, crocin-3, crocin-3, picrocrocin, acid form of picrocrocin,
crocin-4 and crocetin were simultaneously HTCC-diglycosyl-kaempferol, trans-crocin-4,
quantified using high-performance liquid chro- trans-crocin-2, trans-crocin-3, safranal, crocetin
matography–UV (HPLC–UV) (Li et al. 1999). and cis-crocin-3 (Abdullaev et al. 2002). Volatile
Seven carotenoid metabolites (aroma precursors) compositions of saffron from Tibet using diethyl
were identified from saffron methanolic extract: ether, ethanol, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane
(4R)-4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-enecar and acetone solvents were respectively as follows
baldehyde O-β-D-gentiobioside; (4R)-4-hydroxy- (Jia et al. 2011): 3,5,5-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-
2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-enecarboxylic acid O- 1-one 1.35, 2.82, 2.13, 2.45, 2.13 %;
β-D-glucopyranoside; 6-hydroxy-3-(hydroxy- 2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexene-1,4-dione 1.13,
methyl)-2,4,4-trimethylcyclohexa-2,5-dienone 2.08, 13, 1.90, 1.48 %; 2,2,6-trimethyl-1,
6-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; (2Z)-3-methylpent- 4-cyclohexanedione 1.08, 1.91, 1.37, 1.93,
2-enedioic acid 1-[1-(2,4,4-trimethyl-3,6-dioxocyclo- 1.42 %; 2,2,6-trimethyl-1,3-cyclohexadiene-1-
hexenyloxy)-O-β-D-glucopyranosid-6-yl] ester carboxaldehyde 5.83, 40.7, 16.1, 16.1, 25.7 %;
(4),(5S)-5-hydroxy-7,7-dimethyl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro- 4-hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-2-enone 1.72,
84 Iridaceae

2.52, 1.80, 2.5, 2.09 %; 3-hydroxymethylene-1, heptadecane (9.6 %) (Tirillini et al. 2006). The
7,7-trimethylbicyclo[2.2.1]heptane-2-one 2.35, Tirillini extract from anthers contained 26
3.77, 3.55, 4.49, 3.16 %; 2-ethenyl-1,3,3- compounds, the major compounds being
trimethyl-cyclohexene 3.65, 6.50, 5.49, 7.50, 2-phenylethyl alcohol (50.4 %) and 2-phenethyl
5.62 %; n-hexadecanoic acid, nd, 3.97, 5.95, acetate (15.4 %). Two new glycosides were
6.10, 5.34 %; (Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid isolated saffron pollens and elucidated as
nd, 9.91, 16.32, 15.23, 12.41 %; oleic acid, nd, isorhamnetin-4′-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1→2)-
nd, nd, 5.18 %, nd; octacosane nd, nd, 2.17, 1.88 %, β-D-glucopyranoside (crosatoside A) and β-(p-
nd; stigmasterol 11.8 %, nd, nd, nd, nd; squalene hydroxyphenyl) ethanol-α-O-L-rhamnopyranosyl
2.57 %, nd, nd, 2.96 %, nd; nonacosanol/1- (1→2)-β-D-glucopyranoside (crosatoside B),
pentacosanol nd, nd, 2.90 %, nd, nd; nonacosanol and the third compound was the known
nd, nd, 2.22, 1.88 %, nd; nonacosane nd, nd, kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl (1→2)-β-D-
2.17 %, nd, nd; γ-sitosterol 4.82 %, nd, nd, nd, nd; glucopyranoside (Song and Xu 1991). Five
and β-amyrin 4.22 %, nd, nd, nd, nd. The number new naturally occurring monoterpenoids, crocu-
of volatile components identified in saffron from satins A, B, C, D and E; a new lactate, sodium
Henan using similar solvents was different and (2S)-(O-hydroxyphenyl)lactate; and eighteen
very much less than found in saffron from Tibet. known compounds, namely, 3,5,5-trimethyl-
Of the fifteen crocetin esters identified in saf- 2-hydroxy-1,4-cyclohexadion-2-ene; 2,4,4-
fron stigma and Gardenia jasminoides fruit, five trimethyl-3-formyl-6-hydroxy-2,5-cyclo-
new compounds were tentatively identified: trans hexadien-1-one; 3,5,5-trimethyl-4-hydroxy-
and cis isomers of crocetin (β-D-triglucoside)-(β- 1-cyclohexanon-2-ene; methylparaben; proto-
D-gentiobiosyl) ester, trans and cis isomers of catechuic acid methyl ester; 4-hydroxybenzoic
crocetin (β-D-neapolitanose)-(β-D-glucosyl) ester and acid; kaempferid; 4-hydroxyphenethyl alcohol;
cis-crocetin (β-D-neapolitanose)-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) benzoic acid; pyridine-3-yl-methanol; nicotin-
ester (Carmona et al. 2006c). The most relevant amide; 1-O- (4-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-D-glucose;
differences between both species were a low con- adenosine; isorhamnetin-3,4′-diglucoside; isorh-
tent of the trans-crocetin (β-D-glucosyl)-(β-D- amnetin-3,-O-robinobioside; isorhamnetin-3-β-
gentiobiosyl) ester, the absence of trans-crocetin D-glucoside; 5-methyluracil and uracil were
di-(β-D-glucosyl) ester in gardenia and its higher isolated and characterized from the pollen of
content of trans-crocetin (β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester Crocus sativus (Li and Wu 2002a).
and cis-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester. Also, Four new compounds, crocusatins F, G, H
ten glycosidic compounds in saffron extracts and I, together with 21 known compounds, were
with a UV/Vis pattern similar to that of isolated from an aqueous extract of the stigmas
picrocrocin were identified; among them, of Crocus sativus (Li and Wu 2002b). Three
5-hydroxy-7,7-dimethyl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-3H- new monoterpenoids, crocusatins J, K and L,
isobenzofuranone 5-O-β-D-gentiobioside and and a new naturally occurring acid, (3S),4-
4-hydroxymethyl-3,5,5-trimethyl-cyclohexen-2- dihydroxybutyric acid, together with 31 known
one 4-O-β-D-gentiobioside were tentatively iden- compounds, were isolated and identified from
tified for the first time in saffron. Of these ten the methanol extract of saffron petals (Li et al.
glycosides, only the O-β-D-gentiobiosyl ester of 2004).
2-methyl-6-oxo-2,4-hepta-2,4-dienoic acid was Two flavonoids, kaempferol 7-O-gluco-
found in Gardenia samples, but it was possible to pyranoside-3-O-sophoroside and kaempferol
identify the iridoid glycoside, geniposide. The 7-O-sophoroside, were isolated from saffron
ethanolic extract from saffron tepals con- (Tarantilis et al. 1995; Straubinger et al. 1997b).
tained 16 compounds; the most abundant were The following flavonols: quercetin, kaempferol,
2-phenylethyl alcohol (15.0 %), tetracosane and galangin were isolated from the fresh saffron
(10.5 %), ethyl hexadecanoate (10.0 %) and petals (Kubo and Kinst-Hori 1999). Kaempferol
Crocus sativus 85

was isolated from saffron petals (Hadizadeh et al. flavanol derivatives glycosylated and esterified
2010). Five kaempferol derivatives were with phenylpropanoic acids (Termentzi and
identified in the flavonoid fraction of saffron Kokkalou 2008 ). The flavonoids identified in
spice from different regions: kaempferol-3- C. sativus petals included 4′-methyl ether dihydro-
sophoroside; kaempferol-3-sophoroside-7-gluco- kaempferol 3-O-deoxy-hexoside, taxifolin 7-O-
side; kaempferol-3,7,4′-triglucoside; kaempferol hexoside, dihydrokaempferol 3-O-hexoside, nar-
tetrahexoside; and kaempferol-3-dihexoside ingenin 7-O-hexoside and naringenin. Additio-
(Carmona et al. 2007). Three significant flavo- nally, the presence of some nitrogen-containing
noids, kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside-7-O-gluco- substances, as well as other phenolics and phen-
pyranoside; kaempferol 3,7,4′-triglucoside; and ylpropanoic derivatives, was also detected. From
kaempferol 7-O-sophoroside, were isolated from the methanolic extract of Crocus sativus petals,
saffron stigma (Moraga et al. 2009a). All three nine known flavonoids were isolated and identi-
flavonoids increased with stigma development. fied, including glycosidic derivatives of quercetin
The relative levels of kaempferol 7-O-sophoroside, and kaempferol as major compounds (1–2), and
which reached the maximum levels at anthesis, their methoxylated and acetylated derivatives
were much higher than those observed for both (Montoro et al. 2008). The high content of glyco-
kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside-7-O-glucopyranoside sylated flavonoids could give value to C. sativus
and kaempferol 3,7,4′-triglucoside, with relative petals, a waste product in the production of the
high levels in the scarlet stages. They also iso- spice saffron. The flavonoid pyrogallol and gal-
lated an enzyme glucosyltransferase CSGT45 lic acid were isolated from saffron stigma
from saffron stigma, involved in flavonoid gluco- (Karimi et al. 2010).
sylation (formation of flavonoid glucosides). Kaempferol and kaempferol-3-O-β-D-gluco-
This enzyme catalyses the transfer of glucose pyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranoside were
from uracil-diphosphate glucose (UDP-glucose) found in the petals (Song 1990). Thirty-one
to kaempferol and quercetin. Trapero et al. (2012) flavonoids were identified in C. sativus petal
isolated UGT707B1, a new glucosyltransferase extracts comprising mainly glycosidated and
that localized in the cytoplasm and the nucleus of metoxilated derivatives of kaempferol, quercetin,
stigma and tepal cells of C. sativus and involved isorhamnetin and tamarixetin (Montoro et al.
in the formation of kaempferol and quercetin 2012): kaempferol 7-O-bihexoside-3-O hexo-
sophorosides in Crocus sativus. They found in side; kaempferol 3-O (p-coumaroyl)-bihexoside;
Crocus tepals two major flavonoid compounds: 3,3′-4′-trimethyl ether quercetin 7-O-bihexoside;
kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-2)-β-D- quercetin 3,3′-dimethyl ether 7-O-bihexoside;
glucopyranoside and quercetin-3-O-β-D-gluco- kaempferol-3-O-β-D-(2-O-β-D-6-O-acetylglucosyl)-
pyranosyl-(1-2)-β-D-glucopyranoside, both of glucopyranoside; kaempferol 3-O-hexoside,7-O-
which were absent from the tepals of those (acetyl)-hexoside; kaempferol 3-O- (acetyl-)
Crocus species that did not express UGT707B. hexoside-7-O-hexoside; kaempferol 3-O-
Levels of flavonoids measured in extracts of the (acetyl-) bihexoside; isorhamnetin-3,7-di-O-β-D-
transgenic plants showed changes in the compo- glucopyranoside; tamarixetin 3-O-bihexoside;
sition of flavonols when compared with wild- quercetin-3,7-di- O -β- D - glucopyranoside ;
type plants. The major differences were observed 4′-methyl ether dihydrokaempferol 3-O-deoxy-
in the extracts from stems and flowers, with an hexoside; quercetin-O-bihexoside; tamarixetin-
increase in 3-sophoroside flavonol glucosides. A caffeoyl-p-coumaroyl biester; isorhamnetin
new compound kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside-7- 3-O-(desoxyherosyl)-hexoside; quercetin 3-O
O-rhamnoside was also identified. (p-coumaroyl)-hexoside; di-glucosyl-kaempferol;
The major flavonoid constituents identified in kaempferol-3,7-di- O -β- D - glucopyranoside;
diethyl ether, ethyl acetate and aqueous fractions kaempferol-3-O-β-D- (2-O-β-D-glucosyl) gluco-
of saffron petals corresponded to kaempferol, pyranoside; kaempferol 3,7- O -bihexoside;
quercetin, naringenin and some flavanone and kaempferol 3-O-bihexoside; kaempferol caffeoyl
86 Iridaceae

p-coumaroyl biester; kaempferol esterified Nineteen flavonols, kaempferol, quercetin and

derivative; kaempferol 3-O- (acetyl)-hexoside; isorhamnetin glycosides as mono-, di- or trigly-
isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside;quercetin- cosides, and five anthocyanins reported as delph-
3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; kaempferol-3-O- inidin, petunidin and malvidin glycosides were
β-D-glucopyranoside; kaempferol-O-hexoside; isolated from C. sativus tepals (Goupy et al.
kaempferol-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; rhamne- 2013). Kaempferol glycosides were the major
tin; kaempferol; dihydrokaempferol 3-O-hexoside flavonols (84.0 % of total flavonol content) with
and naringenin. The flavonoids tamarixetin kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside as the main com-
O-kaempferol biflavonoid hexoside, taxifolin pound. Isorhamnetin 3-O-sophoroside, kaemp-
7-O-hexoside and naringenin 7-O-hexoside were ferol 3-O-rutinoside and quercetin 3-O-glucoside
not detected in the petals. In the stamens, all the 7-O-rhamnoside in C. sativus tepals were newly
above flavonoids as reported in the petals and identified. Some others included kaempferol
taxifolin 7-O-hexoside were found except 3-O-glucoside; kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside;
for kaempferol 7-O-bihexoside-3-O hexoside; quercetin 3-O-sophoroside; kaempferol 3-O-
kaempferol 3-O (p-coumaroyl)-bihexoside; tam- sophoroside-7-O-glucoside; isorhamnetin 3,4′-di-
arixetin O-kaempferol biflavonoid hexoside; O-glucoside; kaempferol 3-O-glucoside; and
kaempferol-3-O-β-D- (2-O-β-D-6-O-acetyl- kaempferol. Anthocyanins were quantified for
glucosyl)-glucopyranoside; kaempferol 3-O- the first time in C. sativus tepals (4,804 μg/g
hexoside,7-O- (acetyl)-hexoside; kaempferol DW); the main anthocyanin identified was
3-O- (acetyl-) hexoside-7-O-hexoside; kaemp- delphinidin 3,7-O-diglucoside; others included
ferol 3-O- (acetyl-) bihexoside; kaempferol delphinidin 3,5-O-diglucoside; delphinidin
esterified derivative; kaempferol 3-O-(acetyl)- 3-O-glucoside; delphinidin 3,5-O-diglucoside;
hexoside; dihydrokaempferol 3-O-hexoside; and malvidin 3,5-O-diglucoside; and petunidin
naringenin 7-O-hexoside. In the flowers, all the 3,5-O-diglucoside. For the first time, (E) and (Z)
flavonoids as listed for the petals were found isomers of lutein diesters with lauric, myristic,
except for kaempferol 7-O-bihexoside-3-O hexo- palmitic and stearic acids were found in C. sati-
side; kaempferol 3-O (p-coumaroyl)-bihexoside; vus: (Z)-lutein-O-laurate-O-palmitate; (E)-lutein-
tamarixetin O-kaempferol biflavonoid hexoside; O-laurate-O-palmitate; (E)-lutein-O-myristate-O-
3,3′-4′-trimethyl ether quercetin 7-O-bihexoside; laurate; (9 or 9′Z)-lutein-O-laurate-O-palmitate
kaempferol-3-O-β-D-(2-O-β-D-6-O-acetylglucosyl)- and(9 or 9′Z)-lutein-O-dipalmitate. Lutein dies-
glucopyranoside; kaempferol 3-O-hexoside,7-O- ters’ content (21.46 mg 100/g DW) in tepals from
(acetyl)-hexoside; kaempferol 3-O- (acetyl-) C. sativus was comparable to food products;
hexoside-7-O-hexoside; kaempferol 3-O- (ace- lutein diesters represented 69 % of the total lutein
tyl-) bihexoside; kaempferol esterified derivative; diesters’ content.
kaempferol 3-O-(acetyl)-hexoside; taxifolin The characteristic volatile compounds of
7-O-hexoside; naringenin 7-O-hexoside; and nar- saffron, the dried, dark-red stigmata of Crocus
ingenin. The following flavanol kaempferol sativus flowers, were determined as
3-O-sophoroside; kaempferol 3-O-glucoside; 2,6,6-trimethyl-1,3-cyclohexadien-1- carbox-
kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside; quercetin 3-O- aldehyde, namely, safranal; 3,5,5-trimethyl-2-
sophoroside; kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside-7-O- cyclohexen-1-one, namely, isophorone; 3,5,5-
glucoside; isorhamnetin 3,4′-O-diglucoside; trimethyl-3-cyclohexen-1-one, isomer of isopho-
kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside; kaempferol 3-O- rone; 2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1,4-dione; and
glucoside and kaempferol; and anthocyanins 2,6,6-trimethyl-1,4-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxal-
delphinidin 3,5-O-diglucoside, delphinidin 3-O- dehyde, isomer of safranal (Tarantilis and Polissiou
glucoside, malvidin 3,5-O-diglucoside and 1997). The quantity of safranal (2,6,6-trimethyl-
petunidin 3,5-O-diglucoside were identified in saf- 1,3-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxaldehyde), the main
fron floral bio-residues (Serrano-Díaz et al. 2013). component of saffron’s essential oil, isolated by
Crocus sativus 87

microsimultaneous hydro-distillation–extraction Safranal was the main volatile component in

(MSDE) ranged between 288.1 and all of saffron samples, namely, 1, 2 and 3 derived
687.9 mg/100 g of saffron, whereas in the case of from cultivations of Crocus sativus in Salerno
ultrasound-assisted extraction (USE), safranal (Southern Italy) from 2000 to 2002 and samples
ranged between 40.7 and 647.7 mg/100 g of saf- 4, 5 and 6 derived from cultivations in Sardinia,
fron (Kanakis et al. 2004). Its precursor, Italy, from 1998, 2000 and 2001 (D’Auria et al.
4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexene-1- 2006). In all samples, 3,5,5-trimethyl-2-cyclo-
carboxaldehyde (HTCC) ranged between 41.7 hexen-1-one; 3,5,5-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1,4-
and 397.7 mg/100 g of saffron, respectively. dione; safranal; and 2,4,4-trimethyl-6-hydroxy-3-
Over years of storage at 4 °C, the quantity of carboxaldehyde-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one were
safranal remained mostly constant, while the found. 5,5-Dimethyl-2-methylene-1-carboxalde-
quantity of HTCC decreased over the same hyde-3-cyclohexene; 3,5,5-trimethyl-1,4-cyclohex-
periods. Chemicals identified in the essential oil anedione; and b-ionone were found with nonanal,
of dried stigmas included 2,6,6-trimethyl- dihydro-β-ionone and 2,6-di-t-butylphenol.
1,3-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxaldehyde (safranal) Volatile composition of saffron obtained from
(81.82 %); α-isophorone (5.57 %); 2-isopro- Salerno in 2001 and 2002 had different profiles
pylidene-3-methylhexa-3,5-dienal (4.45 %); 2- determined respectively as 2-methylpropanal
hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1- one (0.02 %, 0.03 %), acetic acid (0.05 %, nd),
(1.90 %); β-isophorone (1.32 %); αβ-dihydro-β- 3-methylbutanal (nd, 0.03 %), 2-methylbutanal
ionone (1.19); 3,4,5,6-tetramethyl-2H-pyran-2-one (0.04 %, 0.04 %), 1-pentanol (nd, 0.02 %), hexanal
(1.14 %); eucarvone (0.31 %); β-linalool (0.27 %); (0.03 % < 0.24 %), 1-t-butylcyclopentadiene
6-(2-butenylidene)-1,5,5-trimethyl-( Z , E )- (0.08 %, nd), heptanal (nd, 0.21 %), 2(5H)-
cyclohexene (0.26 %); 6-(2-butenylidene)-1,5,5- furanone (0.16 % < 0.89 %), octanal (nd, 0.08 %),
trimethyl-(E,E)-cyclohexene (0.21 %); and β-phellandrene (nd, 0.02 %), 6-methyl-5-hepten-
palmitic acid methyl ester (0.13 %) (Yu-Zhu 2-one (nd, 0.02 %), 3,5,5,-trimethylcyclohex-
et al. 2008). 3-en-1-one (nd, 8.45 %), 2,5-dimethyl-2,4-
Five main crocetin glycosides were found to hexadiene (0.06 %, nd), 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene
be responsible for saffron colour, the best corre- (0.02 %, nd), benzaldehyde (nd, 0.01 %), nonanal
lations being for trans-crocetin di-(β-D- (nd, 0.5 %), 5,5-dimethyl-2-methylene-1-cyclo-
gentiobiosyl) ester (R2 = 0.93), trans-crocetin hexylcarbaldehyde (3.50 %, nd), 2-phenylethanol
(β-D-glucosyl)-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) (R2 = 0.94) and (nd, 0.06 %), 3,5,5-trimethylcyclohexenone
picrocrocin (R2 = 0.92), the compound accepted (1.77 %, 4.18 %), 4-(1-methylethyl)-benzalde-
as responsible for saffron bitterness (Zalacain hyde (0.06 %, nd), 3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-
et al. 2005). The carotenoid pigments of saffron 2-en-1,4-dione (0.63 %, 1.09 %), 3,5,5-trimeth-
were found to consist of crocetin di-(β-D- ylcyclohexane-1,4-dione (0.28 %, 3.54 %),
glucosyl)-ester [dicrocin], crocetin-(β-D-gentio- 2-hydroxy-3,5,5- trimethylcyclohexenone
biosyl)-(β-D-glucosyl)-ester[tricrocin]andcrocetin- (0.10 %, nd), safranal (83.97, 49.63 %),
di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl)-ester [crocin] (Ochiai et al. 2,7,7-trimethyl-2-4-cycloheptadien- 1-one
2007). The best predictions for quality control of (0.10 %, nd), 2-hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-
saffron were obtained with the sum of crocetin 2-en-1,4-dione (0.14 %, nd), 4-hydroxy-3,
esters model, followed by the model for cis-cro- 5,5-trimethylcyclohex-2-enone (nd, 0.48 %),
cetin (β-D-glucosyl)-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester, 2,6,6-trimethyl-4-hydroxycyclohexa-1,4-dien-3-
trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester and on-1-carbaldehyde (0.85 %, 5.62 %), dihydro-β-
trans-crocetin (β-D-glucosyl)-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ionone (0.09 %, 0.26 %), dihydro-β-ionol (nd,
ester, whereas the worst predictions were found 0.18 %), 2,6-di-(1,1-dimethylethyl)4-hydroxy-
with the picrocrocin and trans-crocetin (β-D- 4-methylcyclohexa-2,5-dien-1-one (nd, 0.06 %),
gentiobiosyl) ester models (Sánchez et al. 2008). 2,6,6-trimethyl-4-hydroxycyclohexen-1-
88 Iridaceae

carbaldehyde (0.73 %, nd), β-ionone (0.09 %, 2,3-butanedione, hexanal, E-2-nonenal and an

0.22 %), pentadecane (0.03 %, 0.02 %) and odorant with a characteristic aroma of burnt curry
2,6-di-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol (0.03 %, nd). that could not be identified (Culleré et al. 2011).
Ten main compounds were identified and All of them had MF values higher than 70 %.
quantified from saffron samples of Azerbaijanian, Carbonyl compounds showed an important role
Spanish, Indian and Iranian saffron as follows: in saffron aroma. Safranal and isophorone, both
picrocrocin (1), HTCC (2), kaempferol (3), cro- volatiles with aromatic descriptors of ‘saffron’,
cin-1 (4), crocin-2 (5), crocin-3 (6), crocin-4 (7), were quantified. It was demonstrated by means of
safranal (8), crocin-5 (9) and crocin-6 (10) GC-MS that 3,5,5-trimethyl-2-cyclohexenone;
(Caballero-Ortega et al. 2004). It was found that 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexane-1,4-dione; and acetic
the total content of carotenoids in Azerbaijanian acid could be used to differentiate saffron from
and Iranian saffron samples was higher in com- its source of origin (Carmona et al. 2006a). The
parison to other samples. Eleven certified saffron saffron volatiles identified included (1) acetic
samples (Crocus sativus), one each from acid; (2) 3,5,5-trimethyl-3-cyclohexen-1-one; (3)
Azerbaijan, China, Greece, France, India, Iran, 3,7-dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3-ol; (4) 2,6,6-trimethyl,
Italy, New Zealand, Spain, Turkey and the Sigma 1,4-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxaldehyde; (5) 3,5,5-
Chemical Company, were analysed and quanti- trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-one; (6) 2,6,6-trimethyl,
fied for 10 major saffron compounds, namely, 1,3-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxaldehyde; (7) 2,6,6-
picrocrocin, HTCC, 3-gentiobiosyl-kaempferol, trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1,4-dione; (8) 2-hydroxy-
trans-crocin-4, trans-crocin-3, trans-crocin-2′, 4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one; and (9)
safranal, cis-crocin-4, trans-crocin-2 and cis-cro- 2,6,6-trimethyl-1,4-cyclohexanedione. The con-
cin-2 (Caballero-Ortega et al. 2007). Results tent of acetic acid was very high in samples from
indicated that the Greek, Indian, New Zealand Iran or Morocco, while low or undetectable content
and Spanish saffron extracts possessed the high- was observed in Greek and Spanish samples.
est concentrations of water-soluble glycosidic Using a two-step, low-pressure liquid chroma-
carotenoids (⩾8.0 %), suggesting that they could tography, the following crocins were isolated
be a good source of this type of metabolites. from the hydroalcoholic extract of yellow
Forty constituents were identified in Iranian pigments of saffron: crocin-1 [crocetin (di-β-
saffron representing 90 % of the total peak D-gentiobiosyl) ester], crocin-2 [crocetin
area (Jalali-Heravi et al. 2009). The major com- (mono-β- D -gentiobiosyl-mono-β-D-glycoside)
ponents were 2,6,6-trimethyl-1,3-cyclohexadiene- ester] and crocin-3 [crocetin (β-D-gentiobiosyl)-
1-carboxaldehyde, namely, safranal (26.29 %), ester] with purity as high as 99.04 %, 97.40 %,
bicyclo[3,2,0]hept-2-ene-,4-ethoxy-,endo (5.69 %) and 96.70 %, respectively (Zhang et al. 2004).
and linoleic acid (4.77 %), and 4-hydroxy-2,6,6- This provided 40 mg crocin-1, 20 mg crocin-2
trimethyl-1-cyclohexene-1- carboxaldehyde, and 8 mg crocin-3 from 1 g saffron. A liquid
namely, HTCC (4.44 %) and nonadecanol chromatographic/tandem mass spectrometric
(3.32 %). Saffron from different regions of Iran validated method was developed for the detection
varied in volatile components and quantity of chemicals attributing colour, flavour, taste and
(Jalali-Heravi et al. 2010). Safranal was the main medicinal properties to saffron (Crocus sativus
component of all samples. In addition, 4-hydroxy- stigma) (Verma and Middha 2010). MS–MS
2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde detection was by monitoring precursor (m/z)
(HTCC), 2(5H)-furanone, 2,4,4-trimethyl-3-car- fragmentations of 149 →113 (safranal), 327 →
boxaldehyde-5-hydroxy-2,5-cyclohexadien- 283 (crocetin), 329 → 167 (picrocrocin), 355 →
1-one and 2(3H)-furanone, dihydro-4-hydroxy 327 (dimethylcrocetin), 489 → 327 (crocin E),
were common in all samples with high percent- 535 → 489 (carotenes), 651 → 327 (crocin C),
ages. Twenty aroma compounds were detected in 813 → 652 (crocin B), 975 → 651 (crocin A) and
Spanish saffron, comprising safranal (modified 1,137 → 813 (crocin F). A specification for high-
frequency value [MF] 93 %), followed by quality saffron of >20 % crocins, >6 % picrocrocin
Crocus sativus 89

and not less than 0.3 % of volatiles, calculated as amount, as indicated by the high positive
sum of safranal, isophorone and ketoisophorone, correlation (0.971 and 0.833, respectively)
was developed by Lechtenberg et al. (2008). (Siracusa et al. 2010). Contents of crocetin esters
Using a micellar electrokinetic chromatography 2 and 4 and total crocetin ester amount correlated
(MEKC) method allowed the quantification with picrocrocin content (0.794, 0.818 and 0.678,
of picrocrocin, safranal, crocetin-di-(β-D- respectively).
gentiobiosyl) ester and crocetin (β-D-glycosyl)- The main compounds identified in saffron
(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester within 17.5 min, with stigma collected at different harvest times were
limit of detection values ranging from 0.006 to safranal, picrocrocin, crocin, cis-crocin and cro-
0.04 mg/ml, from a single stigma (Gonda et al. cetin (Esmaeilian et al. 2012). Other components
2012). Employing various tandem mass spectro- included 1,8-cineol, α-pinene, oleanolic acid,
metric techniques, it was found that saffron com- kaempferol, 3-gentiobiosyl-kaempferol, cineole
prised a complex mixture of glycoconjugates and echinocystic acid. Their results revealed that
varying not only in the aglycon structure but also different harvesting times significantly influ-
in glycosylation pattern (Koulakiotis et al. 2012). enced the compounds percentage of saffron. The
The highest number of structurally diagnostic high content of crocin and picrocrocin resulted in
product ions allowing also determination of the harvest at last harvest time (6:00 h of after flower
carbohydrate linkage of the gentiobiose moiety emergence day). Safranal content decreased due
of isomeric crocins ((0,4)A(2), (3,5)A(2) product to delay of harvest and highest value was obtained
ions indicating a 1→6 carbohydrate linkage) was from first harvest time (06:00 h). The most
only achievable by high energy (20 keV) colli- important saffron components, crocins, picrocro-
sion-induced dissociation (CID). Fragmentation cin, and safranal which were respectively respon-
of the aglycon was not observed by any collision sible for its colour, taste and odour, had respective
energy regime applied. average values of 29, 14.04 and 0.22 % dry mat-
ter across all Moroccan sites (Lage and Cantrell
Harvest Time, Processing and Storage 2009). The statistical analysis showed that cro-
Effects on Saffron Phytochemicals cins were stable under each specific environment
Morimoto et al. (1994) found that an indoor cul- tested for 3 years of study. Meanwhile, there was
tivation system of Crocus sativus was more a large variability in safranal content for the same
favourable with regard to the quality of saffron, period. Analysis of environmental impact on saf-
as compared to the usual cultivation in an open fron quality showed that altitude affected crocins
field. Carotenoid glucose esters increased from (R2 = 0.84).
the period before blooming and reach the maxi- Crocin pigment concentration was highest
mum in the full blooming period, and were sensi- (15–17 %) in the saffron samples dried between
tive for the presence of oxygen, light irradiation 35 and 50 °C either in a solar dryer or in an oven
and beta-glucosidase. Moreover, it was evident dryer, and this also resulted in considerable
that storage of saffron at −20 °C promoted the reduction of normal drying time (Raina et al.
constant supply of saffron with a homogeneous 1996). Under these conditions the main flavour-
pharmacological activity. A study on the influ- ing component, safranal, was at its peak value of
ence of climatic condition and genotype on com- 60 % in the oil in almost all the samples except
positional characteristics of saffron revealed that the vacuum oven-dried samples which contained
of the main crocetin esters in saffron, namely, 4-β-hydroxysafranal in major amounts. Studies
trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester (1), indicated that 4-β-hydroxysafranal may be an
trans-crocetin (β-D-glucosyl)-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) intermediate in the formation of safranal. It was
ester (2), trans-crocetin (β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester observed that prolonged storage affected the pig-
(3), trans-crocetin (β-D-glucosyl) ester (4) and ments and flavour concentration to a great extent,
picrocrocin, crocetin esters 1 and 2 represented but proper packaging and storage with 5 % mois-
the major components of total crocetin ester ture in the saffron reduced the deterioration,
90 Iridaceae

thereby increasing the shelf life of the product. A continued drying at a lower temperature (43 °C)
dehydration postharvesting treatment was found produced saffron with a safranal content up to 25
to be necessary to convert Crocus sativus stigmas times that of saffron dried only at lower tempera-
into saffron spice (Carmona et al. 2005). They tures. They also found that drying with signifi-
found that the higher the temperature during the cant airflow reduced the safranal concentration.
process, the higher the proportion of trans- The results, moreover, indicated that high-
crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester, although temperature treatment had allowed greater reten-
trans-crocetin (β-D-glucosyl)-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) tion of crocin pigments than in saffron dried at
and trans-crocetin di-(β-D-glucosyl) ester intermediate temperatures (46–58 °C). Crocetin
decreased while cis-crocins did not change esters, the compounds responsible for saffron
significantly. A thermal aging process revealed colour, increased their content with no significant
that trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester differences from other processes when high tem-
increased when saffron was resubmitted to a peratures (55 °C) were used, thus producing a
heating treatment before it was decomposed by noticeable increment in saffron colouring capa-
the extreme conditions. The picrocrocin extinc- bility (del Campo et al. 2010). Similar behaviour
tion during the aging process did not imply a con- was obtained for picrocrocin, the compound
sistent generation of safranal. During the aging responsible for saffron taste, with higher average
process of saffron spice, while the amounts of content at the highest temperature (55 °C) but
C10 compounds such as safranal and HTCC without significant differences with inferior con-
increased, the amounts of C9 compounds such as ditions (40–50 °C). However, more volatile com-
isophorone and 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexane-1,4- pounds were generated, especially safranal, at
dione decreased (Carmona et al. 2006b). A new higher temperatures, e.g. 55 °C, during the dehy-
compound identified as 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-7,7- dration procedure. Picrocrocin showed high sta-
dimethyl-5-oxo-3H-isobenzofuranone appeared bility with half-life periods (T1/2) ranging from
to play a very important role in the aging process. >3,400 h at 5 °C in saffron extracts degrading to
It was structurally similar to dihydroactindiolide. 9 h in experiments with purified picrocrocin at
The time of storage and drying method were 100 °C (Sánchez et al. 2011). In saffron extracts,
found to have significant effects of saffron on the evolution of the rate constant (k) with tem-
chemical properties such as colouring strength, perature showed maximum values at 35 °C, and
aroma and bitterness values (Bolandi and filtration of the extracts contributed to picrocro-
Ghoddusi 2006). Samples dried in microwave cin stability. Large amounts of floral bio-residues
oven (300 W) had the highest colouring strength, rich in phenols (flavonols and anthocyanins) are
aroma and bitterness values. Samples dried by a wasted in saffron (stigma) spice production and
modified Spanish method (55 °C) had higher need to be stabilized because of rapid deteriora-
colouring strength than samples dried by a tradi- tion (Serrano-Díaz et al. 2013). It was found that
tional method (25 °C), but for aroma, traditional anthocyanins and flavonols were degraded at 110
samples had significantly higher values. and 125 °C. The best drying temperatures were
Regarding bitterness, samples dried by micro- 70 and 90 °C for maintaining their physicochem-
wave oven and modified Spanish method were ical quality. Anthocyanins and flavonols were
the same, but traditional samples had signifi- stable at 70 and 90 °C with 2, 4, 6 and 8 m/s.
cantly lower values. It was also observed that in Dehydrations at 90 °C with 2, 4 and 6 m/s were
samples exposed to artificial light (20 W), the the most appropriate, due to a better colour and
colouring strength was decreased while bitter- greater similarity to control samples for their fla-
ness values were unchanged and aroma values vonols and anthocyanins.
increased at first but remained almost intact after Ultrasound-assisted extraction was found to
6 months. Gregory et al. (2005) showed that a enhance and speed up the recovery of the bioac-
brief (20 min) initial period at a relatively high tive apocarotenoids, i.e. crocins and picrocrocin
temperature (between 80 and 92 °C) followed by from dry saffron stigmas (Kyriakoudi et al. 2012).
Crocus sativus 91

The recoveries of crocins and picrocrocins were The aromatic notes that contributed most to
50 %, 30 min, 0.2 s and 0.44 %, 30 min, 0.6 s, saffron storage differentiation were spicy, freshly
respectively. They found that the extraction con- cut grass and vegetable.
ditions were useful for both industrial and ana-
lytical applications and should be considered in a
forthcoming revision of the ISO 3632-2 technical Corm/Bulb Phytochemicals
standard.
Nineteen volatile compounds were identified Amines, starch, fatty acids and sterols were found
in 73 saffron samples belonging to three different in C. sativus bulbs (Loukis et al. 1983).
storage times (<1 year, 3–4 and 8–9 years) and As sprouting progressed, starch content
their aromatic notes were assigned (Maggi et al. decreased and total sugars increased steadily in
2010): safranal; 4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-3- saffron corms (Chrungoo and Farooq 1985). During
oxocyclohexa-1,4-diene-1-carboxaldehyde; dormancy, tissue concentration of soluble protein
HTCC(4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexen-1- did not change appreciably but increased steadily
carboxaldehyde; isophorone (3,5,5-trimethyl)- as growth and development proceeded in the buds.
2-cyclohexene-1-one; 2,2,6-trimethyl-1,4- Protein-related specific activity of amylase increased
cyclohexanedione; hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethyl-2- steadily as sprouting progresses. The specific activity
cyclohex-1-one; 2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexene- of soluble starch phosphorylase did not change
1,4-dione, known also as 4-ketoisophorone; markedly during the period of development between
2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien- May and October, but that of granule-bound enzyme
1-one; 4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-3-oxocyclohex- decreased progressively during the same period.
1-en-1-carboxaldehyde; isophorone-4-methy- Phenolic compounds detected in saffron
lene; 2-hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-2-en-1, corms included catechol, vanillin, salicylic acid,
4-dione; 2,6,6-trimethyl-1,4-cyclohexadiene-1- cinnamic acid, p-hydroxy benzoic acid, gentisic
carboxaldehyde; isomer of 4-hydroxy-2,6,6- acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, gallic acid,
trimethyl-3-oxocyclohex-1-en-1-carboxaldehyde; t-ferulic acid and caffeic acid (Esmaeili et al.
2-phenylethanol; 3-[( E )-but-1-enyl]-2,4,4- 2011). The highest phenolic content in waking
trimethyl-cyclohex-2-enol; 2,6,6-trimethyl-3-oxo- corms was observed for gentisic acid (5.693 μg/g)
1-cyclohexen-1-carboxaldehyde; 2,2-dimethyl- and the lowest for gallic acid (0.416 μg/g); also
cyclohexane-1-carboxaldehyde; and 4-hydroxy- these two phenolic compounds are the highest
3,5,5-trimethyl-2-cyclohex-1-one. In addition (0.929 μg/g) and lowest (0.017 μg/g) phenolics in
to safranal (30.14–43.94 % in mass of total dormant corms, respectively. A mixture of highly
volatiles), the main compound found, other major glycosylated triterpenoid saponins (CS5) was iso-
compounds were 4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-1- lated from Crocus sativus corms (Rubio-Moraga
cyclohexen-1-carboxaldehyde (HTCC) and 3,5,5- et al. 2011). The mixture (CS5-1) contained two
trimethyl-2-cyclohexene-1-one. These compounds new oleanane-type saponins, denominated
were significantly different for less than 1 year Azafrine 1 and Azafrine 2. The bidesmosidic
of storage when compared with the 3–4 and saponins were respectively characterized as
8–9 years of storage, although the minor constituents 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid echinocystic
2-hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex- 2-en-1,4- acid 28-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-l-
dione and isomer of 4-hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethyl- arabinopyranosyl-(1→2)-[β- D -xylopyranosyl-
2-cyclohex-1-one varied significantly for all (1→4)]-α-D-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[4-O-di-α-
three harvests. Saffron with less than 1 year of l - rhamnopyranosyl-3,16-dihydroxy-10-oxo-
storage contained a higher proportion of saffron, hexadecanoyl]-α- D-fucopyranoside and 3-O-
flower and spicy descriptors, while the oldest β-D-galactopyranosiduronic acid echinocystic
saffrons (3–4 and 8–9 years of storage) contained acid 28-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-l-
volatiles with vegetal, caramel and citrus notes. arabinopyranosyl-(1→2)-[β- D -xylopyranosyl-
92 Iridaceae

(1→4)]-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[4-O-di-α- backbone was composed mainly of aspartic acid/

L - rhamnopyranosyl-3,16-dihydroxy-10-oxo- asparagine, alanine, glutamic acid/glutamine,
hexadecanoyl]-β-D-fucopyranoside. glycine and serine (Escribano et al. 1999c,
Volatile compounds identified in the corm 2000a). A glycoconjugate was also synthesized
extract included hexadecanoic acid (33.23 %); in callus cultures of saffron corm, made up of
octadecadienoic acid (27.55 %); palmitic acid about 90 % carbohydrate and 10 % protein
ethyl ester (11.21 %); n-tetradecane (6.17 %); (Escribano et al. 1999b). A mannan-binding lec-
1,3,5-tribenzoylbenzene (2.78 %); n-heptadecane tin was isolated from the corms (Escribano et al.
(2.02 %); n-pentadecane (1.74 %); n-catane 2000b). The native protein formed noncovalently
(1.39 %); diethyltoluamide (1.342 %), n-tridecane linked aggregates of about 80 kDa apparent
(1.31 %); n-octadecane (1.13 %); and n-eicosane molecular mass, mainly composed of two charged
(0.97 %) (Yu-Zhu et al. 2008). Thirty-four com- heterogeneous basic subunits of approximately
ponents were extracted from the volatile oil from 12 kDa. Their N-terminal sequences shared 25 %
C. sativus corms comprising monoterpenoids similarity and were homologous to the N- and
(1.215), sesquiterpenoids (1.59 %), total terpe- C-terminal domains of monocotyledonous man-
noids (2.80 %), hydrocarbons (0.46 %), alcohols nose-binding lectins, respectively. Further, the
(0.26 %), aldehydes (8.80 %), esters (0.43 %), N-terminal domain subunit exhibited 56 % simi-
acids (26.75 %), sum aliphatics (36.7 %), alde- larity with curculin, a sweet protein with taste-
hydes (0.58 %), frans (0.12 %), latones (59.80 %) modifying activity. Crocus sativus lectin (CSL)
and total aromatics (60.50 %) (Masuda et al. was isolated from the bulbs and found to be truly
2012). The main components were 2(5H)- mannose specific (Kakehi et al. 2003). Three
furanone (59.8 %), hexadecanoic acid (15.65 %), L-lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes were detected
(E)-2-methyl-2-butenal (8.44 %), (Z,Z)-9,12- in saffron corms (Keyhani and Sattarahmady
octadecadienoic acid (4.74 %) and heptadecanoic 2002). All three dehydrogenases were substrate
acid (3.98 %). Other minor components were inhibited by ferricyanide, but at different concen-
ethyl acetate (0.43 %), (E)-2-hexanal (0.17 %), trations. Catalytic efficiency, calculated per mg
hexanol (tr), 1-octen-3-ol (0.26 %), 2-pentylfu- corm extract protein, was 1.9, 1.0 and 0.4 per
ran (0.12 %), phenylacetaldehyde (0.58 %), non- minute, respectively at pH 5.5, 7.5 and 9.5.
anal (0.19 %), 2,6,6-trimethyl-1,3-cyclohexadiene-
1-carboxaldehyde safranal (1.21 %), decanol (tr),
tetradecane (tr), β-caryophyllene (0.15 %), Phytochemicals from Sprouts
ar-curcumene (0.23 %), α-zingiberene (0.72 %), and Cell Suspension Cultures
pentadecane (tr), β-bisabolene (tr), β-
sesquiphellandrene (0.49 %), tetradecanoic acid Two new phenolic glucosides, a new γ-lactone
(0.32 %), octadecane (tr), pentadecanoic acid glucoside and adenosine were isolated from
(0.32 %), nonadecane (tr), eicosane (tr), (Z)-9- the sprouts of Crocus sativus (Gao et al.
octadecanoic acid (1.74 %), docosane (tr), tetra- 1999). The new compounds were characterized
cosane (tr), pentacosane (tr), hexacosane (tr), as 2,4- dihydroxy-6-methoxyacetophenone-
heptacosane (0.46 %), octacosane (tr) and nona- 2β-D-glucopyranoside, 2,3,4-trihydroxy-6-
cosane (tr). Seventeen mineral and trace elements methoxyacetophenone-3-β-D-glucopyranoside
(Mg, Na, Ca, K, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb, Hg, Ni, Fe, Co, and 3-(S)-3-β-D-glucopyranosyloxybutanolide,
Cd, Sr, Rb, Sc and Br) were found in Crocus sativus respectively.
corms in two different physiological (dormancy Callus extracts of Crocus sativus exhibited the
and waking) stages (Esmaeili et al. 2013). ability to transform all-trans-crocetin into its
A novel glycoconjugate isolated from saffron related glycosides between pH 7.0 and 7.6 in the
corm composed mainly of polysaccharide, presence of uridine diphosphoglucose (Dufresne
representing 94.5 % of the molecule, and was et al. 1997). The kinetics of synthesis for each
dominated by a 36.4 % of rhamnose; its protein glycoside appeared to indicate that two distinct
Crocus sativus 93

glucosyl transferases were implicated in the bioactive constituents had been reported to
synthesis of crocin, all-trans-crocetin di-(β-D- improve memory and learning skills, increase
gentiobiosyl) ester. Crocus sativus cell suspension blood flow in retina and choroid and alleviate or
culture converted crocetin into several glycosyl prevent such health problems as gastric disor-
esters when the culture was fed with the encapsu- ders, cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance,
lated substrate (Dufresne et al. 1999). A new depression, premenstrual syndrome, insomnia
major pigment crocetin di-neapolitanosyl ester and anxiety. Saffron also shows promise in the
was identified in C. sativus cell suspension cul- prevention and maintenance of cancer due to
ture. The other pigments were mixed forms of its antioxidant properties (Abdullaev 2002;
neapolitanosyl, gentiobiosyl and glucosyl esters. Abdullaev and Espinosa-Aguirre 2004; Melnyk
Glycosylated pigments were stored in vacuoles. et al. 2010).
A UDP-Glc–crocetin 8,8′-glucosyltransferase
involved in the biosynthesis of crocetin monoglu-
cosyl and diglucosyl esters was extracted from Antioxidant Activity
saffron cell cultures and purified 300-fold (Côté
et al. 2001). The purified enzyme preparation was Saffron flower and its floral parts (tepals, stamens,
highly specific for crocetin and formed ester styles and stigmas) and floral bio-residues stud-
bonds between the glucose moiety of UDP-Glc ied were found to be potential antioxidants
and the free carboxyl functions of crocetin. Yang (Serrano-Díaz et al. 2012). The highest phenolic,
et al. (2005) found that C. sativus cells could syn- flavonoid and anthocyanin contents were
thesize crocin, crocetin digentiobiosyl ester, in observed in tepals. Stamens showed lower phe-
suspension cultures. They found that GTase1 and nolic, flavonoid and anthocyanin contents than
GTase2 could catalysed the formation of crocetin those of whole flowers, tepals and floral bio-
glucosides in vitro. GTase1 activity was higher residues. Crocetin esters were not found in tepals
during the first 4 days of crocin glucosides bio- or stamens. Stamens exhibited the most potent
synthesis, but decreased after 4 days. The forma- LOO(•) and OH(•) radical scavenging activity,
tion and accumulation of crocin increased during being higher than those of food antioxidant pro-
the first 6 days and stabilized on the eighth day. pyl gallate. Flowers of saffron, tepals, stamens,
Metabolites derived from saffron stigmata had styles and floral bio-residues showed LOO(•),
been shown to exert numerous therapeutic effects OH(•) and ABTS(•-) radical scavenging activity,
such as hypolipidaemic, antitussive, antioxidant, while stigmas showed LOO(•) and ABTS(•-)
anticancer, antidiabetic activities and many oth- radical scavenging activity. All samples studied
ers (Rios et al. 1996; Abdullaev 2002; Melnyk improved the oxidative stability of sunflower oil
et al. 2010; Poma et al. 2012; Gutheil et al. 2012). in Rancimat test. These antioxidant properties
Many of the pharmacological properties of saf- could suggest the application of this floral mate-
fron could be attributed to a number of its com- rial as functional ingredients with the subsequent
pounds such as crocetins, crocins and other added value. Montoro et al. (2012) reported the
substances having strong antioxidant and radical following antioxidant activity of C. sativus
scavenger properties against a variety of radical flower waste products to scavenge the cation 2,2′-
oxygen species and proinflammatory cytokines. azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiozoline-6-sulphonate)
C. sativus had been reported to possess a number (ABTS+) and expressed in Trolox equivalent
of medicinally important activities such as anti- antioxidant capacity (TEAC): petals 0.233 μg/ml,
hypertensive, anticonvulsant, antitussive, antig- flowers 0.097 μg/ml, stamens 0.222 μg/ml and
enotoxic and cytotoxic effects, cardioprotective, flower juice 0.263 μg/ml.
neuroprotective anxiolytic aphrodisiac, antioxi- A methanol extract of Crocus sativus exhib-
dant, antidepressant, antinociceptive, anti- ited high antioxidant activity (Assimopoulou
inflammatory and relaxant activity (Srivastava et al. 2005), although it contains several active
et al. 2010; Melnyk et al. 2010). Saffron and its and inactive constituents. In trying to approximate
94 Iridaceae

a structure–activity relationship, of two bioactive that protein content and superoxide dismutase
constituents of saffron, crocin showed high activity decreased in regenerated shoots and roots
DPPH radical scavenging activity (50 and 65 % and increased in sprouting shoots, while catalase
for 500 and 1,000 ppm solution in methanol, (CAT), peroxidase (POX) and polyphenol oxi-
respectively), followed by safranal (34 % for dase (PPO) activities increased during organo-
500 ppm solution). Protocatechuic acid, kaemp- genesis and decreased in sprouting shoots. High
ferol and kaempferol 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside CAT and PPO activities were detected in regener-
isolated from saffron petals were more effective ated roots, whereas high POX activity was
in scavenging DPPH radicals than alpha- observed in regenerated shoot. Seven POX iso-
tocopherol (Li et al. 2004). In the DPPH radical forms were expressed in regenerated root and
scavenging activity and the Co(II)-induced lumi- shoot, while two isoforms (POX1 and POX2)
nol chemiluminescence assay, the diethyl ether, were expressed in meristem explant. The radical
ethyl acetate and aqueous fractions of saffron scavenging activities of saffron corms evaluated
petals demonstrated the strongest antioxidant by 1,1-diphenyl-2-pycrylhydrazyl (DPPH) test
capacity (Termentzi and Kokkalou 2008). The gave EC50 values about 2,055 ppm and 8,274 ppm
good antioxidant capacity detected in the various for waking and dormant corms, respectively
fractions of Crocus sativus petals could be attrib- (Esmaeili et al. 2011). Studies by Karimi et al.
uted to the presence of flavonoids. (2010) showed that saffron stigma possessed
Studies by Ordoudi et al. (2009) found that antioxidant activity. The free radical scavenging
saffron extracts exhibited a remarkable intracel- and ferric reducing power activities were higher
lular antioxidant activity that could not be for the methanolic extract of saffron stigma at a
revealed using assays repeatedly applied to the concentration of 300 μg/ml, with values of
evaluation of phenolic-type antioxidants. Saffron 68.2 % and 78.9 %, respectively, as compared to
extract activity was found to be rather negligible the corresponding boiling water and ethanolic
in all cell-free model systems. In contrast in the extracts, but the activities were lower than those
human monocyte system, saffron extracts or free of antioxidant standards such as BHT and
crocetin was found to reduce ROS (reactive oxy- α-tocopherol. Total phenolic content for metha-
gen species) production as effectively as the phe- nolic saffron extract was 6.54 mg gallic acid
nolic antioxidants. The crocins, water-soluble equivalent (GAE)/g dry weight (DW), and for
carotenoids responsible for the colour of saffron total flavonoids, 5.88 mg rutin equivalent/g DW,
and gardenia, were found to possess antioxidant which were also higher than values obtained
activity when tested by four in vitro antioxidant from the ethanolic and boiling water extracts.
models (Chen et al. 2008). However, in anti- Additionally the RP-HPLC analyses indicated
haemolysis, DPPH radical scavenging and lipid the presence of gallic acid and pyrogallol as two
peroxidation assays, gardenia resin fraction bioactive compounds.
exhibited significantly stronger antioxidant activ- In model systems of beta-carotene–linoleate
ity than crocins, and no correlation between total and DPPH, saffron petal extract at 500 ppm con-
crocin contents and antioxidative function was centration showed 91.4 and 74.2 % antioxidant
found. In the phosphomolybdenum assay, anti- activity which was comparable with that of
oxidant capacities of fractions and extracts cor- TBHQ (93.1 and 77.9 %) at 100 ppm (Goli et al.
related with total crocin contents (R = 0.93). Also, 2012). Total phenolic content in saffron petal
comparison of results indicated that sugars extract was 3.42 mg gallic acid/g dry weight. The
attached to the crocetin moiety appeared to be results showed that saffron petal could be consid-
beneficial for the antioxidant activity of these ered as a bioresource of phenolic compounds
water-soluble pigments. with high antioxidant activity. Saffron corm,
The activity of antioxidant enzymes during in tepal and leaf extracts were assayed for antioxi-
vitro organogenesis in Crocus sativus was inves- dant activity using β-carotene/linoleate model
tigated by Vatankhah et al. (2010). They found system, reducing power, DPPH and nitric oxide
Crocus sativus 95

radical scavenging, and iron and copper ion che- There was no effect on protein synthesis in any of
lation (Sánchez-Vioque et al. 2012). Best antioxi- the cells. Incubation of HeLa cells with saffron
dant properties were observed for leaf extract, flower extract for 3 h resulted in significant inhi-
which totally inhibited the oxidation of β-carotene bition of colony formation and cellular nucleic
at 10 μg/ml and showed a DPPH scavenger activ- acid synthesis with EC50 of approximately 100–
ity up to 32 times higher than those reported for 150 μg/ml (Abdullaev and Frenkel 1992a). In
traditional sources of antioxidants like grapes contrast, there was no inhibition of cellular pro-
and berries. Tepal extract showed an extensive tein synthesis at concentrations of saffron extract
inhibition of β-carotene oxidation, and signifi- as high as 400 μg/ml. Incubation of three malig-
cant scavenging NO radical and Cu2+-chelating nant HeLa (cervical epithelioid carcinoma),
activities. In contrast, corm extract was a poor A549 (lung adenocarcinoma) and VA13 (SV-40
antioxidant although it showed a slight Cu2+- transformed foetal lung fibroblast) cells with cro-
chelating activity. They concluded that tepals and cetin for 3 h caused a dose-dependent inhibition
especially leaves of saffron constituted an of nucleic acid and protein synthesis (Abdullaev
exploitable source of antioxidant and metal che- 1994). Crocetin also had a dose-dependent inhib-
lating compounds. itory effect on DNA and RNA synthesis in iso-
The pattern of reactive oxygen species- lated nuclei and suppressed the activity of purified
scavenging enzyme production was different in RNA polymerase II. Separate studies demon-
saffron corms cultivated in normoxic and strated that the doses inducing 50 % inhibition of
hypoxic–anoxic conditions (Keyhani et al. 2006). promyelocytic leukaemia HL-60 cell growth
In normoxic conditions, only the activities of per- were 0.12 μM for all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA)
oxidases and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were and for carotenoids of saffron 0.8 μM for dimeth-
stimulated. In dormant corms placed under ylcrocetin (DMCRT), 2 μM for crocetin CRT and
hypoxia–anoxia, the activities of catalase, SOD 2 μM for crocins (CRCs) (Tarantilis et al. 1994).
and glutathione peroxidase were stimulated, with At 5 μM, all these compounds induced differen-
the highest stimulation observed for catalase, fol- tiation of HL-60 cells, at 85 % for ATRA, 70 %
lowed by SOD and then glutathione peroxidase. for DMCRT, 50 % for CRT and 48 % for CRCs.
In corms that had been rooted for 3 days before The seminatural (DMCRT and CRT) and natural
being placed in hypoxia–anoxia, the activities of carotenoids (CRCs) of Crocus sativus are not
all ROS-scavenging enzymes studied were stim- provitamin A precursors and could therefore be
ulated with the highest stimulation still observed less toxic than retinoids, even at high doses. Nair
for catalase, followed by the peroxidases and et al. (1995) first reported the anticancer activity
finally SOD. Catalase was the prevailing enzyme of saffron extract (dimethylcrocetin) against a
produced under hypoxia–anoxia. wide spectrum of murine tumours and human
leukaemia cell lines. Dose-dependent cytotoxic
effect to carcinoma, sarcoma and leukaemia cells
Anticancer Activity in vitro was noted. Their results indicated signifi-
cant inhibition in the synthesis of nucleic acids
In Vitro Studies but not protein synthesis and that saffron (dimeth-
Abdullaev and Frenkel (1992b) examining the ylcrocetin) disrupted DNA–protein interactions,
effect of saffron extract on macromolecular syn- e.g. topoisomerases II, important for cellular
thesis in three human cell lines, A549 cells DNA synthesis.
(derived from a lung tumour), WI-38 cells (nor- Saffron and its main components crocin, cro-
mal lung fibroblasts) and VA-13 cells (WI-38 cetin, picrocrocin and safranal exhibited antican-
cells transformed in vitro by SV40 tumour virus), cer activity in vitro (Escribano et al. 1996). Doses
found that the malignant cells were more sensi- inducing 50 % cell growth inhibition (LD50) on
tive than the normal cells to the inhibitory effects HeLa cells were 2.3 mg/ml for an ethanolic
of saffron on both DNA and RNA synthesis. extract of saffron dry stigmas, 3 mM for crocin,
96 Iridaceae

0.8 mM for safranal and 3 mM for picrocrocin. this unusual comutagenic effect was safranal.
Crocetin did not show cytotoxic effect. Cells Saffron extract itself and some of its ingredients
treated with crocin exhibited wide cytoplasmic displayed a dose-dependent inhibitory activity
vacuole-like areas, reduced cytoplasm, cell against different types of human malignant cells
shrinkage and pyknotic nuclei, suggesting apop- HeLa (human cervical epithelioid carcinoma),
tosis induction. A novel glycoconjugate isolated A-204 (human rhabdomyosarcoma) and HepG2
from saffron corm extracts shows remarkable (human hepatocellular carcinoma) in vitro
cytotoxic activity on cultured human cancer cells (Abdullaev et al. 2002, 2003). HeLa cells were
(HeLa) (Escribano et al. 1999c). HeLa cells more susceptible to saffron than other tested
exposed to this glycoconjugate showed swelling tumour cells. Saffron crocin derivatives possessed
and local plasma membrane evaginations, sug- a stronger inhibitory effect on tumour cell colony
gesting that cytotoxicity is mediated by extracel- formation. The results suggested that saffron
lular fluid uptake. A glycoconjugate from saffron itself, as well as its carotenoid components, might
corm callus was cytotoxic against human cervical be used as potential cancer chemopreventive
epithelioid carcinoma cells (IC50 = 7 mg/ml) agents. In a recent study, MTT [3-(4,5-dimethyl-
(Escribano et al. 1999b). The glycoconjugate iso- thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium] assay
lated from saffron corm exhibited potent cyto- revealed a significant and concentration-depen-
toxic activity in vitro against human tumoral cells dent cytotoxic effect of safranal on HeLa and
derived from fibrosarcoma, cervical epithelioid MCF-7 cancer cell lines (Malaekeh-Nikouei
carcinoma and breast carcinoma, with IC50 values et al. 2013). Liposomal safranal showed enhanced
of 7, 9 and 22 μg/ml, respectively (Escribano effect compared to the safranal solution, based on
et al. 2000a). Studies of intracellular calcium its IC50 concentrations. Flow cytometry results
fluctuations, and release of lactate dehydroge- revealed induction of apoptosis of both cancer
nase in human cervical epithelioid carcinoma cells by safranal. It was concluded that liposome
cells, showed that this compound caused plasma encapsulation improved antitumour effect of saf-
membrane damage, allowing movements of both ranal. Of ten compounds, viz., picrocrocin,
calcium and macromolecules and leading to cell HTCC, kaempferol, crocin, crocin-2, crocin-3,
lysis. Analysis of DNA fragmentation showed crocin-4, safranal, crocin-5 and crocin-6 from
that cell death was not mediated by apoptosis. The Spain tested for cytotoxicity activities in vitro on
proteoglycan was about eight times more cyto- human HeLa tumour cells, crocin-2 gave 36 %
toxic for malignant cells than for their normal inhibition, HTCC 30 %, picrocrocin and crocin-1
counterparts. In addition, 100 μg/ml of proteogly- gave 27 %, crocin-4 and crocin-5 25 %, crocin-6
can produced 50 % in vitro lysis of normal human 18 %, crocin-3 10 % and safranal 3 %, the lowest
erythrocytes, whereas 320 μg/ml induced about (Caballero-Ortega et al. 2004).
60 % cell death on cultured human hair follicles. Saffron could decrease cell viability in
The results suggested a distinctive cytotoxic activ- malignant cancerous cells in a concentration
ity of this molecule on different human cell types. and time-dependent manner (Tavakkol-Afshari
In vitro studies showed that saffron was not et al. 2008). The IC50 values against HeLa and
toxic, non-mutagenic, non-antimutagenic and HepG2 were 800 and 950 μg/ml after 48 h,
non-comutagenic (Abdullaev et al. 2002). respectively. The data indicated that saffron
However, when using the Salmonella typhimurium could cause cell death in HeLa and HepG2 cells,
TA98 strain in the Ames/Salmonella test system, in which apoptosis or programmed cell death
saffron showed non-mutagenic as well as non- played an important role. Separate in vitro stud-
antimutagenic activity against benzo[a]pyrene ies showed that crocin exerted antiproliferative
(BP)-induced mutagenicity and demonstrated a activity of hepatocarcinoma HepG2 cells by
dose-dependent comutagenic effect on 2-amino- inhibition of telomerase activity and also down-
anthracene (2AA)-induced mutagenicity (Abdullaev regulation of hTERT gene expression (Noureini
et al. 2003). The saffron component responsible for and Wink 2012).
Crocus sativus 97

Studies by Samarghandian et al. (2010) concentration- and time-dependent manner with

showed that the ethanolic extract of saffron an IC50 of 400 μg/ml after 48 h (Mousavi et al.
decreased cell viability in malignant carcinomic 2009). Analysis of DNA fragmentation showed
human alveolar basal epithelial cells in a concen- apoptotic cell death in MCF-7 cell treated with
tration and time-dependent manner. The IC50 val- saffron extract. Saffron-induced apoptosis could
ues against the lung cancer cell line were be inhibited by pan-caspase inhibitors, indicating
determined as 1,500 and 565 μg/ml after 24 and caspase-dependent pathway was induced by saf-
48 h, respectively. However, the extract at differ- fron in MCF-7 cells. Bax protein expression was
ent and higher concentrations could not signifi- also increased in saffron-treated cells. In another
cantly decrease the cell viability in non-malignant study, saffron ethanolic extract decreased cell
L929 cells. The results indicated saffron to be viability of the malignant carcinomic human
safe for L929, but the extract exerts pro-apoptotic alveolar basal epithelial cells (A549) in a
effects in a lung cancer-derived cell line and concentration- and time-dependent manner
could be considered as a potential chemothera- (Samarghandian et al. 2011). The IC50 values
peutic agent in lung cancer. against the A549 cell lines were determined as
In vitro studies showed that crocin from 1,200 and 650 μg/ml after 24 and 48 h, respec-
Crocus sativus possessed significant antiprolif- tively. Saffron induced apoptotic cell death of the
eration effects on human colorectal cancer cells A549 cells in a concentration-dependent manner.
(HCT-116, SW-480 and HT-29) (Aung et al. Saffron aqueous extract exhibited inhibitory
2007). The purity of crocin was found to be effects on the growth of both human transitional
95.9 %, and the content of crocin in the extract cell carcinoma TCC 5637 at concentration >200
was 22.9 %. Significant concentration-related μg/ml and mouse non-neoplastic fibroblast L929
inhibition effects of the extract on all three cell lines at concentrations of 50–200 μg/ml
colorectal cancer cell lines were observed. The (Feizzadeh et al. 2008). Significant reduction of
proliferation was reduced most significantly in the survived cells was seen at concentrations of
HCT-116 cells, to 45.5 % at 1.0 mg/ml and to 400 and 2,000 μg/mL for TCC and L929 cell lines,
6.8 % at 3.0 mg/ml. Crocin at 1.0 mM signifi- respectively. This effect was dose dependent.
cantly reduced HCT-116, SW-480 and HT-29 cell Studies showed that crocin induced apoptosis
proliferation to 2.8 %, 52 %, and 16.8 %, respec- and G1-phase cell cycle arrest of human pancre-
tively. Significant antiproliferative effects were atic cancer cell line (BxPC-3) while decreasing
also observed in non-small cell lung cancer cells. cell viability in a dose-dependent and time-
However, Crocus sativus extract did not signifi- dependent manner (Bakshi et al. 2010). Cells
cantly affect the growth of noncancer young adult treated with 10 μg/L crocin exhibited apoptotic
mouse colon cells. The study demonstrated that morphology and reduction of volume. DNA anal-
Crocus sativus extract and its major constituent, ysis revealed typical ladders as early as 12 h after
crocin, significantly inhibited the growth of treatment indicative of apoptosis. Separate stud-
colorectal cancer cells while not affecting normal ies showed that crocin and its liposomes could
cells. In vitro studies showed the varying effect of cause cell death in HeLa and MCF-7 cells, in
saffron in HCT-116 colorectal cancer cells with which liposomal encapsulation improved cyto-
different p53 status (HCT wild type and HCT toxic effects (Mousavi et al. 2011). The
p53−/−) (Bajbouj et al. 2012). Saffron induced 3-(4,5-dimethyl thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetra-
DNA damage and apoptosis in both cell lines zolium bromide (MTT) assay revealed a remark-
with a more pronounced apoptosis induction in able and concentration-dependent cytotoxic
HCT-116 p53 wild-type cells. However, autoph- effect of crocin on HeLa and MCF-7 cells in
agy delayed the induction of apoptosis in HCT- comparison with non-malignant cell line (L929).
116 p53 −/− cells. Crocin liposomal forms (IC50 values after 48 h:
Saffron extract (200–2,000 μg/ml) decreased 0.61, 0.64 and 1.2 mM) showed enhanced cyto-
cell viability in breast cancer MCF-7 cells in a toxic effect compared with the crocin (IC50 after
98 Iridaceae

48 h: 1.603 mM) in HeLa cells. Crocin and its studies showed that the haematological and
liposomal form induced a sub-G1 peak in treated biochemical parameters were within normal
cells, indicating apoptosis is involved in this range. Saffron delayed ascites tumour growth
toxicity. Liposomal encapsulation was found to and increased the life span of the treated mice
enhance apoptogenic effects of crocin on can- compared to untreated controls by 45–120 %
cerous cells. A mixture of highly glycosylated (Nair et al. 1995). In addition, it delayed the
triterpenoid saponins (CS5) isolated from onset of papilloma growth, decreased incidence
Crocus sativus corms showed cytotoxic activity of squamous cell carcinoma and soft tissue sar-
against HeLa tumoral cells (Rubio-Moraga coma in treated mice. Bakshi et al. (2009) found
et al. 2011). that crocin decreased cell viability in Dalton’s
Chryssanthi et al. (2011a) found that after lymphoma cells in a concentration- and time-
24 h incubation, crocetin significantly inhibited dependent manner. Significant increase in the
not only proliferation of MDA-MB-231 cells but life span of Dalton’s lymphoma-bearing mice
also invasion at 1 and 10 μM and also that cancer was observed by 37 % and 44 %, respectively.
invasiveness and metastasis were associated with Furthermore, animals given treatment before
the expression of matrix metalloproteinases induction of cancer showed 58 % increase in life
(MMPs). Incubation with 10 μM crocetin for span, and there was 95.6 % reduction of solid
24 h in serum-free conditions reduced pro-MMP- tumour in crocin-treated animals on the 31st day
9 activity and pro-MMP-2/MMP-2 protein levels. after tumour inoculation. Crocin also showed
When cultured in media with sera 2 and 5 %, significant impact on haematological parameters,
crocetin at 10 μΜ also reduced gelatinase like the haemoglobin count and numbers of
activity. The above findings showed that crocetin, lymphocytes. These findings supported the
the main metabolite of crocins, inhibited MDA- conclusion that crocin from Crocus sativus
MB-231 cell invasiveness via downregulation of possessed significant antitumour activity.
MMP expression. Crocetin exhibited protective Topical application of Nigella sativa and
effect against angiogenesis induced by vascular Crocus sativus extracts inhibited two-stage
endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (Umigai et al. initiation/promotion [dimethylbenz[a]anthracene
2012). Crocetin significantly suppressed VEGF- (DMBA)/croton oil] skin carcinogenesis in mice
induced tube formation by human umbilical vein (Salomi et al. 1991). A dose of 100 mg/kg body
endothelial cells and migration of human retinal wt. of these extracts delayed the onset of papil-
microvascular endothelial cells. It was found that loma formation and reduced the mean number of
crocetin suppressed VEGF-induced angiogenesis papillomas per mouse, respectively. Also, intra-
by inhibiting migration and that the inhibition of peritoneal administration of Nigella sativa
phosphorylated p38 and protection of vascular (100 mg/kg body wt.) and oral administration of
endothelial-cadherin expression may be involved Crocus sativus (100 mg/kg body wt.) 30 days
in its underlying mechanism of action. after subcutaneous administration of
20-methylcholanthrene (MCA) (745 nmol × 2
Animal Studies days) to albino mice restricted soft tissue sar-
Oral administration of 200 mg/kg body weight coma incidence to 33.3 % and 10 %, respectively,
of saffron extract increased the life span of sar- compared with 100 % in MCA-treated controls.
coma-180 (S-180), Ehrlich ascites carcinoma Significant reduction in mouse skin papilloma
(EAC) and Dalton’s lymphoma ascites (DLA) formation, initiated by 7–12 dimethylbenz[a]
tumour-bearing mice to 111.0, 83.5 and anthracene (DMBA) and promoted with croton
112.5 %, respectively (Nair et al. 1991a). The oil, was found with saffron aqueous infusion
same extract was found to be cytotoxic to P38B, application in the pre-initiation and post-initiation
S-180, EAC and DLA tumour cells in vitro. The periods and in particular when the agent was
mechanism of action of the extract was indi- administered both pre- and post-initiation (Das
cated at the site of DNA synthesis. Toxicity et al. 2004). The inhibition was partly attributed
Crocus sativus 99

to the modulatory effects of saffron on some Antityrosinase Activity

phase II detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes like
glutathione S-transferase and glutathione per- The flavonol kaempferol isolated from the fresh
oxidase, as well as catalase and superoxide saffron petals was found to inhibit the oxidation
dismutase. of L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) cat-
Animal studies by Garcia-Olmo et al. (1999) alysed by mushroom tyrosinase with an ID50 of
found that life span was extended and tumour 67 μg/ml (0.23 mM) (Kubo and Kinst-Hori
growth was slower in crocin-treated adeno- 1999). Interestingly, its 3-O-glycoside deriva-
carcinoma-bearing female rats, but no signifi- tives did not inhibit this oxidation. Kaempferol
cant antitumour effect was found in male rats. was found to be a competitive inhibitor, and this
In assays in vitro, crocin had a potent cytotoxic inhibitory activity presumably emanated from its
effect on human and animal adenocarcinoma ability to chelate copper in the enzyme. This cop-
cells (HT-29 and DHD/K12-PROb cells, per chelation mechanism could be applicable for
LD50 = 0.4 and 1.0 mM, respectively). It was all of the flavonols as long as their 3-hydroxyl
concluded that long-term treatment (13 weeks) group remained free. However, quercetin, kaemp-
with crocin enhanced survival selectively in ferol and galangin each affected the oxidation of
female rats with colon cancer without major L-tyrosine in somewhat different ways.
toxic effects. The effects of crocin might be Of several constituents of saffron pollens
related to its strong cytotoxic effect on cultured tested for antityrosinase activity, isorhamnetin-
tumour cells. Saffron ingestion inhibited the 3,4′-diglucoside (IC50 1.8 mM) inhibited tyrosi-
formation of 7,12 dimethylbenz[a]anthracene nase, and its activity was stronger than arbutin
(DMBA)-induced skin papillomas in mice and (IC50 24 mM) or hydroquinone (IC50 1.8 mM) but
simultaneously reduced their size (Das et al. weaker than kojic acid (IC50 235.2 μM) which is
2010). This may be due, at least in part, to the usually present in whitening cosmetics (Li and
induction of antioxidant cellular defence Wu 2002a). The tyrosinase inhibitory activities
systems. of all 25 compounds isolated from saffron stigma
In a recent study, saffron aqueous extract were evaluated in vitro using mushroom tyrosi-
dose-dependently inhibited 1-methyl-3-nitro-1- nase. Among them, crocusatin H, crocin-1 and
nitrosoguanidine (MNNG)-induced gastric can- crocin-3 isolated from saffron stigma showed
cer progression in Wistar albino rat (Bathaie significant tyrosinase inhibitory activity (Li and
et al. 2013). Twenty percent of cancerous rats Wu 2002b). Among compounds isolated from
treated with higher doses of saffron extract were saffron petals, crocusatin K, crocusatin L and
completely normal at the end of experiment, and 4-hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex- 2-enone
there was no rat with adenoma in the saffron showed significant antityrosinase activity (Li et al.
extract-treated groups. Further the elevated lactate 2004). Crocusatin K exhibited inhibitory activity
dehydrogenase and decreased plasma antioxidant equal to that of kojic acid.
activity due to cancer induction were ameliorated
after saffron treatment of rats.
Polyethylene glycolated nanoliposomes con- Cardioprotective Activity
taining crocin at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg sig-
nificantly decreased tumour size of C26 colon Crocetin, a carotenoid of C. sativus, exhibited a
carcinoma in mice and increased survival rate protective effect of crocetin on primary culture of
compared with PBS and crocin in buffer (100 mg/ cardiac myocyte treated with noradrenaline in
kg) groups (Rastgoo et al. 2013). The IC50 of cro- vitro (Shen et al. 2004). Crocetin significantly
cin itself against C26 colon carcinoma was decreased the activity of lactic dehydrogenase in
0.73 mM. The results indicated that liposomal culture supernatant and increased the activity of
encapsulation of crocin could increase its antitu- mitochondrion succinic dehydrogenase ATPase
morigenic activity. (Na+-K+ ATPase, Ca2+ ATPase) and mitochondrion
100 Iridaceae

membrane potential. Crocetin decreased the 40, 80 and 160 mg/kg IP) or safranal pretreatment
percentage of apoptosis of cardiac myocyte (0.025, 0.050, 0.075 ml/kg IP) for 8 days to rats
treated with noradrenaline. They also found that significantly decreased the serum lactate
crocetin markedly reduced the content of lipid dehydrogenase and creatine kinase-MB and
peroxidation (LPO), increased myocardial super- myocardial lipid peroxidation as compared to
oxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxi- isoproterenol-induced rats (Mehdizadeh et al.
dase (GSH-Px) activity in cardiac hypertrophy 2013). Histological findings of the heart sections
induced by norepinephrine and significantly confirmed myocardial injury with isoproterenol
improved the myocardial pathological histologi- administration and the preservation of nearly
cal changes induced by norepinephrine (Shen normal tissue architecture with saffron or saf-
and Qian 2006). The results suggested that the ranal pretreatment. The results indicated that saf-
cardioprotective effects of crocetin were related fron and safranal may have cardioprotective
to modulation of endogenous antioxidant enzy- effect in isoproterenol-induced myocardial
matic activities. infarction through modulation of oxidative stress
The hydroalcohol extract effects of Crocus in such a way that they maintain the redox status
sativus exhibited a depressant effect during of the cell. Results of a recent study suggested
experimental atrial fibrillation (Khori et al. 2012). that pretreatment with saffron, especially at a
It exerted a depressant effect on atrioventricular dosage of 100 mg/kg/day, attenuated the suscep-
nodal rate-dependent properties; it increased tibility and incidence of fatal ventricular arrhyth-
Wenckebach block cycle length, functional mia during the reperfusion period in the rat
refractory period, facilitation, fatigue and the (Joukar et al. 2013). This cardioprotective effect
zone of concealment in experimental atrial fibril- appeared to be mediated through reduction of
lation. These depressant effects of saffron were electrical conductivity and prolonging the action
found to be mediated by endogenous NO. potential duration.
Results of animal studies suggested that saf- Separate animal studies suggested that crocin,
fron consumption had a cardioprotective role in active constituent of Crocus sativus, may have
rats with myocardial infarction (Joukar et al. cardioprotective effect in isoproterenol (ISO)-
2010). Saffron plus isoproterenol-treated rats induced cardiac toxicity through modulation of
showed remarkably decreased intensity of heart oxidative stress by maintaining the redox status
tissue destruction and significantly decreased of the cell (Goyal et al. 2010). ISO-control rats
serum levels of heart troponin I, when compared showed cardiac dysfunction as indicated by low-
to the isoproterenol group. The level of glutathi- ering of systolic, diastolic, mean arterial blood
one peroxidase activity in Saffron + isoproterenol pressures, a marked reduction in the activities of
animals did not have significant decline. Results myocardial creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB) isoen-
of another study suggested that saffron at all the zyme, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), superoxide
doses exerted significant cardioprotective effect dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and reduced
against isoproterenol-induced myocardial dam- glutathione (GSH) levels along with an increase
age in male Wistar rats by preserving haemody- in content of malondialdehyde (MDA). Also,
namics and left ventricular functions, maintaining myocardial necrosis, oedema and inflammation
structural integrity and augmenting antioxidant were evident from the light microscopic and
(superoxide dismutase and catalase) status and ultrastructural changes. Crocin at a dose of
creatine kinase-MB and lactate dehydrogenase 20 mg/kg/day significantly modulated haemody-
levels (Sachdeva et al. 2012). Among the differ- namic and antioxidant derangements. The pre-
ent doses used, saffron at 400 mg/kg dose exhib- ventive role of crocin on ISO-induced myocardial
ited maximum protective effects which could be toxicity was reconfirmed by histopathological
due to the maintenance of the redox status of the and ultrastructural examinations. Bharti et al.
cell reinforcing its role as an antioxidant. A recent (2011) showed that safranal alleviated myocar-
animal study found that saffron pretreatment (20, dial ischaemia–reperfusion (IR) injury in rats.
Crocus sativus 101

Safranal-induced myocardial protection was reduced the mean arterial blood pressure (MABP)
found to be mediated by enhanced Akt/GSK-3β/ in normotensive and hypertensive anaesthetized
eNOS phosphorylation and suppressed IKK-β/ rats in a dose-dependent manner (Imenshahidi
NF-κB protein expressions in IR-challenged et al. 2010). The hypotensive activity of saffron
myocardium. Also safranal exhibited strong anti- stigma appeared to be attributable, in part, to the
apoptotic potential, as evidenced by up-regulated actions of two major constituents of this plant,
Bcl-2 expression and downregulated Bax and crocin and safranal. In a recent animal study, cro-
caspase-3 expression with decreased TUNEL cin alone did not exhibit any effect on systolic
positivity, and safranal dose-dependently nor- blood pressure (SBP) and heart rate (Razavi et al.
malized myocardial antioxidant and nitrotyrosine 2013a). Concurrent administration of crocin and
levels, cardiac injury markers (LDH and CK-MB) diazinon improved the reduction of SBP and the
and decreased TNF-α level in IR-insulted myo- elevation of heart rate induced by subchronic
cardium. Crocin, main component of Crocus administration of diazinon in rats. Crocin and
sativus, exhibited protective effect against vitamin E plus diazinon decreased MDA eleva-
diazinon-induced cardiotoxicity in rats in sub- tion induced by diazinon in aortic tissue. A sig-
chronic exposure (Razavi et al. 2013b). Crocin nificant decrease in cholinesterase activity was
(25 and 50 mg/kg) improved histopathological observed in diazinon group. Crocin did not show
damages of cardiac tissues, decreased MDA and any effects on cholinesterase activity.
creatine phosphokinase MB, increased glutathi-
one (GSH) content and attenuated the increase of
Bax/Bcl2 ratio, activation of caspase-3 and Antigenotoxic/Genoprotective
release of cytochrome c to the cytosol and allevi- Activity
ate apoptosis induced by diazinon. The results
showed that crocin, as an antioxidant, exerted The results of studies suggested that pretreatment
protective effects against diazinon cardiotoxicity of Swiss albino mice with saffron (20, 40, 50, 80
by reducing lipid peroxidation and alleviating and 100 mg/kg body weight) significantly inhib-
apoptosis. ited the genotoxicity of genotoxins cisplatin,
cyclophosphamide, mitomycin C and urethane
(Premkumar et al. 2001, 2003a, b, 2006). No sig-
Hypotensive Activity nificant change in glutathione S-transferase
(GST) activity was observed after pretreatment
Aqueous and ethanol extracts of C. sativus petals with saffron alone. Treatment with the genotox-
reduced the blood pressure of rats in a dose- ins alone significantly inhibited GST activity.
dependent manner. For example, administration Saffron pretreatment attenuated the inhibitory
of 50 mg/100 g of aqueous extract changed the effects of the genotoxins on GST activity. A sig-
blood pressure from 133.5 to 117 (mmHg) nificant reduction in the extent of lipid peroxida-
(Fatehi et al. 2003). Aqueous–ethanol saffron tion with a concomitant increase in the liver
extract exhibited potent inhibitory effect on the enzymatic (SOD, CAT, GST, GPx) and nonenzy-
calcium channel of isolated guinea pig heart matic antioxidants (reduced glutathione) was
(Boskabady et al. 2008). In perfused heart with observed in saffron (20, 40 and 80 mg/kg body
ordinary Krebs solution, the extract (1.0 and weight)-pretreated mice compared with the geno-
5.0 mg%) caused significant reduction in heart toxins (cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, mitomycin
rate and contractility. In perfused heart with C and urethane) alone-treated mice (Premkumar
calcium-free Krebs solution, only the highest et al. 2003b). However, the modulatory effects
concentration (5.0 mg%) of the extract showed were not always dose dependent. The data sug-
significant reductions in the heart rate and gested that saffron may exert its chemopreventive
contractility. Studies showed that the aqueous effects by modulation of lipid peroxidation, anti-
extract of saffron stigma, safranal and crocin oxidants and detoxification systems. Premkumar
102 Iridaceae

et al. (2004) reported that pretreatment of mice Antihyperlipidaemic/

with saffron, garlic and curcumin together elicited Antihypercholesterolemic Activity
maximum reduction in frequencies of micro-
nucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (Mn PCEs) Crocin was found to prevent atherosclerosis in
induced by cyclophosphamide in the mouse bone diet-induced hyperlipidaemic rats (Xu et al.
marrow. They also found that pretreatment of 2005). Crocin significantly decreased the content
mice with saffron (20, 40 and 80 mg/kg b.w.) sig- of cholesterol, triglyceride and density lipopro-
nificantly inhibited antitumour drugs (cisplatin, tein in blood, but increased the content of high
cyclophosphamide and mitomycin C)-induced density lipoprotein. Crocin also inhibited the
cellular DNA damage (strand breaks) as revealed proliferation of smooth muscle cells and the
by decreased comet tail length, tail moment and activation of p38 MAPK in vitro. In another study
percent DNA in the tail (Premkumar et al. 2006) of diet-induced hyperlipidaemic rats, a 10-day
These findings and earlier findings (Premkumar treatment with crocin significantly reduced serum
et al. 2001, 2003b) suggested a potential role for triglyceride, total cholesterol, low-density lipo-
saffron as an antigenotoxic, antioxidant and protein (LDL) cholesterol and very low-density
chemopreventive agent and could be used as an lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol level in the daily
adjuvant in chemotherapeutic applications. dose range of 25–100 mg/kg (Sheng et al. 2006).
Studies found that methyl methanesulphonate Crocin inhibited the absorption of fat and choles-
(MMS)-induced DNA migration in safranal- terol, and this inhibition was closely related to the
pretreated mice (363.75 mg/kg) was reduced hydrolysis of fat. Also, crocin increased the faecal
between 4.54-fold (kidney) and 7.31-fold (liver) as excretion of fat and cholesterol in rats, but had
compared with those of MMS-treated animals no influence on the elimination of bile acids.
alone (Hosseinzadeh and Sadeghnia 2007a). This The results of the in situ loop method and enzyme
suppression of DNA damage by safranal was found assay indicated that crocin could not directly block
to be dependent on the dose, and pretreatment with the absorption of cholesterol from rat jejunum but
safranal (72.75 mg/kg) only reduced DNA damage could selectively inhibit the activity of pancreatic
by 25.29, 21.58, 31.32 and 25.88 % in liver, lung, lipase as a competitive inhibitor. The findings
kidney and spleen, respectively, as compared with suggested that crocin imparted its hypolipidaemic
saline-treated group. The results showed that saf- effect by inhibiting pancreatic lipase, leading to
ranal clearly repressed the genotoxic potency of the malabsorption of fat and cholesterol.
MMS, as measured by the comet assay, in different Studies in hyperlipidaemic rats showed that
mouse organs. They also found that methyl meth- oral administration of both saffron (25, 50 and
anesulphonate (MMS)-induced DNA damage in 100 mg/kg) and crocin (4.84, 9.69 and 19.38 mg/
aqueous saffron extract-pretreated mice (80 mg/Kg) kg) was effective in decreasing the elevated levels
declined between 2.67-fold (kidney) and 4.48-fold of triglyceride, total cholesterol, alkaline phospha-
(lung) compared to those of MMS-treated animals tase, aspartate transaminase, alanine aminotrans-
alone (Hosseinzadeh et al. 2008a). This suppression ferase, malondialdehyde, glutathione peroxidase
of DNA damage by saffron extract was found to be enzyme activity, total glutathione and oxidized
dose-dependent as pretreatment with the extract glutathione in serum and increasing superoxide
(5 mg/Kg) only reduced DNA damage by 6.97, dismutase, catalase, ferric reducing/antioxidant
6.57, 7.27 and 9.90 % in liver, lung, kidney and power (FRAP) and total sulphhydryl values in
spleen, respectively, as compared with MMS- liver tissue with reduction in thiobarbituric-acid
treated group. Crocin also significantly decreased reactive species (Asdaq and Inamdar 2010).
DNA damage by MMS (between 4.69-fold for liver Saffron was found to be superior to crocin, indicat-
and 6.55-fold for spleen, 400 mg/Kg) in a dose- ing the involvement of other potential constituents
dependent manner. The data suggested the presence of saffron apart from crocin for its synergistic
of genoprotective property in saffron extract and behaviour of quenching the free radicals and
crocin, as revealed by the comet tail assay, in vivo. ameliorating the damages of hyperlipidaemia.
Crocus sativus 103

Studies showed that crocetin could ameliorate In a 22-week, multicentre, randomized,

endothelial dysfunction in hypercholesterolemic double-blind controlled trial of 54 Persian-
rabbits (Tang et al. 2006). Endothelium- speaking adults 55 years of age or older, saffron
dependent relaxation in hypercholesterolemic administered as a capsule saffron 30 mg/day
rabbit was seriously impaired, and the maximal (15 mg twice per day) was found to be effective
relaxation induced by acetylcholine (10-5.5 M) similar to donepezil in the treatment of mild-to-
was only 54 % that in control rabbit fed with reg- moderate Alzheimer’s disease (Akhondzadeh
ular diet. Oral supplementation with crocetin (15, et al. 2010a). The frequency of adverse events
30 mg/kg) dose-dependently improved this was similar between saffron extract and donepe-
impairment and restored the maximal relaxation zil groups with the exception of vomiting, which
to 68 % and 80 % that in control group, respec- occurred significantly more frequently in the
tively. Crocetin simultaneously increased serum donepezil group. In another double-blind study
level of nitric oxide (NO) and up-regulated ves- of parallel groups of 46 patients with mild-to-
sel activity and mRNA expression of endothelial moderate Alzheimer’s disease (AD), 16-week
NO synthase (eNOS) as well as vessel cyclic saffron treatment produced a significantly better
GMP (cGMP) content compared with hyper- outcome on cognitive function than placebo
cholesterolemic rabbits. The findings suggested (Akhondzadeh et al. 2010b). There were no sig-
that crocetin significantly restored the endothe- nificant differences in the two groups in terms of
lium-dependent relaxation of thoracic aorta in observed adverse events. The results suggested
hypercholesterolemic rabbit increasing eNOS saffron to be both safe and effective in mild-to-
activity. moderate AD. Crocus sativus may inhibit the
aggregation and deposition of amyloid β in the
human brain and may therefore be useful in
Weight Loss Activity Alzheimer’s disease.
Formation of toxic amyloid structures is
In an 8-week randomized, placebo-controlled, believed to be associated with various late-onset
double-blind study of 60 mildly overweight, neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s
healthy women, consumption of Satiereal (a and Parkinson’s diseases (Ebrahim-Habibi et al.
C. sativus extract) as a supplement to an ade- 2010). They found that crocin and safranal, two
quate diet elicited a reduction of snacking and principal components of saffron, had inhibitory
created a satiating effect that could contribute to effect on fibrillation of apo-alpha-lactalbumin
body weight loss (Gout et al. 2010). (a-alpha-LA), used as a model protein, under
amyloidogenic conditions. In the absence of any
ligand, formation of soluble oligomers became
Amyloid-Beta Aggregation Inhibitory evident after 18 h of incubation, followed by sub-
Activity and Alzheimer’s Disease sequent appearance of mature fibrils. Upon incu-
bation with crocin or safranal, while transition
The water–methanol (50:50, v/v) extract of phase to monomeric beta structures was not
C. sativus stigmas exhibited good antioxidant significantly affected, the formation of soluble
properties, higher than those of tomatoes and oligomers and following fibrillar assemblies
carrots, and inhibited Abeta fibrillogenesis in a were inhibited. While both safranal and crocin
concentration- and time-dependent manner had the ability to bind to hydrophobic patches
(Papandreou et al. 2006). The main carotenoid provided in the intermediate structures and
constituent, trans-crocin-4, the digentiobiosyl thereby inhibit protein aggregation, crocin was
ester of crocetin, inhibited Abeta fibrillogenesis found more effective, possibly due to its simulta-
at lower concentrations than dimethylcrocetin, neous hydrophobic and hydrophilic character.
indicating that the action of the carotenoid was Cell viability assay indicated that crocin could
enhanced by the presence of the sugars. diminish toxicity while safranal acted in reverse
104 Iridaceae

order. Saffron extract showed moderate acetyl- and simultaneously restored the cytokine-induced
cholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity (up to reduction of Bcl-X(L) mRNA expression. Crocin
30 %), but IC50 values of crocetin, dimethylcroce- also blocked the cytochrome c-induced activation
tin and safranal were 96.33, 107.1 and 21.09 μM, of caspase-3. They also found that crocin inhib-
respectively (Geromichalos et al. 2012). Safranal ited the effect of daunorubicin. Their findings
interacted only with the binding site of the AChE, suggested that crocin inhibited neuronal cell
but crocetin and dimethylcrocetin bound simulta- death induced by both internal and external apop-
neously to the catalytic and peripheral anionic totic stimuli. Ochiai et al. (2004a) reported on the
sites. The results reinforced previous findings effects of crocin on neuronally differentiated
about the beneficial action of saffron against pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells deprived of
Alzheimer’s disease and may be of value for the serum/glucose. Depriving the PC12 cells of
development of novel therapeutic agents based serum/glucose caused peroxidation of their cell
on carotenoid-based dual binding inhibitors. membrane lipids and decreased intercellular
Saffron had been used in traditional medicine superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Treating
against Alzheimer’s disease. They reported that the PC12 cells with 10 μM crocin inhibited the
inhibitors of acetylcholine breakdown by acetyl- formation of peroxidized lipids, partly restored
cholinesterase (AChE) constituted the main ther- the SOD activity and maintained the neuron’s
apeutic modality for Alzheimer’s disease. morphology. These antioxidant effects of crocin
were more effective than those of α-tocopherol at
the same concentration. Crocin also suppressed
Neuroprotective and Cognitive the activation of caspase-8 caused by serum/glu-
Enhancement Activities cose deprivation. The results suggested crocin to
be a unique and potent antioxidant to combat oxi-
A single oral administration of saffron alcohol dative stress in neurons. Further they found that
extract had no effects on memory registration, crocin repelled the serum/glucose deprivation-
consolidation or retrieval in normal mice (Zhang induced ceramide formation in PC12 cells by
et al. 1994). In contrast, the extract reduced increasing GSH levels and preventing the activa-
ethanol-induced impairment of memory registra- tion of JNK pathway, which had been reported to
tion both in step-through (ST) and step-down have a role of the signalling cascade downstream
(SD) tests and the ethanol-induced impairment of ceramide for neuronal cell death (Ochiai et al.
memory retrieval in SD test. The extract decreased 2004b). Measurements of PC12 cell viability,
the motor activity and prolonged the sleeping peroxidized membrane lipids and caspase-3
time induced by hexobarbital. These results sug- activity showed that the rank order of the neuro-
gested that saffron extract ameliorated the impair- protective potency at a concentration of 10 μM
ment effects of ethanol on learning and memory afforded by saffron carotenoids and picrocrocin
processes and possessed a sedative effect. Saffron was crocetin-di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl)-ester [crocin] >
alcohol extract (250 mg/kg, p.o.) was found to be crocetin-(β-D-gentiobiosyl)-(β-D-glucosyl)-ester
effective in preventing acetaldehyde-induced [tricrocin] > crocetin di-(β-D-glucosyl)-ester
inhibition of long-term potentiation in the dentate [dicrocin] and picrocrocin (the latter two crocins
gyrus of anaesthetized rats (Abe et al. 1999). The had a little or no potency) (Ochiai et al. 2007). In
results suggested saffron extract could prevent addition, they showed that among this saffron’s
aversive effects induced by ethanol as found in constituents, crocin most effectively promoted
earlier study and its metabolite acetaldehyde. mRNA expression of γ-glutamylcysteinyl syn-
Soeda et al. (2001, 2003) demonstrated that thase (γ-GCS), which contributed to glutathione
crocin suppressed the effect of tumour necrosis (GSH) synthesis as the rate-limiting enzyme, and
factor (TNF)-alpha on neuronally differentiated that the carotenoid could significantly reduce
PC12 cells. Crocin suppressed the TNF-alpha- infarcted areas caused by occlusion of the middle
induced expression of Bcl-Xs and LICE mRNAs cerebral artery (MCA) in mice.
Crocus sativus 105

Animal studies showed that retreatment of be potentially useful for the treatment of multiple
C. sativus stigma extract (100 mg/kg of body sclerosis (MS). Mousavi et al. (2010) reported
weight, p.o.) 7 days before the induction of cere- that saffron extract (5 and 25 mg/ml), crocin (10
bral ischaemia by middle cerebral artery occlu- and 50 μM) and GSH (10 μM) could decrease the
sion (MCAO) significantly attenuated all the neurotoxic effect of glucose on PC12 cells. They
adverse alterations induced by ischaemia in rats found that glucose (13.5 and 27 mg/ml) reduced
(Saleem et al. 2006). MCAO caused significant the cell viability of PC12 cells after 4 days and
depletion in the contents of reduced glutathione was consistent with increased ROS production
(GSH) and its dependent enzymes while signifi- which was reduced by saffron, crocin and GSH
cant elevation of malondialdehyde, glutamate pretreatment. They concluded that saffron and its
and aspartate. The activities of Na(+),K(+)- carotenoid crocin could be potentially useful in
ATPase, superoxide dismutase and catalase were diabetic neuropathy treatment. Separate studies
decreased significantly by MCAO. The neurobe- showed that administration of saffron extract
havioral activities (grip strength, spontaneous (200 mg/kg b.wt.) and honey syrup (500 mg/kg
motor activity and motor coordination) were also b.wt.) for 45 days ameliorated aluminium chlo-
decreased significantly in the MCAO group. ride neurotoxicity in mice brain (Shati et al.
Another study showed that pretreatment with 2011). The neuroprotective effect was attributed
crocin markedly inhibited oxidizing reactions to the antioxidant property of saffron extract.
and modulated the ultrastructure of cortical Also there was an indication of carcinogenicity in
microvascular endothelial cells in mice with the AlCl3-treated mice evidenced by an increase
20 min of bilateral common carotid artery occlu- in serum tumour markers such as arginase and
sion (BCCAO) followed by 24 h of reperfusion in α-L-fucosidase.
vivo (Zheng et al. 2007). Further, crocin inhibited Crocetin exerted neuroprotective effect in a
G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) hemi-parkinsonian rat model (Ahmad et al.
translocation from the cytosol to the membrane 2005). Levels of glutathione and dopamine were
and reduced extracellular signal-regulated kinase protected, while thiobarbituric acid-reactive sub-
1/2 (ERK1/2) phosphorylation and matrix metal- stance (TBARS) content was attenuated in
loproteinase-9 (MMP-9) expression in cortical crocetin-treated groups. The activity of antioxi-
microvessels. It was proposed that crocin pro- dant enzymes was decreased in the lesion group,
tected the brain against excessive oxidative stress but protected in the crocetin-treated groups.
and may constitute a potential therapeutic candi- Histopathologic findings in the substantia nigra
date in transient global cerebral ischaemia. showed that crocetin protected neurons from del-
After daily oral dosage, saffron ethanol extract eterious effects of a 6-hydroxydopamine.
significantly reduced the clinical symptoms in Separate animal studies demonstrated that the
C57BL/6 mice with experimental autoimmune neuroprotective effects of crocetin upon brain
encephalomyelitis (EAE) (Ghazavi et al. 2009). injury may be related to its ability to inhibit apop-
Also, saffron-treated mice displayed a delayed tosis at early stages of the injury and its ability to
disease onset compared with control mice. Total promote angiogenesis at the subacute stage as
antioxidant capacity production assessed by fer- indicated by higher expression levels of vascular
ric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) method endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2)
was significantly elevated in saffron-treated mice. and serum response factor (SRF) in the crocetin
Effect of saffron on serum NO production was therapy rats in comparison to the cerebral trauma
not significant. Typical spinal cord leukocyte control group (without treatment) and sham oper-
infiltration was observed in control mice com- ation control group (Bie et al. 2011). Studies by
pared with saffron-treated mice. The results sug- Vakili et al. (2013) found crocin to have protec-
gested that saffron was effective in the prevention tive effects against ischaemia–reperfusion injury
of symptomatic EAE by inhibition of oxidative and cerebral oedema in a rat model of stroke with
stress and leukocyte infiltration to CNS and may crocin at doses of 30, 60 and 120 mg/kg significantly
106 Iridaceae

decreased infarct volume by 64 %, 74 % and 73 %, at the phencyclidine (PCP) binding side of the
respectively. Administration of crocin (60 mg/kg) NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor and at
1 h before, at the start, or 1 h after ischaemia the sigma(1) receptor, while the crocins and
reduced brain oedema by 48 %, 52 % and 51 %, picrocrocin were not effective. Their results elu-
respectively. Moreover, crocin (60 mg/kg) cidated the biochemical clinical effects of saffron
significantly reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) for the treatment of depression and cancer.
content and increased activity of superoxide Hosseinzadeh and Sadeghnia (2005) found
dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase safranal to have some protective effects on differ-
(GPx) in the ischaemic cortex. The results indi- ent markers of oxidative damage in hippocampal
cated that the cerebral protective effects of crocin tissue from ischaemic rats. The transient global
may have been exerted primarily by suppression cerebral ischaemia induced a significant increase
of the production of free radicals and increased in TBARS levels, decrement in both antioxidant
antioxidant enzyme activity. Studies found that power (FRAP value) and total sulphhydryl (SH)
although saffron extract co-administration with concentrations in comparison with sham-
aluminium had no effect on cognitive perfor- operated animals. Following safranal administra-
mance of mice, it reversed significantly the alu- tion, total SH contents and antioxidant capacity
minium-induced changes in monoamine oxidase were elevated in hippocampus in comparison
(MAO-A, MAO-B) activity and the levels of lipid with ischaemic group. The malondialdehyde
peroxidation (MDA) and reduced glutathione level declined significantly in the hippocampus.
(GSH), in whole brain and cerebellum (Linardaki Studies in anaesthetized rats showed that acute
et al. 2013). Acetylcholinesterase activity was systemic injection of safranal, a constituent of
further significantly decreased in cerebral tissues C. sativus, reduced the extracellular concentrations
of Al+saffron group. The biochemical changes of excitatory amino acids (glutamate and aspar-
supported the neuroprotective potential of saffron tate) in the rat hippocampus following kainic
under Al-toxicity. acid administration (Hosseinzadeh et al. 2008b).
In in-vitro studies, hydroethanolic saffron Sadeghnia et al. (2013) found that safranal
extract and its component trans-crocetin inhib- exerted protective effects on different markers
ited glutamatergic synaptic transmission in rat of oxidative damage in hippocampal tissue
cortical brain slices (Berger et al. 2011). Saffron following quinolinic acid (QA) administration.
extract decreased glutamate-induced membrane QA-mediated excitotoxicity was characterized
depolarization. Additionally, the extract at by a significant increase in TBARS levels and
100 μg/ml decreased N-methyl-D-aspartate %tail DNA and remarkable decrease in antioxi-
(NMDA) (20 μM) and kainate (1 μM)-induced dant power (FRAP value) and total sulphhydryl
depolarization, whereas alpha-amino-3-hydroxy- content of hippocampus. Systemic administra-
5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) tion of safranal (291 mg/kg, IP) effectively and
(1 μM)-induced depolarization was not affected. dose-dependently decreased the QA-induced
Trans-crocetin (1–50 μM) showed inhibition of lipid peroxidation and oxidative DNA damage.
evoked postsynaptic potentials and glutamate- Safranal also prevented the decrease of hippo-
induced membrane depolarization comparable to campal thiol redox and antioxidant status pro-
saffron extract. Trans-crocetin at 10 μM decreased duced by QA. Their findings suggested the
NMDA (20 μM)-induced membrane depolariza- possibility of potential therapeutic application of
tion, but did not inhibit the isolated non-NMDA safranal for preventing and treating neurodegen-
component of postsynaptic potentials. They erative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease.
concluded that trans-crocetin was involved in Saffron extract was found to improve ethanol-
the antagonistic effect of saffron extract on induced impairments of learning behaviours in
NMDA but not on kainate receptors. Earlier, mice and prevented ethanol-induced inhibition of
Lechtenberg et al. (2008) found that saffron hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP), a
extracts and crocetin had a clear binding capacity form of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity
Crocus sativus 107

that may underlie learning and memory (Abe and scopolamine (0.2 mg/kg)-induced performance
Saito 2000). This effect of saffron extract was deficits in the radial water maze test. Pretreatment
attributed to crocin (crocetin digentiobiose ester), of male Wistar rats with safranal (291 mg/kg)
but not crocetin. The results indicated that saffron significantly reduced locomotor hyperactivity
extract or its active constituents, crocetin and cro- and behavioural changes elicited by MK-801
cin, could be useful as a treatment for neurode- (the psychotomimetic, noncompetitive N-methyl-
generative disorders accompanying memory D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist)
impairment. The LTP-blocking effect of ethanol (Asadpour and Sadeghnia 2011) in the radial
was significantly improved by oral, intravenous maze test. Average reference errors were also sig-
and intracerebroventricular administration of C. nificantly decreased in comparison with MK-801
sativus ethanol extract, respectively (Saito et al. treated animals. The data indicated that treatment
2001; Soeda et al. 2003). Crocin at 50 mg/kg with safranal attenuated behavioural and spatial
ameliorated the blocking effect of ethanol on the memory deficits in a rat model of an acute psy-
LTP at 84 % compared to the control. Crocetin chotic episode.
gentiobiose glucose ester also antagonized the Khalili and Hamzeh (2010) found that crocin
blocking effect of ethanol on the LTP dose- (30 mg/kg)-treated streptozotocin-injected rats
dependently indicating about a half of crocin. showed higher correct choices and lowered errors
Crocetin di-glucose ester did not remove the in Y-maze than vehicle-treated streptozotocin-
inhibitory effect of ethanol on the LTP. It was injected rats. Additionally, crocin at the men-
concluded that two gentiobiose moieties were tioned dose could significantly attenuate learning
necessary for the appearance of pharmacological and memory impairment in treated streptozotocin-
activity of crocin in the central nervous system. injected group in passive avoidance test. The
Some plants and their extracts that had produced results demonstrated the effectiveness of crocin
promising clinical data in dementia patients, with (30 mg/kg) in antagonizing the cognitive deficits
respect to cognition, include saffron (Crocus caused by streptozotocin-intracerebroventricular
sativus), ginseng (Panax species), sage (Salvia injection in rats and its potential in the treatment
species) and lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) of neurodegenerative diseases such as
(Howes and Perry 2011). Crocus sativus, Ginkgo Alzheimer’s disease. Studies showed that saffron-
biloba and Salvia spp. had been reported to show treated mice exhibited significant improvement
some promising effects in clinical studies with in learning and memory, accompanied by reduced
dementia patients (Howes and Houghton 2012). lipid peroxidation products, higher total brain
In the first experiment, post-training adminis- antioxidant activity and reduced caspase-3 activ-
tration of Crocus sativus extract (30 and 60 g/kg) ity in both age (4 and 20 months) groups of mice
successfully counteracted extinction of recogni- (Papandreou et al. 2011). Further, salt- and
tion memory in the normal rat, suggesting that detergent-soluble acetylcholinesterase activity
saffron extract modulated storage and/or retrieval was significantly decreased only in adult mice.
of information (Pitsikas and Sakellaridis 2006). They found that both saffron and crocetin pro-
In a subsequent experiment, pretraining treat- vided strong protection against hydrogen
ment with saffron extract (30 and 60 mg/kg) sig- peroxide-induced toxicity in human neuroblas-
nificantly antagonized the scopolamine (0.75 mg/ toma SH-SY5Y cells, in rescuing cell viability
kg)-induced performance deficits in the step- (MTT assay), repressing ROS production (DCF
through passive avoidance test. These results assay) and decreasing caspase-3 activation. In
supported and extended earlier findings about the another study, treatment of rats with saffron
implication of Crocus sativus extract in learning extract or crocin blocked the ability of chronic
and memory mechanisms. Similar results were restraint stress to impair spatial learning and
obtained for crocin (Pitsikas et al. 2007). memory retention (Ghadrdoost et al. 2011).
Treatment of rats with crocins (30 mg/kg and Relative to controls that received vehicle, stressed
to a lesser extent also 15 mg/kg) attenuated animals that received saffron extract or crocin
108 Iridaceae

had significantly lower levels of lipid peroxida- acquisition and expression of morphine-induced
tion products and significantly higher activities place preference in male Swiss Webster mice
of antioxidant enzymes including glutathione (Ghoshooni et al. 2011). Animal studies revealed
peroxidase, glutathione reductase and superoxide that saffron aqueous extract attenuated morphine-
dismutase. Finally, crocin significantly decreased induced memory impairment (Naghibi et al.
plasma levels of corticosterone, as measured 2012). The time latency in morphine-treated
after the end of stress. The results suggested that group was lower than control. Treatment of mice
saffron and its active constituent crocin could with 150 and 450 mg/kg of saffron extract before
prevent the impairment of learning and memory the training trial increased the time latency at 24
as well as the oxidative stress damage to the hip- and 48 h after the training trial. Administration of
pocampus induced by chronic stress. In separate both 150 and 450 mg/kg doses of the saffron
studies administration of saffron extract and cro- aqueous extract before retention trials also
cin to male adult Wistar rats improved spatial increased the time latency.
cognitive abilities following chronic cerebral Animal studies showed that crocins, compo-
hypoperfusion and that these effects may be nents of C. sativus, had an effect on obsessive–
related to the antioxidant effects of these com- compulsive disorder (OCD), a common psychiatric
pounds (Hosseinzadeh et al. 2012). Pretreatment disorder defined by the presence of obsessive
of PC12 cells with 10–50 μM crocin before thoughts and repetitive compulsive actions, such
acrylamide (ACR) treatment significantly attenu- as excessive self-grooming (Georgiadou et al.
ated ACR cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent man- 2012). Their study showed that crocins (30 and
ner (Mehri et al. 2012). Crocin inhibited the 50 mg/kg, i.p.) attenuated serotonin (5-HT)
downregulation of Bcl-2 and the up-regulation of receptor agonist m-chlorophenyl-piperazine
Bax and decreased apoptosis in treated cells and (mCPP)-induced excessive self-grooming in rats.
also inhibited ROS generation in cells exposed to The results indicated that these effects of crocins
ACR. The results indicated that the neuroprotec- on an animal model of OCD could not be attrib-
tive effect of crocin on acrylamide-induced cyto- uted to changes in locomotor activity. The findings
toxicity in PC12 cells may be partly by inhibition suggested that crocins may play a role in compul-
of intracellular ROS production. sive behaviour and support a functional interaction
Intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of clonidine, between crocins and the serotonergic system.
the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron,
reduced the jumping activity of morphine-
administered mice; jumping during 30 min was Antidepressant Activity
deemed as the intensity of the withdrawal syn-
drome (Hosseinzadeh and Jahanian 2010). Intraperitoneal administration of the aqueous and
Safranal injected (s.c.) 30 min prior and 1 and 2 h ethanolic extracts of stigma (0.2–0.8 g/kg) and its
after the injection of morphine potentiated some constituents safranal (0.15–0.5 ml kg) and crocin
signs of withdrawal syndrome. The aqueous saf- (50–600 mg/kg) decreased mice immobility time
fron extract decreased the movement in all of the in the swimming test in comparison to normal
doses (80, 160, 320 mg/kg), and the ethanolic saline (Hosseinzadeh et al. 2004). Swimming
extract decreased it in a dose of 800 mg/kg in time was increased by fluoxetine, both extracts
open-field test. But crocin and a dose of 400 mg/ and safranal. Climbing time was increased by
kg ethanolic extract showed no effect on activity imipramine and both extracts. Safranal with a
in this test. It was concluded that saffron extracts higher dose (0.5 mg/kg) and crocin at doses 50
and crocin may have interaction with the opioid and 600 increased climbing time. In the open-
system to reduce withdrawal syndrome. Studies field activity test, the ethanolic extract and saf-
showed that both ethanolic saffron extract (10, ranal increased stereotypic activities. On the
50, 100 mg/kg) and safranal (1, 5, 10 mg/kg) basis of these results, the antidepressant effect of
administered intraperitoneally could inhibit the C. sativus stigma extracts may be mediated via
Crocus sativus 109

safranal and crocin. It was also suggested that cant differences in the two groups in terms of
crocin may act via the uptake inhibition of observed side effects. The present study con-
dopamine and norepinephrine, and safranal via firmed findings of other studies which showed
serotonin. antidepressant effect of C. sativus. Animal stud-
In a 6-week pilot double-blind, single-centre, ies showed that administration of petroleum
randomized trial of 30 adult outpatients who met ether fraction and dichloromethane fraction of
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental C. sativus corm ethanol extract produced
Disorders, 4th edition (DSM IV) for major antidepressant-like effects (Wang et al. 2010).
depression, ingestion of saffron capsule 30 mg/ The immobility time in the forced swimming test
day was found to be effective similar to imipra- and tail suspending test was significantly reduced
mine, 100 mg/day, in the treatment of mild-to- by the two fractions, without accompanying
moderate depression (Akhondzadeh et al. 2004). changes in ambulation when assessed in the
In the imipramine group anticholinergic effects open-field test. Aqueous stigma extract also
such as dry mouth and also sedation were exerted antidepressant effects in the behavioural
observed more often that was predictable. models. Crocin-1 and crocin-2 were identified in
In another 6-week double-blind, placebo- the aqueous stigma extract. The data indicated
controlled, single-centre and randomized trial, 40 that antidepressant-like properties of aqueous
patients with mild-to-moderate depression were stigma extracts may be due to crocin-1.
randomly assigned to receive a capsule of saffron In a review of prospective human trials assess-
30 mg/day or a capsule of placebo (Akhondzadeh ing herbal medicines for the management of
et al. 2005). Crocus sativus produced a signifi- mild-to-moderate depression, saffron stigma was
cantly better outcome on the Hamilton Depression found to be significantly more effective than
Rating Scale than the placebo. There were no sig- placebo and equally as efficacious as fluoxetine
nificant differences in the two groups in terms of and imipramine (Dwyer et al. 2011). Saffron
the observed side effects. Noorbala et al. (2005) petal was also significantly more effective than
found in a 6-week double-blind, randomized trial placebo and was found to be equally efficacious
of 40 adult outpatients with mild-to-moderate compared to fluoxetine and saffron stigma.
depression, saffron capsule at 30 mg/day (BD)
was as effective as fluoxetine capsule 20 mg/day
(BD) in the treatment of mild-to-moderate Anxiolytic Activity
depression. In another 6-week double-blind, ran-
domized and placebo-controlled study of 40 Preclinical evidence of anxiolytic activity (with-
adult outpatients who met the DSM-IV criteria out human clinical trials) was found for Crocus
for major depression, C. sativus petal was found sativus (Sarris et al. 2013). Crocins, active com-
to be effective in treating mild-to-moderate ponents of Crocus sativus, exhibited anxiolytic
depression (Moshiri et al. 2006). At 6 weeks, activity in a light/dark test with rats (Pitsikas
petal of C. sativus produced a significantly better et al. 2008). Either crocins, at a dose which did
outcome on Hamilton Depression Rating Scale not influence animals’ motor activity (50 mg/kg),
than placebo. There were no significant differ- or diazepam (1.5 mg/kg) significantly increased
ences in the two groups in terms of observed side the latency to enter the dark compartment and
effects. Similarly in an 8-week pilot double- prolonged the time spent in the lit chamber in the
blind, randomized trial involving 40 adult outpa- rats. Conversely, lower doses of crocins (15–
tients who met the DSM-IV criteria for major 30 mg/kg) did not substantially modify animals’
depression, C. sativus petal was found to be behaviour. Studies showed that saffron aqueous
effective similar to fluoxetine in the treatment of extract and safranal had anxiolytic and hypnotic
mild-to-moderate depression (Akhondzadeh effects (Hosseinzadeh and Noraei 2009). The
et al. 2007). In addition, in both treatments, the aqueous extract of saffron stigma reduced the
remission rate was 25 %. There were no signifi- locomotor activity of mice dose-dependently in
110 Iridaceae

the open-field test. At low doses, saffron showed benzodiazepine receptor complex (Hosseinzadeh
a significant increase in the time on the open and Sadeghnia 2007b). Peripheral administration
arms of the maze. When using the Rotarod of safranal (72.75, 145.5 and 291 mg/kg body
method, the aqueous extract showed considerable wt., i.p.) induced a dose-dependent decrease in
effect on motor coordination of the mice. In the the incidence of both minimal clonic seizures
hypnotic test, only a dose of 0.56 g/kg of saffron (MCS) (145.5 mg/kg body wt.) and generalized
increased the total sleep. Crocin showed no anx- tonic–clonic seizures (GTCS) (145.5 mg/kg body
iolytic, hypnotic or myorelaxation effects. wt.) following pentylenetetrazole administration.
Safranal, in higher doses, 0.15 and 0.35 ml/kg, Pretreatment with flumazenil and naloxone
showed anxiolytic effects. Safranal increased the 15 min prior to safranal administration (145.5 mg/
total sleep time dose-dependently. This constitu- kg body wt., i.p.) abolished the protective effect
ent at lower doses (0.05 and 0.15 mL/kg) of safranal on MCS. The systemic administration
decreased some locomotion activity parameters. of safranal resulted in a significant and dose-
Safranal demonstrated no effects on motor dependent attenuation in experimental absence
coordination. seizures elicited by either gamma-butyrolactone,
baclofen or low doses of GABAA receptor antag-
onists: pentylenetetrazole, picrotoxin and bicu-
Anticonvulsant Activity culline (Sadeghnia et al. 2008). After a single
intraperitoneal administration of safranal
Studies showed that the aqueous and ethanol (291 mg/kg), no changes in baseline electrocorti-
extracts of C. sativus stigma may be beneficial in cographic recording were observed; however, a
both absence and tonic–clonic seizures in mice significant decrease in [3H] flunitrazepam bind-
(Hosseinzadeh and Khosravan 2002). In the pen- ing was seen in the cortex (33.16 %), hippocam-
tylenetetrazole test, the extracts delayed the onset pus (27.36 %) and thalamus (29.91 %) of mouse
of tonic convulsions, but failed to produce com- brain, while the [3H] CGP54626A binding did
plete protection against mortality. In the maximal not show any modification in the same brain
electroshock seizure (MES) test, both extracts regions. The data suggested the presence of an
decreased the duration of tonic seizures. Studies antiabsence seizure property in safranal and its
showed that the aqueous and ethanol extracts of effect may be due to modifications on the benzo-
C. sativus stigma may be beneficial in both diazepine binding sites of the GABAA receptor
absence and tonic–clonic seizures (Hosseinzadeh complex.
and Khosravan 2002). In the pentylenetetrazole
test, the extracts delayed the onset of tonic con-
vulsions, but failed to produce complete protec- Anticataractogenic and Ocular
tion against mortality. In the maximal Protective Activities
electroshock seizure (MES) test, both extracts
decreased the duration of tonic seizures. Safranal, Crocin analogues isolated from Crocus sativus
an active constituent of Crocus sativus stigmas were found to significantly increase the blood
(0.15 and 0.35 ml/kg, i.p.), reduced flow in the retina and choroid presumably by
pentylenetetrazole-induced seizure duration, improved oxygenation and nutrient supply of
delayed the onset of tonic convulsions and pro- retinal structures, thus facilitating retinal func-
tected mice from death (Hosseinzadeh and tion recovery (Xuan et al. 1999). The results indi-
Talebzadeh 2005). In contrast, crocin (200 mg/ cated that crocin analogues could be used to treat
kg, i.p.) did not show anticonvulsant activity. In ischaemic retinopathy and/or age-related macu-
another study, safranal was found to exert anti- lar degeneration. It was noted that disaccharide
convulsant activity in pentylenetetrazole-induced analogues of crocin, such as crocin-1 and crocin-
seizures in the rat and that this effect may be 2, were less potent than monosaccharide ana-
mediated, at least partly, through GABA(A)- logues of crocin, such as crocin-3 and crocin-4,
Crocus sativus 111

constituting an interesting structure–activity rela- matic activity of caspase-9 in a cell-free system.

tionship. In an in vitro model, crocin was found In vivo crocetin at 100 mg/kg, p.o., significantly
to protect retinal photoreceptors against light- inhibited photoreceptor degeneration and retinal
induced cell death (Laabich et al. 2006). Twenty- dysfunction caused by exposure to white light at
four hour exposure to blue and white light 8,000 lx for 3 h after dark adaptation, and halved
induced death in 70–80 % of the photoreceptors the expression of terminal deoxynucleotidyl
in bovine and primate retinal cell cultures. transferase dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL)-
Crocin protected the photoreceptors against blue positive cells. Qi et al. (2013) demonstrated that
light- or white light-mediated damage in a crocin exhibited neuroprotective effect on retinal
concentration-dependent manner with an EC50 of ganglion cell (RGC) apoptosis induced by reti-
approximately 30 microM. TUNEL assays con- nal ischaemia/reperfusion (IR) injury by activat-
firmed that crocin protected photoreceptors from ing the PI3K/Akt signalling pathway in rats.
light damage. Studies showed that oral administration of cro-
The results of animal studies showed that cetin in mice prevented N-methyl-D-aspartate
saffron may protect photoreceptors from reti- (NMDA)-induced retinal damage via inhibition
nal stress, maintaining both morphology and of the caspase pathway (Ohno et al. 2012).
function and probably acting as a regulator of NMDA injection decreased the cell number in
programmed cell death (Maccarone et al. the ganglion cell layer, and crocetin at a dose of
2008). The photoreceptor layer was largely 100 mg/kg inhibited this reduction. TUNEL-
preserved in saffron-treated rats because it was positive cells were observed in both ganglion
the flash electroretinograms (fERGs) response. cell layer and inner nuclear layer after NMDA
Additionally, the rate of photoreceptor death injection, and crocetin inhibited the increase in
induced by bright continuous light appeared number of TUNEL-positive cells. ERG analysis
drastically reduced in treated animals. In showed that both a- and b-wave amplitudes were
β-carotene prefeeding experiments, morpho- decreased by NMDA injection. Crocetin inhib-
logical analysis showed preservation of the ited the reduction in the b-wave amplitude, but
outer nuclear layer similar to that obtained not in the a-wave. NMDA injection activated
with saffron prefeeding, whereas the fERG caspase-3/7 and increased expression of cleaved
response was unrecordable. In a randomized, caspase-3 in the GCL and INL, which were both
placebo-controlled study of 25 patients with inhibited by crocetin.
early age-related macular degeneration, short- Studies on Chinchilla rabbits with experimen-
term saffron supplementation was found to tal models of retinal dystrophy indicated that
improve retinal flicker sensitivity (Falsini et al. antioxidative function played a crucial role in the
2010). Flash electroretinogram (fERG) thresh- curative action of saffron extract and served as a
olds were decreased after saffron supple- pathogenetic basis for its application in visual
mentation but not placebo, compared with impairments of various origins (Shukurova and
baseline. Babaev 2010). Fernández-Sánchez et al. (2012)
Studies demonstrated that crocetin had pro- demonstrated that saffron attenuated retinal
tective effects against retinal damage in vitro and degeneration in the P23H rat model of autosomal
in vivo, suggesting that the mechanism may dominant retinitis pigmentosa by impeding pho-
inhibit increase in caspase-3 and caspase-9 toreceptor cell degeneration and ameliorating the
activities after retinal damage (Yamauchi et al. loss of retinal function and vascular network dis-
2011). Crocetin at a concentration of 3 μM ruption in P23H rats. Dietary supplementation
showed the inhibitory effect of 50–60 % against of safranal to homozygous P23H line-3 rats pre-
tunicamycin- and H2O2-induced cell death and served both photoreceptor morphology and number.
inhibited increase in caspase-3 and caspase-9 Electroretinographic recordings showed higher
activity. Moreover, crocetin inhibited the enzy- a- and b-wave amplitudes under both photopic
112 Iridaceae

and scotopic conditions in safranal-treated versus Anti-inflammatory Activity

nontreated animals. Additionally, the capillary
network in safranal-treated animals was pre- The aqueous and ethanolic saffron stigma extracts
served, unlike that found in untreated animals. showed weak to moderate effect against acute
This study suggested that safranal could be inflammation using xylene-induced ear oedema
potentially useful to retard retinal degeneration in in mice (Hosseinzadeh and Younesi 2002). In
patients with retinitis pigmentosa. chronic inflammation assessed by formalin-
Saffron extract prevented selenite-induced induced oedema in the rat paw, both aqueous and
cataract formation in Wistar rats, possibly ethanolic stigma extracts, as well as ethanolic
through the reinforcement of antioxidant status, petal extract, exerted anti-inflammatory effects.
reduction of the intensity of lipid peroxidation, Crocin, 500 mg/kg (ig), inhibited the swelling of
protection of the sulphhydryl groups and inhibition mouse ear induced by xylene, the increase of
of proteolysis of the lens water-soluble fraction capillary permeability and writhing induced by
(WSF) of lens proteins (Makri et al. 2013). acetic acid in mice (Ma et al. 1998). Crocin at
Activities of antioxidant enzymes, namely, super- 50 mg/kg inhibited the oedema of hind paw
oxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and induced by carrageenan and fresh egg white in
catalase, and glutathione levels were significantly rats. The weights of thymus and spleen and
increased in saffron-treated rats compared to the humoral immune response were not significantly
selenite-treated group. influenced. At a dose of 200 mg/kg, crocin inhib-
Recent studies showed that crocetin inhibited ited footpad reaction induced by sheep red blood
retinal ischaemic damage through its inhibition of cells (SRBC) and markedly inhibited contact der-
oxidative stress in mice (Ishizuka et al. 2013). matitis induced by picryl chloride. In another
Ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) decreased the cell study, crocin exhibited anti-inflammatory effects
number in the ganglion cell layer (GCL) and the in vitro and in vivo (Xu et al. 2009). In vitro,
thickness of inner nuclear layer (INL), and that cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibition assays showed
crocetin inhibited GCL and INL. Electroretinogram that crocin exhibited a dual inhibitory activity
(ERG) measurements revealed that crocetin against the COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes.
prevented the I/R-induced reductions in a- and Pretreatment with crocin (p.o.) dose-dependently
b-wave amplitudes seen at 5 days after I/R. inhibited the xylene-induced ear oedema in mice
Further, crocetin decreased the numbers of and carrageenan-induced paw oedema in rats. In
TUNEL-positive cells and expression of gastric lesion tests, crocin was gastric sparing in
8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG; used as that it elicited markedly fewer stomach lesions as
a marker of oxidative stress)-positive cells, and compared to the number of stomach lesions
the phosphorylation levels of p38, JNK, NF-κB caused by indomethacin in rats. In addition,
and c-Jun present in the retina after I/R. crocin was found to significantly inhibit the pro-
ductions of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in lipopoly-
saccharide-challenged RAW 264.7.
Antinociceptive Activity Crocin, safranal and vitamin E administered
intraperitoneally to rats prevented the toxic effect
The aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Crocus of diazinon on some biochemical indices and
sativus stigma and petals exhibited antinocicep- enzyme levels (Hariri et al. 2010). The levels of
tive activity against acetic acid-induced writhing serum TNF-α, direct 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α and
(Hosseinzadeh and Younesi 2002). Naloxone soluble protein-100 β (S100β) were increased
partially blocked only the antinociceptive activ- significantly by diazinon. The augmentation of
ity of the stigma aqueous extract. In the hot plate direct 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α and S100β levels
tests, intraperitoneal injection of both extracts by diazinon was significantly decreased by
showed no significant antinociceptive activity crocin, safranal and vitamin E. TNF-α level was
in mice. significantly decreased in diazinon plus crocin
Crocus sativus 113

50 and 100 mg/kg-treated groups compared to antioxidant nature. C. sativus extract and its
the diazinon group. This study showed that vita- constituent safranal exhibited a preventive effect
min E, safranal and crocin could prevent on lung inflammation of ovalbumin-sensitized
diazinon-induced enzyme elevation and augmen- guinea pigs (Boskabady et al. 2012). Treatment
tation of some specific biomarkers. Vitamin E of ovalbumin-sensitized guinea pigs (S group)
was able to only reduce 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α administered drinking water only with dexameth-
and S100β levels. Similarly, they found that intra- asone, all concentrations of saffron extract and
peritoneal injection of aqueous extract of saffron safranal significantly improved lung pathological
prevented diazinon-induced rise of serum tumour changes, most types of WBC and serum hista-
necrosis factor-α (inflammation marker), direct mine levels compared to group S. Treatment with
8-iso-prostaglandin F2α (oxidative stress marker) safranal was more effective in improvement of
and soluble protein-100 β (S100β, neuronal most pathological changes, total and differential
damage marker) in rats (Moallem et al. 2013). WBC count as well as serum histamine level. The
In contrast, vitamin E was able to only reduce results also showed that the effect of the plant
8-iso-prostaglandin F2α and S100β levels. was perhaps due to its constituent safranal. C.
Further Hariri et al. (2011) found that vitamin E sativus extract exhibited a preventive effect on
and, at lower doses, safranal (0.025 and 0.05 ml/ tracheal responses and decreased serum levels of
kg) and crocin (50 mg/kg) restored the reduction inflammatory mediators IL-4, IFN-γ, IFN-γ/IL-4,
of red blood cell, haemoglobin and haematocrit total NO and nitrite in ovalbumin-sensitized
indices induced by diazinon and also prevented guinea pigs but also elicited increased Th1/Th2
the reduction in platelet count indices in diazinon- balance (Byrami and Boskabady 2012; Byrami
treated group. Vitamin E, safranal (0.025 or et al. 2013).
0.05 ml/kg) and all doses of crocin decreased the Recent studies showed that IL-1β markedly
elevation in reticulocyte induced by diazinon. In up-regulated the expression of MMP-1, MMP-3
all doses vitamin E, crocin and safranal did not and MMP-13 in culture rabbit chondrocytes, and
inhibit the effect of diazinon on RBC cholinester- this activation was inhibited by co-incubation
ase activity. Vitamin E, safranal and crocin could with crocin in a dose-dependent manner, in com-
not prevent this genotoxicity (increase in micro- parison to the control group (Ding et al. 2013).
nucleus indices) induced by diazinon. The study Additionally, crocin inhibited IL-1β-induced
showed that vitamin E, safranal and crocin (with- activation of the nuclear factor-kappa B pathway
out effects on cholinesterase) reduced diazinon by suppressing degradation of inhibitory-kappa-
haematological toxicity, but they did not prevent B-α. In vivo investigations showed that crocin
the genotoxicity induced by diazinon. ameliorated cartilage degeneration and that
In an arthritic animal model, crocin effectively expression of the MMP-1, MMP-3 and MMP-13
neutralized the augmented serum levels of enzy- genes in cartilage was significantly inhibited by
matic (MMP-13, MMP-3 and MMP-9 and crocin. The findings suggested that the anti-
HAases) and nonenzymatic (TNF-α, IL-1β, inflammatory activity of crocin may be of poten-
NF-κB, IL-6, COX-2, PGE2 and ROS) inflam- tial value in the prevention and treatment of
matory mediators (Hemshekhar et al. 2012). osteoarthritis.
Further, crocin restored the arthritis altered anti-
oxidant status of the system (GSH, SOD, CAT
and GST). It also protected bone resorption by Anti-hyperinsulinemic/
inhibiting the elevated levels of bone joint exo- Antidiabetic Activity
glycosidases, cathepsin-D and tartrate-resistant
acid phosphatases. Together the data showed cro- Studies found that crocetin had a beneficial effect
cin revitalized the arthritis induced cartilage and on insulin sensitivity in fructose-fed male Wistar
bone deterioration along with inflammation and rats (Xi et al. 2007a). The favourable impact on
oxidative damage that could be accredited to its adiponectin, TNF-α and leptin expression in
114 Iridaceae

white adipose tissue may be involved in the Antitussive Activity

improvement of insulin sensitivity observed in
crocetin-treated rats. Fructose feeding caused a Intraperitoneal administration of the ethanolic
marked increase in the weight of epididymal extract of C. sativus stigma (100–800 mg/kg) and
white adipose tissue, a significant reduction in safranal (0.25–0.75 ml/kg) to guinea pigs reduced
the expression of both protein and mRNA of adi- the number of coughs (Hosseinzadeh and
ponectin (an insulin-sensitizing adipocytokine) Ghenaati 2006). The ethanolic and aqueous
and enhancement of tumour necrosis factor extracts of petal and crocin did not exhibit anti-
(TNF)-α and leptin in epididymal white adipose tussive activity.
tissue in fructose-fed rats. These disorders were
effectively normalized in crocetin-treated rats.
Crocetin also alleviated free fatty acid (FFA)- Antimicrobial Activity
induced insulin insensitivity and dysregulated
mRNA expression of adiponectin, TNF-α and The ethanolic and methanolic extracts of Crocus
leptin in primary cultured rat adipocytes. sativus showed anti-Brucella activity against
Studies by Kang et al. (2012) indicated the tetracycline-resistant Brucella melitensis
potential of saffron as a therapeutic agent in dia- (Motamedi et al. 2010). Pintado et al. (2011)
betic patients. Saffron was found to strongly found that safranal and crocin, and probably their
enhance glucose uptake and the phosphorylation chemical relatives, were involved in the antibac-
of AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase)/ACC terial activity of saffron and that this effect could
(acetyl-CoA carboxylase) and MAPKs (mitogen- significantly reduce the risk of food contamina-
activated protein kinases), but not PI 3-kinase tion with Salmonella enterica by this spice. The
(phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase)/Akt. Interestingly, antibacterial activity against five different
the co-treatment of saffron and insulin further serovars of Salmonella were in the order of 8–16
improved the insulin sensitivity via both insulin- and 64–128 mg/mL for safranal and crocin,
independent (AMPK/ACC and MAPKs) and respectively.
insulin-dependent (PI 3-kinase/Akt and mTOR) Studies demonstrated that the saffron stamen
pathways. Cross-linkage between the two signal- and perianth possessed significant antifungal,
ling pathways of glucose metabolism in skeletal cytotoxic and antioxidant activities as well as the
muscle cells was also suggested. Their studies stigma, though not to the same extent (Zheng
highlighted the major role of AMPK in effects of et al. 2011). The ether fraction composition of the
saffron on glucose uptake and insulin sensitivity three C. sativus parts was different from each
in skeletal muscle cells. other, but lauric acid, hexadecanoic acid,
Studies showed that crocin at a dose of 60 mg/ 4-hydroxydihydro-2(3H)-furanone and stigmas-
kg for 6 weeks was found to significantly reduce terol were the common constituents shared by all
the blood glucose level in streptozotocin-induced the three fractions. The stamen ether fraction dis-
diabetic rats (Rajaei et al. 2013). Additionally, played the strongest antifungal and cytotoxic
there was a significant increase in thiobarbituric activities, whereas both the saffron stamen and
acid-reactive substance (TBARS) levels and perianth ether fractions exhibited significant
decreased total thiol concentrations in the liver antioxidant activities.
and kidney of diabetic animals. Crocin, at doses
of 30 and 60 mg/kg, appeared to exert an antioxi-
dative activity demonstrated by a lowering of Hepatoprotective Activity
lipid peroxidation levels in these organs. Their
findings suggest that crocin elicited hypoglyce- Results of studies suggested that crocin dyes pos-
mic and antioxidative activities in streptozotocin- sessed chemopreventive effects on the early acute
induced diabetes and it may be useful in the hepatic damage induced by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
management of diabetic patients. and dimethylnitrosamine (DMN) in rats (Lin and
Crocus sativus 115

Wang 1986). Feeding experiments demonstrated decrease in blood glucose than that seen with
that crocin dyes at 0.1 % in the diet could sup- cisplatin alone. The serum activities of alkaline
press partially the chronic hepatic damage phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, malate
induced by multiple dosages of AFB1 or DMN, dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase and
but at a higher concentration of 1 % crocin dyes alanine aminotransferase of cisplatin-treated
failed to do so because of their host toxicity. rats were significantly decreased, whereas the
Studies by Amin et al. (2011) indicated that saf- activities of glutathione reductase and isocitrate
fron exerted a significant chemopreventive effect dehydrogenase were significantly increased. In
against diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced liver cisplatin-treated rats, the liver activities of isoci-
cancer via inhibition of cell proliferation and trate dehydrogenase and aspartate aminotransfer-
induction of apoptosis, suppression of inflamma- ase were significantly increased, whereas much
tory response and modulation of oxidative greater changes were found in the kidneys, with
damage. Saffron inhibited the DEN-mediated increased activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehy-
elevations in numbers of cells positive for Ki-67, drogenase and decreased activities of alkaline
cyclooxygenase-2, inducible nitric oxide syn- phosphatase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, malate
thase, nuclear factor-kappa B p65 and phosphor- dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase, ala-
ylated tumour necrosis factor receptor. Saffron nine aminotransferase, sorbitol dehydrogenase
counteracted DEN-induced oxidative stress in and gamma-glutamyl transferase, as well as a
rats as assessed by restoration of superoxide dis- decreased phosphorylation to oxidation ratio in
mutase, catalase and glutathione S-transferase the mitochondria, indicating reduced adenosine
levels and diminishing of myeloperoxidase activ- triphosphate production. Administration of the
ity, malondialdehyde and protein carbonyl for- combined treatment together with cisplatin par-
mation in the liver. El-Beshbishy et al. (2012) tially reversed many of the kidney enzyme
found the significant decrease in haematocrit changes induced by cisplatin. The combined
value, RBCs count and haemoglobin concentra- treatment also tended to protect from cisplatin-
tion and catalase and superoxide dismutase activ- induced falls in leucocyte counts, haemoglobin
ities and significant increase in rat liver and brain levels and mean osmotic fragility of erythrocytes
malondialdehyde level, lactate dehydrogenase and also prevented the increase in haematocrit.
and protein carbonyl content in BeCl2-treated It was concluded that cysteine, vitamin E, Crocus
rats were restored near to normal levels by prior sativus and Nigella sativa combination may be a
crocin treatment. Their results suggested that promising strategy for reducing cisplatin-toxic
BeCl2 induced oxidation of cellular lipids and side effects including nephrotoxicity. Earlier
proteins and that administration of crocin reduced studies reported that in mice, an extract of Crocus
BeCl2-induced oxidative stress combined with sativus stigmas partially prevented the decreases
initiation of mRNA expression of antioxidant in body weight, haemoglobin levels and leucocyte
genes. counts caused by 2 mg/kg of cisplatin i.p. for
5 days (Nair et al. 1991b). Treatment with the
C. sativus extract also significantly prolonged
Nephroprotective Activity the life span of cisplatin-treated mice almost
threefold.
El Daly (1998) reported that concurrent adminis- Studies suggested that the aqueous saffron
tration of cysteine together with vitamin E, extract (Crocus sativus) and its active constituent,
Crocus sativus and Nigella sativa reduced the crocin, may be useful agents for the prevention of
toxicity of cisplatin in rats. Blood urea nitrogen renal ischaemia–reperfusion (IR)-induced oxidative
(BUN) and serum creatinine levels as well as injury in rats (Hosseinzadeh et al. 2005). In crocin-
cisplatin-induced serum total lipid increases were pretreated groups, a reduction in TBARS levels and
significantly reduced. The protective agents given an elevation in antioxidant power (FRAP value) and
together with cisplatin led to an even greater total thiol concentrations, as compared with control
116 Iridaceae

group, were observed. The aqueous extract also administration of saffron extract and safranal. In
reduced lipid peroxidation products and increased another study, intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration
antioxidant power in ischaemia–reperfusion injured of the aqueous but not the ethanol extract (10, 50
rat kidneys. Saffron at 40 mg/kg/day administered and 100 mg/kg) of saffron significantly reduced
to male Wistar rats significantly reduced gentamicin- the anorexic time in mice (Halataei et al. 2011).
induced increases in blood urea nitrogen (BUN) The results were similar for crocin (1, 5 and
and histological scores in the kidney (Ajami et al. 10 mg/kg; i.p.). In addition, a reduction in weight
2010). Gentamicin-induced increases in BUN, gain was observed in the controls as well as in the
serum creatinine, malondialdehyde and histological groups that received alcohol extract or safranal.
injury were significantly reduced by treatment with However, this was not observed in animals treated
saffron 80 mg/kg/day. The results suggested that with aqueous extract or crocin. It was concluded
saffron treatment reduced gentamicin-induced that the saffron aqueous extract and its constituent
nephrotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner. Studies crocin reduced side effects of electroshock stress
showed that crocin attenuated cisplatin-induced in mice. Crocetin administration to male Sprague-
renal oxidative stress in rats (Naghizadeh et al. Dawley rats during resuscitation post-haemor-
2010, 2011). Blood urea and creatinine and urinary rhage increased survival, at least in part by
glucose and protein concentrations in crocin-treated protecting the liver from activation of apoptotic
groups were significantly lower compared to the cell death (Yang et al. 2011). Crocetin continued
cisplatin-treated group. Histopathological studies to show promise as a potential treatment strategy
showed massive damage in the S3 segment of prox- for haemorrhagic shock.
imal tubules in cisplatin-treated group but not in
crocin-treated groups. Crocin treatment elicited a
significant reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA) Relaxant Activity
concentration and produced a significant elevation
in total thiol and glutathione peroxidase concentra- Electrical field stimulation of the isolated rat vas
tions. There was a significant increase in the mRNA deferens and guinea pig ileum evoked contrac-
expression of glutathione peroxidase in crocin- tions were decreased by aqueous and ethanol
treated groups. extracts of C. sativus petals (Fatehi et al. 2003).
The aqueous extract (560 mg/ml) significantly
reduced the contractile responses of vas deferens
Adaptogenic Activity to epinephrine (1 μM) without any change in con-
traction induced by KCl (300 mM). The results
Studies revealed that saffron water extract and suggested the relaxant action of C. sativus petals’
safranal had an important impact on the reduction extract on contraction induced by electrical field
of both metabolic and behavioural signs of stress stimulation in the rat isolated vas deferens to
in male Wistar rats (Hooshmandi et al. 2011). be a postsynaptic effect. Another study showed
Stress elevated the corticosterone plasma aqueous–ethanolic extracts of C. sativus and one
(115 nmol/L) concentration in the control and of its main constituents, safranal, exerted potent
intra-amygdala (1, 5 and 10 μg/rat)-treated groups relaxant effect on tracheal chains of guinea pigs
but not in groups that received saffron extract or that was comparable to or even higher than
safranal (55 nmol/L) intraperitoneally (1, 5 and that of theophylline at the concentrations used
10 mg/kg). Further, anorexia was reduced only in (Boskabady and Aslani 2006). The results
groups that received the saffron extract (1, 5 and indicated that safranal was, at least in part,
10 mg/kg) or safranal (1, 5 and 10 mg/kg) intra- responsible for the relaxant effect of C. sativus.
peritoneally. Stress increased sniffing, rearing, In a study on the mechanism(s) of the relaxant
locomotion and coping time, which were effects of Crocus sativus, the aqueous–ethanolic
decreased by intraperitoneal (1, 5 and 10 mg/kg) extracts of C. sativus and one of its constituent,
but not by intra-amygdala (1, 5 and 10 μg/rat) safranal, exhibited potent stimulatory effect on
Crocus sativus 117

beta-adrenoceptors in tracheal chains of guinea and safranal (0.025, 0.05 and 0.1 mg/kg, i.p.)
pig (Nemati et al. 2008). A possible inhibitory attenuated allodynia and hyperalgesia induced by
effect of the aqueous–ethanolic extract on hista- chronic constriction injury model of neuropathic
mine (H1) receptors was also suggested which pain in rats in a dose-dependent manner (Amin
was confirmed in a subsequent study on guinea and Hosseinzadeh 2012). Crocin even at the high
pig tracheal chains (Boskabady et al. 2010). The dose (50 mg/kg) failed to produce any protective
EC50 (effective concentration of histamine caus- role. However, gabapentin (100 mg/kg) as a ref-
ing 50 % of maximum response) obtained in the erence drug significantly alleviated all behav-
presence of chlorpheniramine and all concentra- ioural manifestations of neuropathic pain
tions of saffron extract in all three groups: trachea compared to control group. The results suggested
incubated with (1) indomethacin; (2) indomethacin, that ethanolic and aqueous extracts of saffron as
propranolol and atropine; and (3) indomethacin well as safranal could be useful in the treatment
and propranolol were significantly greater than of different kinds of neuropathic pains and as an
those of saline except low concentration of the adjuvant to conventional medicines.
extract in groups 1 and 3. In a more recent study,
Boskabady et al. (2011a) reported that the EC50
(effective concentration of histamine causing 50 % Effect on Menstrual Distress
of maximum response) obtained in the presence
of chlorpheniramine and all concentrations of In a double-blind, randomized and placebo-
safranal in both groups of tracheal chains incubated controlled trial of women 20–45 years with
with (1) indomethacin and (2) indomethacin, regular menstrual cycles and experience of
propranolol and atropine were significantly premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms, saffron
greater than those of saline. The EC50 obtained in was found to be effective in relieving symptoms
the presence of all concentrations of safranal and of PMS (Agha‐Hosseini et al. 2008). A signifi-
maximum response of its two higher concentra- cant difference was observed in efficacy of saf-
tions (1.25 and 2.5 μg/ml) in group 2 were greater fron in cycles 3 and 4 in the Total Premenstrual
than in group 1. Daily Symptoms and Hamilton Depression
Rating Scale.
Studies by Fukui et al. (2011) supported the
Spasmodic Activity existence of physiological and psychological
effects of saffron odour in women suffering men-
Hydroalcoholic extract of C. sativus (200– strual distress. Their results indicated that saffron
1,600 μg/ml) was found to increase the spontane- odour exerted some effects in the treatment of
ous rhythmic contraction of isolated rat uterus due premenstrual syndrome, dysmenorrhoea (men-
to KCl (10 mM) in vitro in comparison with the strual pain) and irregular menstruation. Saffron
control tissues (Sadraei et al. 2003). However, they odour significantly decreased cortisol levels after
did not increase the uterus response to acetylcho- short-term stimulation (20 min) in both follicular
line. The spasmodic action of C. sativus hydroal- and luteal phases. 17β-Estradiol level after
coholic extracts suggested that some materials in exposure to saffron odour was increased in both
the plant could increase uterus spontaneous con- the follicular- and luteal-phase groups.
traction and may have the potential to induce early
uterus contraction during the pregnancy.
Aphrodisiac Activity

Analgesic Activity Crocin, at all doses, and aqueous saffron stigma

extract, especially at doses 160 and 320 mg/kg
A 7-day treatment with the ethanolic and aque- body wt., increased mounting frequency,
ous saffron extracts (50,100 and 200 mg/kg, i.p.) intromission frequency and erection frequency
118 Iridaceae

behaviours and reduced ejaculation latency, observed in either group (saffron treated and
intromission latency and mounting latency placebo) in any of the studied semen parameters
parameters in male rats (Hosseinzadeh et al. (sperm density, morphology and motility). Also,
2008c). In contrast, safranal did not show aphro- saffron administration did not improve total
disiac effects. The study revealed an aphrodisiac seminal plasma antioxidant capacity, compared
activity of saffron aqueous extract and its con- with baseline and placebo subjects.
stituent crocin. In a 3-month clinical trial, of 52 In a 4-week, randomized, double-blind,
nonsmoker men with idiopathic infertility, con- placebo-controlled trial of 30 married male
sumption of saffron (50 mg) mixed in milk thrice patients with major depressive disorder whose
a week was found to have a positive effect on depressive symptoms had been stabilized on
sperm morphology and motility while it did not fluoxetine and had subjective complaints of sex-
increase sperm count (Heidary et al. 2008). In a ual impairment, ingestion of saffron (15 mg twice
pilot study of 20 male patients with erectile dys- per day) resulted in significantly greater improve-
function, ingestion of a tablet containing 200 mg ment in erectile function and intercourse satisfac-
of saffron for 10 days was found to have a posi- tion domains, and total scores by week 4 than the
tive effect on sexual function with increased placebo group (Modabbernia et al. 2012). Effect
number and duration of erectile events (Shamsa of saffron did not differ significantly from that of
et al. 2009). The International Index of Erectile placebo in orgasmic function, overall satisfaction
Function questionnaire (IIEF-15) total scores and sexual desire domain scores. Nine patients
were significantly higher in patients after saffron (60 %) in the saffron group and one patient (7 %)
treatment (before treatment 22.15; after treat- in the placebo group achieved normal erectile
ment 39.20). Contrariwise, the findings of an function (score >25 on erectile function domain)
open-label, randomized, fixed-dose, crossover at the end of the study. The results indicated saf-
study comparing efficacy and safety of sildenafil fron to be a tolerable and efficacious treatment
citrate and saffron for treating erectile dysfunc- for fluoxetine-related erectile dysfunction. In a
tion in men (346, mean age 46.6+/−8.4 years) did 6-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-
not support a beneficial effect of saffron adminis- controlled study involving 38 women with major
tration (Safarinejad et al. 2010). No significant depression who were stabilized on fluoxetine
improvements were observed with regard to the 40 mg/day, patients administered saffron (30 mg/
IIEF (International Index of Erectile Function) daily) showed effective improvement in some
sexual function domains, SEP (Sexual Encounter of the fluoxetine-induced sexual dysfunctions
Profile) questions and EDITS (Erectile Dysfunction including arousal, lubrication and pain but not in
Inventory of Treatment Satisfaction) scores with desire, satisfaction and orgasm domains (Kashani
saffron administration. No improvement in 15 indi- et al. 2013). Frequency of side effects was similar
vidual IIEF questions in patients was observed between the saffron and placebo groups.
while taking saffron. Treatment satisfaction as
assessed by partner versions of EDITS was found
to be very low in saffron patients (72.4 vs. 25.4). Immunomodulatory Activity
Mean per patient ‘yes’ responses to GEQ (Global
Efficacy Question) was 91.2 and 4.2 % for silde- Non-cytotoxic concentrations of a proteoglycan
nafil and saffron, respectively. from saffron corms promoted significant macro-
In a separate 26-week, prospective, double- phage activation, detected by the release of nitric
blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of oxide (Escribano et al. 1999a). A rapid activation
260 infertile men with idiopathic oligoasthe- of protein kinase C and NF-kappaB was obtained
noteratozoospermia (OAT), saffron, 60 mg/day, after proteoglycan treatment, which could explain
administration did not result in beneficial effects the induction of nitric oxide synthase.
(Safarinejad et al. 2011). At the end of the study, Proteoglycan concentrations ranging from 10 to
no statistically significant improvements were 1,000 ng/ml specifically promoted apoptosis of
Crocus sativus 119

macrophages, probably triggered by their activa- noglobulin M) level compared with the baseline
tion. This molecule did not inhibit in vitro migra- and placebo, decreased the percentage of baso-
tion or invasion of human tumour cells. They phils and the count of platelets compared with
concluded that the results supported a plausible baseline but increased the percentage of mono-
immune-modulating activity for this saffron cytes compared with placebo. However, these
Crocus proteoglycan. Boskabady et al. (2011b) parameters returned to the baseline levels after
investigated the Crocus sativus extract on human 6 weeks. No adverse effects were reported. The
lymphocytes’ cytokines and T helper 2/T helper 1 results suggested that the subchronic daily use of
balance. In peripheral blood mononuclear cells 100 mg saffron had temporary immunomodula-
stimulated with phytohaemagglutinin, different tory activities without any adverse effects.
concentrations of the extract significantly inhib- Spanish saffron was found to contain novel
ited cell viability of lymphocytes. High concen- saponins with adjuvant properties (Castro-Díaz
trations of the extract (500 μg/ml) also inhibited et al. 2012). In vivo immunization studies and
secretion of IFN-γ in stimulated cells and IL-10 tumour protection experiments unambiguously
secretion in both stimulated and non-stimulated established the value of saffron saponins as can-
cells. The extract showed a stimulatory effect on didate adjuvants. These saponins were able to
IFN-γ and IL-4 secretion in non-stimulated cells. increase both humoral and cellular immune
The ratios of IFN-γ to IL-4 in the presence of all responses to protein-based vaccines, ultimately
concentrations of saffron on stimulated cells providing a significant degree of protection
were significantly higher than for the control against tumour challenge when administered in
group. These results indicated that the extract of combination with a tumour antigen.
saffron led to increased ratio of IFN-γ to IL-4. In
a separate study, oral administration of alcoholic
extract of Crocus sativus at graded dose levels Sleep Enhancement Activity
from 1.56 to 50 mg/kg p.o. potentiated the Th(2)
response of humoral immunity causing signifi- Administration of crocin (30 and 100 mg/kg) to
cant increases in agglutinating antibody titre in mice increased the total time of non-rapid eye
mice at a dose of 6.25 mg/kg and an elevation of movement (non-REM) sleep by 60 and 170 %,
CD19(+) B cells and IL-4 cytokine, a signature respectively, during a 4 h period from 20:00 to
cytokine of Th(2) pathway (Bani et al. 2011). 24:00 after its intraperitoneal administration at a
Appreciable elevation in levels of IgG1 and IgM lights-off time of 20:00 (Masaki et al. 2012).
antibodies of the primary and secondary immune Crocetin (100 mg/kg) also increased the total
response was also observed. However, saffron time of non-REM sleep by 50 % after administra-
extract showed no appreciable expression of the tion. These compounds did not change the
Th(1) cytokines IL-2 (growth factor for CD4(+) amount of REM sleep or show any adverse
T cells) and IFN-γ (signature cytokine of Th(1) effects, such as rebound insomnia, after the
response). The results suggested the selective up- induction of sleep.
regulation of the Th(2) response of saffron indi-
cating its use for subsequent selective Th(2)
immunomodulation. Wound Healing Activity
Kianbakht and Ghazavi (2011) elevated the
immunomodulatory effects of saffron in a ran- Saffron pollen extract cream was found to
domized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clini- have wound healing effect on thermal induced
cal trial of healthy men aged 21.4 ± 0.8 years burn wounds in rats (Khorasani et al. 2008). The
comprising 45 men taking 100 mg saffron tablet wound size of saffron group was significantly
daily for 6 weeks and 44 men taking placebo. smaller than other groups. On day 25, average
After 3 weeks, saffron increased the IgG (immu- size of wound was 5.5, 4, 0.9 and 4.1 cm2 in
noglobulin) level and decreased the IgM (immu- control, base, saffron and silver sulphadiazine
120 Iridaceae

groups, respectively. Histological comparison that the inhibitory effect of crocetin on platelet
revealed that saffron significantly increased reep- activity and thrombosis formation may be related
ithelialization in burn wounds, as compared to to the inhibition of Ca (2+) elevation in stimu-
other cream-treated wounds. lated platelets.
Crocetin administration (3 mg/kg), 30 min
before the beginning of endotoxin infusion,
Antiplatelet Activity improved disseminated intravascular coagulation
(DIC)-related haemostatic indices such as plate-
Bulbs of Crocus sativus var. cartwrightianus let blood counts, blood plasma fibrinogen and
were found to contain both a platelet aggregation protein C concentration in rabbits (Tsantarliotou
inducer and inhibitor (Liakopoulou-Kyriakides et al. 2013). Further, it ameliorated DIC-
and Skubas 1990). The aggregating factor has a associated disease and fibrin deposition in the
molecular weight of 42 kDa (Liakopoulou- glomeruli. These results indicated that crocetin
Kyriakides et al. 1985; Liakopoulou-Kyriakides exhibited a preventive antithrombotic role in vivo
and Skubas 1990) and lacked enzymatic activity and the potential of developing crocetin-based
such as proteinase, esterase and acid or alkaline DIC treatment modalities.
phosphatase. The inhibitory factor had a molecu- In a 1-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled
lar weight of 27 kDa and was found to possess study involving 60 healthy volunteers, administra-
strong proteinase activity. Saffron extract was tion of 200 and 400 mg saffron tablets did not
found to protect human platelets from aggrega- elicit any effect on coagulant and anticoagulant
tion and lipid peroxidation stimulated by a vari- system (Ayatollahi et al. 2013). Statistical analysis
ety of agonists like ADP (61 μM), epinephrine showed no difference between groups for plasma
(76 μM), collagen (11 μg/ml), calcium ionophore levels of fibrinogen, factor VII (as coagulant
A 23,187 (6 μoM) and ristocetin (1.25 μg/ml) agent), C and S protein (as anticoagulant agent),
(Jessie and Krishnakantha 2005). The inhibitory prothrombin time and partial prothrombin time.
effect was dose dependent with concentrations
varying between 0.16 and 0.80 mg and time
dependent at IC50. A significant decrease was Antivenin Activity
observed in malondialdehyde (MDA) formed,
one of the end products of arachidonic acid Crocin (from Crocus sativus), a potent antioxi-
metabolism and of serotonin released from dense dant, demonstrated anti-ophidian against viper,
granules of platelets at respective IC50. Lipid per- Vipera russelli, venom-induced oxidative stress
oxidation in platelet membranes induced by (Santhosh et al. 2013a). Crocin ameliorated the
iron–ascorbic acid system was inhibited by saf- venom-induced elevated oxidative stress; elevated
fron extract significantly with an IC50 of 0.33 mg. proinflammatory cytokine levels including IL-1β,
Crocetin showed a dose-dependent inhibition TNF-α and IL-6; and haematological alteration,
of platelet aggregation induced by ADP and col- namely, depletion of haemoglobin, haematocrit,
lagen, but not by arachidonic acid (AA) (Yang mean corpuscular volume and platelet count, in
et al. 2008). Crocetin significantly attenuated experimental animals. They also showed that
dense granule release, while neither platelet Vipera russelli venom-induced platelet apoptotic
adhesion to collagen nor cyclic AMP level was events including endogenous reactive oxygen
altered by crocetin. Pretreatment with crocetin species (ROS) generation, intracellular Ca(2+)
was confirmed to partially inhibit Ca (2+) mobi- mobilization, mitochondrial membrane depolar-
lization via reducing both intracellular Ca (2+) ization, cyt-c translocation, caspase activation and
release and extracellular Ca (2+) influx. phosphatidylserine externalization were effec-
Additionally, crocetin prolonged the occlusive tively mitigated when the venom was pretreated
time in electrical stimulation-induced carotid with crocin (Santhosh et al. 2013b). Snake venom
arterial thrombosis. These findings suggested metalloproteinases (SVMPs) and phospholipase
Crocus sativus 121

A2 (PLA2) had been reported to play crucial roles found to bind to human serum albumin in aqueous
in the pathophysiology of haemorrhage by target- solution at physiological conditions using con-
ing/altering the platelets function which may stant protein concentration and various ligand
result in thrombocytopenia. The study highlighted contents (Kanakis et al. 2007a). Structural analy-
one of the less studied features of venom-induced sis showed that crocetin, dimethylcrocetin and
secondary complications, i.e. platelet apoptosis, safranal bind nonspecifically (H-bonding) via
and revealed the underlying basis for venom- protein polar groups with binding constants of
induced thrombocytopenia, systemic haemor- Kcrt = 2.05 × 103/M, Kdmcrt = 9.60 × 104/M and
rhage and in vivo anticoagulant effect. Ksaf = 2.11 × 103/M. The protein secondary struc-
ture showed no major alterations at low ligand
concentrations (1 μM), whereas at higher content
Protective Activity Against Extremity (1 mM), decrease of alpha-helix from 55 % (free
Ischaemia–Reperfusion Injury HSA) to 43–45 % and increase of beta-sheet
from 17 % (free HSA) to 18–22 % and random
Studies showed that saffron extract and its coil 7 % (free HSA) to 10–14 % occurred in the
constituents exhibited a protective effect against ligand–HSA complexes. All three exhibited
lower limb ischaemia–reperfusion in rat lower antioxidant than the standard antioxidants
(Hosseinzadeh et al. 2009). Following saffron, trolox and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)
crocin and safranal administration, the total sul- when tested using DPPH assay. The IC50 values
phhydryl H contents and antioxidant capacity were CRT (17.8 μg/ml), safranal (95 μg/ml), tro-
were elevated in the skeletal muscle. The malo- lox (5.2 μg/ml) and BHT (5.3 μg/ml), and the
ndialdehyde level was decreased significantly in inhibition of DMCRT reached a point of 38.8 %,
test groups. which corresponded to a concentration of 40 μg/
ml. Safranal, crocetin and dimethylcrocetin were
also found to bind to calf-thymus DNA in aque-
Protein Interaction (Binding ous solution at physiological conditions (Kanakis
and Polymerization) Activity et al. 2007b). Both intercalative and external
binding modes were observed, with overall bind-
Crocus sativus lectin (CSL) was found to be ing constants K(safranal) = 1.24 × 103/M, K(CRT) =
mannose-specific plant lectins with a unique 6.2 × 103/M and K(DMCRT) = 1.85 × 105/M. A
binding specificity (Oda et al. 2000). CSL was partial B- to A-DNA transition occurred at high
found to bind to the branched mannotriose struc- carotenoids and safranal concentrations. In vitro
ture Man3GlcNAc in the N-glycan core. This studies showed that saffron and its carotenoids
unique binding specificity of CSL may offer interacted with calf-thymus DNA (ctDNA) and
many possibilities of its use in analytical and pre- induced some conformational changes in it
parative applications. Crocus sativus lectin (CSL) (Bathaie et al. 2007). There was a decrease in the
from the bulbs was found to be truly mannose Delta G(H2O), indicating the ctDNA destabiliza-
specific—its binding was inhibited only by man- tion due to its interaction with the mentioned
nooligosaccharides and not by glucose or its ligands. Of these carotenoids, the order of poten-
oligomers or polymers (Kakehi et al. 2003). Also, tial of interaction with DNA was crocetin >
hen ovomucoid was a good inhibitor of CSL, but dimethylcrocetin >> crocin.
it did not inhibit other mannose-specific lectins Results of in vitro studies showed that safranal
from other plant bulbs. It was found that CSL physically bound to target proteins beta-actin,
specifically recognized the N-glycan core cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 1, trifunctional
pentasaccharide. enzyme subunit beta and ATP synthase subunit
Crocetin (CRT) and dimethylcrocetin alpha and beta (Hosseinzadeh et al. 2013). These
(DMCRT) from saffron stigma and safranal, the protein interactions may explain part of safranal’s
main component of saffron’s essential oil, were pharmacological effects. Crocin was found
122 Iridaceae

to significantly affect microtubular protein rats (Liu and Qian 2002). The lowest detectable
polymerization and structure (Zarei Jaliani et al. concentration of crocin-1 in rabbit plasma was
2013). Crocin dose-dependently increased tubu- 0.42 mg/l (Tang et al. 2004). After administration
lin polymerization and microtubule nucleation of crocin-1 in rabbit, the concentration-time
rate. After entering a cell, crocin could modulate curves of crocin-1 was shown to fit two-
cellular proteins and their functions. compartment open model. Animal studies by Xi
et al. (2007a, b) found that crocin was excreted
largely through the intestinal tract following oral
Reproductive/Oestrogenic Activity administration and that orally administered cro-
cin was not absorbed either after a single dose or
Studies showed that addition of appropriate repeated doses. Also plasma crocetin concentra-
amounts of saffron aqueous to the maturation tions did not tend to accumulate with repeated
medium improved mouse oocyte maturation and oral doses of crocin, and the intestinal tract served
embryo development (Tavana et al. 2012). The as an important site for crocin hydrolysis.
maturation rate was significantly higher in all The ethanolic extracts of Crocus sativus and
groups treated with different concentrations of propolis did not cause any mortalities or signs of
saffron aqueous extract compared with the con- toxicity in mice when administered orally at
trol group. However, the lower concentrations of doses up to 5 g/kg b.wt. In the subchronic study;
saffron extract (10 and 5 μg/ml) in maturation the tested extracts did not produce any significant
medium respectively increased the fertilization change in liver and kidney functions of rats, fol-
rate of oocytes and in vitro developmental com- lowing oral administration for 8 successive weeks
petence when compared with the control group. at a dose of 500 mg/kg b.wt. each (Ramadan et al.
Saffron was found to induce uterine stimulant 2012). Antioxidant study showed that propolis
and oestrogenic effects in guinea pigs and mice, ethanolic extract was a more potent antioxidant
respectively (Chang et al. 1964). In traditional than C. sativus ethanol extract.
medicine, saffron was reported to induce men- In an open-label study of ten healthy Filipino
struation (an emmenagogue), and the aqueous volunteers, single-dose oral administration of croce-
extract of saffron had been used for amenorrhoea tin produced no serious adverse events up to 22.5 mg
and dysmenorrhoea. dose of crocetin, while crocetin was found to be
absorbed more quickly than the other carotenoids
such as β-carotene, lutein and lycopene (Umigai
Pharmacokinetic, Safety et al. 2011). Results of a study on four healthy
and Toxicity Studies human volunteers before and after consumption of
one cup of saffron tea (200 mg of saffron in 80 °C
Animal studies indicated that the oral LD50 of water for 5 min) showed that the concentration of
saffron was 20.7 g/kg administered as a decoction crocetin in the plasma was high after 2 h (1.24–
(Chang et al. 1964). Their studies demonstrated 3.67 μM) and could still be determined after 24 h
that oral administration of saffron extract at con- (0.10–0.24) (Chryssanthi et al. 2011b). Interestingly,
centrations from 0.1 to 5 g/kg was nontoxic in mice the percentage of the cis-isomer ranges from 25 to
(Abdullaev 2002). Li et al. (2007b) found that in 50 %, suggesting in vivo isomerization.
rats, orally administered crocin was not absorbed A double-blind, placebo-controlled design
either after a single dose or repeated doses, (1) cro- consisting of a 1-week treatment of saffron tab-
cin was excreted largely through the intestinal tract lets in healthy volunteers revealed that saffron
following oral administration, (2) plasma crocetin tablets may change some haematological and
concentrations did not accumulate with repeated biochemical parameters (Modaghegh et al. 2008).
oral doses of crocin, and (3) the intestinal tract However, these alterations were in normal ranges,
served as an important site for crocin hydrolysis. and they were not important clinically. Saffron at
Crocetin was shown to be quickly absorbed a high dose (400 mg) decreased standing systolic
into the blood through the gastrointestinal tract in blood pressure and mean arterial pressures
Crocus sativus 123

significantly. Saffron decreased slightly some stomach ailments and as an antispasmodic, to

haematological parameters such as red blood help digestion and to increase appetite. It is also
cells, haemoglobin, haematocrit and platelets used for depression in Persian traditional medicine
and increased sodium, blood urea nitrogen and (Akhondzadeh et al. 2005). Crocus sativus was
creatinine. To date, very few adverse health one of many traditional medicinal plants docu-
effects of saffron had been demonstrated (Poma mented to be used as treatment of kidney and uri-
et al. 2012). At high doses (more than 5 g/day), nary disorders in the tribal communities of Ladakh
saffron should be avoided in pregnancy owing to region in India (Ballabh et al. 2008) where prob-
its uterine stimulation activity. lems in urine discharge, burning sensation and
painful urination, inflammation and bleeding in
the kidney, irritable condition of bladder, haemor-
Allergy Problems rhage of kidney and removal of blocked urine and
kidney stone were the frequently reported disor-
Of fifty saffron workers evaluated for occupa- ders. Saffron has been largely used in traditional
tional saffron allergy, three of them were sensi- medicine for its anti-apoptotic and anticarcino-
tized to saffron pollen and stamen proteins, genic properties (Fernández-Sánchez et al. 2012).
giving prick and RAST positive values; one Some medical and pharmaceutical applica-
patient presented asthma, showing a positive tions of saffron listed by Moghaddasi (2010)
bronchial provocation test, and two patients, rhi- included: (a) helps digestion, strengthens the
noconjunctivitis, showing positive conjunctival stomach and is anti-tympanites; (b) aphrodisiac,
provocation tests (Feo et al. 1997). Of a general activates the sexual desire; (c) is analgesic, espe-
allergic population of 237, 10 patients also pre- cially for colicky pains and gingivitis; (d) anti-
sented cutaneous test and IgE positive to saffron. cancerous, fights tumours and accumulation of
Saffron allergens were characterized by SDS- free radicals; (e) is euphoriant and alleviates
PAGE immunoblotting. A relevant allergen of neuralgia, acts as a tranquilizer, cures insomnia,
15.5 kDa with profilinic nature was detected strengthens memory power, improves concentra-
from saffron pollen and stamens. A significant tion, reacts against spasm, fights depression, the
degree of cross-reactivity was demonstrated Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases; (f) con-
between saffron and Lolium, Salsola or Olea. trols blood pressure disorders, lowers high cho-
Studies indicated that two lipid transfer pro- lesterol levels, cures iron deficiency (anaemia) in
teins (LTPs) rCro s 3.01 and rCro s 3.02 were girls, reduces chances of such heart diseases as
minor allergens of saffron, at least in saffron- arteriosclerosis and helps improve heart condi-
allergic patients (Gómez-Gómez et al. 2010). Full tions (due to the presence of thiamin, riboflavin
cDNA corresponding to 2 saffron LTP variants and mineral components); (g) cures respiratory
was isolated and expressed in Pichia pastoris. The disorders such as asthma, cough, influenza and
molecular weight of rCro s 3.01 and rCro s 3.02 cold; (h) helps blood circulation in the retina and
was 9.15 and 9.55 kDa, respectively. Both proteins cures macula lutea and ischaemic retinopathy
were recognized by anti-Pru p 3 antibodies. caused by old age; (i) cures rheumatism and
Specific IgE to the purified allergens was found in bruises when used externally; and (j) cures amoe-
50 % of patients for rCro s 3.01 and 33 % for rCro bic dysentery, measles and inflammation of the
s 3.02 and Pru p 3 in the saffron-allergic patients. liver, splenomegaly and urogenital infections.

Traditional Medicinal Uses Other Uses

Crocus sativus is used in folk medicine for various Saffron can be used promisingly in functional
purposes such as an aphrodisiac, antispasmodic foods, drinks with antioxidant activity and phar-
and expectorant (Yu-Zhu et al. 2008). As a thera- maceutical and cosmetic preparations for its anti-
peutic plant, saffron is considered excellent for oxidant activity and probably for its anti-aging
124 Iridaceae

activity (Assimopoulou et al. 2005). Saffron can Another is the ‘Mongra’ or ‘Lacha’ saffron of
also be used internally in the form of powder or Kashmir (Crocus sativus ‘Cashmirianus’), which
other pharmacotechnical formulas as a food sup- is among the most difficult for consumers to
plement with antioxidant properties. Saffron has obtain. Repeated droughts, blights and crop fail-
a wide range of usefulness in medicine, cosmet- ures in the Indian-controlled areas of Kashmir
ics, and colouring industries, so it can be used for combine with an Indian export ban to contribute
new drug designs (Bathaie and Mousavi 2010). to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saf-
Compounds in saffron find use as colouring fron is recognizable by its dark maroon-purple
agents (crocins and carotenes) in dying cotton hue; it is among the world’s darkest, which hints
and wool fabrics and/or other uses in industry at strong flavour, aroma and colourative effect.
(Liakopoulou-Kyriakides and Kyriakidis 2002). Approximately 150,000 flowers are needed
Saffron spice, the most valuable spice world- for 1 kg of dried saffron; typically, one would
wide, is the dried stigma that only represents need 2,000 m2 field area per kg harvest. Less
7.4 % of Crocus sativus flowers (Serrano-Díaz expensive qualities include also the yellow stam-
et al. 2012). It is possible to extend the uses of ina (male sexual organ), which do not have any
C. sativus flowers beyond the production of taste of their own.
saffron spice as saffron flowers possessed high Saffron, a sterile triploid, belong to subgenus
phenolic content and excellent antioxidant prop- Crocus series Crocus sativus—series with closely
erties that could contribute to their application as related species that are difficult to be separated
functional ingredients. taxonomically and have a complex cytology
(Saxena 2010).

Comments

Iran, Greece, Morocco, Kashmir, Spain and Italy

Selected References
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Crocus sativus 125

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 Freesia leichtlinii subsp. alba

Scientific Name Origin/Distribution

Freesia leichtlinii subsp. alba (G.L.Mey.) J.C. The species is native to South Africa. Elsewhere,
Manning & Goldblatt it is found growing naturalized in the wild in many
areas, such as several Australian states and Chile.

Synonyms
Agroecology
Freesia alba (G.L. Meyer) Gumbleton, Freesia
gentilis N.E.Br., Freesia herbertii N.E.Br., In its native range in South Africa, this spring
Freesia picta N.E. Br., Freesia refracta (Jacquin) flowering species is found growing in well-
Klatt var. alba G.L. Meyer drained, sandy or gravelly soils among dune scrub,
open forest or at forest edges, usually in light
shade and also in damp places near water, mainly
Family along the coast, from Hermanus to Plettenberg
Bay (Goldblatt 1982). It is a geophyte, producing
Iridaceae underground fleshy buds and arising from an
underground corm. They grow in autumn to winter,
flowering in spring and dying back to the ground
Common/English Names in summer and remaining dormant in summer.

Freesia
Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Vernacular Names Freesia blossoms are edible (Wickes 2004).

The highly scented blossoms are used in salads
Afrikaans: Kammetjie, Ruikpypie raw or as a garnish (Deane 2007–2012). They are
German: Freesie reported to be excellent infused with a sugar
Japanese: Furījia syrup and are used in sorbets for flavouring.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 137
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_4, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
138 Iridaceae

Botany Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

A small, herbaceous plant 10–40 cm high, arising A total of 16 volatile compounds were detected
from an underground corm. Leaves (4–)6–8, in the flowers of F. alba, F. corymbosa and
erect or inclined, lanceolate or sword shaped F. elimensis: α-pinene tr (trace)- 1.7 %, sabinene
(ensiform), pale green, with prominent midribs, tr-0.4 %, myrcene 0.2–1.6 %, limonene 0.1–0.8 %,
entire margins and acute tips, 8–30 cm long by
5–10 mm wide (Plate 1). Flowering stems (scape)
erect, unbranched, weakly pubescent to glabrous,
green in colour, bases covered by leaf sheaths
but bent horizontally during flowering bearing
4-6-(8) flowers (Plates 1 and 2). Flowers strongly
scented, actinomorphic, broadly funnel shaped,
20–30 mm long; tepals spreading, cream to
white, often with yellow markings on lower
tepals, tepals and perianth tube flushed with
purple abaxially; filaments included, 15–25 mm;
anthers 6–9 mm, unilateral, sometimes parallel;
ovary 2–3 mm; style branching opposite anther
apices (Plates 1, 2, and 3). Fruit a weakly papil-
lose capsule, 10 mm across. Seeds 2 mm.

Plate 2 Freesia flowers and buds

Plate 1 Flowering scape bent horizontally with 4–7 flowers Plate 3 Close-view of Freesia flowers
Freesia leichtlinii subsp. alba 139

ocimene tr-0.3 %, terpinolene 0.2–1.7 %, hexyl odour and citrusy notes were the major components.
acetate tr-1.1 %, cis-3-hexenyl acetate tr-0.8 %, cis-3-Hexenyl acetate 0.05 %, n-hexanol 0.03 %,
linalool 87.8–96.4 %, α-terpineol tr-0.1 %, cis-3-hexenol 0.11 % and trans-2-hexenol 0.13 %
α-selinene 0.1–4.7 %, dehydro-α-ionone tr, were important contributors to the green notes.
2-phenylethyl acetate tr-0.1 %, benzyl alcohol Pyrazines and lactones such as γ-nonalactone and
tr-0.4 %, 2-phenylethyl alcohol tr-0.8 % and γ-heptalactone were responsible for the earthy
α-ionone 0.0–0.9 % (Wongchaochant et al. 2005). and sweet odour.
Fu et al. (2007) found 75 compounds, comprising Seventy-eight compounds were found in red
mainly terpenes, hydrocarbons, alcohols, fatty acid Freesia hybrida steam-distilled essential oil; the
esters and aromatic class compounds in Freesia major constituents were linalool (30.511 %),
parental species and hybrids. Among these, dimethyl sulphoxide (24.191 %) and α-terpineol
linalool was detected from all the sweet-scented (18.701 %) (Yang et al. 2010). However, the
flowers except for scentless white tetraploid major constituents of the essential oil from
F. hybrida. microwave extraction were fatty acids (51.369 %)
The following volatile compounds were such as linoleic acid (18.691 %), hexadecanoic
identified in Freesia essential oil (Harada and acid (17.387 %) and linolenic acid (15.291 %).
Mihara 1984): 2-methyl-1-pentene 0. 12 %;
acetone tr <0.1 %; ethyl acetate tr; ethanol tr;
3-methylheptadiene tr; toluene 0.03 %; 2, Other Uses
3-dimethyl-2-butanol tr; methyl n-butyl ketone tr;
2,2,6-trimethyl-6-vinyltetrahydropyran tr; myrcene This plant and its hybrids are grown as ornamental.
0.02 %; 3-hexanol 0.03 %; 2-hexanol 0.11 %; Due to their specific and delightful aroma, they
limonene 0.79 %; 1,9-cineol 0.17 %; γ-terpinene are often used in hand creams, shampoos, candles
0.02 %; 2-methylcyclopentanone tr; cis-3-hexenyl and cosmetics.
acetate 0.05 %; n-hexanol 0.03 %; cis-3-hexenol
0.11 %; trans-2-hexenol 0.13 %; trimethyl-
pyrazine tr; acetic acid tr; 3-isopropyl-3- Comments
methoxypyrazine tr; linalool oxide 0.11 %;
linalool oxide (furanoid) 10.13 %; 3-methyl- The plant can be propagated by seeds or vegeta-
bicyclo(4,1,0)heptan-2-one tr; 2-isobutyl-3- tively by ‘bulbs’ (i.e. corms) and bulbils.
methoxypyrazine tr; linalool 67.96 %; C15H24 This species can form dense infestations that
(sesquiterpene mw = 204) 0.02 %; n-octanol tr; compete with native vegetation, particularly
terpinene-4-ol 0.11 %; β-caryophyllene 0.03 %; native ground orchids and grasses in Victoria,
β-cyclocitral 0.04 %; isovaleric acid tr; geranial New South Wales and Tasmania and has been
0.02 %; carvone 0.08 %; α-selinene 0.71 %; deemed an environmental weed in some states in
linalool oxide (pyranoid) 0.06–0.08 %, nerol tr; Australia.
γ-heptalactone tr; n-hexanoic acid tr; geraniol
0.02 %; α-ionone 0.10 %; guaiacol tr; benzyl
alcohol tr; phenylethyl alcohol 0.07 %; dimethyl Selected References
benzyl carbonyl n-butyrate 1.11 %; β-ionone
0.28 %; n-heptanoic acid tr; benzothiazole tr; Deane G (2007–2012) Edible flowers part eleven. http://
n-octanoic acid tr; γ-nonalactone tr; 2,4-dimeth- www.eattheweeds.com/edible-flowers-part-eleven/
Duncan G (2000) Grow bulbs. A guide to the species, cul-
ylphenol tr; p-cresol tr; menthane-l,8-diol hydrate tivation and propagation of the South African bulbs.
(terpin hydrate) 0.03 %; trans-p-menthane-1, National Botanical Institute, Cape Town
8-diol tr; n-nonanoic acid tr; eugenol tr; Fu Y, Gao X, Xue Y, Hui Y, Chen F, Su Q, Wang L (2007)
3-(2-pentyl)-1,2,4-cyclopentatrione tr; n-decanoic Volatile compounds in the flowers of Freesia
parental species and hybrids. J Integr Plant Biol
acid tr; β-geranic acid tr; α-terpineol 19.9 %; and 49:1714–1718
dihydroactinidiolide tr. Linalool (67.92 %) and Goldblatt P (1982) Systematics of Freesia Klatt
α-terpineol (19.09 %) with a refreshingly floral (Iridaceae). J S Afr Bot 48:39–91
140 Iridaceae

Goldblatt P (2002) Freesia. In: Flora of North America Manning J, Goldblatt P, Snijman D (2002) The colour
Editorial Committee (eds) 1993+. Flora of North encyclopedia of Cape bulbs. Timber Press, Portland
America North of Mexico. 16+ vols. New York/Oxford, WCSP (2013) World checklist of selected plant families.
vol 26, pp 349, 405 Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Goldblatt P, Manning JC (1993) (1084) Proposal to Published on the Internet. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/.
amend conserved Freesia by rejecting Anomatheca Retrieved February 2013
(Iridaceae). Taxon 42:891 Wickes J (2004) Edible flowers. http://www.betterbudgeting.
Harada K, Mihara S (1984) The volatile constituents of com/articles/gardening/edibleflowers.htm
freesia flower (Freesia hybrida Hort.). Agric Biol Wongchaochant S, Inamoto K, Doi M (2005) Analysis of
Chem 48(11):2843–2845 flower scent of freesia species and cultivars. Acta
James TA, Brown EA (2007) Freesia hybrid. New South Hortic (ISHS) 673:595–601
Wales Flora Online. PlantNET – The Plant Information Yang D, Gao X, Wang M, Man AO, Wang L (2010)
Network System of Botanic Gardens Trust. http://plant- Extraction methods and analysis of the essential oil
net.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au. Royal Botanic Gardens and from Red Freesia hybrida. J Northeast Norm Univ
Domain Trust, Sydney, New South Wales (Nat Sci Ed) 1:106–110 (in Chinese)
 Gladiolus dalenii

Scientific Name South Africa: Papegaai-Gladiolus, Wildeswaardlelie

(Afrikaans), Phende–phende (Luvenda),
Gladiolus dalenii Van Geel Kxahla-e-kholo (Shoto), Khahla-E-Kholo
(South Sotho), Sidvwana (Swazi), Isidwi
Esibomvu, Udwendweni, Uhlakahle (Zulu)
Synonyms

Gladiolus dracocephalus Hook. f., Gladiolus Origin/Distribution

natalensis Reinw. ex Hook. f., Gladiolus psittacinus
Hook., Gladiolus psittacinus Hook. f. var. cooperi Gladiolus dalenii is one of the most widely
(Baker) Baker distributed species of Gladiolus, occurring from
eastern South Africa and Madagascar throughout
tropical Africa and into western Arabia. It is a
Family primary parental species of the large flowering
modern Grandiflora hybrids. The species com-
Iridaceae prised diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid races
often giving rise to tetraploid hybrids.

Common/English Names
Agroecology
African Gladiolus, Dragon’s Head Lily,
Gladiolus, Natal Lily, Parrot Lily, Parrot-Beaked In its native range of summer rainfall areas, it is
Gladiolus, Parrot Gladiolus, Sword Lily found in open grasslands, savanna woodlands
and scrub and in rocky areas, often among rocks
along streams, at altitudes up to 2,500 m. G. dalenii
Vernacular Names is absent from the winter rainfall (Cape) regions
and from the semiarid and arid regions including
Burundi: Ikirungu (Kirundi) the Karoo, Kalahari and Namib. It is cold hardy
Democratic Republic of Congo: Karungu and tolerant of low temperatures down 0 °C.
(Kinyarwanda), Negenege (Kifuleru ) It thrives in sunny but sheltered locations on light
Madagascar : Sakavirondambo ( Betsileo sandy or gritty loamy soil, with neutral to slightly
country) acid soils of pH between 6.5 and 7.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 141
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_5, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
142 Iridaceae

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The flowers can be eaten raw or cooked after

removal of the anthers. They are added to salads
or used as boiled vegetable (Fox et al. 1982;
Facciola 1990; Roberts 2000; Newman and
O’Connor 2009; Deane 2007–2012, 183). Children
suck the flowers for their copious quantities of
nectar. Corms of G. dalenii are also used as
food in southern Congo (Zaire) (Goldblatt and
Manning 1998). The starchy corms are boiled
and then leached in water before consumption.

Botany

Gladiolus dalenii is a deciduous evergreen peren-

nial cormous geophyte, 70–100 cm (up to 2 m)
tall. Leaves grey-green, erect, ensiform (sword
shaped), about 20 mm wide, and equitant (in a
loose fan). Inflorescences are produced in tall
terminal, on-sided spikes with up to 7 or more
large, intensely scarlet orange to red with a bright
yellow throat (Plate 1) or variously coloured
yellow to greenish, often speckled brown to red,
Plate 1 Flowers of G. dalenii
hooded flowers; bracts green to red-brown and
clasping. Flowers large, 60–10 mm long. Perianth
zygomorphic and bilabiate with a short tube against Aspergillus niger. The activities of both
35–50 mm, narrow at base and widening towards extracts were higher than that of griseofulvin.
the throat, tepals unequal the lower three forming Dichloromethane soluble extract in addition
a recurved lip and the upper largest and some- exhibited ability to delay sporulation in A. niger.
what hoodlike. Stamens unilateral and arcuate. The active group of compounds in the extracts
Style slender branching into near the anthers into was identified as alkaloids
three short branches with expanded, bilobed tips. Results of studies suggested that G. dalenii
Capsules usually slightly inflated, oblong to extracts possessed anticonvulsant and sedative
ellipsoid or globose. Seeds many light to dark, activities and may have potential use against
globose or angular. Flowers are rich in nectar. secondarily generalized tonic–clonic seizures
and primary generalized seizures and insomnia
in humans (Ngoupaye et al. 2013). The macer-
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties ated plant aqueous and lyophilized plant extracts
of G. dalenii all protected 100 and 83.3 % of
Extracts of Gladiolus dalenii corms had been mice against pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced
reportedly used in the treatment of fungal infec- and maximal electroshock (MES)-induced sei-
tions in HIV/AIDS patients in the Lake Victoria zures, respectively. Co-administration of G.
region (Odhiambo et al. 2009). They found that dalenii with diazepam resulted in an additive
soluble dichloromethane (CH2CL2) and methanol effect, while the co-administration of G.
extracts showed antifungal activity in vitro dalenii with flumazenil or FG7142 resulted in
Gladiolus dalenii 143

antagonistic effects. The maceration of G.

dalenii also exerted sedative activity by reduc- Comments
ing the latency time to sleep and increasing the
total duration of sleep induced by diazepam. The plant is propagated from seeds, corms or
The sleeping time increased from 16 min in cormels.
the control group to 118 min at a dose of
150 mg/kg of G. dalenii.
In southern Sotho traditional medicine, Selected References
Gladiolus dalenii is a common constituent in the
lenaka (medicine horn) of the South Sotho- Arnold HJ, Gulumian M (1984) Pharmacopoeia of
traditional medicine in Venda. J Ethnopharmacol
speaking herbalists (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 12(1):35–74
1962). The Zulu and Sotho people have for many Bailey LH (1949) Manual of cultivated plants most
generations used the corms of wild gladiolus commonly grown in the Continental United States and
ground down to a meal to treat dysentery, Canada, rev edn. The Macmillan Co, New York, 1116 pp
Bandeira SO, Gaspar F, Pagula FP (2001) Ethnobotany
diarrhoea and stomach upsets (Roberts 2000). and healthcare in Mozambique. Pharm Biol
A decoction of the corm is used for treating colds 39(1):70–73
and dysentery; alternatively, the smoke from the Byavu N, Henrard C, Dubois M, Malaisse F (2000)
burning corm is inhaled to treat colds, and the Phytothérapie traditionnelle des bovins dans les
élevages de la plaine de la Rusizi. Biotechnol Agron
powdered corm is taken for treating dysentery Soc Environ 4(3):135–156
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). In South Carrière SM, Andrianotahiananahary H, Ranaivoarivelo N,
Africa (Zulu, Xhosa and Sotho zone), the plant is Randriamalala J (2005) Savoirs et usages des recrus
employed as a treatment for headache and lum- post-agricoles du pays Betsileo: valorisation d’une
biodiversité oubliée à Madagascar. VertigO – la revue
bago (Hutchings and van Staden 1994). In South électronique en sciences de l’environnement. Volume 6
Africa (Venda country), the corm is macerated Numéro 1, mai 2005. http://vertigo.revues.org/304
and used as eye drop and ear drop; a decoction of Deane G (2007–2012) Edible flowers: Part Two. http://
the corm and roots of Gyrocarpus americanus is www.eattheweeds.com/edible-flowers-part-two/
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible
used to wash wounds, and the powder is used to plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp
cover the wounds (Arnold and Gulumian 1984). Fox FW, Young MMN, Hallowes D (1982) Food from the
In Mozambique the plant is used in traditional veld: edible wild plants of southern Africa botanically
medicine to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera identified and described. Delta Books, Johannesburg,
399 pp
(Bandeira et al. 2001). In Madagascar (Betsileo Goldblatt P, Manning J (1998) Gladiolus in Southern
country), a pomade from the corms is used for Africa. Fernwood Press, Vlaeberg
abscesses (Carrière et al. 2005). Gladiolus dalenii Hutchings A, van Staden J (1994) Plants used for
is commonly used in traditional medicine in stress-related ailments in traditional Zulu, Xhosa and
Sotho medicine. Part 1: plants used for headaches.
Africa to treat epilepsy and many other diseases J Ethnopharmacol 43(2):89–124
(Ngoupaye et al. 2013). Newman SE, O’Connor AS (2009) Edible flowers.
In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Colorado State University Extension. Fact sheet no 7.237.
pounded sap of the corm is used as nose drop for http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/garden/07237.pdf
Ngoupaye GT, Bum EN, Ngah E, Talla E, Moto FCO,
cattle and corm mixture used as medicine for the Taiwe GS, Rakotonirina A, Rakotonirina SV (2013)
vagina (Byavu et al. 2000). The anticonvulsant and sedative effects of Gladiolus
dalenii extracts in mice. Epilepsy Behav 28(3):450–456
Odhiambo JA, Siboe GM, Lukhoba CW, Dossaji SF
(2009) Antifungal activity of crude extracts of
Other Uses Gladiolus dalenii Van Geel (Iridaceae). Afr J Tradit
Complement Altern Med 7(1):53–58
Cultivars and hybrids of G. dalenii developed in Roberts MJ (2000) Edible & medicinal flowers. New
Europe in the early 1900s are grown globally as Africa Publishers, Claremont, 160 pp
Watt JM, Breyer-Brandwijk MG (1962) The medicinal
ornamentals and have become very successful and poisonous plants of southern and eastern Africa,
cut flowers. The leaves are plaited into ropes. 2nd edn. E. & S. Livingstone Ltd., Edinburgh
 Gladiolus grandiflorus

Scientific Name Chinese: Jiàn Lán

Croatian: Gladiola
Gladiolus grandiflorus Andrews Czech: Mečík
Danish: Gladiolus
Dutch: Gladiool
Synonyms Eastonian: Gladiool
Finnish: Gladiolus
Geissorhiza grandis Hook.f., Gladiolus fasciatus French: Glad’eul, Glaïeul
Roem. & Schult., Gladiolus floribundus subsp. German: Gladiolen
fasciatus (Roem. & Schult.) Oberm., Gladiolus Hungarian: Kardvirág
floribundus subsp. milleri (Ker Gawl.) Oberm., Icelandic: Galdiolus
Gladiolus milleri Ker Gawl., Gladiolus scapho- India: Ek Fuladar Paudha, Ek Phooladaar
chlamys Baker, Gladiolus socium L.Bolus, Paudhaa, Ek Phuladar Paudha (Hindi), Urōsthīcā
Gladiolus vittatus Hornem. (illeg.) Madhya Bhāga (Marathi), Vāḷ Pōṉṟa Ilaikaḷ̣
Koṇṭa Ceṭi (Tamil)
Indonesia: Bunga Galdiol; Galdiol
Family Italian: Gladiolo
Japanese: Gurajiorasu
Iridaceae Korean: Geulladiolleoseu
Latvian: Gladiola
Lithuanian: Kardelis
Common/English Names Malay: Gladiol
Norwegian: Galdiolus
Flag Flower, Garden Gladiolus, Gladiola, Philippines: Galdiolus
Gladiolus, Glads, Sword Lily Polish: Mieczyk
Portuguese: Gladiolo
Romanian: Gladiole
Vernacular Names Russian: Gladiolus
Serbian: Gladiola
Afrikaans: Galdiolus Slovencina: Mečík
Albanian: Gladiolë, Shpatëz Spanish: Estoque, Gladiolo
Catalan: Gladiol ̂
Thai: Phụ̄ch Mị Dxk

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 144
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_6, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Gladiolus grandiflorus 145

Turkish: Glayöl optimum. It grows best in full sun on well-drained,

Vietnamese: Cây Lai Ơn rich fertile sandy-loam soils. It abhors heavy clay
Yoruba: Baka soil as it is sensitive to water-logging. It is sensitive
to salinity and soil pH 6–7 is ideal.
The interaction of various environmental
Origin/Distribution factors was found to be important on flowering
of gladiolus (Shillo and Halevy 1976d). Low
Most modern cultivated gladioli, Gladiolus × light intensity from sprouting to the 4-leaf stage
grandiflorus Hort. (= G. hortulanus), are large- decreased both the percentage of flowering and
flowered, attractive tetraploid (2n = 4x = 60) inter- the number of florets per spike (Shillo and Halevy
specific hybrids and have been cultivated for more 1976a). The effect of short-day treatment was
than 260 years (Goldblatt 1996). Modern G. × similar to that of reduction in light intensity
grandiflorus hybrids are derived from n = 6–12 attributable to a reduction in total solar irradiance
South African species (Barnard 1972). Modern (Shillo and Halevy 1976b). In winter, photoperiodic
gladioli are primarily grown as summer-growing low light intensity extension of natural daylength
cut flowers and tender annuals (Anderson et al. (LD) delayed flowering and increased the number
2012). They are derived from summer-growing of florets per spike, the number of secondary
species, including G. dalenii, G. oppositiflorus, inflorescences and sometimes also the flowering
G. papilio, and G. saundersii. Gladiolus cardinalis, percentage. Quality of flower spikes and yield
a winter growing species (winter rainfall region), is better in a long-day conditions (12–16 h photo-
has also been used in hybridization. period) than short days. Under conditions of
Most of the commercial varieties of gladiolus low light intensity in winter, low temperatures
(Gladiolus × grandiflora Hort.) had been raised (1–4 °C) increase the occurrence of flower blasting
by cross breeding during the last ten decades (Shillo and Halevy 1976c). Gladioli were found
(Kasumi 2001). Although mutation breeding had to be extremely tolerant to high temperatures (up
been an effective means for obtaining novel to 50 °C) as long as air humidity and soil mois-
varieties in vegetatively propagated ornamental ture are at an optimum. Decrease in soil moisture
plants, mutant isolation had been restricted by the reduced flowering at most stages of development.
phenomenon of diplontic selection and subsequent The stages immediately after planting and just
chimera formation that was due to the multicellular before spike emergence were the most sensitive.
origin of the plants. They found that solid mutants Natural short day (SD) promoted flower develop-
of gladiolus having novel flower colour could ment and advanced anthesis but reduced the final
be obtained by using gamma irradiation and/or size of the flower while long day (LD), with 4 h
tissue culture. Comparative studies on the capa- low intensity light at midnight increased weight
bility of various explant sources for regenerating and size of leaves and flowers (Shillo et al. 1981).
plants revealed that the cormel shoot apex was Final corm weight was also promoted by LD.
superior to the cormel pieces and leaf blades for Long-day treatment promoted flowering percent-
its ability of embryogenesis, cost of preparing age (by reducing ‘blindness’) and enhanced
materials and easiness to be handled. flower quality features (length of stem and spike
and number of florets per spike) of all cultivars of
Gladiolus grandiflorus except the miniature cv.
Agroecology “Charm” (Shillo et al. 1981). Most of the promo-
tive effects were obtained by lighting for 4 h as day
Gladiolus is frost intolerant and prefers a mild extension or as night break, and this treatment
cool climate with 10–25 °C in the daytime and was recommended for commercial use. Mckay
night temperatures of 16–18 °C. However, it can et al. (1981a) found that degree-day summations
tolerate temperature up to 50 °C only if the rela- to flowering suggested that temperature was the
tive humidity is high and soil moisture levels are major factor influencing the number of days to
146 Iridaceae

flowering and that many cultivars (except for Dalziel 1968; Ameh et al. 2011). In Idomaland,
‘Bali and ‘Auroa’) were essentially daylength- Benue State, Nigeria, gladiolus corms called
insensitive for the 12.3–15.8-h photoperiods ‘okpendu’ or ‘okredu’ are used in the preparation
sampled. Extending the photoperiod to 24 h of ‘enyi’ or ‘umu’—a non-alcoholic drink made
delayed flowering by approximately 15 days and from millet, sorghum or maize (Ameh et al. 2011).
increased the number of inflorescences harvested
from low-, medium- and high-density treatments
by 20, 91 and 169 %, respectively, when compared Botany
to the inflorescence yield from these density treat-
ments under natural daylengths (12.3–14.5 h) Gladiolus hybrids are perennial herbaceous,
(Mckay et al. 1981b). The average weight of new cormous geophyte 1–2 m high, with subterranean
corms and the weight of cormlets per plot and per large symmetrical corms enclosed by several
corm were reduced by approximately 32, 71 and layers of brownish, fibrous tunics and with short
63 %, respectively, when compared to the results simple stem. Leaves 2–9 erect, ensiform, vaginate,
obtained from plants grown under natural day- equitant, with thickened and grooved midribs
lengths. These results suggest that flowers com- (Plate 1). Inflorescences spicate, terminal on a
pete for available photosynthates with corms and tall (90–150 cm) peduncle, many flowered up to
cormlet development. Further they found that 97 % 20, monostichous or weakly distichous; each
of maximum inflorescence yield was obtained at flower subtended by 2 bracts green, sometimes
a daylength extension illuminance of 144 lx, flushed greyish purple, unequal. Perianth zygo-
while 97 % of the maximum number of florets per morphic, gamophyllous; tepals basally connate
spike and the other flower quality characteristics into infundibular or cylindric hypanthial tube;
were obtained at a daylength extension illumina- tepals plain, frilled, ruffled, semi-ruffled or deeply
tion level of approximately 100 lx (Mckay et al. cut, variously coloured in a myriad of colours,
1982). Ninety-seven percent of the maximum
number of days to flowering was approached at a
daylength extension illuminance of 45 lx. There
was no clear relationship between the illumina-
tion level of daylength extension and number and
weight of new corms or the average weight of
each new corm.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Flowers are edible raw or cooked (Roberts 2000;

Deane 2007–2012; Wilson 2013). The stamens
are removed and the flowers are added to salads
or used as a boiled vegetable. The petals do not
have a punch of flavour but do make a stunning
salad garnish (Wilson 2013). The flowers can be
used as containers for dips with chicken, prawn
or tuna salads. Some recipes with gladioli flowers
include stuffed gladiolus flowers, gladiolus and
bean stew, gladiolus and avocado open sandwiches
(Roberts 2000).
In Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon and Botswana,
gladiolus corms are used in food (Hutchinson and Plate 1 Yellow-flowered gladiolus
Gladiolus grandiflorus 147

3,5,di-glucoside and delphinidin triglucoside

(Shibata and Nozaka 1963).Yatomi and Arisumi
(1968) isolated 13 anthocyanins from the flowers:
pelargonidin-3-rhamnosylglucoside, pelargonidin-
3,5-diglucoside, pelargonidin-3-rhamnosylglu-
coside-5-glucoside, peonidin-3-rhamnosyl-
glucoside, peonidin-3,5-diglucoside, peonidin-3-
rhamnosylglucoside-5-glucoside, cyanidin-
3,5-diglucoside, malvidin-3-rhamnosylgucoside,
malvidin-3,5-diglucoside, malvidin-3-rhamnosyl-
glucoside-5-glucoside, petunidin-3,5-diglucoside,
petunidin-3-rhamnosylglucoside-5-glucoside
and delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside. Arisumi and
Kobayashi (1971) isolated 12 flower anthocyanins:
pelargonidin-3-glucoside; pelargonidin-3-rhamno-
sylglu-coside; pelargonidin-3, 5-diglucoside;
pelargonidin-3-rhamnosylglucoside-5-glucoside;
malvidin-3-glucoside; malvidin-3-rhamanosyl-
glucoside; malvidin-3, 5-diglucoside; malvidin-
3-rhamnosylglucoside-5-glucoside; petunidin-3-
glucoside; petunidin-3-rhamnosylglucoside and
petunidin-3, 5-diglucoside and petunidin-3-
rhamnosylglucoside-5-glucoside. Akavia et al.
(1981) identified the following anthocyanins in the
Plate 2 Red-flowered gladiolus flower petals of G. gandavensis: pelargonidin,
cyanidin, delphinidin, peonidin, petunidin and mal-
vidin 3-rutinosides and 3-rutinoside-5-glucosides.
tints and shades, usually with contrasting markings Takatsu et al. (2000) clarified that pinkish-
comprising nectar guide on outer tepals, usually white, pink, red and bluish-purple flowers of
unequal, dorsal tepal largest, arched to hooded Gladiolus grandiflorus contained either anthocy-
over stamens, outer three tepals narrower (Plates 1 anin or flavonoid. Orange flowers were found to
and 2). Stamens usually unilateral; anthers usually contain both anthocyanin and carotenoid. They
parallel; style usually arching over stamens, observed that flavonoid and carotenoid were
dividing into three filiform branches, with dis- responsible for the production of yellowish-white
tally expanded apices. Ovary 3-locular capsules flowers and vivid yellow flowers, respectively.
usually slightly inflated, oblong to ellipsoid or Also, anthocyanin was responsible for red purple
globose, softly cartilaginous. Seeds when formed, coloured flowers while blue colour of gladiolus
usually many, broadly winged; globose or angular, might be derived from co-pigmentation of antho-
light to dark brown. cyanin and flavonoid. Their results would con-
tribute to manipulation of flower colour in a
breeding programme of gladiolus. The anthocya-
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties nins and other flavonoids of the bluish cultivar,
G. × grandiflorus ‘Ariake’, were isolated and
Several flower anthocyanins were isolated from identified (Takemura et al. 2005). They found
ten gladiolus cultivars: pelargonidin-3-rhamnosyl- that the flower colour was changed to more pur-
glucoside; peonidin 3-O-rhamnosylglucoside-5- ple by the presence of co-pigments. Three antho-
O-glucoside; pelargonidin 3-O-diglucoside-5-O- cyanins and some flavonoids were present in the
glucoside; cyanidin 3,5-di-glucoside; delphinidin crude flower extract. The major anthocyanin was
148 Iridaceae

identified as malvidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside (malvin) et al. 2011). The corm extracts contained alkaloids,
and the two minor ones were characterized as tannins, saponins, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids
malvidin glycosides. Of the flavonoids, three and carbohydrates.
were identified as kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside,
kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside and quercetin
3-O-rutinoside (rutin). The remaining pigments Traditional Medicinal Uses
were characterized as flavonol 3-O-glycosides of
kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin, laricitrin and Refer to notes under Gladiolus dalenii.
syringetin. The purple flower cultivar contained
many flavonols compared with other flower
colours, e.g. pink and red, suggesting that the Other Uses
flavonol glycosides contributed to the more pur-
plish colour as co-pigments. Eleven anthocyanins Gladiolus is especially valued for its cut flowers
were isolated from the flowers of 6 selected for use in floral arrangements as well as a popular
Gladiolus grandiflorus cultivars and identified garden ornamental plant. Gladiolus occupies a
as 3-O-rutinoside-5-O-glucosides of cyanidin, prime position among commercial flower crops
malvidin, pelargonidin and peonidin and 3, 5-di- with a high demand in both domestic and interna-
O-glucosides of petunidin, malvidin, pelargoni- tional markets. It occupies eighth position in the
din, cyanidin and peonidin and pelargonidin world cut flower trade (Anonymous 2006). A
3-O-rutinoside and malvidin 3-O-glucoside total of 19,900 stems of gladiolus were imported
(Takemura et al. 2008). Of these anthocyanins, into European market (excluding the Netherlands)
the first 4 and pelargonidin 3-O-rutinoside had at the rate of 0.52 US$ per stem during 2006.
previously been characterized as 3-O-rhamnosyl- Japan produced 82,760 stems of cut gladiolus
glucoside-5-O-glucoside and 3-O-rhamnosylg- domestically at the price of 0.45 US$ per stem
lucoside. In this survey, they were clearly while imported 28,800 stems from the Netherlands
identified as 3-O-rutinoside-5-O-glucoside and and Taiwan at the price of 0.27 US$ per stem.
3-O-rutinoside, for the first time. They found that Singapore imported gladiolus stems from China
the major anthocyanins of purple flowers were and Malaysia at the rate of 0.44 US$ and 0.61
malvidin glycosides together with petunidin 3, US$, respectively
5-di-O-glucoside as a minor component, but In China, gladioli flowers are used for ceremo-
delphinidin glycoside was not detectable. Red nies and funerals, which is believed to help people
flowers were due to pelargonidin glycosides. find their way to heaven.
Pink flowers consisted of various anthocyanins,
pelargonidin, cyanidin, peonidin, petunidin and
malvidin glycosides, in trace amounts compared Comments
with those of purple and red flowers. Generally,
anthocyanins were not detected from yellow and Modern-type gladioli are divided into seven
white flowers; however, a few yellow and white groups based on plant height, flower size and
cultivars contained an extremely small amount arrangement on the spike:
of anthocyanins. Such cultivars had a coloured 1. Grandiflorus or large-flowered hybrids, in a
spot or streak on the perianth. wide assortment of colours.
Gladiolus corm extracts, at concentrations of 2. Primulinus hybrids: plants less vigorous than
75–400 mg of the plant material per mL of water, Grandiflorus, stems 75–105 cm, florets hooded
were active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (uppermost inner petals form hood over the
and Aspergillus niger but relatively inactive against anthers and stigma) and dainty, 5–9 cm across,
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and well spaced on 40–45 cm spike.
Listeria monocytogenes and fungi: Candida albi- 3. Butterfly hybrids: stems 75–120 cm, spikes
cans and Trichophyton mentagrophyte (Ameh shorter than 45 cm, florets 7.5–10 cm wide
Gladiolus grandiflorus 149

with attractive throat markings or blotches Barnard TT (1972) On hybrids and hybridization. In:
Lewis GJ, Obermeyer AA, Barnard TT (eds)
and are arranged symmetrically and closely
Gladiolus, a revision of the South African species. J
on the spike. South Afr Bot Suppl 10:304–310
4. Minature hybrids: stem 75–105 cm, florets Deane G (2007–2012) Edible flowers: Part two. http://
2.5–5 cm across borne on about 40 cm spikes; www.eattheweeds.com/edible-flowers-part-two/
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible
tepals generally ruffled. These hybrids produce
plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp
very small corms and multiply very slowly. Fox FW, Young MMN, Hallowes D (1982) Food from the
Face ups: The stem is dwarf, usually veld: edible wild plants of southern Africa botanically
60–90 cm tall. Florets are nearly 5–6 cm wide identified and described. Delta Books, Johannesburg,
399 pp
and face upwards and quaint.
Goldblatt P (1996) Gladiolus in tropical Africa: systemat-
5. Colvillei hybrids: derived from hybridizing ics, biology & evolution. Timber Press, Portland
G. tristis with G. cardinalis. The plant grows Goldblatt P, Manning J (1998) Gladiolus in Southern
hardly more than 60 cm tall. Flowers are Africa. Fernwood Press, Vlaeberg
Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM (1968) Gladiolus Linn. The use-
5–6 cm wide and star-shaped. These are early
ful plants of tropical West Africa. The Crown Agent
flowering hybrids and are more suitable for for the Colonies, London, pp 487–488
growing under greenhouses. Kasumi M (2001) Studies on induction of flower color
6. Ochideola: a recent group of gladiolus devel- mutants in gladiolus (Gladiolus × grandiflora Hort.)
by gamma irradiation and tissue culture. Bull Plant
oped in Israel. Spikes are light in weight,
Biotechnol Inst Ibaraki Agric Cent 4:1–49 (in Japanese)
producing smaller florets or shorter stems. McKay ME, Byth DE, Tommerup JA (1981a)
7. Nanus hybrids were introduced in 1855 from Environmental responses of gladioli in South-East
Gladiolus cardinalis and Gladiolus venustus. Queensland. Sci Hortic 14(1):77–92
McKay ME, Tommerup JA, Byth DE (1981b) The influence
Decorative and early-flowering. They come in
of photoperiod and plant density on yield of winter-
white, pink, salmon and some varieties are nearly grown gladioli in Queensland. Sci Hortic 14(2):171–179
red, have narrow leaves and have two to four McKay ME, Hesse BJ, Mulder JC (1982) The influence of
flower stalks with many side shoots. They have illumination levels of daylength extension on yield of
winter-grown gladioli in Queensland. Sci Hortic
graceful spikes with fewer than 12 buds. Dwarf
17(3):277–288
quite hardy, plant 60 cm high. Newman SE, O’Connor AS (2009) Edible flowers. Colorado
State University Extension. Fact sheet no 7.237. http://
www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/garden/07237.pdf
Plasmeijer J, Yanai C (2009) Market news service:
Selected References Floriculture products issue no M06, of 03 July 2009.
International Trade Center. Bulletin MNS June 2009.
Akavia N, Strack D, Cohen A (1981) The coloration of http://www.intracen.org/uploadedFiles/intracenorg/
Gladiolus I. Survey of anthocyanins in petals of Content/Exporters/MNS/Monthly_Cut_Flowers_
Gladiolus. Z Naturforsch C 36(5–6):378–382 Sample.pdf
Ameh SJ, Obodozie OO, Olorunfemi PO, Okoliko IE, Roberts MJ (2000) Edible & medicinal flowers. New Africa
Ochekpe NA (2011) Potentials of Gladiolus corms as Publishers, Claremont, 160 pp
an antimicrobial agent in food processing and traditional Shibata M, Nozaka M (1963) Paper chromatographic
medicine. J Microbiol Antimicrob 3(1):8–12 survey of anthocyanins in Gladiolus -flowers I. Bot
Anderson NO, Frick J, Younis A, Currey C (2012) Mag Tokyo 76:317–323
Heritability of cold tolerance (winter hardiness) in Shillo R, Halevy AH (1976a) The effect of various
Gladiolus × grandiflorus. In: Abdurakhmonov IY (ed) environmental factors on flowering of gladiolus. I.
Plant breeding, InTech, chapter 13., pp 297–312 Light intensity. Sci Hortic 4(2):131–137
Anonymous (2006) Cut flowers and plants: European and Shillo R, Halevy AH (1976b) The effect of various
Asian markets. Market News Service, International environmental factors on flowering of gladiolus. II.
Trade Center (UNCTAD/WTO). Issue no M2 2006. Length of the day. Sci Hortic 4(2):139–146
Geneva, Switzerland, p 28 Shillo R, Halevy AH (1976c) The effect of various
Arisumi K, Kobayashi Y (1971) Studies on the flower environmental factors on flowering of gladiolus. III.
colours in Gladiolus II. Lab Hortic Fac Agric Temperature and moisture. Sci Hortic 4(2):147–155
Yamaguchi Univ 22:157–170 Shillo R, Halevy AH (1976d) The effect of various
Bailey LH (1949) Manual of cultivated plants most com- environmental factors on flowering of gladiolus. IV.
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Shillo R, Valis G, Halevy AH (1981) Promotion of flowering patterns in the flowers of Gladiolus cultivars. Acta
by photoperiodic lighting in winter-grown gladiolus Hortic (ISHS) 673:487–493
planted at high densities. Sci Hortic 14(4):367–375 Takemura T, Takatsu Y, Kasumi M, Marubashi W,
Singh AK (2006) Flower crops: cultivation and manage- Iwashina T (2008) Anthocyanins of Gladiolus culti-
ment. New India Publishing, Jaipur, 463 pp vars and their contribution to flower colors. J Jpn Soc
Takatsu Y, Kasumi M, Manabe T, Hayashi M, Morinaka Y, Hortic Sci 77(1):80–87
Sakuma F (2000) Detection of the pigments express- Wilson H (2013) Chelsea flower show: guide to edible
ing in petals of Gladiolus × grandiflora using a color flowers. http://food.uk.msn.com/food/edible-flowers-
reaction technique. Bull Plant Biotechnol Inst Ibaraki chelsea-flower-show?page=3#image=3
Agric Cent 3:51–58 (in Japanese) Yatomi T, Arisumi K (1968) Studies on the flower colours
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Iwashina T (2005) Flavonoids and their distribution 19:1183–1196
 Agastache foeniculum

Scientific Name Hyssop, Lavender Hyssop, Licorice-Mint,

Wonder Honey Plant
Agastache foeniculum (Pursh) Kuntze

Vernacular Names
Synonyms
Chinese: Huo Xiang
Agastache anethiodora (Nutt.) Britton & A.Br., Danish: Anis Isop, Indianermynte
Agastache foeniculum f. bernardii B. Boivin, Dutch: Anijsplant
Agastache foeniculum f. candicans B. Boivin, Estonian: Aniisi-Hiidiisop
Hyptis marathrosma (Spreng.) Benth., Hyssopus Finnish: Intianminttu, Minttuanis, Yrtti-Iiso
anethiodorus Nutt., Hyssopus anisatus Nutt., French: Agastache Fenouil, Anis Hysope, Hysope
Hyssopus discolor Desf., Hyssopus foeniculum Anysée, Duft-Nessel
(Pursh) Spreng., Lophanthus anisatus (Nutt.) German: Anis-Ysop
Benth., Lophanthus foeniculum (Pursh) E. Norwegian: Anisisop
Mey., Perilla marathrosma Spreng., Stachys Swedish: Anis-Isop, Indianmynta
foeniculum Pursh, Vleckia albescens Raf.,
Vleckia anethiodora (Nutt.) Greene, Vleckia
anisata (Nutt.) Raf., Vleckia bracteata Raf., Origin/Distribution
Vleckia bracteosa Raf., Vleckia discolor Raf.,
Vleckia foeniculum (Pursh) MacMill., Vleckia The species is indigenous from Southern Canada
incarnata Raf. (Alberta, Ontario) to the northern-central states
of the United States (Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Illinois, Iowa, Dakota, Colorado).
Family

Lamiaceae Agroecology

A cool temperate species, its natural habitats

Common/English Names include openings in dry to mesic open upland for-
ests, upland areas of prairies, scrubby barrens,
Anise Hyssop, Anise-Hyssop, Anise-Mint, Blue clearings and thickets. It prefers full or partial sun
Giant-Hyssop, Fennel Giant Hyssop, Fragrant and mesic to dry conditions and grows on loam,
Giant Hyssop, Giant Hyssop, Lavender Giant clay-loam or stony soils. Cultivated forms of

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 151
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_7, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
152 Lamiaceae

anise hyssop are often grown in flower gardens;

these cultivars are often hybrids and vary in their
fidelity to the wild forms of the plant.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

In Northern America, anise hyssop is culti-

vated as honey plant by beekeepers and in
house gardens for tea and as culinary season-
ing, in the same way used already earlier by the
Indian tribes (Morton 1976; Moerman 1998). It
has also been experimentally grown as essen-
tial oil plant in the former Soviet Union
(Moldova, Crimea) and in Southern Finland,
here also in house gardens as tea and spice
plant for cakes and sweets (Galambosi and
Galambosi-Szebeni 1992). Plate 1 Anise hyssop foliage
Leaves, seeds and flowers have a sweet anise
flavour and are eaten raw or cooked (Kunkel
1984; Moerman 1998; Facciola 1990). They are
used as a flavouring in raw or cooked dishes and
present a delicious addition to the salad bowl.
The seeds are used in cookies, cakes and muffins.
A pleasant tasting tea is made from the leaves
(Yanovsky 1936; Uphof 1968; Usher 1974;
Facciola 1990).

Botany

A perennial herb with creeping rhizome and

erect, glabrous, sparingly branched, 4-angled
stems, 50–100 (−150) cm tall. Leaves are oppo-
site, anise-scented, ovate to cordate, pointed
tips and crenate margin; upper surface conspic-
uously veined and dull green, lower surface is
whitish with minute appressed hairs (Plate 1).
Inflorescence an interrupted terminal, hairy
spike; calyx tubular, violet or bluish, hairy, with Plate 2 Terminal inflorescence with purple flowers (M
5 teeth; corolla tubular divided into a short Landry)
upper lip and a longer lower lip, violet, lower
lip with 2 small lateral lobes and wide central
lobe (Plate 2); stamens 4 with blue-violet Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
anthers, exserted, the upper pair curved down-
ward and crossing lower 2; style subequally Floral volatiles of A. foeniculum obtained by head-
2-cleft. Nutlets, 4, oblong, 2 mm long, brown, space analysis included 1R-pulegone, estragole
with hairy apex. (methyl chavicol), neral, myrcene, methyl eugenol,
Agastache foeniculum 153

linalool, limonene, geranial, δ-cadinene, camphene, components were limonene (2.4 %), 1,8-cineole
bornyl acetate, β-caryophyllene and α-pinene (2.0 %) and globulol (1.4 %). Agastache foenicu-
(Wilson et al. 1992). lum essential oil was found to contain 0.1–0.3 %
Flavonoid aglycones apigenin, apigenin-4′- essential oil, and the main components were
methyl ether, sculellarein-6,7-dimethyl ether methyl chavicol (74.6 %), α-limonene (8.5 %),
and luteolin (trace) and flavonoid glycosides β-caryophyllene (5.5 %) and germacrene B
kaempferol 3-glucoside (astragalin), kaempferol (3.3 %), totalling 92 % altogether (Nykänen et al.
3-rhamnoside and quercetin-3-glucoside (iso- 2007). In addition 35 components, each accounting
quercetin) were detected in the herb (Nikolova for less than 1 % of the total essential oil, were
and Dzhurmanski 2009). identified and bornyl acetate was not detected.
Over 50 compounds were detected in oils and Fard et al. (2012) found the essential oil of
headspace of 14 different clones of Agastache Agastache foeniculum to have mainly methyl
foeniculum (Mazza and Kiehn 1992). Only ten chavicol (94.70 %) and limonene (4.20 %). Other
constituents, however, accounted for more than components less than 1 % included octen-3-ol,
0.1 %, and methyl chavicol constituted 95–98 % linalool E-caryophyllene, carvacrol, cuminalde-
of the essential oil. The main components of the hyde, octen-3-yl-acetate and 3-octanone.
secretory mixture from the secretory hairs of Three types of essential oil, anethole, sweet
Agastache foeniculum Kuntze leaves were methyl menthol and menthol, were obtained from
chavicol (59.5 %) and (E)-anethole (19.6 %) Agastache foeniculum leaves and blossoms
(Tirillini et al. 1997). Fuentes-Granados et al. (Zhekova et al. 2010). The anethole type had the
(2000) elucidated genetic control of volatile oil least number of components and contained about
production in Agastache foeniculum, more spe- 86.9 and 90 % of methyl chavicol followed by
cifically of the production of its three major 5.6 and 3.1 % limonene in the leaves and inflores-
components: myrcene, limonene and methyl chav- cence, respectively, its aroma being typically
icol. Total aromatic volatile emittance was found anethole with some additional spicy notes. The
to be under polygenic control with additive gene other two types of oils had similar profiles of the
effects, and each of the three major components main components, with emerging menthofuran,
was controlled by one to a few genes with recessive pulegone and increasing limonene. The main dif-
to additive effects. The essential oil of Agastache ferences of the sweet menthol and the menthol
foeniculum cultivated in Iran afforded an oil con- oils were in the ratio of their components. With
tent of 1.87 % w/w based on dry weight 46 the menthol type, the smell was sharper and
components (Omidbaigi and Sefidkon 2003). fresh, with green, grassy notes, whereas with the
The essential oils obtained from hydrodistillation sweet menthol type it was warmer and flavoured
of aerial parts of Agastache foeniculum grown at with additional notes. In another study, Agastache
Bangalore (India) and harvested at two plant foeniculum essential oil was found to have mainly
growth stages, at the end of the vegetative stage estragole (methyl chavicol) 94.003 % and 1, 8
and at full bloom, were found to contain methyl cineole 3.334 % as the major components
chavicol (91.7 and 95.2 %) and limonene (3.6 (Ebadollahi 2011). Other minor components
and 3.9 %) as the major constituents (Mallavarapu included 1-octen-3-ol 0.461 %, 3-octanone
et al. 2004). The infection of A. anethiodora plant 0.407 %, octen-3-yl-acetate 0.386 %, α-copaene
by cucumber mosaic virus was found to induce 0.029 %, β-bourbonene 0.084 %, E-caryophyllene
significant reduction in the yield of essential oil 0.058 %, germacrene D 0.430 %, bicycloger-
and several changes in the relative composition macrene 0.020 %, spathulenol 0.039 % and
of the main components: pulegone, menthone, β-eudesmol 0.015 %, altogether totalling
iso-menthone, methyl chavicol and limonene 99.266 %.
(Bruni et al. 2006). Methyl chavicol content, in Twenty-six compounds were identified in the
particular, was drastically reduced. Methyl chavi- essential oils of 19 accessions of Agastache
col constituted 87.5 % of the oil; other major foeniculum (anise hyssop), A. rugosa (catnip
154 Lamiaceae

giant hyssop), A. nepetoides (Korean mint) and foeniculum herb was found also to have ferric
putative hybrids, with methyl chavicol being the reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of 1.15 mmol
major constituent (46.7–94.6 %) in 14 lines of A. Fe/100 g FW and total phenolic content of
foeniculum, A. rugosa and putative hybrids 7.19 mg GAE/g FW (Derakhshani et al. 2012).
(Charles et al. 1991). In contrast, δ-cadinol
was the major oil constituent (39.6 %) in A.
nepetoides. Additional oil constituents found Insecticidal Activity
in these species in concentrations above 1 %
include β-bourbonene, bornyl acetate, gamma- Fumigation bioassays revealed that A. foenicu-
cadinene, α-cadinol, δ-cadinene, α-camphene, lum essential oil had strong insecticidal activity
β-caryophyllene, damascenone, β-ionone, isom- on red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum and
enthone, α-limonene, linalool, methyl eugenol, lesser grain borer Rhyzopertha dominica
β-myrcene, cis-ocimene, 7-octen-4-ol, pulegone (Ebadollahi 2011). Rhyzopertha dominica was
and spathulenol. Methyl chavicol was found to be more susceptible than T. castaneum for all expo-
the major compound in most accessions from the sure times (24, 48 and 72 h). Probit analysis
USDA germplasm collection of anise hyssop showed that increased exposure time and essen-
(Agastache foeniculum), catnip giant hyssop tial oil concentration increased mortality.
(A. nepetoides) and Korean mint (A. rugosa) and
putative hybrids and accounted for >92 % of the
total essential oil in six lines and one putative Traditional Medicinal Uses
hybrid (Charles et al. 1992). Results indicated a
wide range in the relative concentrations of other The herb is employed for cardiac, pectoral and
compounds (α-limonene, menthone, methyl diaphoretic complaints, as poultice and for treat-
eugenol, bornyl acetate, spathulenol, cadinol and ing herpes simplex (Bown 1995; Foster and Duke
β-caryophyllene) and in essential oil content. In a 1998; Moerman 1998). An infusion of the leaves
commercial A. foeniculum accession, 88.1 % is used in the treatment of colds, fevers, chest
methyl chavicol, α-limonene 2.2 %, menthone pains and weak heart. A poultice of leaves and
nd, bornyl acetate <0.1 %, methyl eugenol 2.7 %, stems can be used to treat burns.
spathulenol nd, cadinol nd and β-caryophyllene
0.13 % were obtained.
Under all the experimental conditions exam- Other Uses
ined, Agastache foeniculum shoots cultured in
vitro produced high percentages of methyl Anise hyssop is grown as a culinary herb and
chavicol and trace amounts of trans-anethole ornaments and is also an excellent honey plant.
(Menghini et al. 1992). Addition of shikimic The flowers attract bees, butterflies and hum-
acid to the culture media increased the concen- mingbirds. The safety and uses of methyl chavicol
tration of chlorophyll (a and b) and some carot- (estragole), the main constituent in the essential
enoids and methyl chavicol compared to oil of Agastache, in the food industry as well as
untreated media. the herbal, flavouring and medicinal uses of
Agastache have been reviewed by Fuentes-
Granados et al. (1998).
Antioxidant Activity

Agastache foeniculum plant extract was found to Comments

have significant DPPH free radical scavenging
activity with an IC50 value of 57.86 μg/mL Anise hyssop can be propagated by division of
(Nikolova and Dzhurmanski 2009). Agastache the rhizomes or from seeds.
Agastache foeniculum 155

Kunkel G (1984) Plants for human consumption. An

Selected References annotated checklist of the edible phanerogams and
ferns. Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein
Bown D (1995) Encyclopaedia of herbs and their uses. Mallavarapu GR, Kulkarni RN, Baskaran K, Ramesh S
Dorling Kindersley, London, 424 pp (2004) The essential oil composition of anise hyssop
Bruni R, Bianchi A, Bellardi MG (2006) Essential oil grown in India. Flavour Fragr J 19(4):351–353
composition of Agastache anethiodora Britton Mazza G, Kiehn FA (1992) Essential oil of Agastache foe-
(Lamiaceae) infected by cucumber mosaic virus niculum, a potential source of methyl chavicol. J
(CMV). Flavour Fragr J 22(1):66–70 Essent Oil Res 4(3):295–299
Charles DJ, Simon JE, Widrlechner MP (1991) Menghini A, Capuccella M, Pagiotti R, Pocceschi N,
Characterization of essential oil of Agastache species. Spigarelli M (1992) Pigment content and methyl
J Agric Food Chem 39(11):1946–1949 chavicol production in Agastache foeniculum
Charles DJ, Simon JE, Glowacki C, Widrlechner MP Kuntze cultured in vitro. J Essent Oil Res 4(5):
(1992) Major essential oil constituents of Agastache 483–486
spp. Acta Hortic (ISHS) 306:327–330 Moerman DE (1998) Native American ethnobotany.
Derakhshani Z, Hassani A, Pirzad A, Abdollahi R, Dalkani Timber Press, Portland, 927 pp
M (2012) Evaluation of phenolic content and antioxi- Morton JF (1976) Herbs and spices. Golden Press, New
dant capacity in some medicinal herbs cultivated in York, 160 pp
Iran. Bot Serbica 36(2):117–122 Nikolova M, Dzhurmanski A (2009) Evaluation of free
Ebadollahi A (2011) Chemical constituents and toxicity radical scavenging capacity of extracts from culti-
of Agastache foeniculum (Pursh) Kuntze essential oil vated plants. Biotechnol Biotechnol Equip 23(2):
against two stored-product insect pests. Chil J Agric 09–111
Res 71(2):212–217 Nykänen I, Holm Y, Hiltunen R (2007) Composition of
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible the essential oil of Agastache foeniculum. Planta Med
plants. Kampong Publication, Vista, 677 pp 55(3):314–315
Fard FR, Omidbaigi R, Sharifi M, Sefidkon F, Behmanesh Omidbaigi R, Sefidkon F (2003) Essential oil composition
M (2012) Effect of methyl jasmonate on essential oil of Agastache foeniculum cultivated in Iran. J Essent
content and composition of Agastache foeniculum. J Oil Res 15(1):52–53
Med Plant Res 6(45):701–705 Tirillini BB, Menghini AA, Pellegrino RR (1997)
Foster S, Duke JA (1998) A field guide to medicinal plants Constituents of the leaf secretory hairs of Agastache
in Eastern and Central N. America. Houghton Mifflin, foeniculum Kuntze. J Essent Oil Res 9(1):19–21
Boston, 366 pp Uphof JCT (1968) Dictionary of economic plants, 2nd
Fuentes-Granados RG, Widrlechner MP, Wilson LA edn. (1st edn 1959). Cramer, Lehre, 591 pp
(1998) An overview of Agastache research. J Herb Usher G (1974) A dictionary of plants used by man.
Spice Med Plant 6(1):69–97 Constable, London, 619 pp
Fuentes-Granados RG, Widrlechner MP, Wilson LA Wilson LA, Senechal NP, Widrlechner MP (1992)
(2000) Inheritance studies of aromatic compounds in Headspace analysis of the volatile oils of Agastache. J
Agastache foeniculum (Pursh) Kuntze. J Essent Oil Agric Food Chem 40(8):1362–1366
Res 12(5):581–594 Yanovsky E (1936) Food plants of the North American
Galambosi B, Galambosi-Szebeni Z (1992) Studies on the Indians, Miscellaneous publication no 237. United
cultivation methods of Agastache foeniculum (Pursch) States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC
Kuntze in Finland. Acta Agron Acad Sci Hung Zhekova G, Dzhurmanski A, Dobreva A (2010) Gas-
41:107–115 chromatography and organoleptic analysis of the
Huxley AJ, Griffiths M, Levy M (eds) (1992) The new RHS essential oil of Agastache foeniculum (Pursh.) Kuntze.
dictionary of gardening, 4 vols. Macmillan, New York J Agric Sci Technol 2(23):102–104
 Lavandula angustifolia

Scientific Name Chinese: Xun Yi Cao

Croatian: Ljekovita Lavanda
Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Czech: Levandule, Levandule Lekařská, Levandule
Pravá
Danish: Hunlavendel, Lavendel
Synonyms Dutch: Echte Lavendel, Gewone Lavendel,
Lavendel, Lavendel Sort, Spijklavendel
No synonyms recorded Estonian: Tähklavendel
Esperanto: Lavendo
Finnish: Laventeli, Tupsupäälaventeli
Family French: Lavand, Lavande, Lavande À Feuilles
Étroites, Lavande Commune, Lavande Femelle,
Lamiaceae Lavande Vraie
Gaelic: An Lus Liath, Lus-Na-Tùise
Galician: Lavanda
Common/English Names German: Echter Lavendel, Gartenlavendel, Grosser
Speik, Lavendel, Lavendelernte, Spik-Lavendel
Common Lavender, English Lavender, Garden Greek: Lebánta, Levanta
Lavender, Lavender, Narrow-Leaved Lavender, Hebrew: Lavender
Old English Lavender, Spike Lavender, True Hungarian: Közönséges Levendula, Levendula,
Lavender Szagos Levendula
Icelandic: Lofnarblóm
Italian: Fior Di Spigo, Lavanda, Lavanda Vera,
Vernacular Names Spigo
Japanese: Rabenda, Ravunda
Albanian: Livande E Vertete Korean: Ra-Ban-Din, Ra-Ben-Deo, Rabandin,
Arabic: Khuzama, Lafand Rabendeo, Rabendo
Armenian: Hoosam, Husam Latvian: Lavandīna, Šaurlapu Lavanda
Azerbaijani: Lavanda Lithuanian: Tikroji Levanda
Brazil: Alfazema, Lavanda Maltese: Lavandra
Bulgarian: Lavandula Norwegian: Ekte Lavendel, Lavendel
Catalan: Aspic, Barballó, Barbayó, Barmaió, Persian: Asṭwḫwdws, Ostukhudus
Berbelló, Espic, Espich, Espígol, Espigolina, Polish: Lawenda Lekarska, Lawenda Wąskolistna
Espit, Lavanda Lawenda

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 156
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_8, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Lavandula angustifolia 157

Portuguese: Alfacema, Alfasema, Alfazema, sauces, jams, stews, vinegar and jellies.
Espigue, Lavanda Diminutive flowers add a mysterious scent to
Romanian: Levănţică custards, flans or sorbets or ice creams. Flowers
Russian: Lavanda, Lavanda Aptečnaja look beautiful and taste good too in a glass of
Slovencina: Levanduľa, Levanduľa Úzkolistá champagne, with chocolate cake. Dried buds,
Slovašcina: Lavenda, Lavendin, Prava Sivka, flowers and leaves are increasingly popular in
Sivka, Sivka Prava cookery. The flowers are also used as a culinary
Spanish: Alfazema, Alhucema, Aljucema, Espigol, herb, most often as part of the French herb blend
Espigola, Espilgolina, Espliego, Espliego called herbes de Provence. The fresh or dried
Común, Espligo, Lavanda, Lavanda Fina, flowers are used as a tea. The fresh flowers are
Lavandula, Tuma also crystallized. Lavender is fragrant and spicy
Swedish: Lavendel and the flowers can be used in both sweet and
Thai: Lawendeort savoury dishes; in the 2013 Chelsea Flower
Turkish: Lavânta, Lavânta Çiçeği Show, Irish chef Richard Corrigan combines
Ukrainian: Lavanda them with roast Elwy Valley lamb (Wilson 2013).
Lavender extract and/or essential oil are used
as flavouring for various foods and beverages
Origin/Distribution including alcoholic types, ice cream, candy,
chewing gum, baked goods and other confection-
L. angustifolia is native to western Mediterranean, ery products (Kim and Lee 2002; Chatzopolou
around the Pyrenees and adjacent mountains in et al. 2003; Da Porto et al. 2009).
northern Spain.

Botany
Agroecology
A small branched, strongly aromatic, semi-
Although a native of the Mediterranean, lavender woody, semievergreen perennial shrub, 0.5 (in
is winter hardy and will tolerate subfreezing tem- dwarf cultivars, Plate 1) to1.5 m high with grey-
peratures of −10 and −15 °C. Lavender will grow brown, angular branches and longitudinally
in almost any soil that is well drained, evenly flaking bark. Leaves are evergreen, grey green,
moist and not too acidic. However, it thrives best widely spaced on flowering shoots, clustered on
in neutral to alkaline soils in full sun with good leafy shoots, linear to linear-lanceolate, 3–5 cm
mulch. When grown in rich soils, it tends to pro- by 3–5 mm (Plate 2) on flowering shoots,
duce more leaves but less essential oil. When <17 × 2 mm on leafy shoots, grey stellate tomen-
growing for maximum essential oil content, the tose, tip obtuse, base attenuated to a very short
plant must be established in a warm sunny posi- petiole, margin entire and revolute. Lavender
tion and will do best in a light sandy soil, the fra- inflorescences are spiciform thyrses, i.e. inflo-
grance being especially pronounced in a chalky rescences, made of an indeterminate main axis
soil. Established plants are drought tolerant and (central flower stalk) and cymose subaxes that
tolerant of salt wind exposure. are organized as whorls of opposite pairs of
multiflowered cymes (Plate 3). Verticillasters
6–10 flowered with a remote verticillaster at the
Edible Plant Parts and Uses base of its unbranched central axis, and all
verticillasters are of equal size to the top of the
Flower petals, flowering tips and leaves are edi- inflorescence. Bracts dry, rhombic-ovate or acu-
ble fresh or dried (Hedrick 1972; Facciola 1990; minate-subulate; bracteoles indistinct. Pedicel
Bown 1995), used in small quantities as con- short. Calyx ovoid–tubular to subtubular, 4–5 mm,
diment for flavouring soups, salads, dressings, densely grey stellate tomentose outside; upper
158 Lamiaceae

Plate 4 Open flowers and buds

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
Plate 1 Profuse flowering English lavender (Hidcote)

Seven flavonoids were isolated from Lavandula

angustifolia and identified as apigenin, ladanein,
apigenin-7-O-β-D-(6′-p-hydoxy-cinnamoyloxy)-
mannoside, luteolin, apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucoside,
luteolin-7-O-β-D-glucoside and 5, 4′-dihydroxy
flavonoid-7-O-β-D-pyranglycuronate butyl ester
(Wu et al. 2007).
Yusufoglu et al. (2004) reported the essential
oils of Lavandula angustifolia flowers and leaves
to be colourless or light yellow liquids with
slightly bitter tastes; flower concretes and leaf
concretes to be dark green and dark yellow solids,
Plate 2 Linear-lanceolate, smooth margin leaves respectively; and absolutes prepared from the
concretes to be viscous liquids of green colour
from the flowers and yellow from the leaves. The
main components of the essential oil of the flow-
ers were 45.09 % linalool, 13.32 % camphor,
8.82 % terpinen-4-ol, 5.81 % 1,8-cineole, 5.22 %
borneol and 3.08 % linalyl acetate. In the essen-
tial oil of the leaves, however, 49.23 %
1,8-cineole, 34.67 % camphor, 4.60 % isobor-
neol, 2.13 % D-3-carene and 2.11 % sabinene
were the main components. Linalool and linalyl
acetate, existing in the flowers, were not detected
in the leaves. The flowers afforded a concrete
composition of 53.73 % linalool, 22.60 %
Plate 3 Harvested lavender inflorescences
camphor, 15.99 % 1,8-cineole, 2.98 % 4-methyl-
1-(methylethyl)-3-cyclohexen-1-ol and 2.56 %
lip entire, lower lip equally 4-toothed. Corolla isoborneol and an absolute composition of
blue or lilac, 8–10 mm, densely tomentose out- 50.00 % linalool, 24.10 % camphor, 10.27 %
side, base subglabrous, throat and limb glandu- 4-methyl-1-(methylethyl)-3-cyclohexen-1-ol,
lar hairy, upper lip straight, with lobes circular 9.48 % 1,8-cineole and 3.95 % isoborneol as the
and slightly overlapping; lower lip spreading main components. The concrete and absolute of
(Plate 4). Nutlets 4. the flowers were similar to each other. The lack of
Lavandula angustifolia 159

linalyl acetate, responsible for the characteristic the oil were linalool (30.6 %), linalyl acetate
odour, decreased the cosmetic value of these (14.2 %), geraniol (5.3 %), β-caryophyllene
extracts, but their medicinal and insecticidal uses (4.7 %) and lavandulyl acetate (4.4 %). The major
could become important due to the increased per- constituents (>1.0 %) of lavender inflorescence
centages of camphor and 1,8-cineole. essential oil cultivated in the mid-hills of
The main components of the concrete of the Uttarakhand, India, were linalyl acetate (47.56 %),
leaves were 48.49 % 2,4-dimethyl-7-ethyl-6,8- linalool (28.06 %), lavandulyl acetate (4.34 %),
dioxabicyclo-[3.2.1]-3-octene, 12.45 % triacon- α-terpineol (3.75 %), geranyl acetate (1.94 %),
tane, 9.44 % camphor, 9.01 % docosane and caryophyllene oxide (1.38 %) and 1,8-cineole
8.15 % 1,8-cineole and of the absolute 38.43 % (1.14 %) (Verma et al. 2010). Other minor compo-
1,8-cineole, 28.3 % camphor, 10.67 % γ-muurolene nents (<1.0 and > 0.10 %) identified in the oil
and 5.80 % γ-bisabolene. Common components were β-caryophyllene (0.93 %), borneol (0.85 %),
of the essential oil, concrete and absolute of the epi-α-cadinol (0.70 %), nerol (0.59 %), terpinen-
leaves were 1,8-cineole, camphor, isoborneol, 4-ol (0.56 %), β-myrcene (0.55 %), limonene
2,4-dimethyl-7-ethyl-6,8-dioxabicyclo-[3.2.1]-3- (0.55 %), 1-octen-3-ol (0.53 %), p-menthyl-8-
octene and triacontane. The increase of the con- acetate (0.42 %), 1-octen-3-yl acetate (0.35 %),
tents of γ-muurolene and γ-bisabolene could (E)-linalool oxide (furanoid) (0.24 %), camphene
make the absolute useful in the pharmaceutical (0.23 %), (Z)-linalool oxide (furanoid) (0.22 %),
industry. Basch et al. (2004) reported that lavender geraniol (0.21 %), lavandulol (0.25 %), (E)-
essential oil contained both limonene and perillyl isoeugenol (0.17 %), myrtenol (0.13 %), thymol
alcohol. acetate (0.13 %), γ-cadinene (0.12 %), elemol
Thirty-four components amounting to 98.91 % (0.12 %), camphor (0.11 %) and β-cadinene
of the oil were identified in the flower essential oil (0.11 %). Components (<0.1 %) included tricy-
of Lavandula angustifolia in Iraq (Hamad et al. clene (0.03 %), α-pinene (0.09 %), (E)-β-ocimene
2013), the major component being linalool (0.08 %) and p-cymenol (0.06 %).
(24.63 %). The other significant constituents were Linalyl acetate (35.44 %) and linalool
camphor (13.58 %), linalyl acetate (8.89 %), (18.70 %) were predominant components of
(Z)-β-ocimene (7.59 %), 1,8-cineole (7.14 %), Lavandula angustifolia Hidcote lavender (aerial
borneol (6.41 %), (E)-β-ocimene (4.76 %), hotri- parts) samples grown in Korea and obtained by
enol (4.42 %), hexyl butyrate (2.96 %), α-bisabolol solid-phase trapping solvent extraction (SPTE),
(1.13 %) and caryophyllene oxide (1.02 %). Other whereas those levels were 2.63–4.04 and 36.80–
minor components were n-hexanol (0.45 %), 43.47 % in the same samples by reduced pressure
3-nonyne (0.11), 2,7-dimethyl oxepin (0.52 %), steam distillation (RPSD) and simultaneous
camphene (0.36 %), 3-octanone (0.37 %), myr- steam distillation–solvent extraction (SDE),
cene (0.74 %), cis-linalool oxide (0.95 %), hexyl respectively (Kim and Lee 2002). A total of 33
acetate (0.96 %), γ-valerolactone (0.72 %), fragrance compounds were identified by SPTE:
3-octyl acetate (0.28 %), nerol oxide (0.74 %), ethyl benzene (0.34 %), m-xylene or p-xylene
trans-linalool oxide (0.57 %), isobornyl formate (0.85 %), o-xylene (0.4 %), thujene (0.36 %),
(0.59 %), hexyl-2-methyl butyrate (0.61 %), α-pinene (0.97 %), camphene (1.57 %), β-pinene
2-cyclohexene-1-one-2-methyl-5-(1-methyl eth- (0.63 %), β-myrcene (0.91 %), p-cymene
ane) (0.11 %), lavandulyl acetate (0.27 %), hexyl (0.11 %), limonene (1.23 %), cineol (5.94 %),
tiglate (0.69 %), 8-acetoxy linalool (0.18 %), linalyl oxide (0.21 %), linalool (18.70 %),
geranyl acetate (0.32 %), trans-verbenol acetate octen-1-ol, acetate (0.45 %), camphor (0.45 %),
(0.58 %), lavandulyl isovalerate (0.13 %) and lavandulol (0.25 %), borneol (1.88 %), α-terpinen-
α-bisabolol oxide B (0.13 %). Seventy-eight com- 4-ol (4.63 %), p-cymen-8-ol (0.53 %), linalyl
pounds were identified in the flower essential oil acetate (35.44 %), bornyl acetate (5.88 %),
of Lavandula angustifolia, cultivated in Poland geranyl acetate (0.27 %), caryophyllene (0.39 %),
(Smigielski et al. 2009). The major constituents of farnesene isomers (2.60 %), calamenene (1.21 %),
160 Lamiaceae

caryophyllene oxide (1.80 %) and bis(2-ethyl- acetate (15.72, 20.35, 29.14 %) were the predomi-
hexyl)phthalate (3.0 %). Using headspace solvent nant constituents for lavender and lavandin
microextraction combined with continuous hydro- hybrids ‘super’ and ‘special’, respectively. Other
distillation (HD-HSME), 36 compounds were notable differences in constituent percentages
extracted and identified in the essential oil com- among lavender, lavandin ‘super’ and ‘special’
ponents of Lavandula angustifolia (Fakhari et al. hybrid essential oils were, respectively, 1,8-cineole
2005). Linalool (32.8 %), linalyl acetate (17.6 %), (0.66, 15.85, 5.39 %), camphor (0.06, 11.35,
lavandulyl acetate (15.9 %), α-terpineol (6.7 %) 5.03 %), terpinene-4-ol (7.84, 6.67, 0.08 %),
and geranyl acetate (5.0 %) were found to be the α-terpineol (1.52, 3.81, 2.91 %), cis-ocimene
major constituents. Other constituents were (4.25, 2.67, 1.35 %), trans-ocimene (2.73 %,
lavandulol 4.3 %, borneol 3.8 %, cumin aldehyde 1.90, 2.08 %), lavandulyl acetate (2.73, 0.37,
2.5 %, neryl acetate 2.4 %, camphor 1.9 %, trans- 2.20 %) and β-caryophyllene (2.04,0.91,0.55 %).
caryophyllene 1.5 %, nerol 1 %, α-phellandrene The following minor compounds (<2 %) were
0.9 %, 1,8-cineole 0.8 %, cis- linalool oxide found in lavender essential oil: α-thujene, α-pinene,
0.7 %, trans-β-farnesene 0.5 %, 1-octen-3-ol camphene, sabinene, 1-octen-3-ol, β-pinene,
0.4 %, 3-octanone 0.3 %, α-terpinene 0.3 %, 3-octanone, β-myrcene, 3-octanol, α-phellandrene,
β-pinene 0.2 %, hexyl acetate 0.1 %, camphene Δ3-carene, p-cymene, limonene, γ-terpinene,
0.1 %, tricyclene tr (trace), α-pinene tr, γ-terpine octeny-3-yl-acetate, allo-ocimene, borneol, lavan-
tr, cis-ocimene tr, α-terpinolene tr, trans-linalool dulol, cryptone, nerol, cumin aldehyde, carvone,
oxide tr, p-cymene tr, bornyl acetate tr, verbenone cumin alcohol, neryl acetate, geranyl acetate,
tr, cryptone tr, myrcene tr, chrysanthenone tr and α-santalene, trans-β-bergamotene, α-humulene,
terpin-4-ol tr. L. angustifolia essential oil was β-farnesene, germacrene D, caryophyllene oxide
found to be rich in linalool (49.2 %), linalyl ace- and τ-cadinol. Changes in biosynthesis of terpene
tate (12.3 %), lavandulyl acetate (6.5 %) and were found to occur during inflorescence develop-
4-terpineol (5.9 %) (Behnam et al. 2006). ment of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and its
Lavandin cultivars (Lavandula × intermedia) natural hybrid lavandin (L. × intermedia) involv-
produced significantly higher oil yield (7.1–9.9 % ing two terpene synthase (TPS) genes, LaLIMS
dry inflorescences) compared to six lavender and LaLINS (Guitton et al. 2010). Camphor,
(L. angustifolia) cultivars (2.8–5.0 % dry inflores- 1,8-cineol, borneol and linalool were characteris-
cences), with cultivars ‘Grosso’, ‘Abriallii’ and tics of L. × intermedia and trans-β-ocimene, cis-
‘Super’ yielding the highest (9.9, 9.0 and 8.7 %, β-ocimene, lavandulyl acetate, lavandulol, linalyl
respectively) (Renaud et al. 2001). Lavender acetate and the sesquiterpenes germacrene D,
‘Grey Lady’ produced the highest oil yield trans-β-farnesene and β-caryophyllene being
(5.0 %) and ‘Lady’ the least (2.8 %). All lavan- characteristics of L. angustifolia. Cis-β-ocimene
dins produced acceptable flowers for the dried was, in fact, only detected in L. angustifolia.
market except ‘Provence’ whose flower colour Calyces were found to be the main sites of volatile
was pale purple. Lavender flowers from ‘Hidcote’, organic compound (VOC) accumulation. Changes
‘Munstead’ and ‘English’ were acceptable for the in calyx VOC accumulation were linked to the
dried floral market. By year 2, lavender cultivars developmental stage of individual flowers. The 20
reached full bloom and could be harvested for oil most abundant VOCs could be separated into
prior to the lavandins. Lavandin ‘Grosso’ oil pos- three subgroups according to their patterns of
sessed the highest camphor (8.1 as relative % of concentration changes. The three groups of
total oil). The essential oil yields were determined VOCs sequentially dominated the global scent
to be 4.4, 7.5 and 8.5 % in Lavandula angustifolia bouquet of inflorescences, the transition
and lavandin ‘super’ and ‘special’ hybrids, respec- between the first and second groups occurring
tively (Chatzopolou et al. 2003). Fifty-nine con- around the opening of the first flower of the
stituents were identified representing 99 % of the inflorescence and the one between the second and
oils. Linalool (50.63, 23.01, 37.69 %) and linalyl third groups at the start of seed set. Group 1
Lavandula angustifolia 161

included monoterpenes: δ-3-carene, limonene, were identified in China (Lu et al. 2010).
myrcene, bornyl acetate, borneol, camphor, Lavender essential oil consisted 1,5-dimethyl-1-
1,8-cineol and trans-ocimene. Group 2 included vinyl-4-hexenyl butyrate as the most abundant
monoterpene acetates and sesquiterpenes: linalyl component (43.73 %), followed by 1,3,7-octatriene,
acetate, lavandulyl acetate, germacrene D, 3,7-dimethyl- (25.10 %), eucalyptol (7.32 %),
β-caryophyllene and trans-β-farnesene. Group 3 caryophyllene (4.38 %) and camphor (3.79 %).
included monoterpenes: linalool and terpinen- Other constituents included α-phellandrene
4-ol. Camphene, camphor, α-pinene and β-pinene (0.09 %), 1S-α-pinene (0.3 %), camphene
were seen in too few samples to be included in the (0.27 %), 1-octen-3-ol (0.17 %), 4-methylene-
analysis. Leaves accumulated a smaller number 1-(1-methylethyl)- bicyclo[3.1.0]hexane (0.15 %),
of VOCs which were a subset of those seen in β-pinene (0.43 %), 4-methyl- 1-(1-methylethyl)-
preflowering inflorescences. bicyclo[3.1.0]hex-2-ene (0.39 %), acid hexyl
Comparative analysis of L. angustifolia culti- ester (0.25 %), 3-carene (0.16 %), 1-methyl-4-(1-
vated in Friuli-Venezia Giulia (north-east Italy) methylethyl)-benzene (0.04 %), 1-methyl-2-(1-
using headspace solid-phase microextraction methylethyl)-benzene (0.19 %), D-limonene
(HS-SPME) coupled to gas spectrometry and (0.55 %), 3,7-dimethyl- 1,3,7-octatriene (0.99 %),
mass spectrometry highlighted that the contents 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)- 1,4-cyclohexadiene
of linalool and linalyl acetate were the major (0.05 %), trans-linalool oxide (0.30 %), cis-β-
differences between the volatile composition of terpineol (0.13 %), 1S-α-pinene (0.34 %), octen-
flowers and the hydrodistilled products (Da Porto 1-ol acetate (0.62 %), butanoic acid, hexyl ester
and Decorti 2008). Lavender essential oil from (0.12 %), (R)-5-methyl-2-(1-methylethenyl)-
middle Friuli-Venezia Giulia was evaluated as 4-hexen-1-ol, (0.22 %), borneol (1.54 %),
the highest quality for its high level of linalyl 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)- 3-cyclohexen-1-ol
acetate (31.7 %) and linalool (45.0 %) and low (1.56 %), butanoic acid, octyl ester (0.48 %),
percentage of camphor (0.5 %). The use of head- p-menth-1-en-8-ol (0.98 %), bornyl acetate
space SPME was shown to be a convenient and (0.17 %), 2,6-octadien-1-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-, ace-
effective analytical tool for the sampling of vola- tate (1.42 %), 4-hexen-1-ol, 5-methyl-2-(1-meth-
tile compounds and could be employed to test ylethenyl)-, acetate (0.27 %), 5-amino-1-ethyl-1H-
the quality of flowers and essential oils from benzimidazole (0.07 %), 4-hexen-1-ol, 5-methyl-
Lavandula species. Comparison of the total 2-(1-methylethenyl)-, acetate (0.40 %), 1,3,6,10-
essential oil yield quantified by hydrodistillation dodecatetraene, 3,7,11-trimethyl-, (Z,E)- (0.06 %),
of the lavender infusion (0.7 % v/w, correspond- isocaryophyllene (0.05 %), α-caryophyllene
ing to plant material) with the essential oil yield (0.11 %), di-epi-α-cedrene (0.20 %), 1,6,10-
of the blossoms (5.1 % v/w) revealed that only dodecatriene, 7,11-dimethyl-3-methylene-, (Z)-
13.9 % of the initial oil could be extracted by (0.58 %), 1,6-cyclodecadiene, 1-methyl-5-
infusion (Tschiggerl and Bucar 2010). The main methylene-8-(1-methylethyl)-, [s-(E,E)]- (0.68 %),
constituents of the volatile fraction of lavender 1,6,10-dodecatriene, 7,11-dimethyl −3-methy-
infusion (hydrodistillation/solid-phase extraction lene-, (E)- (0.07 %), spiro[5.5]undec-2-ene,
(SPE)) were linalool (39.3/28.2 %), 1,8 cineole 3,7,7-trime thyl-11-methylene-, (−)- (0.07 %),
(24.8/18.9 %), cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) 2,6-octadien-1-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-, acetate (E)-
(5.8/8.0 %), trans-linalool oxide (furanoid) (0.20 %), 2-isopropyl-5-methyl-9-methylene-
(4.1/7.1 %), camphor (5.3/4.0 %) and α-terpineol bicyclo[4.4.0]dec-1-ene (0.20 %), 1-methylene-2-
(4.0/3.0 %). The major constituents of lavender vinylcyclopentane (0.05 %), caryophyllene oxide
essential oil were linalool (28.8), 1,8-cineole (0.61 %) and copaene (0.17 %). Linalool (27.2 %)
(18.05 %), linalyl acetate (13.9 %) and α-terpineol and linalyl acetate (27.5 %) were the most abun-
(4.0 %). dant components in Lavandula angustifolia
A total of 47 compounds representing 98.4– essential oil (yield is 3 % (v/w) (Soković et al.
99.7 % of lavender (aerial parts) essential oil 2010). Other components included tricyclene
162 Lamiaceae

0.1 %, α-thujene 0.6 %, α-pinene 0.2 %, 0.53–0.9 %, 1-octen-3-ol 0.1–0.56 %, 6-methyl-

α-terpinene 0.3 %, limonene 8.5 %, 1,8-cineole 5-hepten-2-one 0.06–0.49 %, hexyl acetate 0.44–
3.3 %, cis-linalool oxide 2.4 %, fenchone 0.6 %, 1.21 %, α-phellandrene tr-0.08, p-cymene
endo-fenchol 0.1 %, camphor 1.1 %, borneol 0.10–0.27 %, 1,8-cineole 0.31–4.23 %, limonene
2.5 %, terpin-4-ol 2.1 %, α-terpineol 4.2 %, bor- 0.25–1.96 %, cis-β-ocimene 1.70–7.09 %, trans-
nyl acetate 0.1 %, lavandulyl acetate 6.6 %, β-ocimene 0.55–4.18 %, γ-terpinene tr -0.24 %,
trans-pinocarveol 0.2 %, neryl acetate 2 % and cis-linalool oxide tr -0.15 %, trans-linalool oxide
geranyl acetate 3 % totalling 92.7 %. 0.05–0.18 %, α-terpinolene 0.11–0.22 %, linalool
The main compounds in all lavender volatile 28.92–40.58 %, chrysanthenone 0.07–0.1 %,
oils (Lavandula angustifolia ssp. angustifolia, octene-3-yl-acetate 0.79–2.27 %, 5-caranol
L. hybrida, L. angustifolia spp. pyrenaica, tr-0.33 %, camphor 0.09–0.38 %, borneol 0.5–
L. angustifolia spp. angustifolia cv. Munstead and 2.06 %, lavandulol tr-0.12 %, 1-terpinen-4-ol
cv. Hidcote blue) from Galati, Romania, were 0.08–7.35 %, p-cymene-1-ol-8 0.21–0.79 %,
linalool (20.60–35.99 %), linalyl acetate (12.58– α-terpineol 1.24–1.76 %, hexyl butyrate 0.24–
19.65 %), lavandulyl acetate (3.74–10.48 %), 0.36 %, geraniol 0.07–0.28 %, bornyl acetate
t-p3-ocimene (1.26–9.23 %), α-terpineol (3.67– tr-0.33 %, lavandulyl acetate 2.45–4.43 %, neryl
6.73 %), nerol (0.81–3.32 %), neryl acetate acetate 0.26–0.42 %, geranyl acetate 0.40–
(0.95–3.64 %) and β-caryophyllene (0.93– 0.78 %, β-caryophyllene 1.73–5.19 %, α-santalene
2.43 %) (Robu et al. 2011). The essential oil yield 0.09–0.17 %, β-farnesene 1–4.69 %, germacrene
from the flowering spikes of L. angustifolia from D 0.08–1.05 %, γ-cadinene tr-0.15 %, caryophyl-
India was 1.56 %, comprising 31 components lene oxide 0.17–0.45 % and α-cadinol tr-0.26 %
which amounted to 91.7 % (Raina and Negi (Milina et al. 2012). Volatile components found
2012). The major components were linalool in headspace gas chromatography of fresh flow-
(23.6 %), linalyl acetate (35.8 %), α-terpinolene ers from several Bulgarian lavender varieties
(6.3 %), lavandulyl acetate (4.8 %), 1,8-cineole included linalool 12.32–35.29 % and linalyl
(1.5 %), terpinen-4-ol (2.0 %), β-caryophyllene acetate 16.85–23 % as major components and
(1.8 %), camphor (1.4 %) and borneol (1.4 %). cis-β-ocimene 5.06–18.40 %, trans-β-ocimene
The essential oil was rich in oxygenated mono- 1.94–13.03 % and 3-octanone 1.46–7.52 %.
terpenes (82.6 %). Lavender essential oil yield Other components were origanene, α-pinene,
reached 6.64 % after 150 min distillation time camphene,β-pinene,myrcene,1-octen-3-ol,6-methyl-
(DT; at 180 min DT, yield was maximum 6.83 %, 5-hepten-2-one, hexyl acetate, α-phellandrene,
and its various major components cineole 6.61 %, p-cymene, 1,8-cineole, limonene γ-terpinene, cis-
fenchol 1.76 %, camphor 7.37 % and linalool linalool oxide, trans-linalool oxide, α-terpinolene,
acetate 37.5 %) (Zheljazkov et al. 2013). The chrysanthenone, octene-3-yl-acetate, 5-caranol,
primary components of the essential oils of camphor, borneol, lavandulol, 1-terpinen-4-ol,
L. angustifolia varieties ‘Munstead’, ‘Munstead p-cymene-1-ol-8, α-terpineol, hexyl butyrate,
Strain’, ‘Lavender Lady’, ‘Ellagance Purple’ and geraniol, bornyl acetate, neryl acetate, geranyl
‘Blue River’ were linalool (23.9–15.8 %), linalyl acetate, β-caryophyllene, α-santalene, β-farnesene,
anthranilate (12.3–1.6 %), 1-terpinen-4-ol (9.7– germacrene D, γ-cadinene, caryophyllene oxide
5.5 %), p-menth-1-en-8-ol (7.9–4.0 %) and lin- and α-cadinol (Milina et al. 2012).
alool oxide (4.7–1.1 %) (Adaszyńska et al. 2013). Of three extraction methods for lavender,
The essential oil composition of seven hydrodistillation, supercritical CO2 extraction
Bulgarian lavender varieties comprised linalool (SFE) and ultrasound-assisted extraction, the
28.92–40.58 % and linalyl acetate 19.91–37.63% best extracts, in terms of the amount of isolated
as major components; other constituents included compounds, flavour quality and stability were
origanene tr (trace) -0.23 %, α-pinene 0.12– those obtained with SFE (Da Porto et al. 2009).
071 %, camphene 0.21–0.5 %, β-pinene 0.2– Sonication performed at low amplitude for 5 min
0.53 %, 3-octanone 0.50–2.98 %, myrcene offered respect to high amplitude a promising
Lavandula angustifolia 163

alternative to hydrodistillation as a source of enzyme-independent lipid peroxidation tests.

lavender flavouring. Sixty compounds were Lavender essential oil displayed strong antioxi-
identified and quantified including a true quanti- dant activity against lipid peroxidation in a lin-
fication of 1–8 cineol, camphor, linalool, linalyl oleic acid model system (Lu et al. 2010). The
acetate and β-caryophyllene. percentage of inhibition of peroxidation in lin-
For both L. angustifolia and L. × intermedia oleic acid system of test samples (essential oil)
‘Budrovka’, leaf extracts (5.32, 3.80 %) were the reached to 87.9 %, when 4 mg/mL of essential oil
richest sources of phenolic acids, followed by were added. Operating conditions of supercritical
flowers (5.00, 3.42 %) and inflorescence stalk CO2 extraction, namely, pressure and time, had a
(2.41, 1.62 %), respectively (Blazeković et al. significant linear effect on both yield and antioxi-
2010). There were no significant differences in dant activity of lavender essential oil extracts
flavonoid contents among the extracts of tested by the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
L. angustifolia and L. × intermedia ‘Budrovka’, (DPPH) assay, while temperature had a lesser
leaf extracts (0.25, 0.26 %), flower (0.09, 0.10 %) impact except for the effect of its interaction with
inflorescence stalk (0.19, 0.22 %), respectively, pressure on extract yield (Danh et al. 2012).
and also in flower anthocyanin—0.03 % for Generally, the yield and antioxidant activity of
L. angustifolia and 0.02 % for L. × intermedia the extracts increased with pressure and time.
‘Budrovka’. Total tannins in L. × intermedia However, antioxidant activity of extracts exam-
‘Budrovka’ extracts differed significantly decreas- ined by the 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-
ing in the order as follows: leaf (2.21 %), flower 6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) assay was not affected
(2.02 %) and inflorescence stalk (1.01 %). by any operating conditions. Studies suggested
L. angustifolia extracts contained significantly the use of lavender oil as effective natural
higher amount of tannins, 3.18, 2.77 and 1.38 %, antioxidants (Hamad et al. 2013). Values of per-
respectively, following the same order of plant centage inhibition of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydra-
parts. The content of procyanidin group of tan- zyl-hydrate (DPPH) free radical ranged from
nins varied between 0.86 and 1.44 % for all 3.28 to 88.91 % for 7.81 μg/mL and 1,000 μg/
Lavandula extracts. Total polyphenol content of mL, respectively, with an IC50 value of 216 μg/
L. × intermedia ‘Budrovka’ ethanolic extracts mL for lavender essential oil.
was highest in leaf (7.05 %), followed by flower L. angustifolia and L. × intermedia ‘Budrovka’
(6.65 %) and inflorescence stalk (3.09 %) extracts exhibited potent antiradical activity in a
extracts. However, similar extracts obtained from concentration-dependent manner (Blazeković
L. angustifolia contained significantly greater et al. 2010). The effectiveness of L. × intermedia
quantity of total polyphenols, 9.20, 8.46 and ‘Budrovka’ and L. angustifolia extracts decreased
4.54 %, respectively. in the following sequence: leaf > flower > inflo-
Fatty acids, cis- and trans-p-coumaric acids rescence stalk. At higher concentrations (40–
(= p-hydroxy cinnamic acids) and β-sitosterol 160 μg/mL) most of the tested extracts were more
were isolated from cell suspension cultures of effective in DPPH radical scavenging than the
Lavandula angustifolia (Topçu et al. 2007). widely used synthetic antioxidant BHT, while at
lower concentrations (≤10 μg/mL) BHT was
considerably more potent. IC50 values for L. ×
Antioxidant Activity intermedia ‘Budrovka’ extracts ranged from
15.06 to 45.25 μg/mL, while those obtained for
Lavandula angustifolia extract elicited consider- extracts of L. angustifolia were significantly
able concentration-dependent inhibition of lipid lower (IC50 10.62–33.95 μg/mL), reflecting their
peroxidation (Hohmann et al. 1999). Phenolic better free radical scavenging activity. Rosmarinic
components present in the plant extracts were acid, an important constituent of both Lavandula
evaluated for antioxidant activity and were extracts, was found to be a very strong DPPH
found effective in both enzyme-dependent and radical scavenger with IC50 value of 1.51 μg/mL,
164 Lamiaceae

being even four times more effective than positive less potent then fisetin and rosmarinic acid. Leaf
control BHT (IC50 6.45 μg/mL). extracts of L. angustifolia and L. × intermedia
All L. angustifolia and L. × intermedia ‘Budrovka’ displayed stronger activity than
‘Budrovka’ extracts exhibited significant and extracts from other plant parts and proved to be
concentration-dependent iron chelating activity able to prevent lipid peroxidation in significantly
(Blazeković et al. 2010). The inflorescence stalk lower concentrations (IC50 54.57 and 74.56 μg/
extracts of both Lavandula plants were found to mL, respectively). Total antioxidant capacity
be significantly more active than related flower (mg AAE/g) of L. × intermedia ‘Budrovka’ plant
and leaf extracts. The effectiveness of plant parts (flower 294 mg, inflorescence stalk
extracts as iron ion chelators was in the following 240.75 mg, leaf 290.75 mg) was higher than
descending order: L. angustifolia inflorescence L. angustifolia corresponding plant parts (flower
stalk > L. × intermedia ‘Budrovka’ inflorescence 261.50 mg, inflorescence stalk 238.08 mg, leaf
stalk > L. angustifolia leaf > L. angustifolia 274.18 mg). Total antioxidant capacity (mg
flower > L. × intermedia ‘Budrovka’ leaf > L. × AAE/g) of rosmarinic acid was 1,064.47 mg
intermedia ‘Budrovka’ flower, with IC50 values compared to BHT 414.74 mg.
ranging between 236.92 and 397.71 μg/mL. Studies showed that lavender (L. angustifo-
However, the chelating ability of all tested lia) total flavonoids could effectively scavenge
extracts was much lower compared to reference superoxide anion with EC50 value of 60 μg/mL,
EDTA, one of the most powerful metal chelators hydroxyl radical with EC50 of 182 μg/mL and
known (IC50 13.37 μg/mL). Contrary to the plant DPPH radical with EC50 of 189 μg/mL (Yang
extracts, neither rosmarinic acid nor BHT exhib- and Gao 2010). Spiridon et al. (2011) found that
ited any iron chelating activity at the concentra- Origanum vulgare and Melissa officinalis
tions studied. All L. angustifolia and L. × extracts were more effective than Lavandula
intermedia ‘Budrovka’ extracts possessed the angustifolia in scavenging DPPH radicals.
ability to reduce Fe3+ ions. The reducing power Major phenolic acids identified in the analyzed
of the Lavandula extracts increased in a species were ferulic, rosmarinic, p-coumaric
concentration-dependent manner. For the L. × and caffeic, while predominant flavonoids were
intermedia ‘Budrovka’, the leaf extract showed quercetin, apigenin and kaempferol, which were
the strongest reducing ability with IC50 28.73 μg/ present as glucosides.
mL, followed by the flower extract (IC50 33.78 μg/
mL) and inflorescence stalk extract (IC50
66.92 μg/mL), but all extracts were significantly Neuroprotective Activity
less active than related L. angustifolia extracts:
leaf IC50 (24.26 μg/mL), flower (IC50 25.17) and In comparison with the model group, treatment
inflorescence stalk IC50 (55.22 μg/mL). The with lavender oil significantly decreased neu-
reducing power of rosmarinic acid (IC50 1.26 μg/ rological deficit scores, infarct size, and the
mL) was considerably more pronounced relative levels of malondialdehyde, carbonyl and reac-
to that of BHT (IC50 4.64 μg/mL), suggesting its tive oxygen species; attenuated neuronal dam-
strong influence on the reductive properties of age; up-regulated superoxide dismutase (SOD),
Lavandula extracts. All tested Lavandula extracts catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase
inhibited lipid peroxidation in a concentration- (GSH-Px) activities; and reduced glutathione
dependent manner. At a concentration of 100 μg/ (GSH)/glutathione disulphide (GSSG) ratio in
mL, the flower, inflorescence stalk and leaf mice with cerebral ischaemia/reperfusion
extracts of L. × intermedia ‘Budrovka’ effected injury (Wang et al. 2012). The results sug-
49.30, 36.14 and 69.21 % inhibition of lipid gested that the neuroprotective effects of
peroxidation activity, while the extracts from lavender oil against cerebral ischaemia/reper-
L. angustifolia effected 56.17, 37.20 and 70.75 %, fusion injury may be attributed to its antioxi-
respectively. Generally, Lavandula extracts were dant effects.
Lavandula angustifolia 165

In scopolamine-treated rats, lavender essential almost ineffective. Lavender oil (2 % concentra-

oils (Lavandula angustifolia ssp. angustifolia tion) killed 100 % of the C. albicans cells within
and Lavandula hybrid) showed potent antioxi- 15 min, while linalool (0.05 % concentration)
dant and anti-apoptotic activities (Hancianu et al. killed 100 % of the cells within 30 s. The essen-
2013). Subacute exposures (daily, for seven con- tial oil inhibited germ tube formation (mean MIC
tinuous days) to lavender oils significantly of 0.09 %), as did the main components (MIC of
increased antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, 0.11 % for linalool and 0.08 % for linalyl ace-
GPX and CAT) and total content of reduced GSH tate). Both the essential oil and its main compo-
and reduced lipid peroxidation (MDA level) in nents inhibited hyphal elongation of C. albicans.
rat temporal lobe homogenates, suggesting anti- L. angustifolia essential oil showed stronger fun-
oxidant potential. Also, DNA cleavage patterns gistatic activity in vitro than Mentha piperita
were absent in the lavender groups, suggesting essential oil (Behnam et al. 2006). Lavandula oil
anti-apoptotic activity. The results suggested that exhibited complete growth inhibition of patho-
antioxidant and anti-apoptotic activities of the genic fungi (Rhizopus stolonifer, Botrytis cinerea
lavender essential oils were the major mecha- and Aspergillus niger) at 1,000 ppm with a
nisms for their potent neuroprotective effects minimum EC50 (311.24 ppm) against B. cinerea.
against scopolamine-induced oxidative stress in When lavender oil was assayed in 1:1 ratios
the rat brain. with 45 other oils, synergistic (26.7 %), additive
(48.9 %), noninteractive (23.7 %) and antagonis-
tic (0.7 %) interactions in antimicrobial activity
Antimicrobial Activity were observed (de Rapper et al. 2013). The most
favourable interactions were when L. angustifo-
Essential oils from Lavandula angustifolia and lia was combined with Cinnamomum zeylanicum
three hybrids of Lavandula latifolia × Lavandula or with Citrus sinensis, against Candida albicans
angustifolia (Lavandin ‘Super’, Lavandin ‘Abrialis’ and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively. In 1:1
and Lavandin ‘Grosso’) inhibited growth of ratios, 75.6 % of the essential oils investigated
selected food-borne pathogens: Salmonella showed either synergistic or additive results,
enteritidis, Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia lending in vitro credibility to the use of essential
coli O157:H7, Yersinia enterocolitica, Shigella oil blends in aromatherapeutic practices.
flexneri, Listeria monocytogenes serovar 4b and Methanol flower extract of L. angustifolia had an
Staphylococcus aureus in vitro (Rota et al. 2004). MIC of 100 μg/mL against the Gram-negative
In vitro study found that lavender oil inhibited bacterium Helicobacter pylori, the primary aetio-
growth of Trichophyton rubrum strains, as did its logical factor associated with the development of
component linalool (Cassella et al. 2001). gastritis and peptic ulcer disease and also associ-
Lavandula angustifolia essential oil exhibited ated with chronic gastritis, gastric carcinoma and
both fungistatic and fungicidal activity against primary gastric B cell lymphoma (Mahady et al.
Candida albicans strains (D’Auria et al. 2005). It 2005).
inhibited C. albicans growth with mean mini- Lavandula angustifolia, Carum carvi and
mum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.69 % Trachyspermum copticum essential oils were found
(vol./vol.) (vaginal strains) and 1.04 % (oropha- to be promising for the treatment of intestinal dys-
ryngeal strains) and mean minimum fungicidal biosis (Hawrelak et al. 2009). These essential oils
concentration (MFC) of 1.1 % (vaginal strains) displayed the greatest degree of selectivity, inhibit-
and 1.8 % (oropharyngeal strains). Linalool, one ing the in vitro growth of potential pathogens such
of its components, was more effective than the as Bacteroides fragilis, Clostridium difficile,
essential oil: mean MIC of 0.09 % (vaginal Clostridium perfringens and Candida albicans at
strains) and 0.29 % (oropharyngeal strains) and concentrations that had no effect on four beneficial
mean MFC of 0.1 % (vaginal strains) and 0.3 % gastrointestinal bacteria, Lactobacillus acidophilus,
(oropharyngeal strains). Linalyl acetate was Lactobacillus plantarum, Bifidobacterium bifidum
166 Lamiaceae

and Bifidobacterium longum. The antibacterial ‘Blue River’ and ‘Munstead’ varieties exhibited
potential of essential oils tested in vitro was ranked in the greatest antibacterial activity against
ascending order as follows: Matricaria chamo- Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeru-
milla < Salvia officinalis < Citrus aurantium < Citrus ginosa (Adaszyńska et al. 2013).
limon < Lavandula angustifolia < Ocimum basili- All four lavender oils, namely, Lavandula
cum < Mentha piperita < Mentha spicata < Thymus angustifolia, L. latifolia, L. stoechas and a
vulgaris < Origanum vulgare (most active) (Soković necrodane-rich L. luisieri, inhibited growth of
et al. 2010). The antibacterial potential of essen- both methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-
tial oils’ components tested in increasing order resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA and
was found as follows: linalyl acetate < limo- MRSA) by direct contact but not in the vapour
nene < β-pinene < α-pinene < camphor < lin- phase (Roller et al. 2009). Inhibition zones
alool < 1,8-cineole < menthol < thymol < carvacrol ranged from 8 to 30 mm in diameter at oil doses
(highest). Linalool (27.2 %) and linalyl acetate ranging from 1 to 20 μL, respectively, demon-
(27.5 %) were the most abundant components in strating a dose response. Several binary combina-
Lavandula angustifolia essential oil (yield is 3 % tions of the oils tested showed that the
(v/w). Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus mira- necrodane-rich L. luisieri oil interacted synergis-
bilis were found to be the most resistant species; tically with L. stoechas (high in 1,8-cineole,
some of the essential oils and compounds were not fenchone and camphor) and L. angustifolia (rich
active against them. Micrococcus flavus was the in linalool and linalyl acetate) to produce larger
most sensitive bacterial species to oils and compo- inhibition zones than those produced using each
nents tested. The MIC and MBC μg/mL of L. oil individually. The results suggested that com-
angustifolia oil against the tested bacteria were, binations of lavender oils should be investigated
respectively, Bacillus subtilis (4, 4.5), Micrococcus further for possible use in antibacterial products.
flavus (4,4), Enterobacter cloacae (6,7), Escherichia Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were
coli (6,6), Proteus mirabilis (8,7), Pseudomonas found to be susceptible to Lavandula angustifolia
aeruginosa (9,5.5), Salmonella enteritidis (5,6), flower essential oil (Lodhia et al. 2009). With
Salmonella epidermidis (4,5), Salmonella increase in concentration of essential oil, increase
typhimurium (5,6), Staphylococcus aureus (5,5.5) in zone of inhibition was observed.
and Listeria monocytogenes (5.5,6). Lavender oil, in combination with other essen-
Lavender (L. angustifolia) essential oil dis- tial oils and salicylic acid, may be a potential
played good antibacterial activity against four treatment option for patients with plantar warts
rhinitis-related bacteria in vitro: Staphylococcus caused by the human papillomavirus (Forbes and
aureus, Micrococcus ascoformans, Proteus vul- Schmid 2006).
garis and Escherichia coli (Lu et al. 2010). Kang et al. (2010) reported that patients with
Thyme and lavender essential oils were active terminal cancer that received essential oil (laven-
against multidrug-resistant clinical strains of der, geranium, tea tree, peppermint) treatment
Escherichia coli genera (Sienkiewicz et al. orally twice daily for 1 week had fewer numbers
2011a). Both essential oils from Thymus vulgaris of colonizing Candida albicans as compared
and L. angustifolia were active against all 30 with the control (saline) group. Additionally,
clinical strains of Escherichia coli, but thyme scores for subjective comfort and objective oral
oil demonstrated the highest activity in vitro. state were higher in the essential oil group as
Also thyme oil elicited higher activity than compared with the control group.
lavender oil against clinical strains of Staphylo-
coccus, Enterococcus and Escherichia genus
(Sienkiewicz et al. 2011b). Lavender oil exhib- Anticancer Activity
ited higher antibacterial ability in comparison
with Calamintha nepeta essential oil (Miladinović Monoterpenes such as D-limonene and perillyl
et al. 2012). The essential oils of L. angustifolia alcohol found in orange peels and lavender,
Lavandula angustifolia 167

respectively, had been shown to possess chemo- these two monoterpenes. For example, rats given
preventive properties against mammary, liver, with a 2 % perillyl alcohol diet for 10 weeks had
lung, colon and pancreatic carcinogenesis plasma levels of terpene metabolites of 0.82 mM,
(Elegbede et al. 1984; Haag and Gould 1994; whereas those fed with a 10 % limonene diet for
Mills et al. 1995; Stark et al. 1995; Reddy et al. the same period had blood levels of 0.27 mM.
1997; Bardon et al. 2002; Matos et al. 2008). Mills et al. (1995) reported that perillyl alcohol
Elegbede et al. (1984) found that rats fed with inhibited liver tumour growth in rats induced by
10,000 ppm of D-limonene had a 72 % reduction diethylnitrosamine exposure. It enhanced tumour
in mammary tumours when compared to con- cell loss through apoptosis. Perillyl alcohol
trols at 18 weeks post 7,12-dimethylbenz[a] reduced the growth of hamster pancreatic
anthracene (DMBA) induction. In addition to tumours to less than half that of controls (Stark
inhibiting the appearance of mammary tumours, et al. 1995). Moreover, 16 % of perillyl alcohol-
D-limonene was also found to cause the treated pancreatic tumours completely regressed,
regression of frank mammary tumours. Dietary whereas no control tumours regressed. Reddy
perillyl alcohol was shown to induce the regres- et al. (1997) showed that administration of peril-
sion of 81 % of small mammary carcinomas and lyl alcohol in the diet of rats with invasive colon
up to 75 % of advanced mammary carcinomas adenocarcinomas induced by azoxymethane sig-
initiated by 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene nificantly inhibited the incidence (percentage of
(DMBA) in the Wistar-Furth rat and was 5 times animals with tumours) and multiplicity (tumours/
more potent than limonene at inducing tumour animals) of tumours of the colon and small
regression (Haag and Gould 1994). It was sug- intestine. The chemopreventive activity of peril-
gested that the increased potency of perillyl lyl alcohol was mediated through the tumour
alcohol over limonene in causing tumour regres- cell loss by apoptosis. Perillyl alcohol i.p. treat-
sion may be due at least in part to differences in ment of male (C3H/HeJ X A/J) F1 hybrid mice
the pharmacokinetics of these two monoter- 1 week prior to initiation with the carcinogen4-
penes. For example, rats given with a 2 % (methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone
perillyl alcohol diet for 10 weeks had plasma (NNK) and continuing for 22 weeks after initia-
levels of terpene metabolites of 0.82 mM, tion elicited a 22 % reduction in lung tumour
whereas those fed with a 10 % limonene diet for incidence and a 58 % reduction in tumour multi-
the same period had blood levels of 0.27 mM. In plicity (Lantry et al. 1997). Perillyl alcohol and to
vitro studies showed that perillyl alcohol inhib- a lesser extent its major metabolite perillic acid
ited ubiquinone synthesis and blocked the con- exerted a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on
version of lathosterol to cholesterol in murine HCT 116 human colon cancer cell growth
embryonic fibroblast NIH3T3 cells (Ren and correlated with a G1 arrest (Bardon et al. 2002).
Gould 1994). These two cellular effects of perillyl The two monoterpenes induced growth arrest of
alcohol may contribute to the antitumour activity colon cancer cells through the up-regulation of
of the monoterpenes. p21Waf1/Cip1 and the down-expression of cyclin
Dietary perillyl alcohol was shown to induce D1 and its partner cdk4.
the regression of 81 % of small mammary carci- The monoterpenes limonene and perillyl
nomas and up to 75 % of advanced mammary alcohol had been shown to induce the complete
carcinomas initiated by 7,12-dimethylbenz(a) regression of rat mammary carcinomas by a
anthracene (DMBA) in the Wistar-Furth rat and cytostatic and differentiation process (Shi and
was greater and 5 times more potent than limo- Gould 1995). Perillyl alcohol was found to be a
nene at inducing tumour regression (Haag and potent inducer of differentiation in a well-
Gould 1994). It was suggested that the increased characterized neuroblastoma-derived cell line
potency of perillyl alcohol over limonene in Neuro-2A. Several cellular effects of monoter-
causing tumour regression may be due at least in penes were ruled out as contributing to
part to differences in the pharmacokinetics of Neuro-2A differentiation including its cytostatic
168 Lamiaceae

effect and its ability to inhibit ubiquinone dose-escalation trial of perillyl alcohol, evidence
(CoQ) syntheses. of antitumour activity was seen in a patient with
Perillyl alcohol caused both cytostasis and metastatic colorectal cancer who had an ongoing
apoptosis in rat mammary carcinomas (Shi and near-complete response of >2 years duration
Gould 2002). In vitro, perillyl alcohol inhibited (Ripple et al. 2000). Several other patients were
cellular proliferation in a variety of mammalian on study for > or = 6 months with stable disease.
cell lines. In murine mammary transformed cell The maximum tolerated dose of perillyl alcohol
line TM6, perillyl alcohol caused an early G1 cell given continuously four times a day was
cycle block and decelerated the G2–M transition. 1,200 mg/m2/dose. Gastrointestinal toxicity was
An increase in pRB in its hypophosphorylated dose limiting, although significant interpatient
state was associated with the early G1 block variability in drug tolerance was seen. The pre-
caused by perillyl alcohol. Perillyl alcohol treat- dominant toxicities seen were gastrointestinal
ment inhibited two important targets in the cells (nausea, vomiting, satiety and eructation), which
during the G1–S transition: cyclin D1- and cyclin were dose limiting. There appeared to be a dose-
E-associated kinase. Additionally, perillyl alco- dependent increase in levels of the two main
hol treatment induced an increased association of metabolites, perillic acid and dihydroperillic
p21WAF1 with cyclin E–Cdk2 complexes and acid. Approximately 9 % of the total dose was
inhibited the activating phosphorylation of Cdk2. recovered in the urine in the first 24 h, the major-
All these effects of perillyl alcohol may contrib- ity as perillic acid.
ute to the inhibition of the transition out of the G1
phase of the cell cycle.
Liston et al. (2003) found that perillyl alcohol Anxiolytic Activity
had a weakly promoting effect early in nitrosamine-
induced oesophageal tumorigenesis and suggested Basch et al. (2004) in their review asserted that
that perillyl alcohol may not be an effective che- evidence indicated strongly to inhaled lavender’s
mopreventive agent for oesophageal cancer in anxiolytic effects. This effect may be due to
humans. potentiation of the inhibitory neurotransmitter
In a pilot study of eight patients with resect- GABA as well as a dose-related binding to gluta-
able pancreatic cancer, tumour size and CA 19–9 mate, one of the main excitatory neurotransmit-
level were unchanged with perillyl alcohol treat- ters in the central nervous system.
ment (Matos et al. 2008). Survival time was lon-
ger in patients who received full perillyl alcohol Animal Studies
treatment (288 ± 32 days) compared to those Exposure to lavender odour over 2 weeks or 24 h
who did not (204 ± 96 days) although this was not periods was found to have an anxiolytic profile in
significant. There was a trend towards greater gerbils similar to that of the anxiolytic diazepam
apoptosis in patients receiving perillyl alcohol (Bradley et al. 2007). Further, prolonged, 2-week
compared to fresh operative controls; there was lavender odour exposure increased exploratory
also a suggestion of greater apoptosis in tumour behaviour in females indicating a further decrease
compared to normal pancreatic tissue in the same in anxiety in females.
patient. Chronic exposures of scopolamine (0.7 mg/kg)-
In a phase I clinical trial, Ripple et al. (1998) induced dementia male Wistar rat to lavender
treated 18 patients who had advanced malignan- essential oils (daily, for seven continuous days)
cies with perillyl alcohol. Two heavily pretreated significantly reduced anxiety-like behaviour and
ovarian cancer patients experienced revers- inhibited depression in elevated plus-maze and
ible > or = grade 3 granulocytopenia. Grade 1–2 forced swimming tests, suggesting anxiolytic
fatigue was also noted. Disease stabilization and antidepressant activity (Hritcu et al. 2012).
for > or = 6 months was seen, although no objec- Also, spatial memory performance in Y-maze and
tive tumour responses were noted. In a phase I radial arm-maze tasks was improved, suggesting
Lavandula angustifolia 169

positive effects on memory formation. The results 5-hydroxytryptophan. These results suggested
suggested that multiple exposures to lavender the anxiolytic-like effect of lavender essential oil
essential oils could effectively reverse spatial to be mediated by the serotonergic system rather
memory deficits induced by dysfunction of the than by the GABA/benzodiazepine neurotrans-
cholinergic system in the rat brain and might pro- mission pathway.
vide an opportunity for the management of neu- Aqueous extract of L. angustifolia at a dose of
rological abnormalities in dementia conditions. 100 and 200 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg was found to
Studies showed that the inhalation of essential improve spatial performance of rats with
oils could induce anxiolytic effects through the Alzheimer’s disease induced by intracerebroven-
central nervous system (e.g. lung absorption and tricular injection of 10 μg Aβ1-42 twenty days
bloodstream transport) or stimulation of the prior to administration of the lavender extract in
olfactory system and secondary activation of Morris water maze and probe test, respectively
brain regions (Chioca et al. 2013a). The results of (Kashani et al. 2011).
their studies in mice suggested that olfactory sys-
tem activation was unlikely to participate in the Clinical Studies
anxiolytic-like effect of lavender essential oil Hardy et al. (1995) found the effects of lavender
inhalation. Zinc gluconate + zinc acetate-induced oil aromatherapy for insomnia and was compa-
anosmia in mice did not interfere with the rable with hypnotics or tranquilizers. In a study
anxiolytic-like effect of lavender essential oil of 16 healthy females (38 ± 8 years old) randomly
inhalation in the marble-burying test at concen- assigned to three treatments applied by a robotic
trations of 2.5 and 5 %. Lavender essential oil at oil-dripping system, plain sesame oil (plain
a concentration of 0.5 % was ineffective. In fur- Shirodhara), medicated sesame oil with a
ther animal studies, they (Chioca et al. 2013b) 0.3 vol.% of lavender essential oil (lavender
reported that lavender essential oil (1–5 %) Shirodhara) or the control supine, lavender
decreased the number of marbles buried com- Shirodhara showed potent anxiolytic and altered
pared with the control and amyl acetate groups. state of consciousness (ASC)-inducing or ASC-
In the elevated plus maze, 5 % lavender essential promoting effects and induced the largest increase
oil inhalation increased the percentage of time in foot skin temperature (Xu et al. 2008). These
spent and number of entries into the open arms effects were larger in the lavender Shirodhara
compared with controls. No effect was seen in than in the other two conditions. It was specu-
the number of closed arm entries or number of lated that the psychophysiological effects of lav-
beam interruptions in the automated activity ender Shirodhara would be mediated via three
chamber. Pretreatment with the GABA receptor mechanisms: (1) the well-known relaxing action
antagonist picrotoxin (0.5 mg/kg) did not mod- of essential oils from L. angustifolia mediated by
ify the behavioural effect of 5 % lavender essen- olfactory nerves, (2) the pharmacological action
tial oil in the marble-burying test. Lavender of substances absorbed through the skin or
essential oil also did not alter [(3)H]flunitraze- mucosa in the sesame oil or lavender essential oil
pam binding to the benzodiazepine site on the and (3) the physiological effect of sesame oil
GABA receptor. Pretreatment with the serotonin dripped on the forehead induced by the somato-
5-HT1A receptor antagonist WAY100635 (3 mg/ autonomic reflex through thermosensors or pres-
kg) blocked the anxiolytic-like effect of lavender sure sensors in the skin or hair follicles via the
essential oil and the 5-HT1A receptor agonist trigeminal cranial nerve. In a double-blind, ran-
8-OH-DPAT (3 mg/kg). A combination of inef- domized placebo study of 97 subjects, lavender
fective doses of 8-OH-DPAT (0.5 mg/kg) and was found to have anxiolytic effects in humans
lavender essential oil (0.1 %) reduced the under conditions of low anxiety, but these effects
number of marbles buried. Finally, 5 % lavender may not extend to conditions of high anxiety
essential oil attenuated the serotonin syndrome (Bradley et al. 2009). In subjects orally adminis-
induced by 40 mg/kg fluoxetine plus 80 mg/kg tered with lavender capsule (200 μL) during the
170 Lamiaceae

neutral film clip, there was a trend towards and Schläfke 2010). The Hamilton Anxiety
reduced state anxiety, galvanic skin response Rating Scale (HAMA total score) decreased by
(GSR) and heart rate and increased heart rate similar extent with both treatments. During the
variation (HRV). In the anxiety-eliciting film, active treatment period, the two HAMA sub-
lavender was mildly beneficial in females but scores ‘somatic anxiety’ (HAMA subscore I) and
only on HRV measures. In males, sympathetic ‘psychic anxiety’ (HAMA subscore II) also
arousal increased during the anxiety film (GSR). decreased to a similar extent in both groups. The
HRV significantly increased at 200 μL during all changes in other subscores, such as the SAS
three film clips in females, suggesting decreased (Self-Rating Anxiety Scale), PSWQ-PW (Penn
anxiety. In a semi-comparative study of 12 breast State Worry Questionnaire), SF-36 Health Survey
cancer patients, a 30-min aromatherapy massage questionnaire and Clinical Global Impressions of
with lavender oils (and other oils) twice a week severity of disorder (CGI item 1, CGI item 2,
for 4 weeks resulted in a reduction in anxiety CGI item 3), and the results of the sleep diary
(Imanishi et al. 2009). Specifically, anxiety was demonstrated comparable positive effects of the
reduced after one massage session, as measured two compounds. Since lavender oil exhibited no
by the State Trait Anxiety Inventory test, and sedative effects in their study and had no poten-
after eight sessions, as measured by the Hospital tial for drug abuse, Silexan appeared to be an
Anxiety and Depression Scale test. In another effective and well-tolerated alternative to benzo-
randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled diazepines for amelioration of generalized anxi-
trial of 221 adults suffering from anxiety disor- ety. In an open-label exploratory phase II trial
der, oral administration of Silexan, a new oral involving 50 male and female patients with neur-
lavender oil capsule preparation, was found to be asthenia, post-traumatic stress disorder or soma-
effective in the treatment of ‘subsyndromal’ anx- tization disorder, administration of 1 × 80 mg/day
iety disorder (Kasper et al. 2010). Patients treated Silexan (lavender preparation) over 6 weeks elic-
with Silexan showed a total score decrease by ited comparable improvements with most out-
16.0 points (59.3 %) for the Hamilton Anxiety comes (Uehleke et al. 2012). For all patients,
Scale (HAMA) and by 5.5 points (44.7 %) for the mean depression scale score decreased by 32.7 %
Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) compared and Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R)
to 9.5 (35.4 %) and 1 points (30.9 %) in the Global Severity Index by 36.4 % as compared to
placebo group. Lavandula oil preparation had a baseline, while the 36-item Short Form Health
significant beneficial influence on quality and Survey questionnaire (SF-36) score increased
duration of sleep and improved general mental by 48.2 %. Waking up frequency, Waking up
and physical health without causing any unwanted duration and morning tiredness were reduced,
sedative or other drug-specific effects. There while efficiency of sleep and mood improved.
were no adverse effects reported. In a cluster ran- Adverse reactions, predominantly gastrointestinal
domized controlled trial, patients’ (N = 340) anxi- complaints, were judged as mild or moderate.
ety was assessed while waiting for a scheduled Findings from a 4-week pilot study of 28
dental appointment; it was found that lavender women indicated positive findings with minimal
scent reduced anxiety state in dental patients, and risk for the use of aromatherapy (essential oil
the lavender group reported significantly lower blend of rose otto and Lavandula angustifolia at
current anxiety as indicated by the State Trait 2 % dilution) as a complementary therapy in both
Anxiety Indicator than the control group anxiety and depression scales with the postpar-
(Kritsidima et al. 2010). tum woman (Conrad and Adams 2012). The mid-
In a 6-week, multicentre, double-blind, ran- point and final scores indicated that aromatherapy
domized study of the lavender oil preparation had significant improvements greater than the
Silexan versus lorazepam for generalized anxiety control group on both Edinburgh Postnatal
disorder, Silexan effectively ameliorated general- Depression Scale (EPDS) and Generalized
ized anxiety comparable to lorazepam (Woelk Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) scores.
Lavandula angustifolia 171

In a study of 20 healthy volunteers, lavender oil groups showed increased latency and reduced
oil inhalation caused significant decreases of severity of seizures (ranging from simple twitches
blood pressure, heart rate and skin temperature, to complete seizures). Mice who had received
which indicated a decrease of autonomic arousal Mentha piperita demonstrated no seizures and
(Sayorwan et al. 2012). In terms of mood 100 % survival. The different drastic component
responses, volunteers in the lavender oil group and its concentration could account for the diver-
categorized themselves as more active, fresher sity of anticonvulsant effects.
and relaxed than subjects just inhaling base oil.
Compared with base oil, lavender oil increased
the power of theta (4–8 Hz) and alpha (8–13 Hz) Anti-inflammatory/Analgesic
brain activities. Findings from a 4-week pilot Activities
study indicated positive findings with minimal
risk for the use of aromatherapy (essential oil Gedney et al. (2004) conducted a sex-balanced
blend of rose otto and Lavandula angustifolia at (13 men and 13 women) randomized crossover
2 % dilution) as a complementary therapy in both design study to evaluate the effects of olfactory
anxiety and depression scales with the postpar- absorption of two lavender and rosemary essen-
tum woman (Conrad and Adams 2012). tial oils on sensory and affective responses to
Perry et al. (2012) conducted a systematic experimentally induced pain. While not causing a
review of 15 randomized clinical trials on the direct analgesic effect, inhalational lavender was
anxiolytic efficacy of lavender and concluded found to be associated with less pain intensity
that the best evidence suggested that oral laven- and pain unpleasantness compared to marginal
der supplements may have some therapeutic reduction by rosemary oil.
effects. However, further independent replica- Studies showed that the hydroalcoholic leaf
tions were needed before firm conclusions could extract of Lavandula angustifolia (400–1,600 mg/
be drawn. kg, p.o.) inhibited the second phase of formalin
pain test, while the polyphenolic fraction (800 and
1,600 mg/kg, p.o.) and essential oil (100 and
Anticonvulsant Activity 200 mg/kg, p.o.) suppressed both phases
(Hajhashemi et al. 2003). In acetic acid-induced
Studies in rats showed that inhalation of lavender writhing test, polyphenolic fraction (400 and
oil vapour was associated with anticonvulsive 800 mg/kg, p.o.) and essential oil (100 and 200 mg/
effects on pentetrazol-, nicotine- and electro- kg, p.o.) reduced the number of abdominal con-
shock-induced convulsions but not strychnine- strictions. Essential oil at a dose of 200 mg/kg also
induced convulsions (Yamada et al. 1994). inhibited carrageenan-induced paw oedema. The
Lavandula angustifolia flower aqueous extract at results confirmed the traditional use of Lavandula
doses of 100 μg/mL and 1 mg/mL significantly angustifolia for the treatment of painful and
blocked glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in inflammatory conditions. In a randomized trial of
rat pup cerebellar granular cell culture, with 70 patients, the effectiveness of a combination
the most effective dose being 1 mg/mL herbal drop (Lamigex) composed of essential oils
(Büyükokuroğlu et al. 2003). All groups of mice from Syzygium aromaticum, Lavandula angustifo-
treated with essential oils from eight aromatic lia and Geranium robertianum was compared to
plants including Lavandula angustifolia showed ciprofloxacin in the alleviation of acute external
reduced seizure activity and stability after the otitis (AEO) (Panahi et al. 2013). All assessed
administration of the oil, except for those treated symptoms (tenderness, itching, erythema, oedema
with Origanum vulgare (100 % mortality after and discharge) were equally improved in the cip-
the administration of the oil) (Koutroumanidou rofloxacin and Lamigex groups by the end of trial.
et al. 2013). After pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) Lamigex exhibited good efficacy in reducing the
administration, mice from the different essential burden of infection as well as AEO symptoms.
172 Lamiaceae

Huang et al. (2012) found treatment of 0.1 % significant effects on pain intensity and frequency
lavender essential oil significantly increased cell of nocturnal awakening (Soltani et al. 2013).
viability and inhibited interleukin IL-1β and
superoxide anion generation in lipopolysaccha-
ride (LPS)-stimulated human monocytic THP-1 Anaesthetic Activity
cells (Huang et al. 2012). Treatment with laven-
der essential oil downregulated both LPS-induced L. angustifolia essential oil, linalyl acetate and
protein levels of phospho-NF-κB and membrane linalool (0.01–10 μg/mL) drastically reduced, in a
Toll-like receptor 4. Further, lavender essential dose-dependent manner, the electrically evoked
oil increased heat shock protein (HSP) 70 expres- contractions of rat phrenic hemidiaphragm
sion in LPS-stimulated THP-1 cells, suggesting (Ghelardini et al. 1999). In in vivo rabbit conjunc-
that lavender essential oil inhibition of LPS- tival reflex test, treatment with lavender essential
induced inflammatory effect might be associated oil, linalyl acetate and linalool (30–2,500 μg/mL
with the expression of HSP70. administered in the conjunctival sac) allowed a
Lavender oil is often used as a bath additive dose-dependent increase in the number of stimuli
postnatally for mothers to reduce perineal dis- necessary to provoke the reflex, thus confirming
comfort after childbirth (Dale and Cornwell in vivo the local anaesthetic activity observed
1994). In a blind randomized clinical trial, they in vitro.
found that when compared with placebo and syn-
thetic lavender oil, analysis of daily discomfort
scores shows less discomfort between days 3 and Adaptogenic/Antistress Activity
5 with true lavender oil use. In a prospective, ran-
domized, placebo-controlled clinical study, the In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-
effects of lavender aromatherapy on opioid controlled trial of 16 healthy volunteers (8 males
requirement was assessed in 54 patients undergo- and 8 females), changes in the electrical activity
ing laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding (Kim of the human brain were observed after exposure
et al. 2007). Analgesics were required in 82 % of to a lozenge containing 4 different herbal prepa-
patients receiving placebo as compared with rations (lavender oil, extracts from hops, lemon
46 % in those receiving inhalational lavender. balm and oat) (Dimpfel et al. 2004). Increases in
Lavender patients required significantly less alpha 1, alpha 2 and beta 1 electrical activity
morphine postoperatively than placebo patients: were seen as indicator of a relaxational psycho-
2.38 mg vs 4.26 mg, respectively. No differences physiological state. The data suggested that
in the requirements for postoperative antiemetics, ingestion of herbal lozenge would allow better
use of antihypertensives or postanaesthesia care coping of psychological and emotional stress.
unit discharge time were noted between treat- In a randomized, crossover study, 70 Chinese
ments. In a randomized clinical trial of 60 quali- older adults with dementia were assigned to
fied Iranian primiparous women admitted for receive lavender inhalation for 3 weeks and then
labour, the use of lavender oil essence was found control for 3 weeks or vice versa (Lin et al. 2007).
to be effective in reducing perineal discomfort Agitated and aggressive behaviour, irritability
(redness, oedema, ecchymosis) following episi- and night-time behaviours were improved with
otomy (Sheikhan et al. 2012). It was suggested lavender therapy. The mean Cohen–Mansfield
that lavender oil essence may be preferable to the Agitation Inventory (CMAI) total scores
use of Betadine for episiotomy wound care. In a decreased from 24.68 to 17.77. The Chinese
randomized controlled prospective clinical trial Neuropsychiatric Inventory (CNPI) scores
of 48 post-tonsillectomy patients aged 6–12 years, changed from 63.17 to 58.77 after receiving
aromatherapy with lavender essential oil decreased lavender therapy. A small pilot study evaluating
the number of required analgesics following the effect of a topical application of the Lavandula
tonsillectomy in paediatric patients but had no angustifolia and Salvia sclarea essential oils on
Lavandula angustifolia 173

work-related stress of nurses in an ICU setting that lavender oil inhalation may be inappropriate
found decreased perception of stress level in the in lowering stress during urodynamic examina-
intervention group during three 12-h worked tions, despite its antistress effects, while clary oil
shifts (Pemberton and Turpin 2008). In a clinical inhalation may be useful in inducing relaxation
study of 30 young healthy men (mean age in female urinary incontinence patients undergo-
34 years, range 24–40 years), lavender aroma- ing urodynamic assessments.
therapy reduced serum cortisol and improved cor- In a blind, randomized, controlled crossover
onary flow velocity reserve (Shiina et al. 2008). trial involving persons with moderate to severe
The findings suggested that lavender aromather- dementia and associated behavioural problems
apy had relaxation effects and may have benefi- living in aged care facilities, the use of lavender
cial acute effects on coronary circulation. oil was found to be effective in reducing challenging
In a randomized, controlled, blinded study, the behaviours (e.g. pacing, aggression, calling out)
use of topical and inhalational lavender and (van der Ploeg et al. 2010). The authors asserted
ginger oils was associated with a lower mean that lavender oil would potentially provide a
distress level, as measured by the Face, Legs, safer intervention rather than reliance on pharma-
Activity, Cry, Consolability (FLACC) scale, in cology alone.
children in a perianaesthesia setting; but the find-
ing was not statistically significant(Nord and
Belew 2009). In a randomized study of 30 healthy Menopausal/Premenstrual Symptom
volunteers, lavender aromatherapy in volunteers Alleviation Activity
provided a significant decrease in the stress levels
and in the bispectral index values (Kim et al. In an 8-week pilot-controlled clinical study, the
2011). Additionally, it significantly reduced the effects of aromatherapy massage on menopausal
pain intensity of needle insertion. In a study of 19 symptoms were assessed in 52 Korean climacteric
healthy medical personnel, the effect of inhaled women (Hur et al. 2008). Menopausal symptoms
lavender oil was assessed on endothelial function such as hot flushes, melancholia, arthralgia and
following night-shift work (Shimada et al. 2011). myalgia were significantly lower in the group that
Flow-mediated dilation (FMD) of the brachial received a 30-min massage with essential oils (i.e.
artery was lower after night-shift work, and lavender, rose geranium, rose and jasmine in
FMD improved with lavender inhalation. The almond and primrose oils) compared with the
mean value of sleep time during night-shift work control group.
was 3.3 h. In a randomized crossover study of 17 women
In a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial (20.6 ± 0.2 years) with mild-to-moderate subjec-
of 34 female patients with urinary incontinence tive premenstrual symptoms, lavender aromather-
undergoing urodynamic assessment, the group apy was found to have potential therapeutic
that inhaled lavender oil experienced increase in modality in alleviating premenstrual emotional
systolic and diastolic blood pressure compared symptoms, which, at least in part, was attributable
with the control (almond oil) group (Seol et al. to the improvement of parasympathetic nervous
2013). The clary (Salvia sclarea) oil group expe- system activity (Matsumoto et al. 2013). A 10-min
rienced a significant decrease in systolic blood inhalation of the lavender scent was found to
pressure compared with the control and lavender significantly increase the high-frequency (HF)
oil groups, a significant decrease in diastolic power reflecting parasympathetic nervous system
blood pressure compared with the lavender oil activity in comparison with water. The rate of
group and a significant decrease in respiratory increase in HF power was greater at 10–15 and
rate compared with the control group. Compared 20–25 min in the lavender trial than in the control
with the control group, inhalation of lavender oil trial with water. Further, Profile of Mood States
and clary oil resulted in statistically significant (POMS) tests revealed that inhalation of the
reductions in respiratory rate. The results suggested aromatic lavender oil significantly decreased two
174 Lamiaceae

POMS subscales depression–dejection and confu- male rats (Silenieks et al. 2013). Silexan tested at
sion, common premenstrual symptoms, in the late doses 3–30 mg/kg i.p. produced almost exclu-
luteal phase, as long as 35 min after lavender sively (>90 %) saline-like responding. Also there
aroma stimulation. The results further suggested was no effect of Silexan on response rate, i.e. rate
that heart rate variability (HRV) could evaluate of lever pressing, at any dose suggesting that the
the efficacy of aromatherapy using various fra- test article was well tolerated and did not exert a
grances to relieve premenstrual symptoms and, sedating effect. The results suggested that Silexan
ultimately, support the mind and body health of did not share the potential of benzodiazepines to
women. induce the development of tolerance, dependence
and addiction.

Wound/Graft Healing Activity

Depressant/Sedative Activity
Oral treatment of perillyl alcohol to rabbits with
vein bypass graft surgery reduced vein graft Oral administration of lavender essential oil
intimal hyperplasia, a major impediment to graft exerted neurodepressive effect on Swiss mice
patency (Fulton et al. 1997). Therapy with perillyl (Guillemain et al. 1989). Sedative effects were
alcohol altered the early development of intimal observed with some tests (hole-board test, four-
hyperplasia reducing the intimal response but plate test, plus-maze test, potentiation of barbitu-
increasing the medial response without signifi- rate sleeping time). A significant interaction
cant changes in the physiological responses of exists with pentobarbital: the sleeping time was
the smooth muscle cells. Modulating G-proteins increased and the falling asleep time shortened.
would affect the intimal hyperplastic response in Lavender essential and its major constituent
vein grafts. linalool and linalyl acetate exhibited sedative
Animal studies showed that wound closure activity in animal studies (Buchbauer et al. 1991).
progressed more rapidly in the transcutaneous The significant decrease in the motility of female
electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) and lavender and male laboratory animals under standardized
oil rat groups than in the control and other study experimental conditions was found to be closely
groups (saline solution, povidone-iodine) (Koca dependent on the exposure time to the drugs.
Kutlu et al. 2013). In particular, platelet-derived The correlation of the motility of the animals to
growth factor (PDGF)-A expressions in the linalool in serum was experimentally confirmed,
dermis and epidermal growth factor (EGF) thus furnishing evidence of the aromatherapeutic
expression in the epidermis were significantly use of herbal pillows employed in folk medicine
intense in the TENS group. In addition, ELISA since ancient times in order to facilitate falling
levels of growth factors such as PDGF-A and asleep or to minimize stressful situations of man.
EGF were significantly higher in TENS group Jäger et al. (1992) found that the sedative and
compared to the control group. The immunohis- relaxing effect of lavender oil after a massage
tochemical and ELISA results suggested that may be based on two different ways of incorpora-
TENS may improve wound healing through tion: the inhalation of fragrant molecules and the
increasing growth factors in the dermis and penetration through the skin. Within 5 min of
epidermis more than other topical applications. finishing, the massage traces of linalool and
linalyl acetate as the main constituents of laven-
der oil could be detected in the blood of the
Absence of Interoceptive Activity male subject.
In a 4-week, double-blind, randomized, single-
Silexan, an essential oil produced from the flow- centre trial of 45 adult outpatients who met the
ering tops of Lavandula angustifolia, elicited no Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
diazepam-like interoceptive property in adult, Disorders 4th Edition (DSM-IV) criteria for
Lavandula angustifolia 175

depression, Lavandula tincture (1:5 in 50 % Both Melissa officinalis (Mo) and Lavandula
alcohol) was found to be less effective than imip- angustifolia (La) essential oils elicited putative
ramine in the treatment of mild-to-moderate anti-agitation properties in humans, indicating
depression (Akhondzadeh et al. 2003). Headache common components with a depressant action in
was observed more in the Lavandula tincture the central nervous system (Huang et al. 2008). La
group. A combination of imipramine and inhibited [35S] TBPS binding to the rat forebrain
Lavandula tincture was more effective than gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor
imipramine alone. In a 4-week pilot study with channel (apparent IC50 = 0.040 mg/mL), but had
randomized, single-blind, crossover design (base- no effect on N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA),
line, two treatment (lavender and sweet almond alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-
oil) periods and a washout period, each of 1 week propionic acid (AMPA) or nicotinic acetylcholine
duration) of 10 volunteers, lavender treatment receptors. A 50:50 mixture of Mo and La essential
gave an improvement of −2.5 points in the oils inhibited [3H] flunitrazepam binding, whereas
Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) (Lewith the individual oils had no significant effect.
et al. 2005). Women and younger volunteers with Electrophysiological analyses with rat cortical
a milder insomnia improved more than the oth- primary cultures demonstrated that La reversibly
ers. In a pilot study, aromatherapy massage with inhibited GABA-induced currents in a concentra-
lavender oil was not associated with positive tion-dependent manner (0.01–1 mg/mL), whereas
effects on sleep patterns (i.e. sleep duration, time no inhibition of NMDA- or AMPA-induced
to fall asleep, number of awakenings) in 12 autis- currents was noted. La elicited a significant
tic patients (2 girls and 10 boys) with learning dose-dependent reduction in both inhibitory and
impairment (Williams 2006). Though the mas- excitatory transmission, with a net depressant
sage fell within 2 h of the children going to bed, effect on neurotransmission (in contrast to the
closer control of the timing of the massage and classic GABA antagonist picrotoxin which
larger sample size may be warranted in future evoked profound epileptiform burst firing in
clinical studies. these cells).
In a single-blind, randomized clinical trial of
64 male and female patients with ischaemic heart
disease, suffering from unstable angina and myo- Cognitive Behaviour Effects
cardial infarction, the mean score of sleep quality
in the experimental group after aromatherapy A study involving 144 healthy volunteers found
with lavender oil was significantly different than that aromas of rosemary and lavender essential
that in the controls (Moeini et al. 2010). The oils elicited different effects on cognition and
mean score of sleep quality in the experimental mood in healthy adults (Moss et al. 2003). The
group after aromatherapy with lavender oil was volunteers were randomly assigned to one of
significantly different than that in the controls. In three independent groups and subsequently per-
another single-blind randomized Japanese study formed the Cognitive Drug Research (CDR)
on the effectiveness of lavender aroma on quality computerized cognitive assessment battery in a
of sleep comprising seven (two men, five women) cubicle containing either rosemary or lavender
in the intervention group and eight participants essential oils or no odour (control). It was
(three men, five women) in the control group, revealed that lavender produced a significant
lavender aroma improved sleepiness at awaken- decrement in performance of working memory
ing after the intervention (Hirokawa et al. 2012). and impaired reaction times for both memory-
Sex differences and daily variation in quality of and attention-based tasks compared to controls.
sleep during the intervention period were not Contrariwise, rosemary produced a significant
observed. The findings suggested that night-time enhancement of performance for overall quality of
exposure to lavender aroma relieved sleepiness at memory and secondary memory factors, but also
awakening. produced an impairment of speed of memory
176 Lamiaceae

compared to controls. With regard to mood, antibacterial activity against all tested strains
both the control and lavender groups were sig- taken from human subjects, and it exhibited
nificantly less alert than the rosemary condition; significant inhibition on tested bacteria where the
however, the control group was significantly less value of zone of inhibition ranged from 14.5 to
contented than both rosemary and lavender con- 24 mm versus streptomycin (25 μg/disc)
ditions. These findings suggested that the olfac- 12–22 mm; MIC was >6.4–36 mg/mL. Patients
tory properties of these essential oils could with recurrent aphthous ulceration treated with
produce objective effects on cognitive perfor- lavender oil showed a significant reduction in
mance, as well as subjective effects on mood. In inflammation level, ulcer size, healing time, from
a study of 10 healthy women, lavender aromatic 2 to 4 days [2 days (40 %), 3 days (50 %), 4 days
stimuli induced not only relaxation but also (10 %)], and pain relief mostly from the first
increased arousal level in these subjects as dose, compared to baseline and placebo. No side
reflected by increases in the parasympathetic effects were reported.
tone after the lavender fragrance stimulus as seen
in increases in the high-frequency (HF) compo-
nent and decreases in the low- to high-frequency Spasmolytic Activity
ratio LF/HF in electrocardiographic measure-
ments (Duan et al. 2007). Additional measure- Lavender essential oil exhibited in vitro spasmo-
ment with positron emission tomography lytic activity in a guinea pig ileum smooth
demonstrated the regional metabolic activation in muscle preparation (Lis-Balchin and Hart 1999).
the orbitofrontal, posterior cingulate gyrus, The mechanism of action was suggested to be
brainstem, thalamus and cerebellum, as well as postsynaptic and not atropine-like and to be
the reductions in the pre-/post-central gyrus and likely mediated through cAMP, and not through
frontal eye field. cGMP. The mode of action of linalool, one of
A study found that the use of lavender oil by lavender’s major components, reflected that of
humans was useful to maintain attention spans the whole oil.
during long-term tasks (Shimizu et al. 2008).
Twenty-eight patients (77 ± 10 years) with mod-
erate to severe dementia were randomized to Anti-gout Activity
receive lavender aromatherapy 3 times daily for
1 h after meals or placebo for 4 weeks (Fujii et al. Lavandula angustifolia was one of the four plants
2008). Neuropsychiatric Inventory scores (31–18) tested that exhibited xanthine oxidase inhibitory
and behavioural and psychological symptoms activity (28.7 % inhibition) and may have poten-
were significantly improved with lavender ther- tial to be developed as herbal drugs for treatment
apy and no significant changes were noted in the of gout and other xanthine oxidase-related disor-
control group (32–27). ders (Hudaib et al. 2011).

Antiulcerogenic Activity Antimutagenic Activity

Rabbits treated with lavender oil showed a sig- Using the bacterial reverse mutation assay,
nificant aphthous ulcer size reduction, increased lavender (L. angustifolia) essential oil exerted
rate of mucosal repair and healing within 3 days strong antimutagenic activity in a dose-depen-
of treatment compared to baseline and placebo dent manner, reducing mutant colonies in the
groups (Altaei 2012). The intraperitoneal LD50 Salmonella typhimurium TA98 strain exposed to
value in mice was 6.5 g/kg; clinical dermal the direct mutagen 2-nitrofluorene (Evandri et al.
irritation test showed no sign of irritation in the 2005). The maximal concentration (0.80 mg/
tested products. Lavender oil showed a broad plate) reduced the number of histidine-independent
Lavandula angustifolia 177

revertant colonies by 66.4 %. Lavender oil 70–100 %) was shown at all concentrations of the
(0.80 mg/plate) also showed moderate antimuta- essential oil of L. angustifolia against adults of
genicity against the TA98 strain exposed to the Hyalomma marginatum rufipes in the tick climb-
direct mutagen 1-nitropyrene. ing bioassay, although at 5 % v/v it only persisted
for the first 40 min compared with 120 min at
other concentrations (10 and 20 % v/v) (Mkolo
Choleretic/Cholagogic Activity and Magano 2007). The repellent strength of
L. angustifolia compared well with that of DEET
Gruncharov (1973) reported on choleretic and (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide), a commercial refer-
cholagogic activity of Bulgarian lavender oil. ence repellent, for the 2-h period of the study. In
Lavender oil increased biliary secretion by 118 % vitro studies showed Lavandula angustifolia
compared to magnesium sulphate. However, it essential oil to have promising acaricidal against
was also reported that lavender oil had far infe- Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus females
rior cholecystokinetic effects compared to mag- (Pirali-Kheirabadi and Teixeira da Silva 2010). A
nesium sulphate (2.65 % activity). positive correlation between L. angustifolia
essential oil concentration and tick control,
assessed by relative mortality rate and egg laying
Antiprotozoal Activity weight, was observed by the essential oil LC/
EC50, which, when calculated using the probit
Low concentrations (<or = 1 %) of Lavandula test, was 2.76-fold higher than the control.
angustifolia and L. × intermedia oil completely A randomized, assessor blind, parallel group
eliminated human protozoal pathogens Giardia comparative efficacy trial in 123 paediatric
duodenalis and Trichomonas vaginalis and the patients with head lice found that a tea tree/laven-
fish pathogen Hexamita inflata in vitro (Moon der oil product applied once weekly for 2 weeks
et al. 2006). At 0.1 % concentration, L. angustifo- on days 0, 7 and 14 was comparable in efficacy
lia oil was found to be slightly more effective with a head lice suffocation product applied simi-
than L. × intermedia oil against G. duodenalis larly (Barker and Altman 2010). Both products
and H. inflata. were associated with a higher percentage of
patients (97.6 % for both groups) that were louse
free 1 day after the last treatment as compared
Insecticidal Activity with subjects receiving pyrethrins and piperonyl
butoxide applied twice on days 0 and 7 (25 % for
The Lavandula angustifolia essential oil and both comparisons).
some of its main constituents linalool and linalyl L. angustifolia essential oil at 300 ppm dos-
acetate exhibited potent miticidal activity against age caused 55 % larval mortality of the Culicidae
Psoroptes cuniculi, mite of rabbit (Perrucci et al. mosquito Aedes albopictus (Conti et al. 2010).
1994). Subsequent study confirmed the acaricidal Ten percent concentrations of Cymbopogon
properties of lavender essential oil and its com- citratus (lemongrass), Mentha piperita (pepper-
ponent linalool against Psoroptes cuniculi by mint) and Lavandula angustifolia (lavender)
inhalation, indicating an additional route for pos- essential oils were the most effective, showing
sible use of these substances both for prophylac- 100 % knockdown of housefly, Musca domes-
tic and therapeutic purposes (Perrucci et al. tica, at 30 and 60 min (Sinthusiri and Soonwera
1996). L. angustifolia oil when diluted to 1 % in 2013). These essential oils caused 100 % mortal-
1,2-propanediol had weak repellent activities on ity among houseflies 24 h after exposure; the
Ixodes ricinus nymphs but when diluted to 30 % LC50 values for C. citratus, M. piperita and
in 1,2-propanediol had 100 % repellency in vitro L. angustifolia were 2.22, 2.62 and 3.26 min,
(Jaenson et al. 2006). High repellency (range respectively.
178 Lamiaceae

Pharmacokinetic Studies Difflam gel and to lavender absolute. Contact

allergy to various essential oils including laven-
Preliminary pharmacokinetic data from a rat der oil used in aromatherapy was demonstrated
following i.v. administration of perillyl alcohol at on patch testing in a 53-year-old patient suffering
23 mg/kg and from a patient receiving perillyl from relapsing eczema resistant to therapy on
alcohol at 500 mg/m2 p.o. showed that intact various uncovered parts of the skin, in particular
perillyl alcohol, perillic acid and cis- and the scalp, neck and hands (Schaller and Korting
trans-dihydroperillic acids [DHPA, 4-(1′- 1995). Sensitization was due to previous expo-
methylethenyl)-cyclohexane-1-carboxylic acid] sure to lavender, jasmine and rosewood. Earlier
were all detected in plasma in both cases (Zhang Brandão (1986) reported a case of occupational
et al. 1999). Two new major metabolites were allergy to lavender oil. Sugiura et al. (2000)
found in human and one in the rat plasma. reported an increase in frequency of positive
patch tests (0–13.9 %) to lavender oil in annual
reports from 1990 to 1998 on patients suspected
Adverse Activities of having cosmetic contact dermatitis in Japan.
The positive rate of lavender oil increased sud-
Male prepubertal gynaecomastia was reported denly in 1997. They found that the increase in
in three boys following topical application of patch test-positive rates to lavender oil especially
lavender and tea tree oils in a balm, styling gel, in 1997 and 1998 was due to the practice of
shampoo, soap and lotion (Henley et al. 2007). placing dried lavender flowers in pillows, drawers,
The symptoms resolved within several months cabinets or rooms rather than due to lavender
upon discontinuation of the two oils. It was fragrances in cosmetic products.
found that lavender and tea tree oils exhibited
estrogenic and antiandrogenic effects on human
cell lines. Traditional Medicinal Uses
The study by Prashar et al. (2004) demon-
strated that lavender (L. angustifolia) oil, chiefly Lavender is used in traditional medicines in Asia,
composed of linalyl acetate (51 %) and linalool Europe, ancient Greece and Rome and was men-
(35 %), was cytotoxic to human skin cells in vitro tioned in the Bible and in ancient Jewish texts
(endothelial cells and fibroblasts) at a concentra- (Hancianu et al. 2013). Lavender is reported to be
tion of 0.25 % (v/v) in all cell types tested an effective medicinal plant in treating inflamma-
(HMEC-1, HNDF and 153BR). The activity of tion, depression, stress and headache. Folk and
linalool reflected that of the whole oil, indicating traditional therapeutic uses of the essential oil of
that linalool may be the active component of English lavender for pain, infection, relaxation
lavender oil. Linalyl acetate cytotoxicity was higher and sedation date back centuries (Denner 2009).
than that of the oil itself suggesting suppression Lavender is also a popular treatment for stress
of its activity by an unknown factor in the oil. and mild anxiety in Europe and the United States
A case of a physiotherapist who developed (Bradley et al. 2007). Lavandula angustifolia
several episodes of facial dermatitis was reported (lavender) inhalation has been used in folk medi-
with use of Difflam gel containing benzydamine cine for the treatment of anxiety (Chioca et al.
hydrochloride and lavender fragrance (Rademaker 2013b). In the olden days, lavender was used as a
1994). She would occasionally massage her condiment and for flavouring for food to comfort
patients with the gel, and on the last occasion she the stomach (Grieve 1971). An essential oil
inadvertently rubbed her face without washing obtained from lavender flowers is antihalitosis,
her hands; she developed erythema followed by powerfully antiseptic, antispasmodic, aromatic,
acute vesicular dermatitis the next evening. Patch carminative, cholagogic, diuretic, nervine, sedative,
testing revealed a 2+ reaction at 2 and 4 days to stimulant, stomachic and tonic (Grieve 1971;
Lavandula angustifolia 179

Lust 1974; Launert 1981; Chiej 1984; Bown incense sticks. They have been used in the past
1995). It is not often used internally; though it is as a strewing herb in order to impart a sweet
a useful carminative and nervine, it is commonly smell to rooms and to deter insects and mice.
used as a restorative and tonic against faintness, The flowers and leaves are also used as a herbal
giddiness, nervous palpitations, spasms and medicine, either in the form of lavender oil or as
colic (Grieve 1971). Lavender oil is used in foot a herbal tea. The leaves are also used in herbal
bath to relieve fatigue; lavender is prescribed bath water for their fragrance and therapeutic
as a powerful stimulant for hysteria, palsy and properties.
similar disorders of debility and lack of nerve Lavender essential oil has good insecticidal
power. Outwardly applied, lavender oil relieves and insect-repellent activities which have been
toothache, neuralgia, sprains and rheumatism. confirmed by several studies.
Lavender oil is much more gentle in its action All 98 plant essential oils tested including
than most other essential oils and can be safely lavender (Lavandula angustifolia, LC50 = 0.61–
applied directly to the skin as an antiseptic to 0.99 mg/cm3) showed low toxicity against third
help heal wounds, burns, etc. (Chevallier 1996). instars of cecidomyiid gall midge Camptomyia
Lavender oil is very useful in the treatment of corticalis compared to the conventional insecti-
burns, sunburn, scalds, bites, vaginal discharge, cide dichlorvos (LC50 = 0.027 mg/cm3) (Kim
anal fissure, etc., where it also soothes the et al. 2012). Eight essential oils including
affected part of the body and can prevent the Lavandula angustifolia were highly toxic to the
formation of permanent scar tissue (Grieve 1971; third instar of Spodoptera littoralis larvae with
Bown 1995). Extracts obtained from the leaves LD50 < or = 0.05 μL/larvae (Pavela 2005). Results
of Lavandula angustifolia are used in Iranian of insect repellency tests indicated that Myrtus
folk medicine as remedies for the treatment communis and L. angustifolia essential oils dis-
of various inflammatory diseases (Hajhashemi played high repellent activity to the stored food
et al. 2003). insect Sitophilus zeamais adults (Bertoli et al.
2012). Mortality rate never exceeded 76 %. All
essential oils, tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia),
Other Uses lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), peppermint
(Mentha piperita), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus glo-
Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (fine lavender) and bulus) and clove bud (Eugenia caryophyllata)
its natural hybrid L. x intermedia Emeric ex except camphor (Cinnamomum camphora),
Loisel. (lavandin) are cultivated for their essen- showed high levels of toxicity against the
tial oils which mostly contain a rich blend of chewing louse, Bovicola (Werneckiella) ocella-
mono- and sesquiterpenes (De Pascual-Teresa tus, collected from donkeys, with significant
et al. 1991). Besides being grown commercially dose-dependent mortality and an LC50 at concen-
for its essential oil, lavender may be grown as trations below 2 % (v/v) (Talbert and Wall 2012).
bedding plant, hedge, herb specimen, tea plant, Hundred percent mortality was achieved at
bee forage or source of fragrance in landscaping concentrations of 5–10 % (v/v). Two essential oil
designs. Lavender essential oil has a very wide components, eugenol and (+)-terpinen-4-ol,
range of applications, both in the home and com- showed similar levels of toxicity.
mercially. Commercially, it is commonly used in The essential oils (EO) of Hyptis suaveolens,
soap making and in making high-quality per- Rosmarinus officinalis and Lavandula angustifo-
fumes and cologne (e.g. ‘Eau de Cologne’), cos- lia exhibited dose-dependent toxicity on
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 Lavandula dentata

Scientific Name German: Französischer Lavendel, Gezähnter

Lavendel, Zahn-Lavendel
Lavandula dentata L. Hungarian: Francia Levendula
India: Astukhudas
Italian: Spigo-Nardo
Synonyms Portuguese: Alecrim Francés, Alfazema-Brava
Slovašcina: Nazobčana Sivka
Stoechas dentata (L.) Mill., Lavandula dentata Spanish: Alhucema Inglesa, Alhucema Rizada,
var. vulgaris Ging., nom. inval. Cantueso, Cantueso Dentado, Cantueso
Rizado, Espliego Dentado, Galland, Garlanda,
Lavanda, Tomany
Family Swedish: Kamlavendel
Turkish: Fransız Lavantası
Lamiaceae

Origin/Distribution
Common/English Names
The species is indigenous to southern and eastern
French Lavender, Fringed Lavender, Gray Spain, Gibraltar, the Balearic Islands, northwestern
French Lavender, Lavender, Toothed Africa, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Israel, Jordan and the
Lavender Arabian Peninsula. It is naturalized elsewhere
around the Mediterranean and in Western
Australia, New Zealand and California.
Vernacular Names

Afrikaans: Franse Lavantel Agroecology

Arabic: Duzan, Helhal, Lizer
Catalan: Espígol, Espígol Dentat, Espígol Fringed Lavender requires full sun in a warm
Retallat, Gallanda, Lavanda sheltered position, well-protected from strong
Chinese: Chǐ Yè Xūnyī Cǎo winds. It thrives best in well-drained, light,
Danish: Tandet Lavendel rich soils and abhors heavy, water-logged soils.
Dutch: Getande Lavendel, Lavendel Sort, Its aromatic fragrance has been reported to be
Tandlavendel stronger when grown in chalky soils. It is tolerant
French: Lavande Anglaise, Lavande Dentée of low temperatures down to −5 °C.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 186
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_9, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Lavandula dentata 187

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Refer to culinary uses described for L. angustifolia

(Burnie and Fenton-Smith 1996; Barash 1997;
Lauderdale and Evans 1999; Roberts 2000).
Use Fringed Lavender flowers for cooking as
you would sage.

Botany

Lavandula dentata is a tender, spreading, aromatic,

perennial shrub, growing up to 1 m high and wide
with upright branches and woody at the base.
Leaves sessile, narrow, linear, thick, with squarish-
serrated to dentate margin, sticky, 3 cm long and
borne in whorls up the woody quadrangular stem
(Plates 1 and 2). Flowers occur in tight clusters in
a spike at the top of slender, long grey leafless
stems and consist of violet-blue, papery bracts and
tiny, paler violet-blue flowers (Plates 2, 3 and 4).

Plate 2 Terminal flowering heads on leafless stems

Plate 1 Leaves with dentate margins Plate 3 Close view of flower head
188 Lamiaceae

The hydro-distilled essential oil of Lavandula

dentata growing spontaneously in Cherchell
(northwest of Algiers region, Algeria) afforded 67
identified compounds, comprising 76.5 % of the
total oil (Dob et al. 2005). The major components
were 1,8-cineole (38.4 %), cis-verbenol (4.3 %),
p-cymen-8-ol (3.8 %) and fenchone (2.3 %).
Twenty nine compounds were identified in the
essential oil of L. dentata aerial parts (Imelouane
et al. 2009). The major components were the fol-
lowing: 1,8-cineole (41.28 %), sabinene (13.89 %),
bicyclo[3.1.0]hexan-3-ol, 4-methylene-1-(1-meth-
ylethyl) (6.76 %), myrtenal (5.1 %) and α-pinene
(4.05 %) as the major compounds. Other signifi-
cant constituents were verbenol (2.1 %), linalool
oxide (2.49 %), cis-linalool oxide (2.66 %),
bicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-2-one, 6,6-dimethyl (2.36 %),
myrtenol (2.75 %) and L-borneol (2.84 %).
A total of 27 fragrance compounds were iden-
tified in L. dentata (aerial parts) by solid-phase
trapping solvent extraction (SPTE) in Korea (Kim
and Lee 2002). The major components were
Plate 4 Flower head with open flowers and floral bract cineol (47.02 %) and β-pinene (11.24 %) and
other components were ethyl benzene (0.31 %),
m-xylene or p-xylene (0.92 %), o-xylene
The spike is topped by a tuft of large, showy, sterile (0.36 %), thujene (0.18 %), α-pinene (4.48 %),
bracts which are the more conspicuous part of camphene (0.83 %), β-myrcene (0.12 %),
the inflorescence. p-cymene (1.11 %), limonene (4.60 %), trans-1-
Two varieties of L. dentata are currently methyl-4(1-methylethyl)-2-cyclohexen- 1-ol
recognized: L. dentata var. dentata, with greyish- (0.32 %), linalyl oxide (1.55 %), linalool
green leaves, occasionally with white or pink (4.42 %), cis-verbenol (0.27 %), cis-sabinol
flowers, and L. dentata var. candicans, with more (4.5 %), camphor (5.69 %), borneol (2.69 %),
pronounced silvery-grey leaves. p-cymen-8-ol (1.80 %), verbenone (0.37 %),
p-cuminic aldehyde (0.80 %), geranyl acetate
(0.08 %), farnesene isomers mixture (3.10 %),
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties γ-cadinene (1.45 %) and calamenene (1.21 %).
Forty-two components (84.76 % of total oil)
The following flavonoids were reported from and 47 components (85.48 % of total oil) were
L. dentata: genkwanin (apigenin 7-methyl ether), identified in the aerial part and flower oils of
luteolin, apigenin, luteolin 7-glucoside, apigenin L. dentata in eastern Morocco (Imelouane et al.
7-glucoside, luteolin 7-rutinoside, vitexin and 2010), respectively, of which β-pinene (27.08 %,
vicenin-2 (Ferreres et al. 1986). Flavonoids found 30.06 %), pinocarveol (14.77 %, 8.59 %), myrte-
in the leaves of L. dentata included scutellarein nal (8.18 %, 6.81 %), α-pinene (7.78 %, 1,8-
7-O-glycoside, vitexin, luteolin 7-O-glucoside, cineole (5.53 %, 5.47 %), linalool (4.7 %, 4.46 %),
luteolin 7-O-glucuronide; apigenin-7-O-glucoside, pinocavone (2.36 %, 2.44 %) and borneol
apigenin-7-O-glucuronide and their deriva- (2.56 %, 1.66 %) were the main components in
tives, 6-OH-luteolin 7-O-glycoside, apigenin and the oil of the aerial part and flowers, respectively.
genkwanin (Upson et al. 2000). The other components were, respectively, tricylene
Lavandula dentata 189

(0.3 %, 0.34 %), camphene (1.13 %, 0.79 %), L-fenchone, accounting for 33.54, 18.89 and
γ-terpinene (tr, tr), cis-linalool oxide (1.81 %, 8.36 % in the leaf oils and 19.85, 23.33 and 7.13 %
0.98 %), 4-terpineol (0.58 %, 0.41 %), verbenone in the flower oils, respectively.
(0.73 %, 0.5 %), cis-carveol (0.57 %, 0.39 %),
D-carvone (0.26 %, 0.24 %), hexyl tiglate
(0.37 %, 0.43 %), hexyl hexanoate (tr, tr), cis-α- Antioxidant Activity
bergamotene (tr, tr), trans-α-bergamotene (tr,
0.38 %), trans-β-farnese (tr, 0.27 %), β-selinene L. dentata aerial part oil showed higher DPPH
(0.59 %, 0.9 %), β-bisabolene (tr, tr), calamine free radical scavenging activity with an IC50 value
(0.38 %, 0.85 %), caryophyllene oxide (0.42 %, of 32.12 compared to the flower oil 41.29 μL/mL
1.04 %), β-eudesmol (0.68 %, 1.36 %) and 1, (Imelouane et al. 2010).
4-dimethyl-7-1-methylethyl)azulene (tr, 0.21 %).
The following minor components were found
only in the oil of the aerial parts: 1,3,8-p-mentha- Anticancer Activity
triene (tr), α-terpinene (0.35 %), O-cresol (tr),
trans-linalool oxide (2.13 %), verbenol (0.31 %), L. dentata flower oil exhibited more potent
cuminic aldehyde (0.27 %), 1-bornyl acetate cytotoxicity on human cancer cell lines than the
(tr), perillol (0.66 %), piperitone (tr), cryptone aerial part oil with IC50 values of = 98.5 μg/mL,
(0.3 %), α-cedrene (tr), γ-elemene (tr), β-funebrene 101 μg/mL for MCF-7 cancer cell line; 46 μg/mL,
(tr), epi - bicyclosesquiphellandrene (tr) and 72 μg/mL for U-373 cancer cell line; and
γ-cadinene (tr). The following constituents were 52 μg/mL, >600 μg/mL for P388DI cancer cell
found only in the flower oil: β-myrcene (0.3 %), line, respectively (Imelouane et al. 2010).
1,5,8-p-menthatriene (tr), 2-(bromomethyl)-
1,3,3-trimethylcyclohexene (tr), α-campholene
aldehyde (0.54 %), veratrol (0.24 %), camphor Antimicrobial Activity
(2.32 %),α-terpineol (0.5 %), perilla alcohol
(tr), α-cubebene (tr), trans-caryophyllene (tr), L. dentata (aerial parts) essential oil had a sub-
β-sesquiphellandrene (0.23 %), β-cubebene (tr), stantial inhibitory effect on all assayed bacteria
1,4-dihydro-3,5-dimethoxy-2-methylnaphthalene strains (Imelouane et al. 2009). Gram-positive
(tr), germacrene D (0.4 %), cis-α-bisabolene Listeria monocytogenes was the most sensitive
(0.3 %), 4.7-dimethyl-1-tetralone (0.86 %), strain followed by Streptococcus sp. The oil also
bicyclo[4.4.0]dec-1-ene, 2-isopropyl-5-methyl- exhibited high antimicrobial activity against
9-methylene (0.48 %), 1,4-dimethyl-7-1- Streptococcus pneumoniae but modest activity
methylethyl)azulene (0.21 %), α-bisabolol (0.77 %) against Staphylococcus aureus. Gram-negative
and 14-norcadin-5-en-4-one isomer (1.1 %). strains also displayed variable degree of suscepti-
Essential oil extracted from aerial parts of bility against investigated oil. Maximum activity
L. dentata in Tunisia was dominated by linalool was observed against Neisseria meningitidis
(47.30 %), linalyl acetate (28.65 %), bicycloger- and Haemophilus influenzae, followed by
macrene (3.40 %), camphor (2.32 %) and Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella sp., Proteus
δ-terpineol (1.47 %) (Msaada et al. 2012). mirabilis, Pantoea sp. and Enterobacter cloacae.
The average essential oil yields were higher Modest activities were observed against impor-
for Tunisian Lavandula dentata flowers tant food pathogens such as Escherichia coli.
(8.60 mg/g) than for the leaves (6.56 mg/g) MIC values shown by the essential oil were in the
(Touati et al. 2011). A total of 72 compounds range of 0.041–10 mg/mL. The Gram-negative
were identified, accounting for 98.1 and 97.7 % Pseudomonas aeruginosa appeared to be resis-
of the total oil composition of the leaves and tant to the investigated oil with an MIC of
flowers, respectively. The main essential oil 10 mg/mL. Maximum activity was observed
constituents were 1,8-cineole, camphor and against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
190 Lamiaceae

pneumoniae and Streptococcus sp. with an Lavender oils have been used as restorative and
MIC of 0.041 mg/mL. Streptococcus sp. was tonic against giddiness, nervous palpitation,
the least sensitive bacteria with an MIC of faintness, spasms and colic (Grieve 1971).
0.338 mg/mL. Staphylococcus epidermidis,
Haemophilus influenzae and Proteus mirabilis
showed similar susceptibility to the investigated Other Uses
oil, ranging from 0.167 mg/mL. The oil exhibited
highest inhibitory effect against Gram-negative The plant is grown as an ornamental medici-
bacteria Escherichia coli, Neisseria meningitidis nal and erosion control plant. It is also useful
and Pantoea sp. in a range between 0.083 and as a conservatory plant in the Northern
0.041 mg/mL. Hemisphere because of its extended winter-
flowering season.
Dried flowers are used to repel clothes and
Antiprotozoal Activity wallet moths and used in potpourri. The flower-
ing stems after removal of the flowers can be tied
L. dentata plant extract exhibited antiplasmodial in small bundles and burnt as incense sticks
activity against Plasmodium falciparum, inhib- (Genders 1994).
ited growth of amastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi
and free trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma brucei
(Al-Musayeib et al. 2012). Comments

Lavender oil should be used sparingly as it can

Spasmolytic Activity cause dermatitis.

In the rat, the essential oil of L. dentata showed

spasmolytic activity against both acetylcholine-
and calcium chloride-induced contractions in rat Selected References
duodenal tissue in vitro (Gamez et al. 1990). In the
guinea pig, the oil (particularly linalool) exerted Al-Musayeib NM, Mothana RA, Matheeussen A, Cos P,
Maes L (2012) In vitro antiplasmodial, antileishmanial
spasmolytic activity in smooth muscle, inhibiting
and antitrypanosomal activities of selected medicinal
the contractile responses to acetylcholine and plants used in the traditional Arabian Peninsular
histamine (Lis-Balchin and Hart 1997, 1999). region. BMC Complement Altern Med 43(6):
441–442
Barash CW (1997) Edible flowers: desserts and drinks.
Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, 84 pp
Hypoglycemic Activity Burnie G, Fenton-Smith J (1996) A grower’s guide to
herbs. Murdoch Books, Sydney, 96 pp
In hyperglycemic and normoglycemic rats, infu- Dob T, Dahmane D, Tayeb B, Chelghoum C (2005)
Chemical composition of the essential oil of
sions of L. dentata and L. latifolia exerted hypo-
Lavandula dentata L. from Algeria. Int J Aromather
glycemic effects. The infusions had significant 15(2):110–114
antidiabetic activity against glucose-induced Ferreres F, Barberan FAT, Tomas F (1986) Flavonoids
hyperglycemia measured at 30 and 90 min post- from Lavandula dentata. Fitoterapia 57:199–200
Gamez MJ, Zarzuelo A, Risco S, Utrilla P, Jimenez J
administration (Gamez et al. 1988).
(1988) Hypoglycemic activity in various species of the
genus Lavandula. Part 2: Lavandula dentata and
Lavandula latifolia. Pharmazie 43(6):441–442
Traditional Medicinal Uses Gamez MJ, Jimenez J, Navarro C, Zarzuelo A (1990)
Study of the essential oil of Lavandula dentata L.
Pharmazie 45(1):69–70
As described for English Lavender. It has Genders R (1994) Scented flora of the world. Robert Hale,
aromatic, carminative and nervine properties. London, 560 pp
Lavandula dentata 191

Grieve M (1971) A modern herbal. Penguin, 2 vols. Dover Lis-Balchin M, Hart S (1999) Studies on the mode of
Publications, New York. 919 pp action of the essential oil of lavender (Lavandula
Imelouane B, El Bachiri A, Ankit M, Benzeid H, Khedid angustifolia P. Miller). Phytother Res 13:540–542
K (2009) Physico-chemical compositions and antimi- Msaada K, Salem N, Tammar S, Hammami M, Jamal
crobial activity of essential oil of Eastern Moroccan Saharkhiz M, Debiche N, Limam F, Marzouk B (2012)
Lavandula dentata. Int J Agric Biol 11:113–118 Essential oil composition of Lavandula dentata,
Imelouane B, El Bachiri A, Wathelet JP, Dubois J, L. stoechas and L. multifida cultivated in Tunisia.
Amhamdi H (2010) Chemical composition, cytotoxic J Essent Oil Bear Plant 15(6):1030–1039
and antioxidant activity of the essential oil of Roberts MJ (2000) Edible & medicinal flowers. New
Lavandula dentata. World J Chem 5(2):03–110 Africa Publishers, Claremont, 160 pp
Kim NS, Lee DS (2002) Comparison of different extrac- Small E (1997) Culinary herbs, NRC-CNRC monograph.
tion methods for the analysis of fragrances from NRC Research Press, Ottawa, 710 pp
Lavandula species by gas chromatography-mass spec- Touati B, Chograni H, Hassen I, Boussaïd M, Toumi L,
trometry. J Chromatogr A 982(1):31–47 Brahim NB (2011) Chemical composition of the leaf
Lauderdale C, Evans, E (1999) Edible flowers. NC State and flower essential oils of Tunisian Lavandula den-
University Horticulture Information leaflets 1/99 HIL- tata L. (Lamiaceae). Chem Biodivers 8:1560–1569
8513. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/hil/hil-8513.html Upson TM, Grayer RJ, Greenham JR, Williams CA,
Lis-Balchin M, Hart S (1997) A preliminary study of the Al-Ghamdi F, Chen F (2000) Leaf flavonoids as
effect of essential oils on skeletal and smooth muscle systematic characters in the genera Lavandula and
in vitro. J Ethnopharmacol 58:183–187 Sabaudia. Biochem Syst Ecol 28(10):991–1007
 Lavandula stoechas

Scientific Name Dutch: Franse Lavendel, Kuiflavendel, Stechas

Lavendel, Stechas Sort
Lavandula stoechas L. Finnish: Tupsupäälaventeli
French: Lavande, Lavande Maritime, Lavande
Papillon, Lavande Stéchade, Lavande Stéchas,
Synonyms Lavande À Toupet, Stoechas Arabique
German: Ährenförmiger Lavendel, Schopf-Lavendel
Stoechas officinarum Mill. Hungarian: Spanyol Levendula
India: Tuntuna (Bengali), Lavendara No Phul
(Gujarati), Dharu (Hindi), Kale Weouth
Family (Kashmiri), Ustkhuddus (Urdu)
Italian: Lavanda Di Monte, Lavanda Selvatica,
Lamiaceae Lavanda Stoechas, Steca, Stecaole, Stigadosso
Norwegian: Fransk Lavendel
Persian: Jarub Dimagh, Ustkhuddus
Common/English Names Portuguese: Alfazema, Arçã, Rosmaninho
Spanish: Arçã, Astecados, Azaya, Cantahueso,
Arabian Lavender, Bush Lavender, Butterfly Cantuerca, Cantueso, Cantueso Morisco,
Lavender, Common French Lavender, Italian Cap D’ase, Estecados, Hierba De San Juan,
Lavender, Quasti Lavender, Rabbit Ears, Spanish Lavándula, Romero De Piedra, Romero Santo
Lavender, Top Lavender, Topped Lavender Tomillo, Tomillo Borriquero
Swedish: Skärmlavendel
Turkish: Karabaşotu
Vernacular Names Welsh: Lafant

Arabic: Arshameesa, Arshaneesa, Astuhudus,

Halhaal, Moqif Rwah, Meharga Sunbul Origin/Distribution
Al-Ahaaniya, Ustookhoodoos, Washa’i
Al-Shaikh The species is indigenous to northwestern Africa
Berber: Amezzir, Timerza, Imezzir (i.e. Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia), the Madeira
Chinese: Xun Yi Cao Islands, the Canary Islands, southern Europe (i.e.
Danish: Sommerfuglelavendel,Vælsk Lavendel Greece, Italy, France, Portugal and Spain) and

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 192
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_10, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Lavandula stoechas 193

Western Asia (i.e. Cyprus, Israel, Lebanon, Syria

and Turkey). It has been introduced throughout
Europe and to temperate/subtemperate areas in
the Americas, Asia and Australia.

Agroecology

In its native range, it thrives in full sun in dry hills,

garrigue, maquis shrubland or open woodlands
and on well-drained limestone or granite soils. It
requires dry or moist soil and is drought resistant.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The lavender flowers can be used both in sweet

and savoury dishes (Garland 1993; Burnie and
Fenton-Smith 1996; Barash 1997; Lauderdale
and Evans 1999; Roberts 2000; Anonymous 2012).
A delicious lavender sugar can be made with the
Plate 1 Sessile foliage of Spanish Lavender
flowers to add to biscuits, sorbets, jams or jellies.
Flowers look beautiful and taste good too in a
glass of champagne, with chocolate cake, or as
a garnish for sorbets or ice creams. Diminutive
blooms add a mysterious scent to custards, flans
or sorbets. The flowers can be added to vegetable
stock and stews and to create a tasty sauce for
duck, chicken or lamb dishes.

Botany

A low-growing, erect, evergreen, perennial shrub

0.3–1 m high with quadrangular, pubescent stems
becoming woody and rough with age. Leaves
are sessile, opposite, greyish-green, pubescent,
small, linear or lanceolate 11–30 mm by 2–5 mm
with obtuse or acute tips, entire margin and
recurved (Plates 1 and 2). Flowers are fragrant,
inconspicuous, tubularly arranged in dense cylin-
drical clusters (2–5 cm long) at the tips of leafless
stems and are topped with up to five distinctive,
purple- or violet-coloured, petal-like bracts Plate 2 Terminal inflorescences
(10–50 mm long) (Plates 2 and 3). The small
tubular flowers (5–8 mm long) are deep purple in 4–5 mm long, five petals fused into a corolla tube
colour and are subtended by deep bluish-purple with five spreading lobes; stamens four, yellow
bracts, with sepals fused into a short calyx tube and an ovary topped with a very short style. Fruit
194 Lamiaceae

methyl- 4(1-methylethyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-ol
(0.03 %), linalyl oxide (0.70 %), linalool
(0.11 %), cis-sabinol (0.19 %), borneol (0.38 %),
α-terpinen-4-ol (0.56 %), p-cymen-8-ol
(0.56 %), verbenone (0.28 %), carvone (0.43 %),
linalyl acetate (0.50 %), bornyl acetate (1.14 %),
terpineol acetate (0.09 %), geranyl acetate
(0.02 %), caryophyllene (0.02 %) and farnesene
isomers mixture (0.41 %). The major volatile
compounds (in varying amounts) of Lavandula
stoechas flowers obtained by hydrodistillation
Plate 3 Close-up of inflorescences topped by 3–4 purple (HD), subcritical water extraction (SbCWE) and
floral bracts organic solvent extraction under ultrasonic
irradiation (USE) were fenchone, camphor,
a schizocarp, brown, woody, dehiscent containing myrtenyl acetate, myrtenol and 1,8-cineol (Giray
four subglobose, brown, mottled seeds. et al. 2008). The total monoterpene hydrocar-
bons were higher in HD and USE extracts
than those of SbCWE extract. However, SbCWE
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties extract had higher concentration of light-
oxygenated compounds which contributed
Lavanol was isolated from L. stoechas (Manzoor- largely to the fragrance of the oil. Heavy-
I-Khuda and Khan 1967; Manzoor-I-Khuda 1971). oxygenated compounds were also more in
The major flavonoids in L. stoechas were apigenin SbCWE extract (9.90 %) compared to HD
7-glucoside, luteolin, luteolin 7-glucoside and (3.19 %) and USE extracts (4.78 %).
luteolin 7-glucuronide (Xaver and Andary 1988). The 11 oils from the aerial flowering parts of
The isolation of a smooth muscle relaxant princi- wild growing Lavandula stoechas collected from
ple identified as 7-methoxycoumarin from 11 different locations in northern Algeria afforded
Lavandula stoechas was reported by Aftab et al. 121 compounds accounting for 69.88–91.2 % of
(1998). Also reported were lingipinen deriva- the total oil composition and differed greatly in
tives: ursolic acid, β-sitosterol, flavonoids, luteo- their compositions, since only 66 compounds
lin, acacetin, vitexin and coumarin. Flavonoids were common to all oils (Benabdelkader et al.
found in the leaves of L. stoechas subsp. stoe- 2011). Major components were fenchone (11.27–
chas included luteolin 7-O-glucoside, luteolin 37.48 %), camphor (1.94–21.8 %), 1,8-cineole
7-O-glucuronide chrysoeriol 7-O-glucoside, api- (0.16–8.71 %) and viridiflorol (2.89–7.38 %).
genin-7-O-glucoside, apigenin-7-O-glucuronide The essential oil yield from the flowering spikes
and their derivatives, vitexin, apigenin and genk- of Lavandula stoechas from India was 0.86 %,
wanin (Upson et al. 2000). comprising 25 components which amounted
A total of 28 fragrance compounds in L. to 96.7 % (Raina and Negi 2012). The major
stoechas aerial plant parts were identified by components were camphor (52.1 %), fenchone
solid-phase trapping solvent extraction (SPTE) (12.0 %), 1,8-cineole (9.7 %), bornyl acetate
in Korea (Kim and Lee 2002). Major compo- (6.2 %), camphene (3.3 %), α-pinene (1.1 %) and
nents were camphor (53.40 %) and fenchone terpinen-4-ol (0.6 %). The essential oil was rich
(24.30 %); other components included ethyl ben- in oxygenated monoterpenes (86.3 %). Earlier,
zene (0.05 %), m-xylene or p-xylene (0.16 %), Skoula et al. (1996) reported the main essential
o-xylene (0.09 %), thujene (0.07 %), α-pinene oil constituents from four wild populations of
(0.78 %), camphene (2.30 %), β-pinene (0.15 %), Lavandula stoechas ssp. stoechas of Crete, Greece,
β-myrcene (0.09 %), p-cymene (0.54 %), limo- were α-pinene, 1,8-cineole, fenchone, camphor
nene (0.15 %), cineol (12.50 %), trans-1- and myrtenyl acetate. Three of the different
Lavandula stoechas 195

populations were fenchone/camphor type and L. stoechas essential oil from the Greece
one 1,8-cineole/fenchone type. The variation in afforded 51 components corresponding to 99.96 %
the quantitative essential oil composition between of the total, which was dominated by fenchone
leaves and inflorescences was also significant. (30.85 %) and pinocarvyl acetate (10.20 %)
In all cases, inflorescences contained more fen- and other compounds like borneol, linalool,
chone, myrtenyl acetate and α-pinene, while linalyl acetate, α-pinene, camphor, eucalyptol
leaves contained more 1,8-cineole and cam- and myrtenol (Kokkalou 1988). The major
phor. Additionally, the inflorescences produced compounds of the essential oils of L. stoechas
notably larger essential oil amounts than the ssp. atlantica and L. stoechas ssp. stoechas from
leaves. The major compounds in the essential Morocco were camphor (39 and 18 %, respec-
oils from the stems/leaves (L) and flowers (F) of tively) and fenchone (9 and 30 %, respectively)
Lavandula stoechas ssp. stoechas growing (Zrira and Benjilali 2003). Essential oil extracted
wild in southern Sardinia (Italy) were fenchone from aerial parts of L. stoechas in Tunisia was
(52.60 % in L and 66.20 % in F), followed by dominated by linalyl acetate (64.30 %), linalool
camphor (13.13 % in L, 27.08 % in F) (Angioni (20.25 %) and β-thujone (8.97 %) (Msaada et al.
et al. 2006). In another study, 55 and 66 constituents 2012). Lavandula stoechas (from Tunisia) oil was
were identified in the leaf and flower essential found to be rich in fenchone (34.3 %) and camphor
oils of Lavandula stoechas ssp. stoechas from (27.4 %) (Messaoud et al. 2012).
Turkey representing more than 90 and 94 % of The aerial parts of Lavandula stoechas subsp.
the total, respectively (Kirmizibekmez et al. 2009). stoechas afforded two longipinene derivatives:
The main components were α-fenchone (41.9 %), longipin-2-ene-7β,9α-diol-1-one and longipin-2-
1,8-cineole (15.6 %), camphor (12.1 %) and ene-7β,9α-diol-1-one 9-monoacetate; also isolated
viridiflorol (4.1 %) in the leaves and α-fenchone were oleanolic acid, ursolic acid and vergatic acid
(39.2 %), myrtenyl acetate (9.5 %), α-pinene (Ulubelen et al. 1988). The following were also iso-
(6.1 %), camphor (5.9 %) and 1,8-cineole (3.8 %) lated: sterols, β-sitosterol, α-amyrin, α-amyrin ace-
in the flowers. In the inflorescence and leaf essen- tate, lupeol, erythrodiol and flavonoids luteolin,
tial oils of L. stoechas subsp. stoechas in Greece, acacetin and vitexin (Ulubelen and Olcay 1989).
the main constituents were fenchone (39.9, 21.0 %) Fractionation of ethyl acetate extract of Lavandula
and camphor (24.2, 26.3 %), respectively (Tzakou stoechas aerial parts afforded a novel acetylated
et al. 2009). Both enantiomers of camphor were glucoside, luteolin (3p,4p,5-tri-O-acetyl)-7-O-
present, whereas only (+) fenchone was detected. glucopyranoside(2-O-[3-(1-acetoxy-4-
The essential oil of flowers and leaves of L. oxocyclohexa-2,5-dienyl)acryloyl]) together with
stoechas grown in Iran contained 1,8-cineol apigenin 7-O-glucoside and luteolin 7-O-glucoside
(7.02 %), γ-cadinene (5.33 %), T-cadinol (5.07), (Gabrieli and Kokkalou 2003).
p-mentha-1-en-8-ol (5.02 %), caryophyllene The composition of essential oil of the leaves
(5.01 %), 2-ethenylidene-6,6-dimethylbicyclo of Lavandula stoechas ssp. stoechas was analyzed
[3.1.1]heptane (4.98 %), borneol (4.87 %), by means of capillary GC–MS. The main compo-
1,3,3-trimethyl-2-vinyl-1-cyclohexene (4.76 %), nents of L. stoechas ssp. stoechas leaf essential
alcanfor (4.16 %), β-terpineol (4.11 %), geranial oil were pulegone (40.4 %), menthol (18.1 %)
acetate (3.64 %), α-bisabolol (3.23 %), cedrene and menthone (12.6 %) (Gören et al. 2002). The
(2.91 %), cubenol (2.85 %), (+)-α-pinene minor components were: eucalyptol (3.9 %),
(2.71 %), (−)-β-pinene (2.35 %), cuminyl alcohol 2,6,6,-trimethyl-1-cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde
(2.53 %), nerolidyl acetate (2.92 %), caryophyl- (3.2 %), β-pinene (3.2 %), β-terpineol (2.3 %),
lene oxide (2.80 %), 2,6,10-trimethyltetradecane p-cymene (1.4 %), D-limonene (1.3 %), α-thujune
(2.31 %), isoledene (1.57 %), 2-methylene-5α- (0.1 %), α-pinene (1.2 %), trans-dihydrocarvone
cholestan-3α-ol (1.47 %), α-cadinol (1.44 %) and (0.9 %), carvacrol (0.6 %), p-mentha-1(7), 8(10)-dien-
7,7-dichloro-2-heptanone (1.01 %), (Ebadollahi 9-ol (0.6 %), borneol (0.5 %), isopulegol (0.4 %),
et al. 2010). camphene (0.4 %), α-terpineol (0.4 %), spathulenol
196 Lamiaceae

(0.4 %), γ-terpinene (0.4 %), sabinene (0.3 %), water extract of lavender showed 95.5, 86.9 and
myrcene (0.3 %), 3-carene (0.3 %), cis-verbenol 94.8 % inhibition on lipid peroxidation of lin-
(0.2 %), piperitone (0.2 %), unidentified oleic acid emulsion, respectively. At the same
(0.2 %), thymol (0.2 %), α-terpinene (0.1 %), concentrations, ethanol extract lavender exhibited
β-phellandrene (0.1 %), isolimonene (0.1 %), 95.5, 92.5 and 96.5 %, respectively. Comparably,
isoterpinolene (0.1 %), trans-p-2,8,-menthadi- 60 μg/mL of standard antioxidants such as
ene-1-ol (0.1 %), cis-carveol (0.1 %), piperiten- butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated
one (0.1 %), α-citral (0.1 %), bornyl acetate hydroxytoluene (BHT) and α-tocopherol exhibited
(0.1 %), β-caryophyllene (0.1 %), nerolidol 96.5, 99.2 and 61.1 % inhibition on peroxidation
(0.1 %), caryophyllene oxide (0.1 %) and of linoleic acid emulsion, respectively. Lavender
β-cadiene (0.1 %). Twenty-eight components extracts had effective reductive potential, free
corresponding to 96.6 % of total oil were identi- radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical
fied in the leaf essential oil of L. stoechas from scavenging and metal chelating activities at all
Tunisia (Bouzouita et al. 2005). The major tested concentrations (20, 40 and 60 μg/mL).
components were fenchone (68.2 %), camphor Those various antioxidant activities were compa-
(11.2 %) and a mixture of 1,8-cineole/limonene rable to standard antioxidants such as BHA, BHT
(4.9 %). Other minor components included and α-tocopherol. The 11 essential oils from the
α-pinene (0.4 %), camphene (0.8 %), oct-1-en- aerial flowering parts of wild growing Lavandula
3-ol (0.2 %), p-cymene (0.4 %), cis-linalool stoechas collected from 11 different locations in
oxide (tr), linalool (0.3 %), α-fenchol (1.9 %), northern Algeria differed in the DPPH-based
α-campholenol (tr), borneol (0.6 %), terpinen- radical-scavenging activities and the inhibition of
4-ol (0.2 %), p-cymen-8-ol (0.4 %), α-terpineol the β-carotene/linoleic acid-based lipid oxidation
(0.2 %), myrtenol (0.6 %), α-fenchyl acetate by an eightfold factor between the most and
(0.8 %), carvone (0.3 %), bornyl acetate (1.4 %), the least active oils and were linked to different
myrtenyl acetate (1.2 %), cyclosativene sets of molecules in the different essential oils
(0.2 %), α-copaene (0.2 %), allo-aromadendrene (Benabdelkader et al. 2011).
(0.2 %), BHT (antioxidant from diethyl ether)
(1.5 %), δ-cadinene (0.4 %), selina-3,7(11)-diene
(0.2 %) and viridiflorol (1.4 %). Hypoglycemic Activity
The roots of L. stoechas ssp. stoechas from
Turkey afforded triterpenes (18-hydroxy-27- In hyperglycemic and normoglycemic rats,
norolean-12,14-dien-30-al-28-oicacid;3β-hydroxy-1- infusions of L. latifolia and L. dentata exerted
oxo-olean-12-ene-30-al-28-oic acid; 16β-hydroxylu- hypoglycemic effects. The infusions had significant
peol-3- O -palmitate; 16β-hydroxylupeol-3- O - antidiabetic activity against glucose-induced
myristate; 11-oxo-β-amyrin; monogynol A cis- hyperglycemia measured at 30 and 90 min post-
coumaryl ester; monogynol A trans-coumaryl ester; administration (Gamez et al. 1987).
18-hydroxy-27-norolean-12,14-dien-30-al-28-oic
acid; and 3β-hydroxy-1-oxo-olean-12-ene-30-al-
28-oic acid), aromatics (cis-4-O-methyl caffeic acid Anticancer Activity
octanol ester and trans-4-O-methyl caffeic acid
octanol ester) and two steroids (Topçu et al. 2001). Lavandula stoechas ssp. stoechas leaf essential
oil was found to be active against cancer cell line
COL-2 (9.8 μg/mL) and weakly active against
Antioxidant Activity LNCaP (17.6 μg/mL), while the chloroform
extract of the same plant was found to be highly
The extracts of Lavandula stoechas exhibited strong active against cancer cell line P-388 (1.4 μg/mL).
total antioxidant activity (Gülçin et al. 2004). None of them showed any activity against the
At the concentrations of 20, 40 and 60 µg/mL, ASK cancer cell line (Gören et al. 2002).
Lavandula stoechas 197

Antimicrobial Activity aureus was more susceptible to the flower oil

(MIC = 31.2 μg/mL). Essential oils from Lavandula
Lavandula stoechas ssp. stoechas leaf essential angustifolia, L. latifolia, L. stoechas and a necro-
oil exhibited antimicrobial activity against Bacillus dane-rich L. luisieri inhibited growth of both
subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus mirabilis, methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant
Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA and MRSA) by
Pseudomonas aeruginosa but not against direct contact at oil doses ranging from 1 to
Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterococcus faeca- 20 μL but not in the vapour phase (Roller et al.
lis and Candida albicans (Gören et al. 2002). The 2009). Testing of binary combinations of the oils
essential oils of Turkish oregano (Origanum minu- showed that the L. luisieri oil interacted synergis-
tiflorum), bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), Spanish tically with L. stoechas (high in 1,8-cineole, fen-
Lavender (Lavandula stoechas subsp. stoechas) chone and camphor) and L. angustifolia (rich in
and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) exhibited a linalool and linalyl acetate) to produce larger
potent antibacterial activity against the following inhibition zones than those produced using each
food-borne bacteria: Escherichia coli O157:H7, oil individually.
Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium All the essential oils isolated from Lamiaceous
and Staphylococcus aureus (Dadalioğlu and plants in Turkey including Lavandula stoechas
Everendiliek 2004). ssp. stoechas were very effective against Gram-
Lavandula stoechas leaf essential oil exhibited positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which
antimicrobial activity in submerged broth culture included multiple antibiotic-resistant strains,
against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epider-
A, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, midis , Streptococcus mutans , Escherichia
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidis coli , Pseudomonas stutzeri, Stenotrophomonas
and fungi Candida albicans and Geotrichum can- maltophilia, Micrococcus luteus, Chryseomonas
didum (Bouzouita et al. 2005) The Gram-positive luteola and Bacillus subtilis, except Pseudomonas
bacteria were more sensitive and Staphylococcus aeruginosa and Pseudomonas fluorescens (Sarac
aureus was the most susceptible. Among the and Ugur 2009). The oils except from Salvia
Gram-negative bacteria, Pseudomonas aerugi- tomentosa and Salvia fruticosa were also effective
nosa was the most susceptible. L. stoechas oil against Candida albicans. The 11 essential oils
1 % (V/V) completed inhibited growth of fungi from the aerial flowering parts of wild growing
Candida albicans and Geotrichum candidum. Lavandula stoechas collected from 11 different
Essential oils in the following lavender species: locations in northern Algeria exhibited good
Lavandula vera, L. intermedia, L. pyrenaica and antimicrobial activities against most of the 16
L. stoechas subsp. stoechas exhibited antipseu- tested strains of bacteria, filamentous fungi and
domonal effect with MBC values in the range yeasts, with minimum inhibitory concentrations
12.5–50 μL/mL using the tube dilution method (MICs) ranging from 0.16 to 11.90 mg/mL
(Végh et al. 2012). (Benabdelkader et al. 2011).
The essential oils of Lavandula stoechas ssp.
stoechas were found inhibitory to Rhizoctonia
solani and Fusarium oxysporum and less effective Antiangiogenic Activity
against Aspergillus flavus (Angioni et al. 2006).
Among the oil components tested, fenchone, lim- Components from L. stoechas essential oil poten-
onene and myrtenal appeared to be the more tially displayed a higher grade of interaction with
effective on the inhibition of R. solani growth. matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9
The flower essential oil was found to be relatively in vitro (Zeidán-Chuliá et al. 2012). Although
more active than the leaf oil towards the tested antibacterial and growth inhibitory effects of
pathogenic microorganisms (Kirmizibekmez essential oils on the tested periodontopathogens
et al. 2009). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus were limited, L. stoechas inhibited MMP-2 and
198 Lamiaceae

MMP-9 in vitro at concentrations of 1 and 5 μL/ anticonvulsant and antispasmodic activities and
mL. MMP-inhibiting concentrations of essential that its calcium channel blocking property may
oils were not cytotoxic against keratinocytes. The be mechanistically related to these activities.
authors proposed that essential oil of L. stoechas In vitro studies showed that Lavandula
may be useful therapeutic agents as MMP inhibi- stoechas crude extract (1–10 mg/mL) caused
tors through a mechanism possibly based on their atropine-sensitive spasmogenic effect in guinea
antioxidant potential. pig ileum (Jabeen et al. 2007). In spontaneously
contracting rabbit jejunum, the extract (0.03–1 mg/
mL) caused a transient spasmogenicity followed
Hypotensive Activity by relaxation at higher doses. The extract relaxed
high K+-induced contractions at the similar dose
Crude extract of L. stoechas produced a fall in range (0.03–1 mg/mL), suggesting that the spas-
blood pressure and heart rate in anesthetized NMT molytic effect was mediated through calcium
rats (Gilani et al. 2000). Pretreatment of atropine channel blockade. Activity-directed fractionation
abolished the cardiovascular responses, suggesting revealed that the spasmolytic effect was concen-
that the antihypertensive and bradycardia effects trated in the petroleum fraction while the spas-
of the crude extract may be mediated through mogenic effect was more evident in the aqueous
mechanism(s) similar to that of acetylcholine. fraction. The data indicated the presence of both
spasmogenic and spasmolytic components medi-
ated through muscarinic receptor activation and
Anticonvulsant and Antispasmodic/ calcium channel blockade, respectively. The data
Spasmogenic Activity may also explain some of its medicinal uses in
gut disorders, like constipation and spasm.
The isolation of a smooth muscle relaxant principle
identified as 7-methoxycoumarin from Lavandula
stoechas was reported by Aftab et al. (1998). The Anti-inflammatory Activity
aqueous-methanolic extract of L. stoechas flowers
(600 mg/kg) significantly reduced the severity French Lavender (Lavandula stoechas) extract
and increased the latency of convulsions induced exhibited inhibitory activity in the paw oedema
by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) in mice and reduced induced by carrageenan (38 % at 3 h) but had no
PTZ’s lethality (Gilani et al. 2000). The extract effect on the TPA-induced ear oedema (Amira
up to a dose of 600 mg/kg was found devoid of et al. 2012). The extract also showed antioxidant
any hypnotic effect in mice; however, animals activity. Lavender extract at 200 μg/mL decreased
were found to be dull, calm and relaxed. The proinflammatory cell viability by 63 % after 3 h
sedative effect of lavender extract was confirmed, of incubation. Neutrophil elimination through
as it prolonged the pentobarbital sleeping time apoptosis could be implicated in the resolution of
in mice similar to that of diazepam. In isolated acute inflammation in the case of lavender,
rabbit jejunum preparations, the extract caused a whereas the reduction of reactive oxygen species
dose-dependent (0.1–1.0 mg/mL) relaxation of produced by neutrophils, such as the superoxide
spontaneous contractions. The extract also inhib- anion and the hydroxyl radical, could be impli-
ited K(+)-induced contractions in a similar dose cated in the overall reduction of inflammation.
range, thereby suggesting calcium channel block-
ade which was confirmed when pretreatment of
the jejunum preparation with the extract produced Insecticidal Activity
a dose-dependent shift of the Ca(2+) dose–
response curve to the right, similar to the effect of The essential oils of both L. stoechas and L.
verapamil, a standard calcium channel blocker. angustifolia exhibited insecticidal effects against
The data indicated that lavender extract exhibited Drosophila auraria flies (Konstantopoulou et al.
Lavandula stoechas 199

1992). Extracts of Myrtus communis were found was evident. After carotid sinus massage, the
to be the most toxic against fourth instar larvae patient immediately returned to sinus rhythm.
of the mosquito Culex pipiens molestus, followed
by those of Origanum syriacum, Mentha
microcorphylla, Pistacia lentiscus and Lavandula Traditional Medicinal Uses
stoechas, with LC50 values of 16, 36, 39, 70 and
89 mg/L, respectively (Traboulsi et al. 2002). Among Polat and Satıl (2012) found that Hypericum
the components of the oils tested, thymol, carvacrol, perforatum, Lavandula stoechas, Salvia tomen-
(1R)-(+)-α-pinene and (1S)-(−)-α-pinene were tosa, Origanum onites, Origanum vulgare and
the most toxic (LC50 = 36–49 mg/L), while Teucrium polium were the most commonly used
menthone, 1,8-cineole, linalool and terpineol plant species for medical purposes by the local
(LC50 = 156–194 mg/L) were less toxic. The people of Edremit Gulf, located in the western
essential oils of Lavandula stoechas and Eucalyptus region of Turkey. The traditional medicinal plants
globulus were toxic to the cigarette beetle have been mostly used for the treatment of
Lasioderma serricorne with LC50 = 0.379 μL/cm2 abdominal and stomach pain (17 %), cough and
and LC50 = 0.216 μL/cm2, respectively, in contact cold (12 %), diabetes (6 %), kidney ailments
toxicity (Ebadollahi et al. 2010). In fumigation (5 %) and wounds (4 %). Most of the medicinal
toxicity, lavender oil had an LC50 = 3.835 μL/L air plants used in the Marmaris district of south-west
and the eucalyptus oil LC50 = 11.222 μL/L air at Anatolia, Turkey, belong to the families Lamiaceae
24 h time of exposure. A direct relationship (13 species) and Asteraceae (four species); among
between mortality rate and dose was detected. the Lamiaceae was Lavandula stoechas (Gürdal
and Kültür 2013). Lavandula stoechas oil is
extensively used in aromatherapy as a holistic
Genotoxic Activity relaxant (Evans 1996). In Morocco, L. stoechas
in decoction is used for catarrh of the upper respi-
Studies showed that aqueous extracts of L. stoechas ratory tract, sneezing, cough, asthma, bronchitis,
flowers reduced mitotic index of Allium cepa root abdominal pains, colds, rheumatism, lumbago,
tip meristem cells, but significantly induced etc. (Bellakhdar 1997). In the Middle Atlas,
chromosome aberrations and mitotic aberrations North Africa, L. stoechas is used to aromatize the
in comparison with water control (Çelik and Lben (skim milk) (IUCN 2005). An infusion
Aslantürk 2007). Aqueous extracts induced of flowering tips is used as a tonic, resolvent,
breaks, stickiness, pole deviations and micronuclei. stomachic, vulnerary, diaphoretic, pectoral,
Furthermore, these effects were related to extract diuretic, antispasmodic and antirheumatic and
concentrations. The results showed L. stoechas for headache, cases of irritability, epilepsy and
aqueous extracts had cytotoxic and genotoxic blennorrhagia (Grieve 1971; Chopra et al. 1986;
effects. Bown 1995; IUCN 2005).

Contraindication Other Uses

A case of poisoning by ingestion of tea made from This lavender is grown as a medicinal plant in
Lavender stoechas herb was reported (Acikalin western India, as an ornamental and for essential
et al. 2012). The patient was admitted to the oil elsewhere. All the forms of lavender including
emergency department with supraventricular this lavender are much visited by bees and
tachycardia due to anticholinergic syndrome provide good sources of honey. From this laven-
triggered by drinking lavender tea. On electrocar- der, an essential oil is extracted and used for air
diography, a narrow QRS complex tachycardia fresheners, deodorants, disinfectants, insecticides
200 Lamiaceae

(IUCN 2005), soaps, perfumes and medicines Bown D (1995) Encyclopaedia of herbs and their uses.
Dorling Kindersley, London, 424 pp
(Uphof 1968; Usher 1974). The aromatic leaves
Burnie G, Fenton-Smith J (1996) A grower’s guide to
and flowers are used in potpourri and as an insect herbs. Murdoch Books, Sydney, 96 pp
repellent in the linen cupboard (Polunin and Çelik TA, Aslantürk ÖS (2007) Cytotoxic and genotoxic
Huxley 1967; Bown 1995). After the removal of effects of Lavandula stoechas aqueous extracts.
Biologia 62(3):292–296
the flowers for use in potpourri, the flowering
Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC (1986) Glossary of
shoots can be tied in small bundles and burnt as Indian medicinal plants. (Including the supplement).
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 Salvia elegans

Scientific Name Origin/Distribution

Salvia elegans Vahl Pineapple Sage is indigenous to Mexico and

Guatemala.

Synonyms
Agroecology
Salvia camertonii Regel, Salvia elegans var.
sonorensis Fernald, Salvia incarnata Cav. [Illeg.], In its native range, Pineapple Sage grows natu-
Salvia longiflora Sessé & Moc., Salvia microcalyx rally in oak and pine scrub forests at high eleva-
Scheele, Salvia microculis Poir., Salvia punicea tions from 2,438 to 3,048 m.
M. Martens & Galeotti, Salvia rutilans Carrière The plant prefers full sun and thrives in well-
drained, humus-rich, fertile loamy or sandy-loam
soils with regular watering. It is sensitive to
Family drought. Although frost tolerant, it will die down
in deep frost but will sprout again in spring.
Lamiaceae

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Common/English Names
Pineapple Sage leaves and flowers are edible
Pineapple Sage, Pineapple Scented Sage, Honey (Morton 1976; Facciola 1990; Roberts 1993,
Melon Sage, Tangerine Sage 2000; Coyle 1999; Hanson 2001; Newman and
O’Connor 2009; Anonymous 2013). Pineapple
Sage imparts a pineapple-like fragrance to food,
Vernacular Names but its only real use in cooking is as a fresh edible
flower (Anonymous 2013). The flowers are redo-
Finnish: Ananassalvia lent of honeysuckle and make a colourful sparkle
French: Sauge Ananas when scattered in salads, fruit cocktails, fruit
German: Ananas-Salbei, Honigmelonen-Salbei puddings, dessert or any garnish. They are par-
Mexico: Flor del Cerro, Limoncillo, Mirto, ticularly attractive when scattered with yellow or
Perritos Rojos (Spanish) green bell pepper. They can be sugared and used
Portuguese: Sábio Abacaxi to garnish cakes or cookie platters or infused to
Swedish: Ananassalvia make a tea. Minced leaves and flowers can be

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 202
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_11, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Salvia elegans 203

mixed in cream cheese to afford a delightful

fruity spread. The leaves can be kneaded into
raisin dough bread. Pineapple Sage herbal sugar
can be prepared by layering leaves in sugar and
allowing it to infuse for a week. Fresh leaves can
be steep in hot apple juice and the juice used to
make jelly with Pineapple Sage flavour. Leaves
can also be brewed into tea or make into a refresh-
ing summer drink. The fresh or dried leaves can
be added to savoury dishes to impart a pineapple-
like flavour. Other recipes for flowers and leaves
reported include sweet banana smoothie, fritters,
salsa, ginger chicken with fresh Pineapple Sage
and Pineapple Sage pound cake.

Botany

A perennial semi-woody, subshrub 1–1.5 m high

with an open-branched habit, pubescent, squarish
stems and roots extending underground to form a
large clump. The leaves are opposite, simple,
Plate 1 Opposite pubescent leaves and stems
softly pubescent, pale green, elliptic, 5–10 cm
long, with acute to acuminate tip and obtuse to
cordate base, sunken-veined and finely serrated
to cuneate margin on 3 cm pubescent petioles
(Plate 1). Flowers are arranged in 4-flowered
whorls on 20 cm long terminal spikes. Flowers
ruby red, 2.5–5 cm long, calyx tubular and hairy;
corolla tubular, two-lipped, pubescent, with
upper hoodlike lip and lower spreading lip
3-lobed; stamens 2 short, staminodes 2 small;
style bi-cleft (Plate 2). Nutlet glabrous ovoid.

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Twenty-eight volatile aroma components were

identified in Pineapple Sage (Makino et al. 1996).
Among them, monoterpenoids and sesquit-
erpenoids such as trans-ocimene, linalool,
β-caryophyllene, germacrene D and spathulenol;
aliphatic alcohols such as 2-propanol and
3-octanol; and trans-3-hexenal were predomi-
nant components. Also, cis-jasmone was found
as a minor component. The contents of the
predominant terpenoids, such as trans-ocimene,
linalool and β-caryophyllene, found in the Plate 2 Tubular red flowers
204 Lamiaceae

preflowering stage were lower in ether extract of increased the percentage of time spent and the
the full flowering stage. percentage of arm entries in the open arms of
Essential oil composition of S. elegans aerial the elevated plus maze, as well as increased the
parts harvested at full flowering stage comprised time spent by mice in the illuminated side of the
mainly monoterpenes (68.2 %) made up of oxy- light–dark test, and decreased the immobility
genated compounds (62.7 %) and monoterpene time of mice subjected to the forced swimming
hydrocarbons (5.5 %), with total sesquiterpenes test (Herrera-Ruiz et al. 2006). The same extract
amounting to 24.0 % (20.9 % sesquiterpene was not able to modify the spontaneous locomo-
hydrocarbons and 3.1 % of oxygenated sesquiter- tor activity measured in the open-field test. These
penes) and only 0.7 % of phenolic compounds results indicated the potential antidepressant
(De Martino et al. 2010). cis-Thujone (38.7 %) and anxiolytic activity of Salvia elegans.
and geranyl acetate (6.9 %) were the most Intraperitoneal administration of Salvia elegans
abundant among oxygenated monoterpenes, leaf hydroalcoholic (60 % ethanol) extract (3.12,
while geraniol (6.5 %) and camphor (4.6 %) were 12.5, 25 and 50 mg/kg) to male Sprague-Dawley
present in less amount. The most abundant rats caused a significant decrease in total motility,
sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were δ-cadinene locomotion, rearing and grooming behaviour
(11.5 %), bicyclogermacrene (2.5 %) and (Mora et al. 2006). Only the dose of 12.5 mg/kg
α-muurolene (1.8 %). The other components increased the exploration of the elevated plus-
included (Z)-β-ocimene (2.2 %), α-terpinene maze test open arms in a similar way to that of
(1.7 %), α-terpineol (1.6 %), γ-cadinene (1.5 %), diazepam (1 mg/kg). In the forced swimming
τ-muurolol (1.4 %), limonene (1.1 %), geranial test, all doses of the extract induced a reduction
(1 %), bornyl acetate (1 %), τ-cadinol (0.9 %), of immobility, in a similar way to that of fluox-
β-pinene (0.7 %), neral (0.7 %), terpinen-4-ol etine (10 mg/kg) and imipramine (12.5 mg/kg),
(0.7 %), carvacrol (0.6 %), α-guaiene (0.5 %), along with a significant increase in the time spent
valencene (0.5 %), β-elemene (0.4 %), b-phellan- in swimming behaviour. Acquisition of active
drene (0.4 %), 1,8-cineole (0.4 %), sabinene avoidance responses was disrupted by pretreat-
(0.3 %), α-humulene (0.3 %), α-cadinene (0.3 %), ment with the extract, but retention of a passive
allo-aromadendrene (0.2 %), cubebol (0.2 %), avoidance response was not significantly modi-
germacrene D (0.2 %), tricyclene (0.2 %), spathulenol fied. The results suggested that some of the
(0.2 %), β-oplopenone (0.2 %), 1-epi-cubenol components of the hydroalcoholic extract of
(0.2 %), camphene (0.2 %), cis-β-guaiene (0.2 %), Salvia elegans had psychotropic properties.
neryl acetate (0.2 %), β-caryophyllene (0.2 %),
cadina-1,4-diene (0.1 %), aromadendrene (0.1 %),
cis-calamenene (0.1 %), o-cymene (0.1 %), (E)- Antihypertensive Activity
β-ocimene (0.1 %), γ-terpinene (0.1 %), cis-
sabinene hydrate (0.1 %), trans -linalool Administration of S. elegans hydroalcoholic
oxide (0.1 %), cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (0.1 %), extract significantly decreased systolic blood
p-cymen-8-ol (0.1 %), δ-elemene (0.1 %), pressure of mice; the antihypertensive effect was
α-cubebene (0.1 %), (Z)-isoeugenol (0.1 %), greater than that treatment with losartan (Jiménez-
γ-muurolene (0.1 %), β-himachalene (0.1 %) and Ferrer et al. 2010). The extract decreased the
α-gurjunene (0.1 %). E(max) of the angiotensin II hypertensive effect
by about 20 % in both systolic and diastolic
pressures; treatment with losartan also decreased
Anxiolytic and Antidepressant the same parameter between 6 % and 8 % for
Activity systolic and diastolic pressures, respectively.
Fractions SeF8 and SeF8-8 of the extract showed
Salvia elegans (leaves and flowers) hydroalco- similar levels of angiotensin II ED50 for both
holic (60 %) extract, administered orally to mice, pressures compared with losartan; these fractions
Salvia elegans 205

were found to contain major compounds typical that of S. splendens were β-cubebene (22.9 %)
of flavonoids. The extract also inhibited angio- and caryophyllene (12.99 %).
tensin-converting enzyme activity (50.27 %).
SeBuOH fraction and SeF8-22 fraction exhibited
greater ACE inhibitory activity 78.40 % and Traditional Medicinal Uses
82.61 % compared to lisinopril (87.18 %). The
main compounds of the fractions SeBuOH and S. elegans is widely used in Mexican traditional
SeF8-22 were found to be flavonoid and phenyl medicine to alleviate central nervous system ail-
propanoid types. The results suggested the ments, especially anxiety (Herrera-Ruiz et al.
antihypertensive effect of Salvia elegans was 2006; Mora et al. 2006). The plant is widely used
attributed to the angiotensin II antagonism and in Mexico for healing purposes and also as antihy-
inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme. pertensive treatment for lowering blood pressure
(Jiménez-Ferrer et al. 2010). The purported health
benefits of this herb include calming the nervous
Cholinergic Activity system, serving as a general tonic, improving the
digestive system and treating heartburn.
Of plant extracts tested for CNS act acetylcholine
receptor activity traditionally used to improve
failing memory, Melissa officinalis, three Salvia Other Uses
species and Artemisia absinthium ethanol extracts
were found to be the most potent with IC50 Pineapple Sage is used as a medicinal plant, a
concentrations of <1 mg/mL (Wake et al. 2000). flavourful herb for garnishing dishes and an orna-
The plant extracts were able to displace [3H]-(N)- mental specimen plant for avid gardeners. The
nicotine and [3H]-(N)-scopolamine from nicotinic decorative, fragrant leaves are employed in
receptors and muscarinic receptors, respectively, bouquets, and the scarlet flowers are used in
in homogenates of human cerebral cortical cell potpourris. Entire flowering stems can be dried
membranes. M. officinalis displayed the highest for use in herbal wreaths.
[3H]-(N)-nicotine displacement value and Salvia Studies found that S. elegans essential oil has
elegans the highest [3H]-(N)-scopolamine dis- allelopathic activity and can control germination
placement value. Choline, a weak nicotinic of unwanted or competitive plants. The oils of
ligand (IC50 = 3 × 10−4 M), was found in extracts S. elegans, S. greggii and S. munzii were active
of all plants studied at concentrations of 10−6 to inhibitors of germination and radical elongation
10−5 M. These concentrations could not account of Raphanus sativus and Lepidium sativum
for not more than 5 % of the displacement activity (De Martino et al. 2010). The germination of gar-
observed. den cress was completely inhibited by S. elegans,
S. greggii and S. munzii oils, at the highest doses
(1.25, 0.625 μg/mL) used. S. elegans essential oil
Insecticidal Activity at the almost all doses tested inhibited signifi-
cantly the radical elongation of both radish and
The essential oils of S. elegans and S. splendens garden cress.
Blue Ribbon exhibited excellent inhibitory lar-
vicidal effect against fourth instar larvae of
Aedes albopictus mosquito, and their LC50 val- Comments
ues at 24 h were 46.4 and 59.2 ppm, and LC90
values 121.8 and 133.0 ppm, respectively Pineapple Sage is easily propagated from stem
(Mathew and Thoppil 2011). The main compo- cuttings rooted in potting soil or a mixture of
nents of S. elegans essential oil were spathule- sand and peat moss. The red flowers are attractive
nol (38.73 %) and caryophyllene (10.32 %) and to hummingbirds and butterflies.
206 Lamiaceae

Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium (1976) Hortus third. A

Selected References concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
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www.mountainvalleygrowers.com/salelegans.htm nents of pineapple sage (Salvia elegans Vahl). Food
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Feo V (2010) Chemical composition and antigermina- extract of Salvia elegans induces anxiolytic-and antidepres-
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 Sideritis scardica

Scientific Name Spanish: Rabogatos, Garranchuelos, Zahareñas

Turkish: Adaçayi, Daçayi, Dalli
Sideritis scardica Griseb.

Origin/Distribution
Synonyms
Sideritis scardica is indigenous to the Balkan
Navicularia scardica (Griseb.) Soják, Siderits and occurs in south-west Albania, Macedonia,
florida Boiss. & Heldr., Sideritis raeseri subsp. Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Turkey (Heywood
florida (Boiss. & Heldr.) Papan. & Kokkini, 1973; Petrova and Vladimirov 2010).
Sideritis scardica subsp. longibracteata Papan. &
Kokkini
Agroecology

Family Sideritis scardica grows in the subalpine and

alpine vegetation belts accompanied by high-
Lamiaceae mountain, mostly chasmophytic plants. The plant
is frost tolerant, surviving low temperatures
to −10 °C. In its native range, it occurs in open,
Common/English Names dry, stony places, on limestone, on shallow and
eroded soil. It is a robust, hardy plant that is
Balkan Sideritis, Bulgarian Viagra, Ironwort, adapted to survive with little water and little soil.
Greek Mountain Tea, Mountain Tea, Pirin Tea,
Mursalski Tea, Shepherd’s Tea
Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Vernacular Names Sideritis scardica is used for the preparation of a

popular drink throughout Eastern and Central
Albanian: Çaj Mali Europe (Danesi et al. 2013). Sideritis species
Crete: Malotira including S. sideritis have been traditionally used
French: Crapaudine as teas for feeding, flavouring agents and in folk
German: Bergtee, Griechischer Bergtee medicine (González-Burgos et al. 2011). Sideritis
Greece: Τσάι Του Βουνού scardica and Sideritis raeseri are very popular
Slovašcina: Šarplaninski Čaj in Macedonia, Bulgaria and Greece as well as

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 207
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_12, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
208 Lamiaceae

throughout the Eastern Mediterranean as refreshment Flowers small; calyx narrowly campanulate,
but also herbal cure for common cold (Qazimi densely hairy, shortly toothed, corolla lemon-
et al. 2010). Its inflorescences and leaves are used. yellow, 12–14 mm long, glandular, 2-lipped,
The tea is sometimes enhanced with cinnamon upper lip 2-lobbed, lower lip 3-lobed, stamens 4,
and honey. style with bifid stigma. Nutlets ovoid.

Botany

A perennial, densely greyish-white, tomentose,

herb 15–40 cm high and woody at the base.
Leaves, opposite, basal leaves, oblong-lanceolate,
crenate, mucronate or subobtuse and attenuate to
a short petiole, 40–80 by 7–10 mm, middle and
upper leaves subsessile, linear-lanceolate, acute
30–60 by 6–8 mm. Floral leaves reduced to
bracts. Bracts ovate, white lanate with curled,
eglandular hairs outside and acuminate tip, 12–20
mm long, twice longer than flowers. Inflorescence
4–9 cm long, verticillasters 2-many-flowered,
clustered in a terminal spike (Plates 1, 2 and 3).

Plate 2 Verticillastered inflorescences

Plate 1 Mass of ironwort inflorescences Plate 3 Close-up of verticillaster with numerous flowers
Sideritis scardica 209

diene; trans-caryophyllene; α-humulene; ger-

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties macrene D; bicyclogermacrene; δ-cadinene;
trans-cadina-1,4-diene; (−)-spathulenol; caryoph-
The n-hexane extracts of aerial parts of Sideritis yllene oxide; viridiflorol; α-cadinol; τ-muurol;
scardica and S. raeseri from Albania and valeranone) and a miscellaneous compound, hexa-
Macedonia contained more than 90 components, hydrofarnesyl acetone, which were found in much
dominated by diterpenes and hydrocarbons smaller amounts or only in traces. Most abundant
(Karapandzova et al. 2013). The most abundant was an unidentified diterpene M286 and large
components were hentriacontane, nonacosane amounts of nonacosane (1.7–12.22 %) and hentri-
and heptacosane and two other components both acontane (4.48–20.79 %).
with MW = 286, probably diterpenes, which were Besides flavonoids, S. scardica was also
not fully identified. The most abundant minerals reported to contain tannins (Еvstatieva 2002).
were K > Ca > Mg > P > Fe > Al > Na. The micro- S. scardica was found to contain the following
element and toxic element contents were found flavones: isoscutellarein, chryseriol, apigenin and
in the following order: Zn > Mn > B > Ba > Cu > 3′-methyl ether of hypolaetin (Janeska et al.
Sr > Li > Ni > Cr > Co and Cd > Pb > As. 2007). Three new phenylethanoid glycosides,
Over 100 constituents of n-hexane extracts alyssonoside, echinacoside, and forsythoside,
of the aerial plant parts of Sideritis scardica were were detected for the first time in Balkan Sideratis
identified, belonging to several classes of com- species (S. scardica, S. raeseri, S. taurica, S. syri-
ponents (Qazimi et al. 2010): diterpenes (- (+)- aca and S. perfoliata), along with two known
beyrene; pimara-8-(14), 15-diene; kaur-15-en; phenylethanoid glycosides, verbascoside and
manonyl oxide; 3-α-hydroxymanool; 7-ethenyl- leucoseptoside A (Petreska et al. 2011a, b).
1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,7,9,10,10a-dodecahydro-1,1,4a,7- Three hydroxycinnamic acids, such as, 3-caf-
tetramethyl-2-phenathrenol, unidentified M346, feoylquinic acid, 5-caffeoylquinic acid and
M286 and M306), hydrocarbons (heptadecane; feruloylquinic acid; five flavonoid 7-O-diglycosides,
octadecane; nonadecane; eicosane; heneicosane; namely, isoscutellarein 7-O-allosyl-(1 → 2)glu-
docosane; tricosane; tetracosane; pentacosane; coside, hypolaetin 7-O-allosyl-(1 → 2)gluco-
hexacosane; heptacosane; octacane; nonacosane; side, luteolin 7-O-allosyl-(1 → 2)glucoside,
octacosen; triacontane; hentriacontane; dotriacon- 3′-O-methylhypolaetin 7-O-allosyl-(1 → 2)
tane; tritriacontane), dominantly present in each glucoside and 4′-O-methyl isoscutellarein
of the extracts, followed by fatty acids (dodeca- 7-O-allosyl-(1 → 2)glucoside; and 11 acetylated
noic acid; tetradecanoic acid; octadecanoic flavonoid 7-O-diglycosides, viz., hypolaetin
acid; 9,12-octadecadienoic acid; 9,12,15-octa- 7-O-[6‴-O-acetyl]-allosyl(1 → 2)glucoside, api-
decatrienoic acid), esters (benzyl benzoate, isopro- genin 7-O-[6″-O-acetyl]-allosyl(1 → 2)glucoside,
pyl tetradecanoate; di-isobutyl phthalate; methyl isoscutellarein 7-O-[6″-O-acetyl]-allosyl(1 → 2)
hexadecanoate; hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester; glucoside,3′-O-methylhypolaetin7-O-[6‴-O-acetyl]-
isopropyl; hexadecanoate; methyl octadecano- allosyl(1 → 2)glucoside, isoscutellarein 7-O-[2‴,
ate; 9,12-octadienoic acid ethyl ester), aliphatic 6‴-diacetyl]-allosyl(1 → 2)glucoside, hypolaetin
and aromatic alcohols (2,4-di-tert-butylphenol; 7-O-[2‴,6‴-di-O-acetyl]-allosyl(1 → 2)glucoside,
tetradecanol; phytol (isomer); 2-hexadecen-1-ol; 4′-O-methylisoscutellarein 7-O-[6‴-O-acetyl]-allosyl
oleyl alcohol; octadecanol), sterols ((−)-choles- (1 → 2)glucoside,isoscutellarein7-O-[6‴-O-acetyl]-
terol; 22,23-dihydrobrassicasterol; stigmas- allosyl (1 → 2)-[6″-O-acetyl]-glycoside, 3′-O-
terol; γ-sitosterol) triterpenes (squalene; β-amyrin; methylhypolaetin 7-O-[2‴,6‴-di-O-acetyl]-allosyl
α-amyrin; triterpene alcohol) and monoter- (1 → 2)glucoside and 4′-O-methylisoscutellarein
penes and sesquiterpenes (α-pinene; cam- 7-O-[6‴-O-acetyl]-allosyl(1 → 2)-[6″-O-acetyl]-
phene; β-pinene; β-myrcene; D-limonene; glucoside were isolated. Acylated flavonoid gly-
β-phellandrene; trans-pinocarveol; trans-sabinol; cosides isoscutellarein 7-O-[6‴-O-acetyl]-allosyl
myrtenol; (−)-verbenone; α-cubebene; α-copaene; (1 → 2)-[6″-O-acetyl]glucoside and 4′-O-methyli-
cis-muurola-4(14),15-diene; trans-muurola-3,5- soscutellarein 7-O-[6″-O-acetyl]-glycosyl(1 → 2)-
210 Lamiaceae

[6″-O-acetyl]glucoside had been previously decanoic acid (46.57 %), dodecanoic acid (17.05 %),
reported by Sattar et al. (1993, 1995). dihydroxy derivative of sandaracopimar-8(14),15-
The major components in Bulgarian S. scard- diene (10.79 %), (E)-ferruginol acetate (8.25 %),
ica essential oil were β-caryophyllene (18.8 %) (Z)-ferruginol acetate (4.26 %), ethyl hexadec-
and nerolidol (12.1 %) (Todorova et al. 2000). The anoate (4.13 %) and cyclopentadecanolide
major constituents of the water-distilled essential (4.01 %). Fraction B contained 12 compounds
oil from aerial parts of Sideritis scardica subsp. mainly diterpenes, which were not detected in the
scardica were β-pinene (17.91 %), carvacrol extracts C (10 compounds) and D (8 compounds).
(14.78 %) and α-pinene (7.26 %) (Başer et al. The main components in fraction B were (E)-
1997). The essential oils of S. scardica from dif- ferruginol acetate (65.47 %), hexadecanoic acid
ferent locations differed significantly: In the (8.53 %), dodecanoic acid (6.96 %) and the dihy-
Macedonian sample, α-cadinol (20 %) predomi- droxy derivative of sandaracopimar-8(14),15-
nated, while in the oil of Bulgarian samples, the diene (6.25 %). Fractions C and D were the
main components were diterpenic compounds and fractions abundant in fatty acids and their esters
octadecenol (over 20 %) (Kostadinova et al. 2007). (66.48 and 54.59 %, respectively), with differ-
In S. scardica essential oil (EO) sample ences in the type of fatty acids and their esters
obtained by hydrodistillation, about 111 com- present in greatest quantity as determined; hexa-
pounds were identified; oxygenated monoter- decanoic acid (29.89 %) and dodecanoic acid
penes (30.01 %) were the major constituents, but (25.56 %) were the major components in C fol-
with significant amount of oxygenated sesquiter- lowed by cyclopentadecanolide (15.35 %), (E)-
penes (25.54 %) and fatty acids with their coniferyl alcohol (11.81 %) and ethyl
esters (15.96 %) (Tadić et al. 2012a). The most hexadecanoate (7.64 %). In fraction D, dodeca-
abundant compounds were hexadecanoic acid noic acid (35.78 %), decyl acetate (12.54 %) and
(12.92 %), myristicin (5.23 %), menthol (4.90 %), (E)-coniferyl alcohol (18.69 %) were most abun-
caryophyllene oxide (4.84 %), τ-muurolol dant followed by decanoic acid (5.47 %) and (Z)-
(3.62 %), followed by (E)-anethole (2.89 %), chrysanthenyl acetate (4.58 %).
2-(E)-tridecanol acetate (2.50 %) and valeranone Thirty-seven components, representing 73.1–
(2.15 %). In the EO obtained by supercritical car- 79.2 % of the total oil content, were identified in
bon dioxide at 10 MPa and at 40 °C, 34 com- the essential oil of six native Bulgarian popula-
pounds are found; fatty acids with their esters tions of Sideritis scardica (Trendafilva et al.
(41.16 %) and diterpenes (33.75 %) predomi- 2013). Among them, α-pinene (4.4–25.1 %),
nated. The main components were hexadeca- β-pinene (2.8–18.0 %), oct-1-en-3-ol (2.3–
noic acid (18.59 %), dihydroxy derivative of 8.0 %), phenylacetaldehyde (0.5–9.5 %),
sandaracopimar-8(14),15-diene (14.89 %), (E)- β-bisabolene (1.3–11.0 %), benzyl benzoate
ferruginol acetate (11.82 %), ethyl hexadecano- (1.1–14.3 %) and m-camphorene (0.3–12.4 %)
ate (11.73 %), followed by (octadecanol 6.20 %) were the main compounds. Other compounds
and caryophyllene oxide (2.44 %). In the EO found were sabinene (tr (trace): 1.8 %), myrcene
obtained by supercritical carbon dioxide at (tr: 1.2 %), α-phellandrene (nd (not detected):
30 MPa and at 40 °C, 17 compounds were 2.1 %), δ-car-3-ene (nd: 2.8 %), limonene (0.4–
obtained; fatty acids (71.07 %) and diterpenes 3.7 %), benzyl alcohol (tr: 2.4 %), γ-terpinene
(26.81 %) predominated The major compounds (nd: 0.5 %), (E)-oct-2-en-1-ol (tr: 1.2 %), terpin-
were hexadecanoic (43.22 %) and linoleic acids olene (nd: 0.4 %), linalool (0.4–1.8 %), nonanal
(24.80 %) and diterpenes—the dihydroxy deriva- (tr: 0.8 %), 2-phenylethyl alcohol (0.2–5.1 %),
tive of sandaracopimar-8(14),15-diene (11.49 %) terpinen-4-ol (tr: 1.0 %), α-terpineol, bicycloel-
followed by (E)-ferruginol acetate (11.22 %) and emene (nd: 1.0 %), eugenol (tr: 6.8 %), α-copaene
pimaradiene (2.84 %). Fraction A from solvent (tr: 2.2 %), β-elemene (tr: 0.6 %), β-caryophyllene
extraction contained 13 compounds mainly hexa- (2.8–5.5 %), trans-β-farnesene (tr: 1.7 %),
Sideritis scardica 211

germacrene D (0.6–4.7 %), bicyclogermacrene indomethacin (4 mg/kg), which produced a 50 %

(0.6–3.4 %), δ-cadinene (tr: 3.9 %), spathulenol decrease in inflammation.
(0.5–1.3 %), 2,6-dimethyl-10-(p-tolyl)undeca-
2,6-diene (0.4–3.5 %), 7 α-hydroxymanool
(tr: 3.4 %), caryophyllene oxide (0.6–1.0 %), Gastroprotective Activity
sandaracopimaradien-3b-ol (0.1–3.6 %) and two
unidentified diterpenes (M = 288). All samples S. scardica extracts produced dose-dependent
were characterized by low contents of oxygen- gastroprotective activity with the efficacy compa-
ated mono- and sesquiterpenes (≤1.6 and 2.3 %, rable to that of the reference drug ranitidine when
respectively). evaluated using the ethanol-induced acute stress
The chemical components found in Sideritis ulcer in rats (Tadić et al. 2012b).
genus included terpenes, flavonoids, essential
oil, iridoids, coumarins, lignanes and sterols,
among others (González-Burgos et al. 2011). Anticancer Activity
Diterpenes, flavonoids and essential oil were
found in almost every species and were the main The diethyl ether extract of S. scardica
compounds responsible for the observed in vivo showed significant dose-dependent cytotoxicity
and in vitro pharmacological activities which are on murine melanoma B16 cells and human leu-
elaborated below. kaemia HL-60 cells, decreasing cell growth to
51.3 and 77.5 % of control, respectively, when
used at 100 μg/mL (Tadić et al. 2012b). It appeared
Antioxidant Activity that phenolic compounds (apigenin, luteolin and
their corresponding glycosides) were responsible
Although Sideritis scardica extract had a lower for the diethyl ether extract cytotoxic effect. It
phenolic concentration and total antioxidant also appeared that induction of oxidative stress
capacity than tea, Camellia sinensis extract, their might be involved in its cytotoxicity, since B16
cellular antioxidant effects were similar (Danesi and HL-60 cells increased their ROS production
et al. 2013). The different phenolic pattern of the in response to treatment with diethyl ether extract.
extracts suggested that the protective activity Results of in vitro studies revealed that diethyl
was not limited to catechins. Total phenol con- ether and ethyl acetate extracts of S. scardica
tents ranged up to 50.8 and up to 48.9 mg gallic exerted a cytotoxic effect on C6 rat glioma cells
acid/g for S. scardica and S. raeseri, respec- (Jeremic et al. 2013). Diethyl ether extract induced
tively, and DPPH radical scavenging activity in an increase in reactive oxygen species production,
terms of IC50 values ranged from 3.2–8.9 mg/mL leading to apoptotic and autophagic cell death,
to 7.6–12.6 mg/mL for S. scardica and S. raeseri, while ethyl acetate extract induced G2 M cell
respectively (Karapandzova et al. 2013). cycle arrest and autophagy. None of the tested
extracts were cytotoxic to rat astrocytes in pri-
mary culture. Cytotoxic effects of S. scardica
Anti-inflammatory Activity extracts were found to be partly mediated by their
flavonoid constituents, apigenin and luteolin, that,
Oral administration of the S. scardica extracts when applied alone, induced cell cycle arrest,
caused a dose-dependent anti-inflammatory effect apoptosis and autophagy.
in a model of carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema
(Tadić et al. 2012b). The diethyl ether and N-butanol
plant extracts at doses of 200 and 100 mg/kg exhib- Antimicrobial Activity
ited about the same effect, 53.6 and 48.7 %, 48.4
and 49.9 %, respectively, compared to the effect S. scardica extracts and essential oil exhibited a
of the positive control, the anti-inflammatory drug strong to a moderate antibacterial activity in vitro
212 Lamiaceae

against tested microorganisms (Tadić et al. rat, Rhodiola rosea root and Sideritis scardica
2012a). Gram-positive bacteria Streptococcus herb extracts developed similar EEG frequency
pyogenes, Streptococcus canis, Moraxella catarrh- patterns comparable to a psychostimulant drug
alis, Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant (methylphenidate) as well to an antidepressive
Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium pseu- drug (paroxetine) (Dimpfel 2013).
dotuberculosis and Enterococcus faecalis were
found to be more susceptible in comparison
to Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli, Pharmacokinetic Studies
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella
pneumoniae, with the exception of Pasteurella Flavonoid and phenolic acid metabolites excreted
multocida and Haemophilus sp. Sideritis scardica in the urine of 10 human volunteers after inges-
essential oil exhibited the strongest activity tion of Sideritis scardica decoction were identi-
against Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis fied (Stanoeva and Stefova 2013). Thirty-one
and Haemophilus sp. with MIC values of 640 μg/ different metabolites of hypolaetin, methylhypo-
mL, while moderate activity was determined laetin, isoscutellarein, methylisoscutellarein and
against Staphylococcus pyogenes, Moraxella apigenin and 32 phenolic acid metabolites were
catarrhalis and Pasteurella multocida. The detected. The urinary excretion of polyphenol
strongest antibacterial activity was determined metabolites corresponded to 5 % (n/n) of the
against Haemophilus sp. for the solvent extrac- intake of polyphenols from the Sideritis decoc-
tion, extracts C and D, with MIC values of 40 tion. Flavonoid metabolites were dominant in
and 80 μg/mL, respectively. The same extracts urine samples with 87–94 % of total polyphe-
exhibited strong antimicrobial activity against nolic metabolite content. The most abundant
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, with MIC metabolites were methyl hypolaetin and methyl
values of 80 μg/mL. isoscutellarein glucuronides. Urinary excretion
of isoscutellarein (35.61 %) was 10 times higher
than that of hypolaetin (3.67 %). Apigenin also
Central Nervous System Activity showed high urinary excretion (32.46 %).

S. scardica extracts inhibited the uptake of all

three monoamines serotonin, noradrenaline and Traditional Medicinal Uses
dopamine into rat brain synaptosomes by their
respective transporters, the alcoholic extracts Sideritis species including S. scardica have been
being more effective than the water extract traditionally used as teas for feeding, flavouring
(Knörle 2012). EC50 values were in the range of agents and in folk medicine as anti-inflammatory,
30–40 μg/mL. Inhibition of the human serotonin antiulcerative, antimicrobial, vulnerary, antioxi-
transporter in human JAR cells by the methanol dant, antispasmodic, anticonvulsant, sedative,
extract was even more effective (EC50 1.4 μg/ antitussive, analgesic, stomachic and carminative
mL). The pharmacological profile of S. scardica agents (Kirimer et al. 2004; González-Burgos
extracts as triple monoamine reuptake inhibitors et al. 2011), especially in the treatment of coughs
suggested their potential use in the phytochemi- due to colds and for curing gastrointestinal
cal therapy of mental disorders associated with a disorders (Kirimer et al. 2004). In ancient times
malfunctioning monoaminergic neurotransmis- Sideritis was a generic reference for plants capa-
sion, such as anxiety disorders, major depression, ble of healing wounds caused by iron weapons
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, mental during battles.
impairment or neurodegenerative diseases. Sideritis scardica and Sideritis raeseri are
In a pharmacological classification of herbal very popular in Macedonia, Bulgaria and Greece
extracts based on spectral EEG signatures as well as throughout the Eastern Mediterranean
induced by synthetic drugs in the freely moving as refreshment but also herbal cure for common
Sideritis scardica 213

cold (Qazimi et al. 2010). The herbs are often Еvstatieva L (2002) Variation in the flavonoids and tannins
content of Sideritis scardica Griseb. Ann de L’Univ de
used to prepare teas widely believed to alleviate
Sofi a “St Kl Ochridski”, Faculte de Biologie, Livre
sinus congestion, aches, pains and viruses including 2- Botanique 90:99–105
flu and common cold. In Bulgaria, the infusion of Evstatieva L, Koleva I (2000) Cultivation of Sideritis
the aerial parts of S. scardica, known as ‘Pirin scardica Griseb. In: Proceedings of the first confer-
ence on medicinal and aromatic plants of Southeast
mountain tea’ or ‘Mursalitza tea’, is employed
Europe, Arandelovac, Yugoslavia, pp 189–195
largely as an expectorant for the treatment of González-Burgos E, Carretero ME, Gómez-Serranillos
bronchitis and bronchial asthma, cold, pulmonary MP (2011) Sideritis spp.: uses, chemical composi-
emphysema and angina pectoris (Ivancheva and tion and pharmacological activities—a review. J
Ethnopharmacol 135(2):209–225
Stancheva 2000; Evstatieva and Koleva 2000;
Heywood V (1973) Genus Sideritis L. In: Tutin T,
Tadić et al. 2012a, b). Sideritis scardica has also Heywood V, Burges N, Moore D, Valentine S, Walters
been used in traditional medicine in the treatment S, Webb D (eds) Flora Europaea, vol 3. Cambridge
of gastrointestinal complaints, inflammation and University Press, Cambridge, pp 138–143
Ivancheva S, Stancheva B (2000) Ethnobotanical inven-
rheumatic disorders in the Balkan Peninsula
tory of medicinal plants in Bulgaria. J Ethnopharmacol
(Tadić et al. 2012a, b). 69:165–172
Janeska B, Stefova M, Alipieva K (2007) Assay of flavo-
noid aglycones from the species of genus Sideritis
(Lamiaceae) from Macedonia with HPLC-UV DAD.
Other Uses Acta Pharm 57(3):371–377
Jeremic I, Tadic V, Isakovic A, Trajkovic V, Markovic I,
Studies reported that stratification of S. scardica Redzic Z, Isakovic A (2013) The mechanisms of in
seeds with a chemical solution (gibberellic acid vitro cytotoxicity of mountain tea, Sideritis scard-
ica, against the C6 glioma cell line. Planta Med
and copper sulphate) enhanced seed germination
79(16):1516–1524
by 80 % compared to a low germination rate of Karapandzova M, Qazimi B, Stefkov G, Baceva K,
5 % under natural conditions (Evstatieva and Stafilov T, Panovska TK, Kulevanova S (2013)
Koleva 2000). Chemical characterization, mineral content and
radical scavenging activity of Sideritis scardica and
S. raeseri from R. Macedonia and R. Albania. Nat Prod
Commun 8(5):639–644
Comments Kirimer N, Baser KHC, Demirci B, Duman H (2004)
Essential oils of Sideritis species of Turkey belong-
ing to the section Empedoclia. Chem Nat Compd
S. scardica is limitedly distributed in Bulgaria
40(1):19–23
and has been included in the Red Book of Knörle R (2012) Extracts of Sideritis scardica as triple
Bulgaria (1984) as a rare and protected plant monoamine reuptake inhibitors. J Neural Transm
(Evstatieva and Koleva 2000). 119(12):1477–1482
Kostadinova E, Nikolova D, Alipieva K, Stefova M,
Stefkov G, Evstatieva L, Matevski V, Bankova V
(2007) Chemical constituents of the essential oils of
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64:278–279 composition of three Sideritis species from Bulgaria. J
Sattar AA, Bankova V, Popov S (1995) Acylated flavonoid Essent Oil Res 12:418–420
glycosides from Sideritis scardica. Fitoterapia Trendafilva AB, Todorova MN, Evstatieva LN, Antonova
66(2):190 DV (2013) Variability in the essential-oil composition
Stanoeva JP, Stefova M (2013) Assay of urinary excre- of Sideritis scardica Griseb. from native Bulgarian
tion of polyphenols after ingestion of a cup of populations. Chem Biodivers 10(3):484–492
 Lilium lancifolium

Scientific Name Chinese: Juan-Dan, Chuan-Tan (Recurved Red

Lily), Bai-He, Pai-Ho (Hundred Union), Suan-
Lilium lancifolium Thunberg Nao-Shu (Garlic Head Bulb)
Czech: Lilie Tygrovaná
Danish: Tiger-Lilje
Synonyms Dutch: Tijgerlelie
Finnish: Tiikerililja
Lilium lancifolium var. flaviflorum Makino, French: Lis Elegant
Lilium lancifolium var. fortunei (Standish) V. A. German: Tiger-Lilie
Matthews, Lilium lancifolium var. splendens India: Liliyama Lancifolium (Hindu)
(Van Houtte) V. A. Matthews, Lilium leopoldii Italian: Giglio Cinese, Giglio Tigrino
Baker, Lilium lishmannii T. Moore, Lilium tigri- Japanese: Oni-Yuri
num Ker Gawler., Lilium tigrinum var. fortunei Korean: Chamnari
Standish, Lilium tigrinum var. plenescens Waugh, Norwegian: Tigerlilje
Lilium tigrinum var. splendens Van Houtte Polish: Lilia Tygrysia
Portuguese: Laço De Ouro, Laço De Prata, Lírio
Tigrino
Family Russian: Lilija Tigrinaja
Spanish: Lirio De Tigre
Liliaceae Swedish: Sen Tigerlilja, Tigerlilja
Turkish: Kaplan Zambağı, Türk Zambağı, Zambak
Vietnamese: Hoa Lo Kèn Vằn; Loa Kèn Vằn;
Common/English Names Quyển Ðơn

Devil Lily, Easter Lily, Garden Lily, Japanese

Show Lily, Kentan, Lance-Leaf Tiger Lily, Origin/Distribution
Martagon, Tiger Lily
Tiger lily is native to eastern temperate Asia—
China (Anhui, Gansu, Guangxi, Hebei, Henan,
Vernacular Names Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Qinghai,
Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Xizang,
Brazil: Lírio-De-Tigre (Portuguese) Zhejiang), Japan and Korea. The species has also

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 215
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_13, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
216 Liliaceae

naturalized in other temperate regions of the

world (e.g. northern and eastern USA, Canada
and New Zealand). It has been introduced and
grown as ornamental in subtropical and temper-
ate areas elsewhere.

Agroecology

A cool climate species, occurring in woods,

thickets, river banks, grassy slopes in lowlands,
hillsides and mountains, from 400 to 500 m
elevation in its native range. The plant grows well Plate 1 Flowers, buds and leaves
in full sun, in well-drained, humus-rich loamy soil.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Tiger lily bulbs and flowers (with stamens removed)

are edible (Grieve 1971; Tanaka 1976; Facciola
1990; Hu 2005). The flower is used either fresh or
cooked in salads, soup rice dishes or dried and used
as spice for seasoning. The flowers add a delicate
flavour to salad and other dishes. Fleshy scales of
the bulb are eaten fresh or cooked in Chinese cook-
ing. They are traditionally eaten in the summer Plate 2 Close view of flowers
season and are deemed to have a cooling effect.
The starch-rich bulbs may also be baked, grated or Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
ground into flour. The bulb is also pickled.
Phytochemicals in Aerial Parts

Botany Crystalline flavonoid pigments I and II were iso-

lated from Lilium lancifolium pollens with yields
A herbaceous perennial scaly bulb. Bulb ovate to of 0.056 and 0.036 %, respectively (Togasawa
spherical, 4–8 cm across, scales broadly ovate, et al. 1966). The pigments I and II were confirmed
2 cm long and wide, unsegmented. Stems 0.8– to be rutin (quercetin-3-rutinoside) and narcissin
1.5 m, erect, unbranched, white-lanate, purplish, (isorhamnetin-3-rutinoside), respectively. Vitamin
scabrous. Leaves alternate, cauline, linear- C, β-carotene, vitamin B2, riboflavin, pantothenic
lanceolate, 3–8 cm long. 1.5–2 cm wide, distal acid, biotin and choline were detected in L. lanci-
leaves bearing purplish black bulbils at axils folium pollens (Togasawa et al. (1967a). L. lanci-
(Plates 1 and 2. Flower showy, 3–6(−20) in a nod- folium pollens were found to contain Na, K, Mg,
ding raceme, to 12 cm across, subtended by leafy Ca, Sr, Zn, Mn, Fe, Al, Cu, B, Si, P, Ni and Cr
bracts, orange-red spotted purple black, perianth (Togasawa et al. 1967b). P was also found in the
segments 6 funnelform, strongly reflexed, each form of acid-soluble P, phospholipid-P, RNA-P,
with a vasal nectar-bearing gland; stamens 6, phosphoprotein-P and insoluble-P.
anthers versatile (Plates 1 and 2). Fruit a 3-valved, A glycerol glucoside, lilioside C, was isolated
loculicidal capsule, 3–4 cm across, the margins of from the leaves and stems of L. lancifolium
valves flat; seeds many, flat, in 2 rows in each cell. (Kaneda et al. 1982).
Lilium lancifolium 217

Phytochemicals in the Bulb coumaroylglycerol; and 1,3-O-di-p-couma-

roylglycerol (Luo et al. 2012).
Two steroidal saponins were identified from L. lan- A mucous polysaccharide, named Lilium-La-
cifolium bulbs: ophiopogonin D with the structure glucomannan, with molecular weight 417,000 was
diosgenin3–O–{O–α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)– isolated from Lilium lancifolium bulbs (Tomoda
O–[β-D-xylopyranosyl (1 → 3)]-β-D-glucopyranoside} et al. 1976). It comprised D-mannose and D-glucose
and lililancifoloside A with the structure diosgenin in the molar ratio of 5:2. The polysaccharide was
3-O-{O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-O—[α-L- mainly composed of β-1 → 4 linked aldohexopyra-
arabinopyranosyl(1 → 3)]-β-D-glucopyranoside} nose residues with D-Mannose units occupying
(Yang et al. 2002). Ten compounds were identified non-reducing terminal positions and branch points
fresh fleshy scale leaf of Lilium lancifolium: regalo- linked through positions 2 and 3. Fermentation of
side A; regaloside C; methyl-α-D-manno- tiger lily bulb powder with Saccharomyces cerevi-
pyranoside; methyl-C-α-D-glucopyranoside; siae to remove protein impurities afforded non-
(25R, 26R) -26-methoxyspirost-5-ene-3p-yl-O- starch polysaccharides (NSP) with experimental
C-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[β-D- yield of 8.81 % (You et al. 2010).
glucopyranosyl-(1 → 6)]-β-D-glucopyranoside; More than 50 components were identified in
(25R)-spirost-5-ene-3β-yl- O -α- L - rhamno- L. lancifolium bulb oil, including C12-C13
py r a n o s y l - ( 1 → 2)-[β- D - glucopyranosyl- alkanes, C6-C18 alcohols and aldehydes, C10-
(1 → 6)]-β-D-glucopyranoside; (25R, 26R)- C18 acids and esters and mono- and sesquiter-
17α-hydroxy-26-methoxyspirost-5-ene-3β-yl-O- penes (Kameoka and Sagara 1988). The
α- L -rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2β- D - glucopyra predominant compounds were sandaracopimara-
nosyl-(1 → 6)]-β-D-glucopyranoside; daucosterol; diene, 1-carboxmethoxy-4-(1,5-dimethyl-3-
adenoside; and berberine (Hu et al. 2007). oxohexyl)-1-cyclohexene, 2-ethylhexyl adipate,
Ultrasonic wave extraction of flavonoids from 2-phenyl-4,4-dimethyldecane and 2- and 3-phen-
the bulb of Lilium lancifolium yielded 99.25 % yltetradecane. Also a number of organochloro
rate (Niu et al. 2007). The phenolic composition compounds were also found in the oil.
of L. lancifolium (in mg/100 g dw) comprised A trypsin inhibitor (LTI-II-4) with a molecular
gallic acid (1.26 mg), rutinoside not detected (nd), weight of 21,000 was purified from L. lancifo-
(+)-catechin (1.06 mg), chlorogenic acid (nd), lium bulb (Asao et al. 1998). The amino acid
(−)-epicatechin (1.48 mg), myricetin (0.81 mg), composition was characterized by high contents
rutin (2.36 mg), p-coumaric acid (4.51 mg), of glycine, aspartic acid and serine. The inhibitor
quercetin (2.38 mg), phloridzin (1.92 mg) and contained 4 half cystines in its constituent amino
kaempferol (8.03 mg). Total phenolic content of acids. The reactive site amino acid of LTI-II −4
L. lancifolium was 2827.25 GAE (gallic acid was assumed to be lysine. The inhibitor did not
equivalent)mg/100 g, total flavonoid content was inhibit elastase and subtilisin. From these results,
227.24 rutin equivalent/100 g and total flavanol the inhibitor LTI-II-4 was assumed to belong to
content was 112.12 catechin equivalent mg/100 g the Kunitz soybean trypsin inhibitor family.
(Jin et al. 2012).
A phenolic glycerol glucoside regaloside F
with the structure (2S) = 1-O-feruloyl-3-O- Antioxidant Activity
feruloyl-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosylglycerol was
isolated from L. lancifolium fresh bulbs Studies demonstrated inhibitory activities of var-
(Shimomura et al. 1989). The following phenyl- ious aqueous extracts of food constituents on the
propenoid glycerides were identified from bulbs chemiluminescence of hydroxyl radicals generated
of Lilium lancifolium: 1-O-feruloylglycerol; by Fenton’s reagents with the order of scavenging
1-O-p-coumaroylglycerol; 1-O-caffeoyl-3-O-p- efficiencies being Prunus mume > Cordyceps
coumaroylglycerol; 1,2-O-diferuloylglycerol; sinensis > Lilium lancifolium > Astragalus mem-
1,3-O-diferuloylglycerol; 1-O-feruloyl-3-O-p- branaceus (Tsai et al. 2001).
218 Liliaceae

All bulb extracts of six Lilium spp. (L. regale, 1-O-feruloylglycerol (1), 1-O-p-coumaroylglycerol
L. concolor, L. pumilum, L. leucanthum, L. davidii (2),1-O-caffeoyl-3-O-p-coumaroylglycerol(3),1,2-O-
var. unicolor and L. lancifolium) exhibited anti- diferuloylglycerol (4), 1,3-O-diferuloylglycerol
oxidant activities, which generally correlated (5), 1-O-feruloyl-3-O-p-coumaroylglycerol (6)
positively with the total phenolic contents (R2 = 0.68 and 1,3-O-di-p-coumaroylglycerol (7) (Luo et al.
to 0.94), total flavonoid contents (R2 = 0.51 to 2012). The trend in antioxidant capacity was
0.89) and total flavanol contents (r = 0.54 to 0.95) similar in all the three assays, namely, DPPH
(Jin et al. 2012). L. lancifolium, L. leucanthum radical scavenging activity, ABTS radical cation
and L. davidii var. unicolor were clustered in the scavenging activity and ferric-reducing antioxi-
third group with low phenolic content and dant power (FRAP), with 3 > 1, 4, 5, 6 > 2, 7.
weak antioxidant activity. Total phenolic content
of L. lancifolium was 2827.25 GAE (gallic acid
equivalent)mg/100 g, total flavonoid content Anti-inflammatory Activity
was 227.24 rutin equivalent/100 g and total
flavanol content was 112.12 catechin equivalent Methanol root extracts from Lilium lancifolium
mg/100 g. The highest antioxidant activity exhibited anti-inflammatory effects which were
(DPPH radical scavenging activity) was attributable to downregulation of iNOS and
found for the bulb extract of L. regale COX-2 via suppression of NF-kappaB activation
(600.33 TE μmol/100 g), followed by L. pumi- and nuclear translocation as well as blocking of
lum, L. lancifolium (541.27 TE μmol/100 g), L. ERK and JNK signalling in LPS-stimulated
leucanthum and L. concolor, while L. davidii var. Raw264.7 cells (Kwon et al. 2010).
unicolor (404.48 TE μmol/100 g) yielded the
lowest antioxidant capacity. In the ABTS-
scavenging activity the ranking order was L. Cat Toxicity
regale (1173.28 TE μmol/100 g) > L. concolor > L.
pumilum > L. lancifolium (1075.51 TE μmol A case of renal failure in a castrated male domestic
/100 g) > L. leucanthum > L. davidii var. unicolor short hair that consumed tiger lily flowers was
(848.49 TE μmol/100 g). In the cupric-reducing reported by Berg et al. (2007).
potential assay, the ranking was as follows: L.
regale (1,438.01 μmol TE/100 g dw) > L. pumi-
lum > L. concolor > L. lancifolium (1,075.51 TE Traditional Medicinal Uses
μmol/100 g) > L. leucanthum > L. davidii var.
unicolor only 595.61 μmol TE/100 g dw). In the The bulb is anti-inflammatory, diuretic, emmena-
hydroxyl radical scavenging activity (HRSA) gogue, emollient and expectorant (Chopra et al.
expressed as the percentage of free radical scav- 1986; NPRI-SNU 1998). They are employed to
enging activity (%), the ranking order was L. relieve heart diseases, pain in the cardiac region
regale (53.22 %) > L. concolor > L. pumilum > L. and angina pectoris and prescribed for the treat-
leucanthum > L. lancifolium (26.85 %) > L. davi- ment of myopic astigmatism and to strengthen
dii var. unicolor (22.45 %). Three phenolic acids the eyelid muscles. In Korea, they are used in tra-
(gallic acid, p-coumaric acid and chlorogenic ditional medicine to treat coughs, sore throats,
acid), five flavonols (rutinoside, myricetin, rutin, palpitations and boils (NPRI-SNU 1998) and also
quercetin and kaempferol), two monomeric fla- commonly used to treat bronchitis, pneumonia,
vanols [(+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin] and etc (Kwon et al. 2010). It has a sedative influence
one chalcone (phloridzin) were quantified. Rutin and is used for cough and tuberculosis (Yamaguchi
and kaempferol were the major phenolic compo- et al. 1996). The flowers are carminative (Chopra
nents in the extracts. et al. 1986). A tincture made from the flowering
The following phenylpropenoid glycerides plant, harvested when in full flower, is used in the
were identified from bulbs of Lilium lancifolium: therapy of uterine neuralgia, congestion, irritation
Lilium lancifolium 219

and the nausea of pregnancy (Grieve 1971). It Jin L, Zhang Y, Yan L, Guo Y, Niu L (2012) Phenolic
compounds and antioxidant activity of bulb extracts of
relieves the bearing-down pain accompanying
six Lilium species native to China. Molecules 17(8):
uterine prolapse and is an important remedy in 9361–9378
ovarian neuralgia. Kameoka H, Sagara K (1988) The volatile components of
bulbus Lilium lancifolium Thunb. Dev Food Sci
18:469–481
Kaneda M, Mizutani K, Tanaka K (1982) Lilioside glyc-
Other Uses erol glucoside Lilium lancifolium. Phytochemistry
21(4):891–893
Tiger lily is cultivated as a popular ornamental Kwon OK, Lee MY, Yuk JE, Oh SR, Chin YW, Lee HK,
Ahn KS (2010) Anti-inflammatory effects of methanol
plant and as a medicinal plant.
extracts of the root of Lilium lancifolium on LPS-
stimulated Raw264.7 cells. J Ethnopharmacol 130(1):
28–34
Comments Luo JG, Li L, Kong LY (2012) Preparative separation of
phenylpropenoid glycerides from the bulbs of Lilium
lancifolium by high-speed counter-current chromatog-
Modern cultivars of edible lily bulb in Hokkaido raphy and evaluation of their antioxidant activities.
were assumed to have been derived from a hybrid Food Chem 131(3):1056–1062
between Lilium leichtlinii var. maximowiczii Natural Products Research Institute, Seoul National
University (NPRI, SNU) (1998) Medicinal plants in
(‘Maximowicz’s lily’) and Lilium lancifolium
the Republic of Korea, Western Pacific series no 21.
Thunb. (‘tiger lily’) (Yamaguchi et al. 1996). The WHO Regional Publications, Manila, 316 pp
tiger lily, a triploid species, was monomorphic in Niu LX, Li ZN, Li HJ, Zhang YL (2007) Study on ultra-
cpDNA haplotype (I). It was assumed that the con- sonic wave extraction of flavonoids from the bulb of
Lilium lancifolium. Zhong Yao Cai 30(1):85–88 (in
tributors to the modern cultivars were two landra-
Chinese)
ces derived from wild populations of the Shimomura H, Sashida Y, Mimaki Y (1989) New phenolic
Maximowicz’s lily in Honshu of Japan and that the glycerol glucosides regaloside D E and F from the
tiger lily contributed rarely as a cytoplasmic donor. bulbs of Lilium species. Shoyakugaku Zasshi 43:
64–70
Tanaka T (1976) Tanaka’s cyclopaedia of edible plants of
the world. Keigaku Publishing, Tokyo, 924 pp
Selected References Togasawa Y, Katsumata T, Kawajiri H, Onodera N (1966)
Biochemical studies on pollen: V. Flavonoid pigments
Asao T, Horiguchi M, Terada C, Takahashi K (1998) from pollen of Lilium lancifolium Thunb. Nippon
Purification and characterization of a trypsin inhibitor Nogei Kagaku Kaishi Kaishi [J Agric Chem Soc Jpn]
from lily bulb (Lilium lancifolium). Nippon Shokuhin 40:461–465
Kagaku Kogaku Kaishi 45:663–670 (in Japanese) Togasawa Y, Katsumata T, Fukada M, Motoi T (1967a)
Berg RI, Francey T, Segev G (2007) Resolution of acute Biochemical studies on pollen: Part VII. Vitamins of
kidney injury in a cat after lily (Lilium lancifolium) pollen. Nippon Nogei Kagaku Kaishi [J Agric Chem
intoxication. J Vet Intern Med 21(4):857–859 Soc Jpn] 41:184–188
Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC (1986) Glossary of Indian Togasawa Y, Katsumata T, Ota T (1967b) Biochemical
medicinal plants. (Including the supplement). Council studies on pollen: Part VI. Inorganic components and
Scientific Industrial Research, New Delhi, 330 pp phosphorus compounds of pollen. Nippon Nogei
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible Kagaku Kaishi [J Agric Chem Soc Jap] 41(5):
plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp 178–183
Grieve M (1971) A modern herbal. Penguin. 2 vols. Dover Tomoda M, Kaneko S, Ohmori C, Shiozaki T (1976) Plant
Publications, New York, 919 pp mucilages. Part 14 isolation and characterization of a
Hoang HD, Knüpffer H, Hammer K (1997) Additional mucous polysaccharide Lilium-La Gluco Mannan
notes to the checklist of Korean cultivated plants (5). from the bulbs of Lilium lancifolium. Chem Pharm
Consolidated summary and indexes. Genet Resour Bull (Tokyo) 24:2744–2750
Crop Evol 44(4):349–391 Tsai CH, Stern A, Chiou JF, Chern CL, Liu TZ (2001)
Hu SY (2005) Food plants of China. The Chinese Rapid and specific detection of hydroxyl radical using
University Press, Hong Kong, 844 pp an ultra weak chemiluminescence analyzer and a low-
Hu WY, Duan JA, Qian DW, Wang DW (2007) Studies on level chemiluminescence emitter: application to
chemical constituents in fresh fleshy scaleleaf of hydroxyl radical-scavenging ability of aqueous
Lilium lancifolium. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi extracts of food constituents. J Agric Food Chem
32(16):1656–1659 (in Chinese) 49(5):2137–2141
220 Liliaceae

Yamaguchi H, Takamatsu Y, Fujita T, Soejim A (1996) separation and identification. Yaoxue Xuebao 37(11):
Pedigree of edible lily cultivars assumed by chloro- 863–866
plast DNA polymorphism. Acta Phytotaxon Geobot You XJ, Xie CY, Liu KL, Gu ZX (2010) Isolation of non-
47(2):183–193 starch polysaccharides from bulb of tiger lily (Lilium
Yang XW, Wu YS, Cui YX, Liu XH, Xioa SY (2002) lancifolium Thunb) with fermentation of Saccharomyces
Lilium lancifolium new steroidal saponins in the cerevisiae. Carbohydr Polym 81:35–40
 Tulip gesneriana

Scientific Name Freyn, Tulipa marjolletii E.P. Perrier & Songeon,

Tulipa mauriana Jord. & Fourr., Tulipa maurian-
Tulip gesneriana L. nensis Didier, Tulipa mauritiana Jord., Tulipa
media C. Agardh ex Schult. & Schult.f., Tulipa
montisandrei J. Prudhomme, Tulipa neglecta
Synonyms Reboul, Tulipa neglecta var. atroguttata Levier,
Tulipa neglecta subsp. atroguttata (Levier)
Tulipa acuminata Vahl ex Hornem., Tulipa acuti- K. Richt., Tulipa passeriniana Levier, Tulipa
flora DC. ex Baker [Illeg.], Tulipa armena f. perrieri Marj. ex P. Fourn. [Illeg.], Tulipa planifolia
galatica (Freyn) Raamsd., Tulipa aurea Raf., Jord., Tulipa platystigma Jord., Tulipa pubescens
Tulipa aximensis E.P. Perrier & Songeon, Tulipa Willd., Tulipa repens Fisch. ex Sweet, Tulipa ret-
baldaccii Mattei, Tulipa bicolor Raf., Tulipa bil- roflexa Baker, Tulipa saracenica E.P. Perrier,
lietiana Jord., Tulipa bonarotiana Reboul, Tulipa Tulipa scabriscapa Fox-Strangw., Tulipa sca-
campsopetala Delaun. ex Loisel., Tulipa conniv- briscapa var. bonarotiana (Reboul) Nyman,
ens Levier, Tulipa connivens var. luteoguttata Tulipa scabriscapa var. hawardeniana Bertol.,
Levier, Tulipa connivens subsp. luteoguttata Tulipa scabriscapa var. mixta Fox-Strangw., Tulipa
(Levier) K. Richt., Tulipa connivens var. obtusata scabriscapa var. neglecta (Reboul) Nyman,
Levier, Tulipa connivens subsp. obtusata (Levier) Tulipa scabriscapa var. primulina Fox-Strangw.,
K. Richt., Tulipa cornuta Delile, Tulipa coronaria Tulipa scabriscapa var. rebouliana Bertol., Tulipa
Salisb. [Illeg.], Tulipa didieri Jord., Tulipa didieri scabriscapa var. sommieri (Levier) Nyman,
var. billietiana (Jord.) Baker, Tulipa didieri subsp. Tulipa scabriscapa var. strangulata (Reboul)
billietiana (Jord.) Nyman, Tulipa didieri var. Fox-Strangw., Tulipa scardica Bornm., Tulipa
flavicans Levier, Tulipa didieri subsp. flavicans segusiana E.P. Perrier & Songeon, Tulipa sero-
(Levier) K. Richt., Tulipa didieri var. mauriana tina Reboul, Tulipa serotina var. etrusca (Levier)
(Jord. & Fourr.) Baker, Tulipa didieri var. plani- Nyman, Tulipa sommieri Levier, Tulipa spathu-
folia (Jord.) Baker, Tulipa didieri subsp. plat- lata Bertol., Tulipa stenopetala Delaun. ex
ystigma (Jord.) Nyman, Tulipa elegans Baker, Loisel., Tulipa strangulata Reboul, Tulipa stran-
Tulipa etrusca Levier, Tulipa fransoniana Parl., gulata var. bonarotiana (Reboul) Levier, Tulipa
Tulipa fransoniana subsp. mauriana (Jord. & strangulata subsp. bonarotiana (Reboul) K. Richt.,
Fourr.) Nyman, Tulipa fulgens Baker, Tulipa Tulipa strangulata subsp. obtusa K. Richt.,
galatica Freyn, Tulipa gesneriana var. spathulata Tulipa strangulata var. obtusata Levier, Tulipa
(Bertol.) Nyman, Tulipa grengiolensis Thommen, strangulata var. variopicta (Reboul) Levier,
Tulipa hortensis Gaertn., Tulipa laciniata Fisch. Tulipa strangulata subsp. variopicta (Reboul)
ex Bellerm., Tulipa lurida Levier, Tulipa lutea K. Richt., Tulipa stricta Stokes, Tulipa suaveolens

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 221
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_14, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
222 Liliaceae

var. passeriniana (Levier) Nyman, Tulipa turcica thus represents the collective name given to a
var. media (C. Agardh ex Schult. & Schult.f.) Regel, large number of tulip cultivars. The genus Tulipa
Tulipa unguiculata Raf., Tulipa variopicta Reboul, has a native range that stretches west to the
Tulipa viridiflora auct., Tulipa vitellina auct. Iberian Peninsula, through North Africa to
Greece, the Balkans, Turkey, throughout the
Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestine, Jordan) and Iran,
Family north to the Ukraine, southern Siberia and
Mongolia and east to the northwest of China
Liliaceae (Christenhusz et al. 2013). Tulip’s centre of
diversity had been reported to be in central
Asia—in Pamir, Hindu Kush and Tien Shan
Common/English Names mountains (King 2005).

Tulip, Didier’s Tulip, Garden Tulip, Tall Garden

Tulip Agroecology

T. gesneriana is a cool temperature climatic crop.

Vernacular Names Its bulbs are planted out in autumn after chilling
treatment, for its spring blooms. Bulbs of T.
Brazil: Tulipa-De Jardim gesneriana need low temperature chilling
Chinese: Yu Jin Xiang requirement for shoot elongation following the
Czech: Tulipán Zahradní completion of the floral organ formation (Moe
Danish: Havetulipan and Wickstrøm 1973; Le Nard 1980; Le Nard and
Eastonian: Aedtulp De Hertogh 1993; Inamoto et al. 2000). Le Nard
French: Tulipe De Gesner, Tulipe Des Jardins (1980) found that after lifting the bulbs followed
German: Garten-Tulpe, Gesners Tulpe, Zucht- by immediate storage for 1, 3 or 5 weeks at 30 °C
Tulpe and then at 20 °C or 15 °C until the completion of
Icelandic: Garðatúlípani flower differentiation, stage G and followed by
India: Tyūlipa (Hindi) either planting at 14–16 °C or cooled at 5 °C for
Italian: Tulipano Di Gessner 12 weeks before planting at 14–16 °C is benefi-
Japanese: Chūrippu cial to subsequent flower differentiation, rooting
Korean: Tyullib and flowering of tulip bulbs. The duration of bulb
Persian: Thoulyban chilling greatly influences forcing duration and
Portuguese: Tulipa cut flower quality. Moe and Wickstrøm (1973)
Russian: Tyul’pan found that 12–14 weeks of low temperature treat-
Serbian: Lala ment (5 °C) are optimal to obtain satisfactory
Spanish: Tulipán shoot growth and flowering after planting. Cold
Swedish: Tulpan areas will not require as many weeks chilling.
Turkish: Tulbend, Turban Based on the shoot fresh weight and its perianth
Vietnamese: Cây Uât́ Kim Hương length, the best cut flower was obtained from the
bulbs chilled at 2 °C for 12 weeks; longer chilling
lowered cut flower quality (Inamoto et al. 2000).
Origin/Distribution Tulips prefer full sun to very light shade. It
does best in well-drained, moist, friable, fertile
Tulipa gesneriana is an early hybrid of uncer- soil. Top dressing with a complete fertilizer after
tain, complex origin from which most of the cul- planting and watering in has been recommended
tivated forms of tulips are derived. T. gesneriana for crop establishment.
Tulip gesneriana 223

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Tulip bulbs are edible (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974;

Tanaka 1976). The bulbs can be used as a substi-
tute for onion in cooking. They can be dried,
powdered and added to cereals or flour for mak-
ing bread. Tulip flowers are also edible (Roberts
2000; Wilson 2013). Cooking with tulips dates
back to the late sixteenth century when unopened
flower buds were cooked with peas or finely cut
green beans. The petals have little taste but can be Plate 1 Tulip flowers and foliage
used to garnish a dish, chop a few petals and
mixed them in a salad, or the entire flower (minus
the pistil and stamens) used for a fruit bowl. The
petals can be sugared and used to decorate a cake
or eaten with syrup as a dessert. Some of the reci-
pes with tulip flowers listed by Roberts (2000)
included tulip syrup, tulips stuffed with chicken
mayonnaise and three-bean salad with tulips.
During the recent Chelsea Flower Show, Chef
Pascal Aussignac used tulip flowers as the base
for a unique starter, stuffing them with a mixture
of mushrooms, tapioca and parmesan and sur-
rounding them with a pea puree (Wilson 2013).
Plate 2 Orangey red tulip flower

Botany

A bulbose, scapose to sub-scapose, perennial

herb with papery to coriaceous, tunicate, often
stoloniferous bulbs. Leaves 2–6(−12), cauline,
alternate, distally reduced; lamina linear to nar-
row oblong, weakly fleshy (Plates 1, 2 and 3).
Inflorescences 1(−4)-flowered. Flowers: perianth
campanulate to cup-shaped; tepals 6, distinct,
caducous, petaloid, variously coloured white,
yellow, orange, pink, red, maroon, purple, varie-
gated and with coloured streaks, often blotched Plate 3 Red tulip flowers
near base (Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7). Stamens
6, distinct, with filaments shorter than tepals,
basally dilated; anthers basifixed, linear to nar- Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
rowly elliptic, introrse. Ovary superior, 3-locular;
style very short or absent; stigma prominently Tulips were found to contain carotenoids, delph-
3-lobed. Fruits, ellipsoid to subglobose, 3-angled, inidin, cyanidin, pelargonidin and flavonols in
leathery capsules dehisces loculicidally. Seeds varying amounts (Van Eijk et al. 1987). For del-
flat, numerous in 2 rows per locule. phinidin, cyanidin and pelargonidin, a moderate
224 Liliaceae

Plate 7 White tulip showing the ovary and stigma

Plate 4 Yellow-orange variegated tulips

cultivars contained only flavonols, or also low

carotenoid concentrations. Yellow cultivars gen-
erally only contained carotenoids in addition to
flavonols. Most pink and red cultivars contained
cyanidin and pelargonidin and no delphinidin.
Besides anthocyanidin, orange cultivars mostly
contained high carotenoid concentrations and
purple and violet cultivars contained delphinidin
and cyanidin. A clear correlation was found
between pigment composition and tulip flower
colour (van Raamsdonk 1993). Anthocyanidins
appeared to be absent in white and yellow flow-
ers, while carotenoids were abundant in yellow,
orange and red flowers. The main classes in the
Plate 5 Yellow tulip flowers flower colour range were orange and red for pel-
argonidin; orange, red and pink for cyanidin; and
purple for delphinidin.
Shibata (1956) and Shibata and Sakai (1958)
isolated crystalline delphinidin 3-rhamnoglucoside
and cyanidin 3-rhamnoglucoside from tulip
flowers. Six anthocyanins were found in tulip
flowers: keracyanin (cyanidin-3-glucorhamno-
side), chrysanthemin (cyanidin-3-monogluco-
side), tulipanin (delphinidin-3-glucorhamnoside),
delphin (delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside), delphini-
din-3-monoglucoside and pelargonidin-3-
glucorhamnoside (Shibata and Ishikura 1959).
Tulipanin was the major pigment in purplish
varieties, keracyanin in dark red varieties and the
Plate 6 Yellow tulip with fringed petals unnamed pelargonidin-3-glucorhamnoside in
orange-red varieties. Shibata and Ishikura (1960)
variation was found among 500 cultivars tested, in a chromatographic examination of 107 tulip
and for carotenoids a rather large variation. For varieties identified at least 6 anthocyanins, as
flavonols there was almost no variation. White well as various minor pigments including delph-
Tulip gesneriana 225

inidin 3-glucoside and delphinidin 3,5-digluco- [6″-O–(2‴-O–acetyl-α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-gluco-

side in tulip flowers, and most red to dark purple pyranoside] (11 %) in addition to pelargonidin
varieties contain two to four anthocyanins. 3- O –(6″- O –α-rhamnopyranosyl- β-gluco-
T. gesneriana var. “Bishop” flowers contained pyranoside) (29 %) and cyanidin 3-O–(6″-O–α-
four anthocyanins approximately in the follow- rhamnopyranosyl-β-glucopyranoside) (15 %)
ing proportion: delphinidin (1 part), tulipanin (Torskangerpoll et al. 1999).
(delphinidin-3-glucorhamoside) 7 parts), keracy- Pelargonidin 3-rutinoside, cyanidin 3-rutino-
anin (cyanidin-3-glucorhamnoside) (2 parts) and side and their 2‴-acetyl esters pelargonidin
pelargonidin glucorhamnoside (trace) and var. 3-(2‴-acetylrutinoside) and cyanidin 3-(2‴-acetyl-
Parrot Pierson flower contained three anthocya- rutinoside) were major anthocyanins in perian-
nins: keracyanin (4 parts), pelargonidin glucor- thes of the red, orange and pink tulip cultivars
hamnoside (4.5 parts) and tulipanin (1.5 parts) with their variant composition ratios (Nakayama
(Shibata and Sakai 1961). et al. 2004). Cyanidin 3-rutinoside and delphini-
Petals of tulip var. “Smiling Queen” contained din 3-rutinoside were major anthocyanins in
cyanidin 3-glucoside (chrysanthemin), cyanidin- the dark purple perianth bottoms. Delphinidin
3-rhamnoglucoside (antirrhinin), pelargonidin 3-rutinoside and its acetyl esters delphinidin
3-glucoside (callistephin) and pelargonidin 3-(2‴-acetylrutinoside) and delphinidin 3-(3‴-
3-rhamnoglucoside (Halevy and Asen 1959). acetylrutinoside) were present in the dark purple
The petals of var. “Pride of Haarlem” also con- anthers and pollens of several cultivars. Five
tained the 4 anthocyanins and delphinidin-3- anthocyanins in tulip flowers were identified
rhamnoglucoside. as the 3-O-(6″-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl-β-gluco-
Five anthocyanins were identified from petals pyranoside) of delphinidin (1), cyanidin (2) and
of tulip var. “President Eisenhower”: delphinidin pelargonidin (3) and the 3-O-[6″-O-(2‴-O-acetyl-
3-glucoside, delphinidin 3-rhamnoglocoside, α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranoside] of cyani-
pelargonidin 3-glucoside, pelargonidin 3-rhamno- din (4) and pelargonidin (5) (Torskangerpoll
glucoside and a new isomer of pelargonidin et al. 2005). Tepals with blue nuances con-
3-rhamnoglucoside (Halevy 1962). A yellow tained 1 as the major anthocyanin and no or
colouring pigment isolated from the flower of a just traces of pelargonidin derivatives. Those
garden variety “Golden Harvest” (cottage tulip with ‘magenta nuances’ showed similar antho-
strain with large deep lemon yellow flowers) was cyanin content with increased relative propor-
identified as rutin (quercetin-3-rutinoside) in a tions of 2 at the expense of 1. Orange-coloured
yield of 1 % on dry weight basis (Kawase and tepals were to a large extent correlated with
Shibata 1963). Its presence was also confirmed in high relative proportions of the pelargonidin
a garden variety “Athleet” (Mendel tulip strain derivatives 3 and 5. Within section Tulipa (sub-
with pure white flowers). genus Tulipa), considerable anthocyanin varia-
Two anthocyanins, delphinidin 3–O–(6–O– tion was observed. The anthocyanin and flavonol
(2– O –acetyl-α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β- gluco- compositions in both purple- and blue-coloured
pyranoside) and delphinidin 3–O–(6–O–(3–O– tulip protoplasts were the same: delphinidin
acetyl-α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranoside), 3-O-rutinoside and major three flavonol glyco-
were identified from the anthers of Tulipa sides manghaslin, rutin and mauritianin (Shoji
gesneriana (Nakayama et al. 1999). These and et al. 2007). The Fe3+ content in the blue proto-
delphinidin 3–O–(6–O–(α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β- plast was ∼9.5 mM, which was 25 times higher
glucopyranoside) made up over 80 % of the than that in the purple protoplasts. In further
anthocyanin content in the dark purple anthers. studies they identified a vacuolar iron trans-
Four major anthocyanins in orange-red Tulipa porter in T. gesneriana (TgVit1) that played an
“Queen Wilhelmina” were identified as pelargonidin essential role in blue coloration as a vacuolar
3–O–[6″-O–(2‴-O–acetyl-α-rhamnopyranosyl)- iron transporter in tulip petals (Momonoi et al.
β-glucopyranoside] (34 %) and cyanidin 3-O– 2009).
226 Liliaceae

The perianths of Tulipa gesneriana yielded tissue culture of tulip explants (van Rossum et al.
3-glucosides, 3-gentiobiosides and 3-rutinosides 1998). Relatively large amounts of free tulipalin
of 7-O-glucuronosylquercetin and 7-O-glucu- A were found to be present in the scale tissue and
ronosylkaempferol (Budzianowski 1991). a small amount of tuliposide A. In young deve-
Isovitexin and 3-glucosides of kaempferol and loping shoots, the situation was reversed: tulipo-
quercetin were also detected. A mixture of flavo- side is the main component but the concentration
noid glucuronides, consisting of 7-O-glucuronides is much lower. During the tissue culture period
of kaempferol and quercetin 3-O-rutinosides, (10 weeks), an increase was found in both tulip-
3-O-gentiobiosides and 3-O-glucosides, was alin A and tuliposide A. Nomura et al. (2012)
isolated from the perianths of Tulipa gesneriana purified a lactone-forming carboxylesterase:
L. var. “Paradae” (Budzianowski et al. 1999). tuliposide-converting enzyme (TCE) from tulip
During tulip bulb cooling, the leaf content of bulbs that catalysed the conversion of tuliposides
quercetin and kaempferol (after hydrolysis) sub- to tulipalins, the lactonized aglycons of tuli-
stantially increased (in comparison to uncooled posides, tulipalins, which function as defensive
bulbs stored at 17 °C) (Saniewski and Horbowicz chemicals due to their biological activities. They
2005). The anther content of quercetin and api- named the enzyme tuliposide A-converting
genin greatly increased during storage of bulbs at enzyme (TCEA) and verified that TgTCEA cata-
high temperature and was low in cooled bulbs. lysed the conversion of 6-tuliposide A to tulipalin
Tuliposides, the glucose esters of 4-hydroxy- A. Earlier, Christensen and Kristiansen (1999)
2-methylenebutanoate and 3,4-dihydroxy-2- reported that tulips contained tuliposides: 1-tuli-
methylenebutanoate, are major secondary poside A, 6-tuliposide A, tuliposide D, tuliposide
metabolites in tulip (Tulipa gesneriana) B, 1-tuliposide B, 6-tuliposide B and tuliposide
(Bergman and Beijersbergen 1968; Tschesche F, and tulipans: tulipalin A and (−)-tulipalin B
et al. 1968, 1969; Slob and Varekamp 1977; and (−)-tulipalin B. The predominant compounds
Christensen and Kristiansen 1999; Nomura et al. were 6-tuliposide A (1.5 %) and B (1.3 %) of
2012). All parts of tulip plants, such as bulbs, fresh weight. 6-Tuliposide A and tulipalin A
roots, stems, leaves, petals, stamens and pistils, appeared to be the major allergens in tulips,
accumulate large amounts (approximately although tuliposide D and F may also contribute
0.2–2 % [w/fresh weight]) of tuliposides, whereas to the allergenic properties. Tulipalin A and
tulipalins are far less abundant than tuliposides (−)-tulipalin B occur in intact tulips and are not
and sometimes barely detectable (Beijersbergen only produced in response to microbial attack or
and Lemmers 1972; Christensen and Kristiansen after excision of the plants. Kato et al. (2009a)
1999). Christensen and Kristiansen (1999) purified and characterized a tuliposide-converting
reported that tulips contained tuliposides: enzyme from bulbs of Tulipa gesneriana that
1-tuliposide A, 6-tuliposide A, tuliposide D, converted 6-tuliposide into tulipalin. The enzyme
tuliposide B, 1-tuliposide B, 6-tuliposide B and appeared to be a dimer, with molecular mass of
tuliposide F, and tulipans: tulipalin A and (−)-tuli- each subunit being 34,900; it had maximum
palin B and (−)-tulipalin B The predominant activity and stability at neutral pH and moderate
compounds were 6-tuliposide A (1.5 %) and B temperature. The enzyme preferentially acted on
(1.3 %) of fresh weight. 6-Tuliposide A and tuli- such glucose esters as 6-tuliposides, and to a
palin A appeared to be the major allergens in lesser extent on p-nitrophenyl acetate.
tulips, although tuliposide D and F may also con- DNA synthesis-inhibiting proteins, designated
tribute to the allergenic properties. Tulipalin A tulipin 1 and 2, were isolated from the bulbs of
and (−)-tulipalin B occur in intact tulips and are Tulipa sp. (Gasperi-Campani et al. 1987). Tulip
not only produced in response to microbial attack bulb was found to contain chitinase-1 and -2
or after excision of the plants. The changes in (TBC-1 and -2) (Yamagami and Ishiguro 1998).
tulipalin A (α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone) and its Both consisted of 275 amino acid residues and
precursor tuliposide A contents were measured in had molecular masses of 30,825 and 30,863,
Tulip gesneriana 227

respectively, and shared 247 identical residues 1972). Kato et al. (2009b) developed a facile
(= 90 %) identity. TBC-1 and −2 were found to method of enzyme-mediated conversion of
be class IIIb chitinases. Novel antimicrobial pep- 6-tuliposide to α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone
tides (AMP), designated Tu-AMP 1 and Tu-AMP (tulipalin) from tulip tissues. Strong antimicrobial
2, were purified from the bulbs of tulip (Tulipa activity was observed in water extracts of tulip
gesneriana) (Fujimura et al. 2004). Tu-AMP 1 anthers (Kazuaki et al. 2005; Shoji et al. 2005).
and Tu-AMP 2 had molecular masses of 4,988 The bioactive compound isolated was 6-tulipo-
and 5,006 Da and were thionin-like antimicrobial side B (6-O-(( S)4′, 5′-dihydroxy-2′-methyle-
peptides; they bind to chitin in a reversible way. nebutyryl)-D-glucopyranose). It showed a strong
Half of all amino acid residues of Tu-AMP 1 and growth inhibition against Gram-positive and
Tu-AMP 2 were occupied by cysteine, arginine, Gram-negative bacteria and certain fungicide tol-
lysine and proline. erant fungal strains except for a yeast. Tulipalins
and tuliposides were found to be inhibitors of the
enzyme MurA, an essential enzyme in peptido-
Antimicrobial Activity glycan biosynthesis in bacteria and therefore a
target for the discovery of novel antibacterial
The concentrations of antimicrobial peptides from compounds (Mendgen et al. 2010). Shigetomi
tulip bulb, designated Tu-AMP 1 and Tu-AMP 2 et al. (2010) also found bacterial MurA to be one
peptides required for 50 % inhibition (IC50) of the of the major molecular targets of 6-tuliposide
growth of plant pathogenic bacteria and fungi B using a broad panel of bacterial strains.
were 2–20 μg/mL (Fujimura et al. 2004). Tuliposides and tulipalins showed antifungal
Tuliposides had been reported to exhibit anti- activities against most of the strains tested at high
microbial activities (Tschesche et al. 1968, 1969; concentrations (2.5 mM), while Botrytis tulipae
Shoji et al. 2005). Through extensive structure– was resistant to tuliposides (Shigetomi et al. 2011).
activity relationship studies using synthetic Tulipalin A showed higher inhibitory activity
analogues of tuliposides and tulipalins, it was than 6-tuliposide B and tulipalin B. Both the tuli-
clearly demonstrated that the glucose moiety of posides and tulipalins showed pigment-inducing
tuliposides was not indispensable for their inhibi- activity against Gibberella zeae and inhibitory
tory activities and that the formation of tulipalins activity against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. tulipae.
played a key role in antimicrobial action
(Shigetomi et al. 2010, 2011). A fungitoxic sub-
stance isolated from extracts from the white skins DNA Synthesis-Inhibiting Activity
of tulip bulbs, from the fleshy bulb scales and
from the flower pistils was identified as Inhibition of DNA synthesis by tulipalin, isolated
α-methylene butyrolactone (tulipan A) (Bergman from the bulb, varied in intact cells according to
1966; Bergman et al. 1967). It was found to be the cellular types studied, with a minimum ID50
fungitoxic to Fusarium oxysporum, inhibiting its (concentration giving 50 % inhibition) of 400 ng/
growth (Bergman 1966; Bergman and mL in neuroblastoma cells. The effect was rever-
Beijersbergen 1968). Extracts of pistils, white sible. No effect was obtained in cell lysate. RNA
bulb skins and outer bulb scales of tulip were and protein synthesis were unaffected. The acute
found to contain a precursor of the fungitoxic toxicity, evaluated in Swiss mice, gave an LD50 of
substance tulipalin A (α-methylene butyrolac- 6.1 mg/kg body weight.
tone) (Beijersbergen and Lemmers 1972). The
findings demonstrated that, in vitro, the precursor
must be split chemically or enzymically to yield Wound Healing Activity
the fungitoxic tulipalin A. Fungitoxic lactones
tulipalin A and B were extracted from crude A mixture of flavonoid glucuronides, consisting
extracts of various parts of the tulip (Beijersbergen of 7-O-glucuronides of kaempferol and quercetin
228 Liliaceae

3-O-rutinosides, 3-O-gentiobiosides and 3-O- mitogenic activity as did that of native lectin, but
glucosides, isolated from the perianths of Tulipa subunit beta with a MW of about 14,000 showed
gesneriana showed protective activity (59.8 %) no activity, indicating that the mitogenic activity
against the increased (both chloroform and hista- of TGL-E originates from subunit alpha. The
mine) skin vascular permeability in rabbits com- other lectin in tulip bulbs, Tulipa gesneriana
pared to 45.5 % with troxerutin (Budzianowski lectin yeast, showed no mitogenic activity on
et al. 1999). mouse spleen, thymus cells or human peripheral
blood lymphocytes.

Agglutinating/Mitogenic Activity
Mutagenic Activity
A lectin of molecular mass 67,000, which
agglutinated specifically the yeast cells of the Crude extracts from Tulipa gesneriana bulbs
Saccharomyces genus, was isolated from tulip were found to activate promutagenic 7,12-
bulbs (Tulipa gesneriana) (Oda and Minami dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) in the
1986). Another agglutinin with molecular mass Salmonella mutagenicity assay (Pánková et al.
of 40,000 which agglutinated animal erythro- 1986). The frequency of his + revertants increased
cytes was purified from the tulip bulbs (Oda et al. in relation to both the promutagenic dose and the
1987). This agglutinin agglutinated mouse and amount of bulb extract in the mixture and, under
rat erythrocytes at a minimum concentration of 2 optimal conditions, was more than 50 times
and 30 μg/mL, respectively, but did not aggluti- higher than the value found after the action of the
nate erythrocytes from other animals and yeasts promutagen alone. The addition of NADP and
even at a concentration of 1,000 μg/mL. Tulipa glucose 6-phosphate to the incubation mixture
gesneriana agglutinin (TGA) showed novel did not seem to be obligatory.
carbohydrate-binding specificity and preferen-
tially recognized triantennary oligosaccharides
with galactose residues at non-reducing termini Traditional Medicinal Uses
and a fucose residue linked through alpha (1–6)
linkage at chitobiose portion of the reducing Soothing poultice of the petals used for burns,
termini but not tetraantennary carbohydrates skin rashes, insect bites and bee stings (Roberts
(Nakajima et al. 2004). 2000). In the seventeenth century, young girls
Modification of lysine, tyrosine, histidine, crushed red tulip petals and rubbed on cheeks so
aspartic acid and glutamic acid residues did not that the petals impart their colour and the juice
affect the agglutinating activity of the Tulipa would help clear up any spots. Crushed petals
gesneriana lectin (TGL) (Oda et al. 1989). and juice from the flower base are used to soothe
Modification of two arginine residues per subunit scratches and rough skin on work-worn hands of
in the lectin with either 2,3-butanedione or tulip growers in Holland.
phenylglyoxal and modification of tryptophan
with N-bromosuccinimide or 2-hydroxy-5-
nitrobenzyl bromide led to an almost complete Other Uses
loss of activity. Tulipa gesneriana lectin-
erythrocyte (TGL-E) which agglutinates mouse Tulips are the world’s most popular spring orna-
erythrocytes showed a potent mitogenic activity mental bulb flowers and are widely grown in tem-
on mouse spleen cells and human peripheral perate areas. They make beautiful flower gardens,
blood lymphocytes, but exhibited only slight beds and borders in parks and house gardens and
mitogenic activity on mouse thymus cells (Oda also as potted plants. Tulips make excellent and
et al. 1991). Its subunit alpha with a molecular long-lasting cut flowers in lovely and beautiful
weight (MW) of about 26,000 showed a potent flower arrangements. They can be used for bridal
Tulip gesneriana 229

bouquets, table centrepieces and general wedding Budzianowski J, Korzeniowska K, Chmara E, Mrozikiewicz
A (1999) Microvascular protective activity of flavonoid
decor. They are also a great choice for a baby
glucuronides fraction from Tulipa gesneriana. Phytother
shower or as a gift for a new baby. Res 13(2):166–168
Buschman JCM (2005) Globalisation—flower—flower
bulbs—bulb flowers. Acta Hort (ISHS) 673:27–33
Christenhusz MJM, Govaerts R, David JC, Hall T, Borland
Comments K, Roberts PS, Tuomisto A, Buerki S, Chase MW, Fay
MF (2013) Tiptoe through the tulips—cultural history,
Commercial tulip production occurs in some 15 molecular phylogenetics and classification of Tulipa
countries worldwide, with the largest production (Liliaceae). Bot J Linn Soc 172:280–328
Christensen LP, Kristiansen K (1999) Isolation and quan-
area in the Netherlands with 10,800 ha (88 %),
tification of tuliposides and tulipalins in tulips (Tulipa)
followed by the next five major countries—Japan by high-performance liquid chromatography. Contact
(300 ha, 2.5 %), France (293 ha, 2.4 %), Poland Dermatitis 40(6):300–309
(200 ha, 1.6 %), Germany (155 ha, 1.3 %) and Fujimura M, Ideguchi M, Minami Y, Watanabe K, Tadera
K (2004) Purification, characterization, and sequenc-
New Zealand (122 ha, 1 %) (Buschman 2005).
ing of novel antimicrobial peptides, Tu-AMP 1 and
The Netherlands produces 4.32 billion tulip Tu-AMP 2, from bulbs of tulip (Tulipa gesneriana L.).
bulbs, of which 2.3 billion (53 %) are used as the Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 68(3):571–577
starting material for the cultivation of cut flowers. Gasperi-Campani A, Lorenzoni E, Abbondanza A,
Perocco P, Falasca AI (1987) Purification, character-
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ization and biological activity of tulipin, a novel inhib-
grown in the Netherlands as cut flowers. The itor of DNA synthesis of plant origin. Anticancer Res
remainder are exported to countries within 7(2):151–154
the European Union (0.63 billion) and outside the Halevy AH (1962) Anthocyanins in petals of tulip var.
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vated in the Southern Hemisphere are scheduled nins in petals of tulip varieties Smiling Queen and
for autumn flowering (October–December) in the Pride of Haarlem. Plant Physiol 34(5):94–499
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 Limnocharis flava

Scientific Name Indonesia: Bengok, Berek, Gènjèr, Gunda

Wehehan, Tempujung, Timpujung, Tjèntongan,
Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau Chengtongan, Wewean, Wewehan (Javanese),
Echeng (Malay), Endjer (Madurese), Bang-
Eng, Gèndjèr, Gendot, Saber (Sundanese)
Synonyms Japanese: Kibana Omodaka
Laos: Kaanz Choong Phak Khan Chong
Alisma flava L., Damasonium flavum Mill., Malaysia: Emparuk (Sarawak), Kakatung, Balehir
Limnocharis emarginata Humb. & Bonpl. (Sabah), Ètjèng, Paku Rawan, Jinjir
nom. illeg., Limnocharis laforesti Duchass., Philippinese: Cebolla De Chucho (Tagalog)
Limnocharis plumieri Richard nom illeg. Spanish: Cebolla De Chucho
Thai: Bonchin, Talapatrusi, Nangkwak
Vietnamese: Cù Nèo, Kèo Nèo
Family

Limnocharitaceae also placed in Butomaceae Origin/Distribution

The species is native to Tropical America—

Common/English Names Southern Mexico and Antilles to Peru and
Central Brazil. It has now naturalized in south-
Hermit’s Waterlily, Limnocharis, Sawah-Flower east Asia.
Rush, Sawah Lettuce, Velvetleaf, Velvet Leaf,
Yellow Burrhead, Yellow Burhead
Agroecology

Vernacular Names Limnocharis is found in warm tropical and

subtropical areas. It is an aquatic, erect,
Brazil: Barata clump-forming and rapidly spreading herb
Chinese: Huang Hua Lin that is generally found growing rooted in fer-
India: Kalmi, Kengkong (Bengali), Manja Payal tile, muddy or marshy conditions. It is com-
(Malayalam) mon in rice fields, ditches, waterways and
Dutch: Gele Sawahsla ponds.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 232
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_15, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Limnocharis flava 233

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Limnocharis flava is a very popular and common

vegetable in India, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia (Burkill
1966; Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1980;
Voon et al. 1988; Van den Bergh 1993; Tanaka
and Nguyen 2007; Maisuthisakul et al. 2008).
Young leaves, petioles, open and unopened
flowers and stalks are consumed as vegetables
(Plates 2, 3 and 4). In Vietnam, the leaves, flower
and petiole are eaten as vegetables commonly by
Plate 1 Plant habit growing in mud in a ditch
dipping in steam boat dishes with other vegeta-
bles. In Sabah, they are boiled and eaten as salad
or fried with shrimp paste or boiled with other
vegetables. In Sarawak, similar parts are blanched
in hot water or slightly heated over a fire before
being eaten as ulam. It is also prepared as a
cooked vegetable and eaten like spinach. In
Thailand, young inflorescences are collected and
eaten fresh with chilli sauce and as side dish
together with other hot and spicy dishes. In
Indonesia, the young leaves, petioles and inflo-
rescences are eaten as lalab or sepan.

Botany Plate 2 Leaves and petioles on sale in a local market

Perennial herb arsing to 1 m high from a short

thick erect rhizome and rooting in mud (Plate 1),
strongly tillering. The scapes erect, 20–40 cm
high; leaves erect or ascending, not floating, often
exceeding the scapes, long-petiolate up to 85 cm,
the petiole triangular vaginate bearing pale green
leaves; lamina velvety up to 28 cm long and
20 cm wide with 11–15 parallel veins, variable in
shape, lanceolate to oblong-elliptic when young
and becoming oval with age (Plates 1 and 2).
Inflorescence umbelliform, 3–15 flowered,
peduncle 50–70 cm long, erect; flower in the
axils of membranous bracts; pedicel 2–5 cm
long. Sepals 3, ca. 2 cm long, thin, ovate-elliptic, Plate 3 Flower buds and stalks on sale in a local market
yellow (Plates 1, 4 and 5). Petals 3, ovate to
orbicular, 1.5–2.5 cm long, yellow. Stamens composed of the ripe carpels forming together a
many, surrounded by a whorl of staminodes. globose or broadly ellipsoid head, 1.5–2 cm in
Ovary superior, many-carpelled, densely crowded diameter, enclosed by the sepals. Seed numerous
and laterally compressed, stigmata sessile and small dark brown, horse-shoe shaped seed,
linear. Fruit compound, stalk down-curved, 1–1.5 mm across with thin transverse ridges.
234 Limnocharitaceae

Nutrient composition of the leaves (per 100 g

edible portion) analysed in Thailand was reported
as follows: energy 341.9 Kcal, protein 11.3 g,
carbohydrate 55.4 g, fat 8.4 g, ash 11.4 g, dietary
fibre 52.6 g, Ca 452.8 mg, Fe 285.8 mg and vita-
min c 452.8 mg (Maisuthisakul et al. 2008). The
concentration of plant extract necessary to
decrease DPPH radical scavenging activity by
50 % (EC50) was expressed as antiradical activity
(1/EC50) which was found to be 0.1; the total
phenolic content was 5.4 mg GAE/g dry weight
and total flavonoids 3.7 mg RE (rutin equivalent)/g
dry weight basis. Antioxidant activity correlated
Plate 4 Flower, buds and stalks harvested as vegetables
with phenolic and flavonoid contents.

Other Uses

Its foliage is used as pig feed and green manure.

Slime from the plant is used as soap. The plant is
also grown as ornamentals in ponds.

Comments

Limnocharis flava is deemed a major noxious

weed in many countries as it forms dense, chok-
ing infestations that obstruct water flow. It is a
Plate 5 Close up of flower serious weed of rice fields, waterways, lakes and
irrigation canals.

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
Selected References
Nutrient composition of the edible parts compris-
ing young shoots and inflorescence (per 100 g) Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC Jr (1963) Flora
was reported by Saupi et al. (2009) as follows: of Java, (spermatophytes only), vol 1. Noordhoff,
moisture 79.34 %, energy 343.26 kJ, carbo- Groningen, 648 pp
hydrate 14.56 %, crude protein 0.28 %, crude ft Burkill IH (1966) A dictionary of the economic products
of the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint, 2 vols.
1.22 %, crude fibre 3.81 %, K 4,202.50 mg, Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala
Ca 770.87 mg, Mg 228.10 mg, Na 107.72 mg, Lumpur. Vol 1 (A–H), pp 1–1240, vol 2 (I–Z),
Zn 0.66 mg and Cu 8.31 mg. pp 1241–2444
Leaves of Limnocharis flava contain the Harada J, Shibayama H, Morita H (1997) Weeds in the
tropics. AICAF, Tokyo, 304 pp
following nutrients per 100 g edible portion Leung W-TW, Butrum RR, Huang Chang F, Narayana
(Leung et al. 1972): energy 33 kJ, moisture 90 %, Rao M, Polacchi W (1972) Food composition table for
protein 1.7 g, fat 0.2 g, total carbohydrates 7.7 g, use in East Asia. FAO, Rome, 347 pp
ach 0.4 g, Ca 62 mg, P 33 mg, Fe 2.1 mg, Maisuthisakul P, Pasuk S, Ritthiruangdej P (2008)
Relationship between antioxidant properties and
β-carotene equivalent 2,280 ug, thiamin 0.07 mg chemical composition of some Thai plants. J Food
and ascorbic acid 54 mg. Compos Anal 21:229–240
Limnocharis flava 235

Noweg T, Abdullah AR, Nidang D (2003) Forest plants as Soerjani M, Kostermans AJGH, Tjitrosoepomo G (eds)
vegetables for communities bordering the Crocker (1987) Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka,
Range National Park. ASEAN Review of Biodiversity Jakarta
and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC). http:// Tanaka Y, Nguyen VK (2007) Edible wild plants of Vietnam:
www.arbec.com.my/pdf/art3janmar03.pdf the bountiful garden. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 175 pp
Ochse JJ, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC (1980) Vegetables Van den Bergh MH (1993) Limnocharis flava (L.)
of the Dutch Indies, 3rd edn. Ascher & Co., Buchenau. In: Siemonsma JB, Piluek K (eds) Plant
Amsterdam, 1016 pp resources of South-East Asia no 8. Vegetables. Pudoc
Saupi N, Zakaria MH, Bujang JS (2009) Analytic Scientific, Wageningen, pp 192–194
chemical composition and mineral content of yellow Voon BH, Chin TH, Sim CY, Sabariah P (1988) Wild
velvetleaf (Limnocharis flava L. Buchenau)’s edible fruits and vegetables in Sarawak. Department of
parts. J Appl Sci 9(16):2969–2974 Agriculture, Sarawak, 114 pp
 Magnolia denudata

Scientific Name Common/English Names

Magnolia denudata Desrousseaux Hsin-I, Jade Lily, Jade Orchid, Lily Tree, White
Magnolia, White Yulan, Yulan, Yulan Magnolia,
Yulan Tree

Synonyms
Vernacular Names
Gwillimia yulan (Desf.) Kostel., Lassonia
heptapeta Buc’hoz, Magnolia alexandrina Brazil: Magnolia
Steud., Magnolia citriodora Steud., Magnolia Chinese: Bai Yu Lan, Pai Yu Lan, Yu Lan Hua
conspicua Salisb., Magnolia conspicua var. Pian, Yu Lan Hua P’ien
rosea Pamp., Magnolia cyathiformis Rinz ex Czech: Šácholan Obnažený, Šácholan Olysalý
K. Koch, Magnolia denudata var. angustite- Estonian: Sile Magnolia
pala T.B. Chao & Z.S. Chun, Magnolia French: Magnolia Denude, Magnolia Yulan,
denudata var. pyriformis T.D. Yang & T.C. Yulan
Cui, Magnolia heptapeta (Buc’hoz) Dandy, German: Yulan-Magnolie
Magnolia precia Corrêa ex Vent. [Invalid], Japanese: Haku-Mokuren
Magnolia purpurea var. denudata (Desr.) Korean: Bag Mok Ryeon
Loudon, Magnolia spectabilis G. Nicholson Polish: Magnolia Naga
[Invalid], Magnolia superba G. Nicholson Swedish: Yulanmagnolia
[Invalid], Magnolia triumphans G. Nicholson
[Invalid], Magnolia yulan Desf., Michelia
yulan (Desf.) Kostel., Yulania conspicua Origin/Distribution
(Salisb.) Spach, Yulania denudata (Desr.) D.L.
Fu, Yulania denudata subsp. pubescens D.L. White Magnolia is native to central and eastern
Fu, et al., Yulania pyriformis (T.D. Yang & China, Korea and Japan.
T.C. Cui) D.L. Fu

Agroecology

Family In its native range, it occurs in mixed forests of

evergreen broad-leaved trees and deciduous
Magnoliaceae broad-leaved trees, woods, thickets and open

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 236
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_16, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Magnolia denudata 237

areas at elevations of 500–1,000 m and can with- to form a cylindrical follicetum, reddish-brown,
stand cold winters. They do best in a wind- 8–12 cm long with many 2-seeded follicles.
protected, warm location in full sun or morning Seeds red, fleshy and oily.
shade with afternoon sun.

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
Edible Plant Parts and Uses
Magnolia species including M. denudata were
Fresh petals of partially opened flowers are reported to contain various compounds, includ-
dipped in batter and deep fried and served hot as ing alkaloids, terpenoids, lignans and neolignans
delicacy (Hu 2005). The flowers, after removal of (Noshita et al. 2009).
the calyx, are also pickled and used for flavouring The yields of M. denudata essential oils were
rice (Facciola 1990). 0.03–0.05 % in the fresh leafy shoots (branchlets
and leaves), 0.04–0.05 % in the leaves, 0.29–
0.67 % in the flower buds and 0.08–0.09 % in the
Botany opened flower in full bloom (Fujita et al. 1977).
The main components of essential oils of the fresh
A deciduous upright, sparsely branched tree leaves were β-caryophyllene (15.3–18.4 %),
6–18 m high with an ovate crown, grey-brown (+)-trans-nerolidol (21.9–25.9 %) and α-humulene
bark and stout pilose branches becoming gla- (3.5–8.4 %); those of the branchlets were 1,8-cin-
brous with age. Leaves are alternate, coriaceous, eole (17.6 %), (+)-terpinen-4-ol (18.2 %) and
obovate-oblong or broadly elliptic 10–18 cm by (−)-α-terpineol (10.9 %); those of the barks were
6–10 cm with acute apex and cuneate base, entire 1,8-cineole (43.5 %), (+)-terpinen-4-ol (8 %) and
margin, dark green, glabrous above and pale (−)-α-terpineol (7.3 %); those of the flowers were
silvery-green and puberulous lower surface. 1,8-cineole (34–36.1 %), β-pinene and sabinene
Flowers solitary, bisexual, large, usually fragrant, (12–30 %), n-pentadecane (4–9.1 %) and
10–15 cm across, appearing before leaves; tepals (−)-α-terpineol (4.4–7.6 %); and those of the
6–12 in 3–4 whorls, subequal, spatulate, ivory- flower buds were 1,8-cineole (49–57.2 %),
white (Plates 1 and 2) or base tinged pink; sta- β-pinene and sabinene (4–11.5 %) and (−)-α-
mens numerous red, caducous, with flat filaments terpineol (6.2–8.3 %).
and introse anthers; carpels numerous, spirally Other minor identified constituents of the
arranged, with 2 ovules per carpel, style curved opened flower oil included α-pinene (2.3–4.1 %),
outward and stigma papillate. Fruit is aggregated camphene (0.3 %), β-myrcene (0.1–0.5 %), limonene

Plate 1 Profuse flowering yulan magnolia Plate 2 Side view of yulan magnolia flowers
238 Magnoliaceae

(0.9–1.5 %), p-cymene (1.2–1.4 %), cis-3-hexen- neolignans were isolated from the flower buds of
1-ol (0.1 %), trans-linalool oxide (0.1–0.2 %), Magnolia denudata (Li et al. 2005). The known
cis-linalool oxide (0.5–1.7 %), α-copaene (0.3– lignans and neolignans were identified as vera-
0.8 %), β-bourbonene (0.9 %), (+)-terpinen-4-ol gensin (1), galgravin (2), a lignan (3), fargesone
(1.8–2 %), (−)-bornylacetate (1–2 %), B (4), lariciresinol (5), a lignan (6), fargesin (7),
β-caryophyllene (1.1–1.9 %), α-humulene (0.3– (−)-methylpiperitol (8), magnolone (9), (−)-gal-
0.4 %), γ-muurolene (0.1 %), germacrene-D bacin (10), licarin B (11), acuminatin (12), hanci-
(2.1–2.6 %), α-citronellyacetate (0.7–1 %), none (13), burcellin (14) and a neolignan (15).
α-muurolene (0.2–0.3 %), β-selinene (0.2 %), Six melanin biosynthesis inhibitory compounds
gerany lacetate (0.2–0.3 %), δ-cadinene (0.8– identified as asfargesin, kobusin, aschantin, mag-
1.1 %), γ-cadinene (0.1 %), n-nonadecane (0.1– nolin, rel-[7s,8s,8′s]-3,4,3′,4′-tetra-methoxy-
0.6 %), caryophylleneoxide (0.3–1.1 %), 9,7′-dihydroxy-8.8′,7.O.9′-lignan and oplodiol
(+)-trans-nerolidol (1–2.9 %), elemol (0.3– were isolated from the methanol extract of M.
0.8 %), T-muurolol (0.1 %), β-eudesmol 2.2– denudata flowers (Xu et al. 2004). In Magnolia
5.5 %, p-cymen-8-ol (trace), α-cadinene (trace) denudata flowers, several quercetin glycosides,
and calamenene (trace). The flower oil also con- and particularly rutin, were converted to coloured
tained 89.2 % of C15H32 and 3.7 % of C19H40 par- substances via o-quinones by the action of phe-
affins. The main components found in the nolase (Sato et al. 1992). Magnolia denudata
essential oil of flowers from three kinds of Xinyi ‘Feihuang’ flowers emitted the following major
(Magnolia biondii, Magnolia denudata and volatile organic compounds: perillene (62.46 %),
Magnolia sprengeri) were 1,8-cineole, sabinene, cis-linalool oxide (9.56 %) and cis-verbenone
β-pinene, α-pinene and trans-caryophyllene (7.54 %) making a total of 79.6 % (Ding et al.
(Wu 2000). Eleven marker lignan components 2013).
were identified in Magnolia flowers including Machilin G and four neolignans denudatin A
M. denudata: eudesmin (1), magnolin (2), liri- and B, denudadione B and fargesone A were
oresinol dimethyl ether (3), epimagnolin (4), isolated from young fruits of Magnolia denudata
aschantin (5), kobusin (6), fargesin (7), burchellin (Noshita et al. 2008). Two new phenolic deriva-
(8),5-allyl-5-methoxy-3-methyl-2-piperonyl-2,3,5,6- tives, named denudalide and denudaquinol and a
tetrahydro-6-oxobenzofuran (9), ((1S,5S,6S,7S)- known neolignan compound (denudatin A), were
5-allyl-6-methyl-3-methoxy-7(3′,4′-dimeth isolated from the mature fruit (Noshita et al. 2009).
oxyphenyl)-bicyclo[3.2.1]oct-3en-2,8-dione (10) New neolignans, denudatin A and B (hydro-
and (2R,3S,3aR)-3a-allyl-5-methoxy-3-methyl-2- benzofuranoids) and denudatone [spiro(5,5)
piperonyl 2,3,3a,6-tetrahydro-6-oxobenzofuran undecanoid], together with three known neolig-
(11) (Xu et al. 2003). Compounds 8–11 were com- nans, veraguesin, futoenone and burchellin, were
monly found and the most abundant markers in isolated from the aerial parts (Iida et al. 1982).
M. denudata and M. denudata var. purpurascens The ethyl acetate fraction of the methanol extract
were burchellin (1.1–2.5 %) and (2R,3S,3aR)- of powdered twigs of M. denudata afforded seven
3a-allyl-5-methoxy-3-methyl-2-piperonyl 2,3,3a,6- new neolignan derivatives, named denudanolides
tetrahydro-6-oxobenzofuran (1.8–4.9 %). A, B, C and D; denudadiones A, B and C; along
Naphthalene was isolated from the ether with 18 known lignan and known neolignan
extract of the petals and gynoecium of M. denu- compounds identified as (1S,5S,6S,7S)-5-allyl-6-
data flowers (Azuma et al. 1996). The lignin, methyl-3-methoxy-7(3,4-methylendioxyphenyl)-
licarin was isolated from the flower bud (Kwon bicyclo[3.2.1]oct-3-en-2,8-dione; denudatin B;
et al. 1999). A new tricyclo[4.2.0.0(2,8)]octane- denudatin A; neolignan; kadsurin A; neolignan;
type neolignan, 6-allyl-7-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)- neolignan; burcellin; neolignan; mirandin A;
2,3-dimethoxy-8-methyl-tricyclo[4.2.0.0(2,8)]oct-3-en- licarin B; acuminatin; veraguensin; grandisin;
5-one, together with 15 known tetrahydrofuran- yangambin; syringresinol; isodihydrofutoquinol A;
type and bis-tetrahydrofuran-type lignans and and isodihydrofutoquinol B (Kuroyanagi et al. 2000).
Magnolia denudata 239

Twenty compounds were isolated from Magnolia activity with a 50 % inhibition concentration (IC50)
denudata leaves including 16 lignans, which of 0.20 mg/mL, and total antioxidant activity
belong to 6 structural types (Du et al. 2001). was 0.90 mg AA (ascorbic acid) eq/100 mg
Except for (7R, 8S, 1′S)-δ-8′ -1′, 4′- dihydro- (Nho et al. 2009). The ethyl acetate fraction
5′-methoxy-3,4-methylenedioxy-4′-oxo-7.0.2′, contained the highest phenolic and flavonoid
8.1′-neolignan; magliflonenone; 2, 5′-diene- contents of 427.10 mg garlic acid eq/g and
2′, 8′-epoxy-5′-methoxy-8-methyl-4′-oxo-3,4- 356.05 mg catechin eq/g, respectively.
methylenedioxy-spiro (5, 5)-undecane; veraguen- Methanol (MeOH) and dichloromethane
sin; and β-sitosterol; the other 15 compounds (CH2Cl2) extracts of M. denudata flower buds
were obtained from this species for the first time. inhibited dose-dependently generation of reactive
Compound 2 was shown to have significant oxygen species (ROS) in HT 1,080 cells (Seo
inflammation inhibition effect on mice hind paw 2010). MeOH and CH2Cl2 extracts were combined
oedema induced by carrageenan. An alkaloid, and fractionated with n-hexane, 85 % aqueous
tyramine was isolated from the leaves (Matsutani MeOH and n-butanol (n-BuOH). Both n-hexane-
and Shiba 1975). The alkaloids armepavine, soluble and 85 % aqueous-soluble fractions
asimilobine, liriodenine, N-norarmepavine, nor- showed strong radical scavenging activity in the
nuciferine and roemerine were isolated from the cellular system and further afforded five known
leaves (Furmanowa and Jozefowicz 1980). lignans, namely, (+)-eudesmin, (+)-magnolin,
Alkaloids were found in the green and yellow (+)-epimagnolin A, (+)- fargesin and (7S*,8S*,
leaves and also in the branches of M. denudata 8′S*)-3,4,3′,4′-tetramethoxy-9,7′-dihydroxy-
(Ziyaev et al. 1999). 8.8′,7.0.9′-lignan, all of which exhibited signifi-
Alkaloids salicifoline chloride and magnocu- cant radical scavenging effect on intracellular ROS
rarine were isolated from the root bark (Tomita in a dose-dependent manner. The total phenolic
and Nakano 1952). A quaternary alkaloid, mag- contents of the methanolic extracts of white-
noflorine, was identified from Magnolia denudata coloured (Magnolia denudata, WME) and violet-
root (Nakano 1956). A chloroform extract of coloured (M. denudata var. purpurascens, VME)
the root bark of Magnolia denudata afforded flowers were 85.80 and 80.96 mg/g gallic acid
sesquiterpenes parthenolide and costunolide; equivalents, respectively (Jo et al. 2012). DPPH
three phenylpropanoids, myristicine aldehyde, radical scavenging activity at 1 mg/mL was 87.74
trans-isomyristicine and deacyllaserine; and four and 75.05 % and for 2,2-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzo-
lignans viz. sesamin, kobusin, eudesmin and thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scav-
pinoresinol (Funayama et al. 1995). enging activity at 1 mg/mL was 88.24 and 85.98 %,
respectively. There was no significant difference
between WME (1.094) and VME (1.081) in reduc-
Antioxidant Activity ing power.

At doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg, the ethanol

flower extract showed significant inhibition on Anticancer Activity
both change in paw volume and vascular perme-
ability (Lim and Park 2005). The extract at A chloroform extract of the root bark of Magnolia
100 mg/kg significantly inhibited PAR2 agonist- denudata showed strong cytocidal activity
induced myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in paw against P388 leukaemia cells, and parthenolide
tissue. These results indicate that ethanol flower and costunolide were isolated as active principles
extract had anti-inflammatory activity in PAR2- (Funayama et al. 1995). In the MTT assay the
mediated paw oedema. chloroform fraction of ethanol flower extract of
The ethyl acetate fraction of the ethanol flower M. denudata showed the highest cytotoxic
extract of M. denudata showed strong 1,1-diphenyl- effect against HCT116, NCL-H460 and HepG2
2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging human cancer cells (IC50 value: 0.14, 0.37 and
240 Magnoliaceae

0.41 mg/mL, respectively) (Nho et al. 2009). var. purpurascens, VME) flowers were 17.48 and
Denudalide and denudaquinol isolated from mature 8.63 %, respectively (Jo et al. 2012).
fruit showed cytotoxicity against the serum-free
mouse embryo (SFME), and r/mHM-SFME-1
cell lines, the latter with highly metastatic potential Allergy Modulatory Activity
in host animal, were derived from ras/mycSFME
(Noshita et al. 2009). Studies showed that flower buds of Magnolia
denudata induced apoptosis of mast cells (Kim
et al. 2003). Changes in cell morphology, genera-
Antiplatelet Activity tion of DNA fragmentation, cell cycle arrest,
activation of caspase-3 and PARP and DFF deg-
The lignin, licarin which was isolated from the radations were demonstrated. The reduction of
flower bud was found to have acyl-CoA choles- mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and
terol acyltransferase (ACAT) inhibitory activity the release of cytochrome C to cytosol were also
in the rat liver (Kwon et al. 1999). shown. Bax protein content was increased, and
The neolignan derivative denudanolide A and Bax was translocated from cytosol into mitochon-
neolignan denudatin B isolated from the twigs dria at early time points after Magnolia treat-
exhibited moderate antiplatelet activity factor ment. The results suggested that the clinical
activity, 50 % inhibition at 50 and 100 μg/mL, effect of Magnolia flower may depend on their
respectively (Kuroyanagi et al. 2000). pharmacological efficacy in regulating mast cell
apoptosis.
Ethanolic extracts of Magnolia biondii, M.
Anti-inflammatory Activity denudata, M. kobus, M. liliflora, M. sargentiana
and M. sprengeri produced a concentration-
Nitrate synthesis inhibitory effect of ethanol flower dependent inhibition of compound 48/80-induced
extract of M. denudata and its solvent fractions on histamine release in rat peritoneal mast cells
nitric oxide synthase activity in LPS-stimulated (Shen et al. 2008). The rank order of the IC50 val-
RAW 264.7 cells were decreased in dose-dependent ues was M. biondii < M. kobus < M. liliflora < M.
manners, and IC50 value of hexane and chloroform denudata < M. sprengeri < M. sargentiana. The
fractions were 0.39 and 0.49 mg/mL, respectively marker compound magnolin, but not fargesin,
(Nho et al. 2009). Machilin G and four neolignans only slightly inhibited histamine release. The
denudatins A and B, denudadione B and fargesone contents of magnolin and fargesin varied signifi-
A which were isolated from young fruits of cantly among the species. Magnolin was found in
Magnolia denudata exhibited inhibitory effects on M. biondii, M. kobus and M. liliflora, but not in
nitric oxide (NO) production in the lipopolysac- M. denudata, M. sprengeri and M. sargentiana,
charide plus interferon-gamma activated-murine while fargesin was only found in M. biondii and
macrophage cell line J774.1 (Noshita et al. 2008). M. kobus.
Some but not all of the inhibition of NO production
by machilin G and denudatin A and B was appar-
ently through the decreased expression of the Antiobesity Activity
inducible NO synthase (iNOS) gene.
Among the fractions of the crude extracts of the
flower buds of Magnolia denudata, n-hexane and
Skin Whitening Activity 85 % aqueous methanol fractions effectively
reduced the lipid accumulation and the regulation
Tyrosinase inhibitory activities of the methanolic of the adipogenic transcription factor (Kong
extracts of white-coloured (Magnolia denudata, et al. 2011). Both n-hexane and 85 % aqueous
WME) and violet-coloured ( M. denudata methanol fractions afforded four lignans (A–D).
Magnolia denudata 241

In comparative analysis, the presence of the lignans Du J, Wang ML, Chen RY, Yu DQ (2001) Chemical con-
stituents from the leaves of Magnolia denudata. J
during adipogenic differentiation reduced the
Asian Nat Prod Res 3(4):313–319
absorbance values of eluted Oil Red O solution in Duke JA, Ayensu ES (1985) Medicinal plants of China, vols
the order of potency C > D > B > A. Also, lignans 1 & 2. Reference Publications, Inc, Algonac, 705 pp
C and D effectively downregulated SREBP1, Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible
plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp
PPARγ and C/EBPα.
Fujita SI, Ishmatsu Y, Fujita Y (1977) Miscellaneous con-
tribution to the essential oils of the plants from various
territories. XLII. On the components of the essential
Traditional Medicinal Uses oils of Magnolia denudata Desr. J Pharm Soc Jpn
97(11):1216–1218 (in Japanese)
Funayama S, Adachi M, Aoyagi T, Nozoe S (1995)
The plant is anodyne, sedative and tonic (Kunkel Cytocidal principles of Magnolia denudata. Pharm
1984; Duke and Ayensu 1985). The flower buds are Biol 33:21–24
antifungal, astringent, cytotoxic, hypotensive and a Furmanowa M, Jozefowicz J (1980) Alkaloids as taxo-
nomic markers in some species of Magnolia L. and
uterine stimulant (NPRI 1998). The flower buds and
Liriodendron L. Acta Soc Bot Pol 49:7527–7535
seed are regarded as diaphoretic and carminative Hu SY (2005) Food plants of China. The Chinese
(Duke and Ayensu 1985), and in Korea they are University Press, Hong Kong, 844 pp
used in the therapy of headaches, nasal obstruction Iida T, Ichino K, Ito K (1982) Neolignans from Magnolia
denudata. Phytochemistry 21:2934–2941
and sinusitis (NPRI 1998). The flowers are dried
Jo YH, Seo GU, Yuk HG, Lee SC (2012) Antioxidant and
and used for the treatment of nasal disorder in tyrosinase inhibitory activities of methanol extracts
Korea (Kunkel 1984; Lim and Park 2005). from Magnolia denudata and Magnolia denudata var.
purpurascens flowers. Food Res Int 47(2):197–200
Kim GC, Lee SG, Park BS, Kim JY, Song YS, Kim JM,
Yoo KS, Huh GY, Jeong MH, Lim YJ, Kim HM, Yoo
YH (2003) Magnoliae flos induces apoptosis of
Other Uses RBL-2H3 cells via mitochondria and caspase. Int
Arch Allergy Immunol 131(2):101–110
Kong CS, Lee JI, Kim JA, Seo Y (2011) In vitro evalua-
Yulan magnolia is a popular ornamental and has
tion on the antiobesity effect of lignans from the flower
been cultivated in Chinese Buddhist temple gardens buds of Magnolia denudata. J Agric Food Chem
since 600 AD where its flowers were regarded as a 59(10):5665–5670
symbol of purity in the Tang dynasty. It was also Kunkel G (1984) Plants for human consumption. Koeltz
Scientific Books, Koenigstein
planted in the grounds of the Emperor’s palace and
Kuroyanagi M, Yoshida K, Yamamoto A, Miwa M (2000)
summer palace. It is the official flower of the city Bicyclo[3.2.1]octane and 6-oxabicyclo[3.2.2]nonane
of Shanghai. type neolignans from Magnolia denudata. Chem
Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 48(6):832–837
Kwon BH, Jung HJ, Lim JH, Kim YS, Kim MK, Kim YK,
Bok SH, Bae KH, Lee IR (1999) Acyl-CoA: choles-
terol acyltransferase inhibitory activity of lignans iso-
Comments lated from Schizandra, Machilus and Magnolia
species. Plant Med 65(1):74–76
Li J, Tanaka M, Kurasawa K, Ikeda T, Nohara T (2005)
Magnolia grandiflora is readily propagated from
Lignan and neolignan derivatives from Magnolia
softwood cuttings and also from seeds, layering denudata. Chem Pharm Bull 53(2):235–237
and grafting/budding. Lim JP, Park YS (2005) Anti-inflammatory activity of the
ethanol extract from Magnoliae Flos on PAR2-mediated
edema. Korean J Med Crop Sci 13(6):245–249
Matsutani H, Shiba T (1975) Tyramine from Magnolia
Selected References species. Phytochemistry 14:1132–1133
Nakano T (1956) Studies on the alkaloids of magnolia-
Azuma H, Toyota M, Askawa Y, Kawano S (1996) ceous plants. XVI. Alkaloids of Magnolia denudata
Napthalene—a constituent of Magnolia flowers. Desr. Pharm Bull (Jpn) 4(1):67–68
Phytochemistry 42:999–1004 Natural Products Research Institute, Seoul National
Ding QQ, Wu XB, Liu F, Xu GP, Zheng J, Gao Y (2013) University (1998) Medicinal plants in the Republic of
Volatile organic compounds in flowers of four Korea, Western Pacific series no 21. WHO Regional
Magnoliaceae species. J Zhejiang Univ 30(4):478–483 Publications, Manila, 316 pp
242 Magnoliaceae

Nho JW, Hwang IG, Joung EM, Kim HY, Chang SJ, Shen Y, Pang EC, Xue CC, Zhao ZZ, Lin JG, Li CG
Jeong HS (2009) Biological activities of Magnolia (2008) Inhibitions of mast cell-derived histamine
denudata Desr. flower extracts. J Korean Soc Food Sci release by different Flos Magnoliae species in rat
Nutr 38(11):1478–1484 (in Korean) peritoneal mast cells. Phytomedicine 15(10):808–814
Noshita T, Funayama S, Hirakawa T, Kidachi Y, Tomita M, Nakano T (1952) Studies on the alkaloids of
Ryoyama K (2008) Machilin G and four neolignans Magnoliaceous plants. VIII. Alkaloids of Magnolia
from young fruits of Magnolia denudata show vari- denudate Desr. Yakugaku Zasshi 72(10):1260–1262
ous degrees of inhibitory activity on nitric oxide (in Japanese)
(NO) production. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 72(10): Wu W (2000) GC-MS analysis of chemical components
2775–2778 in essential oil from Flos Magnoliae. Zhong Yao Cai
Noshita T, Kiyota H, Kidachi Y, Ryoyama K, Funayama 23(9):538–541 (in Chinese)
S, Hanada K, Murayama T (2009) New cytotoxic Xu LH, Cui BG, Yu ZY (2003) RP-HPLC determination
phenolic derivatives from matured fruits of Magnolia of magnolin and fargesin in Flos Magnoliae. Chin J
denudata. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 73(3): Pharm Anal 23(6):426–427
726–728 Xu GH, Kim JA, Park SH, Son AR, Chang HW, Chung
Sato M, Hiraoka A, Watanabe M (1992) Flower SR, Lee SH, Chang TS (2004) Isolation of melanin
discolouration in Magnolia. Phytochemistry 31(10): biosynthesis inhibitory compounds from the flowers
3413–3416 of Magnolia denudata. Korean J Pharmacogn
Seo YW (2010) Antioxidant activity of the chemical 35(2):152–156
constituents from the flower buds of Magnolia Ziyaev R, Shtonda NI, Sturua MD, Abdusamatov A,
denudata. Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng 15(3): Tsakadze DM (1999) Alkaloids of some Magnolia
400–406 species. Chem Nat Prod 35(3):366–367
 Magnolia grandiflora

Scientific Name G.Nicholson (Inval.), Magnolia tardiflora Ser.

(Inval.), Magnolia tomentosa Ser. (Inval.),
Magnolia grandiflora L. Magnolia umbrella var. maxima (Lodd. ex
G.Don) P.Parm., Magnolia virginiana var. foetida
L., Magnolia virginiana var. grisea L.
Synonyms

Magnolia angustifolia Millais, Magnolia elliptica Family

(W.T.Aiton) Link, Magnolia exoniensis Millais,
Magnolia ferruginea W.Watson, Magnolia ferru- Magnoliaceae
ginea Z. Collins ex Raf., Magnolia foetida (L.)
Sarg., Magnolia foetida f. margaretta Ashe,
Magnolia foetida f. parvifolia Ashe, Magnolia Common/English Names
galissoniensis Millais, Magnolia glabra P.Parm.,
Magnolia gloriosa Millais, Magnolia grandiflora Big Laurel, Bull Bay, Great Laurel Magnolia,
var. angustifolia Loudon, Magnolia grandiflora Large-Flower Magnolia, Laurel-Leaved Magnolia,
var. elliptica W.T.Aiton, Magnolia grandiflora var. Southern Magnolia, Evergreen Magnolia, Loblolly
exoniensis Loudon, Magnolia grandiflora var. Magnolia
ferruginea Sims, Magnolia grandiflora f. galis-
soniensis K.Koch, Magnolia grandiflora var.
lanceolata Aiton, Magnolia grandiflora f. lan- Vernacular Names
ceolata (Aiton) Rehder, Magnolia grandiflora
var. obovata W.T.Aiton, Magnolia grandiflora Catalan: Magnòlia
var. praecox Loudon, Magnolia grandiflora var. Chinese: Guang Yulan, He hua mu lan, Hou po,
rotundifolia Sweet ex Loudon, Magnolia hartwegii Yang yulan
G.Nicholson (Inval.), Magnolia hartwicus Czech: Šácholan velkokvětý
G.Nicholson (Inval.), Magnolia lacunosa Raf., Danish: Storblomstret Magnolie
Magnolia lanceolata (Aiton) Link, Magnolia Dutch: Zuidelijke magnolia
longifolia Sweet, Magnolia maxima Lodd. ex Eastonian: Suureõieline magnolia
G.Don, Magnolia microphylla Ser. (Inval.), Finnish: Kuningasmagnolia
Magnolia obovata (W.T.Aiton) Link (Illeg.), French: Laurier Tulipier, Magnolia à grandes
Magnolia obtusifolia (Inval.), Magnolia prae- fleurs, Magnolia toujours vert
cox Millais, Magnolia pravertiana Millais, German: Großblütige Magnolie, Immergrüne
Magnolia rotundifolia Millais, Magnolia stricta Magnolie, Riesenlorbeer

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 243
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_17, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
244 Magnoliaceae

Hungarian: Örökzöld liliomfa

India: Andachampa, Him champa (Hindi),
Oothambal (Manipuri)
Japanese: Taisan-Boku
Polish: Magnolia wielkokwiatowa
Portuguese: Magnólia, Magnólia-Branca, Magnólia-
de-flores-grandes, Magnólia-sempre-verde
Slovašcina: Magnolija velecvetna
Spanish: Laurel Tulipan, Lauro-Tulipan, Magnòlia,
magnolia de Los Jardines, Magnolia lorandi,
Magnolier, Magnoliera, Magnolio
Swedish: Kungsmagnolia Plate 1 Showy white flower and dark green glossy foliage
Turkish: Büyük çiçekli manolya
Vietnamese: Hoa Mộc Lan
broadly pyramidal crown. The trunk attains a
diameter of 1.8 m and has a grey-brown, thinly
Origin/Distribution scaly, fissured bark. Twigs, vegetative buds, peti-
oles, densely brown to greyish brown and shortly
The species is native to the south-eastern United tomentose. Leaves are alternate, simple, stiff,
States: from Virginia south to central Florida, and leathery, broadly ovate, large (12–20 cm long ×
western to eastern Texas and Oklahoma. The 6–12 cm wide), with smooth margins and taper-
plant is widely cultivated in subtemperate areas ing at both ends, dark green above and tomentose
around the world. underneath with yellow-brown pubescence
(Plates 1 and 2). Flowers large, showy, fragrant,
lemon citronella-scented, 15–30 cm across, with
Agroecology 6–12 white, waxy, fleshy, obovate tepals emerg-
ing on stout, pubescent pedicels from the tips of
The species is found growing on the margins of twigs (Plate 1). Stamens about 2 m long, with
ponds and swamps, ravines, hummocks and purple filaments and introrse anthers. Gynoecium
wooded floodplains on a rich fertile, moist, well- ellipsoid, densely long tomentose with 1–1.5 cm,
drained soil in its native range. It does not toler- ovoid carpels and reclinate styles. Fruit cylindri-
ate inundation and frost. cal to ovoid, 7–10 by 4–5 cm, densely brown to
pale greyish yellow tomentose containing bright
red, glossy, ovoid seeds 1.4 × 0.6 cm.
Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The flowers are pickled in some parts of England Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

and are considered to have an exquisite flavour
(Hedrick 1972; Facciola 1990). They are also Various classes of compound such as sesquiter-
said to be used as a spice and a condiment penoids (El-Feraly 1984; El-Feraly and Chan
(Facciola 1990). 1978; Yang et al. 1994; Luo et al. 2001; Ganzera
et al. 2001; Hong et al. 2007), coumarins (Yang
et al. 1994), phenylpropanoids (Clark et al.
Botany 1981), lignans (Schühly et al. 2009), glycosides
(Rao 1975; Rao and Juneau 1975), alkaloids
Magnolia grandiflora is a medium to large ever- (Rao 1975; Ziyaev et al. 1999), and other com-
green, typically straight and erect tree (up to 30 m pounds (Azuma et al. 1997a, b; Fan et al. 2009;
high) with spreading branches that form a dense, Wang et al. 2009; Luo et al. 2012) had been
Magnolia grandiflora 245

5, 7, 7, 7-heptamethyl-3,3-bis (trimethylsiloxy)
tetrasiloxane and 1, 1, 1, 3, 5, 7, 7, 7-octamethyl-3,
3-bis-(trimethylsiloxy) tetrasiloxane and also
organic compound 1, 2-benzenedicarboxylic acid
butyl 2-ethylhexyl ester (Kawase and Takahashi
1996). A sesquiterpene, vulgarenol, isolated from
Magnolia grandiflora flower petals (Del Valle-
Mondragón et al. 2007, 2009).
Twenty-eight constituents were present in the
flower essential oil in which three were monoter-
pene hydrocarbons (3.9 %), 14 sesquiterpene
hydrocarbons (80 %), 7 oxygenated sesquiter-
penes (13.5 %) and 4 long-chain compounds
(2.7 %) (Garg and Kumar 1999). Among them,
17 constituents were identified; β-caryophyllene
(34.8 %) was the major constituent of the oil. The
most abundant components of M. grandiflora
floral essential oil were cyclocolorenone (up to
39.6 %), bicyclogermacrene (1.2–25.2 %), ger-
macrene D (2.3–23.8 %), isobornyl acetate (trace
to 16.0 %), methyl myristate (up to 15.3 %),
β-pinene (3.3–14.6 %), β-elemene (3.3–12.8 %),
Plate 2 Lower leaf surface tomentose with yellow-
brown pubescence (2Z,6E)-farnesol (up to 15.0 %) and (2E,6E)-
farnesol (up to 12.5 %) (Davé et al. 2011).
Sixty-seven and thirty-four components were
reported from this plant. Two cytotoxic ger- obtained by simultaneous distillation–extraction
macranolide hydroperoxides peroxycostunolide (SDE) and headspace–solid-phase microextraction
(verlotorin) and peroxyparthenolide were iso- (SPME) from flowers of Magnolia grandiflora
lated from M. grandiflora (El-Feraly et al. 1977, growing in Cuba, respectively (Báez et al. 2012).
1979b) and cyclocolorenone, a sesquiterpene β-Pinene (10.5 %), geraniol (7.4 %) and ger-
ketone of the aromadendrane class (Rao and macrene D (6.2 %) were the main constituents of
Davis 1982a; Jacyno et al. 1991). the volatile oil isolated by SDE, while (E)-β-
ocimene (24.6 %), geraniol (18.9 %), β-elemene
(11.2 %) and germacrene D (9.9 %) were the
Flower Phytochemicals most abundant in the headspace of the flowers,
respectively. In M. grandiflora flower essential
Volatile floral substances of Magnolia species oil sample, (E,E)-farnesol (18 %) and
including M. grandiflora comprised primarily of 2-phenylethanol (10 %) were found as main
monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids produced constituents, whereas germacrene D (17 %) and
by the mevalonate pathway, acetogenins by the β-bisabolene (17 %) were the main components
acetate–malonate pathway and phenylpropanoids of the headspace flower extract sample (Faraq
by the shikimate pathway (Yasukawa et al. 1992). and Al-Mahady 2013).
Sporopollenin in mature pollen grains of M. gran-
diflora was shown by x-ray analysis to have a
simple aliphatic polymer as the main structure Fruit and Seed Phytochemicals
(Kawase and Takahashi 1995). In subsequent
studies, they found that sporopollenin possessed Biphenyls magnolol and honokiol were isolated
organosilicon compounds elucidated as 1,1,1, from M. grandiflora seeds (El-Feraly and Li 1978).
246 Magnoliaceae

Five neolignan compounds were obtained from α-terpineol; deseeded mature fruit: 12.2 % 1,8 cine-
M. grandiflora crude seed oil extract: honokiol ole, 7.2 % caryophyllene oxide, 6.9 % β-pinene
(3′,5-di-2-propenyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2,4′-diol), and 5.7 % β-elemene; leaves: 23.0 % β-pinene,
magnolol(5,5′-di-2-propenyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2,2′- 13.6 % β-elemene and 6.3 % α-pinene (Rehman
diol), 4-O-methylhonokiol (3′,5-di-2-propenyl-4′- et al. 2013).
methoxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2-ol), 5,5′-di-2-propenyl-
3-methoxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2,2′-diol (4) and grandi-
flora lignan (4α,9β-dihydro-8,9β-di-2-propenyl- Leaf Phytochemicals
(4H)-dibenzofuran-3-one) (Schühly et al. 2009).
Biphenyl neolignans magnolol, honokiol and From the leaves the alkaloids anonaine and
4′-O-methylhonokiol (MH) were isolated from liriodenine (Tomita and Kozuka 1967) and mag-
M. grandiflora seed oil (Schuehly et al. 2011). noflorine, lanuginosine, liriodenine and anonaine
MH is only a minor secondary metabolite in were isolated (Mohamed et al. 2010). The ger-
Asian Magnolia species, but it is the major con- macranolide sesquiterpene lactones costunolide,
stituent of M. grandiflora seeds. In M. grandi- parthenolide and costunolide diepoxide were
flora seeds, 4-O-methylhonokiol was found to be isolated from M. grandiflora leaves (El-Feraly
the major neolignan (10 % in the crude seed and Chan 1978). Two isomeric melampolides,
extract), followed by magnolol, honokiol and melampomagnolide A and melampomagnolide B,
4-mono-O-methylhonokiol (Rao and Davis 1982b). were isolated from the newly formed leaves of
Sixteen types of compounds were identified, Magnolia grandiflora (El-Feraly 1984). The
including 40.91 % oxygen-containing terpene leaves of Magnolia grandiflora afforded in addi-
derivatives, 19.51 % terpenes, 13.97 % esters, tion to costunolide diepoxide and parthenolide, a
13.05 % nitrogenous compounds and 3.64 % guaianolide named magnograndiolide (Halim
acids from M. grandiflora seed essential oil (Luo et al. 1984). Five sesquiterpenes were found in
et al. 2012). Major components were 13-ethyl-3- M. grandiflora (Ganzera et al. 2001). Quantitative
hydroxy-(14 β )-gona-1,3,5,7,9-pentaen-17- analysis of different M. grandiflora samples
ketone (21.19 %); caryophyllene (19.36 %); showed parthenolide as the most dominant ses-
N -(6-oxo-9,10,11,12-tetrahydro-6H-5-oxa-8- quiterpene lactone in all specimens, with concen-
aza-benzo[C] phenanthren-7-yl)-propionamide trations ranging from 0.019 % in fruits to 0.335 %
(13.04 %); eucalyptol (10.7 %); 6,9,12,15- in leaves (w/w). The alkaloids remerine and
docosatetraenoic acid, methyl ester (8.74 %); equi- liriodenine were isolated from mature leaves and
lenin (8.02 %); tetradecanoic acid (3.64 %); and liriodenine from young branches (Ziyaev et al.
(Z)-2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)-9-octadecenoic 1999). Three sesquiterpenoids were isolated from
acid ethyl ester (3.26 %). Other minor components the leaves and determined as 6α,11-dihydroxy-12,
included hexadecanoic acid,2-hydroxy-1-(hydro- 13-diacetoxyelem-1,3,diene;4α,6α,10α-trihydroxy-
xymethyl)-ethyl ester (1.41 %); androsta-1,4,6- 13-acetoxyguia-11-ene; and 12,13-diacetoxy-guaia-
triene-3,17-diketone (0.62 %); 2,3-dihydroxyanti- 4α,6α,10α,11-tetraol; also isolated was the
oleic acid ester (0.56 %); 4-(2-proprnyl)- known sesquiterpenoid magnograndiolide (Luo
phenol (0.27 %); 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1,6-dimethyl- et al. 2001). Magnograndiolide was isolated
4(1-methylethyl)-(1S-cis)-naphthalene (0.07 %); earlier by Yang et al. (1994). The bioactive ses-
α-cubebene (0.04 %); 1,6-dimethyl-4- quiterpene lactones parthenolide and costunolide
(1-methylethyl)-naphthalene (0.04 %); and and the tricyclic sesquiterpene cyclocolorenone
4-(1,4,5,7-tetramethyl-pyrrolo[3,4-d]pyridazin- were extracted from the leaves of Magnolia
6-yl)-phenylamine (0.01 %). The following grandiflora (Castaneda-Acosta et al. 1995). Two
major essential oil constituents were found in sesquiterpenoids, 4,5-epoxy-13-methoxy-1(10)-
seeds with aril: 8.8 % β-caryophyllene, 7.3 % germacren-12,6-olide and 4,5-epoxy-13-acetoxy-
β-phellandrene, 6.2 % octanol and 5.5 % p-cymene; 1(10)-germacren-12,6-olide, were isolated from
deseeded unripe fruit: 12.9 % β-elemene, 12.7 % the leaves, together with six known compounds,
β-pinene, 7.9 % β-caryophyllene and 5.1 % 2α-hydroxy-dihydroparthenolide, parthenolide,
Magnolia grandiflora 247

costunolide, syringaresinol, (+) medioresinol 2,6-dimethyl-6-bicyclo[3,1,1]hept-2-ene (11.64 %);

and 6,7-dimethoxycoumarin (Wu et al. 2001). caryophyllene (9.03 %); 1,2,3,4a,5,6,7,8a-octa-
Sesquiterpene lactones costunolide, parthenolide hydronaphthalene (7.91 %); spathulenol (6.52 %);
and costunolide diepoxide were isolated from isocaryophyllene (4.92 %). Minor components were
the leaves (El-Feraly and Chan 1978). Sesquiterpene 3,7,11-trimethy-1,6,10-dodecatrien-3-ol (2.60 %);
lactones costunolide, parthenolide and 1,10- ledene alcohol (2.34 %); 1,4-dimethyl-3-[2-methyl]-
epoxyparthenolide were isolated from the leaves 1-cycloheptene-(2.30 %); α-cadinol (2.29 %);
(Ahmed and Adeglegaleil 2005). α-farnesene (2.23 %); 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydr-
The volatiles (in μg/12 h/100 cm2 leaf area) onaphthalene (2.10 %); caryophyllene oxide
emitted from artificially damaged leaves of the (2.04 %); 2,5,5-trimethyl-1,3,6-heptatriene (2.01 %);
evergreen M. grandiflora were dominated by ses- β-panasisene (1.98 %); 1,2,3,5,6,8a-hexahydro-
quiterpenes, especially β-elemene (7.65), 4,7-naphthalene (1.90 %); 4,8a-dimethyl-6-
α-bisabolene (6.23), bicyclogermacrene (7.65), isopropenyene (1.64 %); 1H-cycloprop[e]azulen-
caryophyllene (2.73), γ-cadinene (2.50) and (E)-4,8- 7-ol (1.58 %); dicyclohexyl-propanedinitrile
dimethyl-l,3,7-nonatriene (2.48). In contrast, (1.58 %); dihydrocarveol (1.55 %); α-caryophyllene
undamaged leaves did not appear to emit these ter- (1.5 %); copaene (1.14 %); furfural (1.12 %);
pene compounds in appreciable amounts. Other germacrene D (0.93 %); 5-methyl-2-furancarbox-
minor volatiles included monoterpenes: β-myrcene aldehyde (0.89 %); 2-methyl-4-bromo-1-butene
(0.24), limonene (0.09), aliphatic, namely, (Z)-3- (0.89 %); isoaromadendrene epoxide (0.82 %);
hexenol (0.30) and 4 unknowns (Azuma et al. hydroxymethyl-1-methylidene (0.82 %); heptadecane
1997a). Azuma et al. (1997b) reported the floral (0.81 %); 3,7-dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3-ol (0.79 %);
scent to be dominated (in relative amounts) by 3,7,11-trimethyl-1,36,10-datecatetranene (0.75 %);
geraniol (19.7 %), β-myrcene (12.7 %), (E)-β- α-copaene-8-ol (0.74 %); n-hexadecanoic acid
ocimene (14.4 %), limonene (9.9 %) and verben- (0.61 %); 2,4-decadienal (0.51 %); 1-undecen-3-yne
one (5.1 %). Other compounds (relative amounts) (0.49 %); hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester (0.49 %);
detected in the volatiles of detached flowers phytol(0.39 %); trans-Z-α-bisabolene epoxide
included sabinene and α-pinene (3.3 %), terpin- (0.36 %); β-humulene (0.33 %); linoleic acid ethyl
olene (2.1 %), perillene (1.5 %), β-pinene (1.5 %), ester (0.29 %); camphor (0.28 %); benzeneacetal-
α-terpineol (1.0 %), isopinocamphone (1.0 %), dehyde (0.25 %); 2-hexyl-furan (0.25 %);
(Z)-β-ocimene (0.7 %), nerol (0.7 %), linalool 1,4-methanoazulene (0.22 %); 2,3-dimethylanisole
(0.6 %), neral (0.6 %) and (E)-4,8-dimethyl-l,3,7- (0.20 %); hexadecanoic acid methyl ester
nonatriene (0.5 %). The overall terpene profile dif- (0.17 %); isopropyl palmitate (0.11 %) and tri-
fered between attached and detached flowers. cosane (0.09 %). Twenty-eight compounds from
Overall, less volatile were released from the intact M. grandiflora leaf essential oil were identified
flowers than those detached. Hong et al. (2007) (representing 93.6 % of the total area of the
isolated a sesquiterpene from the leaves, 4,5- gas chromatogram), with the major component
epoxy-1(10)E,11(13)-germacradien-12,6-olide, being bornyl acetate (20.9 %) (Guerra-Boone
that exhibited nematicidal property. et al. 2013). The major constituents found in
Forty-eight constituents were separated and the leaf essential oil were 23.0 % β-pinene,
identified from the volatile constituents of 13.6 % β-elemene and 6.3 % α-pinene (Rehman
Magnolia grandiflora fresh leaves (Wang et al. et al. 2013).
2009). The main constituents included γ-elemene
(15.67 %), 2,6-dimethyl-6-bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-
ene (11.60 %), caryophyllene (9.03 %), isocaryo- Stem/Root Phytochemicals
phyllene (4.92 %) and spathulenol (6.51 %).
Forty-eight volatile compounds were separated Since the 1950s a number of alkaloids were iso-
and identified from the fresh leaves of Magnolia lated from M. grandiflora: from the roots quater-
grandiflora (Fan et al. 2009). Identified major nary alkaloids salicifoline, candicine from the
compounds included γ-elemene (16.67 %); roots (Nakano 1954a); magnoflorine from bark
248 Magnoliaceae

which was quite identical with corytuberine hormone, gastrointestinal and uterus modulation,
methiodide of the aporphine type (Nakano 1954b, c); antimicrobial, cardiovascular and liver protective
from the trunk wood the alkaloids anolobine, properties in preclinical models, without appre-
anonaine, N-nornuciferine and liriodenine were ciable toxicity (Shen et al. 2010).
isolated (Tomita and Kozuka 1967). Magnoflorine
and salicifoline were also found in the plant
(Tomita et al. 1961). The root bark of M. grandi- Antioxidant Activity
flora yielded costunolide together with the
two eudesmanolides, santamarine and reynosin In in-vitro cell studies, all M. grandiflora seed
(El-Feraly and Chan 1978). Rao and Davis essential oil concentration (6.9, 13.8, 27.7, 55.5,
(1982c) isolated menisperine (also called chakra- 111.0, and 222.0 μg/ml) increased cell prolifera-
nine and isocorydinium cation) a toxic phenolic tion by 26 % or more (26.0 %, 38.8 %, 44.8 %,
quaternary principle from the alcoholic extract of 40.2 %, 35.8 % and 30.4 %, respectively, in the
the wood. The compound exhibited toxicity to MTT assay) (Luo et al. 2012). In in-vivo studies,
mice when injected by the i.p. route. Three crys- SD rats orally administered the essential oil at
talline glycosides magnolidin, magnolenin and 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg per day exhibited
magnosidin and the known alkaloids magnoflo- 38.62 %, 61.68 % and 62.86 % rise in glutathione-
rine and candicine were isolated from the bark peroxisome (GSH-Px) activity, respectively,
(Rao 1975). Magnolidin was the major glycoside with 29.56 %, 24.30 % and 36.93 % reduction in
of the bark. It consisted of two moles of rham- malondialdehyde (MDA) content, respectively,
nose and each of glucose, caffeic acid and but no significant difference in superoxide dis-
3,4-dihydroxyphenethanol (Rao and Juneau 1975). mutase activity was found. The results showed that
Sesquiterpene lactones costunolide, parthenolide the essential oil had strong antioxidant activity,
and 1,10-epoxyparthenolide were isolated from without dose effect within the concentration range.
the stem bark (Ahmed and Adeglegaleil 2005), Lin et al. (1995) reported that magnolol at 10−9
and two eudesmanolides santamarine and reynosin to 10−7 M significantly suppressed FeSO4-
were isolated from the root bark (El-Feraly and induced lipid peroxidation and significantly
Chan 1978). An unknown γ-isomer of the two reversed the FeSO4-suppressed sperm tail beat
eudesmanolides santamarine and reynosin was frequency. Magnolol significantly inhibited the
detected in the root bark of M. grandiflora and generation of malondialdehyde (MDA), the end
designated magnolialide (El-Feraly et al. 1979a). product of lipid peroxidation, in sperm. Thus,
Lee et al. (2010) isolated seven compounds magnolol protected sperm motility by inhibiting
from the wood of M. grandiflora: erythro-1-C- lipid peroxidation in sperm. Intraperitoneal injec-
syringylglycerol; 2,3-dihydroxypropyltetracos tion of magnolol (30 mg/kg) significantly inhib-
anoate; 2,3-dihydroxypropyl-24′-hydroxytetraco ited the formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine
sanoate; 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethoxyphenyl-β-D- (fMLP)-induced respiratory burst in rat whole
glucopyranoside; daucosterol; syringic acid; and blood ex vivo (Wang et al. 1999). Magnolol also
syringaldehyde. inhibited the 02-* generation with an IC50 of
Recently, many investigators reported the 15.4 μM and O2 consumption in rat neutrophils in
anticancer, antistress, antianxiety, antidepressant, vitro. Magnolol weakly inhibited the O2-* gener-
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotec- ation in the xanthine–xanthine oxidase system,
tive effects as well as toxicities and pharmaco- decreased cellular cyclic AMP level and weakly
kinetics data of the bioactive compound of inhibited neutrophil cytosolic protein kinase C
magnolia, namely, magnolol, honokiol and 4-O- activity. Magnolol also attenuated fMLP-induced
methylhonokiol (Lee et al. 2011). Also, studies had protein tyrosine phosphorylation and the phos-
found honokiol and magnolol to have antioxidative, phorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase
anti-inflammatory, antitumour, antidiabetic, anti- p42/44. In the presence of NADPH, the
neurodegeneration, antidepressant, pain control, arachidonate-activated NADPH oxidase activity
Magnolia grandiflora 249

in a cell-free system was weakly suppressed by picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay but they were less
magnolol. These results suggested that the inhi- potent than α-tocopherol. In another study,
bition of respiratory burst in fMLP-activated honokiol and magnolol were found to inhibit
neutrophils by magnolol was probably attribut- microsomal lipid peroxidation induced by
able mainly to the attenuation of protein tyrosine Fe(III)-ADP/NADPH and mitochondrial lipid
phosphorylation and p42/44 mitogen-activated peroxidation induced by Fe(III)-ADP/NADH
protein kinase activation and partly to the sup- (Haraguchi et al. 1997). These neolignans pro-
pression of protein kinase C and NADPH oxidase tected mitochondrial respiratory chain enzyme
activities. activity against NADPH-induced peroxidative
In a separate study, magnolol was found to be stress and protected red cells against oxidative
an effective antioxidant in suppressing lipid per- haemolysis. The antioxidative activity of honokiol
oxidation in rat liver mitochondria (Chiu et al. was more potent than that of magnolol. Lee et al.
1999). It was 470 times more potent than (2005) using DPPH and SOD activity assays
α-tocopherol in inhibiting oxygen consumption showed both magnolol and honokiol exhibited
and 340 times more potent than α-tocopherol in antioxidant activities; honokiol had relatively
inhibiting MDA formation. Also magnolol could stronger antioxidant activities than magnolol
be used as a rinsing solution in protecting trans- (Lee et al. 2005). For DPPH assay, % of DPPH
planted organs from lipid peroxidation during bleaching were 19.8 % and 67.3 % for magnolol
reperfusion. Magnolol enhanced survival ratio of and honokiol, respectively. For SOD assay, SOD
H460 cells after oxidative agent tert-butyl hydro- activity were 53.4 % and 64.3 % for magnolol
peroxide (TBHP)-induced injury (Li et al. 2007). and honokiol, respectively. Honokiol was found
Magnolol was effective against DNA single to be a potent scavenger of superoxide and per-
strand break formation, cytotoxicity and lipid oxyl radicals (Dikalov et al. 2008). Honokiol effi-
peroxidation induced by TBHP, and its effects on ciently scavenged superoxide radicals in xanthine
p53 phosphorylation, PTEN and Akt phosphory- oxidase and cytochrome P-450 cell-free systems
lation were due to its antioxidative function, and with the rate constant similar to reactivity of
partially via a p53-dependent mechanism in ascorbic acid but 20 times higher than reactivity
this protective effect. The protective action of of vitamin E analogue trolox. Honokiol potently
magnolol was more efficacious than that of scavenged intracellular superoxide within mela-
N-acetylcysteine, a putative antioxidant. noma cells. Further, honokiol scavenged peroxyl
The antioxidant effects of magnolol and radicals generated by 2,2′-azo-bis(2-amidinopro-
honokiol were 1,000 times higher than that of pane hydrochloride).
α-tocopherol in isolated rat heart mitochondria In an earlier study, the relative mutagenic
lipid peroxidation induced with ADP and ferrous activity (the mutation frequency of treated cells
sulphate (Lo et al. 1994). The IC50 values of mag- divided by the mutation frequency of control
nolol and honokiol for inhibition of oxygen cells times 100 %) at concentrations of 5 μg per
consumption were 8.0 × 10−8 M and 1.0 × 10-7 M, plate for magnolol and honokiol was 62 as tested
respectively, while that of α-tocopherol was in Salmonella typhimurium TA102 (Fujita and
1.0 × 10−4 M. Magnolol at 0.5 μM inhibited Taira 1994). These values indicated that low
71.4 % of oxygen consumption and 59.3 % malo- concentrations of these biphenyl compounds
ndialdehyde (MDA) production. At the same effectively suppressed UV-induced mutagenesis.
concentration, honokiol inhibited 78.1 % of Also, these compounds acted as effective antimu-
oxygen consumption and 86.9 0 % of MDA tagens in a dose-dependent manner (0.00005-5 μg
production. Of the conjugated diene formation, per plate). These compounds were also effective
48.4 % and 53.1 % were inhibited by 0.5 μM hydroxyl radical scavengers. Thus, the results
magnolol and honokiol, respectively. Also both suggested that these compounds could inhibit
magnolol and honokiol exhibited free radical against UV-induced mutations by scavenging of
scavenging activities as shown by the diphenyl-p- OH generated by UV irradiation.
250 Magnoliaceae

Antityrosinase Activity Wang et al. (1993) demonstrated the inhibitory

effect of magnolol on the plasma leakage in
Studies by Huang et al. (2012) showed that passive cutaneous anaphylactic reaction, neuro-
M. grandiflora flower extract inhibited mush- genic inflammation, dorsal skin and ear oedema
room tyrosinase activity (IC50 = 11.1 %; v/v); the in mice. The inhibitory effect of magnolol was
flower extract also effectively suppressed intra- found to be probably mediated through a nonse-
cellular tyrosinase activity (IC50 = 13.6 %; v/v) lective inhibition on vascular tissue to prevent the
and decreased the amount of melanin (IC50 = permeability change caused by various mediators.
25.6 %; v/v) in a dose-dependent manner in The inhibitory effect of magnolol was more
B16F10 cells. Protein expression level of tyrosi- marked than that of diphenhydramine combined
nase and tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TRP-1) with methysergide. Separate animal studies
was also decreased by the flower extract. The showed that magnolol altered the course of endo-
flower extract also showed antioxidant capacities toxin tolerance and provided early protection
and depleted cellular reactive oxygen species against endotoxin challenge following sublethal
(ROS). The results suggested that M. grandiflora haemorrhage in rats by inducing an anti-
flower extract could be applied as a type of derma- inflammatory response (Shih et al. 2004).
tological whitening agent in skin care products. However, magnolol attenuated the protraction of
endotoxin tolerance and inhibited late protection
against endotoxin challenge following sublethal
Anti-inflammatory Activity haemorrhage. Magnolol suppressed lipid peroxi-
dation but not the SOD activity after sublethal
Reynosin, found in M. grandiflora, Ambrosia haemorrhage.
confertiflora and Saussurea lappa, exhibited a Studies showed that the production of inter-
dose-dependent inhibition on CINC-1(cytokine- leukin-8 (IL-8) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha
induced neutrophil chemoattractant-1) induc- (TNF-alpha) induced by Propionibacterium
tion in LPS-stimulated rat kidney epithelioid acnes in THP-1 cells, a human monocytic cell
NRK-52E cells, where 50 % of inhibitory effect line, was reduced by magnolol and honokiol (Lee
was determined at the concentration of about et al. 2005). Cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) activity
1 μM (Jung et al. 1998). Sesquiterpene lactones, was also suppressed by them. It was found that
costunolide, and parthenolide, from M. grandi- magnolol and honokiol exerted their anti-
flora, both potently inhibited LPS-induced inflammatory effects by inhibiting downstream
NF-kappa B activation (Koo et al. 2001). pathway of MEKK-1 in NF-kappaB activation
Costunolide, which showed more potent inhibi- signalling in Cox-2, IL-8 and TNF-alpha pro-
tion than parthenolide, strongly suppressed moters. The results suggested that magnolol and
nitric oxide (NO) production in LPS-stimulated honokiol may be introduced as possible acne-
RAW 264.7 cells. Costunolide also signifi- mitigating agents.
cantly inhibited LPS-induced DNA-binding Studies by Schühly et al. (2009) demonstrated
activity of NF-kappa B, LPS-induced phos- that the neolignans honokiol, magnolol, 4-O-
phorylation of I kappa B-alpha as well as the methylhonokiol and 5,5′-di-2-propenyl-3-meth-
LPS-induced degradation of I kappa B-alpha oxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2,2′-diol isolated from
and B-beta. In the rat carrageenan inflammation Magnolia seeds inhibited COX-2 enzyme activ-
model, i.p. injection of rats with parthenolide ity in activated macrophages (RAW 264.7 cells),
(20 mg/kg), from M. grandiflora, significantly and they were able to inhibit the conversion of
blocked the hyperalgesic response and signifi- exogenous arachidonic acid to PGE2 in a dose-
cantly attenuated the oedema response suggest- dependent manner, without causing any cyto-
ing that parthenolide may be useful in the toxic effects in RAW 264.4 and VERO cells.
treatment of inflammatory pain (Feltenstein The anti-inflammatory activity of magnolol and
et al. 2004). honokiol as well as of methylhonokiol could be
Magnolia grandiflora 251

explained by their inhibitory effects on the pros- fibrillary acidic protein; GFAP) in the brain. In
taglandin biosynthesis in the cyclooxygenase in-vitro study, they found that 4-O-methylhonokiol
metabolism through COX-2 inhibition. In vitro suppressed the expression of iNOS and COX-2
studies showed that magnolol inhibits LPS- as well as the production of reactive oxygen spe-
induced expression of iNOS gene by obstructing cies, nitric oxide, prostaglandin E2, tumour
activation of NF-κB/Rel and p38 kinase signal- necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β in the
ling in RAW 264.7 cells (Li et al. 2010). LPS-stimulated cultured astrocytes. 4-O-
Honokiol strongly inhibited various inflam- methylhonokiol also inhibited LPS-induced Aβ1-
matory responses, such as (1) the up-regulation 42 generation, β- and γ-secretase activities and
of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 and TNF- expression of amyloid precursor protein (APP),
alpha production and costimulatory molecule BACE1 and C99 as well as activation of astro-
CD80 induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS); (2) cytes and neuronal cell death in the brain, in
the functional activation of beta1-integrin (CD29) cultured astrocytes and in microglial BV-2 cells.
assessed by U937 cell–cell and cell–fibronectin Magnolol inhibited mouse hind-paw oedema
adhesions; (3) the enhancement of lymphocytes induced by carrageenan, compound 48/80, poly-
and CD8+CTLL-2 cell proliferation stimulated myxin B and reversed passive Arthus reaction
by LPS, phytohemagglutinin A (PHA) and (Wang et al. 1992). Magnolol also suppressed
concanavalin A or interleukin (IL)-2; and (4) the acetic acid-induced writhing response. The
transcriptional up-regulation of inducible NO lethality of endotoxin challenge was reduced by
synthase, TNF-alpha, cyclooxygenase-2, IL-12 pretreatment with magnolol. The recovered
and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 myeloperoxidase activity in oedematous paw was
in various cell lines and primary cells (U937, significantly decreased in mice pretreated with
RAW264.7, CTLL-2 cells and splenic lympho- magnolol and BW755C. Suppression of oedema
cytes) (Kim and Cho 2008). These anti- was demonstrated not only in normal mice but
inflammatory effects of honokiol appeared to be also in adrenalectomized animals. The action of
mediated by interrupting the early activated magnolol was proposed to be dependent on
intracellular signalling molecule phosphoinositide reducing the level of eicosanoid mediators.
3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway. Studies by Li et al. Further studies by Wang et al. (1995) suggested
(2011) showed that honokiol inhibited LPS- that magnolol, like BW755C, might be a dual
induced maturation and inflammatory response cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase inhibitor. The
of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. The inhibitory effect of magnolol on the A23187-
anti-inflammatory actions of honokiol on LPS- induced pleurisy was proposed to be, at least
induced dendritic cells were associated with the partly, dependent on the reduction of the formation
NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase of eicosanoids mediators in the inflammatory
(MAPK) signalling pathways. site. A23187-induced protein leakage in mice was
Animal studies by Lee et al. (2012b) sug- reduced by magnolol (10 mg/kg, i.p.), indometha-
gested that 4-O-methylhonokiol inhibited LPS- cin (10 mg/kg, i.p.) and BW755C (30 mg/k, i.p.).
induced amyloidogenesis via anti-inflammatory A23187-induced polymorphonuclear (PMN)
mechanisms and could be used as an agent leucocyte infiltration in the pleural cavity was
against neuroinflammation-associated develop- suppressed by magnolol and BW755C, while
ment or the progression of Alzheimer disease. enhanced by indomethacin. Like BW755C, mag-
Oral administration of AD mice with 4-O- nolol reduced both prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and
methylhonokiol ameliorated LPS-induced memory leukotriene B4 (LTB4) levels in the pleural fluid
impairment in a dose-dependent manner and of A23187-induced pleurisy, but increased LTB4
prevented the LPS-induced expression of inflam- formation. In the rat-isolated peripheral neutro-
matory proteins, inducible nitric oxide synthase phil suspension, magnolol (3.7 μM) and BW755C
(iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) as well (10 μM) also suppressed the A23187-induced
as activation of astrocytes (expression of glial thromboxane B2 (TXB2) and LTB4 formation.
252 Magnoliaceae

In vitro studies using human U937 promonocytes suppressed LPS-induced IL-8 production in
cells suggested that magnolol may have potential mTLR4/mMD2 co-transfected HEK293 cells.
anti-inflammatory action by dose-dependently
suppressing NF-kappaB activation and NF-kappaB
-regulated gene expression through inhibition of Anti-allergic/Antiasthmatic Activity
IkappaB kinase activation (Tse et al. 2007).
Intravenous administration with magnolol at In vitro studies showed that magnolol inhibited
0.3–1 mg/kg protected against ischaemic limb production of leukotrienes in intact rat basophilic
damage in male Sprague-Dawley rats (Chen et al. leukaemia (RBL)-2H3 cells by inhibiting cyto-
2009a). Relative to controls, rats treated with solic phospholipase A2, 5-lipoxygenase, leu-
magnolol (0.3 and 1 mg/kg) had attenuated kotrienes LTC4 synthase and LTA4 hydrolase
muscular inflammation, oedema and damage. which were essential for leukotriene synthesis
Magnolol (0.3–1 mg/kg) also effectively reduced (Hamasaki et al. 1999). Thus, magnolol may
postischaemic rises in the nitrite/nitrate, malond- have an anti-allergic effect by blocking leukotri-
ialdehyde and myeloperoxidase levels. Thus the ene synthesis. In another study, magnolol, one of
observed cytoprotection may be attributed to its the bioactive compound in Saiboku-To, a herbal
antioxidant, anti-nitrosative and anti-inflammatory medicine for bronchial asthma (Homma et al.
actions. 1992), was found to inhibit concanavalin
Studies showed that honokiol and magnolol A-induced human lymphocyte blastogenesis in
did not produce analgesia in tail-flick, hot- vitro and picryl chloride-induced mouse ear
plate, paw-shaking and neurogenic phase of the swelling in vivo (Taniguchi et al. 2000). Oral
overt nociception induced by intraplantar injec- administration of Saiboku-To and magnolol
tion of formalin (Lin et al. 2007). However, inhibited picryl chloride-induced ear swelling
honokiol and magnolol reduced the inflammatory significantly by 23.5 % and 23.6 %, respectively,
phase of formalin-induced licking response. indicating an antiasthmatic effect of Saiboku-To
Additionally, honokiol and magnolol signifi- through suppression of type IV allergic reaction.
cantly decreased formalin-induced c-Fos protein Magnolol was found to be the most potent chemi-
expression in superficial (I-II) laminae of the cal constituents of Saiboku-To, a herbal remedy
L4–L5 lumbar dorsal horn. However, honokiol for steroid-dependent bronchial asthma, on the
and magnolol did not elicit motor incoordina- inhibition of the enzyme 11 beta-hydroxysteroid
tion and memory dysfunction at doses higher dehydrogenase, with IC50 of 1.8 × 10−4 M (Homma
than the analgesic dose. These results demon- et al. 1994). The results suggested that magnolol
strated that honokiol and magnolol effectively might contribute to the inhibitory effects of
alleviated the formalin-induced inflammatory Saiboku-To on prednisolone metabolism through
pain without motor and cognitive side effects, inhibition of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydroge-
suggesting their therapeutic potential in the nase. The five phenolic active compounds con-
treatment of inflammatory pain. tained in Saiboku-To, magnolol, dihydroxydi
In a recent study, magnolol inhibited the hydromagnolol, baicalein, medicarpine and davi-
expression of tumour nuclear factor TNF-α, digenin, were found to exert a marked inhibition
interleukins IL-6 and IL-1β in LPS-stimulated on leukotrienes LTB4- and LTC4-release from
RAW264.7 cells in a dose-dependent manner (Fu human polymorphonuclear leukocytes with IC50
et al. 2013). Magnolol also suppressed LPS- values of 0.7–15.3 μM (Homma et al. 2000).
induced nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation, The results suggested that the phenolic com-
inhibitory kappa B (IκBα) protein degradation, pounds contributed to the anti-allergic effects of
phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated Saiboku-To through suppression of leukotriene
kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) release from polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
and P38. Magnolol could significantly downreg- Studies by Niitsuma et al. (2001) found baicalein
ulate the expression of Toll-like receptor 4 and magnolol were 5–10 times more potent than
(TLR4) stimulated by LPS. Further, magnolol azelastine, an anti-allergic drug, and significantly
Magnolia grandiflora 253

suppressed leukotriene C4 release by polymor- Antiseptic/Anti-shock Activity

phonuclear leukocytes obtained from asthmatic
patients, as compared with healthy subjects. Studies showed that magnolol attenuated peroxi-
Suppression of leukotriene C44 release by these dative damage and improved survival of rats with
compounds may play an important role in the sepsis (Kong et al. 2000). When one cecal puncture
clinical efficacy of Saiboku-To. Magnolol and was performed, a moderately evolving type of
honokiol inhibited C48/80-induced histamine sepsis was induced, and the survival rate of
release from mast cells (Ikarashi et al. 2001). The affected rats was significantly improved by
potency of magnolol (IC50 = 1.04 μg/ml) was pretreatment with 10−7 g/kg magnolol. The ben-
greater than that of honokiol (IC50 = 2.77 μg/ml). eficial effect was partially retained if magnolol
Magnolol and honokiol potently inhibited was administered 6 h after onset of sepsis when a
passive cutaneous anaphylaxis reactions in mice higher dose (10−5 g/kg) was used. The intensity of
induced by IgE-antigen complex as well as lipid peroxidation in plasma, liver and lung of
compound 48/80-induced scratching behaviours septic rats was also attenuated in a treatment-
(Han et al. 2007). Both compounds exhibited not dependent manner. The methanol extract of
only potent inhibitory activity on the degranula- Magnolia obovata stem bark afforded two
tion of RBL-2H3 cells induced by IgE-antigen inhibitors, magnolol and honokiol, of nitric oxide
complex, with IC50 values of 45 and 55 μM, (NO) production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-
respectively, but also the protein expressions of activated macrophages by the suppression of
IL-4 and TNF-alpha. The findings suggested that i-NOS expression (Son et al. 2000). Their IC50
magnolol and honokiol may improve IgE-induced values were 16.8 and 6.4 µM, respectively. They
allergic diseases. also inhibited the production of tumour necrosis
Studies showed that in addition to the factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in LPS-activated
presence of antioxidative activity, magnolol was macrophages. The results indicated that these
found to be potent in stimulating BK(Ca) chan- compounds may be possible candidates for the
nel activity in human tracheal smooth muscle development of new drugs to treat endotoxemia
cells (Wu et al. 2002). The direct stimulation of accompanied by the overproduction of NO and
these BK(Ca) channels by magnolol may con- TNF-alpha. Shih et al. (2003) found that magn-
tribute to the underlying mechanism by which it olol treatment reduced the elevated levels of
acts as an antiasthmatic compound. In separate TNF-alpha in plasma and tissue of rats after
studies, magnolol and honokiol (0.1–100 μM) haemorrhagic shock and sepsis. Magnolol-treated
inhibited carbachol- and high K+-induced muscle rats had decreased pulmonary permeability
contractions in porcine trachea in a concentration- after the onset of sepsis and survival rate was
dependent fashion, but did not affect basal significantly higher in magnolol-treated group.
muscle tension (Ko et al. 2003). Magnolol and It was concluded that magnolol modified the
honokiol also concentration-dependently cytokine response after haemorrhagic shock and
decreased the Ca2+-dependent muscle contraction resuscitation and suppressed the proinflammatory
induced by high K+ depolarization. The relaxant cytokine response. The modified cytokines response
effects of magnolol and honokiol on porcine induced by magnolol may result in decreased
tracheal smooth muscle suggested an association tissue injury and increased survival in subsequent
with the blockade of Ca2+ influx through voltage- intra-abdominal sepsis.
operated Ca2+ channels instead of Ca2+ release
from intracellular Ca2+ stores. The magnolol-
and honokiol-induced inhibitions on tracheal Antitumour Activity
smooth muscle contraction may be relevant to
the claimed therapeutic effects of the extract The petroleum ether extract of the stem and
from magnolia bark and may contribute to their leaves showed inhibitory activity against human
pharmacological effects by acting as antiasth- epidermoid nasopharynx carcinoma KB9 cells in
matic agents. vitro; the active principle was isolated and identified
254 Magnoliaceae

as parthenolide (Wiedhopf et al. 1973). M. gran- B-CLL cells and should be examined for further
diflora flower essential oil was found to be active clinical application either as a single agent or in
against human lung carcinoma and breast carci- combination with other anticancer agents.
noma cell lines, even at concentrations higher In an in vitro proliferation assay, 100 μM of
than 200 μg/ml (Faraq and Al-Mahady 2013). An magnolol inhibited the proliferation of B16-BL6,
extract of powdered M. grandiflora was found to THP-1, BAE and HT-1080 tumour cells, but
induce apoptosis in chlorambucil-resistant B-cell 30 μM of magnolol did not affect cell prolifera-
chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (B-CLL) cells in tion (Ikeda and Nagase 2002). Additionally,
vitro (Marin and Mansilla 2010). The results 100 μM of magnolol induced apoptotic cell death
suggested a potentially effective repertoire for within 24 h in three tumour cell lines, B16-BL6,
B-CLL treatment. THP-1 and HT-1080, not BAE cells, and then up-
The ethanol bark extract exhibited inhibitory regulated the activity of caspase-3 and caspase-8.
effect on human fibrosarcoma HT-1080 cell In another study, magnolol inhibited cell prolif-
invasion in a reconstituted basement membrane eration and induced apoptosis of CGTH W-2
(Nagase et al. 2001). The active components thyroid carcinoma cells (Huang et al. 2007). The
magnolol and honokiol inhibited HT-1080 cell results showed that magnolol initiated apoptosis
migration at a high concentration (100 μM). via the cytochrome c/caspase 3/PARP/AIF and
Magnolol and honokiol inhibited the activity of PTEN/Akt/caspase 9/PARP pathways and necro-
matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 secreted by sis via PARP activation. In vitro studies showed
HT-1080 which degraded the extracellular matrix that magnolol induced apoptosis in HCT-116
as a part of the invasive process. colon cancer cells, migration and invasion of
Bai et al. (2003) used the transformed endo- HCT-116 cells through activation of AMP-
thelial cell line SVR as an effective screen of activated protein kinase (AMPK) (Park et al.
natural product extracts to isolate anti-angiogenesis 2012). Magnolol downregulated expression of
and antitumour compounds. They found that the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2, up-regulated
aqueous extracts of Magnolia grandiflora exhibited expression of pro-apoptotic protein p53 and Bax
potent activity in SVR proliferation assays. and caused the release of mitochondrial cyto-
Honokiol, the active principle of magnolia chrome C. Magnolol inhibited proliferation of
extract, exhibited potent antiproliferative activity human leukemic HL-60 cells and Jurkat T leu-
against SVR cells in vitro. In vivo, honokiol was kaemia cells via inducing apoptosis in a dose-
highly effective against angiosarcoma in nude and time-dependent manner (Zhong et al. 2003).
mice. The preclinical data suggested honokiol to Activation of caspase-9, -3 and -2 and the proteo-
be a systemically available and nontoxic inhibitor lytic cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase
of angiogenesis with potential chemotherapeutic were found during apoptosis induced by magno-
activity. Honokiol induced caspase-dependent lol. Further, magnolol did not cause apoptosis in
apoptosis in B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukaemia neutrophils and peripheral blood mononuclear
(B-CLL) cells and was more toxic towards cells of healthy donors. The results suggested
B-CLL cells than to normal mononuclear cells, that magnolol could be a potentially effective
suggesting greater susceptibility of the malignant drug for leukaemia with low toxicity to normal
cells (Battle et al. 2005). B-CLL cells pretreated blood cells. In another study, intraperitoneal (i.p.)
with interleukin-4 (IL-4), a cytokine known to administration of 2 or 10 mg/kg of magnolol to
support B-CLL survival, underwent apoptosis mice significantly suppressed liver and spleen
when subsequently incubated with honokiol, metastasis or lung metastasis (Ikeda et al. 2003).
indicating that honokiol could also overcome the In the spontaneous lung metastasis model using
prosurvival effects of IL-4. Further, honokiol B16-BL6 melanoma, multiple i.p. administra-
enhanced cytotoxicity induced by fludarabine, tions of 10 mg/kg of magnolol after and before
cladribine or chlorambucil. These data indicated tumour inoculation significantly suppressed lung
honokiol to be a potent inducer of apoptosis in metastasis and primary tumour growth. In addition,
Magnolia grandiflora 255

magnolol significantly inhibited B16-BL6 cell treatment. Honokiol had been demonstrated to
invasion of the reconstituted basement membrane combat cancer through mechanisms including
without affecting cell growth. The data from the inhibition of angiogenesis and induction of
in vivo experiments suggested that magnolol apoptosis (Xu et al. 2006). It was further shown
possessed strong antimetastatic ability. Magnolol that honokiol downregulated the expression of
inhibited proliferation of human malignant mela- P-glycoprotein at mRNA and protein levels in
noma A375-S2 cells (You et al. 2009). It induced MCF-7/ADR, a human breast MDR cancer cell
oligonucleosomal fragmentation of DNA in line. Fried and Arbiser (2009) reported that
A375-S2 cells and increased caspase-3, 8, 9 activ- honokiol, a multifunctional antiangiogenic and
ities followed by the degradation of caspase-3 antitumour agent, had two major mechanisms of
substrates, inhibitor of caspase-dependent DNase chemotherapeutic action: firstly, by blocking
and poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerase. The results signalling in tumours with defective p53 function
indicated that magnolol induced apoptosis by and activated ras by directly blocking the activa-
activation of both mitochondrial and death tion of phospholipase D by activated ras and
receptor pathways in A375-S2 cells. secondly by inducing cyclophilin D, thus potenti-
In vitro studies showed magnolol and honokiol ating the mitochondrial permeability transition
to have potential differentiation enhancing activity, pore and causing death in cells with wild-type
allowing the use of low doses of 1,25-dihydr p53. Pretreatment of female SKH-1 mice with
oxyvitamin D3 (VD3) and all-trans-retinoic acid honokiol, at concentrations in micrograms per
(ATRA)in the treatment of acute promyelocytic application compared with milligram applications
leukaemia (Fong et al. 2005). Both compounds of other potential chemopreventive agents, pre-
enhanced HL-60 human leukaemia cell differen- vented UVB-induced skin cancer development
tiation induced by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (Chilampalli et al. 2010). This chemopreventive
and retinoic acid. Magnolol and honokiol were action was possibly by activating pro-apoptotic
found to possess antitumour activity by targeting proteins (caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, poly
the apoptosis pathways such as death receptor- ADP-ribosepolymerase (PARP) and p53) through
mediated pathway, mitochondria-mediated path- both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways leading to
way, caspase-mediated common pathway and the induction of DNA fragmentation and apop-
regulation of apoptosis-related proteins which tosis. In another study, treatment of human
have been considered as targets for cancer therapies breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and murine mam-
(Xu et al. 2011). mary cancer cells (4T1) with honokiol resulted in
Liu et al. (2008) demonstrated that treatment a dose-dependent inhibition of migration of these
of different human breast cancer cell lines with cells, which was associated with a reduction in
honokiol resulted in a time- and concentration- nitric oxide (NO) levels (Singh and Katiyar
dependent growth inhibition in both estrogen 2011). Honokiol also inhibited the levels of
receptor-positive and estrogen receptor-negative cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and prostaglandin
breast cancer cell lines, as well as in drug-resistant (PG) E2 and activation of nuclear factor κB
breast cancer cell lines such as adriamycin- (NF-κB) in 4T1 cells. The study by Nagalingam
resistant and tamoxifen-resistant cell lines. The et al. (2012) provided in vitro and in vivo evidence
inhibition of growth was associated with a of the integral role of the liver kinase B1 (LKB1)-
G1-phase cell cycle arrest and induction of cas- AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) axis in
pase-dependent apoptosis. Combination of honokiol-mediated inhibition of the invasion and
honokiol with the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin migration of breast cancer cells. They concluded
presented synergistic effects on induction of that honokiol treatment could potentially be a
apoptosis of breast cancer cells. The data rational therapeutic strategy for breast carcinoma.
suggested that honokiol, either alone or in combi- In prostate cancer (PCa) cells honokiol
nation with other therapeutics, could serve as a induced apoptosis via the activation of caspases
new, promising approach for breast cancer 3, 8 and 9 and the cleavage of poly-adenosine
256 Magnoliaceae

diphosphate ribose polymerase in a dose- and Cip/p21 and Kip/p27 and (3) inhibited the levels
time-dependent manner (Shigemura et al. 2007). of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and the phos-
Honokiol was shown to inhibit the growth and phorylation of Akt at Ser(473) in UVB-induced
depress serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in skin tumours.
mice harbouring C4-2 xenografts in the skeleton, Honokiol exerted growth inhibitory effects on
and the combination with docetaxel showed two pancreatic cancer cell lines, MiaPaCa and
additive effects that inhibited further growth Panc, by causing cell cycle arrest at G1 phase and
without evidence of systemic toxicity. The induction of apoptosis (Arora et al. 2011).
combination of honokiol and low-dose docetaxel Honokiol also potentiated the cytotoxic effects
may be used to improve patient outcome in of gemcitabine, in part, by restricting the
androgen-independent prostate cancer with bone gemcitabine-induced nuclear accumulation of
metastasis. Treatment of prostate cancer PC-3 NF-κB in the treated pancreatic cancer cell lines.
cells for 24 h with magnolol (60 μM) induced In separate studies, honokiol inhibited the growth
apoptotic cell death in a dose- and time-depen- and proliferation of oral squamous cell carci-
dent manner (Lee et al. 2009). A sustained inhi- noma cells in vitro in a time- and dose-dependent
bition of the major survival signal, Akt (protein manner (Chen et al. 2011b). Its inhibitory effect
kinase B), occurred in magnolol-treated cells. was associated with the cell apoptosis. The inhi-
The apoptotic cell death by magnolol was associ- bition or apoptosis mediated by 15 μg/ml or 20 μg/ml
ated with significant inhibition of pEGFR of honokiol were stronger than that of 20 μg/ml
(phosphorylated epidermal growth factor recep- 5-fluorouracil suggesting honokiol to be a
tor), pPI3K (phosphorylated phosphatidylinosi- promising compound that can be potentially used
tol 3-kinase) and pAkt (phosphorylated Akt). The as a novel treatment agent for human oral squa-
results suggested that one of the mechanisms of mous cell carcinoma. Honokiol exhibited signifi-
the apoptotic activity of magnolol involved its cant antiproliferative activity in a dose-dependent
effect on epidermal growth factor receptor manner on HEI 193 human cells schwannoma
(EGFR)-mediated signalling transduction path- (Lee et al. 2012a). Significant apoptosis was
ways. Interestingly, at similar concentrations detected on schwannoma cells with 7 mg/ml
(60 μM), magnolol treatment did not affect the (IC50) honokiol. Western blot analysis showed
viability of normal human prostate epithelial significant inhibition of extracellular signal-regu-
cell (PrEC) line. lated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation. The results
Topical treatment of SKH-1 hairless mice suggested that honokiol could be evaluated as a
with honokiol in a hydrophilic cream-based topi- chemotherapeutic agent for vestibular schwan-
cal formulation before or after UVB (180 mJ/cm2) noma. In a separate study, honokiol was reported
irradiation resulted in a significant protection to be a potent inhibitor of hypoxia-inducible-
against photocarcinogenesis in terms of tumour factor (HIF) pathways as well as hypoxia-induced
multiplicity and tumour volume per tumour- expression of histone lysine demethylases
bearing mouse (Vaid et al. 2010). Honokiol also (KDMs) in a number of cancer and retinal pig-
inhibited and delayed the malignant progression ment epithelial cell lines (Vavilala et al. 2012).
of papillomas to carcinomas. Treatment with Treating the cells with honokiol led to inhibition
honokiol significantly inhibited UVB-induced of KDM-mediated induction of pro-angiogenic
expression of cyclooxygenase-2, prostaglandin genes (adrenomedullin and growth differentia-
E(2), proliferating cell nuclear antigen and proin- tion factor 15) under hypoxic conditions. The
flammatory cytokines, such as tumour necrosis results suggested therapeutic benefits with
factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 in the honokiol for treatment of pathological neovas-
skin as well as in skin tumours. Also, honokiol cularization in retinal ischaemic diseases and
(1) inhibited the levels of cyclins D1, D2 and E cancers.
and associated cyclin-dependent kinases In their review, Arora et al. (2012) reported
(CDKs)2, CDK4 and CDK6, (2) up-regulated that honokiol targeted multiple signalling pathways
Magnolia grandiflora 257

including nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), causing cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and
STAT3 (signal transducers and activator of affecting various signalling pathways Chilampalli
transcription 3), EGFR (epidermal growth factor et al. (2011b). They suggested that magnolol
receptor) and m-TOR (mammalian target of could be a potentially safe and potent anticar-
rapamycin), which have great relevance during cinogenic agent against skin cancer.
cancer initiation and progression. They also Costunolide was shown to induce apoptosis in
reported that recent studies had demonstrated anti- human promonocytic leukaemia U937 cells by
inflammatory, antiangiogenic, antioxidative and depleting the intracellular thiols (Choi et al.
anticancer properties of honokiol in in-vitro and 2002). Costunolide treatment rapidly depleted
in preclinical models. Recent studies showed that the intracellular reduced glutathione (GSH) and
honokiol induced apoptosis of cancer cells due to protein thiols, and this preceded the occurrence
endoplasmic reticulum stress by binding with of apoptosis. Overexpression of Bcl-2 signifi-
glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) (Martin cantly attenuated the effects of costunolide. The
et al. 2013). With respect to cell death, honokiol results suggested that the costunolide-induced
exhibited synergistic effects on melanoma and apoptosis depended on intracellular thiol con-
glioblastoma cells with the endoplasmic reticu- tents, which were modulated by Bcl-2. Costunolide,
lum stress inducers fenretinide or bortezomib, but exhibited significant inhibition on the farnesyl-
only additive (fenretinide) or inhibitory (bort- ation process of human lamin-B by farnesyl-pro-
ezomib) effects on neuroblastoma cells. tein transferase (FPTase), in a dose-dependent
Magnolol and honokiol exhibited cytotoxic manner in vitro (IC50 value = 20 μM) (Park et al.
activity in vitro against OVCAR-3 (ovarian ade- 2001). Costunolide also inhibited proliferation
nocarcinoma), HepG2 (hepatocellular carcinoma) of cultured human tumour cells, namely, A549
and HeLa (cervical epithelioid carcinoma) cell (non-small-cell lung), SK-OV-3 (ovary), SK-MEL-2
lines (Syu et al. 2004). The CD50 values for com- (melanoma), XF498 (central nerve system) and
pounds 1–3 were in the range of 3.3–13.3 μg/ml. HCT-15 (colon), in vitro.
Studies showed that honokiol, magnolol and Four aporphine alkaloids, magnoflorine,
4-O-methylhonokiol downregulated the expres- lanuginosine, liriodenine and anonaine, isolated
sion of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) in a concentration- from the methanol leaf extract, exhibited cyto-
and time-dependent manner in NCI/ADR-RES toxic activity (Mohamed et al. 2010).
cells (Han and Van Anh 2012). Furthermore, Magnoflorine was more cytotoxic (IC50 0.4 μg/
pretreatment with honokiol, magnolol or 4-O- ml) than lanuginosine (IC502. μg/ml) against
methylhonokiol significantly increased the HEPG2 (hepatocellular carcinoma cell line) in
susceptibility of cancer cells to daunorubicin- comparison with the standard doxorubicin (IC50
induced cytotoxicity in NCI/ADR-RES cells. 0.27 μg/ml). In addition, magnoflorine and lanu-
The results suggested all three could be promis- ginosine exhibited cytotoxicity against U251
ing agents for reducing the multidrug resistance (brain tumour cell line), with IC50 of 7 and 4 μg/ml,
of cancer cells to anticancer drugs via the down- respectively. The two compounds were found to
regulation of P-gp expression. In other studies, be inactive against the Hela cancer cell (cervix
treatment of human epidermoid squamous carci- tumour cell line).
noma A431 cells with honokiol significantly
decreased cell viability and cell proliferation in a
concentration- and time-dependent manner Antiviral Activity
(Chilampalli et al. 2011a). Pretreatment of A431
cells with honokiol induced cycle arrest at G0/G1 Magnolol and honokiol were found to be inhibitors
phase, DNA fragmentation and apoptosis. of Epstein–Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA)
Similarly they reported that magnolol pretreat- activation induced by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-
ments prevented UVB-induced skin cancer 13-acetate (Konoshima et al. 1991). Magnolol
development in mice by enhancing apoptosis, exhibited remarkable inhibitory effects on mouse
258 Magnoliaceae

skin tumour promotion in an in vivo two-stage expression in human retinal pigment epithelial
carcinogenesis test. Honokiol inhibited hepatitis cells, but this increased expression was inhibited
C virus (HCV) infection in vitro by targeting cell by magnolol via the extracellular signal-regulated
entry and replication and, only at a concentration kinase (ERK)/mitogen-activated protein kinase
>30 μM, internal ribosome entry site (IRES)- (MAPK)/Akt activation signalling pathway in
mediated translation of HCV life cycle (Lan et al. human retinal pigment epithelial cells under
2012). Based on its high therapeutic index (LD50/ diabetic conditions (Kim et al. 2007).
EC90 = 5.4), honokiol may be a promising drug Choi et al. (2011) found that treatment of 3T3-
for the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection. L1 preadipocytes with honokiol promoted adipo-
The methanol leaf extract showed high antiviral cyte differentiation via increased expression of
activity against the herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) PPARγ2 mRNA and potentiation of insulin sig-
76.7 % inhibition at 1.1 μg/ml, but exhibited a nalling pathways such as the Ras/ERK1/2 and
moderate antiviral activity against poliovirus phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signalling
type-1 (47 % inhibition at the same concentra- pathways. In other studies, Choi et al. (2012)
tion) (Mohamed et al. 2010). found that honokiol and magnolol dose-dependently
and acutely stimulated glucose uptake without
synergistic effects of combined administration in
Antidiabetic Activity L6 myotubes by activating Akt phosphorylation,
a key element in the insulin signalling pathway.
Magnolol inhibited 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehy- The results suggested that honokiol and magnolol
drogenase (11beta-HSD) without increases in the may have beneficial effects on glucose metabolism.
blood concentration of corticosterone and in In diabetic KKAy mice, oral application of
thymocyte apoptosis in mice (Horigome et al. honokiol prevented hyperglycaemia and sup-
2001). Magnolol inhibited the enzyme activity in pressed weight gain (Atanasov et al. 2013). While
kidney and thymus, while the activity in liver was honokiol stimulated basal glucose uptake to a
not affected so that the blood concentrations of similar extent as pioglitazone, it did not induce
corticosterone could not exceed the control level. adipogenesis in contrast to pioglitazone. They
Excess of corticosteroids such as corticosterone found that honokiol acted as a partial non-adipo-
can have a detrimental impact on glucose control, genic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
blood pressure and lipid levels. Studies showed gamma (PPARγ) agonist that could clinically be
that in magnolol-treated non-obese type 2 used to counteract hyperglycaemia.
diabetic Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rats, fasting blood
glucose, plasma insulin, urinary protein and
creatinine clearance were significantly decreased, Antimicrobial Activity
and the pancreatic islets also showed strong insu-
lin antigen positivity (Sohn et al. 2007). The Three phenolic constituents magnolol, honokiol
overproduction of renal sorbitol, advanced and 3.5′-diallyl-2′-hydroxy-4-methoxybiphenyl
glycation end products (AGEs), type IV collagen isolated from Magnolia grandiflora were shown
and TGF-beta1 mRNA were significantly reduced to possess significant antimicrobial activity
in magnolol-treated GK rats. The results sug- against Gram-positive and acid-fast bacteria and
gested that the use of magnolol could result in fungi (Clark et al. 1981). Magnolol and honokiol
good blood glucose control and prevent or retard exhibited antimicrobial activity against periodon-
development of diabetic complications such as topathic microorganisms, Porphyromonas gin-
diabetic nephropathy. Studies demonstrated that givalis, Prevotella gingivalis, Actinobacillus
high glucose (25 mM) or S100b (a specific recep- actinomycetemcomitans, Capnocytophaga gingi-
tor of advance glycation end products ligand) valis and Veillonella dispar, and had a relatively
(5 μg/ml) induced increases in transforming low cytotoxic effect on human gingival cells
growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) and fibronectin (Chang et al. 1998). However, magnolol and
Magnolia grandiflora 259

honokiol were less potent than chlorhexidine. based on these results, the scientists suggested
They suggested that magnolol and honokiol may the possibility that magnolol and honokiol may
have a potential therapeutic use as a safe oral be considered as attractive acne-mitigating can-
antiseptic for the prevention and the treatment of didates for topical application. Honokiol and its
periodontal disease. Magnolol was found to have synthesized derivatives honokiol-acetate, hono-
potent inhibitory effect on the growth of kiol-succinic acid, honokiol-glycerol, honokiol-
Helicobacter pylori (Bae et al. 1998). In another glycine, honokiol-glucose and honokiol-mannose
study, honokiol and magnolol exhibited marked exhibited antimicrobial activity (Kim et al. 2010).
antimicrobial effect (MIC = 25 μg/ml) against Among the tested compounds, honokiol-glycine
Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyro- showed improved water solubility and antibacterial
monas gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia, Micro- activities against Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas
coccus luteus and Bacillus subtilis but did not aeruginosa when compared to honokiol.
show antimicrobial activity (MIC > or = 100 μg/ml) M. grandiflora leaf essential oil displayed
for Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus epidermidis, antifungal activity against five dermatophyte
Enterobacter aerogenes, Proteus vulgaris, strains and had antimicrobial activity against
Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyo-
(Ho et al. 2001). The results indicated that genes, which cause skin infections that poten-
honokiol and magnolol, although less potent than tially may lead to sepsis (Guerra-Boone et al.
tetracycline, displayed a significant antimicrobial 2013). However, the antioxidant activities of all
activity for periodontal pathogens. Magnolol and oils were small (half maximal effective concen-
honokiol exhibited antibacterial activities against tration values >250 μg/ml).
vancomycin-resistant enterococci and methicillin- Cyclocolorenone, a sesquiterpene ketone iso-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus at minimum lated from Magnolia grandiflora, exhibited both
inhibitory concentrations (MIC) in the range of antibacterial and antifungal activities in vitro
6.25–25 μg/ml (Syu et al. 2004). Honokiol and (Jacyno et al. 1991). It also inhibited growth of
magnolol showed strong antibacterial activities wheat coleoptiles and was phytotoxic to green-
against both acne-causing bacteria Propioni- house grown tobacco plants. Two neolignan
bacterium acnes and Propionibacterium granu- compounds, magnolol (5,5′-diallyl-2,2′-dihydroxy
losum, and the minimum inhibitory concentrations biphenyl, 1) and honokiol (5,5′-diallyl-2,4′-
(MIC) of honokiol and magnolol were 3–4 μg/ml dihydroxybiphenyl, 2), isolated from the stem
(11.3–15 μM) and 9 μg/ml (33.8 μM), respec- bark, showed significant inhibitory activities
tively (Park et al. 2004). It was further found that against various human pathogenic Trichophyton
magnolol and honokiol killed P. acnes rapidly, mentagrophytes, Microsporum gypseum, Epider-
with 10(5) organisms/ml eliminated within 10 min mophyton floccosum, Aspergillus niger, Crypto-
of treatment with either 45 μg (169.2 μM) of coccus neoformans and Candida albicans with
magnolol or 20 μg (75.2 μM) of honokiol per ml. minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) in a
In the 3-(4,5-dimetyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl- range of 25–100 μg/ml (Bang et al. 2000).
2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay using two
animal cell lines, human normal fibroblasts and
HaCaT, magnolol exhibited lower cytotoxic Anticonvulsant Activity
effects than honokiol at the same concentration.
Further they both reduced secretion of interleu- The ethyl ether and hydroalcoholic extract of
kin-8 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF- Magnolia grandiflora seeds, orally administered
alpha) induced by P. acnes in THP-1 cells to adult male wistar rats in a single dose of
indicating their anti-inflammatory effects. When 250 mg/kg (calculated on lipidic base) and
applied topically, neither of the phenolic com- 200 mg/kg, exhibited abolition of the extensor
pounds induced any adverse reactions in a reflex of maximal electric-induced seizure test
human skin primary irritation test. Therefore, in 50 and 40 % of the experimental animals,
260 Magnoliaceae

respectively (Bastidas Ramírez et al. 1998). The The aqueous extracts of flowers and leaves
results suggested that the chemical constituents have been reported to exhibit cardiovascular
in the seeds could be useful in the treatment of effects (Mellado et al. 1980). Magnolia grandi-
epileptic patients presenting convulsive seizures. flora extracts were found to have positive inotropic
Studies showed that both honokiol and mag- and vasodilatory effects in isolated and perfused
nolol significantly increased the N-methyl-D- male guinea pigs hearts (Del Valle Mondragón
aspartate (NMDA)-induced seizure thresholds et al. 2004). Vulgarenol and 2-p-hydroxyphenyl-
and honokiol was more potent than magnolol 2-hydroxy-ethylamine were isolated and identi-
(Lin et al. 2005). These results demonstrated fied and were found to be responsible for its
that magnolol and honokiol have differential positive inotropic and vasodilatory effects being
effects on NMDA and non-NMDA receptors, complemented by magnograndiolide and tyra-
suggesting that the distinct therapeutic applica- mine. A sesquiterpene, vulgarenol, isolated from
tions of these two compounds for neuroprotection Magnolia grandiflora flower petals caused a
should be considered. Magnolol at doses of 40 statistically significant decrease in coronary vas-
and 80 mg/kg significantly delayed the onset of cular resistance and increased nitric oxide release
myoclonic jerks and generalized clonic seizures and cyclic guanosine monophosphate accumula-
and decreased the seizure stage and mice mor- tion in left ventricular tissue samples in the
tality compared with those of the vehicle-treated Langendorff isolated and perfused heart model
animals (Chen et al. 2011a). The inhibitory when compared to control (Del Valle-Mondragón
effects of magnolol on epileptiform activity et al. 2007, 2009). Pretreatment with 3 μm gado-
were mediated by the GABA(A)/benzodiazepine linium chloride hexahydrate, 100 μm Nω-nitro-L-
receptor complex. arginine methyl ester hydrochloride and 10 μm
1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,2-a]quinoxalin-1-one
significantly abolished the vulgarenol-induced
Vasodilatory/Muscle Relaxant coronary vascular resistance decrease, nitric
Activity oxide increased release and cGMP accumulation
in left ventricular tissue samples. The results sup-
Magnolol (75 mg/kg, i.p.) completely inhibited ported the fact that nitric oxide and cyclic guano-
the extensor reflex in 40 min after the injection sine monophosphate were likely involved in the
while honokiol elicited almost the same effect on endothelium-dependent coronary vasodilation.
spinal reflex, but a higher dose (150 mg/kg, i.p.) Studies showed that magnolol relaxed vas-
(Watanabe et al. 1975). The results indicated that cular smooth muscle in the rat thoracic aorta
magnolol and honokiol are a distinct and long- by releasing endothelium-derived relaxing fac-
lasting muscle relaxant activity than mephenesin tor (EDRF) and by inhibiting calcium influx
(50 mg/kg, i.p.), with as much shorter duration of induced by high potassium or norepinephrine
action. Magnolol, 5,5′-diallyl-2,2′-dihydroxydi- through voltage-gated calcium channels (Teng
phenyl, produced potent inhibitory effects of grad- et al. 1990). Pretreatment of rat aortic rings
ual onset and of long duration on grip strength in with magnolol reduced vascular tension
mice and spinal reflexes in young chicks (Watanabe induced by the thromboxane A2 agonist U46619,
et al. 1983a). Position of allyls and hydroxyls in sodium fluoride (NaF) and the α1-adrenoceptor
honokiol, 5,3′-diallyl-2,4′-dihydroxydiphenyl, was agonist phenylephrine in both endothelium-
different from magnolol, although the pharmaco- intact and endothelium-denuded rings (Seok
logical characteristics were quite similar to et al. 2012). The magnitudes of the relaxation
magnolol. The results suggested that a hydroxyl effects of magnolol on the contraction induced
accelerated the onset and shortened the muscle by each of the drugs were similar. Magnolol
relaxant activity of diphenyl and an allyl impacted reduced vascular contraction by inhibiting the
the activity in the opposite direction. Both radicals RhoA/Rho kinase pathway in endothelium-
appear to intensify the activity. denuded rat aorta.
Magnolia grandiflora 261

Magnolol (75 mg/kg, i.p.) completely inhib- Cardioprotective Activity

ited the extensor reflex in 40 min after the injec-
tion while honokiol elicited almost the same Studies in male Sprague-Dawley rats found that
effect on spinal reflex, but a higher dose (150 mg/ magnolol may protect the myocardium against
kg, i.p.) (Watanabe et al. 1975). The results indi- ischaemic injury and suppress ventricular
cated that magnolol and honokiol are a distinct arrhythmia during ischaemia and reperfusion
and long-lasting muscle relaxant activity than (Hong et al. 1996). The incidence and duration of
mephenesin (50 mg/kg, i.p.), with as much shorter ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrilla-
duration of action. tion during 30 min coronary ligation were sig-
Studies suggested that magnolol caused a nificantly reduced by magnolol. Ventricular
depression of the ascending activating systems as arrhythmias during 10 min reperfusion after the
well as of the spinal cord (Watanabe et al. 1983b). relief of coronary ligation were also reduced. In
Magnolol and honokiol produced sedation, rats subjected to 4 h, coronary ligation magnolol
ataxia, muscle relaxation and a loss of the right- significantly reduced infarct size. Similar results
ing reflex with an increase in dose of 50–500 mg/ were obtained with honokiol at similar concen-
kg i.p. Magnolol and honokiol at a dose of 50 mg/ trations, and they concluded that honokiol may
kg suppressed spinal reflexes in young chicks in protect the myocardium against ischaemic injury
a similar manner, but with a much longer dura- and suppress ventricular arrhythmia during isch-
tion of action than mephenesin. Pretreatment of aemia and reperfusion (Tsai et al. 1996). Studies
mice with magnolol 100 mg/kg inhibited tonic demonstrated that pretreatment of rats with
extensor convulsions and death produced by an magnolol (0.2 and 0.5 μg/kg, i.v. bolus) before 45
intracerebroventricular injection of penicillin G min of left coronary artery occlusion significantly
potassium 50 μg. In rats, after an intraventricular suppressed the incidence of ventricular fibrillation
injection of penicillin G 400 μg, magnolol sup- and mortality when compared with the control
pressed the incidence of spike discharge, but not group (Lee et al. 2001). Magnolol (0.2 and
seizure discharge. Magnolol produced spindle 0.5 μg/kg) also significantly reduced the total
discharges in sensory and motor cortex electroen- duration of ventricular tachycardia and ventricular
cephalograms and inhibited midbrain reticular fibrillation. After 1 h of reperfusion, pretreatment
formation- and hypothalamus-stimulated responses with magnolol (0.2 and 0.5 μg/kg) caused a sig-
in the neo- and palaeo-cortex electroencephalo- nificant reduction in infarct size. Additionally,
grams, respectively. magnolol (0.2 μg/kg) significantly reduced super-
Studies by Jeong et al. (2009) found that oxide anion production and myeloperoxidase
magnolol differently regulated the spontaneous activity, an index of neutrophil infiltration in the
gastrointestinal motility according to the region ischaemic myocardium. Further, pretreatment
of the rat gastrointestinal tracts and orientation with magnolol (0.2 and 0.5 μg/kg) suppressed
of smooth muscles. Magnolol (0.3–30 μM) ventricular arrhythmias elicited by reperfusion
dose-dependently stimulated the tone and following 5 min of ischaemia. In in-vitro studies
amplitude of spontaneous contractions in ileum magnolol (5, 20 and 50 μM) significantly sup-
longitudinal muscles. Magnolol at 3 μM signifi- pressed N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine
cantly increased the contractions of jejunum (fMLP; 25 nM)-activated human neutrophil
longitudinal and colon circular muscles, but not migration in a concentration-dependent manner.
the longitudinal muscle contractions in fundus, The finding suggested that pronounced cardio-
antrum and colon. The magnolol-induced regu- protective activity of magnolol may be mediated
lation of smooth muscle contractions in rat gas- by its antioxidant activity and by its capacity for
trointestinal strips was likely to be mediated, at neutrophil inhibition in myocardial ischaemia–
least in part, by activation of acetylcholine and reperfusion. Neutrophil adhesion had been reported
5-HT receptors, possibly the M(3) and/or to play a crucial process during the inflammatory
5-HT(4) receptors. response in cardiac ischaemia–reperfusion injury.
262 Magnoliaceae

Studies by Shen et al. (1998) found that magnolol effects than alpha-tocopherol. The study sug-
inhibited neutrophil adhesion which accounted gested that magnolol might be a potential phar-
for its anti-ischaemia–reperfusion injury effect. macological reagent in preventing balloon
They found that the inhibitory effect of magnolol injury-induced restenosis. Studies showed that
on neutrophil adhesion to the extracellular matrix magnolol inhibited urotensin-II-induced cell pro-
is mediated, at least in part, by inhibition of the liferation, endothelin-1 protein secretion and
accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)
in turn suppressed the up-regulation of Mac-1 phosphorylation in rat cardiac fibroblasts by
essential for neutrophil adhesion. A pertussis interfering with reactive oxygen species genera-
toxin-insensitive inositol trisphosphate signalling tion (Liou et al. 2009).
pathway was found to be involved in the magno- The cardiovascular protective effects of
lol-induced [Ca2+]i elevation in rat neutrophils magnolol were reported to be cell-type specific
(Wang and Chen 1998). and dose related (Ho and Hong 2012). Magnolol
Magnolol (5–20 μM) concentration- under low and moderate dosage was reported
dependently induced significant rat vascular to possess the ability to protect heart from isch-
smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) apoptosis in vitro aemic/reperfusion injury, to reduce atheroscle-
(Chen et al. 2003). Magnolol increased caspase-3 rotic change, to protect endothelial cell against
and caspase-9 activities significantly and reduced apoptosis and to inhibit neutrophil–endothelial
the mitochondrial potential (Deltapsi(m)). The adhesion. Magnolol was reported to induce
levels of B-cell leukaemia/lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), apoptosis in vascular smooth muscle cells at
but not those of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) moderate concentration and to inhibit prolifera-
or Bcl-x(L), were downregulated concentration tion at moderate and high concentration. High
dependently by magnolol. In an animal model, concentration of magnolol also abolished plate-
balloon angioplasty-induced neointima forma- let activation, aggregation and thrombus forma-
tion was inhibited significantly by magnolol and tion and served as smooth muscle relaxant at
Bcl-2 protein levels were reduced. The results high concentration.
showed that magnolol-induced apoptosis in
VSMCs via the mitochondrial death pathway
was found to be mediated through downregulation Cholesterol Homeostasis Activity
of Bcl-2 protein levels, both in vivo and in vitro.
Magnolol thus shows potential as a novel thera- Honokiol was found to be an activator of the
peutic agent for the treatment of atherosclerosis ABCA1 promoter by binding to retinoid X recep-
and restenosis. The pathological mechanism of tor beta as a ligand (Jung et al. 2010). It was found
percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty- that honokiol also increased ABCA1 mRNA and
induced restenosis had been attributed to out- protein expression levels in a dose-dependent
growth of vascular smooth muscle cells, and manner in U251-MG cells without significant cell
magnolol had been shown to inhibit rat smooth death and also increased ABCA1, ABCG1 and
muscle cell proliferation (Wu et al. 2005). apolipoprotein E (apoE) expression levels in
Magnolol (0.05 mg/ml) caused an approximate THP-1 macrophages. ABCA1, a member of the
61 % reduction of smooth muscle cells progress- ATP-binding cassette transporter family, was
ing to the S-phase, a significant reduction (73 %) found to regulate high-density lipoprotein (HDL)
of DNA synthesis and protein level of the prolif- metabolism and reversed cholesterol transport.
erating cell nuclear antigen was suppressed by
approximately 48 %. Further, malondialdehyde
formation was significantly inhibited by 0.05 mg/ Hepatoprotective Activity
ml of magnolol supporting the antioxidant effect
of magnolol. Magnolol had exhibited approxi- Honokiol was found to exhibit in vitro and in vivo
mately 1,000 times more potent antioxidant protective effects on rat liver from peroxidative
Magnolia grandiflora 263

injury (Chiu et al. 1997). The inhibitory effect of induce apoptotic death in activated rat HSCs,
honokiol on oxygen consumption and malondial- while causing no cell viability change in hepato-
dehyde formation during iron-induced lipid cytes. Apoptosis was induced via cytochrome c
peroxidation in liver mitochondria showed release and caspase activation in activated rat
obvious dose-dependent responses with a con- hepatic stellate cells.
centration of 50 % inhibition being 2.3 × 10−7 M
and 4.96 × 10−7 M, respectively, that is, 550 times
and 680 times more potent than alpha-tocopherol, Neuroprotective Activity
respectively. They found that the dose-dependent
protective effect of honokiol on ischaemia– Studies demonstrated that magnolol protected
reperfusion injury was 10–100 μg/Kg body weight. neurons against chemical hypoxic damage or
They found honokiol to be a strong antioxidant necrotic cell death in cortical neuron-astrocyte
and may have clinical implications for protection mixed cultures (Lee et al. 1998). Treatment with
of hepatocytes from ischaemia–reperfusion magnolol (10 and 100 μM) significantly reduced
injury. Honokiol and magnolol were found to chemical hypoxia KCN-induced lactate dehy-
have protective effect n hepatocyte injury induced drogenase release in a concentration-dependent
by either tertiary butyl hydroperoxide (tBH)- or manner. In another study, magnolol (20 or
D-galactosamine (GalN) (Park et al. 2003). 40 mg/kg, i.v.) significantly attenuated the
Treatment with honokiol or magnolol signifi- heatstroke-induced hyperthermia, arterial
cantly inhibited lipid peroxidation in cells and hypotension, intracranial hypertension, cere-
media, the generation of intracellular reactive bral ischaemia and neuronal damage and
oxygen species (ROIs) and intracellular glutathi- increased free radical formation and lipid per-
one (GSH) depletion induced by tBH. The oxidation in the rat brain (Chang et al. 2003).
hepatoprotective effects of honokiol and magno- The extracellular concentrations of ischaemic
lol were attributed to their antioxidant activity. (e.g. glutamate and lactate/pyruvate ratio) and
Studies showed that treatment of rats with mag- damage (e.g. glycerol) markers in the corpus
nolol exerted an anti-hepatotoxic activity induced striatum were increased after the onset of heat-
by acetaminophen (N-acetyl-p-aminophenol/ stroke. Magnolol significantly attenuated the
APAP) (Chen et al. 2009b). Elevated levels of increase in striatal ischaemia and damage mark-
aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotrans- ers associated with heatstroke.
ferase and lactate dehydrogenase induced by Studies showed that honokiol at the doses of
APAP were reduced by treatment with magnolol 10−7 or 10−6 g/kg ameliorated cerebral infarction
lipid peroxidation (thiobarbituric acid-reactive from ischaemia–reperfusion injury in rats (Liou
substance/TBARS), and glutathione depletion in et al. 2003a). The neuroprotective effect of
liver tissue induced by APAP were also restored honokiol may be related to its antioxidant effect
by magnolol treatment. However, separate stud- and antiplatelet aggregation activity. The protec-
ies showed that magnolol could not protect liver tive effects of honokiol against focal cerebral
grafts from cold ischaemia–reperfusion injury ischaemia–reperfusion injury in rats were related
(Kao et al. 2010). High concentration of magno- to its antioxidant effect leading to a reduction in
lol under serum-reduced conditions attenuated reactive oxygen species production by neutro-
NF-kappaB-mediated signalling and induced phils (Liou et al. 2003b).
intrinsic apoptotic pathway, thereby inducing in Administration of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid
vitro hepatotoxicity. (NMDA) to mice caused a lethality of approxi-
The therapeutic goal in liver fibrosis is the mately 60 %, which resulted in a significant
reversal of fibrosis and the selective clearance of decrease of total glutathione (GSH) level and
activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) by induc- increase of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances
ing apoptosis (Park et al. 2005). Honokiol, at (TBARS) value in brain tissue (Cui et al. 2007).
concentrations of 12.5–50 μM, was found to Oral administration of honokiol (> or = 3 mg/kg)
264 Magnoliaceae

for 3 days reduced the lethality (60 %) in NMDA- Antiplatelet Activity

treated group to 10 % level and alleviated the
behavioural signs of NMDA neurotoxicity. Magnolol and honokiol were found to inhibit the
Further, honokiol pretreatment restored the levels activity of acetyl-CoA:1-alkyl-sn-glycero-3-
of total glutathione (GSH) and thiobarbituric phosphocholine acetyltransferase, a key enzyme
acid-reactive substances (TBARS) in the brain in the biosynthesis of platelet-activating factor
tissue to control levels. Additionally, GSH per- (PAF, 1-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho
oxidase activity in cytosolic portion of brain choline) (Yamazaki et al. 1994). The inhibitory
homogenate was also restored significantly, action of magnolol and honokiol was reversible
whereas GSH reductase activity was not. Based and similar to or higher than that of nordihy-
on these results, oral intake of honokiol was droguaiaretic acid. PAF production in human
suggested to prevent oxidative stress in the brain polymorphonuclear leukocytes stimulated by the
of mice. ionophore A23187 was also suppressed dose
Reactive oxygen species produced by neutro- dependently by magnolol and honokiol. Magnolol
phils contributed to the pathogenesis of focal inhibited phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-
cerebral ischaemia–reperfusion injury and sig- activated rat neutrophil aggregation in a concen-
nal the inflammatory response. In a recent study, tration-dependent manner with an IC50 of
honokiol microemulsion (50 μg/kg, i.v. at 0, 1 or 24.2 μM (Wang et al. 1998). Magnolol suppressed
3 h after reperfusion) significantly reduced neu- the enzyme activity of neutrophil cytosolic and
rological deficit, infarct volume and brain water rat brain protein kinase C and attenuated [3H]
content in rats subjected to cerebral ischaemia– phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate binding to neutrophil
reperfusion (Hu et al. 2013). Honokiol (0.1–10 μM) cytosolic protein kinase C. The results suggested
significantly attenuated oxygen-glucose depri- that the inhibition of PMA-induced rat neutrophil
vation- or glutamate-induced injury of fetal rat aggregation by magnolol may be attributable, at
cortical neurons. They found that honokiol cere- least in part, to the direct suppression of protein
bral protective effect may be in part ascribed to kinase C activity through blockade of the regula-
the disruption of the PSD95-nNOS interaction tory region of protein kinase C. The antiplatelet
leading to the inhibition of neurotoxic NO activity of honokiol was comparable to acetyl
production. salicylic acid (Pyo et al. 2002). Hsu et al. (2004)
demonstrated that magnolol suppressed throm-
boxane B2 (TXB2) and leukotriene B4 (LTB4)
Pulmonary Protective Activity formation in A23187-stimulated rat neutrophils.
Maximum inhibition was obtained with about
Studies showed that pretreatment of mice with 10 microM magnolol. Magnolol was more effec-
magnolol protected against lipopolysaccharide tive in the inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX)
(LPS)-induced acute lung injury (Fu et al. activity than in the inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase
2012). Magnolol markedly attenuated the his- (5-LO) activity. Magnolol alone stimulated cyto-
tological alterations in the lung; reduced the solic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) phosphoryla-
number of total cells, neutrophils and macro- tion and the translocation of 5-LO and cPLA2 to
phages in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid; the membrane and evoked arachidonic acid (AA)
decreased the wet/dry weight ratio of lungs in release. The results indicated that magnolol
the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid; downregu- inhibited the formation of prostaglandins and
lated the level of proinflammatory mediators leukotrienes in A23187-stimulated rat neutro-
and inhibited Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4)- phils, probably through a direct blockade of COX
mediated NF-κB signalling pathways. The and 5-LO activities. The stimulatory effects of
results suggested that magnolol may be a magnolol at high concentration on the membrane
promising potential therapeutic reagent for association of 5-LO and cytosolic phospholipases
acute lung injury treatment. A2 (cPLA2) were attributable to the elevation of
Magnolia grandiflora 265

[Ca2+]i, and on the AA release was likely via hyperproliferation and degradation of collagen
activation of cPLA2 and Ca2+-independent fibres in mice skin. Magnolol was identified as
PLA2 (iPLA2). the solely responsible active compound in
Magnolol and syringin showed only very mild magnolia extract; it effectively inhibited the
inhibitory effects to all the stimulators. Studies NF-kappaB-dependent transcription. The results
by Zhang et al. (2007) showed that honokiol suggested that Magnolia extract and its active
inhibited arterial thrombosis through stimulation component magnolol could be used to prevent
of prostacyclin (PGI2) generation by up-regulating the skin photoaging via inhibiting NF-kappaB by
prostacyclin synthase protein expression and external topical application.
endothelial cell protection by inhibiting endothe-
lial cell apoptosis. A recent study by Shih and
Chou (2012) demonstrated that the antiplatelet Antipyretic Activity
and antithrombotic activities of magnolol in mice
were modulated by up-regulation of peroxisome Studies suggested that intraperitoneal adminis-
proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-β/γ- tration of magnolol decreased body temperature
dependent pathways. Magnolol (20–60 μM) (due to increased heat loss and decreased heat
dose-dependently enhanced the activity and intra- production) by reducing 5-hydroxytryptamine
cellular level of PPAR-β/γ in platelets. release in rat hypothalamus in normothermic rats
and in febrile rats treated with interleukin-1 beta
(Hsieh et al. 1998).
Antihypertensive Activity

Results of studies suggested that chronic treat- Anxiolytic Activity

ment with honokiol exerted an antihypertensive
effect in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) The use of the elevated plus-maze experiment
and its vasorelaxant action and antioxidant prop- and activity and traction tests in mice showed that
erties may contribute to reducing the elevated seven daily treatments with 0.2 mg/kg and higher
blood pressure (Zhang et al. 2010). Long-term doses of honokiol had an anxiolytic effect
administration of honokiol (400 mg/kg/day) to without change in motor activity or muscle tone
SHR significantly decreased systolic blood pres- (Kuribara et al. 1998, 1999). The maximum
sure. Honokiol (200, 400 mg/kg/day) enhanced effect was observed for doses of 0.5 mg/k.
the aortic relaxation in response to acetylcholine Honokiol at any dose in both single and repeated
after a 49-day treatment and induced significant administration schedules caused neither change
reductions in the elastin bands and media thick- in motor activity nor disruption of traction per-
ness in the aorta. Also, oral administration of formance. Diazepam, 1 mg/kg, had the same
honokiol significantly increased the plasma level anxiolytic potential as 0.2 mg/kg honokiol but
of NO2−/NO3−, but lowered the level of malondi- induced muscle relaxation. The results suggested
aldehyde in the liver of SHR compared with the that, in contrast with diazepam, honokiol selec-
control vehicle. tively induced an anxiolytic effect with less
liability of eliciting motor dysfunction and seda-
tion or disinhibition. In another study, Honokiol
Photoprotective Activity and magnolol were shown to increase the number
of [3H] muscimol binding sites threefold in rat
Tanaka et al. (2007) found that Magnolia obovata forebrain membranes in vitro using a filtration
extract inhibited NF-kappaB-mediated gene assay by allosterically increasing the affinities of
expression and demonstrated that external swab- low-affinity sites (Squires et al. 1999). The poten-
bing with magnolia extract preventing skin tiation of GABAergic neurotransmission by
photoaging processes through keratinocyte honokiol and magnolol was suggested to be
266 Magnoliaceae

probably involved in the anxiolytic and central ligand (RANKL) in the presence of antimycin A.
depressant effects. In a more recent study, mice The results demonstrated that honokiol may have
treated with 7 daily injection of honokiol (1 mg/kg, positive effects on skeletal structure by stimulating
p.o.) caused anxiolytic action which was similar osteoblast function and inhibiting the release of
to that was induced by 7 daily injection of diaze- bone-resorbing mediators. Yamaguchi et al.
pam (2 mg/kg, p.o.) in the elevated plus-maze (2011) showed honokiol to be a potent inducer of
test (Ku et al. 2011). The anxiolytic activity of in vitro osteoblast differentiation by virtue of its
honokiol may be mediated by altering the capacity to suppress basal and tumour necrosis
synthesis of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GABA factor-alpha (TNF-α)-induced NF-κB activation
synthesized enzymes) GAD(65) and GAD(67) in and to alleviate the suppressive action of TNF-α
the brain of mice. on bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2-induced
Smad activation. Their data confirmed that
honokiol may have considerable promise as a
Neurotrophic Activity dual anabolic/anti-catabolic agent for the amelio-
ration of multiple osteoporotic diseases.
Honokiol and magnolol had been demonstrated Separate studies showed that magnolol had a
to increase choline acetyltransferase activity, protective effect against antimycin A-induced
inhibit acetylcholinesterase, promote potassium- cell damage in osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells by
function in in-vitro studies (Hou et al. 2000). its antioxidant effects and the attenuation of
Further studies showed that a high dose (10−4 M) mitochondrial dysfunction (Choi 2012). The data
of honokiol or magnolol may enhance in vivo indicated that magnolol may reduce or prevent
hippocampal acetylcholine release in conscious, osteoblast degeneration in osteoporosis or other
freely moving rats. degenerative disorders. Kwak et al. (2012) found
that magnolol caused a significant elevation of
cell growth, alkaline phosphatase activity, collagen
Antiosteoporotic/ synthesis, mineralization and glutathione content
Antiosteoclastogenic Activity in osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells. Skeletal turnover
is orchestrated by a complex network of regula-
Studies by Hasegawa et al. (2010) suggested that tory factors. Magnolol significantly decreased
honokiol inhibits osteoclast differentiation by the production of osteoclast differentiation-
suppressing the activation of p38 mitogen- inducing factors such as RANKL, TNF-α and
activated protein kinase (MAPK), extracellular IL-6 in the presence of antimycin A suggesting
signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun that magnolol may be used as an agent in the pre-
N-terminal kinase (JNK), decreasing the expres- vention of osteoporosis.
sions of c-Fos and nuclear factor of activated T The natural biphenyl neolignan 4′-O-methyl
cells-c1 and attenuated bone resorption by honokiol (MH), from M. grandiflora seed oil,
disrupting the actin rings in mature osteoclasts. was found to be a cannabinoid CB2 receptor-
Therefore, honokiol could prove useful for the selective antiosteoclastogenic lead structure
treatment of bone diseases associated with exces- (Schuehly et al. 2011). MH exhibited an intrigu-
sive bone resorption. In another study, honokiol ing nonspecific heteroactive behaviour at the CB2
caused a significant elevation of cell growth, receptor, i.e. acting as inverse agonist at Gi/o and
alkaline phosphatase activity, collagen synthesis, full agonist at [Ca2+]i, thus providing a novel type
mineralization, glutathione content and osteo- of functionally nonspecific CB2 receptor ligand.
protegerin release in osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 The most active inverse agonists from a library of
cells (Choi 2011). Further, honokiol signifi- MH derivatives inhibited osteoclastogenesis in
cantly decreased the production of osteoclast RANK ligand-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and
differentiation-inducing factors such as TNF-α, primary human macrophages. Moreover, these
IL-6 and receptor activator of nuclear factor-kB ligands potently inhibited the osteoclastogenic
Magnolia grandiflora 267

action of endocannabinoids. The results indicated Larvicidal Activity

methylhonokiol to be an easily accessible and
apparently nontoxic CB2 receptor ligand with All essential oils of the leaves, seeds with arils,
potential for the development of therapeutics for deseeded unripe fruit and deseeded mature fruit
diseases such as osteoarthritis, neuroinflamma- showed larvicidal and biting deterrent activity
tion, pain and chronic bowel disease in which the against Aedes aegypti (Rehman et al. 2013). The
CB2 receptor may play a role. LD50 values of three of essential oils ranged
between 51.5 and 54.7 ppm against first instar
larvae. Biting deterrent activity of one of the
Antityrosinase/Skin Whitening essential oils was equivalent to DEET with
Activity proportion not biting value of 0.94 versus 0.90,
respectively.
Studies demonstrated that M. grandiflora flower
extract decreased the expression of tyrosinase
and tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TRP-1) and Eryptosis Activity
then inhibited melanogenesis in a dose-dependent
manner in B16F10 cells (Huang et al. 2012). The Studies found that honokiol triggered suicidal
flower extract also showed antioxidant capacities erythrocyte death or eryptosis, a suicidal death
and depleted cellular reactive oxygen species. characterized by cell shrinkage and by break-
The authors concluded that M. grandiflora flower down of cell membrane phosphatidylserine
extract could be applied as a type of dermatological asymmetry with phosphatidylserine exposure at
whitening agent in skin care products. the erythrocyte surface (Zbidah et al. 2013). The
effect at least in part was attributed to stimulation
of Ca2+ entry and ceramide formation. Honokiol
Sleep Enhancement Activity further induced slight but significant haemolysis.
Eryptosis may be a mechanism of defective
Studies showed that magnolol prolonged the erythrocytes to escape haemolysis.
sleeping time induced by pentobarbital (Ma et al.
2009). The expression of the GABA(A) receptor
alpha subunit was increased selectively by magn- Allergy Problem
olol and magnolol increased chloride influx in
primary cultured cerebellar granule cells. The A patient who developed severe allergic reaction
results suggested that magnolol may enhance pen- to M. grandiflora was reported (Guin et al. 1990).
tobarbital-induced sleeping behaviours through The condition was a chronic lichenified dermatitis
the activation of GABAergic systems. Studies that was unresponsive to treatment but cleared
showed that magnolol administered i.p. at a dose with protective measures.
of 5 or 25 mg/kg could significantly shorten the
sleep latency and increase the amount of non-
rapid eye movement (non-REM, NREM) and Traditional Medicinal Uses
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep for 3 h after
administration with an increase in the number of The bark, wood and other plant parts have been
NREM and REM sleep episodes in mice(Chen featured in American Indian medicine and listed
et al. 2012). The sleep-promoting effects and in the United States Pharmacopoeia and pharma-
changes in c-Fos induced by magnolol were cognosy text as bitter tonics, antimalarials and
reversed by flumazenil, an antagonist at the ben- diaphoretics (Rao and Davis 1982a, b, c).
zodiazepine site of the GABA(A) receptor. The Magnolia grandiflora is widely used as a tradi-
results indicated that magnolol increased NREM tional medicine for the treatment of diarrhoea,
and REM sleep via the GABA(A) receptor. abdominal diseases, rheumatic arthritis, heart
268 Magnoliaceae

disturbances, high blood pressure, epilepsy, B. xylophilus and P. redivivus were 71 and
infertility and fever (Schühly et al. 2001). M. gran- 46 mg/l, respectively at 48 h.
diflora seeds have been used in traditional Among the sesquiterpene lactones, costuno-
Mexican medicine to treat different ailments such lide and parthenolide and 1,10-epoxyparthenolide
as spasms, infertility, epilepsy and inflammatory isolated from the dichloromethane extracts of
diseases (Mellado et al. 1980). leaves and the stem bark, costunolide showed the
The plant is also used in traditional Chinese strongest antifungal activity against three fungi,
medicine for treatment of cold, headache and Nigrospora spp., Rhizoctonia solani and Helmin-
stomach ache (Wu et al. 1988). Extracts from its thosporium spp., with EC50 values of 0.48, 2.92
leaves are used to reduce blood pressure and as a and 2.96 μg/mL, respectively, while parthenolide
raw material in Chinese herbal medicines, includ- exhibited the highest antifungal activity against
ing use as a substitute for M. officinalis (Li et al. Alternaria alternata and Fusarium culmorum
2013). The bark of the root and stem of various (EC50 = 4.07 & 50.27 μg/ml, respectively) (Ahmed
Magnolia species has been used in traditional and Adeglegaleil 2005). The three sesquiterpene
Chinese medicine to treat a variety of disorders lactones showed higher antifungal activity than a
including anxiety and nervous disturbances reference fungicide, thiophanate-methyl, against
(Squires et al. 1999). Helminthosporium spp.
Magnolia grandiflora n-butanol leaf extract
(8 g/l) exhibited inhibitory activity (97.4 %)
Other Uses against the freshwater cyanobacteria Microcystis
aeruginosa, which forms harmful algal blooms
M. grandiflora has economic value, as well as (Dong et al. 2011). The antialgal substances
strong resistance to wind and toxic gases such as found in the extract were mainly small molecule
sulphur dioxide (Li et al. 2013). It has beautiful substances such as alcohols, ketones and esters.
flowers with a fragrant smell and is regarded as
an important ornamental and horticultural spe-
cies. Southern magnolia is a very popular orna- Comments
mental tree throughout the south-eastern United
States and California. It is also grown in Central The tree is propagated using fresh, cold-stratified
and South America, Australia as well as parts of seeds or semi-hardwood cuttings.
Asia. The leathery green leaves and beautiful
flowers are used in decorating and floral
arrangements. Selected References
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 Abutilon indicum

Scientific Name (Cav.) Sweet, Beloere cistiflora Shuttlew. ex A.

Gray, Sida albida Willd., Sida asiatica L., Sida
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet beloere L’Hér., Sida coronata Scop., Sida doniana
D. Dietr., Sida eteromischos Cav., Sida guillemi-
niana Steud., Sida hookeri D. Dietr., Sida indica
Synonyms L., Sida meridionalis Salisb., Sida polycarpa
D. Dietr., Sida populifolia Lam., Sida pubescens
Abutilon albidum (Willd.) Sweet, Abutilon Cav., Sida vesicaria Cav.
albidum (Willd.) Hook. & Arn., Abutilon album
Hill (Inval.), Abutilon arborescens Medik.,
Abutilon asiaticum (L.) Sweet, Abutilon asiaticum Family
(L.) G. Don, Abutilon asiaticum (L.) Guill. & Perr.,
Abutilon asiaticum var. subasperum Fosberg, Malvaceae
Abutilon asiaticum var. supraviride Fosberg,
Abutilon australe var. malvifolium (Benth.) Baker
f., Abutilon cavaleriei H. Lév., Abutilon croiza- Common Names
tianum Moscoso, Abutilon cunninghamii Benth.,
Abutilon cysticarpum Hance ex Walp., Abutilon Chinese Bellflower, Country Mallow, Indian
elongatum Moench (Illeg.), Abutilon frutescens Abutilon, Indian Lantern Plant, Indian Mallow
Medik., Abutilon grandiflorum G. Don, Abutilon Abutilon, Monkey Bush, Moon Flower, Twelve
hirsutissimum Moench (Illeg.), Abutilon indicum O’Clock Flower
var. albidum (Willd.) Baker f., Abutilon indicum
var. asiaticum (L.) Griseb., Abutilon indicum var.
microphyllum Hochr., Abutilon indicum var. pop- Vernacular Names
ulifolium (Lam.) Wight & Arn. ex Mast, Abutilon
indicum var. populifolium (Lam.) Wight & Arn., Arabic: Khitmi Hindi
Abutilon indicum var. welwitschii Baker f., Bangladesh: Potari (Bengali)
Abutilon leiospermum Griseb., Abutilon malvifo- Brazil: Abutilão (Portuguese)
lium (Benth.) J.M. Black, Abutilon malvifolium Burmese: Thama-Khyoke
(Benth.) Domin, Abutilon oxycarpum var. mal- Chamorro: Malbas, Matbas
vifolium Benth., Abutilon populifolium (Lam.) Chinese: Dong Kui Zi, Mi Lan Cao, Mo Pan Cao
Sweet, Abutilon populifolium (Lam.) G. Don, Czech: Mračňák Indický
Abutilon pubescens (Cav.) Urb. (Illeg.), Abutilon French: Fausse Guimauve, Guimauve, Herbe De
subpapyraceum Hochr., Abutilon vesicarium Douze Heures, Mauve Du Pays

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 276
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_18, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abutilon indicum 277

German: Indische Samtpappel Vietnam: Cối Xay, Giằng Xay, Quỳnh Ma, Kim
Greek: Avutilon To Indikon Hoa Thảo, Ma Mãnh Thảo, Nhĩ Hương Thảo,
Guadeloupe: Guimauve Co To Ép (Thái), Phao Tôn (Tày)
I Kiribati: Te Kaura, Te Kaura Ni
India: Bellpaku (Andhra Pradesh), Jhapa
(Assamese), Potary, Mirubaha, Atibala, Petari, Origin/Distribution
Potari (Bengali), Atibala, Tara Kanchi, Itawari,
Jhili, Debi, Kanghi, Tara-Kanchi (Hindi), Indian abutilon is native to the Old World
Gidutingi, Hetakisa, Hettukisu, Hettutti, tropics—south Asia and Southeast Asia; it is
Hetutti, Kisangi, Shrimudri, Srimudre, Tutti, now widespread as a weed pantropically.
Urki (Kannada), Belocre, Katturam, Katturan,
Katuram, Pettekaputti, Pitikkapattu, Tatta,
Tutti, Tuvatti, Uram, Velluram (Malayalam), Agroecology
Akakai, Kansuli, Karandi, Madmi, Mudra,
Mudrika, Petaari, Pidari, Vikankati, Petari It occurs in sunny locations, in disturbed sites and
(Marathi), Biley, Phulo (Oriya), Atibala waste ground in the warm, humid tropics usually
(Sanskrit), Ottuttutti, Tutti, Paniyaratutti, below 800 m (−1,500 m) elevation. The plant is
Perundhuthi, Tutti-P-Pattai, Kakkati, Kikkaci, drought resistant and is commonly found in dry
Tuttikkirai, Thuththi, Tuti (Tamil), Adavibenda, sites in upland fields, waste lands and roadsides
Adivibenda, Botlabenda, Dudi, Muttavaciribenda, at low elevations in its native range.
Noogoobenda, Nugoobenda, Nugubenda,
Peddabenda, Thellabenda, Tootieakoc (Telugu)
Indonesia: Belangan Sumpa (Sumatra), Bunga Edible Plant Parts and Uses
Sore, Cemplok (Javanese), Kecil (Maluku)
Italian: Abutilone, Fiore Di Dodici Ore The raw flowers are eaten in Arabia (Hedrick
Japanese: Takasago Ichibi 1972) and are cooked and eaten as vegetable in
Kampuchea: Dok Toc Lai Andhra Pradesh, India (Reddy et al. 2007). The
Korean: Eo-Jeo-Gwi leaves contain a large quantity of mucilage.
Laos: Houk Phao Ton
Malaysia: Bunga Kisar, Kembang Lubok,
Kembang Lohor, Malba, Malva Botany
Naru: Ekaura, Inen Kaura
Nepal: Poti (Majhi), Kangiyo (Nepali) An erect, branched, 1–2 m high, pubescent shrub.
Philippines: Daluapng, Palis, Pilis, Taratakopes Stem green or somewhat purplish. Leaves are
(Bisaya), Lulupau, Luplupao, Malvas (Iloko), simple, alternate, long petiolate with suborbi-
Takbitakbi (Sulu), Malbas, Giling-Giliñgan, cular to cordate, pubescent lamina, 2.5–10 cm by
Kuakuakohan, Malis, Marbas, Tabing (Tagalog) 2.7,5 cm wide, with coarsely crenate–serrate
Polish: Zaślaz margins (Plates 1 and 2). Flowers are solitary in
Portuguese: Abutilo axils, long pedicellate (4–7 cm) with yellow to
Russian: Kanatnik Indijskij orange yellow, imbricate, deltoid–obovate petals
Spanish: Boton De Oro, Malva Amarilla and a hirsute staminal tube (Plates 1 and 2). Fruit
Sri Lanka: Beheth Anoda, Wal Anoda (Sinhala), is a circular capsule, densely pubescent with
Thuththi (Tamil) 11–20 radiating carpels (mericarp) forming
Taiwan: Mopan Cao; conspicuous and horizontally spreading beaks
Thai: Phong Phaang (Eastern), Khrop Chak (Plates 1 and 2). Each mericarp is flattened and
Krawaan, Krop Fan See (Central), Ma Kong boat shaped. Seed is reniform, tuberculate and
Khao (Northern) pubescent with minutely stellate hairs.
278 Malvaceae

ranoside, quercetin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside and

quercetin 3-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl (1 → 6)-β-
glucopyranoside (Matlawska and Sikorska 2002).

Leaf Phytochemicals

The flowers and leaves were found to contain

quercetin; leaves contained 72 % more quercetin
than the flowers (Rajalakshmi and Senthil 2009).
Quercetin-3-rutinoside was isolated from the
Plate 1 Yellow flowers, circular capsules (fruit) and leaves leaves (Matlawska et al. 2007). Tocopherols and
β-sitosterol were isolated from leaves (Baxi
and Parikh 1980). Eudesmic acid, ferulic acid
and caffeic acid were isolated from the methanol
leaf extract (Rajput and Patel 2012).
Abutilon indicum plant extract was found to
contain alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, glycosides,
and saponins (Krisanapun et al. 2009). The ethanol
leaf extract of A. indicum was found to contain
terpenes, fatty acids, ketones, aldehydes and vita-
min E (Ramasubramaniaraja 2011). Fifty-seven
compounds were identified in the ethanol leaf
extract: N,N-dimethylglycine; heptanoic acid;
3-hexenoic acid; 2-hexenoic acid;1-gala-1-ido-
octose; 2-cyclopenten-1-one, 3-ethyl-2-hydroxy-;
nonanal; 4H-pyran-4-one, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihy-
Plate 2 Close view of flower, fruit and leaves droxy-6-methyl-; isoborneol, dL-glyceraledhye
diethylacetal; (−)-trans-pinocarvyl acetate;
1H-indene, 1-methylene-; 2-methoxy-4-
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties vinylphenol; propane, 1,1-diethoxy-2-methyl-;
1-decene; (+)-2-carene, 10-(acetylmethyl)-, bicy-
Flower Phytochemicals clo[4.1.0]heptan-2-ol, 1-phenyl-, endo-; naphtha-
lene, 1,4-dimethyl-; 4-(2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-
The flowering tops of Abutilon indicum afforded 1,3-dienyl)but-3-en-2-one; tetradecane; nonanoic
0.15 % of an essential oil, which contained sev- acid, 9-oxo-, ethyl ester; β-copaen-11-ol; β-D-
eral terpenes: ‘alpha’-pinene (0.1 %), 1,8-cineole glucopyranose, 4-O-β-D-galactopyransoyl-;
(1 %), caryophyllene (11.6 %), borneol (0.6 %), 2(4H)-benzofuranone, 5,6,7α-tetrahydro-4,4,7α-
geraniol (13 %), geraniol acetate (2 %), caryoph- trimethyl-; erucic acid; dodecanoic acid,
yllene oxide (2 %), eudesmol (22 %) and farnesol 1-methylethyl ester; 3-hydroxy-β-damascone; ace-
(2.8 %) (Geda and Gupta 1983). Flavonoids found tic acid, 3-hydroxy-6-isopropenyl-4,8α-dimethyl-
in four Malvaceous plants including Abutilon 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8α-octahydronapthalen-2-yl ester;
indicum (petals) were quercetin, gossypetin and 2-methyl-4-(2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-2-enyl)
kaempferol (Subramanian and Nair 1972). but-3-en-2-ol-; 3,5-heptadienal, 2-ethylidene-
The flowers were reported to contain flavo- 6-methyl-; α-copaen-11-o; 9.12-octadeinoyl
noid compounds: luteolin, chrysoeriol, luteolin chloride (Z,Z)-; β-citrylideneethanol; 1-{2-[3-)2-
7-O-β-glucopyranoside, chrysoeriol 7-O-β- acetyloxiran-2-yl)-1,1- dimethylpropyl]cyclo-
glucopyranoside, apigenin 7-O-β-glucopy- prop-2-enyl}ethanone;1-[1-methoxy-3,3-dimethyl-
Abutilon indicum 279

2-(3-methylbuta-1,3-dienyl)cyclopentyl]ethanone; (vernolic) acid (1.6 %), 9,10-methylene-octadec-

2-octenoic acid, 4-isopropylidene-7-methyl- 9-enoic (sterculic) acid (0.9 %) and 8,9-
6-methylene-, methyl ester; acetic acid, 2(2,2,6- methylene-heptadec-8-enoic (malvalic) acid
tromentyl-7-oxa-bicyclo[4.1.0]hep-1-yl]-prope- (2.3 %) (Babu et al. 1980). Amino acid profile of
nyl ester; 2-pentacedanone, 6,10,14-trimethyl-; seed proteins (31 %) contained threonine, glycine,
2,2-dimethyl-6-methylene-1-[3,4-dihydroxy-1- serine, glutamine, lysine, methionine, isoleucine,
pentenyl]cyclohexan-1-perhydrol; 7-(1,3-dimethyl- proline, alanine, cysteine, tyrosine, phenyla-
buta-1,3-dienyl)-1,6,6,-trimethyl-3,8-dioxatri- lanine, leucine, asparagine, histidine, valine and
cylco[5.5.0.092,4)]octane; hexadecanoic acid, arginine (Prakash et al. 1988).
ethyl ester; 9.12-octadecadienoic acid, ethyl The proximate nutrient composition of
ester; linolenic acid, ethyl ester; octadecanoic A. indicum seeds were reported as moisture
acid ethyl ester; oleic acid, palmitin,-2-mono-, (5.9 %), ash (2.3 %), crude fibre (25.1 %), crude
dodecanal; 9-octadecenaide, (Z)-; 9,12-octadedi- protein (22.4 %), crude carbohydrate (22.92 %)
enoyl chloride, (Z,Z)-; stearin, 1,3-di-; linolenin, and minerals (mg/100 g): aluminium (4.02),
1-mono-; lup-2-(29)-en-3-one; 2,2,4-trimethyl-3- cadmium (0.01), calcium (237.32), iron (3.13),
(3,8,12,16-tetramethyl-heptadeca-3,7,11,15- lead (0.08), magnesium (176.50), phosphorus
tetraenyl)-cyclohexanol; betulin; linoleic acid (212.15), potassium (261.01) and zinc (1.94)
ethyl ester; β-sitosterol; and vitamin E. (Kashimiri et al. 2009). Lipids extracted from
the finely ground seeds were fractionated into
polar (3.7 %) and nonpolar (95.2 %) lipids
Seed Phytochemicals comprising hydrocarbons (1.4 %), sterol
esters (8.3 %), triglycerides (70.3 %), free
A water-soluble galactomannan containing fatty acids (2.8 %), diglycerides (3.2 %), sterols
D-galactose and D-mannose in 2:3 M ratio was (2.7 %) and monoglycerides (6.5 %). Triglyceride
isolated from Abutilon indicum seeds (Singh was found to be the major fraction (70.3 %)
et al. 1997). The seed gum was found to have a among neutral lipids. The lipids of Abutilon
branched structure consisting of linear chain indicum were rich in unsaturated fatty acids and
β-D(1 → 4)-linked mannopyranosyl units, some their composition was in general comparable to
of which were substituted at O-6 by two the fatty acid composition of the family
α-D(1 → 6) galactopyranosyl units mutually Malvaceae. Oleic acid and linoleic acids were
linked glycosidically as end groups. found to be the predominant fatty acids in most
Gupta and Saharia (1950) reported the isolation of the lipids.
of approximately 5 % oil in the seeds of Abutilon
indicum. The unsaponifiable matter (1.77 %) con-
tained sitosterol and acetyl derivative. Root Phytochemicals
Gambhir and Joshi (1952) reported the pres-
ence of linolenic, linoleic, palmitic, oleic, stearic Gallic acid (Sharma et al. 1989) and fixed oil
acids and raffinose from Abutilon indicum. Dry (Bagi et al. 1984) were detected in the roots.
seeds were extracted with petroleum ether and
pale yellow oil (9.21 %) was obtained. Alcoholic
extract of the fat extracted residue contained Plant Phytochemicals
1.61 % raffinose.
The seed oil was found to contain oleic acid The unsaponifiable matter of fraction A of the
(14.3 %), linoleic acid (11.0 %), palmitic acid petroleum ether extract of Abutilon indicum aerial
(53.9 %) stearic acid (33.7 %) and linolenic parts was found to contain n-alkane mixture
acid (1.4 %) (Badami et al. 1975). The seed oil of (C22-C34), an alkanol fraction and β-sitosterol
Abutilon indicum was found to contain three (Gaind and Chopra 1976). In fraction B of the
HBr-reactive fatty acids: cis-12,13-epoxyoleic residual plant material, vanillic, p-coumaric,
280 Malvaceae

p-hydroxybenzoic, caffeic and fumaric acids and, and caffeic acid (Pandey et al. 2011). Gallic acid
in fraction C, p-β-D-glucosyloxybenzoic acid and and quercetin were validated to be effective bio-
gluco-vanilloyl glucose were isolated and identi- marker compounds for A. indicum herbal plant
fied. In fractions D and F, fructose, galactose, extracts (Hussain et al. 2012).
glucose, leucine, histidine, threonine, serine, The pharmacological properties of the various
glutamic acid and aspartic acid were identified. plant parts studied are elaborated below.
In fraction E, a mucilage, the acid hydrolysate
showed galactose and galacturonic acid. Jain
et al. (1982) reported the presence of β-pinene, Antioxidant Activity
eudesmol, farnesol and borneol besides geraniol,
β-caryophyllene and their derivatives in A. indi- Abutilon indicum seed was found to contain
cum. Two sesquiterpene lactones alantolactone potent antiradical and antioxidant components
and isoalantolactone were isolated from Abutilon (Kashimiri et al. 2009). TEAC (trolox equivalent
indicum (Sharma and Ahmad 1989) and eugenol antioxidant capacity) values of A. indicum seed
(Ahmed et al. 2000). The plant also contained oil were 14.006 and 21.375 as determined by
abutilon A and (R)-N-(1′-methoxycarbonyl-2′- ABTS+ (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-
phenylethyl)-4-hydroxybenzamide as well as 28 6-sulphonic acid) and FRAP (ferric reducing
known compounds: 1-methoxycarbonyl-β- power of plasma) methods, respectively. The
carboline; 3-hydroxy-β-damascone; 3-hydroxy- total phenolic content of the extract obtained
β-ionol; 3,7-dihydroxychromen-2-one; 4-hydroxy- from the seed oil was 13.770 mg/g seed oil. The
acetophenone; 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde; 4-hydr- ethanol plant extract showed dose-dependent
oxybenzoic acid; 4-hydroxybenzoic acid ester; antioxidant and free radical scavenging effects
4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid methyl ester; ade- when tested by reducing power assay and DPPH
nine; adenosine; aurantiamide acetate; benza- free radical scavenging method (Kaushik et al.
mide derivative; benzoic acid; coumaric acid; 2010). Aqueous extract of A. indicum stem showed
methylindole 3 carboxylate; 4-hydroxybenza- a potent total phenolic content and possessed
mide; n-feruloyltyrosine; p-coumaric acid; significant DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1 picrylhydrazyl)
riboflavin; scoparone; scopoletin; sitosterol; stig- scavenging activity (Chakraborthy and Ghorpade
masterol; syringaldehyde; thymine; vanillic acid; 2010). The TEAC ranged from 3.019 to 10.5 muM
and vanillin (Kuo et al. 2008). Yasmin (2008) for n-hexane and butanol fractions of Abutilon
isolated and characterized five new and four indicum in the ABTS assay (Yasmin et al. 2010).
known compounds from A. indicum: 3,5,7- The FRAP assay showed reducing powers of
trihydroxy-4′,6-dimethoxy-flavone; 3,5′,5-tri- the fractions in the order of butanol > ethyl
hydroxy-4′-methoxyflavone-7- O -E- D - gluco- acetate > chloroform > n-hexane and butanol >
pyranoside; vasicine; lupeol and methyl triacon- chloroform > hexane > ethyl acetate. The antioxi-
tanoate and known compounds gallic acid; dant/radical scavenging capacity of the extracts
β-sitosterol; β-amyrin and 4-hydroxy benzoic was found to be a dose-dependent activity. The
acid. Seven compounds were isolated from reaction kinetics with the free radical DPPH
A. indicum and six of them were identified as indicated the presence of both slow-reacting and
β-sitosterol; oleanic acid; (24R)-5α-stigmastane- fast-reacting antioxidant components in the plant
3,6-dione; daucosterol; 2,6-dimethoxy-1,4- extracts.
benzoquinone; and vanillic acid (Liu et al. 2009). Among the various extracts (petroleum ether,
The tannin content in leaves, stems and roots of chloroform, ethyl acetate, n-butanol, ethanol and
Abutilon indicum were determined to be 0.34, water) of A. indicum, the ethyl acetate extract
0.16 and 0.27 % GAe (gallic acid equivalent), showed maximum free radical scavenging activity
respectively (Zhang et al. 2010). The following (Srividya et al. 2012). Correlation between total
compounds were also isolated from the plant: antioxidant capacity and total phenolic content
p-β-D-glucosyloxybenzoic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic was not significant.
Abutilon indicum 281

Antimicrobial Activity found to be most effective against Gram-positive

bacteria Staphylococcus aureus followed by
Studies by Mehta et al. (1997) reported that the Bacillus subtilis and Gram-negative bacteria,
hexane plant extract was inhibitory to Escherichia coli, followed by Pseudomonas
Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeru- aeruginosa (Kaushik et al. 2010). The antibacte-
ginosa and fungi Aspergillus terreus, A. ochra- rial activity of the extract against S. aureus and
ceus, A. flavus and A. oryzae. The menthol extract B. subtilis was comparable to that of standard drug
was active against Aspergillus oryzae and A. ciprofloxacin. Also, the ethanolic extract showed
ochraceus, while the chloroform and ethyl ace- higher inhibitory activity against Candida albicans
tate extracts were active against most bacteria. than that of standard drug, amphotericin B.
Among the various leaf extracts, maximum The carbon tetrachloride fraction of the metha-
antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, nol leaf extract of Abutilon indicum exhibited
Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, mild-to-moderate activity in vitro against Gram-
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and positive (Bacillus cereus, Bacillus megaterium,
Salmonella typhi was exhibited by the ethanol Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina
extract followed by the chloroform extract, lutea) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia
while the aqueous extract showed no activity coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella para-
(Poonkothai 2006). Abutilon indicum leaf extract typhi, Salmonella typhi, Shigella boydii, Shigella
displayed enhanced antibacterial activity against dysenteriae, Vibrio mimicus, Vibrio parahaemo-
Gram-negative bacteria, Salmonella typhimurium, lyticus) and fungi (Candida albicans, Aspergillus
and Gram-positive bacteria, Bacillus licheniformis niger and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (Abdul
(Yasmin et al. 2008). Root extracts showed low et al. 2010). The average zone of inhibition pro-
MIC value (239 μg/mL) against Escherichia coli duced by the carbon tetrachloride extract was
which could be attributed to the presence of 6–10 mm at a concentration of 400 μg/disc. The
β-hydroxyl groups in the extract. The antifungal chloroform extract exhibited no antibacterial
activity of the leaf and stem extracts was negli- activity except against Sarcina lutea (8.4 mm).
gible but the root extract showed good activity Separate studies showed that the petroleum ether
(MIC; 640 μg/L) against Aspergillus niger. The and methanol extracts of Abutilon indicum
best activity (MIC; 235 μg/L) was observed by had potent antibacterial activity against the
the root extract against Trichoderma viride. pathogenic strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Abutilon indicum seed oil which inhibited the Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneu-
growth of both Gram-positive (Bacillus licheni- moniae (Gurumurthy et al. 2011). Moderate
formis, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus luteus activity was found against Escherichia coli. The
and Nocardia asteroides) and Gram-negative chloroform leaf extract of Abutilon indicum
(Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis) bacteria exhibited antimicrobial activity against only
in vitro (Kashimiri et al. 2009). However, Gram-positive bacteria, namely, Staphylococcus
Salmonella typhimurium was resistant. The meth- aureus, Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis and
anolic leaf extract of Abutilon indicum exhibited Bacillus pumilus (Ranjit et al. 2013).
marked antifungal activity against Trichophyton
rubrum; quercetin was isolated from the extract
(Vairavasundaram and Senthil 2009). Analgesic Activity
Among all the plant extracts tested, the etha-
nolic leaf extract showed significant antibacterial Fixed oil isolated from the petroleum ether root
activity in vitro comparable to the standard peni- extract exhibited dose-dependent analgesic
cillin potassium and streptomycin sulphate activity in rats using analgesiometer and in mice
against selected Gram-positive and Gram- against acetic acid-induced writhing test (Bagi
negative bacteria (Prabahar et al. 2009). The et al. 1984). The fixed oil exhibited analgesic
ethanolic plant extract of Abutilon indicum was effect at a dose of 400 mg/kg s.c. LD50 of the
282 Malvaceae

fixed oil in mice was 2357.9 mg/kg p.o. and In another study, Abutilon indicum alcohol
933.3 mg/kg s.c. Gallic acid isolated from the extract inhibited mouse auricular swelling
roots showed analgesic activity in rats at a dose induced by xylol indicating its anti-inflammatory
of 0.1 g/kg i.p. within 30–45 min of administra- effects (Chen et al. 2009). The ethanolic, chloro-
tion (Sharma et al. 1989). Eugenol (4-allyl-2- form and aqueous leaf extracts exhibited anti-
methoxyphenol), isolated from A. indicum, was inflammatory activity when tested using the
found to possess significant analgesic activity human red blood cell (HRBC) membrane stabili-
(Ahmed et al. 2000). At doses of 10, 30 and zation method (Rajurkar et al. 2009). The preven-
50 mg/kg body weight, eugenol exhibited 21.30, tion of hypotonicity-induced HRBC membrane
42.25 and 92.96 % inhibition of acetic acid- lysis was taken as a measure of anti-inflamma-
induced writhing in mice, respectively. At a dose tory activity. All three extracts showed a biphasic
of 50 mg/kg body weight, eugenol showed effect on the membrane stabilization. Their acti-
33.40 % prolongation of tail flicking time deter- vities were comparable to that of standard drug
mined by the radiant heat method. The petroleum diclofenac sodium. The petroleum ether, chloro-
ether leaf extract and benzene leaf extracts were form, methanol and aqueous plant extracts
found to possess very good analgesic property showed anti-inflammatory activity at a dose of
(Lakshmayya et al. 2003). 400 mg/kg body weight in rats when determined
The petroleum ether and ethanol root extracts by the carrageenan-induced paw oedema method
of A. indicum exhibited significant analgesic in rats (Saraswathi et al. 2011). The ethanolic
activity in both animal models: acetic acid- extract of A. indicum showed predominantly
induced writhing method (for peripheral analge- significant anti-inflammatory activity in a dose-
sic activity) in Swiss albino mice and the tail-flick dependent manner using the carrageenan-induced
method and the tail immersion method (for central paw oedema in healthy Wistar albino rats which
analgesic activity) (Goyal et al. 2009). The petro- was comparable to the reference standard ibupro-
leum ether extract showed higher analgesic fen (Tripathi et al. 2012).
activity. The results suggested that the analgesic
activity may be related to the central mechanism
or may be due to the peripheral analgesic mecha- Antidiabetic Activity
nisms. In another study, the petroleum ether,
chloroform, methanol and aqueous plant extracts Alcohol and water extracts of Abutilon indicum
showed analgesic activity at a dose of 400 mg/kg leaves (400 mg/kg, p.o.) showed significant
body weight in rats when tested by the tail-flick hypoglycaemic effect in normal rats 4 h after
method (Saraswathi et al. 2011). administration (23.10 and 26.95 %, respectively)
(Seetharam et al. 2002). It was also observed that
different leaf extracts (petroleum ether, benzene,
Anti-inflammatory Activity methanol, ethanol, aqueous) exhibited significant
hypoglycaemic activity at 400 mg/kg dose, but
Studies found that the methanolic extract of aer- the aqueous leaf extract was most potent in reduc-
ial parts of A. indicum had significant mast cell ing the blood glucose levels, but the aqueous
stabilizing effect against compound 48/80 and extract was most potent in reducing the blood
egg albumin induced rat peritoneal mast cell glucose levels (Lakshmayya et al. 2003).
degranulation (Paranjape and Mehta 2008). Also, Administration of A. indicum plant aqueous
A. indicum showed significant anti-inflammatory extract (0.5 and 1 g/kg body weight) in an oral
activity using the carrageenan-induced rat paw glucose tolerance test elicited a significant reduc-
oedema model. The results indicated that possi- tion in plasma glucose levels in 30 min after the
ble mechanism of action of A. indicum in the administration in moderately diabetic rats, as
treatment of bronchial asthma involved its mast compared with untreated rats (Krisanapun et al.
cell stabilizing and anti-inflammatory activity. 2009), and this was at a faster rate than the use of
Abutilon indicum 283

an antidiabetic drug, glibenclamide. The extract Patel et al. (2011) found that the use of
at a dose of 0.156–5 mg/mL inhibited glucose atibalamula (Abutilon indicum) 10 g twice a
absorption through the small intestine in a dose– day for 30 days in the patients of diabetic neu-
response manner. The maximum response was ropathy could revert the diminished sensory
observed at a dose of 2.5 mg/mL. The promotion perception and could reduce diabetic symp-
of the extract on insulin secretion was confirmed toms significantly.
by incubating beta cell of pancreatic islets and
INS-1E insulinoma cells with the extract at
1–1,000 μg/mL. The results suggested that the Hepatoprotective Activity
aqueous A. indicum plant possessed antidiabetic
properties, which inhibited glucose absorption The aqueous extract of the leaves of A. indicum
and stimulated insulin secretion. Phytochemical exhibited significant hepatoprotective activity at
screening also revealed that the extract contained 100 and 200 mg/kg dose levels in carbon tetra-
alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, glycosides and chloride-treated rats (Dash et al. 2000); CCl4-
saponins that could account for the observed induced changes were significantly reduced in
pharmacological effects of the plant extract. In a the A. indicum-treated animals. Another animal
subsequent study, they found that the aqueous study showed that juice from fresh A. indicum
extract of the entire plant (leaves, twigs and roots) leaves used in combination with the liquid extract
of A. indicum exhibited antidiabetic effect on of Allium cepa was effective against paracetamol-
postprandial plasma glucose in diabetic rats and carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity
(Krisanapun et al. 2011). The study suggested (Porchezhian and Ansari 2000). They reported
that the extract may be beneficial for reducing that the significant hepatoprotective activity
insulin resistance through its potency in regulat- exhibited by Abutilon indicum aqueous extract in
ing adipocyte differentiation through PPARγ reducing carbon tetrachloride- and paracetamol-
agonist activity and increasing glucose utilization induced changes in biochemical parameters in
via GLUT1. In another study, single oral admin- rats could be attributed to its antioxidant activity
istration of methanol leaf extract at a dose of (Porchezhian and Ansari 2005).
500 mg/kg significantly decreased the blood glu- Administration of A. indicum leaf extract to
cose concentrations in both normal and rats at the doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg body
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats after 2 h weight/day, p.o., for 21 days dose dependently
administration (Adisakwattana et al. 2009). The reduced peroxidative damage in both liver and
postprandial elevation in the blood glucose con- serum (Singh and Gupta 2008). The extract
centrations at 30 min after the plant administra- improved hepatic antioxidant status by enhanc-
tion of sucrose with the extract was significantly ing the decreased levels of the enzymatic and
suppressed when compared with the control nonenzymatic antioxidants such as superoxide
group. No significant change in blood glucose dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase,
concentrations was observed in maltose-loading glutathione reductase, glutathione-S-transferase,
rats. In an in vitro study, A. indicum extract inhi- glutathione, vitamin C, vitamin E, ceruloplasmin
bited α-glucosidases, the disaccharide-digesting and β-carotene in the liver and serum caused
enzyme in the small intestine. The extract showed by alcohol.
a potent sucrase inhibitory activity with IC50 of
2.45 mg/mL while the extract was less potent on
the maltase inhibition. The extract was found to Anticancer/Cytotoxicity Activity
contain phenolic compounds (1.04 mg/g) and
flavonoid compounds (59.92 μg/g extract). The A decrease in the growth of human brain
results suggested that A. indicum extract would glioblastoma-astrocytoma cancer (U-87 MG)
be effective for lowering and suppressing eleva- cells was observed with increasing concentra-
tion of blood glucose. tions of the methanol leaf extract of A. indicum
284 Malvaceae

and its chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions Antifertility Activity

(Khan et al. 2011). The crude methanol extract
showed 44.2 % growth inhibition at 50 μg/mL. The methanol plant extract of A. indicum was
While, the chloroform fraction showed highest found to have oestrogenic/antioestrogenic poten-
inhibition of 61.02 % at 50 μg/mL, and the tial when tested on uterotrophic and uterine
ethyl acetate fraction showed 57.48 % inhibition peroxidase activities in ovariectomized rats (Johri
at the same concentration. The results were et al. 1991).
compared to the reference compound, quercetin,
which showed 28.9 % growth inhibition at
30 μg/mL. Antihypertensive Activity
In the brine shrimp lethality bioassay for cyto-
toxicity, the LC50 obtained from the best-fit line The water, acetone and ethanol root extracts of
slope were 0.419, 3.01, 5.62,1.51 for n-hexane, A. indicum inhibited angiotensin converting
carbon tetrachloride, chloroform and aqueous enzyme by 18, 9 and 1 %, respectively (Hansen
fractions of the methanol leaf extract of Abutilon et al. 1995). Inhibition was measured from
indicum, respectively, and 11.20 μg/mL for the enzymatic cleavage of the chromophore–
positive control (vincristine sulphate) (Abdul fluorophore-labelled substrate dansyltriglycine
et al. 2010). The cytotoxicity exhibited by chlo- into dansylglycine and diglycine.
roform soluble fraction of methanol extract was
promising.
CNS Depressant Activity

Antidiarrhoeal Activity All leaf extracts (petroleum ether, benzene, metha-

nol, ethanol, aqueous) showed CNS depressant
The methanolic extract and aqueous extract of activity but none of them could elicit narcosis
A. indicum leaves exhibited significant antidiar- (Lakshmayya et al. 2003).
rhoeal activity in castor oil-induced diarrhoea
and prostaglandin E2-induced diarrhoea in rats,
compared to the control group (Chandrashekhar Anticonvulsant Activity
et al. 2004). Abutilon indicum showed signi-
ficant antidiarrhoeal activity as compared to Abutilon indicum leaf ethanol extract exhibited
loperamide. anticonvulsant activity when administered orally
to Wistar rats; it gave significant protection against
pentylenetetrazole and maximal electroshock-
Diuretic Activity induced convulsions (Golwala et al. 2010).

Abutilon indicum alcohol extract markedly

increased the rat urinary output within 6 h com- Antihyperlipidemic Activity
pared to the control, indicating its diuretic effects
(Chen et al. 2009). The ethanol and aqueous leaf extracts of Abutilon
Aqueous extract of A. indicum at 200 indicum at 400 mg/kg dose levels inhibited the
and 400 mg/kg produced significant diuresis elevation in serum cholesterol and triglyceride
and increased sodium elimination but not levels on Triton WR 1,339 administration rats
potassium in rats (Balamurugan et al. 2010). (Giri et al. 2003). The extracts at the same dose
The results suggested the aqueous extract level significantly attenuated the elevated serum
of A. indicum to possess significant diuretic total cholesterol and triglycerides with an
and natriuretic effect but not a potassium- increase in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol
sparing effect. in high-fat-diet-induced hyperlipidemic rats.
Abutilon indicum 285

Immunomodulatory Activity Antiurolithiatic Activity

Oral administration of ethanolic and aqueous leaf The ethanolic extract of A. indicum was found to
extracts of A. indicum in mice elicited a signifi- have antiurolithiatic activity when evaluated by
cant increase in the production of circulating hae- calcium oxalate calculi induction by employing
magglutination antibody (HA) titre in response to CPD (calculi-producing diet; 5 % ammonium
sheep red blood cells (SRBCs) (Dashputre and oxalate in rat feed) and gentamicin (40 mg/kg,
Naikwade 2010). A significant increase in both s.c.) (Kumar et al. 2011). The preventive and
primary and secondary HA titre was observed curative rats showed a significant decrease in
when compared to control group, whereas in the deposition and excretion of calcium oxalate
cyclophosphamide-treated group, A. indicum urinary stones. The ethanolic extract of A. indi-
showed significant increase in HA titre. A. indi- cum was found to be safe at 2,000 mg/kg p.o.
cum also significantly potentiated the delayed- The ethanolic extract also showed antioxidant
type hypersensitivity reaction by facilitating the properties.
footpad thickness response to SRBCs in sensi-
tized mice. Further, A. indicum evoked a signifi-
cant increase in percentage neutrophil adhesion Larvicidal Activity
to nylon fibres and phagocytic activity. The
results suggested that A. indicum triggered both Among the five medical plants studied, the petro-
specific and nonspecific responses. leum ether extract of A. indicum exerted highest
larval mortality on the early fourth instar larvae
of Culex quinquefasciatus (Abdul Rahuman et al.
Wound Healing Activity 2008). The bioactive principle was isolated and
identified as β-sitosterol. β-sitosterol showed lar-
Roshan et al. (2008) reported that ethanolic vicidal effect with LC50 values of 11.49, 3.58 and
extract of A. indicum at a dose of 400 mg/kg 26.67 ppm against Aedes aegypti, Anopheles ste-
exhibited significant wound healing activity. phensi and Culex quinquefasciatus, respectively.
Ganga Suresh et al. (2011) found that the petro- The hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate and meth-
leum ether plant extract of A. indicum elicited anol of A. indicum exhibited mortality of third
greater wound healing activity than the ethanol instar larvae of the filarial vector, Culex quinque-
plant extract in Wistar albino rats. In two different fasciatus, with LC50 values of 204.18, 155.53,
models, namely, excision and incision models, 166.32 and 111.58 ppm, respectively (Kovendan
there were significant wound closure rates. The et al. 2012). Maximum larvicidal activity was
wound healing activity was postulated to be due observed in the methanolic extract followed by
to an increase in collagenation deposition, better the ethyl acetate, chloroform and hexane extracts.
alignment and maturation.

Anthelmintic Activity
Libido Enhancement Activity
The alcoholic stem extract of Abutilon indicum
Methanol extract of Abutilon indicum aerial parts showed good anthelmintic activity against
exhibited libido enhancement activity in female Pheretima posthuma (Ranjit et al. 2013). The
rats in the automated runway methodology and alcoholic stem extract showed time taken for
copulatory behaviour models (Khadabadi and paralysis of 11 min and time taken for death of
Bhajipale 2011). The results revealed significant 15 min, compared to the standard drug alben-
reduction in runtime and increase in core proximity dazole for paralysis of worms of 13 min and
time for the male targets in oestrous A. indicum- time taken for death of 19 min at 80 mg/mL
treated females. concentration.
286 Malvaceae

Traditional Medicinal Uses applied to the gum for toothache and used as ear
drops for earache. In India, root infusion is used
The plant is traditionally used in India, Pakistan, as a cooling medicine. The seeds are laxative and
China and the Philippines for treatment of several demulcent and enter into Indian and Chinese
diseases like bronchitis, body ache, toothache, medicine for their diuretic properties.
jaundice, diabetes, fever, piles, leprosy, ulcers, In Vietnamese traditional medicine, the plant
cystitis, gonorrhoea, diarrhoea, asthma, etc. (stems, shoots, leaves, fruits) is used to treat
(Goyal et al. 2009). The plant is used in tradi- influenza, coryza, headache and dysuria (Le and
tional medicine for inflammation, piles and gon- Nguyen 1999). Sap from pounded fresh leaves
orrhoea treatment and as an immune stimulant; and seeds is administered orally for furunculosis
root and bark are used as aphrodisiac, antidia- and snake bites; the residue is utilized as poul-
betic, nervine tonic and diuretic; seeds are used tice. The leaves and stems are used as an ingredi-
as aphrodisiac and in urinary disorders (Giri et al. ent in a herbal recipe for treating rheumatism and
2003). Abutilon indicum is an Asian phytomedi- arthrodynia accompanied by fever. A decoction
cine traditionally used to treat several disorders, of its dried leaves along with Adenosma caeru-
including diabetes mellitus (Krisanapun et al. leum and Premna integrifolia is prescribed for
2011). This medicinal plant plays an important postpartum jaundice.
role in folk medicine; in Thailand, it has been
used as a blood tonic, carminative, antipyretic,
anti-cough, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, laxative Other Uses
and antidiabetic (Chuakul et al. 1997). In India
and China, it has been used for urinary disease, In India (kashi-fibre) and E. Africa, Abutilon
gonorrhoea, jaundice, rheumatism, high fever, indicum is cultivated as a fibre plant, the fibre is
mumps, pulmonary tuberculosis, bronchitis, lack used to make cordage or woven into fabrics as it
of urination and some nervous and ear problems takes dyes well (Burkill 1966). The seeds provide
(Abdul Rahuman et al. 2008; Deokule and Patale an oil source. Abutilon indicum is also used as
2002). The leaves of Abutilon indicum were tra- an ornamental and medicinal plant, often as an
ditionally used to treat bronchitis and gonorrhoea indoor house plant or as a bonsai plant.
and as mouthwash in toothache (Lakshmayya
et al. 2003). However local practitioners have
claimed that the leaves are highly useful in con- Comments
trolling diabetes mellitus. Abutilon indicum is
employed for haemorrhoids by Siddha medical Abutilon indicum is readily propagated from
practitioners in Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, seeds.
India (Chellappandian et al. 2012), and by
traditional healers in Mayiladumparai block of
Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India (Pandikumar Selected References
et al. 2011). The Irula tribe in Chittoor district of
Andhra Pradesh used the leaves for dysentery, Abdul Rahuman A, Gopalakrishnan G, Venkatesan P,
leucorrhoea, piles and psoriasis and the roots as Geetha K (2008) Isolation and identification of mos-
galactagogue (Vedavathy et al. 1997). quito larvicidal compound from Abutilon indicum
(Linn.) Sweet. Parasitol Res 102(5):981–988
According to Burkill (1966), the plant leaves
Abdul MM, Sarker AA, Saiful IM, Muniruddin A (2010)
rich in mucilage are widely used as demulcent in Cytotoxic and antimicrobial activity of the crude
Malaysia and India. The leaves after boiling and extract of Abutilon indicum. Int J Pharmacogn
mixed with glutinous rice are applied as plaster to Phytochem Res 2(1):1–4
Adisakwattana S, Pudhom K, Yibchok-Anun S (2009)
the body for fevers and on ulcers. In Palembang,
Influence of the methanolic extract from Abutilon
Sumatra, a lotion is made from the plant and used indicum leaves in normal and streptozotocin-induced
warm for rheumatism. A poultice of the roots is diabetic rats. Afr J Biotechnol 8(10):2011–2015
Abutilon indicum 287

Ahmed M, Amin S, Islam M, Takahashi M, Okuyama E, Ganga Suresh P, Ganesan R, Dharmalingam M (2011)
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indicum. Pharmazie 55(4):314–316 indicum” Linn, in wistar albino rats. Int J Biol Med
Babu M, Husain S, Ahmad MU, Osman SM (1980) Res 2(4):908–911
Abutilon indicum seed oil—characterisation of Hbr‐ Geda A, Gupta AK (1983) Chemical investigation of essen-
reactive acids. Fette Seifen Anstrichmittel 82(2): tial oil of Abutilon indicum. Perfum Flavor 8(3):39
63–66 Giri RK, Kanungo SK, Patro VJ, Dash S, Sahoo DC (2003)
Badami RC, Deshpande GS, Shanbhag MR (1975) Minor Lipid lowering activity of Abutilon indicum (L.) leaf
seed oils, VII. Examination of seed oils by gas–liquid extracts in rats. J Pharm Res 2(11):1725–1727
chromatography. J Oil Technol Assoc India 7:76–77 Golwala DK, Patel LD, Vaidya SK, Bothara SB, Mani M,
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HK (1984) A preliminary phytochemical screening of indicum leaf. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci 2(1):66–71
Abutilon indicum: I. analgesic activity. Indian Drugs Goyal N, Singh S, Sharma SK (2009) Analgesic effects of
22:69–72 various extracts of the root of Abutilon indicum Linn.
Balamurugan G, Selvarajan S, Balakrishnan D, J Pharm Bioall Sci 1(1):43–46
Muralidharan P (2010) Diuretic activity of Abutilon Gupta BK, Saharia GS (1950) Chemical examination of
indicum Linn (Sweet) seed extract. J Herb Med the fixed oil from the seeds of Abutilon indicum.
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 Abutilon megapotamicum

Scientific Name German: Ballonmalve, Kriechende Samtpappel,

Rio-Grande-Schönmalve
Abutilon megapotamicum (A. Spreng.) A. St. Polish: Zaślaz
Hil. & Naudin. Portuguese: Linterna China
Slovenian: brazilski slezinec
Spanish: Linterna China
Synonyms Swedish: Lyktmalva

Abutilon inflatum Garcke & K. Schum., Abutilon

vexillarium E. Morren, Periptera megapotamica Origin/Distribution
(A. Spreng.) G. Don, Sida leopoldii Voss, Sida
megapotamicum A. Spreng. The species is native to Brazil and has been intro-
duced to other tropical, subtropical and mild tem-
perate areas around the world as an ornamental.
Family

Malvaceae Agroecology

The plant is naturally found growing in rain-forests

Common/English Names on well-drained, moderately fertile, organic rich
moist soils in Brazil. It prefers a wind-protected,
Brazilian Bell Flower, Candy Corn Plant, Chinese partial-shaded to full-sun position and is drought
Bell Flower, Chinese Lantern, Flowering Maple, and frost tender. It has been grown in the mildest
Lantern Flower, Trailing Abutilon areas of Britain, tolerating temperatures down to
between −5 and −10 °C when provided protection
of a south or south-west-facing wall.
Vernacular Names

Brazil: Chapéu-De-Cardeal, Lantana-Japonêsa, Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Lanterna-Chinesa, Sininho
Danish: Japanlugte Flowers are usually cooked as a vegetable
Dutch: Belgische Vlag (Lovelock 1973; Facciola 1990; Fern 1997) and
French: Abutilon De Rio Grande are said to have a pleasant sweet flavour and

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 290
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_19, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abutilon megapotamicum 291

delicious to eat raw (Fern 1997). The flowers acute tips and dentate margin margins, 5–8 cm
produce nectar all the time they are open. long (Plates 1 and 2). Flowers solitary, axillary,
bisexual, pendulous, bell-shaped or lantern-
shaped, attractive (Plates 1 and 2). Calyx large,
campanulate, red with 5 free, greenish apical
Botany lobes. Corolla of 5 yellow petals. Staminal column
divided apically into numerous yellow filaments
A medium-sized, semi-deciduous shrub, growing that mature to dark brown, protruding about 2 cm
to 2 m high with slender branches. Leaves simple, from the yellow petals. Ovary 5-loculed, each
ovate to shallowly three-lobed, with cordate bases, with 3–9 ovules; style branches as many as loculi,
filiform to clavate, stigmatose only at apex.

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

No medicinal uses and nutritive properties have

been reported.

Other Uses

Trailing Abutilon is a popular ornamental plant,

excellent for a hanging basket, looks graceful
when grown in the ground and can even be grown
as a house plant.

Comments

The plant is propagated from seeds and softwood

stem cuttings.

Plate 1 Flowers and leaves Selected References

Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible
plants. Kampong Publication, Vista, 677 pp
Fern K (1997) Plants for a future: edible & useful plants
for a healthier world. Permanent Publications, Clanfield,
300 pp
Huxley AJ, Griffiths M, Levy M (eds) (1992) The new RHS
dictionary of gardening, 4 vols. MacMillan,
New York
Kearney TH (1958) A tentative key to the South American
species of Abutilon Miller. Leafl W Bot 8:201
Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium (1976) Hortus third. a
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium/
Cornell University/Wiley, New York, 1312 pp
Lovelock Y (1973) The vegetable book: an unnatural
Plate 2 Close view of flowers and leaves history. St Martin’s Press, New York
 Alcea rosea

Scientific Name Chinese: Shi Kui, Zhu Kui

Czech: Proskurník Růžový, Topolovka Růžová
Alcea rosea L. Danish: Almindelig Stokrose, Have-Stokrose,
Stokrose
Dutch: Stokroos
Synonyms Estonian: Harilik Tokkroos
Esperanto: Aed-Tokkroos, Alceo, Alteo Alta,
Alcea biennis Winterl, Alcea ficifolia Nyman, Rozalteo
Althaea caribaea Sims, Althaea chinensis Wall., Finnish: Salkoruusu, Tarhasalkoruusu
Althaea coromandeliana Cav., Althaea flexuosa French: Passe Rose, Rose Papale, Rose Tremière
Sims, Althaea meonantha Link, Althaea mexicana German: Bauerneibisch, Baummalve, Baumrose,
Kunze, Althaea rosea (L.) Cav., Althaea rosea var. Chinesische Stockrose, Garten-Stockrose,
sinensis (Cav.) S.Y. Hu, Althaea sinensis Cav., Gartenmalve, Gewöhnliche Stockrose,
Althaea sinensis Blanco, Malva florida Salisb., Herbstrose, Pappelrose, Roseneibisch, Schwarze
Malva hortensis Schimp. & Spenn., Malva rosea Malve, Stockmalve, Stockrose, Winterrose
Garsault (inval). Hungarian: Fekete Mályvarózsa. Festőmályva,
Kerti Mályvarózsa, Kertimályva, Mályvarózsa
Icelandic: Stokkrós
Family Italian: Malva Rosa, Malvarosa, Malvone,
Malvone Roseo, Rosone, Rosoni
Malvaceae Japanese: Hana-Ao, Tachi-Aoii
Korean: Jeop-Si-Kkot;
Norwegian: Hagestokkrose, Praktstokkrose,
Common/English Names Vinterstokkrose
Pakistan: Gulekhera
Common Garden Hollyhock, Common Hollyhock, Polish: Malwa, Malwa Ogrodowa, Malwa Różowa,
Derives, Garden Hollyhock, Garden Mallow, Prawoślaz Różowy, Prawoślaz Wysoki
Hollyhock Russian: Štockrosa
Slovašcina: Sleznik Rožlin
Slovencina: Ibiš Ružový, Topoľovka Ružová
Vernacular Names Spanish: Alcea, Cañamera Real, Malva De Las
Indias, Malva Isabela, Malva Loc, Malva
Brazil: Malva Da Índia Reial, Malva Rósea, Malvaloca, Malvarrosa,
Arabic: Khatmae Vara De San José

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 292
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_20, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Alcea rosea 293

Swedish: Stockros
Turkish: Gü’hatmi, Gül Hatmi, Gülhatmi Botany
Welsh: Hocysen Fendigaid
An erect, slender, sparsely branched herbaceous
biennial or short-lived perennial growing to
Origin/Distribution 1.5–2 m high. The stem is terete, light green and
pubescent. Leaves are orbicular in outline,
Alcea rosea originated in the south-western prov- 7–15 cm across, palmately lobed with 5–7 shal-
inces of China and has been grown in Europe low lobes, medium green, bases cordate, margins
since at least the fifteenth century (Tang et al. crenate (Plates 1 and 2); petioles 2–5 cm long and
2007). It is not known from any truly wild situa- pubescent. Inflorescence–terminal or axillary
tions. It is cultivated as an ornamental and is used spike-like raceme. Flowers occur individually
medicinally. Today hollyhock is distributed and or in small clusters along the rachis. Flowers are
naturalized in the northern temperate regions. large and showy, 7–12 cm across when fully
opened, funnelform, in a range of colours—pink,
red (Plates 1 and 2), mauve, white, yellow and
Agroecology purple—and maybe double petalled. Flower has
6–9 green, hairy bracts; 6 ovate, green sepals; 5
A temperate species but will grow in the high- overlapping petals forming a funnel; a central
lands in the tropics. Hollyhocks prefer rich, well- columnar structure bearing numerous stamens
drained and fertile loamy soil and full sun. Light towards the tip and numerous thread-like stigmas
shade is tolerated but wet soil is not. below. Fruit is schizocarp containing 15–20
small, oval, flattened seeds.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
Flowers, leaves, stem and roots have edible uses
(Hedrick 1972; Lust 1974; Tanaka 1976; Kunkel As a result of the investigations performed, it was
1984; Kasumov 1984; Facciola 1990; Roberts found that the sources of natural food dyes which
2000; Lauderdale and Evans 1999; Newman are of greatest value were the red double form of
and O’Connor 2009). Today hollyhock is used the hollyhock, the hybrid Hibiscuses, the cotton
mainly for the dark red pigment, which is pro- plant and the pressing residues of dark varieties of
duced from the flowers, for food purposes. grape and mulberry, which were distinguished
Alcea rosea petals afford a red pigment found by a high content of anthocyanin pigments
suitable for colouring confectionery products, (Karimdzhanov et al. 1995). Quantitative analysis
fruit berry jams and jellies, non-alcoholic bever- of the plants studied for their total content of antho-
ages, wine, sausages and other foods (Kasumov cyanins showed that it ranged over wide limits
1984). The pigment can be used instead of (0.5–12 %). Alcea rosea petals were twice extracted
NaNO3 in sausage manufacture. It is thermosta- with acetone–water and distilled to give a dry prod-
ble and does not alter the organoleptic proper- uct (60 g) containing 12–13 % red pigment suitable
ties of foods. for colouring confectionery products, fruit berry
Flower petals and flower buds are eaten raw in jams and jellies, non-alcoholic beverages, sausages
salads. A refreshing herbal tea is made from the and other foods (Kasumov 1984). The pigment
flower petals. Young leaves can be consumed raw cyanidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside and
or cooked as potherb. They can also be finely malvidin-3,5-diglucoside.
chopped and added to salads. The inner portion Studies showed that the high molecular weight
of young stems can be eaten raw. A nutritious acidic polysaccharides (HMWAP) mucilages
starch is obtained from the root. from A. rosea flowers were superior to mucilages
294 Malvaceae

substances had molecular weight of 30,000 from

red flowers and 40,000 from black flowers.
Double-petalled black hollyhock flower was
found to contain mucilaginous polysaccharide, a
food dye and pectin (Atkhamova et al. 1995). The
polysaccharide had a molecular mass of 40,000
and contained N (0.7 %) and protein (3.5 %); the
latter included lysine 0.3 %, histidine 0.2 %,
valine 0.1 %, glycine 0.4 %, serine 0.1 %, threo-
nine 0.1 %, glutamic acid 0.6 % and aspartic acid
0.5 %. The polysaccharide comprised of galactose,
glucose, mannose, arabinose, xylose and rhamnose
in the ratio of 2:1.2:1.7:7.4: traces, respectively,
and of GalUA and GlcUA. The predominant
monosaccharides were rhamnose and arabinose.
The flower pigments comprised of anthocyanidin
glycosides: cyanidin, peonidine, delphinidin and
malvidin. The predominant monosaccharides
were rhamnose and arabinose. The residual meal
yielded 11 % of pectin substance with molecular
mass of 37,000, with 58 % content of uronic acid
and 5.89 % O–Ch3 content. The pectic substance
contained neutral sugars in addition to uronic acid—
rhamnose, arabinose, xylose (11:3.5:1) and trace
Plate 1 Flowers and leaves amounts of mannose, glucose and galactose—
thus, confirming it to be a highly esterified pectin.
The amount of hemicelluloses in the flower was
3.5 % comprising GalUA, galactose, glucose,
arabinose and rhamnose. The dark violet flowers
of Althaea rosea var. nigra were found to have
the following phenolic acids: ferulic (cis and
trans), vanillic, syringic, p-coumaric (cis and trans),
p-hydroxybenzoic, p-hydroxyphenylacetic and
caffeic acids (cis and trans) (Dudek et al. 2006).
From among the phenolic acids analyzed, the
syringic, p-hydroxybenzoic and p-coumaric acids
were dominant.
The dark violet flowers of Althaea rosea var.
Plate 2 Leaves, flower buds and flowers
nigra were found to have flavonoids, mainly
derivatives of kaempferol, quercetin, luteolin and
from its leaves and leaves or flowers from Malva myricetin (Matławska et al. 1992). Kaempferol
sylvestris (Classen and Blaschek 1998). The 3-O-(6-O-trans-p-coumaroyl)-β-gluco
molecular weight of all HMWAPs was in a range pyranoside (trans tiliroside), luteoline 4′-O-β-
of 1.3–1.6 × 10(6) Dalton. HMWAPs were found glucopyranoside and flavone apigenin glycoside
to be composed mainly of glucuronic acid, galact- were also found in other Malvaceous species.
uronic acid, rhamnose and galactose. Highly ester- The dark violet flowers of Althaea rosea var.
ified pectic substances were obtained from Alcea nigra were found to have the following phenolic
rosea flowers (Rakhimov et al. 2007). The pectic acids: ferulic (cis and trans), vanillic, syringic,
Alcea rosea 295

p-coumaric (cis and trans), p-hydroxybenzoic, 2.7 %, valine 3.5 %, isoleucine 0.2 %, leucine
p-hydroxyphenylacetic and caffeic acids (cis and 8.8 %, tyrosine 2.3 %, phenylalanine 3.5 %,
trans) (Dudek et al. 2006). From among the pheno- histidine 1.8 %, lysine 7.7 % and arginine 3.4 %.
lic acids analyzed, the syringic, p-hydroxybenzoic Amino acid composition of proteins of dry extract
and p-coumaric acids were dominant. from roots comprised of asparagine 8.2 %, threo-
Elaioplasts observed in A. rosea were found to nine 3.4 %, serine 2.2 %, glutamine 11.5 %, proline
exhibit all the features characteristic of lipotubu- 3.0 %, glycine 1.2 %, alanine 3.2 %, valine 3.2 %,
loids earlier described in Ornithogalum umbella- methionine 0.6 %, isoleucine 1.4 %, leucine
tum (Kwiatkowska et al. 2010). Lipotubuloids 5.5 %, tyrosine 2.6 %, phenylalanine 3.6 %, his-
are cytoplasmic domains containing aggregates tidine 1.9 %, lysine 6.8 % and arginine 3.5 %.
of lipid bodies connected with microtubules. The extract obtained from roots called Alceum
Tubulin was found to be present in this domain. was approved as 0.2-g tablets for medical use as
Alcea rosea seed oil was found to be a rich source an expectorant. The dry extract of stems was sent
of ricinoleic acid (61.7 %) and also contain other for preclinical pharmacological investigations as
fatty acids such as myristic (1.1 %), palmitic an antiulcer agent to treat stomach and small
(25.3 %), stearic (2.6 %) and oleic (9.3 %) intestine ulcers.
(Daulatabad and Jamkhandi 2000). Alcea rosea
seed oil was found to contain 5.25 % oil and the oil
contained 8.97 % cyclopropenoid acid (Sherwani Antiurolithiatic Activity
et al. 2012). The cyclopropenoid moiety was
resolved into two components: malvalic and Administration of the hydroalcoholic extract of
sterculic acids. Other fatty acids present included Alcea rosea roots to rats with ethylene glycol-
myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and induced kidney calculi significantly reduced the
linolenic acids. number of kidney calcium oxalate deposits
An acidic polysaccharide rhamnoglucouronan compared to ethylene glycol group (Ahmadi
with molecular weight of 39,000 was isolated et al. 2012). The extract also reduced the elevated
from A. rosea stem (Atkhamova et al. 2001). The urinary oxalate due to ethylene glycol. This effect
main polysaccharide chain was branched and was attributed possibly to diuretic and anti-
consisted of α-1 → 2 and α-1 → 4 bound rhamnopy- inflammatory effects or presence of mucilaginous
ranoses and uronic. Pectinic substances isolated polysaccharides in the plant. The results indicated
from A. rosea stem gave a yield of 4.3 % and Alcea rosea to have a beneficial effect in prevent-
comprised of rhamnose, arabinose, xylose, glucose, ing and eliminating calcium oxalate deposition
galactose in the ratio of 4.5:1.0:trace:trace:4.2 in the rat kidney.
and uronic acid (Azizov et al. 2007). Pectinic
substance isolated from roots gave a yield of 2.3 %
and comprised of rhamnose, arabinose, xylose, Immunomodulatory
glucose, galactose in the ratio of 18:3:trace:trace: and Antiulcerogenic Activity
1.0 and uronic acid. Microelements (mg/kg) from
the stem dry extract comprised of 30.1 mg Pb, Alcea rosea contains polysaccharides which pos-
0.67 mg Cd, 30.0 mg Cu, 93.6 mg Zn, 23.21 mg sess antiulcer and immunomodulatory properties.
Sn, 106 mg Fe and 196 mg Cr. Microelements Recent studies reported that aqueous extracts of
(mg/kg) from the root dry extract comprised of polysaccharides from A. rosea exhibited immu-
26.1 mg Pb, 0.0.83 mg Cd, 24.2 mg Cu, 37.5 mg Zn, nomodulatory activity (El Ghaoui et al. 2008).
18.5 mg Sn, 79 mg Fe and 200.5 mg Cr. Amino The polysaccharide extract appeared to boost
acid composition of proteins of dry extract the antibody response to egg albumin and acted
from stems comprised of asparagine 5.7 %, thre- as a B-lymphocyte polyclonal activator but had
onine 3.0 %, serine 2.1 %, glutamine 11.3 %, pro- no effect on interleukin-4 and γ-interferon gene
line 3.2 %, glycine 1.1 %, alanine 3.4 %, cysteine transcription. Alcea rosea was also found to be a
296 Malvaceae

source of polysaccharides with antiulcer property extract showed cytotoxic activity against brine
(Barnaulov et al. 1985). shrimp (Mert et al. 2010).
Studies showed that the methanol extracts
from A. rosea and Plantago major significantly
Antimicrobial Activity suppressed neoplastic cell transformation by
inhibiting the kinase activity of the epidermal
Extracts of A. rosea (leaf and flower) were found growth factor receptor (EGFR) in JB6 P + mouse
to have antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas epidermal cells (Choi et al. 2012). The activation
aeruginosa, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylo- of EGFR by EGF was suppressed by both extracts
coccus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, in EGFR+/+ cells, but not in EGFR−/− cells.
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus Moreover, both extracts inhibited EGF-induced
cereus, Bacillus anthracis, Escherichia coli, and cell proliferation in EGFR-expressing murine
Strepto-coccus pyogenes (Seyyednejad et al. 2010). embryonic fibroblasts (EGFR+/+). The results
Escherichia coli was the most resistant strain. strongly indicated that EGFR targeting by both
The n-hexane, methanol, ethanol, ethyl acetate plant extracts may be a good strategy for chemo-
and water extracts of Alcea rosea flowers were preventive or chemotherapeutic applications.
found to possess an activity against Escherichia
coli ATCC 29998, Escherichia coli ATCC 11230,
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Staphylo- Analgesic and Anti-inflammatory
coccus aureus ATCC 29213, Staphylococcus epi- Activity
dermidis ATCC 12228, Salmonella typhimurium
CCM 5445, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC The ethanolic extract of the flower of Althaea
27853 and albicans ATCC 10239 by disc diffusion rosea was found to inhibit significantly the acetic
method (Mert et al. 20100). E. Coli 25922, acid-induced twisting of mice and the heat-induced
Enterobacter cloacae 13047, Enterococcus faecalis (tail) flicking of rats, the acetic acid-induced
29212 and Candida albicans 10239 were found increase in permeability of abdominal blood capil-
to be resistant. There was no significant activity laries, the oedema of the rat paw induced by
difference between extracts. But all of the extracts carrageenan or dextran and the release of PGE
were found to be slightly active against tested from inflammatory tissue (Wang et al. 1989). The
microorganisms than ceftazidime. results indicated A. rosea flower extract to possess
analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties.

Anticancer/Cytotoxicity Activity
Antiulcer Activity
Seven phenolic compounds, scopoletin (1),
p-hydroxyphenethyl trans-ferulate (2), 1-(α-l- Polysaccharides from A. rosea stem possessed
rhamnosyl(1 → 6)-β- D -glucopyranosyloxy)- resorptive and coating properties and were
3,4,5-trimethoxybenzene (3), benzyl α-L-rham- effective in reducing forestomach lesions in rats
nopyranosyl(1 → 6)-β- D - glucopyranoside following the ligature of the pylorus when admin-
(4), suberic acid (5), sebacic acid (6) and scopolin istered enterally, intraperitoneally or intravenously
(7) were isolated from the methanol extract of (Barnaulov et al. 1985).
Althaea rosea roots (Kim et al. 2007). The com-
pounds were weakly cytotoxic in vitro to human
cancer cell lines A549 (lung carcinoma), SK-OV-3 Antioestrogenic Activity
(ovary malignant ascites), SK-MEL-2 (skin mel-
anoma) and HCT-15 (colon adenocarcinoma) Studies showed that rats drinking aqueous holly-
with ED50 values >30 μg. The ethyl acetate flower hock flower extract for 30 days manifested
Alcea rosea 297

marked increase in the 3-β-hydroxysteroid major have been used as powerful nontoxic thera-
dehydrogenase (3β-HSD), glucose-6-phosphate peutic agents that inhibit inflammation (Choi et al.
dehydrogenase (G6PD) and nicotinamide ade- 2012). Hollyhock is an old medicinal plant. It has
nine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) activities been used in folk medicine as an anti-inflamma-
and in the Khanolkar reaction intensity in Leydig tory, astringent, demulcent, diuretic, emollient and
cells which also increased in volume and nuclei febrifuge. It is used to control inflammation and to
(Papiez 2001). In group 2 given the extract for stop bedwetting and as a mouthwash in cases of
180 days, Leydig cells manifested statistically bleeding gums. The flowers are regarded to be
insignificant changes in the G6PD and NADPD demulcent, diuretic and emollient. Flowers have
activities; however, the significant increase in the been used in the treatment of chest complaints,
3β-HSD activity and the Khanolkar reaction and a decoction is used to improve blood circula-
intensity indicated compensatory changes. The tion and for the treatment of constipation, dysmen-
statistically significant elevation of the androgen orrhoea and haemorrhage.
level accompanied by a decrease in oestrogen The shoots have been employed to ease diffi-
content in homogenates of group A2 testes cult labour. The root is astringent and demulcent.
pointed to weak antioestrogenic effect of the Pulverized roots are applied as a poultice to
extract. Papiez et al. (2002) further showed that ulcers and used internally as a medicine for dys-
the weak antioestrogenic activity of flavonoid entery. In Tibetan medicine, roots and flowers are
compounds present in the hollyhock extract was deemed to have a sweet, acrid taste and a neutral
mediated through aromatase and oestrogen potency. They are employed in the therapy of
receptor beta rather than by oestrogen receptor inflammations of the kidneys and womb, vaginal
alpha in the rat testicular cells. and seminal discharge. The roots on their own are
In subsequent studies, rats given hollyhock used to rectify loss of appetite. The seed is demul-
flower extract at a dose of 100 mg/day for 7 weeks cent, diuretic and febrifuge.
manifested statistically significant increases in
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH)
and δ(5)β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (δ(5) Other Uses
βHSD) activities in the Leydig cells (Papiez 2004).
There were no significant changes in either the Alcea rosea is mainly planted as an ornamental.
diameter of seminiferous tubules or the height of Hollyhocks are especially well suited for grow-
seminiferous epithelium after hollyhock admin- ing along a wall or fence; they are often used in
istration. Further, only a small amount of hyper- mixed borders, especially near the rear. Today
plasia of the interstitial tissue was observed. many cultivated ornamental races exist. The
The morphological and histoenzymatic changes flower colour varies extremely (from white to
in the Leydig cells indicated that the methanolic rose, mauve, purple to blackish red, also yellow).
hollyhock extract had a direct but small influence Most of them have spotted flowers. Double-
on rat testes. The insignificant changes in testicu- flower cultivars also exist.
lar testosterone and estradiol content suggested The red anthocyanin constituent of the flowers
that the extract did not disturb steroidogenesis. is used as a litmus. A brown dye is obtained from
the petals. Flowers have been utilized as an
ingredient of ‘Quick Return’ herbal compost
Traditional Medicinal Uses activator. This is a dried and powdered mixture
of several herbs that can be added to a compost
Hollyhock is an old medicinal plant. All parts of heap in order to enhance bacterial activity and
the plant have been used in traditional medicine reduce the time needed to make the compost.
(Grieve 1971; Duke and Ayensu 1985; Chopra The seed contains 12 % of a drying oil. The
et al. 1986; Tsarong 1994: Choi et al. 2012). Since stem fibres have been employed in the past for
ancient times in Asia, Althaea rosea and Plantago paper manufacture.
298 Malvaceae

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seed oil—a rich source of ricinoleic acid. J Oil Technol
Calendula officinalis and Althaea rosea to have
Assoc India 32(1):8–9
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cadmium contaminated soils (Liu et al. 2008). acids in the flowers of Althaea rosea var. nigra. Acta
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(2008) The effects of Alcea rosea L., Malva sylvestris
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 Hibiscus mutabilis

Scientific Name Estonian: Muutlik Hibisk

French: Caprice De Femme
Hibiscus mutabilis L. French Polynesia: Akaimhe, Rakauhai, Rap
German: Filziger Roseneibisch
India: Sthal Padma, Thul Padma (Bengali),
Synonyms Sthalkamal (Hindi), Neladavare (Kannada),
Chinappratti (Malayalam), Semburuti (Tamil),
Abelmoschus mutabilis (Linnaeus) Wallich ex Gul-E-Ajaib (Urdu)
Hasskarl, Abelmoschus venustus Walp., Hibiscus Indonesia: Waru Landak (Javanese), Saya
immutabilis Dehnh. ex Walp., Hibiscus immutabilis Ngalingali (Ternate)
Dehnh., Hibiscus javanicus Weinm., Hibiscus Japanese: Fuyô, Fuyou
malvarosa Noronha, Hibiscus mutabilis f. plenus Korean: Bu Yong
S. Y. Hu, Hibiscus sinensis Miller, Ketmia mutabilis Malaysia : Baru Landak, Botan, Bunga Waktu
(Linnaeus) Moench Besar Mati Laki Mati Bini, Laki pukul
Bini
Philippines: Amapola, Mapula (Tagalog)
Family Portuguese: Amor-De-Homem, Amor-Dos-
Homens, Aurora, Inconstante Amante,
Malvaceae Firmeza Dos Homens, Mimo-De-Vênus,
Papoila, Papoula-De-Duas-Cores, Rosa-
Branca, Rosa Da China, Rosa-De-Jericó,
Common/English Names Rosa-De-São-Francisco, Rosa-Louca, Rosa-
Paulista
Changeable Rose, Changing Rose, Chinese Rose, Sierra Leone: Bokichal-Ie (Bulom), Chenjis-Ov-
Common Rose Mallow, Confederate Rose, Laif (Krio), Ndopa-Ne (Mende)
Cotton Rose, Cotton Rosemallow, Dixie, Dixie Spanish: Malva Rosa, Rosa Algodón
Rose Mallow, Rose Mallow, White Mallow Swedish: Föränderlig Hibiscus
Taiwan: Shan Fu Rong
Thai: Phuttan
Vernacular Names Vietnamese: Ðại Diệp Phù Dung, Ðịa Phù
Dung, Mộc Liên, Phù Dung, Sương Giáng
Chinese: Fu Rong Hua, Fu Yong, Mu Fu Rong, Chong Hoa, Tam Biến Hoa, Thất Tinh Hoa, Túy
Ban Mu Fu Rong (double-flowered variety) Tửu Phù Dung

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 300
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_21, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Hibiscus mutabilis 301

Origin/Distribution

Hibiscus mutabilis is native to Southeast China

and was domesticated a long time ago. It is now
cultivated throughout the world and has occa-
sionally become naturalized elsewhere, e.g. in
Japan and Southeast Asia.

Agroecology
Plate 1 Flowers, buds and leaves
In its native range, it is found in thickets along
streams. The plant is frost sensitive and thrives best
in frost-free, warm areas. It is drought tolerant branches. Calyx -5-lobed, ovate with acute tips;
and grows on well-drained and slightly acidic corolla 8 cm across, white to pink, becoming
soils. It flowers well in full sun or light shade. dark red in the evening (Plate 1); petals 4–6 cm
long and broad, obovate, pubescent outside, claw
with ciliate margin; staminal column 2.5–3 cm,
Edible Plant Parts and Uses glabrous; styles 5, pilose. Fruit is a flattened
globose capsule, 2.5 cm across, yellowish and
Flowers are edible and provide food colourant woolly. Seeds are numerous, 2–2.5 mm long,
(Puckhaber et al. 2002). The seeds were found to reniform, dark brown and hairy.
be a good source of phospholipids with potential
to be used as supplements or formulated into
functional foods for the nutraceutical market Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
(Holser and Bost 2002). The leaves are edible
(Kunkel 1984) and are rich in rutin (Xie et al. Cyanidin pigments were found in the flowers
2011), and rutin is a bioactive compound used as (Yeh et al. 1958). The following anthocyanins
preservative in foods (Kondo and Shibara 2008). cyanidin 3-xylosylglucoside (ilicicyanin) and
In China, the leaves are boiled and then eaten cyanidin 3-glucoside and flavanol glycosides of
with oil and salt (Read 1946). The roots are quercetin and kaempferol were isolated from
edible but very fibrous and mucilaginous without the red petals of H. mutabilis (Ishikura 1973).
much flavour (Cribb and Cribb 1976). Five additional flavonol glycosides were isolated
from the ethyl acetate extract of petals and identi-
fied as quercetin 3-sambubioside, isoquerci-
Botany trin (quercetin 3-glucoside), hyperin (quercetin
3-galactoside), guaijaverin (quercetin 3-α-L-
Hibiscus mutabilis is a deciduous, erect, branched, arabopyranoside ), kaempferol + glucose +
bushy, large shrub or small multi-stemmed tree, galactose + xylose (Ishikura 1982). Cyanidin
2–5 m tall. All aerial parts are densely stellate 3-sambubioside was the most common floral
pubescent. Leaves are papery, bright green, anthocyanin in 14 Malesian Hibiscus species
broadly ovate to orbicular ovate, 7–15 cm across, including H. mutabilis (Lowry 1976). Also cyanidin
5–7 lobed, with acute tips, cordate base and 3-glucoside was detected. Flavonoid aglycones
obtusely serrated margin on 3–10 cm long petioles (mg.g fresh tissues) found in the fresh flowers of
and with small linear-lanceolate stipules (Plate 1). H. mutabilis included quercetin 80 mg, kaempferol
Flowers are axillary, solitary, large, single or 8 mg, cyanidin 5 mg and total pigment 93 mg
double flowered on 5–8 cm pedicel on the upper (Puckhaber et al. 2002). A new flavonol triglycoside,
302 Malvaceae

quercetin 3-O -[β-D-xylopyranosyl(1 → 2)-α-L- (Yao et al. 2003). A hexameric 150-kDa galac-
rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 6)]-β-D-galactopyranoside tonic acid-binding lectin was isolated from dried
(mutabiloside), was isolated, and the four known Hibiscus mutabilis seeds (Lam and Ng 2009).
flavonols identified as quercetin 3-O-[β-D- The hemagglutinating activity of the lectin, which
xylopyranosyl(1 → 2)]-β- D -galactopyranoside was stable at pH 4–7 and up to 50 °C, could be
(1) and kaempferol 3-O-[β-D-xylopyranosyl inhibited by 25 mM galactonic acid. The following
(1 → 2)]-β-D-galactopyranoside (2), quercetin phytochemicals had been reported from the leaves:
(3) and hyperoside (4) were isolated from the β-sitosterol, β-carotene and quercetin (Barve
methanol petal extract of H. mutabilis after et al. 2010). Rutin (quercetin-3-rutinoside), one
fractionation (Iwaoka et al. 2009). The following of the most bioactive flavonoid glycosides, was
phytochemicals had been reported from the isolated by mechanochemical-assisted extraction
flowers: quercetin, quercemeritrine, quercetin-3-d- from the leaves (Xie et al. 2011). Rutin is used as
xyloside, quercetin-3-sambubioside, isoquercetin, preservative in various foods (Kondo and Shibara
meratrin, hybridin, kaempferol, hyperin, guai- 2008), and animal studies had shown it to reduce
javerin, cyanidine-3-xlosyl glucose, cyanidin- the risk of cardiovascular diseases (Annapurna
3-monoglucoside, hibiscones and hibiscoquinones et al. 2009) and kidney diseases (Hu et al. 2009).
(Barve et al. 2010). A flavanone glycoside, naringenin 5,7-dimethyl
The seed oil yields found in H. mutabilis ‘single ether 4′- O -β- D -xylopyranosyl-β- D -arabino-
pink’ (8.87 %) and H. mutabilis ‘double pink’ pyrano-side was isolated from the stem (Chauhan
(9.06 %) were low compared to other Hibiscus et al. 1979). A new diterpenoid named hibtherin
species (Holser and Bost 2002). The seed oil of A was isolated from the stem (Ma et al. 2009).
H. mutabilis single pink flowers and H. mutabilis The following phytochemicals had been reported
double pink flowers contained the following from the stems: naringenin-5,7-dimethyl ether,4′-
non-polar fatty acid methyl esters (mole%): c16: β-D-xylopyranosyl-β-D-arabinopyranoside and
(palmitic acid) 19.93 %, 19 %; c18:0 (stearic eriodictyol-5,7-dimethyl ether-4′-β-D-arabinopy-
acid) 2.88 %; c18:1 (oleic acid) 17.83 %, 16.30 %; ranoside (Barve et al. 2010).
c18:2 (linoleic acid) 61.35 %, 64.90 %, total % fatty
acid 79.18 %, 81.20 %, respectively. However,
the seeds could be a significant source of phos- Antioxidant Activity
pholipids that could be recovered by a selective
extraction and the products used as supplements The ethanol leaf extracts of four Bangladeshi
or formulated into functional foods for the edible medicinal plants including Hibiscus mutabilis
nutraceutical market. The polar phospholipid exhibited significant dose-dependent NO scav-
profiles of H. mutabilis single pink flowers and enging activity of 78.60 % with IC50 value of
H. mutabilis double pink flowers contained 147.64 μg/mL (Saha et al. 2008). Leaves of H.
monogalactosyldiacylglycerol 21.5 %, 14.5 % (as % mutabilis ranked second to H. tiliaceus in terms
diacylglycerol detected); digalactosylacylglyc- of antioxidant potential with ascorbic acid
erol 78.5 %, 85.5.5 %; phosphatidylethanolamine equivalent antioxidant capacity (AEAC) value of
4.45, 4.45; phosphatidic acid 2.7 %, 0 %; phospha- 877 mg ascorbic acid/100 g fw and total phenolic
tidylserine 9.2 %, 0 %; phosphatidylcholine 17.6 %, content (TPC) of 861 mg gallic acid equivalent
56.5 %; lysophosphatidylcholine 66.2 %, 39 % (GAE)/100 g (Wong et al. 2009, 2010). The flowers
(% total phospholipids), respectively. had lower AEAC value of 562 mg and ferric-
Nine compounds isolated from H. mutabilis reducing power (FRP) of 2.4 mg GAC/g and total
leaves were identified as tetracosanoic acid, phenolic content (TPC) of 495 mg GAE/100 g
β-sitosterol, daucosterol, salicylic acid, emodin, and total anthocyanin content (TAC) of 16 mg
rutin, kaempferol-3-O-β-rutinoside, kaempferol- cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalent (CGE)/100 g.
3-O-β-robinobinoside and kaempferol-3-O-β-D- Anthocyanin content of red flowers was 3 times
(6- E-p -hydroxycinnamoyl)-glucopyranoside that of pink flowers and 8 times that of white
Hibiscus mutabilis 303

flowers (Wong et al. 2009). There was a significant Ferulic acid and caffeic acid were identified as
increase in phenolic content with colour change. the α-glucosidase inhibitors present in the extract.
Overall ranking of antioxidant potential of H. The results suggested the potential use of the leaf
mutabilis flowers was red > pink > white. The red extract for management of diabetes.
flowers remain on plants for several days before
they abort (Wong et al. 2009). Weight of a single
detached flower was 15.6 g when white, 12.7 g Anti-allergic Activity
when pink and 11.0 g when red.
Among the flavonol derivatives isolated from the
methanol petal extract of H. mutabilis, quercetin
Antityrosinase Activity 3- O -[β- D -xylopyranosyl(1 → 2)-α-l - rhamno-
pyranosyl(1 → 6)]-β-D-galactopyranoside (muta-
Of four species of Hibiscus tested, ranking of biloside), and quercetin 3-O-[β-D-xylopyranosyl
antityrosinase activity was H. tiliaceus > H. muta- (1 → 2)]-β-D-galactopyranoside showed significant
bilis (25 %) > H. rosa-sinensis (11 %) = H. sabdariffa allergy-preventive effects (Iwaoka et al. 2009).
(5 %) (Wong et al. 2010). Leaves of H. tiliaceus
(42 %) had the strongest antityrosinase activity
comparable to leaves of P. guajava (41 %) as Anti-inflammatory Activity
positive control.
The ethyl acetate leaf extract exhibited comparable
anti-inflammatory activity when compared with
Analgesic Activity standard drug nimuselide (Barve et al. 2010).
The extract had 64.52 % inhibition of carrageenan-
The methanol, ethyl acetate and petroleum ether induced paw oedema in rats as compared to
extracts of H. mutabilis bark showed significant nimuselide which showed 70.22 %.
analgesic activity at 50 mg/kg, i.p. dose in mice
(Ghogare et al. 2007). Analgesic activity was
comparable with standard drug pentazocine. Anthelmintic Activity
Among all the extracts, petroleum ether extract
of H. mutabilis showed highest increase in The crude methanol leaf extract of H. mutabilis
reaction time. At dose of 100 mg/kg, i.p., all the and ferulic acid, the active molecule from the
extracts significantly attenuated the number of ethyl acetate fraction, showed significant micro-
writhing and stretching induced by intraperito- filaricidal as well as macrofilaricidal activities
neal injection of 0.1 mL 0.6 % acetic acid. against the microfilaria (L1) and adult of Setaria
Methanol extract showed more inhibitory effect cervi by both a worm motility and MTT reduc-
on writhing induced by acetic acid as compared tion assays (Saini et al. 2012). Ferulic acid was
to other extracts as well as the standard drug found to exert its antifilarial effect through
paracetamol. Result showed that peripheral induction of apoptosis and by downregulating
analgesic activity in descending order was meth- and altering the level of some key antioxidants
anol, ethyl acetate and petroleum ether. Tannins, (GSH, GST and SOD) of the filarial nematode
flavonoids and sterols were detected in the above S. cervi. Ferulic acid caused an increased
extracts. pro-apoptotic gene expression and decreased
expression of anti-apoptotic genes simultane-
ously with an elevated level of ROS and gradual
Antidiabetic Activity dose-dependent decline of parasitic GSH level.
They also observed a gradual dose-dependent
The methanol leaf extract of H. mutabilis was elevation of GST and SOD activity in the ferulic
found to inhibit α-glucosidase (Kumar et al. 2012). acid-treated worms.
304 Malvaceae

Antiviral/Antiproliferative Activities
Other Uses
The aqueous extract of H. mutabilis was one of
the ten effective plant extracts that exhibited anti- The plant is planted as ornamentals in gardens,
HSV-II (Herpes simplex virus II) activity (Zheng roadsides and parks.
1989). A hexameric 150-kDa galactonic acid-
binding lectin isolated from the seeds potently
inhibited HIV-1 reverse transcriptase with an IC50 Comments
of 0.2 μM (Lam and Ng 2009). It exhibited weak
antiproliferative activity towards both hepatoma The plant is readily propagated from stem cuttings
HepG2 cells (40 % inhibition) and breast cancer which root well at any time of the year.
MCF-7 cells (50 % inhibition) at 100 μM
concentration of the lectin.
Selected References

Antibacterial Activity Annapurna A, Reddy CS, Akondi RB, Rao SR (2009)

Cardioprotective actions of two bioflavonoids, quer-
cetin and rutin, in experimental myocardial infarc-
Of all solvents, the 70 % alcohol leaf extract tion in both normal and streptozotocin-induced type
elicited the best antibacterial activity against I diabetic rats. J Pharm Pharmacol 61(10):
Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas 1365–1374
Barve VH, Hiremath SN, Pattan SR, Pal SC (2010)
aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Entero-
Phytochemical and pharmacological evaluation of
coccus faecalis (Li et al. 2009). The MIC value Hibiscus mutabilis leaves. J Chem Pharm Res
to E. coli, P. vulgaris and E. faecalis was 2(1):300–309
0.25 mg/mL. Both methanolic and ethyl acetate Burkill IH (1966) A dictionary of the economic products of
the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint, 2 vols. Ministry
leaf extracts elicited good in vitro inhibitory
of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol 1
activity against Bacillus subtilis, Proteus vulgaris, (A–H), pp 1–1240, vol 2 (I–Z), pp 1241–2444
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Chauhan JS, Vidyapati TJ, Gupta AK (1979) A new
Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi flavanone glycoside from the stem of Hibiscus
mutabilis. Phytochemistry 18(10):1766–1767
(Barve et al. 2010).
Cribb AB, Cribb JW (1976) Wild food in Australia.
Fontana Collins, Sydney, 240 pp
Dasuki UA (2001) Hibiscus. In: van Valkenburg JLCH,
Traditional Medicinal Uses Bunyapraphatsara N (eds) Plant resources of South-
East Asia no. 12(2): medicinal and poisonous plants 2.
Backhuys Publisher, Leiden, pp 297–303
Flowers and leaves have been employed in tradi- Ghogare PB, Bhalke RD, Girme AS, Nirmal SA, Jadhav
tional herbal medicine (Burkill 1966; Stuart 2012; RS, Tambe V (2007) Analgesic activity of bark of
Dasuki 2001). They are considered to be emol- Hibiscus mutabilis. Dhaka Univ J Pharm Sci
6(1):55–57
lient, cooling, expectorant, pectoral, analgesic
Holser RA, Bost GA (2002) Extraction of lipid compo-
and antidote to various kinds of poison. Flower nents from seeds of perennial and woody Hibiscus
infusions have been used for chest and pulmonary species by supercritical carbon dioxide. In: Janick J,
complaints; for treating nasopharyngeal carcinoma, Whipkey A (eds) Trends in new crops and new uses.
ASHS Press, Alexandria, pp 550–555
persistent coughs, menorrhagia and dysuria; and
Hu QH, Wang C, Li JM, Zhang DM, Kong LD (2009)
also as a stimulant. Leaves and flowers are used Allopurinol, rutin, and quercetin attenuate hyper-
as poultices for swellings, skin infections and uricemia and renal dysfunction in rats induced by
wounds like burns and scalds. Leaves are used fructose intake: renal organic ion transporter
involvement. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 297(4):
as a component in Chinese herbal medicine for
F1080–F1091
treating tuberculosis lymphadenitis. Mucilage Ishikura N (1973) Anthocyanins and flavonols in the
from flowers and leaves is used by midwives to flowers of Hibiscus mutabilis f. versicolor. Kumamoto
facilitate delivery during labour. J Sci Biol 11:51–59
Hibiscus mutabilis 305

Ishikura N (1982) Flavonol glycosides in the flowers of extracts of four Bangladeshi medicinal plants.
Hibiscus mutabilis f. versicolor. Agric Biol Chem Stamford J Pharm Sci 1(1&2):57–62
46(6):1705–1706 Saini P, Gayen P, Nayak A, Kumar D, Mukherjee N, Pal
Iwaoka E, Oku H, Takahashi Y, Ishiguro K (2009) Allergy- BC, Sinha Babu SP (2012) Effect of ferulic acid from
preventive effects of Hibiscus mutabilis ‘versicolor’ Hibiscus mutabilis on filarial parasite Setaria cervi:
and a novel allergy-preventive flavonoid glycoside. molecular and biochemical approaches. Parasitol Int
Biol Pharm Bull 32(3):509–512 61(4):520–531
Kondo K, Shibara T (2008) Milk beverages containing Stuart GU (2012) Philippine alternative medicine.
tocopherol and rutin. Patent JP 2008086216 Manual of some Philippine medicinal plants. http://
Kumar D, Kumar H, Vedasiromoni JR, Pal BC (2012) www.stuartxchange.org/OtherHerbals.html
Bio-assay guided isolation of α-glucosidase inhibi- Subramanian SS, Nair AGR (1970) A note on the colour
tory constituents from Hibiscus mutabilis leaves. change of the flowers of Hibiscus mutabilis. Curr Sci
Phytochem Anal 23(5):421–425 39(14):323–324
Kunkel G (1984) Plants for human consumption. An Tang Y, Gilbert MG, Dorr LJ (2007) Malvaceae. In: Wu
annotated checklist of the edible phanerogams and ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY (eds) Flora of China, vol 12,
ferns. Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein Hippocastanaceae through Theaceae. Science Press/
Lam SK, Ng TB (2009) Novel galactonic acid-binding Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis
hexameric lectin from Hibiscus mutabilis seeds with Wong SK, Lim YY, Chan EWC (2009) Antioxidant prop-
antiproliferative and potent HIV-1 reverse transcriptase erties of Hibiscus: species variation, altitudinal
inhibitory activities. Acta Biochim Pol 56(4):649–654 change, coastal influence and floral colour change. J
Li CL, Liu SG, Wu D, Hu X, Feng ZJ (2009) Study on Trop For Sci 21(4):7–15
bacteriostasis of Hibiscus mutabilis leaf. Sci Technol Wong SK, Lim YY, Chan EWC (2010) Evaluation of anti-
Food Ind 30(11):97–98, 101 (in Chinese) oxidant, anti-tyrosinase and antibacterial activities of
Lowry JB (1976) Floral anthocyanins of some Malesian selected Hibiscus species. Ethnobot Leafl
Hibiscus species. Phytochemistry 15:1395–1396 14:781–796
Ma YH, Li YK, Yang HY, Dai Y, Li GP (2009) A new Xie J, Shi L, Zhu X, Wang P, Zhao Y, Su W (2011)
diterpenoid from the steam of Hibiscus mutabilis Mechanochemical-assisted efficient extraction of rutin
Linn. Asian J Chem 21(8):6601–6603 from Hibiscus mutabilis L. Innov Food Sci Emerg
Puckhaber LS, Stipanovic RD, Bost GA (2002) Analyses for Technol 12:146–152
flavonoid aglycones in fresh and preserved Hibiscus Yao LY, Lu Y, Chen ZN (2003) Studies on chemical con-
flowers. In: Janick J, Whipkey A (eds) Trends in new crops stituents of Hibiscus mutabilis. Zhongcaoyào
and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, pp 556–563 34(3):201–203
Read BE (1946) Famine foods list in the Chiu Huang Yeh PY, Ling WF, Takasaka R (1958) Pigments in the
Pen Ts’ao: the botany of Mahuang; common food flower of fu-yong (Hibiscus mutabilis L.). Science
fishes of Shanghai. Southern Materials Centre, 128:312
Taipei, 52 pp Zheng MS (1989) An experimental study of the anti-HSV-
Saha MR, Jahangir R, Vhuiyan MMI, Biva IJ (2008) In II action of 500 herbal drugs. J Tradit Chin Med
vitro nitric oxide scavenging activity of ethanol leaf 9(2):113–116
 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Scientific Name Chinese: Zhu Jin, Da Hong Hua, Tai Hua Fa, Chijin,
Riji, Fusang, Fosang, Hongfusang, Hongmujin,
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Sangjin, Huohonghua, Zhaodianhong,
Songjin, Erhonghua, Huashanghua, Tuhonghua,
Jiamudan, Zhongguoqiangwei
Synonyms Colombia: Pejo
Cook Islands: Hibiscus, Kaute, Kaute ‘Enua,
Hibiscus arnottii Griff. ex Mast., Hibiscus cooperi Kaute Kula, Kaute Kumu, Kaute Kura
hort. ex Fl. de Serres, Hibiscus festalis Salisb., Czech: Ibišek čínská růže
Hibiscus fragilis DC., Hibiscus fulgens hort. ex Danish: Hawaiiblomst, Kinesisk Rose
W.W. Baxt., Hibiscus javanicus Mill., Hibiscus Dutch: Chinese Roos
rosiflorus Stokes Estonian: Rooshibisk
Fiji: Kauti, Loloru, Senitoa Yaloyalo, Senicikobia
French: Hibiscus De Chine, Hibiscus Rose De
Family Chine, Rose De Chine
German: Chinesischer Roseneibisch, Roseneibisch
Malvaceae Japanese: Fusou, Haibisukasu
Malaysia: Baru Landak, Botan, Bunga Waktu
Besar, Bunga Raya, Mati Bini, Mati Laki,
Common/English Names Laki Pukul Bini
India: Dusanna (Andhra Pradesh), Jaba
China Rose, Chinese Hibiscus, Hawaiian (Assamese), Jiwa, Joba, Oru (Bengali), Jasunt,
Hibiscus, Hibiscus, Hibiscus Flower, Jamaica Jasvua (Gujarati), Gudhal, Gurhal, Guthur,
Flower, Rose Mallow, Rose of China, Shoeblack Jassoon, Jasum, Jasun, Jasund, Jasut, Java,
Plant Hibiscus, Shoeflower Odhul, (Hindi), Dasavala (Malayalam), Dasavala
(Kannada), Aimparutti, Ain-Pariti, Ayamparutti,
Cemparatti, Cemparutti, Champarutti, Chebarathi,
Vernacular Names Chemburuthi, Chemparutti, Himbarathi, Jampa,
Japa, Schem-Pariti, Shemparatti, Schempariti
Arabic: Angharae-Hindi, Angharaehindi, (Malayalam), Jubakushum (Manipuri), Darshan,
Angharae-Hindi Dasindachaphula, Jaasavand, Jasavanda, Jasund,
Brazil: Hibisco, Mimo-Chinês, Rosa Da China, Jassvandi, Jasvand (Marathi), China Pangpar,
Mimo De Vênus (Portuguese) Chinnpang-Par, Midumpangpar (Mizoram), China
Burmese: Khaung-yan Pangpar, Mandar, Midumpangpar, Mondaro

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 306
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_22, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 307

(Oriya), Jaipushpa, Jasum, Gurhal (Punjabi), Tahiti: ‘Aute

Arkapriya, Aruna, Aundrapuspa, Harivallabha, Taiwan: Fo Sang, Fu Sang
Japa, Japaapushpa, Japapushpa, Japapushpam, Thai: Chaba
Java, Joba, Odhrapushpa, Odrapuspa, Ondrakhya, Tuvalu: ‘Aute
Ondrapuspi, Oundrapuspa, Pratika, Rakta- Vietnam: Bụp, Râm Bụp, Dâm But
pushpi, Rogapuspi, Rudhrapushpa, Trisandhya
(Sanskrit), Sapattuu, Semparathai, Semparuthi,
Semparutti, Shamberattai, Tacanapu, Tacanpu, Origin/Distribution
Tamalomaya, Tarupaka, Tiruttikkiritam, Urutti-
raputpam (Tamil), Cembarattamu, Chimaba- It is believed to have originated in East Asia—
rathamu, Daanachettu, Dasana, Dasanipu, China. It is now widely distributed and cultivated
Daasaana Chettu, Daasaani, Daasanamu, in the tropics and subtropics.
Dasana, Dasanamu, Dasani, Dasanie, Japa,
Japapushpamu, Javapushpamu, Mandara, Mada-
rapuvvu, Nandara (Telugu), Gul-E-Gurhal, Gul Agroecology
Gurhal Taza (Urdu)
Indonesia: Woro-Wari (Javanese), Kembang Wera Tropical or subtropical in requirements, Hibiscus
(Sundanese), Kembang Sepatu is commonly cultivated as a garden ornamental
Italian: Rosa Della Cina from sea level to 500 m altitude. It is frost sensitive
Laotian: Dok Deng, May and will freeze in mild winters but will resprout
Marquesas Islands: Koute from the base in spring. A good cover of loose
Mexico: Bis, Gallarde, Lamparilla, Sùchel, Tulipán mulch before winter will help reduce severe winter
Nepalese: Baarhmaase Phuul, Gudahal, Japaa injury. It does best in full sun in well-drained
Kusum, Japa Puspii, Rakta Puspi fertile soil high in organic matter.
Niue: Kaute
Panama: Clavel Japonés, Hibiscus De Los
Jardines, Papo, Palo De La Reina, Tapo Edible Plant Parts and Uses
Papua New Guinea: Banban (Hisiu, Central
Province), Gelegwaugwau (Rigo, Central Flower petals and young leaves are edible
Province), Ovaova Vava’a (Vanapa, Central (Hedrick 1972; Tanaka 1976; Facciola 1990;
Province), Hibiscus (Waiwa, Central Province) Duke 2012; French 1986; Johansson 1989;
Persian: Angarae-Hindi, Angaraehindi, Reddy et al. 2007; Wongwattanasathien et al.
Angharae-Hindi 2010). The slightly acidic petals are used spar-
Philippines: Kayanga (Bikol), Antalongan, ingly in salads or as garnish. Flowers are reported
Gumamela, Kayanga, Tapuranga, Tarokanga eaten as pickles and the young leaves are eaten
(Bisaya), Saysayam (Bontok), Kayanga (Iloko), cooked in Papua New Guinea. The flowers are
Aratangan, Gumamela, Tapolanga, Tarokanga eaten in salad in the Pacific Islands. In Andhra
(Pampangan), Taukangga (Sulu) Antalongan, Pradesh, India, the flowers are pounded into a
Gomamela, Gumamela, Tapolanga (Tagalog) paste and used as chutney (Reddy et al. 2007).
Polish: Hibiskus róza chinska, Ketmia The flowers are also used in herbal teas and as
Róza-Chinska food colouring. In some areas in Africa, the
Portuguese: Rosa-Da-China young leaves are gathered for relish. Hibiscus
Rarotonga: Kaute flowers have a tart, cranberry-like flavour and
Samoa: ‘Aute should be used sparingly (Wilson 2013). The
Spanish: Clavel Japonés, Rosa china, Rosa de la Lecture Room and Library at Sketch has created
China, Tulipán a wonderful dish of rhubarb, brie and ginger-
Sri Lanka: Wada Mal (Sinhalese) bread with hibiscus syrup and celery for the 2013
Swedish: Hibiskus, Kinaros Chelsea Flower Show.
308 Malvaceae

Plate 1 (a, b) Flowers and leaves of common Hibiscus

Botany

Erect, much-branched, glabrous, evergreen shrub,

1–3 m tall. Leaves alternate, papery, dark green,
broadly or narrowly ovate, 4–9 × 2–5 cm, base
rounded or cuneate, margin serrate-dentate, apex
acuminate; stipules linear, 5–10 mm long; petiole
0.5–2 cm long (Plate 1a, b). Flowers solitary,
axillary on upper branches, large, simple or
double, usually pendulous on 1–8 cm long
pedicels. Epicalyx lobes 6–9, linear or linear-
lanceolate. Calyx campanulate with 5 ovate to
Plate 2 Golden yellow-pink variegated-flowered cultivar
lanceolate, stellate puberulent, lobes. Corolla
white, rosy red, reddish or orange-yellow or
purplish, funnel-shaped, 6–10 cm in diameter Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
(Plates 1a, b, 2 and 3), often double; petals 5
obovate, imbricate, pilose abaxially, apex obtuse Chemical constituents of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
or irregularly lobed. Staminal column exserted, isolated and identified from various plant parts
glabrous, antheriferous near the apex, style 5-fid include taraxeryl acetate, beta-sitosterol, campes-
each branch crowned by stigma. Fruit a dehis- terol, stigmasterol, ergosterol, lipids, arachidic
cent, ovoid capsule, 2.5 cm, glabrous with beaked acid, behenic acid, oxalic acid, palmitic acid, octa-
apex splitting into 5. Seeds small, black. noic acid, stearic acid, sterculic acid, tricosanoic
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 309

fresh tissues) included quercetin 7 mg and

cyanidin 36 mg (Puckhaber et al. 2002).
The flowers were also reported to contain the
following flavones: quercetin-3,5-diglucoside;
quercetin-3,7-diglucoside; cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside
and cyanidin-3-sophoroside-3-5-glucoside from
deep yellow and white flowers and from ivory
white flowers is kaempferol-3-xylosylglucoside
(Joshi 2004). Khare (2004) reported the following
from the flowers: quercetin-3,5-diglucoside;
quercetin-3,7-diglucoside; quercetin-3-sopho-
rotrioside; kaempferol-3-xylosylglucoside and
Plate 3 Orangey-red variegated cultivar
cyanidin-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside. Five com-
pounds were isolated from the chloroform extract
of H. rosa-sinensis flower, n-nonacosan-13-one,
acid, tridecanoic acid, undecanoic acid, citric n-triacontane, n-dotetracontane, n-nonacosan-
acid, tartaric, fructose, glucose, sucrose, flavo- 4-ol-18-one and n-hentriacontan-4-one-10-ol
noids and flavonoid glycosides, chrysanthemin, (Siddique et al. 2005), and five compounds were
quercetin, hibiscetin, alkanes, hentriacontane, isolated from the hydroalcoholic flower extract,
cyanidin, cyanidin chloride and cyanin gluco- n-docosane; henicos-11-ene-9-one; stigmast-5-
sides (Shrivastava 1974; WHO 1998, 2009; ene-3β, 4α-diol; stigmast-5-ene-3β-benozyloxy-
Lee 2008). 12β-ol; and n-pentacos-4-en-3-one-18, 23-diol
(Siddique et al. 2006).
The following chemicals were isolated from
Flower Nutrients and Phytochemicals the ethanol extract of the flowers: hexadecanoic
acid, hexanedioic acid and squalene (Bhaskar
The edible portion of the flower (61.6 %) was et al. 2011). Polyphenolic compound isolated from
reported to have the following nutrient composition the flowers included quercetin-7-O-galactoside;
(per 100 g): moisture 89.8 %, nitrogen 0.064 %, kaempferol-7-O-[6‴-O-p-hydroxybenzoyl-β-D-
fat 0.36 %, crude fibre 1.56 %, calcium 4.04 mg, glucosyl-(1 → 6)-β-D- glucopyranoside] and
phosphorus 26.68 mg, iron 1.69 mg, thiamin scutellarein-6-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside-8-C-β-D -
0.031 mg, riboflavin 0.048 mg, niacin0.61 mg glucopyranoside (Salib et al. 2011). The flowers
and ascorbic acid 4.16 mg (CSIR 1959). Petals of were also reported to contain cyclopeptide
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis were reported to contain alkaloids (Khokhar and Ahmad 1992).
quercetin-3-di-O-β-D-glucoside; quercetin-3-7-
di-O-β-D-glucoside; quercetin-3-O-β-D-sophoro-
trioside; and kaempferol and kaempferol-3- Leaf Phytochemicals
O-β-D-xylosyl-glucoside (Subramanian and Nair
1972). The major anthocyanin contained in the The following fatty acids, fatty alcohols and
red flowers of H. rosa-sinensis was cyanidin- hydrocarbons were identified from Hibiscus
3-sophoroside (Lowry 1976; Nakamura et al. rosa-sinensis leaves: undecanoic acid, trideca-
1990). Red-petalled varieties of H. rosa-sinensis noic acid, tricosanoic acid, tricosan-1-ol,
were found to have more number of anthocyanin triacontan-1-ol, tartaric acid, stearic acid, penta-
bands compared with that observed in yellow– dencanoic acid, pentacosanoic acid, pentacosan-
yellow orange varieties (Shobha et al. 1999). The 1-ol, palmitic acid, octanoic acid, octadecadienoic
varieties in the different coloured groups differed acid, octacosanoic acid, octacosan-1-ol, N-tricosane,
in the quantitative distribution of anthocyanins, N-triacontane, N-triacontan-1-ol, N-pentacosane,
leucoanthocyanins, flavonol and carotenoids. nonanoic acid, nonadecanoic acid, N octadecane,
Flavonoid aglycones found in the flowers (per g N-octacosane, N-nonadecane, N-nonacosane,
310 Malvaceae

N-hexadecane, N-hexacosane, N-heptadecane, equivalent (GAE)/100 g and 96 mg ascorbic

N-heptacosane, N-heneicosane, N-eicosane, acid/100 g, respectively (Wong et al. 2010). Leaves
N-dotriacontane, N-docosane, myristic acid, of H. schizopetalus, H. sabdariffa and H. rosa-
montanyl alcohol, margaric acid, lignoceric acid, sinensis had better FIC (ferrous iron chelating)
lauric acid, isotriacontan-1-ol, iso-octacosan-1-ol, ability than those of H. mutabilis, H. tiliaceus
hexacosanoic acid, hexacosan-1-ol, heptacosanoic and H. taiwanensis. Leaves of species with
acid, heptacosan-1-ol, heneicosanoic acid, hene- higher TPC and AEAC had lower FIC ability for
icosan-1-ol, docosan-1-ol, decanoic acid, behenic H. tiliaceus and H. mutabilis and vice versa for
acid and arachidic acid (Srivastava et al. 1976). H. schizopetalus and H. rosa-sinensis. The results
Two cyclic acids, sterculic (2-octyl-l-cyclopropene- suggested the presence of compounds in leaves
l-octanoic acid) and malvalic (2-octyl-l-cyclo- of H. schizopetalus and H. rosa-sinensis with
propene-l-heptanoic acid), were also identified. relatively weak radical scavenging activity but
A representative mucilage, named Hibiscus- good metal chelating ability that could prevent
mucilage RL, was isolated from H. rosa-sinensis the generation of hydroxyl radicals via Fenton’s
leaves (Shimizu et al. 1993). Its major constituent reaction. Flowers of H. rosa-sinensis had 735 mg
was an acidic polysaccharide composed of L-rham- GAE/100 g total phenolic content (TPC), 284 mg
nose: D-galactose: D-galacturonic acid: D-gluc- cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalent (CGE)/100 g total
uronic acid in the molar ratio of 5:8:3:2. Its main anthocyanin (TAC), 640 mg AA/100 g ascorbic
structural features including a unique backbone acid equivalent antioxidant capacity (AEAC) and
chain composed of alpha-1,4-linked D-galactosyl 4.0 mg GAE/g ferric reducing power (FRP).
alpha-1,2-linked L-rhamnosyl alpha-1,4-linked Based on TPC, ranking was H. tiliaceus > H. rosa-
D-galacturonic acid units. The mucilage showed sinensis > H. taiwanensis ~ H. schizopetalus ~
considerable anti-complementary activity. H. mutabilis > H. sabdariffa. The red flowers of
H. rosa-sinensis and H. schizopetalus, which
yielded the highest TAC, displayed high FIC
Stem and Root Phytochemicals ability and lipid peroxidation inhibition (LPI)
activity (Wong et al. 2009, 2010). Species with
The aliphatic compounds methyl 10-oxo-11- low TAC such as H. mutabilis and H. sabdariffa
octadecynoate, methyl 8-oxo-9-octadecynoate, displayed low or no FIC ability and LPI activity.
methyl 9-methylene-8-oxoheptadecanoate TAC appeared to be positively correlated with
and methyl 10-methylene-9-oxooctadecanoate FIC ability and LPI activity in flowers of Hibiscus
(Nakatani et al. 1986) were isolated from the species. The extract ethanolic extract of Hibiscus
stem bark and methyl (E)-11-methoxy-9-oxo-10- rosa-sinensis flowers was found to contain large
nonadecenoate and (E)-10-methoxy-8-oxo-9- amounts of phenolic compounds and flavonoids
octadecenoate from the root bark (Nakatani et al. (Bhaskar et al. 2011). The extract exhibited
1994). 8-Nonynoic, 9-decynoic acids and their a concentration-dependent scavenging activity.
methyl esters were isolated from H. rosa-sinensis Additionally, the reducing power (capacity to
and found to inhibit germination of lettuce seeds reduce Fe3+ to Fe2+) and the capacity to scavenge
(Nakatani et al. 1995). hydrogen peroxide, superoxide radicals and nitric
Various parts of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis plant oxide were also determined. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
have been reported to exhibit various pharmaco- crude extract was found to have radical scavenging
logical activities. and antioxidant activity (Mandade et al. 2011).
The crude extract of the aerial parts inhibited
94.58 % peroxidation of linoleic acid emulsion at
Antioxidant Activity 20 μg/mL concentration, while the standard anti-
oxidants BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole), BHT
Total phenolic content (TPC) and ascorbic acid (butylated hydroxytoluene) and α-tocopherol
equivalent antioxidant capacity (AEAC) of exhibited an inhibition of 93.75, 96.66 and 83.33 %
H. rosa-sinensis leaves were 301 mg gallic acid at 60 μg/mL concentration, respectively. The crude
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 311

Hibiscus extract showed 51.9 % hydrogen Cognitive Enhancing and

peroxide radical scavenging activity compared to Anti-amnesic Activity
38.2 % for BHA, 36.3 % for BHT and 41.2 % for
α-tocopherol. The Hibiscus extract exhibited The results of animal study suggested that
68.2 % superoxide scavenging activity compared H. rosa-sinensis had a protective role against age
to 76.4 % for BHA, 72.2 % for BHT and 24.1 % and scopolamine-induced amnesia, indicating its
for α-tocopherol. The crude extract of H. rosa- utility in management of cognitive disorders (Nade
sinensis contained high level of phenols et al. 2011). The ethyl acetate-soluble fraction of
49.44 mg/g tannic acid equivalent, proanthocy- the methanol extract of H. rosa-sinensis (EASF)
anidins 9.15 mg/g catechin equivalent, flavonols attenuated amnesia induced by scopolamine and
5.5 mg/g quercetin equivalent and flavonoids aging. Pretreatment with EASF significantly
4.8 mg/g quercetin equivalent. The high phenol increased the discrimination index in the object
content might account for the strong activity recognition test which was significantly lowered
observed against ABTS + radical cation(s) and in the aged mice and scopolamine group. In
H2O2 radicals. passive avoidance test, scopolamine-treated mice
The total antioxidant capacity of H. rosa- exhibited significantly shorter step-down laten-
sinensis extract (500 μg/mL) was nearly twofold cies; EASF treatment showed a significant increase
higher than that of butylated hydroxytoluene in shorter step-down latencies in young, aged as
(BHT) that was used as a standard with the same well as in scopolamine-treated animals. EASF
concentration (Abdel Ghaffar and El-Elaimy administration significantly reduced lipid peroxi-
2012). The scavenging ability of the extract was dation and reversed the decrease in brain superox-
very close to that of butylated hydroxyanisole ide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione reductase
(BHA) for the superoxide anion radical (60.4 % (GSH) levels caused by scopolamine treatment.
for extract vs. 61.4 % for BHA) and for NO The administration of H. rosa-sinensis improved
(36.3 % for extract vs. 37.3 % for BHA) while memory in amnesic mice and prevented the
the extract was lower for hydrogen peroxide oxidative stress associated with scopolamine.
(48.55 % for extract vs. 65.8 % for BHA). The Hibiscus rosa-sinensis plant extract attenuated
co-incubation of Fe+3/ascorbate with Hibiscus the ischaemic reperfusion-induced increase in
extract inhibited lipid and protein oxidative damage lipid peroxidation and fall in superoxide dis-
by nearly 31 % at 500 μg/mL. The phenolic content mutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione
of H. rosa-sinensis leaf extract was determined to reductase (GSH) levels (Nade et al. 2010).
be 48.40 mg catechol equivalent/g of dry sample The cerebral hypoperfusion caused a propensity
while the flavonoid content was 24.26 mg towards anxiety and was accompanied by deficits
quercetin equivalent/g of dry sample. The extract of learning and memory. The extract ameliorated
also contained carbohydrates and/or glycosides, anxiety and there was improvement of learning
steroids and/or triterpenes, flavonoids and tannins. and memory. They postulated that neuroprotec-
The in vitro antioxidant and scavenging activities tion afforded by H. rosa-sinensis may be due
were attributed to its phenolic and flavonoid to cerebral adaptation, through augmentation of
contents. cellular antioxidants such as GSH, SOD and
CAT. They added that the results indicated the
beneficial role of H. rosa-sinensis in cerebro-
Antityrosinase Activity vascular insufficiency states and dementia.

Of four species of Hibiscus tested, leaves of

H. tiliaceus (42 %) had the strongest antityrosi- Anti-dyskinesia Activity
nase activity (Wong et al. 2010). Ranking of antit-
yrosinase activity was H. tiliaceus > H. mutabilis > Nade et al. (2009) found that reserpine-treated
H. rosa-sinensis = H. sabdariffa. rats significantly developed vacuous chewing
312 Malvaceae

movements and tongue protrusions; however, et al. 1982). The ether-soluble portion of the
co-administration of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis root water-insoluble fraction of the benzene extract
extract (100, 200 and 300 mg/kg, per orally) showed significant anti-implantation and aborti-
attenuated the effects. Biochemical analysis facient activities.
of brain revealed that the reserpine treatment Kabir et al. (1984) found that with an increase
significantly increased lipid peroxidation and in the dosage of the Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
decreased levels of superoxide dismutase benzene extract, the percentage of implantation
(SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione reductase failure increased. At the dose level of 1 g/kg body
(GSH), an index of oxidative stress process. weight, the extract led to failure of implantation
Co-administration of extract significantly reduced in 93 % of the mice. The effect was accompanied
the lipid peroxidation and reversed the decrease by adversely altered uterine weight, its protein
in brain SOD, CAT and GSH levels. The results content and alkaline and acid phosphatase activity.
suggested that Hibiscus rosa-sinensis had a pro- They also found that the extract exerted neither
tective role against reserpine-induced orofacial inhibitory nor stimulatory influence on uterine
dyskinesia and oxidative stress. progesterone uptake in untreated castrated mice,
but the oestrogen-induced increase in the uptake
level was significantly inhibited by the extract.
Antifertility Activity Failure of uterine bed preparation due to antioes-
trogenic potentiality of the extract was suggested
H. rosa-sinensis flowers were found to have anti- as the plausible cause of implantation failure.
oestrogenic activity (Kholkute and Udupa 1976). Further, they found that the benzene Hibiscus
The benzene extract of the flowers was found to flower extract administered during day 1–4 of
disrupt the oestrous cycle of female albino rats gestation exerted anti-implantation effect without
(Kholkute et al. 1976). Treatment for 30 days affecting the tubal transport of zygote. On day 4,
resulted in a significant reduction in the weight normal number of blastocyst was present in the
of the ovaries, uterus and pituitary gland. Ovarian uterus, but they did not implant (Pal et al. 1985).
follicular atresia and uterine atrophy were Ovarian structure exhibited signs of luteolysis.
observed. Treatment dose-dependently damaged Inadequate progestational development of the
the pituitary resulting in degranulated gonado- endometrium due to interference with the condi-
trophs. The post-coital antifertility properties of tioning of the uterus with progesterone during
benzene hot extracts of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis prenidatory phase of pregnancy was suggested as
flowers, leaves and stem barks were also investi- the plausible cause of the extract-induced implan-
gated in female rats (Kholkute et al. 1977). Only tation failure. In another paper, they reported
extracts from the flowers of the plant were 100 % that oral administration of the benzene Hibiscus
effective in preventing pregnancy. They also flower extract at a dose level of 1 g/kg body
found that the benzene extracts of flowers weight/day from day 5–8 of gestation led to
collected from Hibiscus mutabilis, Hibiscus termination of pregnancy in about 92 % of the
schizopetalus and Malvasicus grandiflorus did animals (Pakrashi et al. 1986). The effect was
not markedly affect pregnancy. Ethanolic extracts associated with a significant decline in peripheral
(50 %) and the benzene extracts of H. rosa- level of progesterone and increase in uterine acid
sinensis dose-dependently and significantly phosphatase activity, as measured on day 10. The
reduced the glycogen contents in the uterus of ovary exhibited signs of luteolysis and the corpus
adult rat (Prakash 1979). Of the two, benzene luteal δ-5-3 β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase
extract appeared to be more potent. The results activity decreased considerably. In unilaterally
were attributed to the antioestrogenic nature of pregnant mouse having trauma-induced decidu-
the extracts. The benzene extract of Hibiscus omata in the sterile horn, the extract caused
rosa-sinensis flowers exhibited the most effective resorption of the fetuses and regression of the
antifertility activity on female albino rats (Singh deciduomata accompanied by reduction in weight
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 313

of the ovaries. Luteolysis may be due to interfer- weight. Oral administration of the ethanol extract
ence with the luteotropic influence, and a conse- increased the uterine weight and stimulated
quent fall in plasma level of progesterone was uterine growth, suggesting oestrogenic activity.
suggested as the plausible cause of termination of The pregnancy interceptive effect of the ethanol
pregnancy. Hibiscus flowers were found to have extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis root could be
significant antifertility effect in rats (Sethi et al. interpreted as due to the oestrogenic nature of the
1986). Treating ovariectomized, pregnant and plant. Histological studies confirmed this effect.
cyclic rats separately with 50 % ethanol or ben- Preliminary phytochemical studies indicated the
zene extracts of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis flowers presence of steroids, amino acids and carbohy-
did not elicit any significant changes in the con- drates in the ethanol extract. Both the methanolic
centration of Na+ in uterine flushings and of Na+ extract of H. rosa-sinensis flowers and its water-
and K+ of serum (Prakash et al. 1990). Murthy soluble fraction showed significant inhibitory
et al. (1997) found that the benzene Hibiscus effects on alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity
flower extract administered intraperitoneally at in vitro (Salib et al. 2011). Its high inhibitory
the dose levels of 125 and 250 mg/kg body weight activity was attributed to the presence of querce-
to adult mice resulted in an irregular oestrous tin-7-O-galactoside which showed a high potent
cycle with prolonged estrus and metestrus. The inhibition of the enzyme activity, reaching 100 %
increase in the atretic follicles and the absence of at 100 mg/mL reaction mixture.
corpora lutea indicated the antiovulatory effect of Folkloric medicinal information collected on
the extract. The extract also showed oestrogenic traditional herbal treatments to control fertility
activity in immature mice by early opening of the from different parts of Assam, India, showed that
vagina, premature cornification of the vaginal plants used for temporary methods of birth control
epithelium and an increase in uterine weight. They included Cissampelos pareira in combination
postulated that the antiovulatory effect may be due with Piper nigrum, root of Mimosa pudica and
to an imbalance in the hormonal environment, as Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Tiwari et al. 1982). Plants
there may be an increase in the endogenous secre- used for permanent sterilization included Plumbago
tion of oestrogen by atretic follicles, and also to zeylanica, Heliotropium indicum, Salmalia
the oestrogenicity of Hibiscus flower extract. malabarica, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Plumeria
Recent scientific studies supported ancient rubra and Bambusa arundinacea. Abortion was
literature in Ayurvedic and Unani texts that achieved through use of Osbeckia nepalensis or
described the use of a number of the plant prepa- Carica papaya in combination with resin from
rations for fertility regulation. Nivsarkar et al. Ferula narthex. In a review of Indian plants
(2005) found that Hibiscus rosa-sinensis leaf investigated for fertility regulation based on pub-
extract also possessed antifertility and abortifa- lished literature of the country and unpublished
cient activity. No implantation sites were observed data of the Central Drug Research Institute
in pregnant female mice treated with the aqueous (CDRI), located in Lucknow, India, the following
leaf extract from days 1 to 6 of pregnancy. A sharp plants were excluded from consideration for
rise in superoxide anion radical and a sharp follow-up on the basis of preliminary toxicity data
decline in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, on their extract/compounds: Aristolochia indica,
as seen in the endometrium from control animals, Artemisia scoparia, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis,
were altered in extract-treated animals. The Laccardia lacca and Plumbago zeylanica
extract also exhibited antioestrogenic activity, as (Kamboj and Dhawan 1982). The hormonal profiles
indicated by increase in uterine weight. revealed oestrogenic activity in active extracts/
Vasudeva and Sharma (2008) reported that fractions/compounds from Artabotrys odoratis-
ethanolic extract of the roots of Hibiscus rosa- simus, Datura quercifolia, Daucus carota,
sinensis exhibited potent anti-implantation (inhi- Embelia ribes, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Pueraria
bition 100 %) and uterotropic activities which were tuberosa and Tabernaemontana heyneana which
observed at the dose level of 400 mg/kg body excluded them from follow-up.
314 Malvaceae

Antispermatogenic and Androgenic (LDL) cholesterol and very low-density lipoprotein

Activities (VLDL) cholesterol were increased while high-
density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol level was
Studies conducted in Singapore found that aqueous decreased in MSG obese rats. After administra-
and alcoholic extracts of flowers of H. rosa- tion of H. rosa-sinensis, the feed intake and body-
sinensis did not affect the reproductive organs weight gain were normalized, and also the levels
of males (Tan 1983). The organ weights were of free fatty acids, TG, phospholipids, TC, VLDL
unaffected by the extracts; weights of the testis, cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol
epididymis, ventral prostate and seminal vesicle were reverted to near normal. They also reported
of the treated animals were not significantly dif- that MSG-induced obese rats showed a significant
ferent from those of the controls. The testis and increase in the activities of glucose metabolizing
epididymis of the rats also showed normal histo- enzymes like hexokinase, phosphoglucoisomerase,
logical features, irrespective of treatment. No glucose-6-phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphospha-
apparent toxicity of the extracts was discernible. tase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, succinate
In contrast, Reddy et al. (1997) found that the dehydrogenase and in the level of glycogen and
benzene, chloroform and alcoholic extracts of significantly lower activities of enzymes isocitrate
H. rosa-sinensis flowers had antispermatogenic dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase
and androgenic activities. Administration of the (Gomathi and Malarvili 2009). H. rosa-sinensis
extracts at two different dose levels of 125 and administration to obese rats reversed the above
250 mg/kg body weight to adult male albino mice changes in a significant manner. They concluded
for 20 days elicited a decrease in the spermato- that administration of H. rosa-sinensis flower
genic elements of testis and epididymal sperm regulated the blood sugar levels in MSG-induced
count. High content of testicular cholesterol obesity in rats and not only maintained the blood
may be due to lowered androgen synthesis. The glucose homeostasis but also altered the activities
increase in the weight of accessory reproductive of carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes.
organs indicated the androgenicity of the plant Oral administration of 500 mg/kg body weight
extract itself, which was confirmed in their study of the ethanolic extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
by testing the benzene extract in immature mice. flowers exhibited a significant reduction in serum
Olagbende-Dada et al. (2007) found that rats lipid parameters, total cholesterol, triglycerides,
treated for 8 weeks with cold aqueous extract, hot low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and very low-
aqueous and alcohol extract of H. rosa-sinensis density lipoprotein (VLDL) and increase in
leaves gained 15, 18 and 22 % in body weights, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in triton-induced
respectively, compared to 8 % for untreated. The and atherogenic diet-induced hyperlipidemic rats
increases in the weight of testis, epididymis, (Sikarwar Mukesh and Patil 2011). Hibiscus
seminal vesicle and prostate of the alcoholic extract- rosa-sinensis root extract was found to have hypo-
treated rats were 19, 30, 31 and 40 %, respec- lipidemic activity (Kumar et al. 2009). In triton
tively. The results confirmed the androgenic effect WR-1339-induced hyperlipidemia, feeding rats
of the leaf extracts of H. rosa-sinensis. with root extract (500 mg/kg body wt/day p.o.)
exerted lipid-lowering effect, as assessed by
reversal of plasma levels of total cholesterol
Hypolipidemic Activity (TC), phospholipids (PL) and triglycerides (TG)
and reactivation of post-heparin lipolytic activity
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis flower petal extract was (PHLA) of plasma. Supplementation of cholesterol-
found to lower lipids in monosodium glutamate rich high-fat diet-induced models of hyperlipidemia
(MSG)-induced obese rats (Gomathi et al. 2008). also caused lowering of lipid levels in plasma and
Feed intake, body weight gain and levels of free liver homogenate and reactivation of plasma
fatty acids, triglycerides (TG), phospholipids, PHLA and hepatic total lipoprotein lipase activity.
total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein Histopathological findings in rat liver supported
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 315

the protective role of H. rosa-sinensis root extract pressure) in dogs at dosages 40–80 mg/kg for
in preventing cholesterol-rich HFD-induced 1–2 h. Compounds isolated were quercetin-3-
hepatic steatosis. diglucoside, quercetin-3,7-diglucoside, cyanidin-
3,5-diglucoside and cyanidin-3-sophoroside-
5-glucoside. Hydroalcoholic extract of H. rosa-
Cardioprotective Activity sinensis flower was found to have prominent
hypotensive activity compared to the standard
Studies by Gauthaman et al. (2006) found that minoxidil followed by the chloroform extract in
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis flower extract (250 mg/kg) normotensive rats using the tail and cuff method
augmented the levels of endogenous antioxidant (Siddique et al. 2005). Five compounds isolated
compounds superoxide dismutase, reduced gluta- from the chloroform extract of flower, n-nonaco-
thione and catalase levels of the rat heart and also san-13-one, n-triacontane, n-dotetracontane,
prevented the myocardium from isoproterenol- n-nonacosan-4-ol-18-one and n-hentriacontan-
induced myocardial injury. In contrast, signifi- 4-one-10-ol, showed moderate activity. The
cant rise in myocardial thiobarbituric acid-reactive results suggested that the synergistic action of
substances and loss of superoxide dismutase, the constituents in the crude extract could be
catalase and reduced glutathione (suggestive of responsible for the hypotensive activity. They
increased oxidative stress) occurred in the vehicle- also reported that the hydroalcoholic flower
treated hearts subjected to in vivo myocardial extract exhibited prominent activity when com-
ischaemic reperfusion injury. The study sup- pared to the reference standard minoxidil
ported the traditional medicinal use of the flowers (Siddique et al. 2006). Five new phytoconstituents
of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis in treating disorders were isolated n-docosane; henicos-11-ene-9-
of the heart. In another study, administration of one; stigmast-5-ene-3β, 4α-diol; stigmast-5-ene-
H. rosa-sinensis plant extract at concentrations 3β-benozyloxy-12β-ol; and n-pentacos-4-en-
of 180 and 360 μg/mL in Langendorff-perfused 3-one-18, 23-diol. Of these isolated novel
rat hearts prior to global ischaemia/reperfusion constituents, the compound stigmast-5-ene-
(I/R) increased left ventricular developed pres- 3β-benzyloxy-12β-ol (SM-4) showed highest
sure (LDVP) (21 and 55 %, respectively) and cor- hypotensive activity. In contrast, the hypotensive
onary flow (Khandelwal et al. 2010). The extract activity shown by the ethanol–water (7:3) extract
significantly improved post-ischaemic recovery of was greater when compared to the isolated con-
LVDP and dose-dependently reduced the num- stituent SM-4. These findings suggested that
bers of ectopic beats, duration of ventricular there must be synergistically acting constituent(s)
tachycardia and the infarct size. The results present in the crude extract, responsible for its
indicated that H. rosa-sinensis plant extract hypotensive activity, and these compounds were
elicited vasodilation and positive inotropic and only effective in combination with each other,
cardioprotective effects. and not alone.
Studies by Imafidon and Okunrobo (2010)
found that administration of 200 mg/kg of crude
Hypotensive Activity extract of H. rosa-sinensis significantly reduced
blood pressure in normal and hypertensive rats.
Agarwal and Shinde (1967) reported that pow- The extract increased urea, alanine transaminase,
dered Hibiscus rosa-sinensis leaves exhibited aspartate aminotransferase and Na+ concentra-
blood pressure lowering activity. Hibiscus flow- tions in normal and hypertensive rats compared
ers were found to be effective in the treatment of with normal control. There was a significant
arterial hypertension (Dwivedi et al. 1977). increase in Ca2+ level in the hypertensive rats
Zakaria and Ali Mohd (2010) reported that the administered with the crude extract compared
glycoside constituents in H. rosa-sinensis plant with normal control. Total protein level was not
exhibited hypotensive effects (lower the blood significantly affected in the test rats compared
316 Malvaceae

with control. Potassium ions were significantly Antimutagenic Activity

reduced in hypertensive control rats compared
with normal control. The results showed that The dichloromethane, methanol and water extract
although H. rosa-sinensis leaf extract reduced of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis flowers were found not
blood pressure, the integrity of the kidney may be to be mutagenic for Salmonella typhimurium
compromised when this plant is used for the strains TA 98 and TA 100 without metabolic
treatment of hypertension. activation (Wongwattanasathien et al. 2010).
However, after being treated with sodium nitrite
in acid solution, the dichloromethane and water
Anticancer Activity extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis were mutagenic
on both tester strains, suggesting that consumers
H. rosa-sinensis extract was found to exert a pro- who consume these flowers should avoid any
tective effect against the tumour promotion stage nitrite-containing food items.
of skin cancer development in mice skin (Sharma
and Sultana 2004). Combination of a single topical
application of benzoyl peroxide (20 mg/0.2 mL/ Antidiabetic Activity
animal) followed by ultraviolet radiations
(0.420 J/m2/s) was used to induce hyperprolifera- Administration of H. rosa-sinensis flower extract
tion and oxidative stress. Pretreatment of H. rosa- lowered the elevated levels of blood glucose,
sinensis extract (3.5 mg and 7 mg/kg b.wt.) partly carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes, TBARS,
restored the levels of cellular protective enzymes. enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants and
Besides, malondialdehyde formation and hydrogen lipid profiles in streptozotocin-induced diabetic
peroxide content were statistically significantly rats (Sankaran and Vadivel 2011). Among the
reduced at both doses. The ornithine decarboxyl- three doses (125, 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight),
ase activity and thymidine incorporation in 250 mg/kg showed the best result. Two fractions
DNA were also reduced dose-dependently by of the ethanolic extract of H. rosa-sinensis leaves
the plant extract. The results suggested an (100 and 200 mg/kg body weight) fed orally to
ameliorative potential of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis non-obese diabetic mice demonstrated insulino-
against the tumour promotion stage of cancer tropic nature and protective effect and may
development. The scientists also found that contain potential oral hypoglycemic agent
gentisic acid, a chemical constituent in (Moqbel et al. 2011).
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis extract, played a role in Leaf and flower extracts of Hibiscus rosa-
the inhibition of tumour promotion response and sinensis were found to have hypoglycemic activity.
oxidative stress induced by 7,12-dimethyl Studies in glucose-located rats showed that the
benz(a)anthracene (DMBA)/croton oil-mediated average hypoglycemic activity after repeated
and 12- O-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate administration of 250 mg/kg Hibiscus leaf extract
(TPA)-induced carcinogenesis in mouse skin was 81 %, and under similar conditions average
(Sharma et al. 2004). Pretreatment of H. rosa- activity of tolbutamide was 96 % (Sachdewa and
sinensis extract (3.5 mg and 7 mg/kg body Khemani 1999). At 250 mg/kg the efficacy of the
weight) and gentisic acid (2.0 μg and extract was found to be 84 % of tolbutamide
4.0 μg/0.2 mL acetone per animal) restored the (100 mg/kg). Repeated treatment of animals
levels of glutathione (GSH) and its metabolizing either with tolbutamide a sulphonylurea or
and antioxidant enzymes. There was also a statis- H. rosa-sinensis caused a 2–3-fold improvement
tically significant reduction in malondialdehyde in glucose tolerance as compared to those
formation and H2O2 content at both doses. The receiving only once. The data suggested that the
study showed that gentisic acid had a role in leaf extract acted like tolbutamide. They also
the tumour modulatory activity of H. rosa- reported that in streptozocin-induced diabetic
sinensis extract. rats, the hypoglycemic activity of H. rosa-sinensis
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 317

leaf extract is comparable to tolbutamide and not hairs (Adhirajan et al. 2003). In in-vivo studies, it
to glibenclamide treatment (Sachdewa et al. was found that the leaf and flower petroleum
2001a). The scientists in another paper reported a ether extract-treated groups produced a signifi-
comparable hypoglycemic effect from research cant hair stimulatory growth effect with respect
data obtained after 7 and 21 days of oral adminis- to the placebo and control in the shaved skin of
tration of the ethanol flower extract and gliben- albino rats after 30 days. However, in the leaf
clamide (Sachdewa and Khemani 2003). extract-treated group, the length of hair was sig-
Maximal reduction in blood glucose (41–46 %) nificantly higher than that of the flower extract-
and insulin level (14 %) was observed after 21 treated group. There was also a marked difference
days. The extract lowered the total cholesterol and in the different cyclic phases (anagen and telo-
serum triglycerides by 22 and 30 %, respectively. gen) of hair follicles in treated and controlled
The increase in HDL cholesterol was much higher rats. On 10th day, nearly 40 % of the follicles
(12 %) under the influence of the extract as com- were in anagen phase in all the groups, and at the
pared to that of glibenclamide (1 %). The hypo- end of the course, the leaf extract-treated groups
glycemic activity of the ethanol flower extract showed the maximum number of anagen follicles
was comparable to that of glibenclamide but was (67 %) when compared to flower, placebo and
not mediated through insulin release. control. The flower extract also produced a higher
Studies showed that glucose-induced hyper- value than the placebo and control, but to a lesser
glycaemic rats administered either Aegle marmelos extent than the leaf extract. In in-vitro studies of
or H. rosa-sinensis alcoholic leaf extracts for hair follicles from albino rat neonates, the leaf
seven consecutive days at an oral dose equivalent extract-treated groups produced a greater effect
to 250 mg/kg showed significant improvements on the length of hair when compared to other
in their ability to utilize the external glucose load groups being 17 mm at the end of the course,
(Sachdewa et al. 2001b). Average blood glucose compared to 13.6 mm in the control and 14.5 mm
lowering caused by A. marmelos and H. rosa- in the placebo. They concluded that the leaf
sinensis was 67 and 39 %, respectively, improving extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis had a potential
the glucose tolerance curve. The results suggested effect on maintaining the hair growth in in vivo
that both extracts had a hypoglycemic effect. and in vitro methods and suggested that the leaf
extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis could be
included as a constituent in the hair growth
Hepatoprotective Activity formulations.

Pretreatment of Wistar rats with the anthocyanin

fractions from H. rosa-sinensis petals reduced the Wound Healing Activity
levels of alanine transferase activity value and
liver: body weight gain ratio and, hence, the Animals treated with the ethanol extract of H.
degree of liver damage induced by carbon tetra- rosa-sinensis flower exhibited an 86 % reduction
chloride, though with varying magnitudes in the wound area compared with water controls,
(Onyesom et al. 2008). The lead precipitated, non- which exhibited a 75 % reduction (Shivananda
slimy red fraction possessed the greatest hepato- Nayak et al. 2007). The extract-treated rats were
protective property on the rat liver when compared found to epithelize their wounds significantly
with the other anthocyanin fractions tested. faster than controls and exhibited significantly
higher skin-breaking strength than controls. The
dry and wet weight of granulation tissues and
Hair Growth Stimulation Activity hydroxyproline content were also increased
significantly when compared with controls. The
Extracts of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis aerial parts reported observations indicated that H. rosa-
were found to have stimulatory growth effect on sinensis promoted wound healing in the rat model.
318 Malvaceae

Anticonvulsive Activity and Rhizoctonia solani but not Pythium ultimum.

The extracts of cv. red flower were inhibitory
The ethanolic extracts of flowers of Hibiscus to Alternaria solani, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
rosa-sinensis was found to exhibit anticonvulsant niveum, F. solani f. sp. cucurbitae, Verticillium
activity in experimental animals (Kasture et al. dahliae, Botrytis cinerea but not Pythium ulti-
2000). The anticonvulsant activity was found in mum, and the stem extract was not inhibitory to
the methanolic fraction of the acetone-soluble Rhizoctonia solani.
part of ethanolic flower extract. The fraction
protected mice from maximum electroshock-,
electrical kindling-, lithium-pilocarpine- and Anti-inflammatory, Analgesic
pentylenetetrazole-induced convulsions in mice. and Antipyretic Activities
However, it failed to protect animals from
strychnine-induced convulsions. The fractions The ethanolic extract of the flowers of Hibiscus
antagonized the behavioural effects of D-ampheta- rosa-sinensis was found to exhibit anti-inflam-
mine and potentiated the pentobarbitone-induced matory activity as evaluated by the carrageenan-
sleep and raised brain contents of gamma- induced paw oedema, cotton pellet-induced
aminobutyric acid (GABA) and serotonin. The granuloma and xylene-induce mice ear oedema
fraction was found to be anxiogenic and general tests in rats (Birari et al. 2009).
depressant of central nervous system. The extract also exhibited analgesic activities
using the formalin and writhing tests. The extract
also demonstrated antipyretic effect in pyrexia
Antimicrobial Activity induced by brewer’s yeast in rats.

The petroleum ether extract from H. rosa-sinensis

leaves, stems and flowers and methanol extract Antiulcerogenic Activity
from the leaves inhibited growth of methicillin-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in vitro Oral administration of aqueous and alcohol
(Arullappan et al. 2009). Overall, the petroleum extracts (250 and 500 mg/kg) of H. rosa-sinensis
ether extract from flowers at concentrations of 4 roots resulted in highly significant and dose-
and 2 mg/disc displayed the strongest inhibition dependent antiulcer activity in albino rats with
zones of 18.6 and 18.5 mm, respectively, as com- pyloric ligation-induced gastric ulcer. (Anita
pared to vancomycin (30 μg/mL), 18.0 mm size. Gnana Kumari et al. 2010). Preliminary phyto-
Extracts of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (leaf and chemical screening of H. rosa-sinensis roots
flower) were found to have antibacterial activity revealed the presence of sterols, glycosides,
against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Listeria mono- proteins, mucilage and flavonoids.
cytogenes, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphy-
lococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Salmonella typhi, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus Antimutagenic Activity
anthracis, Escherichia coli and Streptococcus
pyogenes (Seyyednejad et al. 2010). Escherichia The dichloromethane of H. rosa-sinensis flowers
coli was the most resistant strain. inhibited the mutagenicity of the reaction product
Volatiles extracted from the stem leaves and of 1-aminopyrene nitrite model in the absence
flowers of H. rosa-sinensis cv. red flower and cv. of metabolic activation on both Salmonella
white flower exhibited antifungal activity in vitro typhimurium strains TA 98 and TA 100, while the
(Boughalleb et al. 2005). The extracts of cv. methanol flower extract exerted similar effect
white flower were inhibitory to Alternaria solani, on TA 98 (Wongwattanasathien et al. 2010). The
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum, F. solani f. sp. water flower extract exhibited antimutagenic
cucurbitae, Verticillium dahliae, Botrytis cinerea activity on both tester strains. The results indicate
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 319

the flowers are safe if they are consumed and red flowers are believed to regulate menstruation
partially satisfy the first step in using the extracts and sometimes said to cause abortion and also
for any purpose in food product development. used for sprue. In India, the flowers, fried in ghee,
are given in menorrhagia; the dark-red petals are
administered in the form of a mucilaginous infu-
Cytotoxicity Activity sion in ardor-urinae, strangury, cystitis and other
irritable conditions of the genito-urinary tract.
In the Allium cepa assay for cytotoxicity, Hibiscus This infusion is also a refrigerant drink in fevers
rosa-sinensis flower decoction was found toxic and a demulcent in coughs. Oil made by mixing
on root output and root length and reduced the the juice of the fresh petals and olive oil in equal
mitotic index significantly (Ali 2010). The results proportions and boiling is useful as a stimulating
suggested that Hibiscus rosa-sinensis flowers application for increasing the growth and improv-
contained antimitotic constituents which halted ing the colour of the hair. In the Philippines, the
cell division cycle. leaves and flower buds are mashed and applied
on swellings externally, and that the same mix-
ture with lime hastens maturation of tumours.
Larvicidal Activity The flowers, leaves, barks and roots in decoction
are used as an emollient.
Water, hot water, acetone, chloroform, methanol In India, the seeds, pounded into a pulp and
leaf, stem bark and flower extracts of H. rosa- mixed with water, were used effectively for gonor-
sinensis at 1,000 ppm showed moderate larvicidal rhoea. The expressed juice of the leaves is also
effects against the larvae of the filarial vector, given. In Malaysia, a decoction of the leaves has
Culex quinquefasciatus after 24 h of exposure been used as a lotion for fevers and an infusion or
(Rahuman et al. 2009). a poultice of the leaves for headache; the leaves
have also been used for boils. In Indonesia, it was
very common to poultice swellings with the leaves.
Traditional Medicinal Uses Midwives applied the mucilage during labour, at
the same time giving draughts of the juice of the
Various parts of H. rosa-sinensis are used for leaves. The juice of the leaves among with that of
various ailments in traditional medicine. H. Vernonia cinerea is used by midwives to stimulate
rosa- sinensis has been reported to possess the expulsion of the afterbirth. In China, leaves are
antioestrogenic, anti-implantation, abortifacient, employed as an emollient, an anodyne and a gentle
antipyretic, antispasmodic, CNS depressant, hypo- aperient. In Samoa, a preparation from the leaves
tensive, antispermatogenic, embryotoxic, hypo- is used to treat postpartum relapse sickness, to
thermic, insect attractant, analgesic, antifungal treat boils, sores and inflammations.
and anti-inflammatory properties. In Malaysia, the Malays used a decoction of
In the Philippines, the flower buds, pounded the root as an internal medicine. A decoction
into a paste, are applied as a poultice to boils, from the roots of red- and white-flowered plants
cancerous swellings and mumps. In Malaysia, is a Kelantan antidote for poisons. This decoction
Chinese women used to use the juice from the is also drunk for venereal diseases and fevers.
petals for blackening their eyebrows, and so did An infusion of the root is also used for glands
people in India. A decoction of flowers has been in the neck. An application of the root of the
used as an expectorant in bronchitis. The flower white-flowered plant was also used for carbuncles,
infusion after a night’s exposure to dew may be a decoction being drunk at the same time. A
used for gonorrhoea. The Chinese and Annamese decoction of the root may be dropped into sore
employ the flowers against paralysis and dys- eyes. In India the root is regarded valuable for
menorrhoea. A decoction of the flowers has been coughs. The Chinese and Annamese use the bark
reported effective for coughs. In Indonesia, the as an emmenagogue.
320 Malvaceae

Plate 4 Red-orangey-flowered hybrid Plate 6 Double-petal red-flowered hybrid

through yellow and orange to scarlet and shades

of pink, purple with both single and double sets
of petals (Plates 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). Plants with dou-
ble sets of petals have been named as var. rubrople-
nus Sweet. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis was nominated
as the national flower of Malaysia in 1960.

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Agarwal SL, Shinde S (1967) Studies on Hibiscus rosa-
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 Hibiscus sabdariffa

Scientific Name Vernacular Names

Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Arabic: Bissap, Carcadé, Karkadé, Karkady

Africa: Ufuta, Ufuta Dume, Vinagreira
Angola: (U)Tetia (Ganguela), (U)Se (Kimbundu),
Synonyms Azedas (Portuguese)
Benin: Bissap, Malcavene Bean
Abelmoschus cruentus Bertol, Abelmoschus Botswana: Karkadeh
cruentus Walp., Hibiscus acetosus Noronha, Brazil: Caruru-Azedo, Carurú-De-Guiné, Hibsico,
Hibiscus cannabinus Linn., Hibiscus digitatus Quiabo De Angola, Quiabo-Azedo, Quiabo-
Cav., Hibiscus fraternus L., Hibiscus gossypiifo- Róseo, Quiabo-Roxo, Rosella, Vinagreira
lius Mill., Hibiscus rosella hort., Hibiscus palma- (Portuguese)
tilobus Baill., Hibiscus sanguineus Griff., Burkina Faso: Bito (Mooré), Bissap
Sabdariffa digitata Kostel., Sabdariffa rubra Burmese: Chin Baung
Kostel Cameroon: Folere (Fulfulde)
Caribbean: Sorelle
Central African Republic: Kokpo (Banda), Zima
Family (Gbaya), Zima Mbele (Manja)
Chinese: Mei Gui Qie, Luo Shen Hua, Luo Shen
Malvaceae Kui, Shan Qie Zi
Congo: Abuya, Bissap, Ibuya, Inkulu
Danish: Hibiscus, Rosella
Common/English Names Dutch: Amerikaansch Zuur, Roselle, Zuring
Egypt: Karkade, Karkareeh
Florida Cranberry, Guinea Sorrel, Hibiscus, Indian Finnish: Malvatee, Rosella-Tee, Teehibiskus
Sorrel, Jamaican Sorrel, Jamaica tea flower, Java French: Karkadé, L’oiselle, Groseille Pays,
Jute, Jelly Okra, Karkadé, Natal Sorrel, Nubia tea, Oseille De Guinée, Oseille Rouge, Roselle,
Pink Lemonade, Queensland Jelly Plant, Red Thé Rose D’abyssinie
Sorrel, Red Tea, Rosella, Roselle, Royal Roselle, Gabon: Bo-Kolo (Eviya)
Rozelle, Rozelle Hemp, Sorrel, Sour-Sour Gambia: Wonjo

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 324
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_23, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Hibiscus sabdariffa 325

German: Afrikanische Malve, Afrikanischer Norwegian: Hibisk, Hibiskus, Jamaicahibisk,

Eibisch, Hibiscus-Tee, Hibiskus-Tee, Roselle
Karkade, Karkade-Tee, Malven-Tee, Rosella, Panama: Saril
Roselle, Rosselahanf, Rote, Rote Malve, Paraguay: Grosella
Sabdariffa-Eibisch Philippines: Roselle, Kubab, Talingisag
Ghana: Bissap Polish: Hibiskus Szczawiowy, Ketmia Szczawiowa
Guinea Bissau: Baquitche, Bissap Popular Republic of Congo: Bakoumou
Guinea Conakry: Folere Boleyo, Folere Badi (Bambara), Oseille De Guinée (French)
(Foula And Fouta-Djalon), Da (Malinke), Portuguese: Azeda De Guiné, Azedinha, Rosela,
Santon Belli (Soussou) Vinagreira
Hungarian: Hibiszkuszvirág, Rozella Russian: Роселла
India: Chukiar, Tengamora (Assamese), Chukar, Samoan: Uaina
Chukor, Lal-Mista (Bengali), Mesta Tenga, Senegal: Dakumu (Bambara), Bassap
Mwitha Tenga Mora (Bodo, Assam), Thakhlao (Niominka), Folere, Folérébadi (Peulh),
Maikhri (Dimasa, Assam), Vai An Thur Bissap (Wolof), Basap (Serere), Lomoda
Avarpa (Hmar, Assam), Nkiaie (Zeme Naga, (Socé), Kaekade, Oseille De Guinée, Thé
Assam), Ginguru, Gongura, Laalambaar, Lal Rose D’ Abyssinie (Local French)
Lambari, Lal-Ambari, Patwa (Hindi), Sierra Leone: Sour Sour (Krio), Satoi (Mende),
Kempupundrike, Plachakiri, Pundi, Pundibija Kapan Thorr (Temne), Salui
(Kannada), Lalchatni, Kutrum, Mathipuli Spanish: Acedera De Guinea, Agrio De Guinea,
(Kerala), Polechi, Puli-Cheera, Puilichcha Caruru Azedo, Flor De Jamaica, Gamakiya,
(Malayalam), Silo-Sougree (Manipuri), Hibisco, Jamaica, Karkadé, Quetmia Ácida,
Ambadi, Laal-Ambaari, Tambdi-Ambadi Quiabeiro Azedo, Quimbombó Chino, Rosa
(Marathi), Lekhar-Anthur (Mizo), Ambasthaki De Jamaica, Serení, Viña, Viñuela
(Sanskrit), Pulicha Keerai, Simaikkasuru, Sudan: Karkade
Sivappukkasuru, Shimai-Kashuruk-Kirai Swedish: Hibiskus, Rosellhibiskus
(Tamil), Erragomgura, Erragonkaya, Switzerland: Karkadé
Ettagomgura, Gongura, Yerra Gogu (Telugu) Tanzania: Rozi (Ngindo)
Alambari, Sabdriqal (Urdu) Thailand: Krachiap-Daeng, Krachiap-Prieo,
Indonesia: Gamet Walanda (Sundanese), Kasturi Kachieb Priew, Phakkengkheng
Roriha, Rosela Togo: Anyagha (Ewé), Oseille De Guinée (French)
Iran: Chaye-Torosh Turkish: Afrika Bamyası, Hibiskus
Italian: Ibisco, Karkadè Uganda: Musayi (Bulamogi Country), Musayi
Japanese: Rohzelu, Roozera, Roozeru, Rozerusou (Rutooro), Kalabi
Khmer: Slok Chuu Vietnam: Bụp Giấm, Lá Giấm, Rau Chua
Laotian: Som Phor Dee, Somz Ph’oox Dii Zambia: Lumanda (Cibemba), Katolo
Madagascar: Divay, Voamahomhazaha (Kikaonde), Wusi (Chilunda)
Malaysia: Asam Belanda, Asam Susur, Asam Paya
Mali: Anjukooro, Anje, Bissap, Dah, Dah Bleni
Mexico: Flor De Jamaica, Jamaica, Rosa De Origin/Distribution
Jamaica, Rosa Jamaica
Myanmar: Chin Baung Roselle is probably native to Africa and now
Namibia: Omutete widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical
Nepalese: Blechanda regions of the world particularly in India and
Nicaragua: Hamaiga Southeast Asia. It is widely cultivated in Africa,
Niger: Bissap Asia, Papua New Guinea and the Pacific. China
Nigeria: Yakuwa, Zo’barodo, Barekata (Hausa), and Thailand are the leading producers and dom-
Isapa (Ogun State), Amukan, Amukan-Zobo, inate much of the world supply. Mexico, Egypt,
Isapa, Zobo (Yoruba) Senegal, Tanzania, Mali and Jamaica are also
326 Malvaceae

important suppliers, but production is mostly fresh fruit, and it is considered an integral part of
used domestically. Christmas celebration. In Mexico and Central
America, aguas frescas, inexpensive beverages,
are commonly consumed and are typically made
Agroecology from fresh fruits, juices or extracts. A refreshing
and very popular beverage can be made by boil-
In its native range, H. sabdariffa is found grow- ing the calyx, sweetening it with sugar and add-
ing on river levees and cleared agricultural land, ing ginger. In East Africa, the calyx infusion,
in disturbed and undisturbed natural vegetation called ‘Sudan tea’, is taken to relieve coughs. In
and on bare areas from sea level to 600 m eleva- Africa, especially the Sahel, roselle calyces are
tion. Roselle prefers a warm and humid tropical commonly used to make a sugary herbal tea that
climate and is susceptible to damage from frost is commonly sold on the street. In Mali and
and fog. Roselle can be cultivated in the tropical Senegal, calyces are used to make cold, sweet
and subtropical zones with annual temperature drinks popular in social events, often mixed with
range from 12 to 30 °C and with well-distributed mint leaves, dissolved menthol candy, and or
annual rainfall of 1,500–2,000 mm. It does best various fruit flavours. In Trinidad and Tobago,
in a well-drained, friable sandy loam soil rich in the Carib Brewery Trinidad Limited produces a
humus but is adaptable on many soils types— Shandy Sorrel in which roselle tea is combined
from sandy to clayey soils from pH of 4.5–8.0— with beer. In Mexico and Central America, agua
and can tolerate short periods of flooding. It de Jamaica (water of roselle) is most often home-
prefers full sun as it is not shade tolerant. made and drank chilled, and Jamaica Ipa is
another popular drink in Mexico and Central
America, which is made from calyces of the
Edible Plant Parts and Uses roselle. Roselle calyces are sold in bags usually
labelled Flor de Jamaica in health food stores in
All parts of roselle plant are edible and useful. the United States for making a tea that is high in
The most valued and widely used plant part is the vitamin C, an anthocyanin. In addition to being a
fleshy flower calyx (Burkill 1966; Tanaka 1976; popular home-made drink, Jarritos, a popular
Duke 1983; Chopra et al. 1986; Morton 1987; brand of Mexican soft drinks, makes a Jamaica-
Facciola 1990; Boonkerd et al. 1994; Rao 1996; flavoured carbonated beverage. Imported Jarritos
Roberts 2000; Woodward 2000; Duke et al. 2002; is commonly available in the United States
Mohamad et al. 2002, 2012; Hu 2005; Tanaka In Senegal the green leaves are used as spin-
and Nguyen 2007; Wikipedia 2013). The fleshy ach in a fish and rice dish called thiéboudieune.
flower calyces are rich in citric acid (3.74%) (Rao In Myanmar, the green leaves form the main
1996), pectin, anthocyanin pigments and vita- ingredient in making chin baung kyaw curry. In
mins and are used fresh in salad and for making Assam, leaves and calyces are acidic, eaten as
roselle wine, syrup, gelatin, refreshing bever- cooked vegetable, good with fermented fish and
ages, puddings, chutneys, pickles, cakes, herbal pork (Medhi and Borthakur 2012; Patiri and
teas, jellies, marmalades, ices, ice cream, sher- Borah 2007). Jelly is prepared from calyces.
bets, butter, pies, sauces, tarts and other desserts. Tender young leaves and stems are eaten raw or
In Pakistan, roselle has been recommended as a cooked in salads; as a potherb and as a seasoning
source of pectin for the fruit-preserving industry. in curries; they have an acid, rhubarb-like flavour.
The calyces are used for food colouring in The calyx is rich in citric acid and pectin and so
America, Asia and Europe. The calyces are used is useful for making jams, jellies, etc. It is also
to colour and flavour rum in the Caribbean and to used to add a red colour and to flavour to herb
add colour and flavour to herbal teas and bever- teas (Mungole and Chaturvedi 2011). Using
ages. In the Caribbean, a drink is made from the marinades of roselle calyx extract for fried beef
Hibiscus sabdariffa 327

patties was found to reduce the formation of car- have aphrodisiac properties (Duke 1983; Duke
cinogenic heterocyclic aromatic amines (Gibis et al. 2002; Facciola 1990; Mohamed et al. 2012).
and Weiss 2010). In Nigeria the calyces are gath- The roots are edible but very fibrousy,
ered for sale either fresh or dried; they are whole mucilaginous and rather bland, lacking flavour
in preparing melon soup together with other soup (Cribb and Cribb 1987).
ingredients and in the production of roselle jams
(Nnam and Onyeke 2003). A pleasantly flavoured
beverage produced as an infusion from the calyx Botany
has been widely appreciated in Nigeria and is
used for refreshment and entertainment in home A broad-leaved, erect and branched annual herb,
and public gatherings and also sold as a local up to 1.1 m high with a deep penetrating tap root.
drink. Traditionally, the calyx has been chewed to Stem reddish with sparse, simple, bulbous, spiny
alleviate thirst on long desert tracks of Moslems. hairs. Leaves are alternate, glabrous, simple, stip-
In Sudan, the dry calyx is used to produce a fla- ulate, petiolate; petiole 20–50 mm long; stipules
voursome and healthy drink rich in vitamin C, and 6–8 mm long, filiform; lamina broadly ovate and
dried calyces are used for tea (known as kakkady not lobed in the lowermost part, in the upper part
in Arabic), jelly, marmalade, ices, ice cream, sor- deeply dissected 3–7 partite (Plates 1, 2, and 3),
bets, butter, pies, sauces, tarts and other desserts base tapering, margins serrate or dentate, and
(Mohamed et al. 2012). Iced red hibiscus tea is
drunk daily in Sudan; in Spain it is called ‘quim-
bombe chino’. Roselle herbal tea is commonly
drunk in Thailand on its own or mixed with nor-
mal tea to reduce cholesterol. In Malaysia, roselle
calyces are harvested fresh to produce pro-health
drink due to high contents of vitamin C and antho-
cyanins (Mohamad et al. 2002). In Malaysia,
young leaves and shoots cooked as vegetables and
the calyces used to flavour fish and in curries
(Saidin 2000). In Vietnam, young leaves, stems,
calyx and fruits are used for cooking fish or eel
(Tanaka and Nguyen 2007). Tender young leaves
and stems eaten raw or cooked in Nepal and else-
where (Duke 1983; Kunkel 1984; Manandhar and Plate 1 Roselle plant habit
Manandhar 2002). In Angola, leaves used as food
complement (Bossard 1996).
The seeds have been reported to be eaten in
some parts of Africa (Burkill 1966; Rao 1996).
Furundu, a meat substitute, is traditionally pre-
pared by cooking Hibiscus sabdariffa seed and
then fermenting it for 9 days (Yagoub et al. 2004).
Yanyanku and Ikpiru, made by the fermentation
of Hibiscus sabdariffa seeds, are used to pro-
duced food condiments in Benin (Agbobatinkpo
et al. 2013). The seeds are roasted, ground into a
powder and used in oily soups and sauces (Kunkel
1984; Facciola 1990). The roasted seeds have
been used as a coffee substitute that is said to Plate 2 Roselle leaves
328 Malvaceae

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Flower/Flower Tea Phytochemicals

Analyses carried out in the United States reported

that raw roselle (minus 39 % seed pods and stem)
had the following nutrient composition (per
100 g edible portion): water 86.58 g, energy
49 kcal (205 kJ), protein 0.96, total lipid 0.64 g,
ash 0.51 g, carbohydrates 11.31 g, Ca 215 mg, Fe
Plate 3 Roselle plant with buds and flowers opening 1.48 mg, Mg 51 mg, P 37 mg, K 208 mg, Na
6 mg, vitamin C 12.0 mg, thiamin 0.011 mg,
riboflavin 0.028 mg, niacin 0.310 mg and vitamin
A 287 IU (USDA 2013).
Nnam and Onyeke (2003) reported the nutri-
ent composition of dry red and yellow roselle
calyces, respectively, as follows: crude protein
(6.40, 9.08 %), carbohydrate (79.25, 76.69 %),
fat (5.13, 4.92 %), crude fibre (2.70, 2.95 %), ash
(6.52, 6.08 %), minerals and vitamins per 100 g
sample Ca (3.0, 3.0 mg), Mg (1.0, 1.07 mg), Fe
(833.00, 800.67 mg), P (22.0, 23.33 mg), Na
(15.33, 16.01 mg), Zn (1.17, 1.37 mg), Cu (0.70,
0.78 mg), β-carotene (285.29, 281.28 RE (retinol
equivalent)), thiamin (24.67 mg, trace), ribofla-
Plate 4 Harvested roselle floral buds enveloped in red
fleshy calyces vin (0.95, 0.96 mg), ascorbic acid (53.0,
56.83 mg). Mohamed et al. (2012) reported
chemical composition of dried roselle calyces
(red and white), respectively, as follows: mois-
apex acute, variously coloured, dark green to red. ture (11.0, 9.3 %), crude protein (7.88,7.53 %),
Flowers axillary, solitary, predominantly yellow crude fibre (10.16, 0.12 %), ash (10.60, 9.50 %),
and red, regular, pedicellate; epicalyx of about 12 total carbohydrates (57.16, 61.55 %), ascorbic
reddish bracts, connate at base, 10–12 mm long; acid (11.0,15.5 %), total soluble solids (5.5,
calyx 15–30 mm long (enlarging in fruit to 5.5 %), titratable acidity (9, 11 mg/100 g), Ca
40 mm), 5 reddish, large, accrescent, fleshy (60, 50 mg/100 g) and Fe (25, 20 mg/100 g).
sepals, all sepals fused at base (Plates 1, 3, and 4); Roselle was found to contain per 100 g basis
corolla 15–25 mm long, 5 free petals; stamens 141.09 mg ascorbic acid, 1.88 mg ß-carotene,
100 (numerous), adnate to the perianth (at the 164.34 μg lycopene, glucose (1.28 g) as the
base), coherent to each other (filaments fused in a major sugars, organic acids with a predomi-
column surrounding the style); anthers dehiscing nance of succinic acid (0.51 g) and oxalic acid
via longitudinal slits; ovary syncarpous, superior, and delphinidin-3-sambubioside and cyanidin-
5-celled, hairy with numerous ovules; style a 3-sambubioside as the main anthocyanins
five-fid. Fruit a dehiscent, 5-valved, non-fleshy, (Wong et al. 2002). Roselle was found to be rich
bright red ovoid capsule, 18–20 mm long by in malic acid, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid and
15–18 mm wide. There is a green form known as minerals, especially Ca and Fe, but low in glu-
the white sorrel, with greenish-white fruits. cose (Jung et al. 2013). More than 18 volatile
Hibiscus sabdariffa 329

compounds were identified. From the flower Dried calyces of Hibiscus sabdariffa were
petals, hibiscitrin was isolated as the main com- found to contain anthocyanidins, delphinidin-3-
ponent; its aglycone, hibiscetin, a hexahydroxy sambubioside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside had
flavonol, formed a heptaacetyl derivative on been detected as main components and cyanidin-
acetylation (Rao and Seshadri 1942a). 3-O-rutinoside, delphinidin-3-O-glucoside and
Gossypitrin and sabdaritrin were also isolated cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside, and chlorogenic acid
from the flowers (Rao and Seshadri 1942b). On as minor constituents (Segura-Carretero et al.
boiling with dilute sulphuric acid, it yielded a 2008), two major anthocyanins delphinidin-3-
new hydroxyflavone called sabdaretin. sambubioside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside
Hibiscitrin was confirmed to be a 3-glucoside of (Juliani et al. 2009) and anthocyanins
hibiscetin (Rao and Seshadri 1948a, b). A new delphinidin-3-O-sambubioside and cyanidin-3-
glycoside, gossytrin, was isolated from the pet- O-sambubioside (Ojeda et al. 2010). Total phe-
als (Seshadri and Thakur 1961). nolics were better extracted with hot water that
Perkins (1909) isolated a yellow pigment gos- also resulted in a higher antioxidant capacity in
sypetin from the flower calyces. The major pig- roselle extracts (Ramirez-Rodrigues et al.
ment, hisvicin, which was formerly isolated from 2011b). Similar polyphenolic profiles were
roselle calyx and bract by Yamamoto and Osima observed between fresh and dried roselle
(1932), was reported to have the structure of del- extracts. Hydroxybenzoic acids, caffeoylquinic
phinidin pentosido-glucoside. Re-examination acids, flavonols and anthocyanins constituted
studies by Shibata and Furukawa (1969) found the polyphenolic compounds identified in
its structure to be delphinidin-3-xylosido- roselle extracts. Two major anthocyanins were
glucoside (daphniphyllin) and not hisvicin. found in both cold and hot extracts: delphinidin-
Small amounts of minor pigments delphinidin- 3-sambubioside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside.
3-monoglucoside, cyanidin 3-monoglucoside Hibiscus acid and two derivatives were found in
(chrysanthemin) and delphinidin were also iso- all extracts. In general, both cold and hot extrac-
lated. Hibiscus acid, (2S,3R)-hydroxycitric acid, tions yielded similar phytochemical properties;
was found in roselle calyces (Griebel 1939). however, under cold extraction, colour degrada-
Two major anthocyanins, delphinidin-3-sambu- tion was significantly lower and extraction times
bioside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside, and two were 15-fold longer. The aqueous roselle extract
minor ones, cyanidin-3-monoglucoside and del- was found to contain 32.4 mg/g delphinidin-
phinidin-3-monoglucoside, were isolated (Du 3-O-sambubioside, 11.5 mg/g cyanidin-3-O-
and Francis 1973). Two main anthocyanins sambubioside, 11.5 mg/g quercetin and
(delphinidin-3-sambubioside or hibiscin and chlorogenic acid 2.7 mg/g (Jiménez-Ferrer et al.
cyanidin-3-sambubioside or gossypicyanin) were 2012). The yield of Hibiscus sabdariffa aqueous
isolated from methanol extracts of calyces of extraction was 28.3 % and the chemicals obtained
H. sabdariffa (Pouget et al 1990). The genins and from 1 g of extract were 56.5 mg delphinidin-3-
sugars were also identified as delphinidin and O-sambubioside, 20.8 mg/g cyanidin-3-O-
cyanidin and as glucose, xylose and fructose. sambubioside, 3.2 mg/g quercetin, 2.1 mg/g rutin
The main colouring pigment in dry roselle calyces and 2.7 mg/g chlorogenic acid (Alarcón-Alonso
was delphinidin-sambubioside and its structure et al. 2012). The concentration of anthocyanin in
was elucidated as delphinidin-3-[O-β-D- four pigmented H. sabdariffa varieties ranged
xylopyranosyl–(1→2)–β- D -glucopyranoside] from 17.3 to 32.2 mg of cyanidin 3-glucoside/g
(Sato et al. 1991). Roselle calyx extract was dry weight, while volatile compounds analysis
found to contain flavonoid constituents including showed that geraniol was the main compound in
chrysanthemin, delphinidin-3-O-sambubioside, extracts (Camelo-Méndez et al. 2013). Aqueous
myricetin and hibiscitrin and phenylpropanoid extract from the Rosa variety afforded high con-
compounds such as O-coumaric acid, p-coumaric tents of geraniol, ethanol, menthol, 2-nonanol,
acid and ferulic acid (Abbas et al. 1993). benzaldehyde, linalool, γ-undecalactone and
330 Malvaceae

ethyl methylphenylglycidate, compared with the and 5-methyl-2-furfural were formed, while only
other varieties. minimal amounts were detected in the fresh sam-
Decoction process of roselle calyces extracted ples. There were no obvious changes in phenolic
part of soluble carbohydrates, ashes and some derivatives (eugenol) among the four samples.
extractable polyphenols (Sáyago-Ayerdi et al. Terpenoid and oxide could also be isolated after
2013). Some calyces components were partially distillation extraction. The drying process
transferred to beverage during the decoction pro- reduced them dramatically, especially the amount
cess and others remained in decoction residues. of α-terpineol, linalool oxide and limonene.
However, the major part of these foods compo- A combination of the terpene derivatives with
nents was retained in the decoction residues. fragrance notes and the sugar derivatives with a
Dietary fibre content changed in dried residues caramel-like odour were responsible for the
that afforded a high dietary fibre material with a roselle aroma.
high proportion of soluble dietary fibre (about Totals of 28, 25, 17 and 16 volatiles were
20 % from total dietary fibre) with a considerable identified in the dried hot extract (DHE), dried
antioxidant capacity. These by-products could be cold extract (DCE), fresh hot extract (FHE) and
used as an antioxidant dietary fibre source. Of ten fresh cold extract (FCE) roselle calyces samples,
medicinal herbs tested, Hibiscus sabdariffa was respectively (Ramírez-Rodrigues et al. 2011a).
found to be the richest in phytoestrogens querce- Nonanal, decanal, octanal, and 1-octen-3-ol were
tin and daidzein, whereas Cyperus conglomera- among the major volatiles in all four roselle bev-
tus had the highest concentrations of kaempferol erage types. Thirteen volatiles were common to
and genistein (Saeed et al. 2013). all four teas. Furfural and 5-methyl furfural were
Chemical composition of roselle flower tea detected only in dried roselle beverages whereas
marketed in Sudan was reported as follows: linalool and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol were detected
moisture content 15 % max, extract content only in beverages from fresh roselle. Seventeen,
41 % min, protein content 5 % max, ash and min- 16, 13 and 10 aroma-active volatiles were
eral salts 7 % max, impurities 2 % max, vitamin detected for DHE, DCE, FHE and FCE samples,
C 80–100 mg/100 g, natural pigment respectively. The most intense aroma volatiles
>1.5 mg/100 g, reducing sugar 12 % max, fibre were 1-octen-3-one and nonanal with a group of
15 % min and total acids 25–305 (Mohamed 4 aldehydes and 3 ketones common to all sam-
et al. 2012). Ni was found to be present in its ples. Dried samples contained dramatically
divalent ionic form in the infusion of roselle higher levels of lipid oxidation products such as
flower tea with a pH of 2.7(Ščančar et al. 2013). hexanal, nonanal, and decanal. In fresh roselle
Total concentrations of Ni in dry leaves of white, extracts, linalool (floral, citrus) and octanal
green, oolong and black tea (Camellia sinensis) (lemon, citrus) were among the highest intensity
and flowers of herbal chamomile (Matricaria aroma compounds, but linalool was not detected
chamomilla) and roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) in any of the dried roselle extracts.
ranged from 1.21 and 14.4 mg/kg. Eighty-one volatiles were identified in the
More than 37 volatiles compounds were char- aroma concentrate of roselle tea in which linalool
acterized in differently treated roselle samples: and α-terpineol were the major constituents (Pino
untreated, frozen, hot-air-dried at 50 °C and hot- et al. 2006). The volatile constituents (mg/kg)
air-dried at 75 °C (Chen et al. 1998). They were were 2,3-dimethybutane <0.01 mg, isobutanol
classified into four groups: fatty acid derivatives, 0.15 mg, 2-pentanone <0.01 mg, 2-methylbutanal
sugar derivatives, phenolic derivatives and ter- 0.06 mg, 3-methyl-1-butanol 0.14 mg, 2-methyl-
penes. Large amounts of the aliphatic C6 lipid 1-butanol 0.06 mg, isobutanoic acid 0.01 mg,
derivative, imparting green note aromas, were in 2-ethylfuran 0.03 mg, hexanal 0.12 mg, 2-furfural
the fresh roselle, while only trace amounts were 0.13 mg, 2-methylbutanoic acid 0.02 mg, (E)-2-
found in the frozen and air-dried samples. In the hexenal 0.02 mg, 2-furfuryl alcohol 0.02 mg,
air-dried roselles, significant amounts of furfural (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol 0.02 mg, α-angelica lactone
Hibiscus sabdariffa 331

0.04 mg, p-xylene <0.01 mg, heptanal 0.02 mg, chain was composed of alpha-1,4-linked GalA
2-acetylfuran 0.02 mg, (E)-2-heptena 0.03 mg, and alpha-1,2-linked Rha. Side chains comprised
benzaldehyde 0.03 mg, 5-methyl-2-furfural Gal and Ara connected to the main chain via C-4
<0.01 mg, 2,2,6-trimethyl-6-vinyltetrahydrofuran of every third Rha.
0.13 mg, pentyl propanoate 0.02 mg, methyl-2- Using a PARAFAC model (a mathematical
furoate 0.03 mg, 1-octen-3-ol 0.05 mg, 6-methyl- fluorescence excitation emission model), in the
5-hepten-2-one 0.02 mg, octanal 0.03 mg, pH range from 1 to 13, seven degraded species of
α-terpinene 0.01 mg, p-cymene 0.02 mg, limonene anthocyanins extracted from roselle calyces were
0.07 mg, (Z)-β-ocimene 0.02 mg, 1-propylbenzene identified: flavylium cation, carbinol, quinoidal
0.05 mg, (E)-β-ocimene 0.06 mg, acetophenone base, E- and Z-chalcones and E- and Z-ionized
<0.01 mg, octanol 0.03 mg, cis linalool oxide chalcones (Marco et al. 2005).
0.36 mg, m-cymenene <0.01 mg, trans linalool
oxide 0.29 mg, linalool 0.58 mg, nonanal
0.16 mg, 2-phenethyl alcohol 0.01 mg, myrcenol Seed Phytochemicals
0.03 mg, cis-β-terpineol 0.03 mg, (E)-2-nonenal
0.05 mg, ethyl benzoate 0.01 mg, terpinen-4-ol Chemical composition of unextracted and
0.08 mg, p-cymen-8-o 0.06 mg, α-terpineol extracted roselle seeds were, respectively, as
0.55 mg, methyl salicylate 0.06 mg, decanal follows: moisture content 7.58 %, 8.18 %; crude
0.05 mg, p-menthen-9-al 0.08 mg, thymoqui- protein 23.95 %, 29.04 %; ether extract 22.34 %,
none 0.14 mg, geraniol 0.10 mg, decanol 0.69 %; nitrogen-free extract 23.81 %, 32.86 %,
0.03 mg, (E)-anethole 0.06 mg, 1-methylnaph- crude fibre 15.30 %, 20.04 %; ash 7.02 %, 9.19 %;
thalene 0.02 mg, indole 0.04 mg, undecanal Ca 0.31 %, 0.41 %; P 0.60 %, 0.79 %; and S
0.02 mg, 4-vinylguaiacol 0.04 mg, (E,E)-2,4- 0.35 %, 0.37 % (Samy 1980). The digestible
decadienal 0.03 mg, methyl decanoate 0.02 mg, crude protein, total digestible nutrients, starch
methyl anthranilate 0.02 mg, 1,2-dihydro-2,5,8- value and calculated metabolizable energy for the
trimethylnaphthalene 0.02 mg, eugenol 0.23 mg, unextracted roselle seeds were 15.36 %, 75.81 %,
methyl eugenol 0.07 mg, 2-6-dimethyl naphtha- 84.06 % and 3,184 kcal/kg, respectively; the cor-
lene 0.04 mg, β-caryophyllene 0.04 mg, responding values for the extracted seeds were
α-humulene 0.02 mg, geranyl acetone 0.02 mg, 27.50 %, 68.83 %, 64.23 % and 2,891 kcal/kg.
β-santalene 0.02 mg, α-calacorene 0.07 mg, (E)- Iodine number, saponification number and
nerolidol 0.15 mg, dodecanoic acid 0.15 mg, Reichert–Meissl and Polenske values for the
γ-eudesmol 0.12 mg, tetradecanoic acid 0.13 mg, roselle seed oil were 15.63, 258 and 1.75 and
pentadecanoic acid 0.04 mg, methyl hexadecano- 1.14 respectively. Al-Wandawi et al. (1984)
ate 0.04 mg, (Z)-9-hexadecenoic acid 0.19 mg, reported that roselle seeds contained 25.20 %
(E)-phytol 0.04 mg, hexadecanoic acid 0.21 mg protein, 21.10 % lipids, 18.30 % crude fibre,
and (E)-phytol-acetate 0.09 mg. The exotic aroma 2.25 % starch, 5.19 % ash, 26.57 % total carbo-
character of roselle tea comprised the interaction hydrate, 5.57 % moisture and traces of free and
of terpenoids with floral notes (linalool, α-terpineol bound gossypol. They also reported that the
and linalool oxides), fatty acids with acidic notes amino acid (g/16 g nitrogen) profile comprised
and the sugar degradation products with a caramel- glutamic acid 23.45 g, arginine 10.75 g, aspartic
like odour. acid 10.16 g, lysine 5.56 g, histidine 1.87 g, tryp-
Three water-soluble polysaccharides were tophan 0.68 g, threonine 2.94 g, serine 4.37 g,
isolated from Hibiscus sabdariffa flower buds proline 3.29 g, glycine 5.08 g, alanine 4.09 g,
(HIB 1,2,3) (Müller and Franz 1992). The neutral cysteine 2.50 g, valine 3.85 g, methionine 1.35 g,
polysaccharides (HIB 1 and 2) were composed of isoleucine 3.21 g, leucine 6.31 g, tyrosine 3.45 g
arabinans and arabinogalactans of low relative and phenylalanine 5.20 g. Most limiting amino
molecular mass; the major fraction was shown to acids were tryptophan, valine, isoleucine and
be a pectin-like molecule (Mw = 105D). The main threonine while the most abundant essential
332 Malvaceae

amino acids were leucine, lysine and phenylalanine. of boiled compared to dried seeds, but it was
Oleic acid was the most predominant fatty acid significantly different with casein. True nitrogen
followed by palmitic and stearic acids. K, Na, Ma absorption and nitrogen balance (NB) of boiled
and CA were the major elements. Gossypol was seed group was significantly higher than the dried
found in traces. seed group. However, apparent digestibility, true
Two varieties of roselle seeds were found to digestibility and biological value for both diets were
have high contents of protein (18.8–22.3 %), fat not significantly different. The study showed that
(19.1–22.8 %) and dietary fibre (39.5–42.6 %), the protein quality of dried roselle seeds was similar
and also phosphorus 596–672 mg/100 g, calcium to the roselle seeds boiled at 100 °C for 30 min.
119–128 mg/100 g and magnesium 369– Roselle seed oil was found to contain myristic
393 mg/100 g (Rao 1996). The seeds had (2.1 %), palmitic (35.2 %), palmitoleic (2.0 %),
6.7–8.6%moisture, 5.5 %, ash, 11.2–12.1 % sol- stearic (3.4 %), oleic (34.0 %), linoleic (14.6 %)
uble fibre and per 100 g edible portion: zinc and three unusual HBr-reacting fatty acids:
4.4.3 mg, manganese 5.9–7.4 mg, copper 2.8– cis-12,13-epoxy-cis-9-octadecenoic
3.1 mg, chromium 0.08–0.18 mg, riboflavin (12,13-epoxyoleic), 4.5 %; sterculic, 2.9 %; and
0.36–0.51 mg and nicotinic acid 0.9–1.0 mg. The malvalic, 1.3 % (Ahmad et al. 1979). Acetolysis
seed oil was found to be rich in unsaturated fatty of epoxide in the presence of cyclopropenes was
acids (70 %), of which linoleic acid constituted effected by room temperature treatment with ace-
44 %. Roselle seeds were found to contain 0.8 % tic acid and 10 % sulphuric acid. Roselle seed oil,
myristic acid, 9.2 % palmitic acid, 2.4 % stearic like cottonseed oil, was found to contain cyclo-
acid, 4.1 % arachidic acid, 33.5 % oleic acid, propenoid fatty acids (2.9 %) and epoxy fatty
44.2 % linoleic acid 0.5 % linolenic acid, 1.1 % acids (2.6 %) in addition to normal fatty acids
arachidonic acid and 7.3 % adrenic acid. The found in vegetable oils (Rukmini et al. 1982).
amino acid composition (g/16 g nitrogen) of the Roselle seeds had been reported to be rich in
seeds comprised 3.3–4.3 g lysine, 2.4–2.5 g histi- dietary fibre, oil and proteins (El-Adawy and
dine, arginine 9.9–10.2 g, aspartic acid 8.3–9.1 g, Khalil 1994; Ismail et al. 2008). Chemical com-
threonine 3.8–4.2 g, serine 5.5 g, glutamic acid position of three roselle varieties, light red,
21.6–21.8 g, proline 4.6–5.2 g, glycine 5.1–6.4 g, early dark red and late dark red, was reported,
alanine 4.2–6.1 g, cystine 1–4.2 g, valine 4.8– respectively, as follows: moisture 9.25 %,
5.0 g, methionine 1.2–1.9 g, isoleucine 3.7–5.0 g, 11.66 %, 11.45 %; protein 31.02 %, 30.11 %,
leucine 5.9–6.5 g, tyrosine 2.7–3.2 g, phenylala- 30.94 %; ash, 6.89 %, 5.80 %, 6.52 %; fat
nine 4.7–4.8 g and tryptophan 1.2–1.4 g. Their 21.60 %, 22.53 %, 23.26 %; total carbohydrate
study found that food intake of rats receiving raw 36.37 %, 38.12 %, 38.05 %; and crude fibre
roselle seed diets was significantly lower than 4.12 %, 3.44 %, 1.23 % (El-Adawy and Khalil
those receiving cooked seed diets as well as the 1994). The predominant amino acids were lysine,
casein control diet. Protein and dry matter digest- arginine, leucine, phenylalanine and glutamic
ibilities of raw and cooked roselle seed diets were acid, and the most limiting amino acids were
lower than that of casein control diet. Cooking valine, isoleucine and tryptophan. The major
improved dry matter and protein digestibility of fatty acids were linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stea-
roselle seed diets and improved food intake and ric acids. The protein quality of roselle seed pow-
gain in body weight. Their results indicated der prepared from dried and boiled seeds was
cooked roselle seed protein to be of relatively reported to be similar. The most predominant
good quality. Animal studies showed that rats fed inorganic elements in roselle seed were found to
on boiled roselle seed powder for 4 weeks had be K, Na, Mg and Ca. Roselle seeds exhibited
significantly higher food intake and weight gain high digestibility by a trypsin–pancreatin system.
compared to dry seed powder (Nazri et al. 2007). Analysis of tannins and physic acid in roselle
There was no significant difference in protein seed revealed low levels. Raw freeze-dried,
efficiency ratio (PER) and net protein ratio (NPR) sun-dried and boiled sun-dried roselle seeds
Hibiscus sabdariffa 333

contained 6.81 %, 9.9 %, 9.8 % moisture; 35.4 %, (71.9 %), campesterol (13.6 %), Δ-5-avenasterol
33.5, 30.6 % protein; 27.2 %, 22.1 %, 29.6 % lip- (5.9 %), cholesterol (1.35 %) and clerosterol
ids; 2.3 %, 13.0 %, 4.0 % available carbohydrate; (0.6 %). Total tocopherols were detected at an
25.5 %, 18.3 %, 19.2 % total dietary fibre; average concentration of 2,000 mg/kg, including
and 7.4 %, 7.5 %, 6.6 % ash, respectively α-tocopherol (25 %), γ-tocopherol (74.5 %) and
(Hainida et al. 2008b). The carbohydrate, δ-tocopherol (0.5 %). H. sabdariffa seeds were
protein, lipids and moisture of raw freeze-dried found to contain 17.35 % oil, 18.52 % palmitic,
roselle seeds were significantly different from 25.16 % oleic, 3.52 % vernolic, 4.31 % stearic,
sun-dried roselle seeds and boiled sun-dried 44.72 % linoleic and 1.57 % dihydrosterculic
roselle seeds. The predominant minerals in acids (Wang et al 2012).
roselle seeds were potassium (99–109 mg/100 g), Roselle seed protein showed a maximum
magnesium (26–28 mg/100 g) and calcium foaming capacity at pH 12 and 1.6 M NaCl, a
(24–31 mg/100 g). The total dietary fibre of the maximum emulsification capacity at pH 11 and
seeds was within the acceptable range, with soluble 1.8 M NaCl and a weaker foam stability at neu-
and insoluble fibre ratios ranging from 1.2 to 3.3. tral pH than at acidic or alkaline pH, with a better
Roselle seeds contained 17 essential and non- foam stability at alkaline pH (Salah and Hayat
essential amino acids. The seeds were rich in 2009). The foam stability was considerably
lysine (14–15 g/100 g), arginine (30–35 g/100 g), improved by treatment with 1.6 M NaCl.
leucine (15.4–18.6 g/100 g), phenylalanine More than 25 volatiles mainly unsaturated
(11–12 g/100 g) and glutamic acid (21–24 g/100 g). hydrocarbons, alcohols and aldehydes predomi-
The study indicated that roselle seeds may serve nating from C8 to C13 were identified in roselle
as a potential source of functional ingredients. seed oil (Jirovetz et al. 1992). Total yield of seed
Nutrient composition of roselle seed oil reported oil was 23 %. Volatile constituents included
by Nzikou et al. (2011) was as follows: moisture 2,2-dimethyl-3-propyloxirane 0.5 %, 2-methyl-5-
content 6.48 %, crude protein 21.85 %, ether methoxypentan-2-ol 0.2 %, 5-mehtyltetrahydro-2-
extract 27.78 % and per 100 g edible portion furanmethnaol 1.3 %, 2-octen-1-ol 0.3 %, octanoic
crude fibre 16.44 g, ash 6.2 g, total carbohydrate acid 0.2 %, 2,4-dimethylheptan-1-ol 0.7 %,
21.35 g, energy 326.53 Kcal, K 13.29 mg, Ca 1,4-nonadiene 0.2 %, 2-nonen-1-ol 0.3 %, nonanal
647 mg, P 510 mg, Mg 442 mg and Na 659 mg. 0.4 %, nonanoic acid 0.1 %, camphor 0.2 %,
The oil had a refractive index of 1.467. The linalool 0.1 %, decano 0.3 %, 2,4-decadienal
saponification value suggested the potential use 0.4 %, 2,4-dimethylnonane 0.2 %, dodecane
of this oil in liquid soap, shampoo and oil-based 0.1 %, dodecanol 0.3 %, 2-ethyl-1-decanol 0.1 %,
ice cream production. 1,13-tetradecadiene 0.1 %, 2-(1.mehtylheptyl)
Roselle seeds were found to be a good source cyclohexanone 0.2 %, 7-dexadedene 0.1 %, hep-
of lipid-soluble antioxidants, particularly tadecane 0.2 % and 1-heptadecene 0.1 %. Roselle
γ-tocopherol (Mohamed et al. 2007). Roselle seed oil was found to contain triacylglycerols
seed oil was found to have the following physico- belonging to trisaturated (1.0–2.1) disaturated–
chemical parameters: acidity, 2.24 %; peroxide monounsaturated (12.3–20.9), monosaturated–
index, 8.63 meq/kg; extinction coefficients at 232 diunsturated (42.3–46.6) and triunsaturated
(k(232)) and 270 nm (k(270)), 3.19 and 1.46, (30.1–44.2) types of triacylglycerols (Fiad 1991a).
respectively; oxidative stability, 15.53 h; refrac- Roselle seed oil contained 20 % oil and 1.3 %
tive index, 1.477; density, 0.92 kg/L; and viscos- phospholipid such as cephalins, lecithin (phospha-
ity, 15.9 cP. Roselle seed oil was characterized as tidylcholine) and some of their lysoforms (Fiad
belonging to the linoleic/oleic category, its most 1991b). Different proportions of three common
abundant fatty acids being C18:2 linoleic fatty acids, palmitic, oleic and linoleic were found
(40.1 %), C18:1 oleic (28 %), C16:0 palmitic in the six glycerophospholipids.
(20 %), C18:0 stearic (5.3 %) and C19:1 non- Karkade protein isolate had lower free and
adecanoic (1.7 %). Sterols included β-sitosterol total gossypol than did the whole seed and
334 Malvaceae

defatted flour (Abu-Tarboush and Ahmed 1996). stability from the fermented samples was
The in vitro protein digestibility of karkade significantly higher than that of the raw seed
defatted flour and protein isolate was lower than flour. Addition of 1 M NaCl significantly
that of casein. Phytic acid was higher in karkade decreased the emulsion stability of the fermented
defatted flour than in soybean defatted flour. samples. Roselle and soybean oils were found to
Undefatted roselle seed flour contained 27.32 and impact on the quality characteristics of pork pat-
39.24 % of protein and carbohydrates, respec- ties (Jung and Joo 2013). It was found that reduc-
tively, but were both elevated significantly to tion in thickness, pH and L* and b* values
36.39 and 46.03 % after defatting (Tounkara decreased; however, water-holding capacity,
et al. 2013). The fat content was 20.83 % for reduction in diameter and a* values increased,
undefatted and 1.36 % for deffated, and likewise respectively, as the amount of roselle increased.
the ash content was 4.47 % and 5.58 %, respec- The preference of colour, tenderness, juiciness
tively. Roselle seed comprised 31.18 % of total and overall quality depended on the addition of
protein, followed by albumin (16.47 %), glutelin roselle and soybean oil. The maximum overall
(10.20 %) and prolamin (5.57 %). The protein quality score (5.42) was observed when 12.5 g of
content was 91.50, 93.77, 81.55, 71.30 and soybean oil and 0.7 g of roselle extract were
40.83 % for roselle seed protein isolate (RSPI), added.
globulin, albumin, glutelin and prolamin, respec-
tively. RSPI, globulin, albumin, glutelin and
prolamin all contained the following essential Leaf Phytochemicals
and non-essential amino acids in varying amounts
(g/100 g protein) essential amino acids: lysine, Leaves were found to have 86.2 % moisture,
histidine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, 1.7–3.2 % protein, 1.1 % fat, 10 % fibre, 1 %
methionine, cysteine, valine, threonine, tryptophan; ash, 0.18 % Ca, 0.04 % P and 0.0054 % Fe
non-essential amino acids: glycine, aspartic acid, (Mahadevan and Kamboj 2009). Seven glyco-
glutamic acid, serine, arginine, alanine, tyrosine sides were isolated from roselle dietary leaves:
and proline. Glutelin possessed the highest kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside; kaempferol
water-holding capacity and albumin the lowest. 3-O-glucopyranoside; quercetin-3-O-rutino-
The oil-holding capacity ranged from 3.47 to side; citrusin C; 2,3-dihydro-2-(4′-hydroxy-3′-
7.23 mL/g and the emulsifying capacity from 95 methoxyphenyl)-3-β-D-glucopyranosylmethyl-7-
to 18 mL/g. Glutelin had the higher foam capacity, hydroxy-5-benzofuranpropanol; corchoionoside
while RSPI showed the more stable foam. C; and trans-carveol 6-O-β-glucopyranoside
Furundu (cooked and fermented roselle seeds) (Sawabe et al. 2005). β-sitosteryl-β-D-galactoside
preparation resulted in significant changes in was found in the leaves (Osman et al. 1975).
seed major nutrients (Yagoub et al. 2004). Total
polyphenols and phytic acid were also reduced.
The increase in total acidity and fat acidity cou- Other Plant Parts’ Phytochemicals
pled with a decrease in pH indicated microbial
hydrolysis of the major nutrients, proteins, carbo- Phenols, alkaloids, tannins, flavanoids, saponins
hydrates and fats during fermentation. In vitro were found in the leaves, stem and root of roselle
digestibility of the seed proteins reached the plant (Mungole and Chaturvedi 2011). Phenolics
maximum value (82.7 %) at the sixth day of fer- were higher in the leaves 0.125 mg/g than stem
mentation, but thereafter it significantly and roots. In leaf flavonoid content was found to
decreased. The foaming capacity from the flour be highest, i.e. 0.230 mg/g, followed by stem and
of raw seed decreased as a result of cooking. then by root. The calyx is rich in citric acid and
Fermentation for 9 days significantly increased pectin. Cellulose microfibres extracted from
the foaming capacity of the cooked seed, restor- roselle fibres had higher α-cellulose content and
ing the inherent value. In water, the emulsion lower lignin and hemicelluloses (Sonia and
Hibiscus sabdariffa 335

Dasan 2013). Thermal characterization showed clastrogenic, hypolipidaemic, hepatoprotective,

enhanced thermal stability of celluloses microfi- antistress, antispasmodic, diuretic and antidiar-
bres compared to raw fibres. rhoeal activities (Joshi and Parle 2006).
The edible shoots were reported to contain per Numerous studies had demonstrated that
100 g edible portion: moisture 85 g, protein 3.3 g, H. sabdariffa aqueous flower extracts (HES),
fat 0.3 g, carbohydrate 9 g, fibre 1.6 g, Ca 213 mg, H. sabdariffa polyphenol-rich extracts (HPE),
P 93 mg, Fe 4.8 mg, carotene 4.1 mg, thiamin H. sabdariffa anthocyanins (HAs), and H. sab-
0.17 mg, riboflavin 0.45 g, niacin 1.2 mg and dariffa protocatechuic acid (PCA) exerted many
vitamin C 45 mg, while the fruit contained 94.5 g biologic effects (Lin et al. 2011). PCA and HAs
moisture, 1.7 g protein, 1.0 g fat and 12 g carbo- protected against oxidative damage induced by
hydrate and the calyx contained 4 % citric acid tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP) in rat primary
(Saidin 2000). hepatocytes. Animal and human experimental
Roselle essential oil from Yunnan was found studies suggested that roselle extracts could be
to be dominated by esters (31.42 %) such as tri- used as atherosclerosis chemopreventive agents
butyl phosphate (18.63 %), benzyl benzoate as they inhibit LDL oxidation, foam cell forma-
(3.40 %) and1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid tion as well as smooth muscle cell migration and
diisooctyl ester (3.37 %) (Zhang and Wang proliferation. The extracts also afforded hepato-
2007). It also contained alkyls (29.19 %), acids protection by influencing the levels of lipid per-
(9.85 %), aromatic compounds (9.34 %), oxidation products and liver marker enzymes in
ketones (9.32 %), hydroxyketone (4.91 %), experimental hyperammonemia. PCA had also
alkene (2.04 %) and aldehyde (0.93 %). Other been shown to inhibit the carcinogenic action of
compounds above 2 % included nonacosane various chemicals in different tissues of the rat.
11.84 %; heneicosane 8.62 %; 1,2-dimethoxy- HAs and HPE were demonstrated to cause cancer
4-(2-propenyl)-benzene 7.97 %; eugenol cell apoptosis, especially in leukaemia and gastric
4.62 %; 2-tridecanone 3.24 %; 2-pentadecanone cancer. More recent studies investigated the pro-
2.01 %; and n-hexadecanoic acid 2.23 %. Other tective effect of HSE and HPE in streptozotocin-
components <2 % included 2 α-isophoron; ben- induced diabetic nephropathy.
zoic acid; nonanoic acid; 2-isopropenyl-5-
methyl-4-hexenal; 2-undecanone; citronellic
acid; isopropyl ester salicylic acid; 2,3,5,8- Antioxidant Activity
tetramethyl-decane; geranic acid; n-decanoic
acid; 4-methyl-1-undecene; 6,10-dimethyl- Studies showed that the antioxidant capacity of
5,9-undecadien-2-one; 1,2,3-trimethoxy-5-2(2- roselle extract increased when extraction time or
propenyl)-benzene; 4-dihexylcarbamoyl-butyric weight of petals increased (Tsai et al. 2002). The
acid; 3,8-dimethylundecane; diethyl phthalate; ferric-reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assay
tetradecanal; 1-methyldodecyl acetate; showed a linear relationship with anthocyanin.
2,6,10,14-tetramethyl-pentadecane; heptadec- Comparisons between FRAP, radical absorbance
ane; 8-cotadecenal; tetradecanoic acid; capacity (ORAC) and total antioxidant status
10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone; 2-phenyle- (TAS) antioxidant assays gave a linear relation.
thyl ester benzoic acid; bis(2-methylpropyl) The results suggested anthocyanin to be the
ester 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid; nonadec- major source of antioxidant capacity in roselle
ane; farnesyl acetone; 3,7-dimethylproponate extract. Studies showed that the antioxidant
6-octen-1-ol; dibutyl phthalate; eicosane; capacity of roselle extract increased when extrac-
(Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid; octadecanoic tion time or weight of petals increased (Tsai et al.
acid; docasane; (Z)-9-tricosane, tetracosane; 2002). The ferric-reducing ability of plasma
1-pentacosanol and pentacosane. assay showed a linear relationship with anthocy-
H. sabdariffa had been reported to possess anin. Comparisons between FRAP, ORAC and
antihypertensive, antioxidant, anticancer, anti- TAS antioxidant assays gave linear relations. The
336 Malvaceae

results suggested anthocyanin to be the major radicals (O2 −*) at 1,000 μg. The concentrations
source of antioxidant capacity in roselle extract. required for a 50 % scavenging of hydroxyl radi-
Studies indicated that the roselle extract showed cal (OH) (IC50) were 380 and 200 μg for chloro-
stronger antioxidant properties than butylated form and ethyl acetate fractions, respectively.
hydroxyanisole (BHA) or α-tocopherol in the lin- Both extracts were better scavengers of supera-
oleic acid model system (Tee et al. 2002). A total nion, hydroxyl and hydrogen peroxide as com-
of 200 ppm of the extract inhibited more than pared to BHA, quercetin and α-tocopherol. At a
85 % of diene-conjugated compounds after 7 concentration of 25 μg/mL chloroform and ethyl
days of incubation at 40 °C. The total phenolic acetate fractions exhibited 32 and 38 % inhibition
compound was found to be 2.96 mg/g calyx as on CCl4-NADPH-induced lipid peroxidation,
gallic acid equivalent. The results indicated respectively, while both extracts exhibited 80 and
roselle to be a good source of natural antioxidants 89 % inhibitory effects at 100 μg/mL.
which may protect the body from damage by Pretreatment of rats with H. sabdariffa extracts
free radicals and lipid peroxidation. The protec- orally with 100 and 250 mg/kg simultaneously
tive effect was effected probably through the with intraperitoneal injection FeCl2–ascorbic
action of highly bioavailable ascorbic acid, -acid–ADP mixture reduced the formation of
ß-carotene and phenolic compounds, especially malondialdehyde content.
the anthocyanins. After heating roselle, FRAP Suboh et al. (2004) found that H. sabdariffa
activity, monomeric and copigmented anthocya- extract protected erythrocytes against lipid per-
nins decreased, while degradation index poly- oxidation. Studies showed that H. sabdariffa
meric anthocyanins and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl anthocyanins may be used to inhibit low-density
hydrazine (DPPH) scavenging effect increased lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation and oxLDL-
after heating (Tsai and Huang 2004). On frac- mediated macrophage apoptosis and thus serve
tionation of roselle anthocyanin, they found that as a chemopreventive agent (Chang et al. 2006).
the contribution percentage of DPPH scaveng- The antioxidative activity of H. sabdariffa antho-
ing effect of fraction II increased after being cyanins was confirmed by relative electropho-
heated, while the contribution in FRAP activity retic mobility of oxLDL (decrease of 50 % at
of fraction III dropped. This suggested that frac- 2 mg/mL), fragmentation of Apo B (inhibition of
tions II and III might be the major contributors 61 % at 1 mg/mL) and thiobarbituric acid relative
for DPPH scavenging ability and FRAP activity, substances (TBARS) assay (IC50: 0.46 mg/mL)
respectively. in the Cu2+-mediated oxidize LDL. Further, the
Studies demonstrated that the dried roselle addition of >0.1 mg/mL of roselle anthocyanins
calyx extracts exhibited strong antioxidant activ- could scavenge over 95 % of free DPPH radicals,
ity in Cu2+-mediated oxidation of LDL in vitro of roselle anthocyanins showed strong potential
(Hirunpanich et al. 2005). The inhibitory effect in inhibiting LDL oxidation induced by copper.
of the extracts on LDL oxidation was dose depen- MTT assay, leukostate staining analysis and
dent at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 5 mg/ Western blot revealed that roselle anthocyanins
mL. Moreover, 5 mg/mL of roselle inhibited could inhibit oxLDL-induced apoptosis.
TBARS formation with greater potency than Roselle anthocyanin extract effectively scav-
100 μM of vitamin E. The results demonstrated enges DPPH radical, 92 % at a concentration of
the potent antioxidant effect of roselle in vitro. 2.0 mg/mL, and produced a 69 and 90 % scav-
Another study estimated the total antioxidant enging effect on superoxide ion and hydrogen
activity of roselle ethanol flower extracts to be peroxide, respectively, at 1.0 mg/mL, which
4.6 and 8.6 mM of vitamin C for the chloroform compared favourably with the synthetic antioxi-
and ethyl acetate fractions, respectively (Farombi dant (butylated hydroanisole and α-tocopherol)
and Fakoya 2005). Both extracts scavenged (Ajiboye et al. 2011). Roselle anthocyanin extract
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (79–94 %) at 500 μg also exhibited reducing power that was approxi-
dose and inhibited (70–80 %) superoxide anion mately twofold that of the synthetic antioxidant,
Hibiscus sabdariffa 337

butylated hydroanisole as evaluated using Methanol extract of roselle calyces gave the
K3[Fe(CN)6]. Roselle anthocyanin extract pro- highest DPPH inhibition (78 %) and was signifi-
duced a significantly increase and completely cantly different from acetone and water extracts
attenuated the CCl4-mediated decrease in antiox- (Anokwuru et al. 2011). Ethanol roselle extract
idant enzymes (e.g. catalase, superoxide dis- gave the highest inhibition to lipid peroxidation
mutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione (26 %) but was not significantly different from
reductase) in the rat’s liver. However, the level of the other solvent extracts. Methanol extracted the
nonenzymatic antioxidant molecules (i.e. vita- highest total phenolic content (29.2 mg GAE/g
mins C and E) were significantly preserved by DW) and the acetone extract extracted the highest
roselle anthocyanin extract. There was an induc- flavonoid content (53.6 mg QE/g DW) There was
tion of phase II drug-detoxifying enzymes: gluta- a stronger correlation obtained between total
thione S-transferase, NAD(H)/quinone phenolic content and inhibition of DPPH
oxidoreductase and uridyl diphosphoglucurono- (R2 = 0.969) compared to total flavonoid content
syl transferase by 65, 45, and 57 %, respectively. and DPPH (R2 = 0.742). The study showed that
The results indicated that Hibiscus sabdariffa methanol and ethanol were better solvents for the
anthocyanin extract could act as a prophylactic extraction of phenols of Hibiscus sabdariffa
by intervening as a free radical scavenger both in calyx compared to water and acetone. It also
vitro and in vivo as well as inducing the phase II showed that phenols contributed more to the anti-
drug-detoxifying enzymes. oxidant activity of H. sabdariffa calyx compared
The decoction preparation protocol of dried to flavonoids.
roselle flowers afforded the highest nutritional Results of studies found that incorporation of
value and the polyphenol content accounted for roselle extract in Lactobacillus casei incorpo-
the antioxidant capability of H. sabdariffa-based rated probiotic yoghurt had a beneficial effect: it
beverages (Prenesti et al. 2007). H. sabdariffa- improved the total antioxidant property and
based drinks could be considered as protective organoleptic qualities and decreased the exuda-
beverages, and a regular consumption of roselle tion of whey proteins (Syneresis) (Rasdhari et al.
might be proposed to ensure protection against 2008). Yeast and mould counts were negligible in
free radicals. Hibiscus sabdariffa flowers were the roselle yoghurts. Roselle seed extracts were
found to contain important amount of dietary found to have the highest antioxidant activity and
fibre that endowed it with high antioxidant capac- strongest radical-scavenging activity of all plants
ity (Sáyago-Ayerdi and Goñi 2010). The infusion tested (Mohd-Esa et al. 2010). Methanol extracts
obtained by decoction of flowers had been exten- showed a positive correlation between phenolic
sively studied due to its wholesome health-related content and antioxidant activity, as measured by
properties. Roselle flower was found to contain β-carotene bleaching assay and DPPH radical-
dietary fibre as the largest component (33.9 %) scavenging activity. In a whole food system investi-
and was rich in phenolic compounds (6.13 %) gated patties treated with roselle seeds had reduced
(Sáyago-Ayerdi et al. 2007). Soluble dietary fibre lipid oxidation compared to patties treated with
was 0.66 g/L in roselle beverage, and 66 % of BHT. The study suggested that roselle seeds pos-
total extractable polyphenols contained in roselle sessed potential to be used as food antioxidants.
flower were passed to the beverage and showed Using marinades of roselle extract for fried beef
an antioxidant capacity of 335 μmol trolox equiv- patties was found to reduce the formation of carci-
alents/100 mL beverage measured by ABTS nogenic heterocyclic aromatic amines (Gibis and
[2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6- Weiss 2010). Four heterocyclic aromatic amines,
sulphonic acid)]. The data suggested that roselle namely, 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]qui-
flower beverage intake in the Mexican diet may noxaline (MeIQx) (0.3–0.6 ng/g), 2-amino-1-
contribute around 166 and 165 mg/serving to methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP)
the intake of dietary fibre and polyphenols, (0.02–0.06 ng/g), co-mutagenic norharmane (0.4–
respectively. 0.7 ng/g) and harmane (0.8–1.1 ng/g), were found
338 Malvaceae

at low levels. The concentration of MeIQx was no ferrous ion-chelating ability and lipid
reduced by about 50 and 40 % by applying mari- peroxidation-inhibiting activity.
nades containing the highest amount of roselle
extract compared to sunflower oil and control
marinade, respectively. The antioxidant capacity Anti-hyperammonemic Activity
(TEAC assay/Folin–Ciocalteu assay) was deter-
mined as 0.9, 1.7, 2.6 and 3.5 μmol Trolox anti- Oral administration of roselle extract (250 mg/kg
oxidant equivalents, and total phenolic body weight) to hyperammonemic rats (induced
compounds were 49, 97, 146 and 195 μg/g roselle by daily intraperitoneal injections of ammonium
marinade. In sensory-ranking tests, marinated chloride at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight for
and fried patties were not significantly different 45 days) decreased levels of tissue lipid peroxi-
to control samples. dation and increased antioxidant levels (Essa
In a randomized, open-label, two-way cross- et al. 2006a). Roselle significantly normalized
over study of eight healthy humans, roselle the levels of ammonia, urea, uric acid, creatinine
extract caused significantly higher plasma areas and nonprotein nitrogen in the blood and signifi-
under the curve (AUC) of FRAP, an increase in cantly reduced brain levels of lipid peroxidation
Ae(0-24) of FRAP, ascorbic acid and hippuric products such as thiobarbituric acid and reactive
acid, whereas malondialdehyde excretion was substances (TBARS) and hydroperoxides (Essa
reduced in human volunteers (Frank et al. 2012). and Subramanian 2007). Roselle significantly
Further, the main hibiscus anthocyanins as well increased the levels of antioxidants such as cata-
as one glucuronide conjugate could be quantified lase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxi-
in the volunteers’ urine (0.02 % of the adminis- dase and reduced glutathione in brain tissues of
tered dose). The results suggested that roselle hyperammonemic rats. Treatment of hyperam-
extract enhanced the systemic antioxidant poten- monemic rats with roselle extract significantly
tial and reduced the oxidative stress in humans. decreased the elevated levels of the ammonium
Leaves of H. sabdariffa were found to have chloride-induced circulatory ammonia, urea,
total phenolic content (TPC) of 523 mg GAE aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase,
(gallic acid equivalent)/100 g and ascorbic acid alkaline phosphatase, TBARS and hydroperox-
equivalent antioxidant capacity (AEAC)of ides induced by ammonium chloride (2006b).
351 mg AA/100 g (Wong et al. 2010). Based on The results suggested that roselle extract afforded
TPC and AEAC, ranking was as follows: H. tili- hepatoprotection by influencing the levels of
aceus > H. mutabilis > H. sabdariffa > H. tai- lipid peroxidation products and liver markers in
wanensis > H. schizopetalus ~ H. rosa-sinensis. experimental hyperammonemia, and this could
Leaves of H. schizopetalus, H. sabdariffa and be due to its free radical-scavenging property and
H. rosa-sinensis had better ferrous ion-chelating the presence of natural antioxidants.
(FIC) ability than those of H. mutabilis, H. tili-
aceus and H. taiwanensis. Flowers of H. sab-
dariffa with TPC, AEAC and FRP values of Antimicrobial Activity
264 mg GAE/100 g, 230 mg AA/100 g and
141.5 mg GAE/g, respectively, were signifi- Roselle calyx extract and protocatechuic acid
cantly lower than all other species (Wong et al. (PCA) inhibited the growth of methicillin-
2010). Based on flower TPC, ranking was as fol- resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella
lows: H. tiliaceus > H. rosa-sinensis > H. tai- pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
wanensis ~ H. schizopetalus ~ H. mutabilis > Acinetobacter baumannii in vitro (Liu et al.
H. sabdariffa. Species with low total anthocyanin 2005). The antibacterial activity of PCA was sig-
content (TAC) such as H. mutabilis (16 mg CGE nificantly higher than roselle calyx. Further, heat
(cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalent)/100 g) and treatment did not affect the antibacterial activity
H. sabdariffa (43 mg CGE/100 g) displayed low or of roselle calyx and protocatechuic acid against
Hibiscus sabdariffa 339

all test pathogens. PCA exhibited concentration- to female CD-1 mice which were initiated with
dependent antibacterial activities in broth and benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) inhibited the incidence
human plasma; however, PCA acid showed less of tumours in mice to 81.3, 62.5 and 56.3 %,
inhibitory activity in human plasma than in broth. respectively, while all mice in the TPA-treated
Based on their lower MIC values, heat tolerance group developed tumours. PCA significantly sup-
and concentration-dependent antibacterial activ- pressed TPA-induced hyperplasia in the skin and
ity, PCA and roselle extract may be useful in oedema of mouse ears by 65 and 73 % at doses of
clinical infection prevention or therapy. 10 and 20 μmol, respectively. The same doses (5,
Gossypetin (3,5,7,8,3,′ 4′-hexahydroxy fla- 10 or 20 μmol) of PCA also reduced the forma-
vone) isolated from Hibiscus sabdariffa flowers tion of hydrogen peroxide in the mouse skin
exhibited antibacterial activity in vitro against when compared with that of the TPA-treated
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus group. However, Nakamura et al (2000) demon-
subtilis, Bacillus pumilus and Pseudomonas strated not only the lack of an inhibitory effect
aeruginosa (Mounnissamy et al. 2002). Methanol but also significant enhancement of mouse skin
and aqueous roselle extracts exhibited antibacte- tumour promotion by pretreatment with a high
rial activity against cariogenic Streptococcus dose of PCA 3 h before TPA induction. The pos-
mutans with minimum inhibitory concentration sibility that metabolism by tyrosinase activity of
(MIC) of 2.5 mg/mL (Afolabi et al. 2008). At PCA to certain compound(s) without antioxida-
1 mg extract/disc, roselle leaves were found to tive properties and/or with tumour promotional
inhibit Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus cereus, potency was also suggested.
Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus aureus Hibiscus protocatechuic acid was found to
(Wong et al. 2010). At 2 mg extract/disc, roselle inhibit the survival of human promyelocytic leu-
leaves inhibited both Gram-positive and Gram- kaemia HL-60 cells by induction of apoptosis in
negative bacteria of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas a concentration- and time-dependent manner
aeruginosa and Salmonella choleraesuis. (Tseng et al. 2000). Protocatechuic acid caused
Studies showed that methanol roselle calyx an increase in the level of hypophosphorylated
extracts at concentrations of 10, 5, and 2.5 % retinoblastoma and a decline in hyperphosphory-
were effective in inhibiting Escherichia coli iso- lated retinoblastoma. It also reduced Bcl-2 pro-
lates from food, veterinary and clinical samples tein expression and increased Bax protein
in vitro (Fullerton et al. 2011). In a recent study, expression. The anticarcinogenicity of protocat-
the inhibition of the roselle ethanol extract against echuic acid was postulated to be related, in part,
Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus was to its specific suppression of neoplastic hyperpro-
slightly higher than that of water extract in vitro, liferation (Babich et al 2002). In in-vitro studies
but this difference was not significant (Jung et al. in non-tumorigenic S-G gingival epithelial cells,
2013). However, Escherichia coli was strongly and malignant HSG1 cells derived from the sali-
inhibited by the roselle water extract at concen- vary gland, exposure to protocatechuic acid
trations of 25 and 50 mg/mL. induced oxidative stress, presumably through its
bioactivation by a tyrosinase pathway. A brief
exposure to 25 mM protocatechuic acid lowered
Anticancer Activity the levels of intracellular glutathione and potenti-
ated Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation of the cells.
Studies showed that protocatechuic acid (PCA) Preexposure of the S-G and HSG1 cells to a non-
isolated from H. sabdariffa possessed potential toxic level of protocatechuic acid (2.5 mM)
as a cancer chemopreventive agent against enhanced their sensitivity to a subsequent expo-
tumour promotion (Tseng et al. 1998). Topical sure to tert-butyl hydroperoxide. Studies showed
application of PCA (5, 10 or 20 μmol) 5 min prior that roselle anthocyanin could cause human pro-
to TPA (12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate) myelocytic leukaemia HL-60 cancer cell apopto-
(15 nmol) treatment twice weekly for 20 weeks sis in a dose- and time-dependent manner
340 Malvaceae

(Chang et al. 2005). Also there was increased amarus decreased calcium crystal deposition in
phosphorylation in p38 and c-Jun, cytochrome c the kidneys of rats with glycolate-diet-induced
release and expression of Bid, Fas and FasL in hyperoxaluria (Woottisin et al. 2011). The
the roselle-treated HL-60 cells. The results sug- antilithic effect of Hibiscus sabdariffa may
gested that roselle anthocyanin mediated HL-60 be related to decreased oxalate retention in the
apoptosis via the p38-FasL and Bid pathway. kidney and more excretion into urine while that
Delphinidin-3-sambubioside (Dp3-Sam), iso- of Phyllanthus amarus may depend on increased
lated from dried roselle calyces, induced a dose- urinary citrate. Supplementation of aqueous
dependent apoptosis of human leukaemia cells extract of H. sabdariffa calyces at different doses
(HL-60) as characterized by cell morphology; (250, 500 and 750 mg/kg body weight) signifi-
DNA fragmentation; activation of caspase-3, cas- cantly lowered the deposition of stone-forming
pase-8 and caspase-9; and inactivation of constituents in the kidneys and serum of urolithi-
poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) (Hou atic male albino rats induced by a mixture of
et al. 2005). The results showed that that Dp3- 0.75 % ethylene glycol and 2 % ammonium chlo-
Sam might induce apoptosis in HL-60 cells ride (Laikangbam and Damayanti Devi 2012).
through a reactive oxygen species (ROS)- Roselle extract was found to be safe without
mediated mitochondrial dysfunction pathway. lethal or genotoxic effects. Results of in vivo
In vitro studies showed that roselle polyphenol- genotoxicity testing showed no significant chro-
rich extracts induced cell death of eight kinds of mosomal aberrations in the bone marrow cells of
cell lines in a concentration-dependent manner ethylene glycol-induced rats.
(Lin et al. 2005). Among them human gastric car-
cinoma (AGS) cells were the most susceptible.
Their results revealed that AGS cells underwent Uricosuric Activity
DNA fragmentation and had an increase in the
distribution of hypodiploid phase (apoptotic In a human study of nine subjects with no history
peak) after a 24-h treatment with roselle extract of renal stones (non-renal stone, NS) and nine
(2.0 mg/mL). This effect was found to be medi- with a history of renal stones (RS), after con-
ated via p53 signalling and p38 MAPK/FasL cas- sumption of roselle tea, the trend was an increase
cade pathway. Another in vitro study also showed in oxalate and citrate in both groups and uric acid
that roselle extract exerted chemopreventive excretion and clearance in the NS group
effect on human gastric adenocarcinoma cells via (Prasongwatana et al. 2008). In the RS group,
apoptosis induction and JNK/p38 MAPK signal- both uric acid excretion and clearance were sig-
ling activation (Lin et al. 2007a). nificantly increased. The values for excretion of
uric acid were clearly increased in both the NS
and RS groups after the intake of roselle tea and
Antiurolithiatic Activity returned to baseline values in the washout period.
The results demonstrated a uricosuric effect of
In a study of 36 healthy men, the urine consump- roselle calyces.
tion of roselle juice showed a decrease of creati-
nine, uric acid, citrate, tartrate, calcium, sodium,
potassium and phosphate but not oxalate in uri- Antihypertensive Activity
nary excretion (Kirdpon et al. 1994). They found
that a low dose of roselle juice (16 g/day) caused Hibiscus sabdariffa decoctions and infusions of
more significant decrease in salt output in the calyxes, and on occasion leaves, are used in at
urine than a high dose (24 g/day). The urinary least 10 countries worldwide in the treatment of
changes were similar to the observations on vil- hypertension and hyperlipidaemia with no
lagers with and without stones in northeastern reported adverse events or side effects (Hopkins
Thailand. Hibiscus sabdariffa and Phyllanthus et al. 2013). Animal studies had consistently
Hibiscus sabdariffa 341

shown that consumption of roselle extract Animal Studies

reduced blood pressure in a dose-dependent Intravenous injection of aqueous extract of
manner. In randomized clinical trials, the daily roselle calyces to anaesthetized cats lowered
consumption of a tea or extract produced from the blood pressure in a dose-response manner
roselle calyxes significantly lowered systolic (Ali et al. 1991). The inhibitory effects were
blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pres- resistant to a number of standard receptor
sure (DBP) in adults with pre- to moderate essen- blockers, but the hypotensive influence was
tial hypertension and type 2 diabetes. Further, partially blocked by atropine and the tonic
roselle tea was as effective at lowering blood effects on rat uterus were partially reduced by
pressure as the commonly used blood pressure hydrocortisone and indomethacin. Pretreatment
medication Captropril, but less effective than of rats with 20 mg/kg roselle calyx extract in
Lisinopril. Roselle extracts were reported to have anaesthetized rats did not have a significant
a low degree of toxicity with a LD50 ranging from effect on increase in blood pressure induced by
2,000 to over 5,000 mg/kg/day. There had been bilateral carotid occlusion (Adegunloye et al.
no evidence of hepatic or renal toxicity as the 1996). The cumulative addition of roselle to
result of roselle extract consumption, except for noradrenaline precontracted aortic rings pro-
possible adverse hepatic effects at high doses. duced dose-dependent relaxation of the rings.
Antioxidant activity using a model liposome The maximum relaxation response was
system was the highest overall in the red roselle 86.96 % observed at the dose of 1.70 mg/mL.
varieties compared to the white with methanol The results suggested that the antihypertensive
extracts showing the highest activity (Christian effect of roselle extracts was not mediated
et al. 2006). The methanol and ethyl acetate through inhibition of the sympathetic nervous
extracts of the varieties showed higher COX-1 system, but it could be mediated through
enzyme inhibition than COX-2 and therefore had acetylcholine-like and histamine-like mecha-
high potential to decrease blood viscosity. The nisms as well as via direct vasorelaxant effects.
findings supported the ethnomedicinal use of Roselle calyx infusion was found to lower sig-
H. sabdariffa in Africa and the Caribbean for the nificantly both systolic and diastolic pressure
treatment of cardiovascular disease and hyperten- in spontaneously hypertensive and normoten-
sion. A crude methanolic extract roselle calyces sive Wistar–Kyoto rats at tested doses of 500
relaxed, concentration-dependently, KCl (high and 1,000 mg/kg body weight (Onyenekwe
K+)- and phenylephrine-precontracted aortic rings et al. 1999). The reduction in blood pressure in
from spontaneously hypertensive rats, with a both groups was positively correlated with
greater potency against the alpha(1)-adrenergic weight. Continuous consumption of the infu-
receptor agonist (Ajay et al. 2007). It was found sion at 1,000 mg/kg was found to lead to sud-
that these effects were probably mediated through den death in spontaneously hypertensive rats
the endothelium-derived nitric oxide-cGMP- but not in Wistar–Kyoto rats. The water intake
relaxant pathway and inhibition of calcium (Ca2+) in the treated spontaneously hypertensive and
influx into vascular smooth muscle cells. The data normotensive rats was not different from the
further supported previous in vivo findings and corresponding control groups. However, the
the traditional use of roselle as an antihyperten- urine output of the treated spontaneously
sive agent. The anthocyanins delphinidin-3-O- hypertensive rats was significantly higher. A
sambubioside and cyanidin-3-O-sambubioside, significant decrease in serum creatinine, cho-
isolated from roselle calyces, exhibited angioten- lesterol, and glucose in the treated rats com-
sin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor activity in pared with the control as well as a significant
vitro with IC50 values of 84.5 and 68.4 μg/mL, increase in serum uric acid was observed.
respectively (Ojeda et al. 2010). This activity Administration of roselle extract to 2 K-1C
accorded well with the folk medicinal use of (2-Kidney, 1-Clip renovascular) hypertensive
Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces as antihypertensive. rats, caused a reduction in systolic blood pressure
342 Malvaceae

compared to untreated 2 K-1c rats and a reduction Clinical Studies

in heart rat compared to the sham-operated con- In a study of patients with moderate essential
trol rats (Odigie et al. 2003). The hearts of the hypertension, consumption of roselle tea resulted
untreated 2 K-1C rats were heavier than those in 11.2 % lowering of the systolic blood pressure
of 2 K-1C + roselle extract. The results sug- and a 10.7 % decrease of diastolic pressure in the
gested that roselle extract exhibited antihyper- experimental group 12 days after beginning the
tensive and cardioprotective effects in vivo. treatment, as compared with the first day (Haji
Separate studies found that the blood pressure Faraji and Haji Tarkhani 1999). The difference
and heart rate fell dose-dependently in both the between the systolic blood pressures of the
hypertensive and normotensive rats after intra- roselle treated and control groups was significant,
venous injection of 1–125 mg/kg of roselle as was the difference of the diastolic pressures. In
calyx extract, suggesting that roselle extract a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled
possessed antihypertensive, hypotensive and clinical trial involving 65 pre-hypertensive and
negative chronotropic effects (Mojiminiyi et al. mildly hypertensive adults, age 30–70 years, not
2007). The fall in mean arterial pressure was taking blood pressure (BP)-lowering medica-
significantly pronounced in the hypertensive tions, daily consumption of roselle tisane in an
rats (salt-induced; l-NAME-induced) than in amount readily incorporated into the diet lowered
the normotensive control rats. Results of stud- blood pressure (McKay et al. 2010). Participants
ies suggested that aqueous roselle calyx attenu- with higher systolic blood pressure (SBP) at
ated the development of salt-induced baseline showed a greater response to hibiscus
hypertension in Sprague-Dawley rats and this treatment for SBP change. A month long daily
attenuation may be associated with its high K + administration of roselle calyx infusion were
content or high potassium/sodium ratio and not compared with captopril (twice a day) for antihy-
with altered pressor/depressor response to nor- pertensive effects in a controlled and randomized
adrenalin or acetylcholine (Mojiminiyi et al. clinical trial involving 75 patients, 30–80 years
2012). Also the effects of roselle and furose- old, with diagnosed hypertension and without
mide on mean arterial blood pressure were antihypertensive treatment for at least 1 month
comparable. Inuwa et al. (2012) found that (Herrera-Arellano et al. 2004). H. sabdariffa
roselle ingestion by spontaneously hyperten- reduced systolic blood pressure (BP) from 139.05
sive rats (SHR) significantly reduced systolic to 123.73 mmHg and the diastolic BP from 90.81
and diastolic blood pressures and left ventricle to 79.52 mmHg. However, at the end of the study,
mass in a dose-dependent fashion but did not there were no significant differences between the
affect heart rate. Roselle extract significantly BP detected in both treatment groups. The rates
increased surface area and length density of of therapeutic effectiveness were 0.7895 and
myocardial capillaries by 59 %, 65 % and 86 % 0.8438 with H. sabdariffa and captopril, respec-
and length density by 57 %, 77 % and 57 %, tively, while the tolerability was 100 % for both
respectively. Myocyte nuclear volume was sig- treatments. In a separate randomized, double-
nificantly decreased in extract-treated rats. The blind lisinopril-controlled clinical trial of 193
changes suggested that the observed beneficial patients, 25–61 years old with hypertension stage
effect of roselle on high blood pressure in SHRs I or II, treatment with dried roselle calyces
could be mediated through a reduction in the exerted important antihypertensive effectiveness
diffusion distance between capillaries and myo- with a wide margin of tolerability and safety,
cytes, as well as new vessel formation. It was while it also significantly reduced plasma angio-
concluded that these effects might be beneficial tensin-converting enzyme activity and demon-
in restoring myocyte normal nutritional status strated a tendency to reduce serum sodium (Na)
compromised by the hypertrophic state of concentrations without modifying potassium (K)
hypertension. levels (Herrera-Arellano et al. 2007). However,
Hibiscus sabdariffa 343

blood pressure reductions and therapeutic effec- cell formation (Kao et al. 2009b) Oxidative mod-
tiveness were lower than those obtained with ification of oxLDL had been reported to be
lisinopril. In a double-blind randomized con- involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerotic
trolled trial of 60 type II diabetic patients with lesions through the formation of macrophage-
mild hypertension, consumption of roselle tea derived foam cells. The enhanced expression of
and black tea were found to have positive lower- CD36 in oxLDL-treated J774A.1 cells was
ing effects on blood pressure indicating the anti- decreased both at the mRNA as well as protein
hypertensive effects of both teas level after roselle treatment. Treatment of
(Mozaffari-Khosravi et al. 2009b). J774A.1 cells with oxLDL significantly increased
PPAR-gamma protein levels in nuclear extracts
Review Studies while treatment with roselle resulted in signifi-
A systemic review of four randomized controlled cant decreases in nuclear PPAR-gamma protein
studies by Wahabi et al. (2010) found no reliable levels. The results suggested that roselle extract
evidence to support recommending Hibiscus sab- inhibited the macrophage uptake of oxLDL and
dariffa for the treatment of primary hypertension this may involve CD36 downregulation.
in adults. Hibiscus sabdariffa extract was shown to
lower the plasma lipid level and reduce the liver
damage (Yang et al. 2010). Hibiscus sabdariffa
Hypocholesterolemic/ polyphenols exhibited higher potency to
Hypolipidaemic/ decrease plasma cholesterol and LDL choles-
Antiatherosclerotic Activities terol than the crude roselle extract and increased
HDL cholesterol dose-dependently. It decreased
In Vitro Studies the lipid content of hepatocyte through the acti-
A crude hydroalcoholic extract from roselle calyces vation of AMPK (5′ adenosine monophosphate-
showed in vitro an appreciable enzyme-inhibiting activated protein kinase) and reduction of
activity towards the angiotensin-converting SREBP-1(sterol regulatory element-binding
enzyme (ACE) I, but weak inhibiting activities transcription factor 1), thus inhibiting the
towards elastase, trypsin and alpha-chymotrypsin expression of fatty acid synthase and HMG-
(Jonadet et al. 1990). Studies by Lee et al. (2002) CoA reductase (3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-
found that both protocatechuic acid and esculetin CoA reductase). Low-density lipoprotein
exhibited strong potency to inhibit oxidative low- receptor (LDLR) and LDL binding of HepG2
density lipoprotein (LDL) induced by copper or an cells were enhanced when treated with roselle
NO donor. Both compounds demonstrated remark- extract. The results suggested roselle polyphe-
able ability to rescue the cholesterol degradation nols could be developed as an adjunctive for
and Apo B fragmentation. Additionally, their non- hepatic lipid control and hypolipidaemic ther-
toxic characteristics raised the possibility for their apy. The potency of roselle extract at 100 μg/mL
use in the daily diet to help prevent atherosclerosis. was found to be similar to 0.4 μg/mL pravastatin
The angioprotective activity in vivo, also impor- in inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase and possibly
tant, was attributed to flavones and anthocyanins. reduced cholesterol biosynthesis (Duangjai
In vitro studies found that roselle anthocyanins et al. 2011).
could inhibit serum-stimulated proliferation of Aqueous polyphenol-rich roselle extracts
smooth muscle cell and result in cell apoptosis via were up to 100 times more efficient in inhibiting
p38 and p53 pathway (Lo et al. 2007). In conse- triglyceride accumulation in a model of adipo-
quence, the rate of atherosclerotic formation was genesis from 3T3-L1 cells and in hypertrophic and
retarded, and its progress was suppressed. insulin-resistant adipocytes when devoid of fibre
Studies showed that anthocyanin-rich and polysaccharides (Herranz-López et al. 2012).
roselle extract decreased low-densitylipoprotein Significant differences were also observed in
(oxLDL)-mediated macrophage-derived foam reactive oxygen species generation and adipokine
344 Malvaceae

secretion. When polyphenols were fractionated the administration of roselle at 5 and 10 %

and isolated, the benefits of the whole extract induced a significant decrease in the activity of
were greater than the sum of its parts, which indi- serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and
cated a previously unnoticed synergism. Roselle glutamic pyruvic transaminase, alkaline and
leaf polyphenolic extract demonstrated potential acid phosphatase as well as total serum protein,
in reducing foam cell formation and intracellular the values reverted to the initial levels after
lipid accumulation in oxidized-LDL (ox-LDL)- 9 weeks of roselle administration.
induced macrophage J774A.1 cells under non- Animal studies showed that the levels of tri-
cytotoxic concentrations (Chen et al. 2013). The glyceride, cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein
results implied that roselle extract up-regulated cholesterol (LDL-C) were lower in the serum of
the LXRα (liver × receptor alpha)/ABCA1 (ATP- rabbits fed on high-cholesterol diet (HCD 3 %
binding cassette transporter A)1 pathway, which lard oil) plus roselle extract than in the serum of
in turn led to stimulation of cholesterol removal rabbits fed HCD (Chen et al. 2003). Feeding
from macrophages and delayed atherosclerosis. roselle extract (0.5 and 1 % in the diet) to rabbits
significantly reduced severe atherosclerosis in the
Animal Studies aorta. Roselle reduced foam cell formation and
Consumption of roselle extract had been found to inhibited smooth muscle cell migration and calci-
lower total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein fication in the blood vessel of rabbits. The results
cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglycerides in the suggested that roselle extract exhibited antiath-
majority of normolipidaemic, hyperlipidaemic erosclerotic activity by inhibiting serum lipid
and diabetic animal models, whereas high- increases. Another animal study revealed an
density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) was inhibitory effect of roselle flower extract on Cu2+-
generally not affected (Hopkins et al. 2013). Over mediated relative electrophoretic mobilities and
half of the RCTs showed that daily consumption thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS)
of roselle tea or extracts had favourable influence (Chen et al. 2004). Roselle extract exhibited a
on lipid profiles including reduced total choles- remarkable ability to reduce cholesterol degrada-
terol, LDL-C, triglycerides as well as increased tion and ApoB fragmentation. It exhibited a high
HDL-C. potency to inhibit the production of oxidized LDL
Studies found that feeding weanling rats for induced by copper and, specifically, to reduce
up to 12 weeks with alkali refined roselle seed oil serum triglycerides in high-fructose diet (HFD)-
that was heated and dehydrogenated to remove fed rats and serum cholesterol in high-cholesterol
cyclopropene fatty acids resulted in serum and diet (HCD)-fed animals. The levels of LDL and
liver composition of total lipids, cholesterol and the ratio of LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) to HDL
phospholipids comparable to those fed with pea- cholesterol (HDL-C) were reduced by the extract
nut oil (Sarojini et al. 1985). However, the food in both hyperlipidaemic models. The study sug-
intake and weight gain were found to be less in gested that roselle extract may be used to inhibit
the refined roselle oil group compared to the pea- LDL oxidation and to prevent various types of
nut group. The liver architecture did not show hyperlipidaemia in HFD- or HCD-fed rats.
any abnormalities with roselle oil feeding. The chronic administration of aqueous
Administration of roselle extract to male extracts of both petals of red and green Hibiscus
albino rats fed on a mixture of cholesterol and sabdariffa for 28 days resulted in significant
cholic acid for 12 weeks to induce hypercholes- decreases in the plasma total cholesterol levels at
terolemia elicited significant lowering effect in 1.5 mg/kg body weight while the extracts led to
the level of different lipid fractions in spite of significant decreases in LDL cholesterol levels at
the continued cholesterol and cholic acid load- both 1.0 and 1.5 mg/kg body weight only in rats
ing during the treatment (El-Saadany et al. (Olatunji et al 2005). In contrast, the administra-
1991). However, blood phospholipids were tion of the extracts did not have any significant
increased after roselle administration. Although effect on HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, haema-
Hibiscus sabdariffa 345

tocrit, haemoglobin, red blood cell count, white induced diabetic rats and reduced the alloxan-
blood cell count and platelet count values when induced increases in cholesterol, very low-density
compared with the controls. The results indicated lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C), low-density
that the lowered plasma total cholesterol concen- lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and atherogenic
trations induced by aqueous extracts of either red index by 29 %, 36 %, 40 %, and 32 %, respec-
or green Hibiscus sabdariffa petals was strongly tively (Farombi and Ige 2007). The extract atten-
associated with decreased LDL cholesterol con- uated the alloxan-induced decrease in the
centrations. Carvajal-Zarrabal et al. (2005) found activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), cata-
that 4 week supplementation of H. sabdariffa lase (CAT) and the level of glutathione (GSH) by
ethanol extract at 5, 10, and 15 % levels to 36, 44 and 64 % in the liver and by 20, 43, and
Sprague-Dawley rats fed on a basal high- 85 % in the rat kidney. The extract significantly
cholesterol diet was found to reduce the lipid pro- decreased the alloxan-mediated increase in
file. Five percent roselle extract addition showed malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein carbonyl
the best results in the reduction of serum lipids— levels in the liver by 44 % and 43 % and in the
total lipids, total cholesterol (TC), triacylglycer- kidneys by 45 % and 38 %, respectively. The
ols (TAG) and LDL levels. No significant results extract also normalized the activity of phosphati-
were found in any group in the cases of either date phosphohydrolase in the liver. Their data
phospholipid or HDL levels. A hypothesis of demonstrated that roselle possessed strong hypo-
hibiscus acid racemization, (+)-HCA to (−)- lipidaemic as well as antioxidant properties in
HCA, mediated by intestinal flora enzymes was alloxan-induced diabetic rats and could be useful
proposed to elucidate the significant triacylglyc- in preventing the development of atherosclerosis
erol decrease in all experimental groups. VLDL, and possible related cardiovascular pathologies
the precursor of LDL, comprising predominantly associated with diabetes. Hainida et al. (2008a)
of triacylglycerols, suggested that the significant found the addition of 50 g/kg or 150 g/kg of
decrease in LDL was related to observed triacyl- defatted dried roselle powder to the diet of
glycerol synthesis inhibition. In another study, Sprague-Dawley male rats with induced hyper-
administering dried roselle calyx extracts at cholesterolemia significantly lowered plasma
doses of 500 and 1,000 mg/kg together with con- total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cho-
tinuous cholesterol feeding to hypercholesterol- lesterol (LDL-C) levels.
emic rats for 6 weeks significantly decreased Studies by Ochani and D’Mello (2009) sug-
serum cholesterol level by 22 % and 26 %, gested that the ethanolic leaf and calyx extracts
respectively; serum triglycerides level by 33 % of roselle containing polyphenols and flavanols
and 28 %, respectively; and serum LDL level by possessed significant antioxidant and antihyper-
22 % and 32 %, respectively (Hirunpanich et al. lipidaemic activities. Highest antioxidant activity
2006). However, serum HDL level was not was exhibited by the ethanolic calyx extract
affected. Six-week treatment with 250, 500 and followed by ethanolic leaf extract and the aque-
1,000 mg/kg of the extracts significantly ous leaf extract. In cholesterol-induced hyperlipi-
decreased thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances daemic model, groups of rats treated with extracts
(TBARS) formation while the formation of con- of roselle calyces and leaves showed a significant
jugated dienes during the oxidation of LDL decrease in the serum TC, LDL-C, VLDL-C,
induced by CuSO4 was also reduced. The results TAG values along with an increase in serum
suggested that the aqueous extracts of dried HDL-C levels. The treated groups also showed
roselle calyx possessed both antioxidant effects significant decrease in the atherogenic index,
against LDL oxidation and hypolipidaemic LDL-C:HDL-C risk ratios, and in the levels of
effects in vivo. aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotrans-
The ethanol roselle calyx extract at the dose of ferase and alkaline phosphatase activities com-
200 mg/kg significantly attenuated the elevated pared to cholesterol-induced hyperlipidaemic
blood glucose concentration by 57 % of alloxan- control group. Significant antihyperlipidaemic
346 Malvaceae

activity was shown by ethanolic extract of caly- meal) for a month, was found to significantly
ces, followed by ethanolic extract of leaves. It lower the serum cholesterol level (Lin et al.
was observed from the histopathological findings 2007b). In a sequential randomized controlled
that rats fed with roselle extracts showed decrease clinical trial of 60 patients with diabetes, con-
in granular degeneration caused by cholesterol sumption of roselle tea or black tea had a positive
feedings. effect on lipid profile (Mozaffari-Khosravi et al.
Results of animal studies demonstrated the 2009a). Those given roselle tea had significant
hypolipidaemic and antioxidant activities of increase in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol
roselle extract and suggested its therapeutic (HDL-C) and significant decrease in the mean of
potential in disorders of lipid metabolism and total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein choles-
cardiovascular events associated with hypercho- terol, triglycerides and Apo-B100 at the end of
lesterolemia (Ekor et al. 2010). Roselle extract the study. Changes in apolipoprotein-A1 and
significantly attenuated the alteration in lipid lev- lipoprotein (a) were not significant. In the black
els and antioxidant status induced by high cho- tea group only HDL-C showed significant change
lesterol intake in rabbits. Both serum and tissue at the end of the study and changes in the other
levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, tri- parameters were not statistically significant.
glycerides, phospholipids, and total cholesterol Ninety hypertensive patients were randomly
decreased with increase in high-density lipopro- assigned to receive Hibiscus sabdariffa tea or
tein- cholesterol except in the heart, following black tea for 15 days in a randomized clinical
treatment with roselle extract in cholesterol-fed trial (Mohagheghi et al. 2011). There was no sig-
rabbits when compared with the untreated group. nificant differences between pre- and post-
Similarly, roselle extract prevented cholesterol- experiment values within the two groups. An
induced depletion of enzymic (superoxide dis- upward trend in total cholesterol, HDL choles-
mutase, catalase) and nonenzymatic (reduced terol and LDL cholesterol was evident in both
glutathione, vitamin C) antioxidants with the groups. The increase in total and HDL choles-
attendant increases in lipid peroxidation and xan- terol in both groups relative to their initial values
thine oxidase activity in rabbits. was significant. No significant harmful changes
Administration of roselle leaf extract (200 and in cholesterol, triglyceride, BUN (blood urea
300 mg/kg) together with continuous cholesterol nitrogen), serum creatinine, Na and K levels were
feeding of hyperlipidaemic Wistar rats for 4 observed within 15 days after the discontinuation
weeks showed significant reduction in serum of the medication.
cholesterol level by 18.5 % and 22 %; serum tri- In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, ran-
glyceride level by 15.6 % and 20.6 %; serum domized trial conducted in India involving 60
LDL level by 24 % and 30 % and serum VLDL subjects with serum LDL values in the range of
level by 15.5 % and 20.5 %, respectively, as com- 130–190 mg/dL and with no history of coronary
pared to cholesterol group (Gosain et al. 2010). heart disease, daily consumption of roselle leaf
However, no significant change in HDL level was extract (1 g/day) did not appear to have a blood
observed. Roselle extract 300 mg/kg was more lipid-lowering effect (Kuriyan et al. 2010). Body
effective than 200 mg/kg dose but less effective weight, serum LDL cholesterol and triglyceride
than the standard drug, atorvastatin. The results levels decreased in both groups; there were no
indicate that roselle exhibited the hypolipidaemic significant differences between the experimental
effect and that 300 mg/kg dose had the best hypo- and placebo group.
lipidaemic effect.

Clinical Studies Antiobesity Activity

In a clinical study of 42 volunteers, 18–75 years
old, with a cholesterol level of 175–327 mg/dL, Roselle extract inhibited the adipocyte differen-
ingestion of two capsules of roselle extract (with tiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes induced by insulin,
Hibiscus sabdariffa 347

dexamethasone and isobutylmethylxanthine (Gurrola-Díaz et al. 2010). Additionally, a

(IBMX) in a dose-dependent manner (Kim et al. triglyceride-lowering effect was observed in
2003). Its inhibitory effect was found to be partly MeSy patients treated with roselle-powdered
via its suppression on the expression of adipo- extract plus diet and in individuals without MeSy
genic transcription factors, including CCAAT treated with HSEP. Significant differences in
element-binding protein (C/EBP)-alpha and per- total cholesterol, HDL-C and triacylglycerols/
oxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)- HDL-C ratio were found when the means of
gamma. Seven Brazilian plant species including absolute differences among treatments were
Hibiscus sabdariffa afforded preclinical data that compared.
indicated a potential role in the control of certain Roselle extract had been reported to show
conditions associated with obesity, such as hyper- therapeutic promise in the prevention of meta-
lipidaemia (Dickel et al. 2007). In vitro studies bolic syndrome, an obesity-associated collection
showed that roselle extract inhibited adipocyte of disorders, each of which contributed to cardio-
differentiation through the modulation of PI3-K/ vascular risk in patients; its effect was probably
Akt and ERK pathways that played pivotal roles due to its polyphenol content (Pérez-Torres et al.
during adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes 2013a). Further animal studies suggested that
(Kim et al. 2007). Further, the phosphorylation alteration in fatty acid metabolism in metabolic
and expression of MEK-1/ERK known to regu- syndrome (MS) rats caused impaired vascular
late the early phase of adipogenesis were clearly reactivity but treatment with roselle infusion
decreased with the addition of hibiscus extract. ameliorated this condition (Pérez-Torres et al.
Oral administration of Hibiscus sabdariffa 2013b). Body mass, intra-abdominal fat, triglyc-
aqueous extract, containing 33.64 mg of total erides, insulin, blood pressure, saturated, mono-
anthocyanins, significantly reduced body weight unsaturated FA, NEFAs (nonesterified fatty
gain in obese mice and increased liquid intake in acids), Δ9-, Δ6-desaturases and vasoconstriction
healthy and obese mice (Alarcon-Aguilar et al. were increased, while vasorelaxation, polyunsat-
2007). Alanine aminotransferase levels were sig- urated FA, endothelial nitric oxide and NO3/NO2
nificantly increased on the 15th and 45th day in ratio decreased in MS but roselle infusion modi-
obese mice, but aspartate aminotransferase levels fied it and increased Δ5-desaturase. Villalpando-
did not show significant changes. Triglycerides Arteaga et al. (2013) found that oral administration
and cholesterol levels showed nonsignificant of aqueous roselle extract reduced fat tissue accu-
reductions in animals treated with roselle. The mulation, diminished body weight gain and nor-
data confirmed the antiobesity effect of Hibiscus malized the glycemic index as well as reduced
sabdariffa reported by the Mexican population. dyslipidaemia compared to the obese mice
Rats fed on a basal diet supplemented with roselle group that did not receive roselle treatment.
calyx extract (15 %) showed a significant Further, roselle treatment attenuated liver steato-
decrease in weight, food consumption and effi- sis, downregulated sterol regulatory element-
ciency compared with control rats fed on the binding protein-1C (S)REBP-1c and peroxisome
basal diet but not at 5 % (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al. proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ);
2009). The 10 % extract-treated responses were blocked the increase of IL-1, TNF-α mRNA and
similar to the 15 % with the exception of food lipoperoxidation; and increased catalase mRNA.
consumption. The results suggested that the antiobesity, anti-
In a follow-up study carried out in a factorial, lipidaemic and hepatoprotective effects of roselle
randomized design, patients with metabolic syn- extract were related to the regulation of PPAR-γ
drome (MeSy) orally treated with Hibiscus sab- and SREBP-1c in the liver.
dariffa extract powder (HSEP) had significantly Seventy-two obese Iranian youths (mean age
reduced glucose and total cholesterol levels, of 14.21 ± 1.6, 35 boys) completed a triple blind
increased HDL-C levels and an improved TAG/ randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial to
HDL-C ratio, a marker of insulin resistance evaluate the effect of Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces
348 Malvaceae

in controlling dyslipidaemia (Sabzghabaee et al. against cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of hepato-

2013). Serum total cholesterol, low-density lipo- cytes induced by t-BHP may possibly be associ-
protein cholesterol and serum triglyceride ated with its free radical-scavenging ability.
showed a significant decrease in roselle-treated Studies showed that Hibiscus sabdariffa
group, but high-density lipoprotein cholesterol anthocyanins had hepatoprotective effect against
level was not changed significantly. The two t-BHP-induced cytotoxicity in primary hepato-
arms of the study (treated and controls) were not cytes and hepatotoxicity in rats (Wang et al.
statistically different in terms of age, gender, 2000). The extract was found to quench DPPH
weight, body mass index (BMI) and lipid profile free radicals in a preliminary study. The extract at
before the trial. The authors concluded that the concentrations of 0.10 and 0.20 mg/mL sig-
Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces powder may have nificantly decreased the leakage of lactate dehy-
significant positive effects on lipid profile of ado- drogenase and the formation of malondialdehyde
lescents which may be attributed to its polyphe- induced by a 30-min treatment of t-BHP
nolic and antioxidant content. (1.5 mM). The in vivo investigation showed that
the oral pretreatment of roselle (100 and 200 mg/
kg) for 5 days before a single dose of t-BHP
Hepatoprotective Activity (0.2 mmol/kg, i.p.) significantly lowered the
serum levels of hepatic enzyme markers (alanine
The chloroform-soluble fraction of roselle flower and aspartate aminotransferases) and reduced
ethanol extract showed the greatest capacity oxidative liver damage. The histopathological
of scavenging 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl evaluation of the liver revealed that hibiscus
(DPPH) free radical (EC50 = 0.017 mg/mL) and pigments reduced the incidence of liver lesions
the strongest inhibitory effect on xanthine oxi- including inflammatory, leucocyte infiltration
dase activity (Tseng et al. 1997). The chloroform, and necrosis induced by t-BHP in rats.
ethyl acetate and residual fractions were found Studies showed that pretreatment of rats with
to inhibit significantly the unscheduled DNA protocatechuic acid (PCA), a polyphenolic com-
synthesis induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide pound from Hibiscus sabdariffa (50–100 mg/kg),
(t-BHP) at a concentration of 0.20 mg/mL. The by gavage for 5 days before a single dose of
chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions also t-BHP (ip; 0.2 mmol/kg) significantly lowered
decreased the leakage of lactate dehydrogenase serum levels of the hepatic enzyme markers, lac-
(LDH) and the formation of malondialdehyde tate dehydrogenase, alanine aminotransferase
(MDA) induced by t-BHP (tert-butyl hydroper- and aspartate aminotransferase, and reduced oxi-
oxide) markedly at a concentration of 0.10 and dative stress of the liver by evaluating malondial-
0.20 mg/mL in the rat primary hepatocyte cul- dehyde and glutathione (Liu et al. 2002).
tures. The results indicated that the dried flower Histopathological evaluation of the rat livers
of H. sabdariffa L. protected rat hepatocytes revealed that PCA reduced the incidence of liver
from t-BHP-induced cytotoxicity and genotoxic- lesions, including hepatocyte swelling, leukocyte
ity by different mechanisms. (Tseng et al. 1996) infiltration and necrosis induced by t-BHP.
showed that roselle protocatechuic acid at con- Further, PCA inhibited t-BHP-induced tyrosine
centrations of 0.05 and 0.10 mg/mL significantly phosphorylation, an implication of the activation
decreased the leakage of lactate dehydrogenase of a stress signal pathway, in the liver. The results
and alanine transaminase and the formation of indicated that PCA protected against t-BHP-
malondialdehyde induced by treatment with t-BHP induced hepatotoxicity by its antioxidant and
in primary cultured rat hepatocytes. Roselle anti-inflammatory characteristics accompanied
protocatechuic acid also attenuated t-BHP- by blocking of stress signal transduction. Four
induced mitochondrial depolarization and effec- week administration of roselle extract (but not
tively quenched DPPH radicals. They concluded for 2 or 3 weeks) significantly improved liver
that roselle protocatechuic acid protective effects function of paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity
Hibiscus sabdariffa 349

in rats, but did not alter the histology of the inhibited the activation of the hepatic stellate
paracetamol-treated rats or the pentobarbitone- cells. Pretreatment of rats with aqueous roselle
induced sleeping time (Ali et al. 2003). At a dose extract resulted in significantly less hepatotoxic-
of 200 mg/Kg, the hepatic histology and the bio- ity than with cadmium alone as measured by
chemical indices of liver damage were restored to plasma alanine aminotransferase and liver L-
normal but lower doses were ineffective. Dahiru alanine and L-aspartate aminotransferases activi-
et al. (2003) found that oral administration of ties (Asagba et al. 2007). The extract also
roselle calyx extract following a single dose of protected the rats against Cd-induced liver, pros-
carbon tetrachloride promoted healing of oxida- tate and testis lipoperoxidation as evidenced by
tive liver damage as determined by serum amino- significantly reduced malondialdehyde values in
transferases ALT, AST levels and liver these organs, as well as reduced prostatic acid
thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance levels. phosphatase activity in the prostate, when com-
Studies by Lin et al. (2003) showed that pretreat- pared to the Cd-only exposed rats. The data
ment of rats with protocatechuic acid (PCA) for 5 suggested that H. sabdariffa might be protective
days exhibited inhibitory potential on iNOS and in cadmium toxicity.
hepatic damage induced by lipopolysaccharide Studies showed that roselle extract could
(LPS). PCA significantly decreased the serum increase the antioxidant defence systems and may
levels of the hepatic enzyme markers alanine and probably protect animals from gamma radiation-
aspartate aminotransferase (ALT, alanine amino- induced liver damage (Adaramoye et al. 2008).
transferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase) Treatment with roselle reduced gamma radiation-
induced by the 6-h treatment with LPS. It also induced increases in serum alanine transferase
reduced the incidence of liver lesions induced by after 24 h and decreased the levels of unconjugated
LPS, including neutrophil infiltration, conges- bilirubin 5 weeks after irradiation. Also treatment
tion, and liver cell swelling. In another study, pre- with roselle (400 and 800 mg/kg) significantly
treatment of rats with any of three herbal plants elevated the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH)
(H. sabdariffa, rosemary and sage) was found to by 41 % and 44 %, respectively, at 5 weeks.
have a protective effect against azathioprine- Another study demonstrated that aqueous roselle
induced hepatotoxicity (Amin and Hamza 2005). extract could protect BALB/c mouse liver from
Animals pretreated with water extracts from any of acetaminophen-induced injury and that the
the three herbs not only failed to show necrosis of protective mechanism might involve decreasing
the liver after azathioprine administration but also oxidative stress; decreasing expression of pJNK,
retained livers that, for the most part, were histo- Bax and tBid in the liver; and reducing cell death
logically normal. Further, these herbs blocked the (Liu et al. 2010a, b).
induced elevated levels of alanine aminotransferase Recent studies showed that pretreating BABL/c
and aspartate aminotransferase in serum. The mice with H. sabdariffa polyphenol extract
azathioprine-induced oxidative stress was relieved increased the level of glutathione (GSH), decreased
to varying degrees by the three herbal extracts. the level of lipid peroxidation and increased cata-
Roselle extract significantly and dose- lase activity in the liver (Lee et al. 2012).
dependently reduced the liver damage including Histopathological evaluation showed that roselle
steatosis and fibrosis in rats with carbon extract could decrease acetaminophen (AAP)-
tetrachloride-induced fibrosis (Liu et al. 2006). In induced liver sterosis accompanied by a decreased
addition, the extract significantly decreased ele- expression of AIF, Bax, Bid and p-JNK in the liver.
vation in plasma aspartate aminotransferase and An in vitro assay revealed that roselle extract could
alanine aminotransferase, restored the decrease reduce AAP-induced death of BABL/c normal
in glutathione content and inhibited the forma- liver cells (BNLs), reverse the lost mitochondrial
tion of lipid peroxidative products during CCl4 potency and improve the antioxidative status,
treatment. Roselle extract also significantly similarly to the results of the in vivo assay.
350 Malvaceae

Anti-inflammatory Activity Hibiscus acid and its 6-methyl ester were

respectively isolated as active principles from
Studies showed that polyphenols extracted from the 50 % methanol and acetone extracts of roselle
Hibiscus sabdariffa reduced 94.6 % of xanthine tea (Hansawasdi et al. 2000). In subsequent study,
oxidase activity in vitro and decreased nitrite hibiscus acid was found to show weak inhibition
and prostaglandin PGE(2) secretions in lipo- of starch digestion in the Caco-2 model system
polysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells and the methyl ester derivatives showed even
(Kao et al. 2009a). In LPS-treated rats, the weaker or no activity (Hansawasdi et al. 2001).
extract significantly decreased the serum levels The IC50 values of roselle inhibitory activity
of alanine and aspartate aminotransferase. In against pancreatic α-amylase occurred at concen-
the liver, lipid peroxidation and liver lesions tration of 3.52 mg/mL, against intestinal maltase
decreased, and catalase activity and glutathione at >5 mg/mL and intestinal sucrose at >5 mg/mL
increased. The results suggested that inhibition of (Adisakwattana et al. 2012). Total phenolic con-
lipopolysaccharide-induced hepatic inflamma- tent of roselle flowers was 460 mg/g dried extract
tion by roselle extract was attained by improving and flavonoid content amounted to 50.29 mg/g
antioxidative conditions and downregulation of dried extract. Combining roselle, chrysanthe-
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), p-c-Jun N-terminal mum, and butterfly pea extracts with mulberry
kinase (p-JNK) and p-P38. extract showed additive interaction on intestinal
The ethanol roselle calyx extract showed maltase inhibition. Combination of chrysanthe-
significant dose-related inhibition of ear oedema mum, mulberry, or bael extracts together with
formation in xylene-induced ear oedema in mice roselle extract produced synergistic inhibition,
compared with the blank control (Ali et al. 2011). whereas roselle extract showed additive inhibi-
Aqueous roselle extract rich in anthocyanins and tion when combined with butterfly pea extract
other phenolic compounds including hydroxycit- against pancreatic α-amylase. The results could
ric and chlorogenic acids was found to effectively be useful for developing functional foods by
protect cultured peripheral blood mononuclear combination of plant-based foods for treatment
cells from the cellular death induced by H2O2 and and prevention of diabetes mellitus. Aqueous
a significant role in the production of inflamma- extracts of red and white roselle varieties caused
tory cytokines (Beltrán-Debón et al. 2010). It stim- inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase activi-
ulated the production of interleukin IL-6 and IL-8 ties in vitro (Ademiluyi and Oboh 2013). The
and decreased the concentration of monocyte IC50 revealed that the red variety (25.2 μg/mL)
chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-)1 in supernatants exhibited higher α-glucosidase inhibitory activity
in a dose-dependent manner. In humans, the inges- than the white variety (47.4 μg/mL), while the
tion of an acute dose of the extract (10 g) was well white variety (90.5 μg/mL) exhibited higher
tolerated and decreased plasma MCP-1 concentra- α-amylase inhibitory activity than the red variety
tions significantly without further effects on other (187.9 μg/mL). However, the α-glucosidase
cytokines. This effect was not due to a concomitant inhibitory activities of both calyces were higher
increase in the antioxidant capacity of plasma than that of their α-amylase. Additionally, the red
but probably involved a direct inhibition of inflam- variety possessed higher antioxidant capacity as
matory and/or metabolic pathways responsible exemplified by the (•)OH scavenging abilities,
for MCP-1 production and may be relevant in Fe2+-chelating ability and inhibition of Fe(2+)-
inflammatory and chronic conditions. induced pancreatic lipid peroxidation in vitro. It
was concluded that inhibition of α-amylase and
α-glucosidase, coupled with strong antioxidant
Antidiabetic Activity properties, could be the possible underlying
mechanism for the antidiabetes properties of
Roselle tea extract was found to have high inhibitory H. sabdariffa calyces; however, the red variety
activity against porcine pancreatic α-amylase. appeared to be more potent.
Hibiscus sabdariffa 351

Studies showed that roselle polyphenol extract mediated via the stimulating effect on insulin
dose- and time-dependently reduced the high- secretion. Ethanolic roselle calyx extract 1.0 g/
glucose-stimulated vascular smooth muscle cell kg/day significantly decreased the blood glucose
proliferation and migration and suppressed the level by 38 % in streptozotocin-induced diabetic
proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) level rats but not in normal rats (Wisetmuen et al.
and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 activa- 2013). In normal rats, treatment with 1.0 g/kg
tion (Huang et al. 2009). Further, the expressions extract increased the basal insulin level signifi-
of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and cantly as compared with control normal rats.
receptor of advanced glycation end product Further, diabetic rats treated with 1.0 g/kg extract
(RAGE) enhanced by high glucose were promi- also showed a significant increase in basal insulin
nently suppressed by roselle extract. The results level as compared with the control diabetic rats.
suggested that roselle polyphenols potentially The results suggested that the antidiabetic activ-
could be a promising adjuvant herbal therapy for ity of roselle extract may be partially mediated
diabetic patients. In another study, H. sabdariffa via the stimulating effect on insulin secretion.
polyphenolic extract was shown to inhibit high
glucose-stimulated cellular changes (Peng et al.
2011). At least 18 phenolic compounds were Haematological Activity
found in the extract. Treatment with the extract
reduced hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia, After 14 days of roselle calyx aqueous extract
especially at the dose of 200 mg/kg, and decreased administration, significant elevations were
serum triacylglycerol, cholesterol, and the ratio observed in haematocrit and haemoglobin in the
of low-density lipoprotein/high-density lipopro- groups of rats administered doses of 200 and
tein (LDL/HDL). Diabetes promoted plasma 400 mg/kg while the groups given higher doses
advanced glycation end product (AGE) forma- revealed significant reductions in the haematocrit
tion and lipid peroxidation, while roselle extract but not in haemoglobin (Adigun et al. 2006). The
significantly reduced these elevations. presence of some nutrients, e.g. protein, mineral
Immunohistological observation revealed that elements (potassium) and vitamin C in the calyx,
roselle extract inhibited the expression of CTGF was confirmed. The results suggested that aque-
and RAGE, which were increased in type 2 dia- ous extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa calyx had ben-
betic aortic regions. In addition, roselle extract eficial effects on the red cells at low doses
reverted the weight loss found in type 2 diabetic (200–400 mg/kg) which may not be sustained at
rats. The study demonstrated the anti-insulin higher doses.
resistance properties of roselle polyphenolic
extract and its effect on hypoglycemia, hypolipi-
daemia and antioxidation. The results suggested Antispasmodic Activity
that it had potential to be an adjuvant for diabetic
therapy. Ethanolic roselle calyx extract 1.0 g/kg/ Addition of an aqueous extract of roselle calyces
day significantly decreased the blood glucose (2.5 mL/bath approximately 125 mg of starting
level by 38 % in streptozotocin-induced diabetic crude material) inhibited the tone of various iso-
rats but not in normal rats (Wisetmuen et al. lated muscle preparations (rabbit aortic strip,
2013). In normal rats, treatment with 1.0 g/kg rhythmically contracting rat uterus, guinea pig
extract increased the basal insulin level signifi- tracheal chain and rat diaphragm) (Ali et al.
cantly as compared with control normal rats. 1991). Studies suggested that roselle aqueous
Interestingly, diabetic rats treated with 1.0 g/kg extract relaxed vascular smooth muscle in iso-
extract also showed a significant increase in basal lated rat aorta via a mechanism associated with
insulin level as compared with the control dia- an inhibition of Ca2+ influx through receptor-
betic rats. The results suggested that the antidia- operated channels and also on inhibition of Ca2+
betic activity of roselle extract may be partially release from intracellular stores (Owolabi et al. 1995).
352 Malvaceae

Hibiscus sabdariffa methanol extract exhibited Aflatoxin Production

a significant dose-dependent relaxant effect Inhibition Activity
(IC50 = 350 μM) on rat ileal strip comparable to
the effect shown by nifedipin and papaverine H. sabdariffa calyx extract at concentrations of 5,
as reference compounds (Salah et al. 2002). 7.5, 10 and 12.5 g/100 mL inhibited aflatoxin
Similarly, the extract when administered intra- B1production by 91.5–97.9 % and 87.1–93.3 %
peritoneally significantly reduced the intestinal for Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, respec-
transit (13–35 %) in rats (IC50 = 250 μM). The tively, but had no significant effect on growth of
extracts (40 %) and nifedipin (51 %) also poten- either Aspergillus species (El-Nagerabi et al.
tiated the diarrhoea-inducing effect of castor oil 2012).
(IC50 = 350 μM). It was postulated that these
effects were possibly generated by constituents
such as quercetin and eugenol via a Ca2+ channel- Antityrosinase and Cosmeceutical
modulated mode of action. Roselle calyx extract Activities
increased micturition thresholds in a dose-depen-
dent manner in rats after bladder inflammation The aglycones of kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside and
and after bilateral hypogastric neurectomy quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, from roselle leaves,
(Fouda et al. 2007). Neither atropine (0.1 mg/kg) were found to have good tyrosinase inhibitory
nor propranolol (0.4 mg/kg) had significant activity 90.1 % and 95.4 % and 50.1 % and 73 %
effects on cystometric parameters. They also did inhibition of DOPA (dihydroxyphenylalanine)
not affect the responses obtained by roselle oxidation, respectively (Sawabe et al. 2005). The
extract on cystometric parameters. Roselle 1-butanol leaf extract was found to be promising
extracts inhibited both the rate and amplitude of as a cosmetic agent. Of four species of Hibiscus
uterine contractions in a dose-dependent manner tested, leaves of H. sabdariffa (5 %) had the
as with bladder response. A slight, but signifi- weakest antityrosinase activity (Wong et al.
cant, reduction of contraction amplitude by 2010) Ranking of antityrosinase activity was
roselle extract in the oxytocin precontracted uteri H. tiliaceus > H. mutabilis > H. rosa-sinensis ~
was only noted at a dose of 500 mg/kg. H. sabdariffa.
In the concentration range of 0.02–7.68 mg/ Studies showed that liposome formulations
mL, roselle petal aqueous extract did not exhibit containing roselle calyx extracts had good stabil-
a measurable contractile effect on the rat aorta ity, high entrapment efficacy, increased skin per-
ring; contrariwise, in tissues with noradrenaline- meation and low skin irritation and may have
induced tone, vasorelaxation was observed with potential for development as active ingredients in
cumulative concentrations of roselle extract and cosmetic products (Pinsuwan et al. 2010). Studies
reached a mean of 91 % at a concentration of showed that liposome-capsulated anthocyanin
1.70 mg/mL, with an EC50 of 0.53 mg/mL (LCA) from Hibiscus sabdariffa may be suitable
(Obiefuna et al. 1993). This relaxation response as a photoprotective agent for the skin (Hwang
was significantly attenuated by removal of the et al. 2013). Overexposure to UV radiation could
endothelium. Sarr et al. (2009) found that roselle lead to the formation of free radicals and trigger
calyx crude extracts induced mainly endothelium- inflammation and hyperpigmentation of the skin.
dependent relaxant effects in isolated thoracic Anthocyanin exhibited scavenging activity on
aorta of male Wistar rats. The biological effi- DPPH radical with the inhibitory rate of 11 and
ciency of the various studied extracts, in term of 24 % at 20 and 50 mg/mL concentration treat-
vasorelaxant capacity, showed that butanol ment, respectively, and inhibitory effects on mel-
extract > crude extract > residual marc > ethyl ace- anin production by 8, 14, 23 and 30 % at 5, 10, 20
tate extract. The results suggested that the strong and 50 mg/mL concentration treatment, respec-
activity of the butanolic extract was primarily due tively. However, LCAs enhanced DPPH scaveng-
to the presence of anthocyans. ing activity (64 and 76 % at 20 and 50 mg/mL
Hibiscus sabdariffa 353

concentration treatment, respectively) and acetate-soluble fraction exhibited a significant

inhibitory effects against melanin synthesis dose-dependent immunostimulation higher than
(23, 35, 43 and 60 % at 5, 10, 20 and 50 mg/mL that observed for levamisole (positive control).
concentration treatment, respectively). The results established the immuno-enhancing
Anthocyanin-inhibited melanin synthesis was properties of the extracts of this plant confirming
found to occur through the inhibition of tyrosi- that the immunomodulatory activity is cell medi-
nase enzymatic activity and suppression of the ated and humoral.
protein expression of tyrosinase and microph-
thalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF).
Liposome encapsulation was found to increase Anxiolytic/Sedative Activity
the stabilization of anthocyanin and the inhibi-
tion of melanogenesis. Aqueous roselle calyx (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg,
i.p.) exerted a remarkable dose-dependent
decrease in spontaneous motor activity in mice
Immunomodulatory Activity and increased the duration of pentobarbital
(40 mg/kg, i.p.) induced sleep in rats (Amos et al.
All fractions of neutral water-soluble polysac- 2003). Roselle extract significantly reduced the
charides isolated from roselle flower buds exploratory behaviour in mice. The extract sig-
showed immune-modulating activity (Müller nificantly inhibited the intensity of apomorphine
and Franz 1992). Roselle calyx infusion (1 mg/kg, s.c.) induced stereotypic behaviour and
decreased mitogen-induced blastogenesis of attenuated climbing in the mice dose-dependently.
human T lymphocytes in vitro but did not affect Similarly, chlorpromazine (3 mg/kg, i.p.) blocked
the level of spontaneous proliferation (Rapavi apomorphine-induced stereotype behaviour sig-
et al. 2006). The results suggested that roselle nificantly. The results suggested that the aqueous
infusion may alleviate overstimulated condition roselle extract may contain psychoactive sub-
of the immune system in hypersensitivity stances that accounted for its use in traditional
conditions. medicine as a sedative.
The water and alcohol extracts (including its Animal studies using the elevated-plus maze
fractions) of the dried roselle calyx at doses of and ketamine-induced sleep in animal models
50 mg/kg were found to possess higher immuno- showed that roselle aqueous, hydroalcoholic and
stimulatory activities in mice in comparison with ethanolic extracts possessed anxiolytic and seda-
levamisole (positive control), with significant tive effects which became more pronounced with
effects when compared with the vehicle-treated administration of repeated doses of the extracts
group (Fakeye 2008; Fakeye et al. 2008a). (Fakeye et al. 2008b). The extracts exhibited a
Increased activity was observed with increase in dose-dependent increase in the time spent in the
doses of the 50 % ethanol and absolute ethanol open arm with ethanol extracts having the best
extracts. The insoluble fraction exhibited a sig- anxiolytic activity. The fractions of the hydroal-
nificant dose-dependent immunostimulatory coholic extracts showed no significant anxiolytic
activity, while the residual water-soluble fraction activity. Neither the extracts nor the fractions sig-
exhibited activity at 100 mg/kg body weight. The nificantly reduced or increased latency to sleep
production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha after a single dose except hydroalcoholic at
(TNF-alpha) was low in all the roselle extract 300 mg/kg. There was significant reduction in
groups tested, while the production of interleukin onset of sleep and increase in sleeping time with
10 (IL-10) was high compared with the control. multiple doses of aqueous and hydroalcoholic
The insoluble fraction exhibited a profound dose- extracts. A reduction in sleeping time after sev-
dependent immunostimulatory activity higher eral daily doses of ethanol extracts doses was
than the positive control at 100 mg/kg. The ethyl observed.
354 Malvaceae

Anticlastogenic Activity mesenchymal transition (EMT) and accompanying

fibrosis. Another recent study showed that aque-
A crude aqueous roselle extract was found to ous roselle extracts attenuated the progression of
have anticlastogenic effects against sodium chronic kidney disease in 5/6 nephrectomy rats;
arsenite-induced micronuclei formation in Swiss systolic blood pressure (SBP) and serum levels of
albino mice (Adetutu et al. 2004) Administration malondialdehyde were significantly lower at
of a crude roselle extract evoked a significant week 7 (Seujange et al. 2013). Roselle treated 5/6
reduction of micronuclei in polychromatic nephrectomy rats had fewer renal injuries as
erythrocytes. measured by blood urea nitrogen, serum creati-
nine, creatinine clearance and renal pathology
when compared with untreated group.
Nephroprotective Activity

Studies showed that roselle polyphenol extract Wound-Healing Activity

reduced kidney mass induced by streptozotocin
significantly, as well as improving hydropic Creams containing H. sabdariffa extract showed
change of renal proximal convoluted tubules in significant and concentration-dependent wound-
the rats (Lee et al. 2009). The extract also signifi- healing activities in rats with superficial skin
cantly reduced serum triglyceride, total choles- excision wounds (Builders et al. 2013). There
terol and LDL in streptozotocin-induced rats and was also evidence of synergism with creams
significantly increased the activity of catalase containing a combination of gentamicin and
and glutathione and reduced lipid peroxidation H. sabdariffa extract. The extract demonstrated
(thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, antioxidant properties with a total flavonoid con-
TBARS). The results highlighted the beneficial tent of 12.30 mg/g.
effects of roselle polyphenols on STZ-induced
diabetic nephropathy including pathology, serum
lipid profile and oxidative marker in the rat’s kid- Antinociceptive Activity
ney. Another study showed that roselle aqueous
extract was capable of reducing lipid peroxida- In acetic acid-induced writhing test, the ethanol
tion, increasing catalase and glutathione activi- roselle calyx extract significantly inhibited writh-
ties significantly in diabetic kidney and decreasing ing in mice compared with the blank control (Ali
the plasma levels of triglyceride, low-density et al. 2011).
lipoprotein (LDL) and increasing high-density
lipoprotein (HDL) value (Wang et al. 2011).
Roselle extract improved hyperglycemia-caused Antipyretic Activity
osmotic diuresis in renal proximal convoluted
tubules in diabetic rats. The results showed that Hibiscus sabdariffa aqueous extract had no effect
roselle extract ameliorated diabetic nephropathy on paw oedema but had an inhibitory effect on
via improving oxidative status and regulating yeast-induced pyrexia and a significant effect on
Akt/Bad/14-3-3γ signalling. Recent animal stud- the hot plate reaction time (Dafallah and
ies showed that treatment with roselle polyphe- Al-Mustafa 1996). Among the phytoconstituents
nol extract had the potential to be an adjuvant for found in both plants, flavanoids, polysaccharides
diabetic nephropathy by reducing angiotensin II and organic acids may be mainly responsible for
receptors (AT)-1 and transforming growth factor these pharmacological activities. In another
β1 (TGF-β1) evoked by high glucose and recov- study, oral administration of the ethanol and the
ered the increased vimentin and decreased vacuum-dried extract of H. sabdariffa calyces
E-cadherin (Yang et al. 2013). Roselle extract (200–800 mg/kg, p.o.) decreased the yeast-
decreased fibronectin, thus avoiding epithelial to induced fever in rats (Reanmongkol and Itharat
Hibiscus sabdariffa 355

2007). Oral administration of the ethanol extract when perfused with furosemide. Quercetin
at the dose of 800 mg/kg significantly decreased present in the extract had effect on the vascular
the number of contortions and stretchings induced endothelium causing oxide nitric release,
by acetic acid in mice. The aqueous extract had increasing renal vasorelaxation by increasing
no effect on this test. Neither the ethanol nor kidney filtration. Therefore, they concluded the
aqueous extract had an effect in the formalin and diuretic effect of Hibiscus sabdariffa may be
hot plate tests in mice. The H. sabdariffa extract mediated by nitric oxide release.
had no effect on carrageenin-induced paw
oedema in rats. The results suggested that the
ethanol and aqueous extract (vacuum dry) of Nootropic Activity
H. sabdariffa calyces possessed antipyretic
action through mechanisms that were different The aqueous roselle calyx extracts (100 and
from that of aspirin. 200 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly attenuated amnes-
tic deficits induced by scopolamine (0.4 mg/kg,
i.p.) and natural aging in mice (Joshi and Parle
Antidiarrhoeal Activity 2006). Roselle extract decreased the transfer
latencies and increased step-down latencies sig-
Rats administered roselle calyces and Ocimum nificantly in the aged mice and scopolamine-
gratissimum leaf extracts experienced an increase induced amnesic mice as compared with
in transit time indicating that both plant extracts piracetam (200 mg/kg, i.p.). Roselle was found to
could be useful at appropriate doses in the control significantly decrease acetyl cholinesterase activ-
of diarrhoea (Owulade et al. 2004). Roselle was ity in mice. The results indicated that aqueous
more effective in this regard. Ali et al. (2011) roselle extract may prove to be a useful memory
found that the ethanol roselle calyx extract restorative agent in the treatment of dementia in
exerted a significant antidiarrhoeal activity the elderly.
against castor oil-induced diarrhoeal in mice in
which it decreased the frequency of defecation
and increased the mean latent period at the doses Immunoprotective Activity
of 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight.
The anthocyanin-rich roselle calyx extract sig-
nificantly and dose-dependently increased the
Diuretic/Naturetic Activity lowered viability of cadmium-treated U937 cells
and cadmium-mediated activation of U937-
Aqueous roselle petal extract was found to have derived macrophages (Okoko and Ere 2012). The
diuretic activity (Mojiminiyi et al. 2000). Studies extract also reduced the cadmium-mediated pro-
by Jiménez-Ferrer et al. (2012) found that the duction of the markers of macrophage activation
diuretic, natriuretic and potassium-sparing effects when compared to quercetin dihydrate. The
of Hibiscus sabdariffa aqueous extract were results showed roselle to possess immunoprotec-
partly due to modulation of aldosterone activity tive effect that could be exploited for pharmaco-
by anthocyanins, flavonoids and chlorogenic acid logical and neutraceutical advantages.
present in the extract. Hibiscus sabdariffa
aqueous extract showed a dose-dependent
diuretic and natriuretic effect (Alarcón-Alonso Antiprotozoal Activity
et al. 2012). The pharmacological constants of
natriuretic effect was ED50 = 86 mg/kg and Animal studies showed that consumption of
Emax = 0.9 mEq/100 g/5 h. It was observed that roselle extract ameliorated the pathological
renal filtration increased 48 % with the aqueous changes in blood and organs of Trypanosoma
roselle extract and an additive effect was obtained congolense-infected rats (Umar et al. 2009).
356 Malvaceae

After 2 weeks of infection the roselle extract and (standard antioxidant) significantly inhibited the
vitamin C kept the parasitaemia significantly induction of micronucleated polychromatic
lower than the untreated infected group. The erythrocytes by sodium arsenite (2.5 mg/kg) after
anaemia in the untreated infected group was sig- 24 h by 60, 70 and 50 %, respectively indicating
nificantly more severe than that of the corre- that extract of H. sabdariffa showed strong anti-
sponding roselle extract- or vitamin-treated mutagenic activity (Farombi and Fakoya 2005).
groups. Trypanosoma congolense infection In another study, roselle extract dose-dependently
caused significant decreases in serum total pro- inhibited the mutagenicity of 1-nitropyrene in
teins and albumin, serum and organ ascorbic acid microsuspension assay and dose-dependently
as well as significant elevation of serum alanine decreased proliferation of transformed human
amino transferase levels in untreated rats. HeLa cells (Olvera-García et al. 2008). These
Consumption of roselle extract or vitamin C, effect were attributed probably to its phenolic
however, prevented these disease-induced anom- acids composition as its hot aqueous extract was
alies in the treated infected rats. Consumption of found to contain 22.27 mg of protocatechuic acid
roselle extract also significantly retarded the rate per gram of lyophilized dried extract.
of weight gain in both healthy and infected rats. Quercetin but not kaempferol was found to be
the mutagen in roselle colour as determined by
mutagenicity test with Salmonella typhimurium
Antimutagenic/Mutagenic Activity TA98 (Takeda and Yasui 1985).

The 80 % ethanol extract of roselle reduced about

60–90 % of the mutagenicity induced by Keratinocyte-Stimulating Activity
2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyri-
dine (PhIP) and other heterocyclic amines: Raw polysaccharides isolated from roselle flow-
2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ); ers and all acidic subfractions caused a strong
2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f] stimulation of proliferation of human keratino-
quinoline(MelQ); 2-amino-3, 8-dimethylimidazo- cytes (HaCaT) of up to 40 %, while the neutral
[4,5-f]quinoxaline(MelQx); 3-amino-1,4-dimet polymers were ineffective (Brunold et al. 2004).
hyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-1); 3-amino- While mitochondrial activity was not influenced,
1-methyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-2); raw polysaccharides induced early differentiation
2-amino-6-methyldipyrido[1,2- a:3′,2′-d] of primary natural human keratinocytes, as deter-
imidazole (Glu-P-1); and 2-aminodipyrido[1,2- mined by involucrin formation
a:3′,2′-d]imidazole (Glu-P-2), at a concentration
of 12.5 mg/plate in the Salmonella mutation
assay (Chewonarin et al. 1999). The extract Antiparasitic Activity
showed no mutagenicity and no antibacterial
activity below this dose. Mutagenicity of methyl- Hibiscus sabdariffa was one of five plants that
azoxymethanol (MAM) acetate, a colon carcino- showed toxic activity against cercariae and mira-
gen, was also efficiently inhibited by the roselle cidia of Schistosoma mansoni at 50–100 ppm
extract. In a colon carcinogenesis model in F344 concentration (Elsheikh et al. 1990).
rats, the roselle extract decreased the number of
azoxymethane AOM- and PhIP-induced 2-amino-
1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine aber- Reproductive Hormonal Activity
rant crypt focus (ACF) formation in the initiation
stage, although it rather increased the number of The aqueous roselle calyx extract at a dose of
ACF in the post-initiation stage. Treatment of rats 500 mg/kg i.p. induced an oestrogen-like activity
with chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions of in immature female rats (Ali et al. 1989). The
roselle ethanol flower extract and vitamin C activity of roselle on the increase of the uterine
Hibiscus sabdariffa 357

weight was about 1/3 of that of oestradiol at the H. sabdariffa aqueous extract nor its anthocyanins
dose of 2 mg/kg s.c. Studies showed that sub- significantly altered either rat testicular weight and
chronic administration of aqueous roselle calyx histology or uterus weight. Plasma concentrations
extract induced testicular toxicity in rats of the three hormones, testosterone, luteinizing
(Orisakwe et al. 2005). There was no significant hormone and oestradiol, studied; the testicular
change in the absolute and relative testicular concentrations of protein; reduced glutathione and
weights; however, there was a significant decrease total cholesterol; and superoxide dismutase activ-
in the epididymal sperm counts in the 4.6 g/kg ity were all insignificantly affected by either the
group, compared to the control. The 1.15 g/kg extract or the anthocyanins, except for a slight, but
dose group showed distortion of tubules and a statistically significant, decrease in testicular pro-
disruption of normal epithelial organization, tein concentration caused by the 15 % aqueous
while the 2.3 g/kg dose showed hyperplasia of extract when compared with controls. The results
testis with thickening of the basement membrane suggest that H. sabdariffa exerted no adverse
and 4.6 g/kg dose group showed disintegration of effect on the male reproductive system.
sperm cells. Studies showed that aqueous roselle Consumption of H. sabdariffa aqueous extract
extract consumption during lactation signifi- inhibited the growth of the rats compared with the
cantly decreased maternal fluid and food intake, controls. Another study found that both H. sabdar-
increased postnatal weight gain and delayed the iffa and Zingiber officinale treatment increased the
onset of puberty in the female Sprague-Dawley activities of testicular antioxidant enzymes (super-
rat offspring (Iyare and Adegoke 2008a). The oxide dismutase, reduced glutathione and catalase),
increased postnatal weight gain, delayed puberty reduced sperm abnormality, and restored level of
onset and elevated body mass index at onset of malondialdehyde (lipid peroxidation marker) and
puberty in the offspring of rats that consumed sperm motility of cisplatin-treated male albino rats
roselle during pregnancy were found to be asso- (Amin and Hamza 2006).
ciated with elevated maternal plasma Na ion and
corticosterone levels during pregnancy (Iyare and
Adegoke 2008b). Studies found that that con- Pharmacokinetic Studies
sumption of aqueous roselle extract during the
juvenile–pubertal period (21–42 postnatal days) Studies of six healthy volunteers found that
decreased fluid and food consumption, increased within 7 h of consumption of a single oral dose of
weight gain and delayed puberty onset in rats 150 mL of H. sabdariffa extract yielding 62.6 mg
(Iyare and Nwagha 2009). In another study, they of cyanidin-3-sambubioside, 81.6 mg of
found decreased maternal fluid and food intake delphinidin-3-sambubioside and 147.4 mg of
and an increased maternal plasma Na(+) and cor- total anthocyanins (calculated as cyanidin equiv-
ticosterone concentration in roselle-treated alents), the urinary excretion of cyanidin-3-
female Sprague-Dawley dams with delayed sambubioside, delphinidin-3-sambubioside and
puberty (Iyare et al. 2010). They ascribed the total anthocyanins (i.e. the sum of all quantifiable
effects and delayed puberty in roselle-treated anthocyanidin glycosides) was 0.016 %, 0.021 %,
female offsprings may be through increased cor- and 0.018 % of the administered doses, respec-
ticosterone and decreased leptin delivery through tively (Frank et al. 2005). The dose-normalized
breast milk. plasma area under the curve estimates was 0.076,
Studies by Mahmoud (2012) demonstrated that 0.032, and 0.050 ng × h/mL/mg for cyanidin-3-
aqueous extracts from dried calyx of H. sabdar- sambubioside, delphinidin-3-sambubioside and
iffa, either cold or boiled, altered normal sperm total anthocyanins, respectively. The dose-
morphology and testicular ultrastructure and normalized C(max) estimates were 0.036, 0.015,
adversely influenced the male reproductive fer- and 0.023 ng/mL/mg in the same sequence. The
tility in albino mice. However, recent studies by urinary excretion of intact anthocyanins was fast
Ali et al. (2012) found that neither the and appeared to be monoexponential.
358 Malvaceae

Seventeen polyphenols and metabolites were curve and the volume of distribution of hydro-
detected in rat plasma after acute ingestion of a chlorothiazide achieved over the 24-h sampling
polyphenol-enriched aqueous Hibiscus sabdar- period. The results revealed a possible herb–drug
iffa extract (Fernández-Arroyo et al. 2012). interaction involving hydrochlorothiazide and
Although phenolic acids were found in plasma roselle, used as an ingredient in medicinal or
without any modification in their structures, most refreshing drinks in many countries.
flavonols were found as quercetin or kaempferol In a controlled study in healthy human volun-
glucuronide conjugates. Flavonol glucuronide teers, ingestion of aqueous roselle calyx beverage
conjugates were proposed to contribute to the after administration of diclofenac was found to
observed lipid peroxidation inhibitory activity in reduce the quantity of diclofenac excreted in the
the cellular membranes. By contrast, phenolic urine compared to control (Fakeye et al. 2007).
acids appeared to exert their antioxidant activity
through ferric ion reduction and superoxide scav-
enging at shorter times. Toxicity Studies

Rats-fed mesta seed oil had inferior growth and

Proteinase Inhibitory Activity reproductive performance and also had altered
liver metabolism (Rukmini et al. 1982). The
Karkade defatted flour and protein were found to authors asserted that raw or refined mesta oil may
have chymotrypsin inhibitory activity which was not be suitable for human consumption. Studies
almost half that of trypsin (Abu-Tarboush and showed that prolonged usage of roselle extract at
Ahmed 1996). The trypsin inhibitory activity of 15-dose level of 250 mg/kg each could cause
the protein isolate was 70 % of that of the defat- liver injury while the effect was mild at small
ted flour extracts. Heating the extract in boiling dose levels (1–10) in Wistar albino rats
water for 10 min destroyed 66.1 % of the trypsin (Akindahunsi and Olaleye 2003). The group with
inhibitor activity. 15 doses had their serum level of albumin signifi-
cantly increased. Though the average consump-
tion of 150–180 mg/kg per day appeared safe, the
Plant/Drug Interaction Activity extract should be taken with caution bearing in
mind that higher doses could affect the liver.
Studies showed that intake of roselle drink by six Studies showed that the aqueous roselle calyx
healthy male volunteers 1.30 h prior to adminis- extract administered for 12 weeks induced tes-
tration of acetaminophen did not change acet- ticular toxicity in rats (Orisakwe et al. 2005). The
aminophen absorption parameters t1/2a, Ka, Tmax, 1.15 g/kg dose group showed distortion of tubules
Cmax and AUC0-α (Kolawole and Maduenyi and a disruption of normal epithelial organiza-
2004). However, statistically significant changes tion, while the 2.3 g/kg dose showed hyperplasia
in Kβ and t1/2β of acetaminophen when adminis- of testis with thickening of the basement mem-
tered after roselle drink were observed. This also brane. The 4.6 g/kg dose group showed disinte-
resulted in 11.69 % increase in ClT. gration of sperm cells and a significant decrease
Co-administration of roselle extract with in the epididymal sperm counts compared to the
hydrochlorothiazide, a diuretic drug, caused a control.
significant increase in the volume of urine Among several herbal tea plant infusions,
excreted and resulted in a decrease in the pH of highest concentrations of Al, B, Cu, Fe, P, K, Mn,
urine and the concentrations of sodium, bicar- Ni and Zn were detected in those prepared from
bonate and chloride ions in rabbits (Ndu et al. roselle petals (Malik et al. 2013). The total Al
2011). Co-administration of both materials allowance (up to 1.2 mg/L) suggested that no
increased and prolonged the plasma concentration, more than 1 L of the roselle infusion should be
the mean area under the concentration–time consumed per day by sensitive individuals
Hibiscus sabdariffa 359

including pregnant women and should be as a drink in bilious attacks; flowers contain
completely excluded from the diet of children gossypetin, anthocyanin and glucoside hibiscin,
under 6 months of age and children with chronic which may have diuretic and choleretic effects,
renal failure. decreasing the viscosity of the blood, reducing
Another toxicity studies showed that death of blood pressure and stimulating intestinal peri-
albino rats was preceded by a severe loss in stalsis (Duke et al. 2002). In Burma, the seeds
weight, accompanied with diarrhoea when given are used for debility and the leaves as emollient.
oral administration of 2,000 mg/kg dose of water Taiwanese regard the seed as diuretic, laxative
and alcohol extracts of dried roselle calyx for 90 and tonic. Angolans use the mucilaginous leaves
days (Fakeye et al. 2009). Significant reductions as an emollient and as a soothing cough remedy.
in the erythrocyte count with no difference in Roselle is an aromatic, astringent, cooling herb
total leucocyte count were observed. The activity that is much used in the Tropics (Mungole and
of aspartate aminotransferase was enhanced by Chaturvedi 2011). The leaves are antiscorbutic,
the administration of aqueous and 50 % ethanol emollient, diuretic, refrigerant and sedative
extract with a significant increase in its level at (Mungole and Chaturvedi 2011). In the
higher doses. Alanine aminotransferase and cre- Philippines, the bitter root is used as an aperitif
atinine levels were significantly affected by all and tonic (Perry 1980).
the extracts at the different dose levels. However, Hibiscus sabdariffa is also a traditional
aqueous extracts exhibited a significant increase Chinese rose tea and has been effectively used in
in creatinine levels at higher doses. No significant folk medicines for treatment of hypertension and
histopathological changes were observed, inflammatory conditions (Lin et al. 2011).
although there was a significant reduction in the Hibiscus sabdariffa, a local soft drink material
weight of the spleen of the animals administered and medicinal herb, is usually used effectively in
with ethanol and water extracts when compared native medicines against hypertension, pyrexia
with the control. and liver disorders (Chen et al. 2003). Hibiscus
sabdariffa popularly known in Mexico as
‘Jamaica’, ‘flor de Jamaica’, has been widely
Traditional Medicinal Uses used in Mexican Traditional Medicine as antihy-
pertensive and diuretic (Alarcón-Alonso et al.
Roselle flowers, leaves and to a lesser extent 2012), The beverages of the calyces are widely
seeds and roots have been used in traditional used in Mexico as diuretic, for treating gastroin-
medicine in the tropics as antiseptic, aphrodi- testinal disorders, liver diseases, fever, hypercho-
siac, astringent, cholagogue, demulcent, diges- lesterolemia and hypertension (Ojeda et al.
tive, diuretic, emollient, purgative, antipyretic, 2010). In folk medicine, the calyx extracts are
refrigerant, resolvent, sedative, mild laxative, used for the treatment of several complaints,
stomachic and tonic and as a folk remedy for including high blood pressure, liver diseases and
abscesses, bilious conditions, cancer, cough, fever (Ali et al 2005). In the Ayurvedic literature
debility, dyspepsia, dysuria, fever, hangover, of India, different parts of this plant have been
heart ailments, hypertension, neurosis, scurvy recommended as a remedy for various ailments
and strangury (Perry 1980; Duke 1983; Chopra like hypertension, pyrexia and liver disorders. In
et al. 1986; Bown 1995, Duke et al 2002). traditional medicine, roselle has been used as
Roselle drink made by placing, the calyx in antidotes to poisonous chemicals (acids, alkali,
water, is said to be a folk remedy for cancer. pesticides) and venomous mushrooms
Medicinally, leaves are emollient and are much (Chifundera et al. 1994). In Assam, leaves are
used in Guinea as a diuretic, refrigerant and sometimes used as medicine in dysentery of man
sedative; fruits are antiscorbutic; leaves, seeds and domestic animals (Patiri and Borah 2007).
and ripe calyces are diuretic and antiscorbutic; In Brazzaville, powdered calyces is used as an
and the succulent calyx, boiled in water, is used aphrodisiac on the penis (Adjanohoun et al. 1988),
360 Malvaceae

leaf juice is used as eye drop and oxytocic and 2013a). A study of the prevalence of herbal
pulp of the roots is used as local application for medicine use in a cohort of patients with chronic
abscess and administered for bronchitis (Bouquet kidney disease, dyslipidaemia and hypertension
1969). In Togo, finely powdered dried fruit is in Jordan found that the most common herbal
applied to sores and wounds (Adetutu et al. product used was H. sabdariffa (22.5 %) (Wazaify
2011). In Sudan, an infusion of the calyx is used et al. 2013).
to treat haematuria and headache and decoction
used for snake bite and scorpion sting (El-Kamali
2009). In Dogonland, Mali, powdered roselle Other Uses
fruit mixed with powdered tamarind bark is used
as local application for old wounds; powdered Roselle is an annual multi-use crop used in
macerated roselle flowers are similarly used food, animal feed, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuti-
(Inngjerdingen et al. 2004). In Saloun Island, cals and pharmaceuticals. The strong bast fibre
Senegal, roselle tea is used as a diuretic, chola- obtained from the stem (called India rosella
gogue and diaphoretic (Kerharo and Adam 1964). hemp, rosella fibre, rosella hemp, rozelle hemp,
Tea from crushed leaves soaked in water is taken Pusa hemp) (Crane 1949) is used for various
orally for epilepsy in Temeke district, Tanzania household purposes including making sack-
(Moshi et al. 2005). In Uganda, a decoction of cloth, gunnies, twine, ropes, cord and cordage
fresh leaves is taken orally for anaemia and as a substitute for jute in the manufacture of
(Namukobe et al. 2011). In Ogun State, Nigeria, burlap (Crane 1949; Rao 1996; Mungole and
the leaves are used for tuberculosis (Ogbole and Chaturvedi 2011). Roselle fibre may be as good
Ajaiyeoba 2010). In Senegal, an infusion of or even better than fibre of H. cannabinus
roselle calyx is taken orally for urinary problems (Burkill 1966). A yellow dye is obtained from
and to treat colibacillosis (Pousset 1989); roots the petals and used in medicine, etc. The seeds
are used as a purgative or laxative, dried leaves are fed to cattle in some parts of Africa (Burkill
used as sudorific and leaf decoction is used for 1966) and poultry. The seed yields 20 % oil
measles, roots pulped and used as poultice to which is useful as a lubricant.
mature abscesses and for bronchitis (Potel 2002). Studies showed that anthocyanin dye extracted
In Madagascar, juice from pounded leaves is from roselle flowers, the commercially available
used as coagulant with latex (Pernet 1957). In textile dye Remazole Red RB-133, could be used
Sierra Leone, a macerated and pounded leaves, in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) because of
flower concoction is taken orally for scurvy and their high stability (Abdou et al. 2013). The sta-
heated leaves used externally for sand-crack feet bility results favoured selecting anthocyanin as a
(Sawyerr 1983). In Egypt, a decoction or infusion promising sensitizer candidate in DSSCs based
of roselle flowers are administered for hyperten- on natural products.
sion and also used as an antimicrobial (Abouzid
and Mohamad 2011). In Cameroon, roselle flow-
ers are used in traditional treatment of malaria Comments
(Saotoing et al. 2011). In Bulamogi county,
Uganda, roselle leaf decoction is used to treat There are two botanical varieties in Hibiscus sab-
anaemia (Tabuti et al. 2003). In Central African dariffa: var. sabdariffa is mainly cultivated as
Republic, leaf decoction is used as mouth gargle food and var. altissima Wester grown commer-
(Vergiat 1969). In Burkina Faso, crushed seeds cially as a jute substitute (Morton 1987). H. sab-
are used as veterinary medicine (Tamboura et al. dariffa var. sabdariffa comprised dwarf, bushy
1998). H. sabdariffa aqueous extract, rich in sev- plants and has been categorized into four groups,
eral polyphenols, is commonly and effectively albus, intermedius, ruber and bhagalpuriensis,
used in native medicines against hypertension, based on pigmentation patterns in various plant
diabetes and liver disorders (Pérez-Torres et al. parts (Howard and Howard 1911).
Hibiscus sabdariffa 361

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 Hibiscus schizopetalus

Scientific Name Columbia: Arana, Canastilla (Choco), Waitutu

(Cuna)
Hibiscus schizopetalus (Dyer ex Masters) Cook Islands: Kaute Verevere, Kaute Very (Maori)
J. D. Hooker German: Hängender Roseneibisch
Hawaiian: Aloalo Ko’ako’a, Kulapepeiao
India: Jhumko Jaba (Bengali)
Synonyms Indonesian: Kembang Sepatu Sungsang
Japanese: Aka-Bana, Butusouge, Furin-Busoge,
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linnaeus var. schizopetalus Husso-Kwa
Dyer ex Masters Malaysia: Tanglong (Malay)
Naruan: Dorot
Nukuoro: Keleunleng, Pern Tikitik, Ros
Family Panama: Paraguita China
Pohnpeian: Kaanth, Keleun Wai, Koloun Wai
Malavaceae Samoan: ‘Aute, Aute, ‘Aute, ‘Aute Tipi, ‘Aute Tipi
Thai: Phu Ra Hong
Tongarevan: Kaute
Common/English Names

Chinese Lantern, Coral Hibiscus, East-African Origin/Distribution

Hibiscus, Fringed Rose Mallow, Fringed
Hibiscus, Japanese Hibiscus, Japanese Lantern, The species is a native of tropical East Africa—
Pagoda Flower, Schizopetalus, Skeleton Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique.
Hibiscus, Waltzing Ladies.

Agroecology
Vernacular Names
A tropical species but will also grow in the sub-
Brazil: Lanterninha (Portuguese) tropics. It does well in full sun or light shade. The
Chinese: Diao Deng Fu Sang, Diao-Deng-Hua, plant thrives in well-drained, moist sandy loam
Tiao-Tneh-Hua, Deng-Long-Hua, Teng Lung soil, rich in organic matter. The plant is intolerant
Hua, Lie Ban Zhu Jin, Lieh-Pan-Chu-Chin of drought.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 371
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_24, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
372 Malavaceae

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The flower petals are edible. Flowers have been

used in food in Taiwan (Hu 2005).

Botany

A glabrous, evergreen to semi-deciduous, erect

shrub, 3 m high with slender branchlets. Stipules
subulate, 2 mm, usually caducous; petiole
1–2 cm. Leaves elliptic or oblong, 4–7 cm by
1.5–4 cm, acute or shortly acuminate apex,
obtuse base, basal half of margin entire, distal
half serrate (Plate 1). Flowers solitary, axillary on Plate 1 Leaves and pendent flowers
upper branchlets, pendulous and elegant on
10–14 cm long pedicel. Epicalyx 8, small and
ciliate; calyx spatulate, tubular, shallowly Leaves of H. schizopetalus, H. sabdariffa and
5-toothed; petals 5, red or pink, 5 cm, deeply pin- H. rosa-sinensis had better FIC (ferrous iron che-
natifid, strongly reflexed; staminal tube 9–10 cm lating) ability than those of H. mutabilis, H. tili-
long, slender, glabrous; style 5-fid and glabrous aceus and H. taiwanensis. Leaves of species with
(Plate 1). Capsule oblong-cylindrical, 4 cm long higher TPC and AEAC had lower FIC ability for
by 1 cm across, glabrous. Seeds smooth. H. tiliaceus and H. mutabilis and vice versa for
H. schizopetalus and H. rosa-sinensis. The results
suggested the presence of compounds in leaves
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties of H. schizopetalus and H. rosa-sinensis with
relatively weak radical scavenging activity but
No published reports are available on the nutri- good metal chelating ability that could prevent
tive value of the flowers. the generation of hydroxyl radicals via Fenton’s
Two triterpene esters, named 22-hydroxyt- reaction. Flowers of H. schizopetalus had 516 mg
araxeryl acetate 1 and 22-hydroxytaraxeryl-cis- GAE/100 g total phenolic content (TPC), 192 mg
p-coumarate 2, were isolated from the leaves of cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalent (CGE)/100 g
Hibiscus schizopetalus (Jose and Vijayan 2006). total anthocyanin (TAC), 520 mg AA/100 g
Cyanidin-3-sambusophoroside was found as the ascorbic acid equivalent antioxidant capacity
major anthocyanin found in H. schizopetalus (AEAC) and 3.0 mg GAE/g ferric reducing
flowers (Lowry 1976). power (FRP). Based on TPC, ranking was H. tili-
Some pharmacological properties of the leaves aceus > H. rosa-sinensis > H. taiwanensis ~
and flowers reported include the following. H. schizopetalus ~ H. mutabilis > H. sabdariffa.
The red flowers of H. rosa-sinensis and
H. schizopetalus, which yielded the highest TAC,
Antioxidant Activity displayed high FIC ability and lipid peroxidation
inhibition (LPI) activity (Wong et al. 2009, 2010).
Total phenolic content (TPC) and ascorbic acid Species with low TAC such as H. mutabilis and
equivalent antioxidant capacity (AEAC) of H. sabdariffa displayed low or no FIC ability and
H. schizopetalus leaves were 336 mg gallic acid LPI activity. TAC appeared to be positively
equivalent(GAE)/100 g and 94 mg ascorbic correlated with FIC ability and LPI activity in
acid/100 g, respectively (Wong et al. 2010). flowers of Hibiscus species.
Hibiscus schizopetalus 373

Anti-inflammatory Activity Cuna Indians, and the flower infusion is used to

treat cold and cough in Columbia (Duke 2012).
The chloroform, methanol and petroleum ether
extracts of H. schizopetalus leaf exhibited signifi-
cant anti-inflammatory activity as evaluated by Other Uses
the carrageenan-induced paw oedema assay in
Wistar albino rats (Pal et al. 2011). The methanol The species is widely cultivated as an ornamental
extract was found to be the most potent followed plant in house gardens and parks. The Choco
by the chloroform and petroleum ether extracts, Indians in Columbia use the flowers for garlands.
respectively.

Comments
Analgesic Activity
The plant is readily propagated by stem cuttings.
The oral administration of the methanol flower
and methanol leaf extract of H. schizopetalus
(50, 100, 200 mg/kg, body weight) to mice caused Selected References
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Antipyretic Activity Hibiscus schizopetalus leaves. Indian J Chem B
45(5):1328–1331
The subcutaneous injection of brewer’s yeast to Lowry JB (1976) Floral anthocyanins of some Malesian
Hibiscus species. Phytochemistry 15:1395–1396
mice markedly increased the rectal temperature
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Traditional Medicinal Uses
Ya T, Gilbert MG, Dorr LJ (2007) Malvaceae. In: Wu ZY,
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 Hibiscus syriacus

Scientific Name Danish: Havehibiscus, Syrisk Rose, Syrisk Hibiskus

Dutch: Althaeastruik
Hibiscus syriacus L. Estonia: Süüria Hibisk
French: Althéa, Hibiscus De Syrie, Ketmie Des
Jardins, Ketmie De Syrie, Mauve De Syrie,
Synonyms Mauve En Arbre
German: Echter Roseneibisch, Garten-Hibiscus,
Althaea frutex Mill., Hibiscus acerifolius Salisb., Roseneibisch, Syrischer Eibisch, Syrischer
Hibiscus floridus Salisb., Hibiscus rhombifolius Rosen-Eibisch
Cav., Hibiscus syriacus var. micranthus Y.N. Lee & Italian: Ibico Syraicus
K.B. Yim, Ketmia arborea Moench, Ketmia syri- Japanese: Hachisu, Mokukinka, Mukuge
aca (L.) Scop., Ketmia syrorum Medik Korean: Moo Goong Hwa, Mugunghwa
Mexico: Flor De Una Hora, Tulipán
Philippines: Gumamelang Asul (Tagalog)
Family Polish: Hibiskus, Hibiskus Syryjski, Ketmia
Syryjska
Malvaceae Slovašcina: Oslez
Slovencina: Ibištek Sýrsky
Spanish: Hibisco, Rosa De Siria
Common/English Names Swedish: Frilandshibisku
Thai: Chaba Chin
Althaea, Bush Hollyhock, Common Hibiscus,
Mallow, Rose Althea, Rose Mallow, Rose Althea,
Rose Of Sharon, Rosemallow, Shrub Althea, Origin/Distribution
Shrubby Althaea, St Joseph’s Rod, Syrian
Hibiscus, Syrian Ketmia, Syrian Rose Despite its scientific name, this Hibiscus species
is a native of China, and it is found wild in Anhui,
Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Taiwan,
Vernacular Names Yunnan and Zhejiang; it is cultivated since
ancient times in Fujian, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei,
Brazil: Altéia-Arbustiva, Hibisco Hibisco-Colunar, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong
Hibisco-Da-Síria, Rosa-De-Sharão (Portuguese) and Xizang (Ya et al. 2007). It was introduced
Chinese: Mu Jin, Mu Jin Hua into Korea, Japan and Asia Minor and from the
Czech: Ibišek Syrský latter made its way into European gardens where

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 374
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_25, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Hibiscus syriacus 375

it has naturalized in southern Europe. Today, it is

popularly cultivated in Korea, Japan and in other
warm temperate and subtropical areas around the
world as ornamental plants and hedges. The plant
has also been grown in Malaysia but is more
suited for the higher cooler altitude.

Agroecology

In its native range, the plant is found on mountain

slopes, sea cliffs, hillsides, along streams and Plate 1 Flowers, buds and leaves
roadsides and is also extensively cultivated
below 1,200 m elevation. The plant is hardy, and it
withstands brief light frost, high temperatures and
brief period of drought. The plant is not fastidious
of soil types but thrives best in free-draining, near
neutral pH loams. It does best in full sun but will
tolerate light shade.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Young leaves and flowers are edible raw or

cooked (Hedrick 1972; Kunkel 1984; Tanaka
1976; Reid 1977; Hu 2005; Facciola 1990;
Plate 2 Deltoid-rhomboid leaves with serrated margins
Deane 2007–2012). In China, the leaves are also
used as a substitute for tea, and the petals of a
white cultivar are eaten as vegetable. In Korea, Flowers large, attractive, hermaphrodite, solitary,
since ancient times, the leaves are brewed for a axillary on upper branches, on 4–14 mm puberu-
tisane and the flowers eaten. Flowers have lent pedicels. Epicalyx 6–8 free, filiform lobes;
commercialization potential of flower teas, vinai- calyx campanulate with 5 puberulent deltoid
grettes, bulk dried petals and concentrated edible lobes, corolla 5–6 cm across, campanulate, with
petal pigment extracts. (Puckhaber et al. 2002; 5 obovate pilose lobes, 3.5–4.5 cm, blue-purple,
Bost 2004) violet, white, pink or reddish, sometimes with
darker centre; staminal column 3 cm; style
glabrous (Plates 2 and 3). Capsule ovoid-globose,
Botany 12 mm across, densely puberulent. Seeds reinform
with yellowish white hairs.
A deciduous, erect shrub, 2–4 m high with smooth
grey-brown bark. Stipules filiform-subulate and
pilose; petioles 0.5–2.5 cm long. Leaf alternate, Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
simple, rhomboid to triangular-ovate or broadly
lanceolate, variously 3-lobed, 3–10 × 2–4 cm, Phytochemicals in Flowers
papery, puberulent abaxially, glabrous adaxially,
green above, paler green below, veins 3–5 Ten carotenoids were found in the leaf, bud and
palmate veins, margin irregularly serrated, apex flower of H. syriacus (Hanny et al. 1972). Most
obtuse to subacute, base cuneate (Plates 1 and 2). abundant in buds and leaves were β-carotene and
376 Malvaceae

ovary and style with stigma (+stamen) collected

at two different stages (flower opening and flower
senescence showing complete petal in-rolling)
(Seo et al. 2007). Both ACC and ACC-conjugate,
which were generally associated with tissue
senescence, were consistently detected in all
organs even immediately after flower opening,
but their concentrations, especially that of the
ACC-conjugate in the ovary, greatly increased in
the senescent flowers. As regards the free PA
levels, a high concentration of spermidine was
found in the ovary, and its level was maintained
Plate 3 Close-up of flower
even when the petals wilted. PA-conjugates bound
to small molecules decreased in the ovaries of
lutein while lutein 5,6 epoxide predominated in senescent flowers, while the PA-conjugates bound
the flowers. Carotene hydrocarbon comprised 19 % to macromolecules remained very low in all
of total carotenoids in the flowers, with 37 % in organs at the two different flower stages.
the buds and 33 % in the leaves. H. syriacus A representative mucilage, named Hibiscus-
contained lower percentage of the colourless mucilage SF, was isolated from the white flower
phytoene precursors to the carotenoids than buds of Hibiscus syriacus (Tomoda and Ichikawa
cotton. Main pigments contributing to the colour 1987). It was mainly composed of partially
of H. syriacus petals were identified by Egolf and acetylated acidic polysaccharide of molecular
Santamour (1975) as 3-glucosides of cyaniding, weight 1,050,000 and is composed of L-rhamnose :
petunidin, delphinidin and malvidin. Three carot- D-galactose: D-galacturonic acid : D-glucuronic
enoids were found in were present in H. syriacus acid in the molar ratio of 36:36:33:22.
cryptoxanthin, antheraxanthin and chrysanthe- The mature pollen grains of Magnolia grandi-
maxanthine. Methanolic formic acid extract of flora and Hibiscus syriacus were found to contain
H. syriacus petals yielded 3-O-malonylglucosides sporopollenin (Kawase and Takahashi 1996).
of delphinidin, cyanidin, pentunidin, pelargoni- The following organosilicon compounds were
din, peonidin and malvidin (Kim et al. 1989a). extracted from sporopollenin after oxidative
Predominant pigments in petals of H. syriacus degradation: 1, 1, 1, 5, 7, 7, 7-heptamethyl-3,3-
were found to be cyanidin 3-glucoside and bis(trimethylsilox)tetrasiloxane and 1, 1, 1, 3, 5,
3-malonylglucoside (Kim et al. 1989b). Kim and 7, 7, 7-octamethyl-3, 3- bis(trimethylsiloxy)
Fujieda (1991) found the flower of H. syriacus to tetrasiloxane. 1,2-benzendicarboxylic acid butyl
contain peonidin and pelargonidin 3 glucosides 2-ethylhexyl ester was also detected.
and unidentified labile anthocyanins determined as
malonated pigments of six common anthocyanidin
3 glucosides. Flavonoid aglycones found in the Phytochemicals in Seeds
flowers (mg per g fresh tissues) of H. syriacus
‘purple red’ and H. syriacus ‘the blues’ were The seed oil of Hibiscus syriacus was found to
total pigments 15 mg, 10 mg; kaempferol 3 mg, contain 16.87 % of the cyclopropenoid acids,
6 mg; delphinidin 3 mg, 1 mg; cyanidin malvalic acids and sterculic acids: 0.31 % C:14
1 mg,1 mg; petunidin 3 mg,1 mg; and malvidin (myristic), 18.32 % C16:0 (palmitic acid), 1.25 %
15 mg, 10 mg, respectively (Puckhaber et al. 2002). C16:1, 2.74 % C18:0, 18.90 % C18:1, 40.59 %
Good recovery rates of over 90 % for C18:2, 1.83 % C18:3 (Chernenko et al. 1973).
aliphatic polyamines (PAs) and 76–97 % for The only monocarboxylic acid found was
1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) pelargonic. The unsaponifiable matter of the
were obtained from H. syriacus petal, sepal, seed oil was found to comprise 0.27 % free sterol
Hibiscus syriacus 377

(β-sitosterol and campesterol) and 0.24 % bound canthin-6-one (6H-indolo [3,2,1-d, e] [1,5]
sterols and β-tocopherol and δ-tocopherol naphthyridin-6-one).
(Chernenko and Umarov 1974). Alpha-carotene, Seven constituents (I–VII) were isolated
β-carotene and 3,4-dihydroxy-β-carotene were from the bark of Hibiscus syriacus and identi-
also found in the oil. Alpha-carotene and fied a s nonanedioic acid (I), suberic acid
β-carotene were also found in the leaves and root (II), 1-octarcosanol (III), beta-sitosterol (IV),
of the plant (Hanny et al., 1972). Among the 65 1,22-docosanediol (V), betulin (VI) and erythro-
identified components of the essential oil of triol (VII) (Zhang et al. 1993). Three new naph-
Hibiscus syriacus, a hitherto unknown compound thalenes, designated as syriacusins A–C, were
phenethyl-3-methylbut-2-enyl ether or 2-methyl- isolated from the root bark of Hibiscus syriacus
7-phenyl-5-oxahept-2-ene was found (Andreev and identified as 2,7-dihydroxy-6-methyl-8-
and Bibicheva, 1985.) methoxy-1-naphthalenecarbaldehyde; 2-hydroxy-
6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dimethoxy-1-naphthale-
necarbaldehyde; and 1-carboxy-2,8-dihydroxy-
Phytochemicals in Leaves 6-methyl-7- methoxynaphthalenecarbolac-
tone (1 → 8), respectively (Yoo et al. 1998).
A representative mucilage, named Hibiscus- Cyclic peptides designated as hibispeptin A and
mucilage SF, was isolated from the leaves of designated as hibispeptin B isolated from the root
Hibiscus syriacus (Shimizu et al. 1986). The fol- bark of Hibiscus syriacus and their structures
lowing flavonoids were isolated from the leaves: determined as cyclo[-Ahabpa(-pyro-Glu)-Pro-
taxifolin 3-O-B-D-glucopyranoside; herbacetin Leu-Phe-] and cyclo[-Ahabpa(-pyro-Glu)-Pro-
7-B-D-glucopyranoside; kaempferol 3-a-L- Leu-Leu-], respectively. Hibispeptin B possessed
arbinoside 7-a-L-rhamnoside; saponaretin; and a unique amino acid unit assigned as 2-amino-3-
saponarin (saponaretin 7-O-B-D-glucopyranoside) (2-hydroxy-5-aminoacetylbenzyl)pentanoic acid
(Bandyukova and Ligai, 1990). Hibiscus syriacus (Ahabpa) in cyclic core (Yun et al. 1998a, b).
was found to contain Ty3-gypsy-like elements A new lignan named hibiscuside, (+)-pinoresinol
(Jeung et al. 2005). The sequence heterogeneity 4-O-[β-glucopyranosyl (1 → 2)-α-rhamnoside],
and ubiquity of the Ty3-gypsy-like elements in and a known lignan syringaresinol were isolated
H. syriacus genomes could provide reliable DNA from the root bark of Hibiscus syriacus together
markers for line identification as well for the with two feruloyltyramines (3,4) E-N-feruloyl
analysis of genetic diversity in H. syriacus. tyramine and Z-N-feruloyl tyramine and three
The contents of tyrosine, phenylalanine and tryp- known isoflavonoids 6″- O-acetyldaidzin,
tophan in Hibiscus syriacus leaves determined by 6″-O-acetylgenistin and 3-hydroxydaidzein
alternating penalty trilinear decomposition (Lee et al. 1999). Two new triterpene caffeates were
algorithm coupled with excitation-emission isolated from the root bark of Hibiscus syriacus
matrix fluorometry afforded coefficients of and determined as 3β,23,28-trihydroxy-12-
variation of 0.84, 0.36 and 1.59 % and recoveries oleanene 23-caffeate and 3β,23,28-trihydroxy-
of 101.0–92.7 %, 106.5–93.0 % and 103.0– 12-oleanene 3β-caffeate (Yun et al. 1999).
95.0 %, respectively, for the three amino acids A previously undescribed coumarin and a new
(Xiao et al. 2007). coumarino-lignan, together with the known
compounds scopoletin and cleomiscosins A,
C and D were isolated from the root bark of
Phytochemicals in Stems and Roots Hibiscus syriacus (Yun et al. 2001). Hydro-
xyhibiscone A, a new furanosesquiterpenoid,
Two compounds oil A and B, with antifungal together with hibiscone D, was isolated from
activity, were isolated from H. syriacus bark the root bark of Hibiscus syriacus (Ryoo et al.
(Yokota et al. 1978). Oil A was a mixture of 2010). Nonanoic acid was isolated from the roots
lauric, myristic and palmitic acid, and B was (Jang et al. 2012).
378 Malvaceae

Antioxidant Activity extract or water extract. The IC50 values of on

A549 (adenocarcinoma), H209 (squamous cell
Three new naphthalenes, designated as syriacusins carcinoma) or H661 (large cell carcinoma) lung
A–C, isolated from the root bark of Hibiscus cancer cells ranged from 14 to 22 μg/mL after
syriacus, inhibited lipid peroxidation with IC50 48 h of treatment. After 48 h of exposure, the
values of 0.54, 5.90 and 1.02 μg/mL, respectively extract (15 μg/mL) induced A549 cell apoptosis
(Yoo et al. 1998). Among several phenolic to 48 % of the control. The extract appeared to
compounds isolated from the root bark, suppress the expression of caspase-p53 and
6″-O-acetyldaidzin, 6″-O-acetylgenistin and apoptosis-induced factor. The results of in vivo
3-hydroxydaidzein with IC50 values of 8.2, 10.6 study showed the extract suppressed growth in
and 4.1 μM, respectively, significantly inhibited A549 subcutaneous xenograft tumours.
lipid peroxidation in rat liver microsomes.
Hibiscuside, E-N-feruloyl tyramines and Z-N-
feruloyl tyramines exhibited moderate antioxidant Antimicrobial Activity
activity (Lee et al. 1999). Two new triterpene
caffeates 3β,23,28-trihydroxy-12-oleanene 23- The methanolic root extract of H. syriacus
caffeate and 3β,23,28-trihydroxy-12-oleanene Ggoma exhibited four times higher antifungal
3β-caffeate isolated from the root bark of activity than its parent type against Trichophyton
Hibiscus syriacus showed lipid peroxidation mentagrophytes (Jang et al. 2012). The antifungal
activity (Yun et al. 1999). The coumarin analogue principle was identified as nonanoic acid.
and scopoletin isolated from the root bark inhib-
ited monoamine oxidase with moderate IC50 values
(Yun et al. 2001). The new coumarino-lignan and Wound Healing Activity
cleomiscosin C showed lipid peroxidation inhibi-
tory activity comparable to vitamin E. The extracts Both 5 and 10 % ointment concentrations of the
of Hibiscus syriacus stems and roots heat-treated methanol extract of H. syriacus flower showed
at 100 °C for 24 h were more effective than those significant responses in both the wound types
of non-treated Hibiscus syriacus in reducing the tested when compared with the control group
stable free radical 1,1-dipheny 1-2-picrylhydrazyl (Umachigi et al. 2010). The effect produced by the
(DPPH) (Kwon et al. 2003). extract ointment, in terms of wound contracting
ability, wound closure time, regeneration of tissues
at wound site, tensile strength of the wound and
Anticancer Activity histopathological characteristics, was comparable
to those of a standard drug nitrofurazone ointment.
Syriacusin A showed cytotoxicity against some The results showed H. syriacus flower extract had
human cancer cell lines with an ED50 of 1.5– wound healing properties and supported its use in
2.4 μg/mL (Yoo et al. 1998). Two new triterpene folkloric medicine in India.
caffeates 3β,23,28-trihydroxy-12-oleanene
23-caffeate and 3β,23,28-trihydroxy-12-oleanene
3β-caffeate isolated from the root bark showed Anti-aging Activity
significant cytotoxicity against a panel of human
cancer cell lines (Yun et al. 1999). Hydroxyhibiscone A and hibiscone D isolated from
The root bark of Hibiscus syriacus was found the root bark were found to possess significant
to have antiproliferative effects on human lung anti-aging properties on the human neutrophil
cancer cells (Cheng et al. 2008). The acetone elastase (HNE) assay, exhibiting HNE inhibitory
root bark extract exhibited a higher cytotoxic activities with IC50 values of 5.2 and 4.6 μM,
effect on lung cancer cells than its methanol respectively (Ryoo et al. 2010).
Hibiscus syriacus 379

Antiulcer Activity
Comments
H. syriacus was one of 15 plants whose methanol
and aqueous extracts exhibited antiulcerogenic Hibiscus syriacus is the national flower of South
activity when assayed by the indomethacin-, Korea and its Korean appellation Mugunghwa
aspirin- and the water-immersion stress-induced means immortality.
ulcer models (Muto et al. 1994).

Selected References
Traditional Medicinal Uses
Andreev VM, Bibicheva AI (1985) Synthesis of a
A decoction or infusion of the flowers is used as component of the essential oil of Hibiscus syriacus.
Chem Nat Compd 21(2):254
a diuretic, ophthalmic and stomachic (Burkill Bandyukova VA, Ligai LV (1990) Chemical study of the
1966; Stuart 1979; Duke and Ayensu 1985; composition of the polyphenolic compounds of
Fogarty 1990), for treatment of itches and other Hibiscus syriacus. Chem Nat Compd 26(4):470–471
skin aliments (Burkill 1966), for dizziness, for Bost GA (2004) Studies of flavonoid colorants in food
products developed from Hibiscus blossoms. http://www.
bloody stools with much gas (Fogarty 1990) and texasagresearch.com/articledetails.aspx?ID=1110
for dysentery in Indo China (Burkill 1966). Burkill IH (1966) A dictionary of the economic products
The leaves are also used as a diuretic, expectorant of the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint, 2 vols.
and stomachic (Chopra et al. 1986; Duke and Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur.
vol 1 (A–H) pp 1–1240, vol 2 (I–Z) pp 1241–2444
Ayensu 1985). A decoction of the root bark is Cheng YL, Lee SC, Harn HJ, Huang HC, Chang WL
antiphlogistic, demulcent, emollient, febrifuge, (2008) The extract of Hibiscus syriacus inducing
haemostatic and vermifuge and used as a remedy apoptosis by activating p53 and AIF in human lung
for diarrhoea, dysentery, abdominal pain, leucor- cancer cells. Am J Chin Med 36(1):171–184
Chernenko TV, Umarov AU (1974) Unsaponifiable sub-
rhoea, dysmenorrhoea and dermaphytosis (Duke stances of the seed oil of Hibiscus syriacus. Chem Nat
and Ayensu 1985, Chopra et al. 1986; Fogarty Compd 10(5):661
1990). In Korea, the roots have been used for Chernenko TV, Umarov AU, Markman AL (1973) Oil of
treatment of fungal diseases such as tinea pedis the seeds of Hibiscus syriacus. Chem Nat Compd
9(6):689–691
(athlete’s foot) (Jang et al. 2012). In Japan, white Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC (1986) Glossary of Indian
flower bud is used as an oriental drug Mokukinka medicinal plants (including the supplement). Council
as a demulcent and antidiarrhoeic (Tomoda and Scientific Industrial Research, New Delhi, 330 pp
Ichikawa 1987). Deane G (2007–2012) Edible flowers: part fourteen.
http://www.eattheweeds.com/edible-flowers-
part-fourteen/
Duke JA, Ayensu ES (1985) Medicinal plants of China,
Other Uses vol 1 & 2. Reference Publications Inc., Algonac, 705 pp
Egolf DR, Santamour FSJ (1975) Anthocyanin pigments
and breeding potential in crape-myrtle Lagerstroemia
Rose of Sharon is grown mainly as an ornamental indica and rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus.
landscape or hedge plant. It is also cultivated as HortScience 10(3):223–224
garden and medicinal plant. The leafy, flower- Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible
ing shoots make interesting vase cuttings plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp
Fogarty JE (1990) A barefoot doctors manual: the
remaining green for a long time, and the flow- American translation of the official Chinese paramedi-
ers may open from more mature buds. A low cal manual. Running Press, Philadelphia, 958 pp
quality fibre is obtained from the stems used for Hanny BW, Henson RD, Thompson AC, Gueldner RC,
making cordage and paper. A hair shampoo is Hedin PA (1972) Identification of carotenoid constitu-
ents in Hibiscus syriacus. J Agric Food Chem
made from the leaves. A blue dye is obtained 20:914–916
from the flowers and an oil is obtained from the Hedrick UP (1972) Sturtevant’s edible plants of the world.
seeds. Dover Publications, New York, 686 pp
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Hu SY (2005) Food plants of China. The Chinese Shimizu N, Tomoda M, Adachi M (1986) Plant mucilages.
University Press, Hong Kong, 844 pp XXXIX A representative mucilage, “Hibiscus-
Jang YW, Jung JY, Lee IK, Kang SY, Yun BS (2012) mucilage SL”, from the leaves of Hibiscus syriacus.
Nonanoic acid, an antifungal compound from Hibiscus Chem Pharm Bull 34:4133–4138
syriacus Ggoma. Mycobiology 40(2):145–146 Stuart RGA (1979) Chinese Materia Medica: vegetable
Jeung JU, Cho SK, Lee SJ, Shin JS (2005) Characterization kingdom. Southern Materials Centre Inc., Taipei
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Mol Cells 19(3):318–327 the world. Keigaku Publishing, Tokyo, 924 pp
Kawase M, Takahashi M (1996) Gas chromatography- Tomoda M, Ichikawa M (1987) Plant mucilages. XL.
mass spectrometric analysis of oxidative degradation A representative mucilage, “Hibiscus-mucilage SF,”
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(Magnoliaceae) and Hibiscus syriacus (Malvaceae). Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 35(6):2360–2365
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Kim JH, Okubo H, Fujieda K, Uemoto S (1989b) Anthocyanin Theaceae, vol 12, Flora of China. Science Press/Missouri
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Kunkel G (1984) Plants for human consumption. An Studies on isolation of naturally occurring biologically
annotated checklist of the edible phanerogams and active principles. IV. Antifungal constituents in the
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 Hibiscus taiwanensis

Scientific Name Agroecology

Hibiscus taiwanensis S.Y. Hu The ecological distribution area of Hibiscus

taiwanensis is anywhere below the altitude of
1,200 m all over Taiwan. It can also be found in
Synonyms Lanyu. The plant has been distributed elsewhere
in Southeast Asia.
No synonym recorded

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Family
Its blossom is not only attractive/decorative but
Malvaceae also edible. It is delicious whether mixed in salad,
cooked or fried (Anonymous 2012).

Common/English Names
Botany
Dog’s Head Lotus, Formosan Hibiscus, Mountain
Cotton Rose, Taiwan Cotton Rose, Taiwan A deciduous tree or shrub, erect, 3–8 m high,
Hibiscus, Thousand Faces Beauty, Thousand densely strigose and scabrous, with bristlelike
Pretty Women, Sour Cotton Rose stiff hairs, not stellate. Leaves alternate, subor-
bicular, papery, lobes 3–5, broadly deltoid, serrate
or dentate on 14–17 cm long petioles (Plate 1).
Vernacular Names Flowers solitary, axillary on upper branches on
11–13 cm pedicels; epicalyx lobes 8, filiform,
Chinese: Tai Wan Fu Rong 8–12 × 1.5–2 mm, stellate puberulent, apex acute;
Indonesia: Viluwaq calyx campanulate, 5-lobed, lobes deltoid, 10 mm
long, 8 mm wide, acute at apex, stellate- tomen-
tose; corolla white or creamy-yellow, with deep
brown or purple centre, broadly subcampanulate,
Origin/Distribution 6–9 cm across petals nearly orbicular, connate at
base, villous, claw bearded (Plates 1 and 2).
The species is indigenous to Taiwan. Capsules globose, 2 cm across, pubescent.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 381
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_26, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
382 Malvaceae

addition to eight known ones (Wu et al. 2004).

Fifty-six compound were isolated from H. taiwa
nensis stems and identified as hibicuslide A; hibi-
cuslide B; hibicuslide C; hibicutaiwanin; hibi-
cusin; hibicuwanin A; hibicuwanin B; (7S,8S)-
demethylcarolignan E; threo-carolignan E; erythro-
carolignan E; threo-1-C-syringylglycerol; 9,9′-O-
feruloyl-(−)-secoisolaricinresinol; dihydro-coni
feryl alcohol; boehmenan, (−)-syringaresinol;
cleomiscosin A; cleomiscosin C; mansonone E;
mansonone H; hibiscone C; isohemigossypol-
1-methyl ether; gossyvertin; N-trans-feruloylty
ramine; N-cis-feruloyltyramine; 2-(2-hydroxy
tricosanoylamino)-1,3,4- hexadecanetriol;
myricerol; myriceric acid A; myriceric acid B;
myriceric acid C; uncarinic acid A; uncarinic acid
B; 3-oxo-olean-12-en-28-oic acid; scopoletin;
scoparone; 4-hydroxy-benzoic acid; ferulic acid;
methyl trans-ferulate; methyl cis-ferulate; lig-
nocerylferulate; caffeic acid; methyl caffeate;
hexacosanyl caffeate; vanillin; vanillic acid;
methyl vanillate; benzoic acid; p-coumaric acid;
methyl p-coumarate; p-formylbenzoic acid; methyl
p-formylbenzoate; syringic acid; syringaldehyde;
Plate 1 Flower and leaves sinapinaldehyde; ficusol; a mixture of β-sitosterol
and stigmasterol; and β-sitosteryl-β-D-glucoside
(Wu et al. 2005).

Antioxidant Activity

Total phenolic content (TPC) and ascorbic acid

equivalent antioxidant capacity (AEAC) values
for methanol leaf extract of H. taiwanensis were
403 mg GAE (gallic acid equivalent)/100 g and
233 mg AA(ascorbic acid)/100 g, respectively
(Wong et al. 2010). Based on TPC and AEAC
values, antioxidant ranking was H. tilia-
ceus > H. mutabilis > H. sabdariffa > H. taiwan-
ensis > H. schizopetalus ~ H. rosa-sinensis.
Plate 2 Close view of flower Leaves of H. schizopetalus, H. sabdariffa and
H. rosa-sinensis had better FIC (ferrous ion che-
lating) ability than those of H. mutabilis, H. tili-
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties aceus and H. taiwanensis. TPC, TAC (total
anthocyanin content), AEAC and FRP (ferric
Three phenylpropanoid esters, (7S,8S)- reducing power) values of flowers of Hibiscus
demethylcarolignan E and hibiscuwanin A and taiwanensis were 580 mg GAE/100 g, 92 mg
hibiscuwanin B, were isolated from the stem in CGE (cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalent)/100 g,
Hibiscus taiwanensis 383

761 mg AA/100 g and 3.6 mg GAE/g, respectively. times daily for 3 days into STZ-diabetic rats
Based on TPC in flowers, ranking was H. tilia- increased the sensitivity to exogenous insulin
ceus > H. rosa-sinensis > H. taiwanensis ~ H. showing an increase in insulin sensitivity and
schizopetalus ~ H. mutabilis > H. sabdariffa. produced a marked reduction of phosphoenol-
pyruvate carboxykinase expression in liver and
an increased expression of glucose transporter
Anticancer Activity subtype 4 (GLUT 4) in skeletal muscle.

In cytotoxicity evaluation of the compounds from

the stem, 9,9′-O-feruloyl-(−)-secoisolaricinresinol Anti-inflammatory Activity
displayed strong cytotoxic activity against human
lung carcinoma and breast carcinoma cell lines in The aqueous extract of Hibiscus taiwanensis
an in vitro cytotoxicity assay with EC50 values of was found to have anti-inflammatory activity
1.8 and 3.9 μg/mL, respectively (Wu et al. in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse
2004;2005). The triterpenoids, myriceric acid macrophage RAW264.7 cells and carrageenan-
C and uncarinic acid A, exhibited marginal induced mouse paw oedema model (Liu et al.
cytotoxicity. 2012). When RAW264.7 macrophages were
treated with the extract together with LPS, a
concentration-dependent inhibition of nitric oxide
Antiviral Activity (NO), tumour necrosis factor (TNF-α) and prosta-
glandin E2 (PGE(2)) level productions were found.
Of the compounds isolated from the stem, the In the in vivo test, the extract decreased mouse paw
naphthoquinone mansonone H and triterpenoid oedema at the 4th and the 5th hour after administra-
uncarinic acid A inhibited HIV replication in H9 tion, and it increased the activities of catalase,
lymphocyte cells with EC50 values of 16.58 and superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase
1.53 mg/mL, and their therapeutic indices (IC50/ in the paw tissue. The extract also decreased NO,
EC50) were 1.50 and 12.95, respectively (Wu TNF-α and PGE2 levels on the serum level at the
et al. 2005). 5th hour after the carrageenan injection.

Antidiabetic Activity Traditional Medicinal Uses

Studies suggested that Hibiscus taiwanensis had The stem and root of H. taiwanensis have been
a hypoglycaemic activity by increasing glucose used as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antifungal,
utilization and insulin sensitivity to lower plasma antipyretic and anthelmintic agents in traditional
glucose in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats Chinese medicine (Gan 1965). The whole plant
(Huang et al. 2013). The bioactive compound can clear lungs and cease coughing, cool blood
syringaldehyde was identified. Syringaldehyde and resolve toxin. The plant is used to treat
exhibited antihyperglycaemic activity in a dose- pulmonary heat-induced coughing, ulcers and
dependent manner in streptozotocin-induced pyrogenic infections (Huang 2009).
diabetic rats (Huang et al. 2012). Syringaldehyde
was also found to increase glucose utilization and
insulin sensitivity to lower plasma glucose in Other Uses
diabetic rats. Stems of Hibiscus taiwanensis were
more effective than other parts to decrease the The plant is cultivated as an ornamental. The
plasma glucose in a dose-dependent manner in wood is white, light textured and soft and is used
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (Wang et al. for making clogs. The stem fibres are used for
2013). Oral administration of the extract three ropes for hiking and camping.
384 Malvaceae

Huang CH, Tsai SM, Chen YR, Wu MY, Cheng JT (2013)

Dietary Hibiscus taiwanensis exerts hypoglycemic in
Comments streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Int J Biosci
Biochem Bioinform 3(4):310–313
The plant is propagated from seeds or stem Liu SL, Deng JS, Chiu CS, Hou WC, Huang SS, Lin WC,
cuttings. Liao JC, Huang GJ (2012) Involvement of heme oxy-
genase-1 participates in anti-inflammatory and analge-
sic effects of aqueous extract of Hibiscus taiwanensis.
Evid Based Complement Altern Med 2012:132859
Tang Y, Gilbert MG, Dorr LJ (2007) Malvaceae. In: Wu ZY,
Selected References Raven PH, Hong DY (eds) Hippocastanaceae through
Theaceae, vol 12, Flora of China. Science Press/
Anonymous (2012) Taiwan hibiscus. http://www.wretch. Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis
cc/blog/pt45/15696595 Wang LY, Chung HH, Cheng JT (2013) Decrease of
Gan WS (1965) Manual of medicinal plants in Taiwan, vol plasma glucose by Hibiscus taiwanensis in type-1-like
3. National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, diabetic rats. Evid Based Complement Altern Med
Taiwan, p 516 2013:356705
Huang TC (Chief ed) (2009) The illustration of common Wong SK, Lim YY, Chan EWC (2010) Evaluation of anti-
medicinal plants in Taiwan (Taiwan chang yong yao oxidant, anti-tyrosinase and antibacterial activities of
yong zhi wu tu jian). Committee on Chinese Medicine selected Hibiscus species. Ethnobot Leafl 14:781–796
and Pharmacy, Department of Health, Executive Yuan, Wu PL, Chuang TH, He CX, Wu TS (2004) Cytotoxicity
Republic of China of phenylpropanoid esters from the stems of Hibiscus
Huang CH, Chen MF, Chung HH, Cheng JT (2012) taiwanensis. Bioorg Med Chem 12(9):2193–2197
Antihyperglycemic effect of syringaldehyde in Wu PL, Wu TS, He CX, Su CH, Lee KH (2005)
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Nat Prod 75(8): Constituents from the stems of Hibiscus taiwanensis.
1465–1468 Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 53(1):56–59
 Hibiscus tiliaceus

Scientific Name Hibiscus, Native Rosella, Kurrajong, Sea

Hibiscus, Sea Rose Mallow, Tree Hibiscus,
Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Yellow Mallow Tree

Synonyms Vernacular Names

Hibiscus boninensis Nakai, Hibiscus tiliaceus var. Afrikaans: Kusvuurblom, Wildekatoenboom

abutiloides (Willd.) Hochr., Hibiscus tiliaceus var. Bangladesh: Bhola
heterophyllus Nakai, Hibiscus tiliaceus var. tortuosus Brazil: Algodão Da Praia, Guaxima-Do-Mangue
(Roxb.) Mast., Hibiscus tiliifolius Salisb., Hibiscus (Portuguese)
tortuosus Roxb., Pariti boninense (Nakai) Nakai, Chinese: Huang Jin
Pariti tiliaceum (L.) A. Juss., Pariti tiliaceum var. Chuuk: Kilife
heterophyllum (Nakai) Nakai, Paritium abutiloides Cook Islands: ‘Au
(Willd.) G. Don, Paritium elatum var. abutiloides Czech: Ibišek Lípovitý
(Willd.) Griseb., Paritium tiliaceum (L.) Wight & Estonian: Pärnhibisk
Arn., Paritium tiliaceum (L.) A. Juss. Fiji: Vau, Vaundamu, Vaundamundamu, Vaundina,
Vauleka, Vaundra
French: Bourao
Family French Polynesia: Purau
Guam: Pago
Malvaceae Hawaiian: Hau, Hau Ka‘Eka‘E
India: Pola (Hindi), Bilipatta, Kaark Bendu,
Samudra Theeradatthi (Kannada), Nirparatthi,
Common/English Names Nirparatti, Nirparuthi, Nirparutti, Paratti, Pariti,
Paritti, Paroottee, Parutti, Talipparutti
Beach Hibiscus, Bladder Ketmia, Coast Hibiscus, (Malayalam), Baelsing, Belipata, Bellipata,
Coastal Hibiscus, Coast Cottonwood, Coastal Belpata, Bhotee, Kharikapusi, Mothi Potaare,
Cottonwood, Cottonwood Hibiscus, Green Varadhaa, Varanga (Marathi), Bala (Sanskrit),
Cottonwood, Hawaiian Tree Hibiscus, Lagoon Attuparuthi, Nirparathi, Nirparutti, Nirpparutti,
Hibiscus, Linden Hibiscus, Mahoe, Mahuat, Potari (Tamil), Cherigogu, Erragogu, Ettagogu
Mountain Mahoe, Native Hibiscus, Norfolk (Telugu)

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 385
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_27, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
386 Malvaceae

Indonesia: Waru, Waru Laut (Javanese), Baru

(Malay) Origin/Distribution
Japanese: Oo-Hamaboo, Yama-Asa
Kiribati: Te Kiaiai, Te Rau Hibiscus tiliaceus is indigenous to the tropical
Kosrae: Lo shores of the Pacific and Indian oceans. Today it
Laos: Hou Sua, Ta Sua is cultivated or naturalized throughout the tropi-
Malaysia: Akar Seregang, Baru, Baru-Baru, cal and subtropical regions of the world.
Baru Laut, Bebaru, Embaru, Dedap Laut,
Mebaru (Malay), Kelaut, Selaut (Sakai)
Marquesas: Fau Toui, Fau Maoi Agroecology
Marshall Islands: Lo
Myanmar: Thin Ban The plant occurs at elevations from sea level to
New Caledonia: Vo, Vole 800 m in areas that receive 900–2,500 mm of
Niue: Fou mean annual rainfall in the tropics. It is common
Palau: Ermall on beaches, by rivers and streams and in man-
Panama: Algondoncillo, Hibisco Marítimo, grove swamps. The plant thrives in a coastal and
Majagua, Mahoe riparian environment but can also be found in
Papua New Guinea: Varvar (E. New Britain), inland areas and valleys in its native range. It is
Bang (Gaikorovi, Sepik Province), Pow well adapted to saline and water-logged condi-
(Lomeoi, Manus Island), Valu (Hula, Central tions. It grows well in coral sand, quart sand,
Province) marl and limestone in weakly acidic to alkaline
Philippines: Laogo (Bagobo), Majagua, soils (pH 5–8.5).
Malubago, Mayambago (Bikol), Balibago,
Ragindi (Bisaya), Bago (Bontok), Mayambago
(Cebu Bisaya), Bauan, Marakapas (Ibanag), Edible Plant Parts and Uses
Malabagu (Iloko), Hanot (Ivatan), Mulabago
(Maguindanao), Malibago (Panay Bisaya), The flowers, young leaves and roots are edible
Balabago, Malabago (Samar–Leyte Bisaya), (Burkill 1966; Morton 1977; Cribb and Cribb
Danglog, Malibago, Lambagu (Sulu), 1987; Bhargava 1983; Facciola 1990; Deane
Dangliu, Malabago, Malubago (Tagalog) 2007–2012). The flowers are eaten as potherb or
Pohnpei: Kalau dipped in batter and fries. Tender young leaves
Samoa: Fau are eaten cooked or boiled in salt water to prepare
Solomon Islands: Ayiwo, Fa‘Alo, Fa‘Ola, a beverage called Onge tea. Tender young leaves
Fakasu, Kwara‘Ae are also used to ferment soybean pulp into a
Spanish: Emajagua sauce used as a substrate for tempeh starter cul-
Sri Lanka: Beli Patta (Sinhalese) ture. The roots are edible when cooked, and the
Swedish: Strandhibiskus inner bark, the cambium, can be suckled of its
Tahitian: Purau moisture and nutrients.
Thai: Khamin Naang Matsee (North-eastern
Thailand), Po Na, Pho Thale (Bangkok), Po
Fai (Central Thailand) Botany
Tonga: Fau
Tuvalu: Fautu’u H. tiliaceus is a large, stout, open-branched shrub
Vanuatu: Burao, Var or a small evergreen tree with a trunk of up to
Vietnamese: Tra Bụp, Bụp Tra, Tra Làm Chèo, 60 cm bole, pale greyish-brown or greyish-white
Tra Làm Chiếu bark and low spreading branches. It grows to a
Yap: Gaal’ height of 3–10 m. Young branches, buds and
Hibiscus tiliaceus 387

Plate 1 Yellow flowers, buds and leaves Plate 4 Close view of pink flower

and caducous. Inflorescence a 1 to few-flowered

cyme, terminal or axillary; peduncle 4–5 cm.
Flowers large, conspicuous, bisexual and bright
yellow in the early morning, turning reddish or
reddish purple before dropping off in the evening
(Plates 1, 2, 3 and 4). Pedicel 1–3 cm, with 1 pair
of stipule-like bracteoles at base. Epicalyx lobes
7–10, connate at lower 1/3–1/2, free lobes
2–2.5 mm, triangular–acuminate with slightly
rounded sinuses, puberulent. Calyx 1.5–2.5 cm,
connate proximally for 1/4–1/3 of length, lobes 5,
Plate 2 Pink flowers and leaves lanceolate, puberulent and persistent. Corolla
yellow with dark purple centre and campanulate,
6–7.5 cm across; petals obovate, 4–4.5 cm, yellow
and puberulent abaxially. Filament tube 3 cm, gla-
brous and light yellow. Style branches 5, slender,
with glandular hairs, stigmas deep crimson pur-
ple. Capsule subglobose to ovoid, 2 cm, obscurely
beaked, densely fascicled–hirsute, valves 5,
woody. Seeds reniform, smooth, glabrous and
black or dark brown.

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
Plate 3 Close view of yellow flower
Flower Phytochemicals

flowers densely covered with short soft hairs. Flowers were found to contain gossypetin,
Leaves are spirally arranged, simple, suborbicular kaempferol and quercetin and 3-O-galactosides
to broadly ovate with cordate base, 8–15 × 8–15 cm, of kaempferol and quercetin (Subramanian and
leathery with 5–9 prominent veins from the base, Swamy 1960), and anthers were found to con-
olive green and glabrescent adaxially, velvety tain gossypetin glucosides, gossypitrin and
white to greyish and densely and finely tomentose gossytrin (Nair et al. 1961). Cyanidin-3-
abaxially (Plates 1, 2 and 3). Stipules foliaceous glucoside was found to be the major anthocyanin
388 Malvaceae

found in flowers of H. tiliaceus (Lowry 1976). A coumarin, hibiscusin, and an amide, hibis-
Some saturated hydrocarbons, fatty acids, fatty cusamide, together with 11 known compounds
acid methyl esters, phytosterols and vitamin E including vanillic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic
were identified in H. tiliaceus methanol flower acid, syringic acid, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde,
extracts (Melecchi et al. 2006). scopoletin, N-trans-feruloyltyramine, N-cis-
feruloyltyramine, a mixture of β-sitosterol and
stigmasterol and a mixture of β-sitostenone and
Fruit Phytochemicals stigmasta-4,22-dien-3-one were isolated from the
stem wood of Hibiscus tiliaceus (Chen et al.
Gossypol, mansonones D and F, gossypetin 2006). From the stem and bark, a friedelane-type
glycoside, hibiscones and hibiscoquinones A and triterpene named 27-oic-3-oxo-28-friedelanoic
D were found in the fruit (Subramanian and acid together with eight known triterpenoids
Nair 1973). involving five friedelane-type derivatives was
isolated (Li et al. 2006). Six friedelane-type trit-
erpenoids were isolated from the bark of Hibiscus
Leaf Phytochemicals tiliaceus collected from Hainan province, and
nine oxygenated sesquiterpenoids (mansonones)
In H. tiliaceus leaves, nicotinamide was con- were isolated from the heartwood (Zhang 2013).
verted to nicotinic acid and utilized for trigonel-
line (N-methylnicotinic acid) synthesis
(Ashihara et al. 2012). Fifty-four compounds Unidentified Plant Part
were identified from the volatile oil of H. tilia- Phytochemicals
ceus leaves; the major compounds were as fol-
lows: pyrrole (6.34 %), furan (9.78 %), phenol Contrary to earlier claim, studies found that
(19.32 %), aldehyde ketone (25.59 %), alco- H. tiliaceus , Abelmoschus esculentus and
hol(15.85 %) and indole (4.06 %) (Li et al. H. sabdariffa did not contain gossypol (Jaroszewski
2011). Thirteen compounds were identified et al. 1992). Eleven compounds were isolated
from the fatty acids of the leaves, which con- from H. tiliaceus: coniferaldehyde; methyl
tained abundant hexadecanoic acid (30.11 %) 3,4-dihydroxybonate; pinoresinol; syringar-
and octadecadienoic acid (10.11 % of fatty esinol; gramrione; astragalin; phytol; cholest-
acids). Fourteen compounds were isolated from 5-ene-3β,7α-diol; cholest-5-ene-3β,7β-diol;
the twigs and leaves of Hibiscus tiliaceus and cholesterol; and β-daucosterol (Feng et al.
identified as friedelin, β-sitosterol, vanillin, syr- 2008b). Three new triterpenoids with the
iacusin A, hibiscolactone, scopoletin, cleomis- rarely occurring nigrum skeleton, namely,
cosin C, fumaric acid, kaempferol, quercetin, (20E)-22-hydroxynigrum-20-en-3-one, 21β-
daucosterol, azelaic acid, succinic acid and rutin hydroxynigrum-22(29)-en-3-one and 21α-
(Zhang et al. 2012). hydroxynigrum-22(29)-en-3-one, were isolated
from Hibiscus tiliaceus (Feng et al. 2008a).
Additionally, five known triterpenoids including
Stem/Bark Phytochemicals friedelin; 12-oleanen-3β-ol (5), 3β-hydroxy-12-
oleanen-28-oic acid; 20(29)-lupen-3β,28-diol
The heartwood was found to contain sesquiterpe- and cucurbita-5,23-diene-3β,25-diol were also
noid ketones, hibiscones A–D, and isolated and identified. Ten compounds were
O-naphthoquinones, hibiscoquinones A–D and isolated from H. tiliaceus and identified as friede-
lapachol, and the roots (from Brazil) contained lin; pachysandiol; glutinol; lupeol; germanicol;
gossypol and mansonones D and F (Ali et al. stigmast-4-en-3-one; stigmast-4, 22-dien-3-one;
1980). Gmelofuran was the other name for the ergosta-4, 6, 8; 22-tetraen-3-one; β-sitosterol;
furanodiketone, hibiscone C (Fereira et al. 1980). and stigmasterol (Wang et al. 2011).
Hibiscus tiliaceus 389

Antioxidant and Antimutagenic genotoxins, evaluated using the micronucleus

Activities test. The extract prevented the increase in lipid
peroxidation and decrease in glutathione content
Of nine coastal plant species, screened, the high- in response to the oxidative challenge.
est antioxidant activity (DPPH radical scaveng- Of the six Hibiscus species, leaves and flowers
ing activity) was recorded in young leaves of of H. tiliaceus had the strongest antioxidant prop-
Hibiscus tiliaceus (76 %), followed by Syzygium erties (AOP) (Wong et al. 2009, 2010). Leaves of
corymbosa (71 %), Calophyllum inophyllum H. tiliaceus showed outstanding AOP with total
(68 %) and Colubrina asiatica (55 %) (Nivas phenolic content (TPC) and ascorbic acid
et al. 2010). These plant species also possessed equivalent antioxidant capacity (AEAC) values
appreciable reductive potential. The leaves of of 2,080 mg GAE (gallic acid equivalent)/100 g
these species were found to be rich in flavanoids and 2,370 mg AA (ascorbic acid)/100 g, respec-
(6.03–16.63 mg/g of dry weight) and total poly- tively. Values were 2.4 and 2.7 times higher than
phenol (12.12–26.23 mg/g of dry weight), and those of H. mutabilis which ranked second.
these compounds mainly contributed the antioxi- Based on TPC and AEAC, ranking was H. tilia-
dant potential of these plants. ceus > H. mutabilis > H. sabdariffa > H. taiwanen-
H. tiliaceus flower extract exhibited signifi- sis > H. schizopetalus ~ H. rosa-sinensis. Leaves
cant reducing power and free radical scavenging of H. schizopetalus, H. sabdariffa and H. rosa-
effect on hydroxyl, superoxide and hydrogen per- sinensis had better ferrous ion-chelating (FIC)
oxide radicals (Kumar et al. 2008). The high anti- ability than those of H. mutabilis, H. tiliaceus
oxidant potential could be attributed to the and H. taiwanensis. Leaves of species with higher
phenolic and flavonoid content of the flowers. TPC and AEAC had lower FIC ability for H. tili-
Treatment with H. tiliaceus methanolic flower aceus and H. mutabilis and vice versa for
extract protected several Saccharomyces cerevi- H. schizopetalus and H. rosa-sinensis. Flowers
siae strains defective in antioxidant defences of H. tiliaceus with TPC, AEAC and FRP (ferric
against the mutagenic action of hydrogen perox- reducing power) values of 2,420 mg GAE/100 g,
ide and tert-butyl hydroperoxide cytotoxicities, 3,180 mg AA/100 g and 14 mg GAE/g, respec-
showing a clear antioxidant activity (Rosa et al. tively, were significantly higher than all other
2006). The effect was the same for all strains species. Based on TPC, ranking was H. tilia-
used, independent of the antioxidant defence dis- ceus > H. rosa-sinensis > H. taiwanensis ~ H.
rupted, suggesting that protection may be due to schizopetalus ~ H. mutabilis > H. sabdariffa.
molecules that acted as versatile and wide spec- There was no distinct variation between AOP of
trum nonenzymatic antioxidants, such as vita- coastal and inland populations of H. tiliaceus for
mins (vitamin E) or phytosterols (stigmasterol both leaves and flower despite the greater UV
derivatives) present in the extract. H. tiliaceus radiation in the coastal areas (Wong and Chan
methanolic flower extract was not mutagenic in 2010).
either Salmonella typhimurium or Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and showed a significant antimuta-
genic action against oxidative mutagens in Antitumour Activity
S. cerevisiae. At concentrations ranging from
0.001 to 0.1 mg/mL, the methanol flower extract Among the compounds isolated from the stem
was not cytotoxic, genotoxic or mutagenic (Rosa bark, the amides hibiscusamide, N-trans-
et al. 2007). Treatment with non-cytotoxic con- feruloyltyramine and N-cis-feruloyltyramine
centrations of the extract increased V79 cell sur- exhibited cytotoxicity (IC50 values <4 μg/mL)
vival after of hydrogen peroxide and tert-butyl against P-388 and/or HT-29 cell lines in vitro
hydroperoxide exposure and prevented DNA (Chen et al. 2006). All three compounds were
damage. Pretreatment with the extract also was more active against p-388 cell line than HT-29
able to decrease the mutagenic effect of these cell line. N-trans-feruloyltyramine was the most
390 Malvaceae

cytotoxic, with IC50 values of 1.7 μg/mL and mice in both animal models of antidepressant
3.8 μg/mL, respectively, against P-388 and HT-29 activity, forced swimming and tail suspension
cell lines. A significant enhancement of mean tests (Vanzella et al. 2012). The extract did not
survival time of H. tiliaceus-treated Dalton’s potentiate the effect of ketamine-induced hypno-
ascitic lymphoma (DAL)-bearing mice was sis, as determined by the time to onset and
found with respect to the control group (Sunilson duration of sleeping time indicating lack of a
et al. 2008). H. tiliaceus treatment was found to sedative effect.
enhance peritoneal cell counts. When these
H. tiliaceus-treated animals underwent intraperi-
toneal (i.p.) inoculation with DAL cells, tumour Antinociceptive and Anti-
cell growth was found to be inhibited. The results inflammatory Activities
indicated that H. tiliaceus-treated group was able
to reverse the haematological parameters, protein Oral administration of the methanolic, petroleum
and packed cell volume (PCV) consequent to ether and chloroform leaf extracts of Hibiscus
tumour inoculation within 14 days after the tiliaceus (250 and 500 mg/kg, orally) exhibited
transplantation. The methanol leaf extract of significant anti-inflammatory activity on
H. tiliaceus exhibited selective cytotoxicity carrageenan-induced paw oedema in rat at the
against breast cancer cells MDA-MB-435S (IC50 second and third hour (Narender et al. 2009). All
1.14 mg/mL) and had no toxicity against healthy the extracts significantly inhibited the acetic
mouse fibroblasts (Uddin et al. 2011). The aque- acid-induced abdominal contractions in mice in
ous leaf extract from Hibiscus tiliaceus showed the order methanolic > chloroform > petroleum
potent cytotoxicity with significantly lower IC50 ether extract. The extracts also showed signifi-
values, especially against gastric (IC50 0.25 mg/mL) cant antinociceptive activity at similar doses at
and colon cancer cells (IC50 0.8 mg/mL). 60 min after extract administration. No acute tox-
icity was observed in mice after oral administra-
tion of the methanolic, petroleum ether and
Tyrosinase Inhibitory Activity chloroform extracts of Hibiscus tiliaceus leaves
at the dose of 5 g/kg. The methanolic wood
Of 39 plant species screened, the methanol leaf extract of Hibiscus tiliaceus exhibited anti-
extract of Hibiscus tiliaceus exhibited displayed inflammatory activity in experimental acute and
strong free radical scavenging activity and the chronic inflammatory animal models (Borhade
highest tyrosinase inhibition activity (Masuda et al. 2012). The percentage inhibition increase
et al. 1999; 2005). Of four species of Hibiscus of paw oedema was increased with time and
tested, leaves of H. tiliaceus (42 %) had the stron- gave maximum effect at 2 h. Only the 200 and
gest antityrosinase activity (Wong et al. 2010). 4,000 mg/kg body weight extracts exhibited
Values were comparable to leaves of P. guajava significant result
(41 %) as positive control. Ranking of antityrosi-
nase activity was H. tiliaceus > H. mutabilis >
H. rosa-sinensis ~ H. sabdariffa. With strong anti- Immunomodulatory Activity
oxidant properties and antityrosinase activity,
leaves of H. tiliaceus may have potential to be Oral administration of methanolic leaf extract of
developed into functional food and skin care H. tiliaceus to Wistar rats exerted a significant
products. increase in the production of circulating haemag-
glutination antibody titre in response to sheep red
blood cells (SRBCs) (Rajeswari et al. 2013). The
Antidepressant Activity extract significantly potentiated the delayed type
hypersensitivity reaction by facilitating the footpad
Methanol flower extract of H. tiliaceus signifi- thickness response to SRBCs in sensitized rats.
cantly decreased the duration of immobility of Also the extract evoked a significant increase in
Hibiscus tiliaceus 391

percentage neutrophil adhesion to nylon fibres and Antidiabetic Activity

phagocytic activity. It also enhanced the production
of RBC, WBC and haemoglobin. It did not affect Significant reduction in blood glucose levels was
the biochemical parameters. The results suggested observed in streptozotocin-induced diabetic
that H. tiliaceus had a significant effect on both Wistar rats treated with methanol flower extract
humoral and cellular immunity in experimental ani- of H. tiliaceus (500 mg/kg) for 21 days. The
mals, and this may be attributed to the polyphenols extract elicited significant antidiabetic activity
and flavonoid content of the plant extract. with significant improvement in body weight.
Daily oral treatment with the extract for 21 days
also resulted in significantly reduction serum
Antimicrobial Activity cholesterol and triglycerides. HDL cholesterol
level was found to be improved as compared to
H. tiliaceus leaf extract was found to inhibit diabetic control group.
Gram-positive bacteria of Bacillus cereus,
Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus aureus
but was not inhibitory to Gram-negative bacteria Traditional Medicinal Uses
(Wong et al. 2010). MIC (minimum inhibitory
concentration) values of leaf extracts of H. tilia- The flowers, roots and barks serve as herbal med-
ceus was 0.5 mg/disc for M. luteus, 0.25 mg/disc icines in the Pacific (Gutmanis 1979; Weiner
for S. aureus and 1 mg/disc for B. cereus. 1984; Kepler 1984; Abbott 1992; Whistler 1992;
Cambie and Ash 1994; Elevitch and Thomson
2006), south (Uddin et al. 2011) and Southeast
Analgesic Activity Asia (Burkill 1966). In Fiji, the leaves are
wrapped around fractured limbs and sprained
The methanolic wood extract of Hibiscus tiliaceus muscles, and leaf juice is used for gonorrhoea.
exhibited analgesic activity in experimental acute and Sap from the bark is used to induce menstruation
chronic analgesic animal models (Sopan et al. 2012). in delayed menstrual period. Such usage is also
The percentage increase in reaction time at 90 min found in Tahiti where the flowers are used in
was 21.02, 79.96 and 158.05 % for extract at a dose making a salve. In Tahiti, Cook Islands and the
of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight, respec- Marquesas Islands, the flowers are used in a paste
tively, in the acetic acid-induced writhing method as a poultice for sores, cuts, boils and swellings.
when compared with control. The percentage inhibi- In the Cook Island the bark is employed together
tion of writhes or protection was found to be 64.09, with coconut bark or husk to make an infusion
78.56 and 81.45 % for extract at a dose of 100, 200 used for bathing fractures. In Wallis and Futuna,
and 400 mg/kg body weight, respectively, in Eddy’s the leaves or shoots are used to treat recurring
hot plate method when compared with control. sickness. In Tonga, the bark and the young leaves
are employed for skin diseases. The bark is used
as a therapy for eye infections and injuries and
Antiulcerogenic Activity stomach aches. Leaf infusion is utilized as an aid
in the delivery of a child and to alleviate postpar-
Albino rats pretreated with doses of 150 and tum discharges. In the Solomon Islands, parts of
250 mg/kg of methanol, petroleum ether and the plant are employed for cuts, tuberculosis and
chloroform leaf extract of H. tiliaceus showed conjunctivitis. In New Guinea, the bark is used as
significant reduction in gastric ulcer lesion index, a cough remedy and also used for tuberculosis.
total affected area and percentage of ulcer lesion The leaves are used in treating coughs, sore
in comparison with control group in the cold- throats and open wounds. A preparation made
restraint stress-induced ulcer and pylorus ligation from the leaves, roots and bark is administered
models (Sharma et al. 2010). for fever.
392 Malvaceae

According to Burkill (1966) in Amboina, root Asian countries as a subject for the art of bonsai,
infusion is taken for fever and a decoction taken especially in Taiwan.
for fever in Java and Pahang, Malaysia. Leaves The stems and branches are long and flexuous
boiled with sugar are used for coughs and bron- and are used as living fence posts and fish kraals.
chitis in Java. Boiled leaves are rubbed over The fibres from the bark make excellent string
swellings and applied hot to boils and used for and rope and are used for hut building, cordage,
the hair in Java. Flowers are boiled in milk for fishing nets, coarse bags and caulking boats. The
use to treat earache in the Philippines. The bark is bark is used for making paper. The wood is used
emetic. Young leaves are used medicinally as for light boat and canoe construction, planking,
substitute for the European ‘folia althaeae’ and firewood, wood carvings, fishing nets, household
flowers likewise for ‘flores malvae’. The roots implements, carts and canoe floats, sailing spars
are used as an antifebrile and emetic, and the and axe handles. The leaves are fed to cattle.
leaves and bark are used for the treatment of
cough and bronchitis in Chinese folk medicine
(Kan 1997). In Bangladesh, the leaves are Comments
employed in traditional medicine for fever,
coughs and dry throat and the flowers for bron- H. tiliaceus can be propagated from seeds and
chitis, ear infections, dysentery and chest conges- from tips or hardwood cuttings or grafting.
tion (Uddin et al. 2011).
In Hawaii, the bark is said to have contra-
ceptive effect, which produces slimy mucus Selected References
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 Malva sylvestris

Scientific Name Brazil: Malva, Malva Silvestre

Catalan: Malva, Vauma, Malva De Cementiri
Malva sylvestris L. Corsican: Malba
Croatian: Sljez Crni, Sljez Divlji
Czech: Sléz Lesní, Erdei Mályva
Synonyms Danish: Almindelig Katost
Dutch: Groot Kaasjeskruid, Groot Kaasjeskruid
Althaea godronii Alef., Althaea mauritiana Soort
Alef., Malva ambigua Guss., Malva erecta C. Estonian: Mets-Kassinaeris
Presl, Malva grossheimii Iljin, Malva mauritiana Esperanto: Malvo Granda
L., Malva sylvestris var. mauritiana (L.) Boiss., Finnish: Kiiltomalva, Maurinmalva, Metsämalva
Malva sylvestris subsp. mauritiana (L.) Boiss. French: Fausse Guimauve, Fouassier, Fromageon,
Grande Mauve, Mauve Des Bois, Mauve
Sauvage, Mauve Sylvestre, Mauve Des Bois,
Family Petit-Fromage, Petite Mauve, P’tite Mauve
Gaelic: Lus Na Meall Muire
Malvaceae German: Algiermalve, Gartenpappel, Grosse
Käsepappel, Hanfpappel, Hasenpappel,
Kultur-Käsepappel, Malve, Mauretanische
Common/English Names Malve, Ross-Malve, Rosspappel, Waldmalve,
Wilde Malve
Blue Mallow, Blue Malva, Cheese Cake, Cheese Hungarian: Erdei Mályva, Mályva, Papsajt
Flower, Cheeses, Common Mallow, Country India: Gul-Khair, Gurchanti, Kunzi, Socholi,
Mallow, Forest Mallow, High Mallow, Mallow, Vilayatiikangai (Hindi), Sanna Bindige Gida,
Marsh Mallow, Pick-Cheese, Round Dock, Seeme Bende (Kannada), Hobbejza tar-raba
Tall Mallow, Wild Mallow, Wood Mallow, (Malayalam), Kubaajee (Marathi), Gul-E-khair,
Zebrina Mallow Gul-e-khubazi, Khubbazi (Urdu)
Iran: Panirak
Italian: Malva, Malva Selvatica, Malva Silvestre,
Vernacular Names Malva Sylvestris Méiba, Nalba, Riondella
Japanese: Usenbeni-Aoi, Zeni-Aoi
Albanian: Mullaga Kashmiri: Sotsal
Arabic: Khobbiza Korean: Dang-A-Uk, Dangaug
Basque: Ziga, Zigiña Maltese: Hobbejza Tar-Raba

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 395
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_28, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
396 Malvaceae

Norwegian: Apotekerkattost, Kattost Santayana 2004; Carvalho 2005; Neves et al.

Polish: Ślaz Dziki 2009). Young leaves are eaten raw in salad; leaves
Portuguese: Malva, Malva-Comum, Malva- and shoots are eaten as boiled vegetables or con-
Das-Boticas, Malva-Maior, Malva-Mourisca, sumed in soups, acting as thickeners because of
Malva-Selvagem, Malva-Silvestre their mucilaginous nature. Leaves, flowers and
Romanian: Nalba De Culturä, Nalba De Padure roots can be used to make tea. Flowers are added
Russian: Mal’va Leanaja, Prosvirnik Lesnoj to salads or used as garnish. Immature fruits are
Sardinian: Mamarutza, Marmaredda, Marva, sucked or chewed by children, shepherds and
Narbedda hunters as snacks; seeds are used for flavouring.
Serbian: Crni Slez The flower pigments (anthocyanins) are used as a
Slovašcina: Gozdni Slezenovec, Slezenovec Gozdni natural colourant for food stuff.
Slovencina: Slez Lesný
Spanish: Alboeza, Malva, Malva Alta, Malva
Común, Malva Silvestre, Malva Sylvestris Botany
Swedish: Rød Kattost, Rödmalva, Vanlig
Rödmalva, Vildmalva An erect or decumbent, usually biennial pubescent
Turkish: Lus Na Meall Muire to glabrescent herb, up to 1.5 m high and sparingly
Welsh: Hocysen Gyffredin, Glyf Gyffredin, Hocys branching basally. Leaves alternately arranged,
Cyffredin, Meddalon, Meddalon Gyffredin, 2–4 cm by 2–5 cm wide, orbicular, maybe be
Melotai, Melotai Gyffredin, Rhocos, Rhwygo shallowly 3–5 (-7) lobed, cordate with irregularly
yn Llaprau, Rhwygo yn Llarpiau serrated margin, deep green and downy; stipule
lanceolate and scarious, petiole 2–6 cm, pilose
(Plate 1). Flowers bisexual, pentamerous, in
Origin/Distribution 2–4-flowered axillary fascicles on 2 cm long
pedicels. Epicalyx segments, ovate; calyx free to
The species occurs wild from temperate Europe the middle, glabrescent, lobes broadly deltoid,
to the Mediterranean/north Africa region. The 2–3 mm across; petals reddish purple, or bright
species is widely distributed from Western pinkish purple with dark stripes, obovate, 1 cm
Europe to the Himalayas and Siberia in Central wide, apical margin emarginate and ciliate,
Asia. It has been introduced elsewhere and has reticulate wrinkled on the back; stamens 3 mm
naturalized in many temperate regions, probably long, stellate pubescent (Plate 1). Fruit glabrous,
escape from cultivation in eastern Australia, the 5–6 mm in diameter, with 10–12 coherent reticu-
United States, Canada and Mexico. late mericarps, each mericarp with a single seed.
Seeds brown, 2.5 mm long and broad, shaped like
a cheese wheel.
Agroecology

A temperate species growing from near sea level Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

to 2,400 m altitude. The Common Mallow is a
nitrophilous species; it is commonly found in pas- Nutrients and Phytochemical
tures, fallow ground, waste grounds, crop fields, in the Plant
field verges, paths and roadsides. It thrives in full
sun in moist, well-drained, neutral to alkaline soils. Malva sylvestris was found to contain 10–30 μg/g
dry weight scopoletin (Tosi et al. 1995). The con-
tent was found to be higher in the aqueous extract
Edible Plant Parts and Uses compared with the methanol extract of the same
sample. Sulphite oxidase was isolated and par-
Young leaves and shoots, flowers, immature fruit tially characterized from Malva sylvestris leaves
and seeds are edible and eaten in several parts of (Ganai et al. 1997). Eleven compounds were iso-
Europe (Hedrick 1972; Facciola 1990; Pardo de lated from the aqueous extract of M. sylvestris:
Malva sylvestris 397

were α- linolenic (C18:3), linoleic (C18:2) and

palmitic acid (C16:0). In all the samples, polyun-
saturated fatty acids (PUFA) predominated over
monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) due to the
significant contribution of α-linolenic and lin-
oleic acids; leaves presented the highest levels of
UFA (~84 %), while fruits and flowers revealed
the highest contents of saturated fatty acids (SFA)
(~37 %). In all the cases unsaturated fatty acids
(UFA) predominated over SFA, ranging from 63
to 84 %, palmitic acid being the main SFA found,
followed by tricosanoic acid (C23:0). Twenty-
two fatty acids were identified and quantified:
caproic acid (C6:0); caprylic acid (C8:0); capric
acid (C10:0); lauric acid (C12:0); myristic acid
(C14:0); myristoleic acid (C14:1); pentadecanoic
acid (C15:0); palmitic acid (C16:0); palmitoleic
acid (C16:1); heptadecanoic acid (C17:0); 572
stearic acid (C18:0); oleic acid (C18:1n9c); lin-
oleic acid (C18:2n6c); γ-linolenic acid (C18:3n6)
(not detected in leaves, flowers and immature
fruits); α-linolenic acid (C18:3n3); arachidic acid
(C20:0); eicosenoic acid 574 (C20:1c); cis-11,
14-eicosadienoic acid (C20:2c); cis-11, 14,
Plate 1 Flowers and leaves 17-eicosatrienoic acid (C20:3n3); heneicosanoic
acid (C21:0); behenic acid (C22:0); tricosanoic
acid (C23:0); and lignoceric acid (C24:0) (Barros
4-hydroxybenzoic acid; 4-methoxybenzoic et al. 2010).
acid; 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid; An arabinogalactan protein (AGP) was isolated
4-hydroxycinnamic acid; ferulic acid; methyl from suspension cell culture of Malva sylvestris
2-hydroxydihydrocinnamate; scopoletin; N-trans- (Classen and Blaschek 2002). AGP comprised a
feruloyl tyramine; a sesquiterpene, (3R,7E)-3- high amount of polysaccharide with a ratio of
hydroxy-5,7-megastig-madien-9-one; and (10E, galactose to arabinose of 1.9:1, some uronic acids
15Z)-9,12,13-trihydro-xyoctadeca-10,15-dienoic and a small protein moiety with the main amino
acid. Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, xanthophylls acids serine, alanine and hydroxyproline. The
and carotenoids were extracted from the acetone molecular weight was estimated to be 1.3 × 10(6)
extract of the plant (Redzić et al. 2005). Da. AGP was composed of a highly branched core
A phytoalexin, malvone A (2-methyl-3- polysaccharide of 3-, 6- and 3,6-linked Galp
methoxy-5,6-dihydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), residues with terminal Araf, GlcAp and Galp.
induced in Malva sylvestris by the plant pathogen
Verticillium dahliae was isolated (Veshkurova
et al. 2006). In a turbidimetric assay for toxicity Nutrients and Phytochemicals
to V. dahliae, it had an ED50 value of 24 μg/mL. in the Leaves
A sesquiterpene and a tetrahydroxylated acyclic
diterpene as well as two known monoterpenes, An acidic polysaccharide mucilage, designated
6 C(13)nor-terpenes and 11 aromatic compounds as MSL-M, with molecular weight about
were isolated from the aqueous extract of Malva 6.0 × 106.was isolated from the leaves of Malva
sylvestris (Cutillo et al. 2006). sylvestris var. mauritiana (Tomoda et al. 1989).
The major fatty acids found in the leaves, It was composed of L-rhamnose/D-galactose/
flowers, immature fruits and leafy flowered stems D-galacturonic acid/D-glucuronic acid in the molar
398 Malvaceae

ratio of 6:3:2:2. An acidic polysaccharide preparation Nutrients and Phytochemicals

with a molecular weight of 11,000 was isolated in the Flowers
from the leaves of Malva sylvestris var. mauritiana
(Gonda et al. 1990). It was composed of Two anthocyanins were isolated from the aque-
L-rhamnose, D-galactose, D-galacturonic acid and ous alcoholic extract of M. sylvestris flowers:
D-glucuronic acid in the molar ratio of 22:6:22:11 malvidin 3,5-O-diglucoside (malvin) and malvi-
and contained 7.7 % peptide. din 3-O-(6″-O-malonylglucoside)-5-O-glucoside
Four 8-hydroxyflavonoidglucuronides gossy- (Farina et al. 1995). A new malonated anthocy-
petin 3-glucoside-8-glucuronide; hypolaetin anin, malvidin 3-(6′-malonylglucoside)-5-
4′-methyl ether 8-glucuronide; hypolaetin 8- glucoside, was isolated from the flowers of both
glucuronide and isoscutellarein 8-glucuronide wild and cultivated forms of M. sylvestris (Takeda
were isolated from the leaves of Malva sylvestris et al. 1989). The total anthocyanin concentration
(Billeter et al. 1991). Terpenoids, phenolic acids in the flowers was significantly increased to
and anthocyanins were identified in the aqueous about 180.08 % by UVB radiation compared
leaf extract of the plant (Cutillo et al. 2006). to untreated sample (Jayalakshmi et al. 2011).
Elemental analysis of the leaves was conducted Fractionation of acidified methanolic extract of
using inductively coupled plasma optical emis- flowers afforded two anthocyanidins, viz., malvidin
sion spectrometry (ICP-OES), and the mean and delphinidin. The plant could be used for
values (mg/kg) for large and small leaves were the extraction of anthocyanins intended to be
found as follows, respectively: aluminium 42.90, employed as food colourant and antioxidant
47.62 mg; boron 0.360, 0.200 mg; barium 13.60, agent by the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic
8.64 mg; calcium 15 936, 11,761 mg; chromium industries.
0.26, 1.08 mg; copper 8.30, 8.70 mg; iron 88.62, High molecular weight acidic polysaccharide
75.24 mg; potassium 288.66, 290.54 mg; magnesium (HMWAP) mucilages were isolated from Malva
2039, 1,833 mg; manganese 26.78, 22.98 mg; sylvestris flowers and leaves (Classen and Blaschek
lead 1.54, 1.42 mg; silicon 27.16, 27.84 mg; 1998). The molecular weight of all HMWAPs
strontium 31.38, 31.38 mg; titanium 0.68, was in a range of 1.3–1.6 × 106 Da. HMWAPs
0.66 mg; and zinc 19.90, 2.03 mg (Hiçsönmez were found to be composed mainly of glucuronic
et al. 2009). acid, galacturonic acid, rhamnose and galactose
Nutrient composition (g/100 g fresh weight A neutral heteropolysaccharide with molecular
(fw)) of mallow leaves was moisture 76.30 g, weight 0.05–1.5 × 106 and consisting of D-galactose
carbohydrates 71.46, proteins 12.15 g, fat 2.76 g, (23.4 %), L-arabinose (34.3 %) and L-rhamnose
ash 13.53 g, reducing sugars 6.22 g and energy (42.2 %) was isolated from the mucilage of the
356.72 Kcal/100 g (dry weight (dw)); The sugar flowers of Malva mauritiana (Capek et al. 1999).
composition and tocopherol content (g/100 g dw) It possessed a 3,6-linked D-galactopyranose,
were as follows: total sugars 11.61 g, fructose 5-linked L-arabinofuranose as well as 4-linked
1.82 g, glucose 3.15 g, sucrose 3.97 g, trehalose and terminal L-rhamnopyranose residues as the
2.67 g and raffinose not detected (nd) and total main building units.
tocopherols 106.52 mg, α-tocopherol 83.70 mg, Nutrient composition (g/100 g fw) of mallow
β-tocopherol 1.48 mg, γ-tocopherol 20.05 mg and flowers was moisture 72.49 g, carbohydrates 78.12,
δ-tocopherol 1.29 mg (Barros et al. 2010). Leaves proteins 8.50 g, fat 2.48 g, ash 10.54 g, reducing
were found to contain the highest (mg/g extract) sugars 13.95 g and energy 372.01 Kcal/100 g
phenolics 386.45 mg, flavonoids 210.81 mg and (dw), and sugar composition and tocopherol
carotenoids 0.19 mg among the aerial plant parts content (g/100 g dw) were as follows: total sugars
but were low in ascorbic acid 0.17 mg. Leaves 20.02 g, fructose 8.72 g, glucose 7.36 g, sucrose
were also the richest in PUFA (80.03 %) particu- 2.47 g, trehalose 1.47 g and raffinose nd and total
larly in α-linolenic acid (C18:3n3) (67.79 %) and tocopherols 17.37 mg, α-tocopherol 14.03 mg,
lowest in SFA (16.32 %) and MUFA (3.65 %). β-tocopherol 0.57 mg, γ-tocopherol 2.53.mg and
Malva sylvestris 399

δ-tocopherol 0.24 mg (Barros et al. 2010). Flowers Nutrients and Phytochemicals

were found to contain 285.65 mg phenolics, in Leafy Flowered Stems
46.55 mg flavonoids, 1.11 mg ascorbic acid, 0.03 mg
carotenoids, 57.33 % PUFA, 6.84 % MUFA and Nutrient composition (g/100 g fw) of leafy flowered
35.83 % SFA. α-linolenic acid (C18:3n3) content stems was moisture 77.26 g, carbohydrates 71.89,
was 33.50 % and γ-linolenic acid (C18:3n6) was proteins 14.26 g, fat 3.09 g, ash 10.76 g, reducing
not detected in the flowers. sugars 10.46 g and energy 372.43. Kcal/100 g
dw, and sugar composition and tocopherol
content (g/100 g dw) were as follows: total sug-
Nutrients and Phytochemicals ars 14.67 g, fructose 3.52 g, glucose 3.30 g,
in the Fruits sucrose 3.09 g, trehalose nd and raffinose 14.67 g
and total tocopherols 34.92 mg, α-tocopherol
Six new steroidal lactones and a homomonoter- 28.40 mg, β-tocopherol 0.57 mg, γ-tocopherol
penic glucoside along with β-sitosterol-3-β-D- 5.93 mg and δ-tocopherol 0.02 mg (Barros et al.
glucopyranoside were isolated from the extract of 2010). Leafy flowered stems were found to
defatted fruits of Malva sylvestris (Mustafa and contain 317.93 mg phenolics, 143.40 mg flavo-
Ali 2011). Their structures were elucidated as noids, ascorbic acid 0.20 mg, carotenoids
cholest-5-en-3a-ol-18(21)-olide (sylvestrosterol A), 0.11 mg, 71.90 % PUFA, 3.48 % MUFA and
cholest-9(11)-en-3α-ol-18(21)-olide (sylvestros- 0.95 % SFA. α-Linolenic acid (C18:3n3) content
terol B), cholest-4,6,22-trien-3α-ol-18(21)-olide in the leafy flowered stems was 53.09 %, and
(sylvestrosterol C), 2-methyl-6-methylene-n- γ-linolenic acid (C18:3n6) content was 2.23 %.
decan-2-olyl-3β-D-glucopyranoside (malvanoyl
glucoside), cholest-7-en-18(21)-olide-3α-olyl-
3β-D-glucopyranoside (sylvestrogenin A), Nutrients and Phytochemicals
cholest-9(11)-en-18(21)-olide-3α-olyl-3β- D - in Seeds
glucopyranoside (sylvestrogenin B) and cholest-
5-en-8(21)-olide-3α-olyl-3β-D-glucopyranoside Total oil content of M. sylvestris was 9.60 %.
(sylvestrogenin C). Lipid percentage and fatty acid composition of
Nutrient composition (g/100 g fw) of imma- M. sylvestris seed oil were reported as follows:
ture fruits was moisture 45.60 g, carbohydrates 9.60 % lipid, myristic acid (14:0) 0.46 %,
74.96, proteins 3.26 g, fat 8.96 g, ash 12.83 g, palmitic acid (16:0) 24.29 %, margaric acid
reducing sugars 2.09 g and energy 393.45 (17:0) 0.19 %, stearic acid (18:0) 3.68 %, behenic
Kcal/100 g dw, and sugar composition and acid (22:0) 0.44 %, lignoceric acid (24:0) 0.27 %,
tocopherol content (g/100 g dw) were as fol- total SFA 29.33 %, palmitoleic acid (16:1)
lows: total sugars 2.30 g, fructose 0.40 g, glu- 0.33 %, oleic acid (18:1) 13.66 %, total MUFA
cose 1.52 g, sucrose 0.11 g, trehalose nd and 13.99 %; linoleic acid (18:2) 44.16 %, linolenic
raffinose 0.26 g and total tocopherols 2.61 mg, acid (18:3) 0.77 %, total PUFA 45.65 %, dihydro-
α-tocopherol 2.07 mg, β-tocopherol 0.26 mg, malvalic acid (18:ca) 0.59 %, dihydrosterculic
γ-tocopherol 0.28 mg and δ-tocopherol nd acid (19:ca) 0.82 %, malvalic acid (18:ce) 0.85 %,
(Barros et al. 2010). Immature fruits were found sterculic acid (19:ce) 0.52 %, total cyclopropenoid
to contain 56.76 mg phenolics, 25.35 mg flavo- fatty acids (CPEFA) 2.78 %, 10-ketostearic acid
noids, ascorbic acid 0.27 mg, carotenoids 1.11 % and total fatty acids 91.94 % (Tešević et al.
0.01 mg, 56.69 % PUFA, 6.52 % MUFA and 2012). Sterols (mg/g) found in the seeds were
36.79 % SFA. α-Linolenic acid (C18:3n3) con- campesterol 3.278 mg, stigmasterol 3.975 mg,
tent in the immature fruit was low (10.33 %), β-sitosterol 17.34 mg, fucosterol 4.021 mg, grami-
and γ-linolenic acid (C18:3n6) was not detected sterol 0.307 mg, cycloartenol 1.107 mg, avenas-
in the immature fruits. terol 0.587 mg, 3β-cholest-5ene-3,25-diol 0.250 mg,
400 Malvaceae

9,19-cyclolanostan-3-ol 0.923 mg and two Malva sylvestris exhibited an IC50 < or = 32 μg/
identified compounds. mL for biofilm inhibition of methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus, a common cause of skin
and soft tissue infection (Quave et al. 2008b).
Antioxidant Activity Malva sylvestris leaves exhibited very strong
antioxidant properties including radical scaveng-
Some greens including Malva sylvestris ing activity (EC50 = 0.43 mg/mL), reducing power
(Blue Mallow) used as traditional dishes in (EC50 = 0.07 mg/mL) and lipid peroxidation
Mediterranean diet exhibited radical scavenging inhibition in liposomes (β-carotene bleaching
and iron chelating activities (El and Karakaya inhibition) (EC50 = 0.04 mg/mL) and brain cell homo-
2004). All samples showed antioxidant activity genates (TBARS inhibition) (EC50 = 0.09 mg/mL)
as a radical scavenger in the DPPH* radical assay. (Barros et al. 2010). Leaves were also the richest
Greens also possessed antioxidative activity in nutraceuticals such as powerful antioxidants
towards H2O2. Especially, greens exhibited a (phenols, flavonoids, carotenoids and tocopherols),
marked scavenging effect on H2O2 at 0.2 g/mL unsaturated fatty acids (e.g. α-linolenic acid)
concentration. The Fe2+ ion chelating activities of and minerals measured in ash content. The anti-
the samples except jointed glasswort (Salicornia oxidant activities (EC50 value mg/mL) of other
europaea) were greater than 70 %. High-fat aerial plant parts were DPPH scavenging activity
albino rats were fed with different dosages of (flowers 0.55 mg, immature fruits 4.47 mg, leafy
anthocyanin from Malva sylvestris; results flowered stems 0.59 mg), reducing power (flowers
showed that total cholesterol was decreased by 0.17 mg, immature fruits 1.00 mg, leafy flowered
19.7 % at an anthocyanin of 0.04 g/day and stems 0.10 mg), β-carotene bleaching inhibition
triglyceride was decreased by 34.4 % at an (flowers 0.11 mg, immature fruits 0.68 mg,
anthocyanin of 0.05 g/day (Wang 2005). Further, leafy flowered stems 0.10 mg) and TBARS
the scavenging rate of free radical reached inhibition (flowers 0.12 mg, immature fruits
43.46 % when the content of anthocyanin was 0.85 mg, leafy flowered stems 0.05 mg).
0.20 mg/mL and the inhibition rate of lipid per- Both flowers and leaves of M. sylvestris meth-
oxidation reached 18.82 % when anthocyanin anol extracts exhibited strong antibacterial effects
content was 0.5 mg/mL. against Erwinia carotovora, a plant pathogen,
Antioxidant capacity of the aqueous extract of with MIC value of 128 and 256 μg/mL, respectively
Malva sylvestris was measured by its ability to (Razavi et al. 2011). The flower extract also showed
scavenge the DPPH and superoxide anion radicals high antibacterial effects against some human
and to induce the formation of a phosphomolyb- pathogen bacteria strains such as Staphylococcus
denum complex (DellaGreca et al. 2009). Eleven aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae and Entero-
compounds were isolated and the antioxidant coccus faecalis, with an MIC value of 192, 200
activities of all these compounds were reported. and 256 μg/mL, respectively. Among all extracts,
The seed oil had weak antioxidant activity in the ethanol extracts of both Malva sylvestris and
DPPH assay with an EC50 value of 52.8g mg/mL Malva neglecta especially M. sylvestris exhibited
which was 28–53 times weaker than that of BHT the best antibacterial activity against wound
(Tešević et al. 2012). bacteria Streptococcus pyogenes with MIC of
0.4 mg/mL followed by aqueous extracts (Zare
et al. 2012). All extracts were active against
Antimicrobial Activity Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa
and Proteus vulgaris. Aqueous and chloroform
Anthocyanin extracted from Malva sylvestris extracts had better antifungal activity. The best
dose-dependently (6–30 g/L) inhibited the growth of antifungal MIC values was 0.6 mg/mL for
in vitro of Staphylococcus aureus but not M. sylvestris aqueous extract against Aspergillus
Escherichia coli and Aspergillus niger (Cheng and niger. All extracts had activity against A. niger,
Wang 2006). Extracts from ten plants including Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans.
Malva sylvestris 401

Wound and Eczema Healing Activity production, but enhanced interleukin-12 and
gamma-interferon gene transcription (El Ghaoui
Alloxan-induced diabetic Wistar rats treated et al. 2008). The extract appeared to switch off
with diethyl ether extract of M. sylvestris and interleukin-4 transcription. The results indicated
Punica granatum flowers showed significant M. sylvestris extract to be macrophage and T helper
reduction in the wound area when compared 1 (Th1) activators.
with control (Pirbalouti et al. 2010). Also, histo-
logical studies of the tissue showed that the
extract of M. sylvestris increased well-organized Cytotoxicity Activity
bands of collagen, more fibroblasts and few
inflammatory cells. The findings demonstrated M. sylvestris methanol extracts exhibited relatively
that the extract of M. sylvestris effectively stim- high cytotoxic activity against McCoy cell line,
ulated wound contraction as compared to con- indicating its potential as a chemopreventive or a
trol group and other groups. M. sylvestris chemotherapeutic agent (Razavi et al. 2011).
accelerated wound healing in rats and thus sup-
ported its traditional use.
In a randomized clinical trial involving 50 Nephroprotective Activity
patients with hand eczema, treatment with 4 %
M. sylvestris ointment was found to be effica- Malva sylvestris decoction was found to have a
cious at 3 and 6 weeks of treatment compared to protective effect against ammonium metavanadate-
the placebo group (Barikbin et al. 2010). The induced nephrotoxicity in rats (Marouane et al.
researchers found M. sylvestris to be a safe and 2011). In 80 rats exposed to ammonium meta-
effective therapeutic modality for the treatment vanadate (0.24 mmol/kg body weight in drinking
of hand eczema and could be used as an optimal water) for 90 days, a significant increase in the
substitute for corticosteroids and antihistamines formation of free radicals and antioxidant enzyme
activities was observed. Additionally, histologi-
cal examination of kidney revealed a structural
Anti-aging Activity deterioration of the renal cortical capsules and a
shrinking of the Bowman space. In animals
Talbourdet et al. (2007) compared the in vitro intoxicated by metavanadate but also given a
anti-aging activities of Malva sylvestris extract Malva sylvestris decoction (0.2 g dry mallow/kg
with those of all-trans retinoic acid (RA), a well- body weight), no such pathologic features were
established topical therapy for photodamage and observed: lipid peroxidation levels, antioxidant
wrinkles. The genes studied were known to be enzyme activities and histological features
modified by RA. The cDNA macro-array technology appeared normal as compared to control rats.
experiment with the reconstructed human epider-
mis model showed that some genes modulated by
treatment with the Malva sylvestris extract were Anti-inflammatory and Antitussive
also regulated by RA treatment indicating a similar Activity
transcriptional activity at the mRNA level.
In the digestive tract, the fruit mucilage could be
used to heal and soothe inflammations such as
Immunomodulatory Activity gastritis, peptic ulcers, enteritis and colitis (Yeole
et al. 2010). The flowers and leaves of M. sylvestris
In studies with egg albumin-immunized and var. mauritiana had been used in the treatment of
egg albumin-non-immunized Balb/c mice, water catarrhs of the respiratory system and various
extracts of Malva sylvestris treatment appeared inflammations of the nasal and oral cavities
to have no effect on anti-egg albumin antibody (Tešević et al. 2012). Capek et al. (1999) found that
402 Malvaceae

the mucilage isolated from the flowers exhibited are efficacious to cure whooping cough and are
cough-suppressing activity. official in French and Swiss pharmacopoeias (CSIR
1962). The German Commission E Monographs,
a therapeutic guide to herbal medicine, approved
Traditional Medicinal Uses Malva sylvestris for cough, bronchitis and inflam-
mation of the mouth and pharynx (Rister et al.
All parts of the plant have medicinal uses. Common 1998). The edible Malva sylvestris is used as
Mallow is considered to have diuretic, laxative, folkloric medicine for cough and bladder ulcer
emollient, demulcent, spasmolytic, lenitive, cho- in Samahni Valley (Azad Kashmir), Pakistan
leretic, bronchodilatory, expectorant, antitussive, (Ishtiaq et al. 2007).
antidiarrhoeal and anti-inflammatory properties
(CSIR 1962; Grieve 1971; Bown 1995; Chevallier
1996; Foster and Duke 1998; Camejo-Rodrigues Other Uses
et al. 2003; Novais et al. 2004; Pardo de Santayana
2004; Carvalho 2005; Ferreira et al. 2006; Natale Malva sylvestris was one of the six species
and Pollio 2007; Quave et al. 2008a; DellaGreca (Cichorium intybus, Eryngium creticum,
et al. 2009; Leporatti and Ghedira 2009; Neves Foeniculum vulgare, Malva sylvestris, Thymus
et al. 2009; Barros et al. 2010). Roots, shoots, syriacus and Gundelia tournefortii) found popu-
leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds are applied in lar for their edible uses as well as their health
infusions, decoctions, poultices, liniments, lotions, and/or medicinal benefits in north-east Lebanon
salves, tisane baths and gargles. Traditionally, (Jeambey et al. 2009). Malva sylvestris mucilage
mallow has been employed to treat specified could be used as a suspending agent; it was found
disorders of several systems of the body, such as to have a low rate of sedimentation, high viscosity
the digestive, the respiratory, the genitourinary, and slightly basic pH and was easily redispersible
the muscular, the skeletal systems, and renal (Yeole et al. 2010).
lithiasis, as well as skin disorders and injuries. Cream, yellow and green dyes can be obtained
It is also highly recommended for acne and skin from the plant and the seeds/mericarps. In former
care and as antiseptic, emollient and demulcent. times, the flowers were spread on doorways and
The plant is an excellent laxative for young children. made into garland or chaplets for celebrating May
Roots are used for toothache, genital tract infec- Day. A tincture of the flowers affords a very sensitive
tions and dermatitis. Shoots are employed to treat test for alkalis. A fibre obtained from the stems is
toothache, genital tract infections, haemorrhoids useful for cordage, textiles and paper manufacture.
and constipation. Leafy flowered stems are
employed for cold, cough, throat pain, tonsils
and bladder problems. Seeds/mericarps are used Comments
to treat inflamed or injured skin and as a demul-
cent, emollient and diuretic. Young leaves are use In some temperate areas, the plant has become a
for burns, skin injuries, diarrhoea, pectoral and weed after introduction.
rheumatism. The demulcent properties of leaves
and flowers make them valuable as a poultice for
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 Malvaviscus arboreus

Scientific Name Mallow, Texas-Mallow, Turk’s Cap, Turk’s

Turban, Turkcap, Wax Mallow, White Moho,
Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. Wild Apple

Synonyms Vernacular Names

Achania coccinea Salisb., Achania malvaviscus Sw., Belize: Catusa, Tulipán, Tulipan Del Monte,
Achania mollis Aiton, Hibiscus coccineus Tulipancia, Tulipancillo, Tulipanoia (Spanish),
Walter, Hibiscus malvaviscus L., Hibiscus nutans Old Man’s Apple, White Moho, Wild Apple
Sessé & Moc., Hibiscus pilosus (Sw.) Fawc. & (English)
Rendle, Malvaviscus acapulcensis Kunth, Bolivia: Malvavisco Arborescente
Malvaviscus arboreus var. lobatus A. Robyns, Brazil: Malvaisco (Portuguese)
Malvaviscus arboreus var. sagraeanus (A. Rich.) Chinese: Xio Xuan Ling Hua
Baker f., Malvaviscus arboreus var. sepium Cook Islands: Kaute, Kaute Moe, Kaute
(Schltdl.) Schery, Malvaviscus balbisii DC., Makatea, Kaute ‘Ōporo (Maori)
Malvaviscus ciliatus DC., Malvaviscus coc- Costa Rica: Amapola, Amapolilla
cineus Medik., Malvaviscus lanceolatus Rose, Cuba: Majaguilla
Malvaviscus mollis (Aiton) DC. Danish: Kræmmerhusmalva, Søvnig
Hawaiiblomst
Estonian: Pehme Malvavisk
Family El Salvador: Manzanita Quesillo
French: Calalou Diable Hibiscus Dormant,
Malvaceae Malvaviscus Arboré Du Mexique
French Guyana: Calalou-Diable
German: Beerenmalve, Gewöhnliche
Common/English Names Beerenmalve, Mexikanische Beerenmalve,
Wachsmalve
Bootblack Flowers, Cardinal’s Hat, Drummond’s Guatemala: Clavel Encarnado, Estrella De
Wax-Mallow, Firecracker, Firecracker Hibiscus, Panama
Hibiscus-Piment, Ladies Teardrop, Mexican Hawaiian: Aloalo Pahupahu
Turks Cap, Old Man’s Apple, Pepper Hibiscus, India: Lanka Jaba (Bengali), Mottu Chemparathi
Scotchman’s Purse, Sleepy Hibiscus, Sleepy (Malayalam), Juba Kusum (Manipuri)

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 405
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_29, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
406 Malvaceae

Malaysia: Bunga Raya Kuncup the flowers are eaten in salad or in light curries
Mayan: Amapola, Amapollila, Arito, Bizil, (Kaisoon et al. 2011).
Capuchito, Capuyito, Chillilo, Civil, Flor De
Arito, Mahoe Rose, Malvito, Manzana,
Mapola, Managuillo, Obelisco De La Sierra, Botany
Papito De Monte, Pico De Gorion, Polvo De
Monte, Poro,Quesito, Resucitado De Monte, A spreading perennial, erect shrub, 1–2 m high.
Sobon, Tamanchich Stem and branchlets sparsely villous to glabrate.
Mexico: Civil, Manzanilla, Manzanita, Mazapan, Leaves on 2–12 cm long petioles, lamina broadly
Monacillo, Moanacillo Coloradol cordate to ovate–cordate, usually 3-lobed, some-
Nicaragua: Quesillo times entire, 6–12 × 2.5–10 cm, nearly glabrous
Peru: Cucarda Caspi, Malvavisco,Pinon Ceqeati or stellate pilose on both surfaces, basal veins 3
Pukapukan: Kaute or 5, base broadly cuneate to nearly rounded or
Spanish: Flor De Santos, Manzanillo, Monacillo, cordate, margin crenate-serrate, apex acuminate
Obelisco De La Sierra, Tripa De Buey, (Plate 1). Stipules lanceolate, deciduous. Flowers
Tulipancillo on 3–20 mm long pedicels, axillary, solitary, pen-
Swedish: Bärmalva dulous, tube shaped expanding slightly at the
Thai: Chaba apex, 2.5–5 cm. Epicalyx lobes spatulate 7–9,
Tuamotuan: Aute’Umoa connate at base, green, hirsute, adnate to calyx.
Vietnamese: Bụp Giàn Xay, Bụp Kín Calyx tubular, 5-lobed, teeth ciliate, greenish-
cream. Petals 5 scarlet-red, 2.5–5 cm (Plates 2
and 3). Staminal column 5–7 cm exceeding
Origin/Distribution corolla tube. Style 10-fid with capitate stigmas.
Fruit bright red when ripe, depressed-globose,
The plant is indigenous to the Southeastern 3–4 seeded.
United States, Mexico, Central America and
South America. Introduced to other tropical
and subtropical areas in Africa, Asia, Australia Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
and the Pacific Islands.
The soluble phenol acids (per g dry weight)
identified in Malvaviscus arboreus flower
Agroecology extract were gallic acid 23.2 μg, protocatechuic
acid 2.2 μg, p-hydroxy benzoic acid 52.0 μg,
A lowland tropical/subtropical species. A robust chlorogenic acid 14.8 μg, p-coumaric acid 5.6 μg,
plant that thrives best in a diverse range of
well-drained, moist soils, in full sun or partial
shade.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The plant is a both a culinary and medicinal

herb, used for salad, herbal tea and herbal dyes
(Hamburg 2011). It produces a red dye. The flow-
ers and fruit make a good herbal tea, and the
young tender leaves, fruits and flowers are edible
raw or cooked. They can be used as a culinary
herb or salad herb. When the fruit is cooked, it
will produce a good jelly or syrup. In Thailand, Plate 1 Leaves and young flower buds (S. Wee)
Malvaviscus arboreus 407

assay (mmol FeSO4/100 g dry weight) was

27.13 mmol.
Flavonoid aglycones found in the flowers (mg
per g fresh tissues) of M. arboreus drummondii
and M. arboreus mexicana were total pigments
53 mg, 56 mg; quercetin 41 mg, 42 mg; cyanidin
2 mg, 3 mg; and pelargonidin 10 mg, 11 mg,
respectively (Puckhaber et al. 2002).
The fatty acids, 17-methyl-5,9-octadecadienoic
acid, 16-methyl-5,9-octadecadienoic acid and
5,9-nonadecadienoic acid were identified in the
phospholipid (mainly phosphatidylcholine) extract
of M. arboreus (Carballeira and Cruz 1998).
Plate 2 Pendulous bright red flowers with protruding
10-fid styles (S. Wee)

Antimicrobial Activity

Aqueous extract from leaves of Malvaviscus

arboreus penduliflorus showed in vitro activity
against both Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus
aureus giving a MIC value of 16.6 mg/mL and
15.8 mg/mL, respectively (Selvaraj et al. 2010).
Volatiles extracted from the stem leaves and flow-
ers of M. arboreus exhibited antifungal activity in
vitro (Boughalleb et al. 2005). The extracts were
inhibitory to Alternaria solani, Fusarium oxyspo-
rum f. sp. niveum, F. solani f. sp. cucurbitae and
Rhizoctonia solani. The stem and flower extracts
Plate 3 Close view of pendulous flower showing the were not inhibitory on Verticillium dahliae,
green epicalyx and cream calyx lobes (S. Wee) while the flower extract was not inhibitory to
Botrytis cinerea. All extracts were not inhibitory
ferulic acid 11 μg, sinapic acid 7.9 μg and total towards Pythium ultimum.
phenolic acid 116.7 μg (Kaisoon et al. 2011). The
flowers contained 234.4 μg total bound phenolic
acid made up of gallic acid 77.5 μg, protocate- Insect Repellent Activity
chuic acid 4.4 μg, p-coumaric acid 7.3 μg, ferulic
acid 20.9 μg and sinapic acid 214.3 μg. The flow- Malvaviscus arboreus was found to contain a
ers contained 69.5 μg total soluble flavonoid dominant sesquiterpenoid, caryophyllene epoxide,
made up of rutin 27.7 μg, myricetin 5.05 μg, that exhibited high repellency against attine ant
quercetin 33.6 μg and kaempferol 3.18 μg and (Hubbell et al. 1984). The caryophyllene epoxide
bound flavonoid 34.8 μg made up of quercetin was 20 times more repellent in bioassay than its
9.1 μg and apigenin 25.7 μg. The DPPH radical biological precursor, caryophyllene.
scavenging activity (% inhibition) of soluble and
bound phenolic fraction of the flower was
31.39 % and 21.03 %, respectively. Bound phe- Traditional Medicinal Uses
nolics exhibited lower antioxidant activity than
soluble ones. The reducing potential of the solu- The plant has been used in traditional medicine in
ble phenolic fraction of the flower as evaluated Central America and Haiti (Duke et al. 2009).
by FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) Costa Ricans use the leaf decoction for cystitis,
408 Malvaceae

diarrhoea and gastritis. Cubans use a flower Carballeira NM, Cruz C (1998) 5,9-nonadecadienoic
acids in Malvaviscus arboreus and Allamanda cathar-
decoction as gargle for sore throat. Dominicans
tica. Phytochemistry 49(5):1253–1256
apply the leaf juice to lice, seborrhoea and Duke JA, Bogenschutz-Godwin MJ, Ottesen AR (2009)
wounds, and a flower decoction is given to nurs- Duke’s handbook of medicinal plants of Latin
ing infants with cold. Haitians and Mexicans America. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 901 pp
Hamburg D (2011) Turks cap (Malvavicsus arboreus)
drink the flower decoction for bronchitis, diar-
http://www.naturalherbsandessentialoils.com/salad-
rhoea, thrush and tonsillitis. Hondurans drink the herbs/turks-cap-malvaviscus-arboreus/
leaf decoction for fever. Hubbell SP, Howard JJ, Wiemer DF (1984) Chemical leaf
repellency to an attine ant: seasonal distribution
among potential host plant species. Ecology 65(4):
1067–1076
Other Uses Kaisoon O, Siriamornpun S, Weerapreeyakul N, Meeso N
(2011) Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities
The plant is used as landscape and garden plants of edible flowers from Thailand. J Funct Foods 2:88–99
Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) (2007)
especially in shady localities and also as potted
Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. http://www.hear.org/pier/
house plants. species/malvaviscus_arboreus.htm
Puckhaber LS, Stipanovic RD, Bost GA (2002) Analyses
for flavonoid aglycones in fresh and preserved
Hibiscus flowers. In: Janick J, Whipkey A (eds) Trends
Comments in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria,
pp 556–563
The flowers do not open fully and help attract Schmaltz D, Beall B (1994) Production of Malvaviscus
butterflies and hummingbirds. The plant is read- arboreus Cav. (Turk’s cap) as a flowering pot plant.
Proc Fla State Hortic Soc 107:181–182
ily propagated from stem cuttings.
Selvaraj J, Mohakar P, Rajopadhye S, Subramanian A,
Chowdhary A (2010) Evaluation of antibacterial acti-
vity of two Indian medicinal plants on Escherichia
coli and Staphylococcus aureus. In: Proceedings of
Selected References MICROCON. XXXIV national conference of the
Indian Association of Medical Microbiologists,
Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink CA Jr (1963) Flora Kolkata, 26–28 November, 2010
of Java: (Spermatophytes only), vol 1. Noordhoff, Tang Y, Gilbert MG, Dorr LJ (2007) Malvaceae. In: Wu ZY,
Groningen, 648 pp Raven PH, Hong DY (eds) Hippocastanaceae through
Boughalleb N, Débbabi N, Jannet HB, Mighri Z, El Theaceae, vol 12, Flora of China. Science Press/
Mahjoub M (2005) Antifungal activity of volatile Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis
components extracted from leaves, stems and flowers Turner BL, Mendenhall MG (1993) A revision of
of four plants growing in Tunisia. Phytopathol Malvaviscus (Malvaceae). Ann Mo Bot Gard 80:
Mediterr 44:307–312 442–449
 Azadirachta indica

Scientific Name Bangladesh: Nim

Brazil: Nim
Azadirachta indica A. Juss Burmese: Bowtamaka, Tamabin, Tamaka, Tamar,
Tamarkha, Thinboro
Cambodia: Sadao, Sdao
Synonyms Cameroon: gagné (Fulfulde)
Chamorro: Sdau
Azadirachta indica var. minor Valeton, Chinese: Lian Shu, Ku Lian, Lian Zao Zi, Yin Du
Azadirachta indica var. siamensis Valeton, Ku Lian
Azadirachta indica subsp. vartakii Kothari, Cote D’Ivoire: Djokouadjo- Brou (Dioula)
Londhe & N.P. Singh, Melia azadirachta L., Creole: Nim
Melia indica (A. Juss.) Brandis Czech: Zederach Hladký
Dutch: Margosier
Estonian: India Neemipuu
Family Ethiopia: Kinina (Oromo), Nib (Tiigrinya)
Fiji: Neem
Meliaceae Finnish: Neem
French: Azadirachta De l’Inde, Huile De Neem,
Margosier, Margousier, Neem, Nim Des Indes
Common/English Names German: Burma-Nimbaum, Indischer Zadrach,
Grossblaettiger Zedrach, Neem, Neembaum,
Azadirachta, Bead Tree, Burmese Neem Tree, Niem, Niembaum, Nimbaum
Chinaberry, Cornucopia, Indian Azadirach, Ghana: Kintsi, Kinsto (Adangbe), Akagyatia
Indian Cedar, Indian-Lilac, Indian Lilac, (Lobi), Nim (Southern region)
Margosa, Margosa Tree, Neem, Neem Tree, Nim, Guinea Conarky: kassia kunkhuri
Nimba, Nimtree, Pride of China Hungarian: Indiaiorgona
India: Mahanim, Neem, Nim (Assamese), Bim,
Neem, Nim, Nimgach, Nimun (Bengali), Nim
Vernacular Names (Dogri), Limbo (Gujarati), Balnimb, Dinkan,
Leemba, Leemda, Limbada, Neem, Neemda,
Amharic: Kinin Neemdi, Neemdo, Neemro, Nim, Nimb,
Angola: mbombolo, mbobola (Umbundu) Nimgachh, Ninb (Hindi), Baalanthi Baevu,
Arabic: azad, darkhtu Hind, Margosa, Neeb, Baemu, Baevina Mara, Baevu, Bemu,
Nim, sabah-bah, Sherish, Shereesh Beorunara, Bevina, Bevina Mara, Bevina-Mara,

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 409
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_30, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
410 Meliaceae

Bevu, Beysdunara, Isabaevu, Kaayabaevu, Kotaravalimaram, Malakai, Malakam, Malugam,

Kahi Baevu, Kahi Bevu, Kahi Nimba, Malukam, Maturakkacappi, Mutikam, Nalatam-
Kahibevu, Kaybevu, Kayibevu, Kaypebevu, pumaram, Nattuvempu, Nim, Nimpakam,
Kaypebivu, Keibevu, Lemalo, Nimba, Olle- Nimpamaram, Nimpataru, Ninpam, Niriyacam#,
Bevu, Ollebevu, Vevina (Kannada), Kodu Niriyacam, Niriyasam, Nitarpam, Niyacam,
Nimb (Konkani), Aria-Bepou, Ariabepou, Niyamanam, Niyamanamaram, Niyaracam,
Ariya-Veppa, Aruveppu, Aryatikta, Aryaveppu, Niyaratam, Niyatam, Pacumantam, Paripa-
Arytikta, Kaippanveppu, Nimbam, ttiram, Pariyam, Parvatam, Peranimpam,
Picumarddam, Pisumarddam, Rajaveppu, Perunimpam, Picacappiriyam, Picacappiriyam,
Vembu, Veppa, Veppu, Veppuu, Vepu Picacappiriyam, Picacuppiriyam, Picaram,
(Malayalam), Seizrak (Manipuri) Picavappiriyam, Picumantam, Picumantam,
Balantanimba, Balanthanimba, Kadu Khajur, Picumattam, Pirapattiram, Pisidam, Piyacukam,
Kadukhajur, Kadunimb, Limb, Limba, Limba Puyari, Puyarikam, Sengumaru, Tittai, Tittai,
Chajhada, Limbachajhada, Nimb, Nimbay Tuttai, Ukkirakantam, Ukkirakanti, Ukkra-
(Marathi), Hnahkha, Nim, Nimthing Nim gandam, Varuttam, Vembu, Vempu, Vempu-
(Mizoram), Hnahkha, Nim, Nimthing Nim, maram, Venipam, Vepa, Veppam, Veppamaram,
Vranasodhakari (Oriya), Arishta, Arista, Veppan, Veppu, Vicimikini, Vicumantam,
Aristah, Arkapadapa, Chhardana, Chhardighna, Vicumikini, Vicumini, Viruttamaram, Visa-
Hingu, Hinguniryasa, Kaitarya, Kakaphala, patcani (Tamil), Nimbamu, Taruka, Tharuka,
Kireshta, Kitaka, Malaka, Neta, Nimba, Vaepa, Vemu, Vepa, Vepa-Chettu, Vepachettu,
Nimbah, Nimbaka, Nimbavrikshaha, Niryasa, Vepu, Vempu, Vepa, Yaapa Chettu, Yapa,
Niyamana, Pakvakrita, Paribhadhraka, Paribha- Yeppa (Telugu), Burg Neem, Burge Neem, Gul
drakah, Pichumanda, Picumanda, Picumandah, Neem, Maghz Tukhm Neem, Maghz Tukhm-
Picumarda, Pitasara, Prabhadra, Prabhadrah, E-Neem, Neem, Neem Ke Khusk Pattay, Neem
Pukamalaka, Puyari, Rajabhadraka, Ravipriya, Ki Namontian, Poast Darakht Neem, Poast
Sarvatobhadra, Shirshaparna, Shita, Darakht Nim, Poast Neem, Roghan Neem,
Shukrapriya, Subhadra, Sumana, Varatvacha, Roghan Nim (Urdu)
Vishirnaparna, Vranasodhakari, Yavaneshta Indonesia: intaran, mimba (Balinese), imba,
(Sanskrit), Acutakimaram, Akaluti, Akappala- mimba (Javanese), membha, mempheuh
makkiyacatti, Akuluti, Ammapattini, (Madurese)
Ammapattiri, Aracankanni, Aricu, Aristakam, Iran: Azad Darakth E Hind, Neeb, Nib
Aritam, Arittam, Arkkapatavam, Arukka- Kenya: mkilifi (Digo); Arubaine, Dwele,
patavam, Arulaci, Arulundi Kaduppagai, Muarubaini (Luo), arubaine (Suba)
Arulupati, Aruluruti, Arunati, Aruttakam, Laos: Kadao
Aruttam, Atipam, Cakarakam, Cakatam, Madagascar: traimpilga, voandelaka
Cakatamaram, Cakatamuli, Cankumaru, Malaysia: Baypay, Intaran, Mambu, Sadu,
Cankumarutam, Cankumarutamaram, Caruto- Veppam
pattiri, Carvacatakam, Catapalacitti, Catapala- Nepalese: Nim
cittimaram, Cavamuli, Cenkumaru, Cippura- Niger: Dogo’n (Hausa), Turi Forta (Zarma),
timuli, Cirilipannan, Cirinapannam, Cirinapanni, Neem (French)
Cirinapannimaram, Cirinapattiram, Cirnaparam, Nigeria: darbejiya, dogon yaro, yaro (Hausa),
Cirnapattiram, Civam, Civamatukam, Civamatu- dogogaro (Igbo); afoforo oyimbo, igi-oba
kamaram, Iravippiriyam, Kacappi, Kacappu, (Yoruba)
Kacappuppacitam, Kacappuppacitamaram, Norwegian: Neem, Nim
Kacappuvaruti, Kacappuvarutimaram, Kaita- Pakistan: Limbi, Nimmi, Nimuri
riyam, Katippakai, Kecamutti, Kinci, Kincika, Papua New Guinea: Neem
Kinji, Kiruminacamaram, Kosaram, Kotaka- Persian: Azad Dirakht, Azad-Darakhte-Hindi,
paciyam, Kotakapaciyamaram, Kotaravali, Azaddarachtehindi, Neeb, Nib
Azadirachta indica 411

Portuguese: Margosa, Nimbo can tolerate high temperatures to 45 °C and low

Senegal: Nivaquine (Diola), Emdepanda (Peul), temperatures to 10 °C and is frost intolerant. It
Dim U Tubab, Neem, Nim, Dimi Buki (Wolof) thrives in areas with mean annual rainfall of 450–
Singapore: Kohumba, Neem, Nimba 1,200 mm but will grow in areas with mean
South Africa: Umsilinga (Northern Maputaland, annual rainfall as low as 150 mm when ground-
KwaZulu-Natal province) water is available. Once established, neem is very
Spanish: Lila De La India, Lila De Persia, drought resistant, surviving up to 7 months of dry
Paraiso De India, Lilaila, Pasilla periods. It is also resistant to termites. Neem
Sri Lanka: Kohomba (Sinhala), Nimbu- prefers full sun but will grow in partial shade.
nimbagaha Neem thrives best on deep, permeable, sandy
Sudan: Neem soils. It is robust and adaptable to many types of
Swahili: Mkilifi, Mwarobaini, Mwarubaini soil including difficult sites where other species
Kamili do not thrive well. It will grow on rocky, dry,
Swedish: Margosa, Neem, Nim shallow, infertile soils but abhors waterlogged or
Taiwan: Yin Du Lian Shu seasonally inundated soils and saline soils. It pre-
Tanzania: mwarobaini fers a soil pH in the 6.2–7.0 range, but can grow
Thai: Cha-Tang, Khwinin, Kwinin, Sadao, Sadao within a range of 5.0–8.0 pH.
India
Tibetan: Ni Mba, Ni-Mba
Togo: Kiniti, Liliti, Sabuléti (Ewé), Kiniti (Mina) Edible Plant Parts and Uses
Turkish: Nem Ağacı
Vietnamese: Sầu Ðâu, Xoan Ấn Ðộ Tender leafy shoot, young leaves, flower and
Yemen: Meraimarah fruits are edible. The tender shoots, leaves and
flowers are eaten as a vegetable in India,
Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.
Origin/Distribution Young shoots and young inflorescences are popu-
lar and highly priced vegetables in Thailand;
Neem tree is indigenous to the dry forests of normally available during the end of rainy season,
South and Southeast Asia. It is widely distributed they are harvested and eaten raw or steamed and
in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, dipped in a sweet, sour and hot sauce (Pongpangan
Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia. Its exact ori- and Poobrasert 1985; Rojanapo and Tepsuwan
gin is obscured by widespread cultivation and is 1992; Kusamran et al. 1998a, b; Maisuthisakul
thought to be native to Myanmar and Assam et al. 2008; Maisuthisakul 2012). In Vietnam,
region in north-east India. Neem has been intro- young bitter leaves and flowers are eaten raw
duced and established throughout the tropics and with other vegetables in salads (Tanaka and
subtropics, especially in drier areas in Southeast Nguyen 2007). In Myanmar, young neem leaves
Asia, the Pacific Islands, Australia, South and and flower buds are boiled with tamarind fruit to
Central America, the Caribbean, Africa and the soften its bitterness and eaten as a vegetable.
Middle East. Pickled neem leaves are also eaten with tomato
and fish paste sauce in Myanmar.
In Tamil Nadu, India, neem flowers are used
Agroecology with tamarind, turmeric, salt and sugar in a soup-
like dish called ‘Veppam poo rasam’ (Wikipedia
In its native range in the tropics and subtropics, 2013) . In West Bengal, young neem leaves are
neem inhabits dry deciduous mixed forests. It fried in oil with tiny pieces of eggplant, turmeric,
thrives in subarid and subhumid areas from sea salt and sugar in a crispy fried neem leaves/
level to 700 m elevation and up to 12,000 m asl as brinjal dish called ‘neem begun’. In Andhra
in India. Mean annual temperatures within its Pradesh, neem flowers are used in a souplike
natural range are typically 21–32 °C, although it pickle called ‘Ugadi Pachadi’ on Ugadi day, and
412 Meliaceae

in Karnataka, neem flowers (bitter) and jaggery minute and caducous. Flowers bisexual or male
(sweet) are consumed on Ugadi day, the on the same tree, actinomorphic, small, pentam-
Karnataka New Year, signifying the bitter and erous, white or pale yellow, slightly sweet
sweet things in life. In Maharashtra, a small scented (Plate 3); calyx lobes imbricate, broadly
quantity of neem juice or paste is consumed on ovate and thin, puberulous inside; petals free,
Gudhi Padva, the New Year’s day to herald the 5–11 mm long, imbricate, spatulate, spreading;
start of festivities. Neem fruits are eaten fresh or stamens 10, filaments fused into a 10-lobed sta-
cooked or prepared as a dessert or lemonade- minal tube, anthers sessile; disc annular, fused to
type drink (Stoney 1997). the base of the ovary; ovary superior, style slen-
According to Watt (1908), neem tree exude der, stigma capitate, 3 lobed. Drupes are ovoid–
sap which can also be tapped and fermented to oblong, 1–2 cm long, smooth, thin skinned,
give ‘nim toddy’ which is consumed more for indehiscent, greenish (Plate 4), greenish-yellow
medicinal purposes. Neem gum is used as a bulk- to yellow or purple when ripe and usually one
ing agent and for the preparation of special pur- seeded. Seed ovoid or spherical, apex pointed,
pose food (those for diabetics) and has potential testa thin and brown.
as food additives (Stoney 1997).

Botany

An evergreen, perennial, deep-rooted, glabrous

tree up to 20 m (rarely to 35 m) with a short,
straight bole, whitish-grey to reddish-brown, fis-
sured or scaly bark and with a rounded much-
branched crown of alternately arranged, shiny
dark green pinnately compound 20–30 cm long
leaves on short 70–90 mm petioles (Plate 1).
Very young leaves are copper–bronze colour
(Plate 2). Each leaf has 12–18 obliquely falcate–
lanceolate, serrate leaflets with cuneate base,
acuminate apex, 7 by 2.5 cm. The odd terminal Plate 2 Mature and juvenile leaves
one is often missing. Inflorescence an axillary,
many-flowered thyrse, up to 30 cm long; bracts

Plate 1 Leaves with serrated margins Plate 3 Flowers and buds (G.F. Chung)
Azadirachta indica 413

Flower Phytochemicals

From the flowers were isolated: flavonol mono-

glycosides quercetin-3-galactoside (or hyperin),
kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and myricetin-
3′-O-L-arabinoside (melicitrin A) (Subramaniam
and Nair 1972); pentacosane, heptacosane and
octacosane (Siddiqui et al. 1988b); neeflone, a
new tetranortriterpenoid (Nanduri and Banstola
1995); four prenylated flavanones (5,7,4′-trihy-
droxy-8-prenylflavanone (1), 5,4′-dihydroxy-7-
methoxy-8-prenylflavanone(2),5,7,4′-trihydroxy-3′,8-
diprenylflavanone (3) and 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-3′,5′-
Plate 4 Developing fruits
diprenylflavanone (4)) (Nakahara et al. 2003);
two new flavanones (flowerine (=5-hydroxy-7,4′-
dimethoxy-8-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)flavan-4-one)
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties and flowerone (=5,7,8,4′-tetrahydroxy-3′-(3-
methylbut-3-enyl)flavan-4-one)); two new triter-
More than 150 compounds had been isolated penoids (O-methylazadironolide (=7α-(acetoxy)-
from various parts of neem tree since the isola- 23 ε -m e t h o x y - 2 1 , 2 3 - e p o x y - 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 -
tion of nimbin and nimbinin; these included tetranorapotirucalla- 1,14,20(22)-trien-3,
isoprenoids such as protomeliacins, meliacins 21-dione) and diepoxyazadirol (=(20S,23S,24R)-
(limonoids or tetranortriterpenoids, tetratetranor- 7-α-(acetoxy)-25-hydroxy-21,24:23,24-
triterpenoid-γ-hydroxybutenolides, ring C-seco- diepoxyapotirucalla-1,14-dien-3-one)), along with
tetranortriterpenoid and ring C-seco-tetranor- the known triterpenoid trichilenone acetate
triterpenoid-γ-hydroxybutenolides), pentanortri- (=7α-(acetoxy)-14,15:21,23-diepoxy-
terpenoids, a hexanortriterpenoid and nontriter- 24,25,26,27-tetranorapotirucalla-1,20,22-trien-
penoidal constituents (Siddiqui et al. 1988c, 3-one); two known flavanones nimbaflavone
2008). Other isoprenoid-derived constituents ( =5,7-dihydroxy-4′-methoxy- 8,3′-bis(3-
from neem included diterpenoids and stereols. methylbut-2-enyl)-flavan-4-one) and 3′-prenyl-
The non-isoprenoids included phenols (flavo- naringenin (=5,7,4′-trihydroxy-3′-(3-methylbut-2-
noids and coumarins), carbohydrates, proteins, enyl) flavan-4-one)); 7); 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-
hydrocarbons and fatty acids and their esters. phenol (Siddiqui et al. 2003b); and a flavanone
These compounds isolated from leaves, flowers, named azharone (5,7,4′-trihydroxy-3′-(3″-methyl-
seeds, fruits, roots and bark of neem tree had 2″,3″-epoxybutyl)flavan-4-one) along with azad-
been reported to have a vast array of pharmaco- irone and isoazadironolide (Siddiqui et al. 2006).
logical properties such as immunomodulatory, Forty-one compounds were identified in nonpolar
anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycaemic, antiul- to less polar fraction n-hexane-soluble fraction of
cerogenic, antimalarial, antifungal, antibacterial, fresh neem flowers as well as in essential oil
antiviral, antioxidant, antimutagenic, hepatopro- (Siddiqui et al. 2009b). The compounds identi-
tective, anticarcinogenic, antiparasitic, diuretic, fied included 5 sesquiterpenes, 3 aromatics, 17
antipyretic, neuroprotective, anxiolytic, analge- fatty acids, 5 fatty acid esters, 3 steroids and 8
sic and cardiovascular beside imparting insecti- hydrocarbons, many of which had been previously
cidal and pesticidal activities. A. indica can be reported from different parts of the tree (Siddiqui
regarded as a valuable plant source for the ratio- et al. 1989). Some compounds identified
nalization of its use in traditional medicine included hydrocarbons (tricosane, pentacosane,
and for modern drug development (van der Nat heptacosane, hentriacontane, heneicosane, octa-
et al. 1991a). cosane, nonacosane and nonadecane); steroids
414 Meliaceae

(α-sitosterol, α-sitosterol acetate and lanosterol); α-acetoxy-21,23-epoxy-21α-methoxy-1,14-dien-3-

sesquiterpenoids 1S,2S,5R-1,4,4-trimethyl-tricyclo one (limocin A), kulactone and azaridol, an
[6.3.1.0 (2,5)]dodec-8-ene; decahydro-1,1,3a- apotirucallol (apoeuphol) derivative with the C-8
trimethyl-7-methylene-[1aS-(1aa′,3aa′,7aa′,7ba)]- side chain uncyclized) (Siddiqui et al. 1991a);
1H-cyclopropa[a]naphthalene; 1,1,4,8-tetra- 24,25,26,27-tetranorapotirucalla-7α-acetoxy-
methyl-cis-cis,cis-4,7,10-cycloundecatriene; ger- 21,23-epoxy-23ε-methoxy-1,14-dien-3-one
macrene and α-himachalene; fatty acids and fatty (limocin B) and 24,25,26,27-tetranorapotirucalla
acid esters (dodecanoic acid, heptadecanoic acid (24,25,26,27-tetranorapoeupha)-7α-benzoylox-
or margaric acid, hexacosanoic acid or cerotic 21,23-epoxy-20ε-hydroxy-23ε-methoxy-1,
acid, 15-methylheptadecanoic acid, 12- 14-dien-3-one (limocinin) (Siddiqui et al. 1991b);
methyltridecanoic acid or isomyristic acid, non- a protolimonoid, naheedin and azadirachtol; four
anedioic acid, octacosanoic acid, octadecanoic hydrocarbons (icosane, docosane, 2-methyltrico-
acid, 9-oxanonaoic acid or azelaldehydic acid, sane and docosene) (Siddiqui et al. 1992b); three
4-oxooctanoic acid, pentacosanoic acid and degraded triterpenoids (desfurano-azadiradione,
9-methyltetradecanoic acid); and palmitic, myris- 5α,13α-androstone and 5α,13α-17-oxa-andro-
tic, behenic, lauric acid, 17-hydroxystearic acids stone derivatives) (Siddiqui et al. 1992a); four
and their methyl esters. tetracyclic triterpenoids (salimuzzalin [24,25,26,
27-tetranorapotirucalla (apoeupha)-7α-hydroxy-
21ε,23ε-diacetoxy-21,23-epoxy-1,14,
Fruit Phytochemicals 20(22)-trien-3-one], azadirolic acid [26,27-
dinorapotirucalla (apoeupha)-6β-acetoxy-7α-
Compounds isolated from the fruit included the hydroxy-1,14,20(22)-trien-3-one-25-oic acid],
following: melianone and nimolinone (Lavie azadiradionol[26,27-dinorapotirucalla(apoeupha)-
et al. 1967); salannin and nimbin (Pachapurkar 7α-acetoxy-24ε-hydroxy-1,14-dien-3,16 dione]
et al. 1974); 17-hydroxyazadiradion (Siddiqui and azadironol [4,4,8-trimethyl-5α-(13αMe)-
et al. 1978); a tetranortriterpenoid nimolicinol androst-17α-hydroxy-1-en-7α-( p - methoxy,
with structure elucidated as 17α-hydroxy-14,15- m-hydroxy trans cinnamoyloxy)-3-one] (Siddiqui
deoxy-17-epi-gedunin (Siddiqui et al. 1984a); et al. 1998); two triterpenoids (26,27-dinor-
limonoids (deacetylazadirachtinol, azadirachtin, 17-oxa-1, 14,20(22)-trien-3, 16-dioxo-7α-
salannin, 6-0-acetylnimbandiol and 3-desacetyl- acetoxy-17β-methoxy-4,4,8- trimethyl(5α,
salannin) (Kubo et al. 1986); a meliacin and 13α)-cholane (meliacinin)and24,25,26,27-tetranor-
nimocin, along with the known azadirone, apotirucalla(-apoeupha)-7α-acetoxy-1,14,20(22)-
gedunin, epoxyazadiradione, 7-deacetyl-7-ben- trien-3-oxo-23-oic acid (azadironic acid)) (Siddiqui
zoylazadiradione, azadiradione, 17-hydroxyaza- et al. 2000b); 16 n-alkanes (n-pentadecane,
diradione and β-sitosterol (Siddiqui et al. 1986c); n-hexadecane, n-heptadecane, n-octadecane,
two triterpenoids (isonimolicinolide and nimoli- n-nonadecane, n-icosane, n-heneicosane, n-doc-
cinoic acid) (Siddiqui et al. 1987b); three osane, n-tricosane, n-tetracosane, n-pentacosane,
triterpenoids azadironolide [24,25,26, 27-tetran- n-hexacosane, n-heptacosane, n-octacosane,
orapoeupha-7α-acetoxy-23xi- hydroxy-21,23- n-nonadecane and n-hentriacontane); three aro-
epoxy-1,14, 20(22)-trien-3,21-dione]; isoaz- matics (2,6-bis-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl phe-
adironolide [24,25,26, 27-tetranorapoeupha-7α- nol, 2-(phenylmethylene)-octanal or α-hexylcinna-
acetoxy-21xi-hydroxy-21,23-epoxy-1,14, maldehyde and 1,2,4-trimethoxy-5-(1Z-propenyl)-
20(22)-trien-3,23-dione] and azadiradionolide benzene or β-asarone); three benzopyranoids
[24,25,26,27-tetranorapoeupha-7α-acetoxy-21,23- (3,4-dihydro-4,4,5,8- tetramethylcoumarin,
epoxy-1,14,20(22)-trien-3, 16,21-trione] (Siddiqui 3,4-dihydro-4,4,7,8-tetramethylcoumarin-6-ol
et al. 1990a); five terpenoids (tirucalla-7,24- and1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethyl-
dien-16β-o1 (limocinol), tirucalla-8,24-dien-16-one cyclopenta[g]-2-benzopyran or galoxolide); one
(limocinone), 24,25,26,27-tetranorapotirucalla-7 sesquiterpene, methyl-3,7,11-trimethyl-2E,6E,
Azadirachta indica 415

10-dodecatrienoate or methyl (2E,6E)-farnesoate; tetranortriterpenoid nimbinol (Bokel et al. 1990);

three esters of fatty acids (methyl 14-methyl- triterpenoid limbolide (Siddiqui et al. 1990b);
pentadecanoate, ethyl hexadecanoate or ethyl azadirachtin (Govindachari et al. 1990); azadi-
palmitate and ethyl 9Z-octadecenoate or ethyl rachtins A, B, D, H and I (Govindachari et al.
oleate); and one monoterpene, 3,7-dimethyl- 1991, 1992a); azadirachtin K (Govindachari
1-octen-7-ol or dihydromyrcenol (Siddiqui et al. et al. 1992b), a meliacarpin 1-tigloyl-3-acetyl-
2004b). Fully mature fruit (yellow fruits) kernels 11-hydroxy-4β-methylmeliacarpin (Rojatkar and
contained the highest concentration of azadi- Nagasampagi (1992); meliacin, 11α-hydroxy-12-
rachtin, nimbin and salannin, whereas the con- norazadirachtin (Rojatkar and Nagasampagi
centration of azadiradione and epoxyazadiradione 1994); tetranortriterpenes 11-epi-azadirachtin H
was high in the unripe green berries (Siddiqui et al. (Ramji et al. 1996) and 11-epi-azadirachtin D
2009a). Antiplasmodial triterpenoids were isolated (1-tigloyl-3-acetyl-11 α -hydroxy-4β- methy-
from the fruits of neem, Azadirachta indica. lmeliacarpin) (Ramji et al. 1998); limonoids
(nimbolide, epoxyazadiradione, salannin, nim-
bin, deacetylnimbin and azadirachtin) (Cohen
Seed Phytochemicals et al. 1996); four limonoids, 11-hydroxyazadira-
chtin-B,1-tigloyl-3-acetylazadirachtinin,1,2-diacetyl-
Compounds isolated from the seed included the 7-tigloyl-12-hydroxyvilasinin and 23-desmethyl-
following: desacetylnimbin (Narayanan and Iyer limocin-B (Kumar et al. 1996); a tetranortriterpe-
1967); six tetranortriterpenoids (1α-methoxy- noid, 13,14-desepoxyazadirachtin-A (Govindachari
1,2-dihydroepoxyazadiradione, 1β,2β-diepoxya- and Gopalakrishnan 1997); two azadirachtin deriv-
zardiradione, 7-acetylneotrichilenone, 7-desace- atives, namely, 29-oxymethylene-11-demethoxy-
tyl-7-benzoylazadiradione, 7-desacetyl-7-benz- carbonyl-11α-hydroxyazadirachtin (azadirachtin
oylepoxyazadiradione and 7-desacetyl-7-benzoyl- M) and 22,23-dihydro-23α-hydroxy-3-tigloyl-
gedunin) (Kraus et al. 1981); 4-epinimbin, a 11-deoxyazadirachtinin (azadirachtin N) together
meliacin (Devakumar and Mukerjee 1985); aza- with known compounds 11-epi-azadirachtin H
diradione, 7-deacetylazadiradione (Siddiqui et al. (Luo et al. 1999) triterpenoid, 1α,7α-diacetoxya-
1986d); two limonoids (3-deacetyl-3-cinnamoy- potirucall-14-ene-3α,21,22,24,25-pentaol and
lazadirachtin and 1-tigloyl-3-acetyl-11-metho- odoratone and 2β,3β,4β-trihydroxypregnan-
xyazadirachtinin in addition to azadirachtin); 16-one (Luo et al. 2000); seven bioactive tetran-
22,23-dihydro-23β-methoxyazadirachtin and 3-tig- ortriterpenoids, azadirachtin A, azadirachtin B,
loylazadirachtol (Kraus et al. 1987a); tetranortri- azadirachtin H, desacetylnimbin, desacetylsalan-
terpenoid lactams salannolactam-(21) and salan- nin, nimbin and salannin (Silva et al. 2007); 31
nolactam-(23) (Kraus et al. 1987b); a meliacin nortriterpenoids, including 28 limonoids, azadi-
named salannolide (Garg and Bhakuni 1984b); radione, 7-benzoyl-nimbocinol, 15-hydroxyaza-
a tetranortriterpenoid of the limonoid type, diradione, 17-hydroxyazadiradione, 7-benzoyl-
7-deacetyl-17β-hydroxyazadiradione, and the 17-hydroxynimbocinol, epoxyazadiradione, 7-
known compound azadiradione (Lee et al. 1988); deacetyl-7-benzoylepoxyazadiradione, 17-epiaz-
salannin (Yamasaki et al. 1988); nimbin, epinimbin, adiradione,17-epi-17-hydroxyazadiradione,7-acetyl-
desacetylnimbin, salannin, desacetylsalannin, 16,17-dehydro-16-hydroxyneotrichilenone, aza-
azadirachtin and two unidentified compounds—a diradionolide, 23-deoxyazadironolide, limocin
salannin derivative and a nonterpenoid (Singh E, 23-epilimocin E, 20,21,22,23-tetrahydro-
et al. 1988); 1,3-diacetyl-11,19-deoxa-11-oxo- 23-oxoazadirone, 3-acetyl-7-tigloylvilasinin lac-
meliacarpin, a possible intermediate in the bio- tone, gedunin, 7-deacetylgedunin, 7-deacetyl-
synthesis of azadirachtin (Kraus et al. 1989); two 7-benzoylgedunin, nimolicinol, azadirachtin B,
tetranortriterpenoids (an aldehyde named nim- 11-epiazadirachtin D, vepaol, 23-eipvepaol,
banal and the 3-acetyl derivative of salannol, 3-acetyl-11-methoxy-1-tigloylazadirachtinin,
i.e. salannol-3-acetate) (Rojatkar et al. 1989); a nimbin, 6-deacetylnimbin, 6-deacetylnimbandiol
416 Meliaceae

and degraded limonoids, α-nimolactone, Neem seed was found to contain about 45 %
β-nimolactone, desfuranoazadiradione and one of a brownish-yellow of fixed oil, mainly consti-
diterpenoid, 7α-acetoxy-3-oxoisocopala-1,13- tuted by oleic acid (50–60 %), palmitic acid
dien-15-oic acid arbutin (Akihisa et al. 2009); (15–19 %), stearic acid (14–19 %) and linoleic
and 35 limonoids, including 15 of the azadiradi- acid (8–16 %) and characterized by an acrid taste
one type, five of the gedunin type, four of the aza- and a persistent and unpleasant odour (Mongk-
dirachtin type, nine of the nimbin type and two holkhajornsilp et al. 2005). The major compo-
degraded limonoids (Kikuchi et al. 2011). nents of A. indica oil from neem seeds were
Seventeen limonoids (tetranortriterpenoids, aza- hexadecanoic acid (34.0 %), oleic acid (15.7 %),
diradione, 17-epiazadiradione, 17-hydroxyazadira- 5,6-dihydro-2,4,6-triethyl-(4H)-1,3,5-dithiazine
dione, 17-epi-17-hydroxyazadiradione, azadira- (11.7 %), methyl oleate (3.8 %) and eudesm-
dionolide, desfuranoazadiradione, nimbin, 7(11)-en-4-ol (2.7 %) (Kurose and Yatagai 2005).
3-diacetylvilasinin,6-deacetylnimbin,6-acetylnim- The major components of A. indica oil were
bandiol, 28-deoxonimbolide, ohchinin acetate, hexadecanoic acid (34.0 %), oleic acid (15.7 %),
salannin, 2′,3′-dihydrosalannin, 3-deacetylsalan- 5,6-dihydro-2,4,6-triethyl-(4H)-1,3,5-dithiazine
nin, 17-defurano-17-oxosalannin and nimoli- (11.7 %), methyl oleate (3.8 %) and eudesm-
cinol, and gedunin) and fatty acids, myristic 7(11)-en-4-ol (2.7 %).
(14:0) 0.7 %, palmitic (16:0) 17.6 %, palmitoleic Other compounds found in neem oil included
(16:1, n-7) 0.1 %, stearic (18:0) 18.6 %, oleic the following: three bitter compounds (nimbin,
(18:1, n-9) 50.2 %, cis-vaccenic acid (18:1, cis- nimbinin and nimbidin) (Siddiqui 1942); meliant-
11) 0.4 %, elaidic (18:1, trans-9) 0,2 %, linoleic riol (Lavie et al. 1967); meldenin and nimbinin
(18:2, n-6) 9.4 %, α-linolenic (18:3, n-3) 0.2 %, (Connolly et al. 1968); a tetranorterpenoid,
arachidic (20:0) 1.6 %, behenic (22:0) 0.3 %, eru- vepinin (Narayanan et al. 1969); pentanortriter-
cic (22:1, n-9) 0.2 % and lignoceric (24:0) penoids (nimbinene, 6-deacetylnimbinene, 6-O-
0.3 %,were isolated from the n-hexane extract of acetylnimbandiol and nimbandiol) (Kraus and
neem seeds (Akihisa et al. 2011). Cramer 1981b); three insect antifeedant tetranor-
A tetranortriterpene nimbidinin obtained from triterpenoids (3-deacetylsalannin, salannol and
the neutral fraction of nimbidin, the amorphous 1,3-diacetylvilasinin) (Kraus and Cramer 1981a);
bitter principle of Azadirachta indica seed ker- an insect antifeedant and ecdysis inhibitor,
nel, was shown to be biogenetically related to deacetylazadirachtinol (Kubo et al. 1984); nim-
salannin. The crystalline acidic constituent nim- bocinol and 17-epinimbocinol (Gaikwad et al.
bidic acid had been found to be identical to salan- 1990); mahmoodin, a limonoid, was isolated
nic acid, derived from salannin (Mitra et al. from neem oil, along with seven known tetranor-
1971). Azadirachtins A and B (Rembold et al. triterpenoids (azadirone, epoxyazadiradione,
1984) were obtained from seeds; out of 27 kg nimbin, gedunin, azadiradione, deacetylnimbin
neem seed, amounts of 3.5 g and 0.7 g, respec- and 17-hydroxyazadiradione) (Siddiqui et al.
tively, were obtained after extensive chromato- 1992b); deacetylgedunin, salannin, gedunin,
graphic purifications (Rembold et al. 1987; 17-hydroxyazadiradione, nimbandiol, azadiradi-
Forster 1988), and several minor azadirachtins one, deacetylsalannin, deacetylnimbin, epoxy-
C–G were isolated (Rembold 1987 citing azadiradione, 17-epiazadiradione and nimbin
Forster). Three limonoids, 1-benzoyl-3-deacetyl- were isolated from the methanol extract of neem
1-detigloyl salannin, 7-tigloyl-12-oxo vilasini oil (Ishida et al. 1992); azadirachtins A, B, D, H
and azadiralactone, and a triterpenoid azadira- and I (Govindachari et al. 1996); tetranortriterpe-
hemiacetal, along with three known constituents, noids, 1α,2α-epoxy-17β-hydroxyazadiradione, 1α,
nimbin, 3-deacetylsalannin and 6-deacetylnimbin, 2α-epoxynimolicinol and 7-deacetylnimolicinol;
were isolated from the dried kernels (after and epoxyazadiradione, 17β-hydroxyazadiradione,
extracting azadirachtin) of Azadirachta indica gedunin, nimbin and nimolicinol (Hallur et al. 2002)
(Wang et al. 2013b). and a tetrahydrofuranyl diester (Zhang et al. 2010).
Azadirachta indica 417

Leaf Phytochemicals dihydronimonol identical to isomeldenin (Suresh

et al. 1997); nonterpenoidal benzenoid constitu-
Compounds isolated from the leaves included the ents, nimbothalin, with the structure 2-[(2,4-
following: nimbolide, a meliacin (Ekong 1967); dicarboxy-3-methyl)-benzyl]-8,10-dimethyl-
meliantriol (Lavie et al. 1967); quercetin and 1,3,5,7,9-undeca-pentaene, and n-tridecylben-
isorhamnetin (Basak and Chakraborty 1968); zene (Sharma et al. 1998); 14,15-epoxynimonol,
β-sitosterol-β-D-glucoside, n-hexacosanol and a new tetranortriterpenoid (Govindachari, et al.
β-carotene (Awasthi and Mitra 1971); a hexacy- 1999); two triterpenoids, 23-O-methylnimocinolide
clic tetranortriterpenoid, vilasinin, a biogenetic [7α-acetoxy-6α-hydroxy-23ξ-methoxy-3-oxo-24,
precursor of salannin and nimbin isolated from 25,26,27-tetranorapotirucalla(apoeupha)-1,
fruits (Pachapurkar et al. 1974); quercetin glyco- 14,20(22)-trieno-21,23-lactone] and 1, 7-O-
sides, quercetin 3-O-L-rhamnoside and quercetin deacetyl-23-O-methyl-7α-O-senecioy-
3-O-B-rutinoside (rutin) (Nair and Subramaniam lnimocinolide [6α-hydroxy-23ξ-methoxy-3-oxo-
1975); pentanortriterpenoids, nimbinene, 6-dea- 7α-senecioyloxy-24,25,26,27-tetranorapotiru-
cetylnimbinene, 6-O-acetylnimbandiol and nim- calla(apoeupha)-1,14,20(22)-trieno- 21,23-
bandiol (Kraus and Cramer 1981b); an lactone] (Afshan et al. 1999); 6 α-O-acetyl-
isoprenylated flavanone, 8,3′-di-isoprenyl-5, 7-deacetylnimocinol, nimocinol and meliacinol
7-dihydroxy-4′-methoxyflavanone (Garg and (Siddiqui et al. 2000a); two triterpenoids,
Bhakuni 1984a); a tetranorterpenoid, 4α-6α- 22,23-dihydronimocinol (1) and desfurano-6α-
dihydroxy-A-homoazadiron (Bruhn et al. 1984); hydroxyazadiradione (2), along with a known
a tetranortriterpenoid, nimocinol (Siddiqui et al. meliacin, 7α-senecioyl-(7-deacetyl)-23-O-methy-
1984b); a limonoid, azadirachtin (Podder and lnimocinolide (Siddiqui et al. 2002); a tetranor-
Mahato 1985); 2′,3′-dehydrosalannol, a meliacin triterpenoid, meliatetraolenone [24,25,26,27-
related to salannin (Garg and Bhakuni 1985); a tetranor-apotirucalla-(apoeupha)-6α-O-methyl,
γ-hydroxybutenolide tetranortriterpenoid named 7α-senecioyl(7-deacetyl)-11α,12α,21,23-
as isonimbocinolide (Siddiqui et al. 1986a); two tetrahydroxy- 21,23-epoxy-2,14,20(22)-trien-
bitter meliacins, nimocinolide and isonimocino- 1,16-dione], and odoratone (Siddiqui et al.
lide (Siddiqui et al. 1986c); a triterpenoid nimbo- 2003a); two tetracyclic triterpenoids, zafaral
cinone and the two sterols sitosterol and [24,25,26,27-tetranorapotirucalla-(apoeupha)-
stigmasterol (Siddiqui et al. 1986e); a ring 6α-methoxy-7α-acetoxy-1,14-dien-3,16-dione-
C-seco-tetranortriterpenoid γ-hydroxybutenolide 21-al] and meliacinanhydride [24,25,26,27-
named as isoazadirolide, and a coumarin identi- tetranorapotirucalla-(apoeupha)-6α-hydroxy,
fied as scopoletin (Siddiqui et al. 1986g); two fla- 11α-methoxy-7α,12α- diacetoxy,1,14,20(22)-
vonol diglycosides (quercetin 3-O-β-rutinoside trien-3-one] along with two known constituents,
(rutin) and kaempferol 3-O-β-rutinoside) (Marco nimocinol and isomeldenin (Siddiqui et al.
et al. 1986); cyclic trisulphide and cyclic tetrasul- 2004a); three tetracyclic triterpenoids of bioge-
phide (Pant et al. 1986); nimbolide and 28-deoxo- netic interest, namely, melianol, desfurano-
nimbolide (Kigodi et al. 1989); two tetranortriter- desacetylnimbin-17-one and meliatetraone
penoids, 6-deacetylnimbinal and 28-deoxonim- (Siddiqui et al. 2001); a sulfonoglycolipid char-
bolide (Bokel et al. 1990); an isoprenylated acterized as a sulfonoquinovosyldiacylglyceride
flavanone, 8-prenyl-5,7-dihydroxy-3′-(3-hydroxy-3, (Chatterjee et al. 2010); 7 α-acetyl-15B-methoxy-
3 - d i m e t h y l bu t y l ) - 4 ′ - m e t h o x y f l ava n o n e 29methylene 7,15-deoxonimbolide; 2-oxo-
(Balasubramanian et al. 1993); two tetranortriter- 3-deacetylsalanin; 7 α-hydroxy-15β-hydroxy-7,
penoids (azadirachtolide and deoxyazadirach- 15-deoxonimbin (Githua et al. 2010); two flavo-
tolide) (Ragasa et al. 1997); limonoids, nimbolide noids, genistein 7-O-glucoside (1) and (−)-epi-
and 28-deoxonimbolide and α-linolenic acid catechin (Qudsia et al. 2011); quercetin-3-
(Nair et al. 1997), nimocinol, nimonol, 6-acetyl- O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Islam et al. 2012); feru-
nimonol identified as 6-acetoxyazadirone and lic acid, myricetin, kaempferol, quercetin and
418 Meliaceae

luteolin-7-O-β-d-glucoside (Sari 2012); and from trunk wood (Ekong et al. 1969); pentanortrit-
tripeptide from young leaves (Prabha and erpenoids, nimbinene and 6-deacetylnimbinene
Ramachandramurty 2013). (Kraus and Cramer 1981b); two isomeric diterpe-
Nimbolide was biosynthesized from [2-14C, noids, nimbione and nimbinone, and a new ring
(4R)4-3H1]mevalonic acid lactone in the leaves of C-seco-tetranortriterpenoid, isonimbinolide (Ara
Azadirachta indica (Ekong and Ibiyemi 1985). et al. 1988); margosinone and margosinolone, two
A water-soluble pectic arabinogalactan with appar- new polyacetate derivatives (Ara et al. 1989d); three
ent molecular mass of 80 kDa and made up of tricyclic diterpenoids, margolone, margolonone and
(1 → 5)-/(1 → 3,5)-linked α-L-arabinosyl, (1 → 3)-/ isomargolonone (Ara et al. 1989e); two diterpe-
(1 → 6)-/(1 → 3,6)-linked β-D-galactosyl and ter- noids, nimbionone and nimbionol, with structures
minal rhamnosyl and α-L-arabinosyl residues was determined as 12-hydroxy-13-methoxypodocarpa-
isolated from Azadirachta indica leaves (Saha 8,11,13-trien-3,7-dione and 3,12-dihydroxy-13-
et al. 2010). Nimbolide [systematic name, methoxypodocarpa-8,11,13-trien-7-one,
(4α,5α,6α,7α,15β,17α)-7,15:21,23-diepoxy-6- respectively (Siddiqui et al. 1988a); gedunin, an
hydroxy-4,8-dimethyl-1-oxo-18,24-dinor-11,12- antimalarial agent (Khalid et al. 1989); two iso-
secochola-2,13,20,22-tetraene-4,11-dicarboxylic meric diterpenoids named nimbonone and nim-
acid gamma-lactone methyl ester] was isolated bonolone with structures 12-ethyl-13-methoxy
from neem leaves, and its isomer, isonimbolide podocarpa-8,11,13-trien-7-one and 12-ethyl-13-
[systematic name, (4α,5α,6α,7α,15α)-7,15:21,23- methoxy podocarpa-8,11,13-trien-3-one, respec-
diepoxy-6-hydroxy-4,8-dimethyl-1-oxo-18,24- tively, along with methyl grevillate (Ara et al.
dinor-11,12-secochola-2,16,20,22-tetraene-4,11- 1989b); gallocatechin, catechin, epigallocatechin
dicarboxylic acid gamma-lactone methyl ester], and epicatechin (van der Nat et al. 1991b); and a
was prepared from a novel rearrangement reac- limonoid, 12-hydroxyamoorastatone, along with
tion of nimbolide using boron trifluoride etherate two known limonoids, hydroxyamoorastatin-12
and tetrabutylammonium bromide (Solomon and 12-acetoxyam-oorastatin (Ahn et al. 1994).
et al. 2005). Two peptidoglycans, polymers NB-I and NB-II,
Conventional boiling method was an effective were isolated from the crude bark extract (van der
method to reduce tannin and phytate content in Nat et al. 1989). The carbohydrate part consisted
vegetables including neem leaves, but it also predominantly of glucose. Arabinose, galactose and
reduced the content of vitamin C (Somsub et al. mannose were present in minor amounts (NB-II) or
2008). The vitamin C contents (mg/100 g) of only as traces (NB-I). Protein was present for 5.5 %
neem leaves were raw (71.5 mg), blanched in NB-I and for 9.8 % in NB-II. From fresh green
(46.5 mg); tannin raw (723 mg), blanched twigs the two tetranortriterpenoids γ-hydroxy-
(338 mg); inositol penta-phytate (IP5) raw butenolides desacetylnimbinolide and desacetyl-
(5 mg), blanched (1 mg); inositol hexaphosphate- isonimbinolide together with desacetylnimbin were
phytate (IP6) raw (48 mg), blanched (35 mg); and isolated (Siddiqui et al. 1986f) and two tetranortrit-
total phytate raw (52 mg), blanched (38 mg). erpenoids, isonimolide and isolimbolide (Siddiqui
et al. 1987b).
Water-soluble polysaccharides, designated as
Stem/Twig/Wood Phytochemicals GIa and GIb, were isolated from the bark
(Fujiwara et al. 1982). GIa was composed of the
From the bark/stem/trunk were isolated branched repeating units, α-D-Glc 1 → 4α-D-Glc 1 → 4α-d-
chain paraffin alcohol, C26H54O, nimbosterol, sugiol Glc 1 → 4α-D-Glc 1 → 4α-D-Glc 6 ← 1α-L-Araf,
and a new ketophenol, nimbiol, with molecular for- while GIb was a branched arabinofucoglucan,
mula of C18H24O2; nimbosterol was identified as containing a main chain of (1 → 4)-linked α-d-
β-sitosterol (Sengupta et al. 1960a); desacetylnim- glucopyranosyl units substituted in the 6th posi-
bin (Narayanan and Iyer 1967); two meliacins, nim- tion with side chains of α-L-arabinofuranosyl
bolins A and B, as well as fraxinellone and gedunin units. 3-O-substituted fucopyranose is attached
Azadirachta indica 419

to the α-(1 → 4) glucose units at the 4th position 13-abietatrien-12,16-dihydroxy-3,7-dione and

in the main chain. More water-soluble polysac- 8,11,13-abietatrien-3β,12-dihydroxy-7-one (Ara
charides, designated as GIIa and GIIIa, were iso- et al. 1990); azadirinin (Ara et al. 1992); three
lated together with GIa and GIb from the bark limonoid antifeedants, trichilin H, 12-acetyl aze-
(Fujiwara et al. 1984). GIIa was composed of the darach and 7,12-diacetyltrichilin B (Nakatani
following repeating unit: α-D-G1c1 → 4α-d- et al. 1994); four limonoids, 1-tigloyl-3,20-
G1c1 → 3α-D-G1c1 → 3α-D-G1c6 ← 1α-l-ArafGIIIa diacetyl-11-methoxymeliacarpinin, 3-tigloyl-
[numbrical formula], a branched arabinofucoglucan 1,20-diacetyl-11-methoxymeliacarpinin,
containing a main chain of 1 → 4-linked α-D- 1-cinnamoyl-3-hydroxy-11-methoxy-
glucopyranosyl units substituted in the 6th posi- meliacarpinin and 1-deoxy-3-methacrylyl-11-
tion with side chains of α-l-arabinofuranose and methoxy-meliacarpinin, together with known
β-L-fucopyranose. More water-soluble polysac- limonoid,1-cinnamoyl-3-acetyl-11-methoxymelia-
charides, designated as CSP-I, CSP-II and CSP- carpinin (Takeya et al. 1996); and a tetranortriter-
III, were isolated from neem bark (Kurokawa penoid nimbilin and an aromatic diterpene nimo-
et al. 1988). The structure of CSP-I was com- linin (Ara et al. 1989f). It was found that neem
posed of a β-D-(1 → 3)-linked galactopyranosyl root bark extracts contained total flavonoids in a
backbone possessing branching points at position range of 0.198–0.512 % g quercetin equivalent
0–6 to which α-l-arabinofuranose, β-D-galacto- (Kiranmai et al. 2011). The decoction method
pyranose and β-d-glucopyranose side chains gave the highest yield (20.2 %, w/w) of crude
were attached, on average to three of five galacto- extract, while maceration extract gave the highest
syl units. The component sugars of CSP-I were total flavonoid content (0.512 % g).
identified as galactose, arabinose and glucose.
CSP-I contained 23 % L-arabinose, 69.2 %
D-galactose and 7.6 % D-glucose, and their molar Plant (Unspecified Part)
ratio was (:3:1), while CSP-II and CSP-III were Phytochemicals and Related
found to have galactose and arabinose in the ratio Derivatives
of 3:1 and 2:1, respectively.
Cycloeucalenol and 24-methylenecycloartanol Three limonoids of the meliacin type, azadirone,
were identified in the wood oils (Ekong et al. azadiradione and epoxyazadiradione, and
1968). 24-Methylenelophenol was identified gedunin were isolated from the plant (Lavie
from the heartwood (Banerji et al. 1987) and et al. 1971). Neem gum on hydrolysis yielded
nimbolin B from the trunk wood (Ara et al. L-arabinose, L-fucose, D-galactose and
1989c). Margosinolide and isomargosinolide, D-glucuronic acid (Mukherjee and Srivastava
two new ring C-seco, bitter tetranortriterpenoid 1955). The aldobiuronic acid component of the
γ-hydroxybutenolides, were isolated from fresh, gum obtained by graded hydrolysis was shown to
green twigs (Siddiqui et al. 1986b). be 4-O-(D-glucopyranosyluronic acid)-D-galacto-
pyranose. Neem gum was found to contain
D-glucosamine (Lakshmi and Pattabiraman 1967).
Root Phytochemicals Aldobiuronic acid, 4-O-(4-O-methyl-α-D-glucopy-
ranosyluronic acid-d-galactose), and aldotriouronic
The following compounds were isolated: a modi- acid were isolated from neem gum (Bajpai et al.
fied diterpenoid nimbidiol (Majumder et al. 1970). The gum exuded by neem tree contained
1987); a tetranortriterpenoid named as nimboli- 35 % of proteinaceous material (Anderson and
cin and nimbolin B (Ara et al. 1989c); two diter- Hendrie 1971). The most abundant amino acid
penes, nimbilicin and nimbocidin (Ara et al. was aspartic acid with considerable amounts of
1989a); three tricyclic diterpenoids, margocin, serine and threonine and at least 2 % of amino
margocinin and margocilin with structures estab- sugars. The carbohydrate component was much
lished as 8,11,13-abietatrien-3,7-dione, 8,11, more complex with galactose and arabinose, as
420 Meliaceae

major components, and mannose, xylose, fucose (O•−), hydroxyl (OH•) and nitric oxide radicals to
and rhamnose. The uronic acid content (28 %) nonradical forms in a concentration-dependent
was higher, and a relatively high methoxyl con- manner in red blood cells (RBCs) and pBR322
tent was found. The major aldobiuronic acid was DNA (Manikandan et al. 2009). Treatment with
4- O -(4- O - methyl-α- D -glucopyranosyluronic various fractions and subfractions significantly
acid)-D-galactose, and 4-O-(α-D-glucopyrano- mitigated H2O2-induced oxidative damage to
syluronic acid)-D-galactose was also present. RBCs and pBR322 DNA.
A glycopeptide was isolated from neem gum by
pronase digestion and found to contain arabinose,
galactose and glucosamine in the ratio of Anticancer Activity
2.69:2.0:4.9 and amino acids asparagine, serine,
threonine, arginine, proline, valine, phenylala- In Vitro Studies
nine and tyrosine (Nayak and Pattabiraman Nimbidin from neem plant induced lethal antimi-
1978). Acid hydrolysis of the gum exudates of totic damage in a considerable proportion of
neem tree, followed by acetylation and chro- treated meristematic cells of onion root tip cells
matographic separation, afforded the following and may hence have applications in cancer che-
components in the form of the corresponding motherapy (Santhakumari and Stephen 1981).
acetates: diethylaspartate, 1-methyl-β-D-xylopy- Limonoids, 12-hydroxyamoorastatone, hydroxy-
ranoside, 3,6-di-O-ethyl-1-methyl-α-D-mannopy- amoorastatin-12 and 12-acetoxyam-oorastatin,
ranoside, as well as its 4,6-di-O-ethyl isomer, the isolated from the roots, exhibited significant
predominant component (comprising 88.7 % of cytotoxicities against five human tumour cell
the gum hydrolysates), and α-D-glucopyranose lines (Ahn et al. 1994). Some limonoids from
(Basaif and Abdel-Mogib 1998). neem seed were found to be cytotoxic to N1E-
1,2,5-Trimethylnaphthalene was isolated from 115 neuroblastoma (mouse), 143B.TK− osteosar-
the dehydrogenation of a reduction product of coma (human) and Sf9 (insect) cultured cell lines
nimbin (Sengupta et al. 1960b). The structure of (Cohen et al. 1996). The most potent of these
deacetylazadirachtinol, an insect growth- limonoids was nimbolide with an IC50 ranging
regulating constituent of neem, had been reas- from 4 to 10 μM and averaging 6 μM for the three
signed as 3-tigloylazadirachtol (tigloyl = 2- cell lines. Other limonoids of decreasing potency
methylcrotonoyl) (Klenk et al. 1986). Azadira- and their average IC50 values (μM) were epoxy-
chtin could be converted into three metabolites, azadiradione 27 μM, salannin 112 μM and nim-
viz.3-deacetylazadirachtin,1-detigloyl-3-deacetyl- bin, deacetylnimbin and azadirachtin each
azadirachtin-1-ene-3-one and 1-detigloyl-3- >200 μM (practically nontoxic). Aqueous
deacetyl-11,19-deoxa-12,19-oxa- 11-oxo- Azadirachta indica leaf extract exhibited inhibi-
azadirachtin-1-ene-3-one, using Nocardia sp. as tory effects on 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene
biocatalyst (Madyastha and Venkatakrishnan 1999). (DMBA)-induced skin carcinogenesis in BALB/c
mice (Koul et al. 2006b). In the tumour-bearing
mice that received neem leaf extract, a significant
Antioxidant Activity reduction in mean tumour burden and tumour
volume was observed. Catalase activity was
Aqueous neem leaf extracts possessed free radi- found to decrease significantly in the skin of
cal scavenging activity against 2,2-diphenyl-1- mice, which received neem leaf extract treatment
picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical (Sithisarn et al. only. Ethanolic neem leaf extract caused cell
2006). The freeze-drying method gave the high- death of prostate cancer cells (PC-3) by inducing
est yield (51.50 %, w/w) of crude extract, while apoptosis as evidenced by a dose-dependent
decoction gave the most effective DPPH scav- increase in DNA fragmentation and a decrease in
enging activity (EC50: 31.4 μg/mL). Neem leaf cell viability (Kumar et al. 2006). Also, neem
fractions reduced DPPH•, ABTS•+, superoxide extract showed decreased level of Bcl-2, which is
Azadirachta indica 421

an anti-apoptotic protein and increased the level to release cytotoxic cytokines, IFN-gamma and
of Bax protein. A semi-purified nonterpenoid TNF-alpha. Pretreatment of mice with neem leaf
polar extract of A. indica seeds exhibited moder- preparation caused prophylactic growth inhibi-
ate to strong cytotoxicity on 3T6 murine fibro- tion of murine Ehrlich’s carcinoma and B16 mel-
blasts (Di Ilio et al. 2006). PCNA (proliferating anoma (Haque and Baral 2006). It was found that
cell nuclear antigen) was significantly reduced in NLP-mediated activation of immune NK and
cells treated with that specific fraction of neem NKT cells may be involved in tumour growth
oil. Results strongly suggested a possible involve- restriction and tumour cell cytotoxicity by
ment of the mitochondrial pathway in the apop- enhancing the secretion of different cytotoxic
totic cell death. Nimbolide was found to be cytokines.
growth inhibitory in human colon carcinoma In vitro studies showed that the HeLa tumour
HT-29 cells (Roy et al. 2006). Nimbolide treat- cell line exhibited higher sensitivity to neem oil
ment (2.5 μM) caused a 6.5-fold increase in the methanolic extract than stabilized murine fibro-
number of cells (55.6 %) in the G2–M phase blast line (3T6) (Ricci et al. 2008). The data
compared with the control cells (8.8 %). At 48 h, strongly suggested that its toxic target was the
the cell population in the G2–M phase decreased cell membrane and that the extract contained one
to 18 %, while that in the G0/G1 phase increased or more agents with antiproliferative potential. In
to 52.3 %. It was revealed that nimbolide-medi- vitro treatment of SKOV3, OVCAR4 and
ated G2–M arrest was accompanied by the up- OVCAR8 ovarian cancer cell lines with gedunin
regulation of p21, cyclin D2 and Chk2 and (from neem) alone produced up to an 80 %
downregulation of cyclin A, cyclin E, Cdk2 and decrease in cell proliferation, and combining
Rad17. At G0/G1 cell cycle arrest, modulation in gedunin with cisplatin demonstrated up to a 47 %
the expression of the cell cycle regulatory mole- decrease in cell proliferation compared with cis-
cules was also observed. Nimbolide, extracted platin treatment alone (Kamath et al. 2009).
from neem flowers, exhibited moderate to very Gedunin was shown to manifest anticancer activ-
strong antiproliferative activity against U937, ity via inhibition of the 90 kDa heat-shock pro-
HL-60, THP1 and B16 cancer cell lines (Roy tein (Hsp90) folding machinery and to induce the
et al. 2007). Treatment of cells with 0.5–5.0 degradation of Hsp90-dependent client proteins
micron concentrations of nimbolide resulted in similar to other Hsp90 inhibitors (Brandt et al.
moderate to very strong growth inhibition in 2008). Azadirone was found to possess potent
U937, HL-60, THP1 and B16 cell lines. In U937 cytotoxic activity against a panel of human can-
cells, nimbolide treatment resulted in cell cycle cer cell lines in in vitro studies (Nanduri et al.
disruption by decreasing the number of cells in 2003). In vitro screening of a number of semi-
G0/G1 phase, with initial increases in S and synthetic analogues of azadirone revealed that
G2–M phases. Cells exposed to a higher dose of the alpha, beta-unsaturated enone moiety or its
nimbolide for a longer period displayed a equivalent conjugated system in A-ring, C-7
severely damaged DNA profile, resulting in a acetyloxy/chloroacetyloxy or keto group in
remarkable increase in the number of cells in the B-ring and the furan moiety were responsible for
sub-G1 fraction, with a reciprocal decrease of the activity of 1 and its analogues.
cells in all phases. Gupta et al. (2010) found that Sulfonoquinovosyldiacylglyceride isolated
nimbolide can sensitize tumour cells to chemo- from neem leaves induced apoptosis in a dose-
therapeutic agents through interaction with IκB dependent manner with IC50 8.3 μM against acute
kinase, leading to inhibition of nuclear factor lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) MOLT-4 cell
(NF)-κB-regulated proteins. lines (Chatterjee et al. 2010). The compound
Bose et al. (2007) found that neem leaf extract showed significant DNA-binding properties as
did not induce direct apoptosis of human tumour evidenced by the enhancement of melting tem-
cell lines KB, MCF7 and K562; instead it stimu- perature and perturbation of the characteristic
lated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells B-form in CD evidence of calf thymus DNA.
422 Meliaceae

Seven limonoid compounds (3 azadiradione type, of 410–471 mol ratio/32 pmol TPA) of TPA-
two gedunin type and two nimbin type) exhibited induced Epstein–Barr virus early antigen
cytotoxic activity against one or more cell lines (EBV-EA) activation in Raji cells (Akihisa
(Kikuchi et al. 2011). Among these compounds, et al. 2011).
7-deacetyl-7-benzoylepoxyazadiradione, Both azadirachtin and nimbolide significantly
7-deacetyl-7-benzoylgeduin and 28-deoxonimbolide suppressed the viability of human cervical can-
exhibited potent cytotoxic activity against HL-60 cer HeLa cells in a dose-dependent manner by
leukaemic cells with IC50 values in the range 2.7– inducing cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase accom-
3.1 μM. All 3 compounds induced early apopto- panied by p53-dependent p21 accumulation and
sis in HL-60 cells and activated caspase-3, downregulation of the cell cycle regulatory pro-
caspase-8 and caspase-9 in HL-60 cells. This teins cyclin B, cyclin D1 and PCNA (proliferat-
suggested that these three compounds induced ing cell nuclear antigen) (Priyadarsini et al.
apoptotic cell death in HL-60 cells via both the 2010). It was found that neem limonoids trans-
mitochondrial- and the death receptor-mediated duced the apoptotic signal via the mitochondrial
pathways. pathway. It was concluded that antioxidants such
Neem limonoids, azadirachtin and nimbolide, as azadirachtin and nimbolide that could simul-
inhibited7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene(DMBA)- taneously arrest the cell cycle and target multiple
induced hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis by molecules involved in mitochondrial apoptosis
modulating xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes, may offer immense potential as anticancer thera-
DNA damage, antioxidants, invasion and angio- peutic drugs. Nimbolide effectively inhibited
genesis (Priyadarsini et al. 2009). Nimbolide, proliferation of WiDr colon cancer cells through
from neem flower and leaf, inhibited prolifera- inhibition of cyclin A leading to S phase arrest
tion of human choriocarcinoma (BeWo) cells in a (Suboj et al. 2012). It also caused activation of
dose- and time-dependent manner with IC50 val- caspase-mediated apoptosis through the inhibi-
ues of 2.01 and 1.19 μM for 7 and 24 h, respec- tion of ERK1/2 and activation of p38 and
tively, accompanied by downregulation of JNK1/2. Further, nimbolide effectively retarded
proliferating cell nuclear antigen (Kumar et al. tumour cell migration and invasion through inhi-
2009). Examination of nuclear morphology bition of metalloproteinase-2/9 (MMP-2/9)
revealed fragmentation and condensation indicat- expression, both at the mRNA and protein level.
ing apoptosis. A decrease in Bcl-2/Bax ratio with It was also a strong inhibitor of VEGF expres-
increased expression of Apaf-1 and caspase-3 sion, promoter activity and in vitro angiogenesis.
and cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase Treatment with nimbolide resulted in dose- and
strongly suggested that nimbolide-induced apop- time-dependent inhibition of growth of MCF-7
tosis was mediated by the mitochondrial path- and MDA-MB-231 cells in vitro (Elumalai et al.
way. All 32 limonoid compounds, isolated from 2012). It was found that nimbolide induced
seeds, exhibited moderate or potent inhibitory apoptosis by modulating modulation of apop-
effects (IC50 values of 230–501 mol ratio/32 pmol totic proteins (intrinsic pathway, Bax, bad, Bcl-
TPA) against the Epstein-Barr virus early antigen 2, Bcl-xL, Mcl-1, XIAP-1 and caspase-3 and
(EBV-EA) activation induced by TPA (Akihisa caspase-9; extrinsic pathway, TRAIL, FasL,
et al. 2009). Also, azadirachtin B exhibited FADDR and caspase-8). In vitro studies by
marked inhibitory activity on tumour-initiating Srivastava et al. (2012) demonstrated that neem
activity on the two-stage carcinogenesis of mouse oil limonoids induced caspase-dependent and
skin tumour induced by peroxynitrite as an initia- apoptosis-inducing factor-mediated apoptosis
tor and TPA as a promoter. Limonoids from neem and autophagy in cancer cells.
seeds, 1,3-diacetylvilasinin, 28-deoxonimbolide,
ohchinin acetate, salannin, 2′,3′-dihydrosalannin, Animal Studies
3-deacetylsalannin and 17-defurano-17-oxosa- Water-soluble polysaccharides from neem bark,
lannin, exerted moderate inhibition (IC50 values GIa and GIb, showed strong antitumour effect on
Azadirachta indica 423

subcutaneously inoculated sarcoma-180 with reduced incidence of neoplasms in Syrian male

almost complete regression of tumours when hamsters (Balasenthil et al. 1999). Lipid peroxi-
administered to mice at a daily dose of 50 mg/kg dation was found to be significantly decreased,
for 4 days (Fujiwara et al. 1982). GIa and GIb whereas glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, glu-
had no direct cytotoxic effect on sarcoma cells in tathione S-transferase and gamma-glutamyl
vitro. Water-soluble polysaccharides, CSP-I and transpeptidase were elevated in the oral mucosa
CSP-II, from neem bark inhibited the growth of of tumour-bearing animals. Their data suggested
subcutaneously inoculated sarcoma-180 in mice that neem may exert its chemopreventive effects
(Kurokawa et al. 1988). At low doses (2 mg/kg) in the oral mucosa by modulation of lipid peroxi-
CSP-I gave higher antitumour activity than dation, antioxidants and detoxification systems.
CSP-II. Both had no direct cytocidal effect on Tepsuwan et al. (2002) demonstrated that
sarcoma-190 cells in vitro. Feeding rats with neem flowers contained some chemopreventive
diets containing 12.5 % neem flowers for 2 weeks agents capable of inhibiting aflatoxin B1(AFB1)-
strongly enhanced the phase II enzymes, i.e. glu- and DMBA-induced liver and mammary gland
tathione S-transferase (GST) (Kusamran et al. carcinogenesis in rats. Neem flowers elicited a
1998a). The results demonstrated that neem flow- marked reduction in the incidence of mammary
ers contained monofunctional phase II enzyme gland (about 35.2 %) and liver tumours (61.7 and
inducers and compounds capable of repressing 80.1 % for benign and malignant tumours,
some monooxygenases, especially those involved respectively). Further, the multiplicity of tumours
in the metabolic activation of chemical carcino- per rats was also lower in the neem flower groups,
gens and thus may possess chemopreventive i.e. those for mammary gland tumours and benign
potential. Dasgupta et al. (2004) studied the anti- and malignant liver tumours were reduced to
carcinogenic potential of neem leaf extract using 44.0 %, 87.9 % and 88.9 %, respectively. Neem
the protocol of benzo(a)pyrene-induced fore- flowers were found to strongly induce the activity
stomach and 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene of GST while resulting in a significant reduction
(DMBA)-induced skin papillomagenesis in in the activities of some cytochrome P(450)-
Swiss albino mice . Their findings revealed its dependent monooxygenases in rat liver and to
potential to induce only the phase II enzyme possess cancer chemopreventive potential against
activity associated mainly with carcinogen detox- chemically induced mammary gland and liver
ification in the liver of mice. The hepatic glutathi- carcinogenesis in rats (Sritanaudomchai et al.
one S-transferase- and DT-diaphorase-specific 2005). Nimbolide and chlorophylls were frac-
activities were elevated above basal level. With tionated from neem flowers using a bioassay
reference to antioxidant enzymes, the investi- based on the induction of quinone reductase
gated doses were effective in increasing the activity in mouse hepatoma Hepa 1c1c7 cultured
hepatic glutathione reductase, glutathione perox- cells and found to possess strong quinone reduc-
idase, superoxide dismutase and catalase activi- tase inducing activity.
ties significantly. Reduced glutathione measured Oral administration of aqueous neem leaf
as nonprotein sulphydryl was found to be extract to mice with benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)
significantly elevated in liver and in extrahepatic P]-induced forestomach tumuorigenesis reduced
organs examined. Glutathione S-transferase and aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) and
DT-diaphorase showed a dose-dependent enhanced uridinediphosphoglucuronosyltrans-
increase in extrahepatic organs. There was a sig- ferase (UDP-glucuronosyltransferase) activities
nificant inhibition of tumour burden, in both the in both the forestomach and liver, suggesting its
tumour model system studied. Tumour incidence potential in decreasing the activation and increas-
was also reduced by both the doses of neem leaf ing the detoxification of carcinogens (Gangar and
extract. Administration of neem leaf extract Koul 2007). Also, the lipid peroxidation levels
effectively suppressed buccal pouch carcinogen- decreased upon neem treatment in the hepatic
esis initiated with DMBA as revealed by the tissue, suggesting its antioxidative and hence
424 Meliaceae

anticarcinogenic effects. Administration of of phase I and phase II xenobiotic-metabolizing

ethanolic neem leaf extract significantly inhib- enzymes, lipid and protein oxidation, up-regulation
ited cell proliferation and induced differentia- of antioxidant defences, inhibition of cell prolifera-
tion and apoptosis of DMBA-induced hamster tion and angiogenesis and induction of apoptosis.
buccal pouch carcinomas by inhibiting expres- However, ethyl acetate fraction (EAF) was more
sion of PCNA, mutant p53 and Bcl-2 and overex- effective than methanolic fraction (MF) in terms of
pression of cytokeratin (Subapriya et al. 2006) antiproliferative and antiangiogenic effects and
and protecting against oxidative stress (Subapriya expression of CYP isoforms. The greater efficacy of
et al. 2005). Studies showed that dietary feeding EAF may be due to higher content of constituent
of rats with neem extract at all doses (20, 100 and phytochemicals as revealed by HPLC analysis and
250 mg/kg) significantly inhibited the induction their antioxidative potential. Analysis of the free
of aberrant crypt foci, when compared to the radical scavenging activities and reducing potential
azoxymethane-treated group (Arakaki et al. of crude ethanolic extract (CEE), ethyl acetate frac-
2006). Neem extract also significantly decreased tion (EAF) and methanolic fraction (MF) of neem
the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) leaf revealed a concentration-dependent increase in
labelling indices of colon epithelium and aber- antioxidant potential that was in the order
rant crypt foci. Neem extract also showed anti- EAF > MF > CEE. Azadirachtin and nimbolide
oxidative activity. The finding that dietary neem were found to mediate their antiproliferative effects
had possible chemopreventive effects in the pres- by downregulating proteins involved in cell cycle
ent short-term colon carcinogenesis bioassay progression and transduce apoptosis by both the
suggested that longer-term exposure may cause intrinsic and extrinsic pathways in hamster buccal
suppression of tumour development. Gangar and pouch of oral oncogenesis (Kumar et al. 2010a).
Koul (2008b) reported that aqueous neem leaf Administration of neem leaf extract (500 mg/
extract induced apoptosis in benzo(a)pyrene- kg) to 4T1 breast cancer BALB/c mice signifi-
induced murine forestomach tumours. Classical cantly suppressed c-Myc oncogene expression in
morphological features of apoptosis including breast cancer tissue (Othman et al. 2012). Arora
chromatin condensation/marginalization, nuclear et al. (2013) found that administration of neem
fragmentation and formation of apoptotic bodies leaf extract had a modulatory effect on cutaneous
were observed. DNA fragmentation and lipid and hepatic biochemical status during promotion
peroxidation levels were observed to increase in phase of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene/
the tumours of mice that received neem extract. phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (DMBA/TPA)-
They found that aqueous neem leaf extract medi- induced skin tumourigenesis in mice. Neem
ated modulation of the peri-initiation phase of the extract decreased DMBA/TPA-induced increase
process of forestomach tumourigenesis in rate in cutaneous cytochrome P450 level and
induced by benzo(a)pyrene (Gangar and Koul enhanced DT-diaphorase and uridine diphos-
2008a). Neem extract reduced the activities of phate glucuronosyltransferase activities when
phase I biotransformation enzymes (cytochrome compared with DMBA/TPA group. In mice that
P450, cytochrome b(5) and aryl hydrocarbon received neem treatment along with DMBA/
hydroxylase) and enhanced the GSH contents as TPA, a significant increase in lipid peroxidation
well as the activities of phase II biotransforma- was observed which was associated with a
tion enzymes (glutathione S-transferase and decrease in cutaneous-reduced glutathione
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase). (GSH) level. Arora et al. (2013) found that
Administration of hamster with neem leaf frac- administration of neem leaf extract had a modu-
tions reduced the incidence of DMBA-induced latory effect on cutaneous and hepatic bio-
hamster buccal pouch carcinomas at a lower chemical status during promotion phase of
concentration compared to the crude extract 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene/phorbol-12-
(Manikandan et al. 2008b). Chemoprevention by myristate-13-acetate (DMBA/TPA)-induced skin
neem leaf fractions was associated with modulation tumorigenesis in mice. Neem extract decreased
Azadirachta indica 425

DMBA/TPA-induced increase in cutaneous cyto- amineTrp-P-1 (3-amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido

chrome P450 level and enhanced DT-diaphorase [4,3-b]indole) in the Salmonella typhimurium
and uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase TA98 assay (Nakahara et al. 2003). The antimu-
activities when compared with DMBA/TPA tagenic IC50 values of compounds 1–4 were 2.7,
group. In mice that received neem treatment 3.7, 11.1 and 18.6 μM in the preincubation mix-
along with DMBA/TPA, a significant increase in ture, respectively. These compounds also simi-
lipid peroxidation was observed which was asso- larly inhibited the mutagenicity of Trp-P-2
ciated with a decrease in cutaneous reduced glu- (3-amino-1-methyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole) and
tathione (GSH) level. PhIP (2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]
Combined treatment of ethanol leaf extracts of pyridine). All of the compounds 1–4 strongly
A. indica and Ocimum sanctum improved the inhibited ethoxyresorufin O-dealkylation activity
antioxidant status and inhibited cell proliferation of cytochrome P450 1A isoforms, which catalyzed
and angiogenesis and induced apoptosis in N- N-hydroxylation of heterocyclic amines. However,
methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG)- compounds 1–4 did not show significant inhibition
induced gastric carcinogenesis in male Wistar against the direct-acting mutagen NaN3.
rats (Manikandan et al. 2008a). Administration
of both ethyl acetate fraction (EAF) and metha-
nolic fraction (MF) of neem leaf at a dose of Antimicrobial Activity
10 mg/kg bw effectively suppressed 7,12-
dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced rat Neem exerted antitubercular activity in sensitized
mammary tumour incidence (Vinothini et al. guinea pigs; and nimbidin was found to inhibit
2009). Chemoprevention by neem leaf fractions the growth of Trichophyton rubrum in vitro
was associated with modulation of hormone and (Murthy and Sirsi 1958b).
receptor status; xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes Cyclic trisulphide and cyclic tetrasulphide
and lipid and protein oxidation, with up-regula- from neem leaves exhibited antifungal activity
tion of antioxidants; inhibition of oxidative DNA against Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Pant et al.
damage, protein modification and cell prolifera- 1986). Three tricyclic diterpenoids, margolone,
tion; and induction of apoptosis. However, EAF margolonone and isomargolonone, isolated from
being richer in constituent phytochemicals was neem stem bark were active against Klebsiella,
more effective than MF in modulating multiple Staphylococcus and Serratia species (Ara et al.
molecular targets. 1989e). Pretreatment of Streptococcus sanguis
with the neem stick (bark) extract at 250 μg/mL
resulted in a significant inhibition of the bacterial
Antimutagenic Activity adhesion to saliva-conditioned hydroxyapatite
(Wolinsky et al. 1996). Pretreatment of saliva-
The methanol neem leaf extract was found to conditioned hydroxyapatite with the neem stick
contain weak antimutagen inhibiting the mutage- extract prior to bacterial exposure elicited signifi-
nicities of both direct-acting mutagens, cant reductions in bacterial adhesion. The neem
2(2-furyl)-3(5-nitro-2-fury)acrylamide (AF-2) stick extract inhibited insoluble glucan synthesis.
and sodium azide, in the Ames Salmonella muta- No inhibition of bacterial growth was observed
genicity test with Salmonella typhimurium among the streptococcal strains tested in the
TA100 as tester strain (Kusamran et al. 1998b). presence of < or = 320 μg/mL of the neem stick
Four prenylated flavanones, 5,7,4′-trihydroxy- extract. Incubation of oral streptococci with the
8-prenylflavanone (1), 5,4′-dihydroxy-7-methoxy- neem stick extract resulted in a microscopically
8-prenylflavanone (2), 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-3′,8- observable bacteria aggregation. The data
diprenylflavanone (3) and 5,7,4′-trihydroxy- suggested that neem stick extract could reduce
3′,5′-diprenylflavanone (4), from neem flowers the ability of some streptococci to colonize tooth
exhibited antimutagenic effect against heterocyclic surfaces. The acetone extract of neem bark
426 Meliaceae

showed marked antimicrobial activity in vitro Shigella boydii (Islam et al. 2012). The antibiotic
against the cariogenic bacterium Streptococcus kanamycin was far more potent against all the
sobrinus with MIC value of 0.05 % (w/v) and test microorganisms. The ethyl acetate leaf
bactericidal at concentrations of <1 %(w/v) extract also showed cytotoxicity in the brine
(Bhuiyan et al. 1997). The aqueous extracts of shrimp assay with LC50 of 0.61ug/mL.
chewing sticks (Acacia arabica, Azadirachta A tetrahydrofuranyl diester isolated from
indica, Pongamia pinnata and Salvadora per- petroleum ether extract of neem oil exhibited sig-
sica) at 5 mg phenol concentration produced nificant in vitro activities against three standard
35–40 % inhibition of dextransucrase activity in bacterial strains, including Staphylococcus
Streptococcus mutans, a casual agent of dental aureus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella enteriti-
caries in humans (Goyal et al. 2013). Neem oil dis (Zhang et al. 2010). Two flavonoids isolated
showed antimicrobial dental plaque activity in from neem leaves exhibited antimicrobial activ-
vitro (Elavarasu et al. 2012). ity in vitro (Qudsia et al. 2011). Genistein
Mahmoodin from neem oil showed significant 7-O-glucoside was highly effective against
antibacterial activity against various Gram- Lactobacillus sp., at various concentrations
positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Siddiqui reducing the bacterial growth by 52–99.8 %.
et al. 1992b). NIM-76, a spermicidal fraction (−)-Epicatechin was highly effective against
from neem oil, showed stronger antimicrobial Azospirillum lipoferum and Bacillus sp., result-
activity in vitro than the whole neem oil (Sairam ing in 94–100 % and 73–99 % reduction in bacte-
et al. 2000). It inhibited growth of various rial growth, respectively.
pathogens tested including Escherichia coli and A poly-herbal gel antiacne face wash formula-
Klebsiella pneumoniae which were not affected tion made up of the two polymers Carbopol and
by the whole neem oil. NIM-76 also exhibited anti- hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) along
fungal activity against Candida albicans and with the extracts of the plants Rauvolfia serpen-
antiviral activity against poliovirus replication in tina, Curcuma longa and Azadirachta indica at
Vero cell lines. It also protected mice from sys- 100 mg/mL concentration was proved to be a
temic candidiasis as revealed by enhanced % stable, nonirritant and effective herbal formula-
survival and reduced colony-forming units of tion for acne treatment (Rasheed et al. 2011). The
C. albicans in various tissues. Neem seed efficacy when tested with a standard was almost
extract significantly distorted the growth curve of same to that of clindamycin gel. Azadirachta
clinical isolates of dermatophytes, Trichophyton indica had been reported to possess astringent,
rubrum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes and antiviral, discutient, stimulant and antibacterial
Microsporum nanum in vitro at MIC of 15ug/mL properties and to work excellently well against
(Natarajan et al. 2003). The ethanol and ethyl acne in keeping the skin healthy.
acetate neem leaf extracts inhibited the growth of In a 6-week clinical study of male patients
clinical isolates of dermatophytes isolated from (20–30 years), the use of a dental gel containing
human patients (Radhika and Michael 2013). The neem extract (25 mg/g) significantly reduced the
extracts were inhibitory to 72 isolates of plaque index and bacterial count (Streptococcus
Trichophyton rubrum, 36 isolates of Trichophyton mutans and Lactobacilli species) compared to the
mentagrophytes, 9 isolates of Microsporum gyp- control group with chlorhexidine gluconate
seum and 9 isolates of Trichophyton tonsurans. (0.2 % w/v) mouthwash (Pai et al. 2004).
The crude ethyl acetate leaf extract exhibited Of five endodontic irrigants formulated with
antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bac- neem plant parts, two neem irrigants, namely,
teria, Bacillus cereus, B. megaterium, B. subtilis leaf extract and a mixture of the seed–bark pow-
and Staphylococcus aureus; Gram negative bac- der dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide, displayed
teria, Salmonella typhi and Vibrio mimicus; and antimicrobial effect against Candida albicans
fungi, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger, and Enterococcus faecalis (Dutta and Kundabala
and weaker activity against Escherichia coli and 2013). The other neem-based irrigants, a leaf
Azadirachta indica 427

powder dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide, aqueous Polysaccharides P1 and P2 obtained from

bark decoction and neem oil, did not possess any neem leaves and their chemical sulphated deriva-
antimicrobial efficacy. Neem leaf extract was tives (P1S and P2S) exhibited significant antivi-
found to be effective in disrupting formation and ral activity against poliovirus type 1 (PV-1) with
structure of biofilm formation by Pseudomonas inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 80 μg/mL,
aeruginosa (Harjai et al. 2013). Levels of exo- 37.5 μg/mL, 77.5 μg/mL and 12.1 μg/mL for P1,
polysaccharide, alginate, hydrophobic interac- P1S, P2 and P2S, respectively, and the selectivity
tions and uroepithelial cell attachment, which indices (SI) ranged from 18 to 131.9 (Faccin-
contributed to biofilm formation, were also Galhardi et al. 2012). A fraction of neem seed
affected significantly. kernel alcohol extract exhibited antiviral activity
against duck plague virus (DPV) in vitro with
IC50 of 10.9 μg/mL (Xu et al. 2012).
Antiviral Activity

Aqueous extract of neem leaves at its maximum Anti-inflammatory Activity

nontoxic concentration of 1.897 mg/mL com-
pletely inhibited 100–10,000 tissue culture The inflammatory stomatitis in children was
infective doses (TCID50) of dengue virus type 2 cured by neem bark extract (Lorenz 1976).
as indicated by the absence of cytopathic effects Nimbidin isolated from neem seed oil signifi-
(Parida et al. 2002). The in vivo protection stud- cantly reduced the acute paw oedema in rats
ies with neem leaf extract at its maximum non- induced by kaolin and carrageenan (Pillai and
toxic concentrations of 120–30 mg/mL resulted Santhakumari 1981a). Nimbidin also significantly
in inhibition of the viral replication as confirmed suppressed the formalin-induced arthritis of ankle
by the absence of dengue-related clinical symp- joint and the fluid exudation in croton oil-induced
toms in suckling mice and absence of virus-spe- granuloma in rats. In acute phase of inflammation,
cific 511 bp amplicon in RT-PCR. The pure nimbidin (40 mg/kg) was found to possess signifi-
neem, i.e. azadirachtin, did not reveal any inhi- cant activity as compared to phenylbutazone
bition on dengue virus type 2 replication in both (100 mg/kg), a standard anti-inflammatory agent.
in vitro and in vivo systems. Water-extracted Water-soluble polysaccharides from neem bark,
polysaccharides from Azadirachta indica leaves GIIa and GIIIa, exhibited anti-inflammatory
showed activity against bovine herpesvirus type effect on carrageenan-induced oedema on oral
1 (Saha et al. 2010). In their inhibitory concen- administration (Fujiwara et al. 1984). The chloro-
tration at 50 %, values ranging from 31.12 to form extract of neem stem bark was effective
105.25 μg/mL were lower than the cytotoxicity against carrageenan-induced paw oedema in rat
values (>1,600–1,440 μg/mL). The antiviral and mouse ear inflammation (Tidjani et al. 1989).
effect was exerted during virus adsorption to the Seven nortriterpenoids isolated from the
cell. Anionic groups in particular the sulphate seeds, azadiradione, epoxyazadiradione, 17-epi-
groups appeared to be very important for the 17-hydroxyazadiradione, 7-acetyl-16,17-dehydro-
antiherpetic activity of these polymers. Tiwari 16-hydroxyneotrichilenone, 7-deacetylgedunin,
et al. (2010) found that neem bark extract sig- nimolicinol and nimbin, on evaluation for their
nificantly blocked herpes simplex virus type 1 inhibitory effect against 12-O-tetradecanoy-
(HSV-1) entry into natural target cells at concen- lphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced inflammation
trations ranging from 50 to 100 μg/mL. Virions (1 μg/ear) in mice, exhibited, except for nimbin,
treated with neem bark failed to bind the cells marked anti-inflammatory activity (ID50 values
implicating a role of the extract as an attachment 0.09–0.26 mg/ear) (Akihisa et al. 2009). Eleven
step blocker. Cells treated with neem bark also compounds isolated from neem seeds, 17-epiaza-
inhibited HSV-1 glycoprotein-mediated cell– diradione, 17-epiazadiradione, azadiradionolide, 1,
cell fusion and polykaryocyte formation. 3-diacetylvilasinin,6-deacetylnimbin,6-acetylnim-
428 Meliaceae

bandiol, 28-deoxonimbolide, ohchinin acetate, Analgesic/Antinociceptive Activity

salannin, 2′,3′-dihydrosalannin and 3-deacetyl-
salannin, exhibited inhibitory activity against Azadirachta indica exhibited analgesic potency
12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)- in experimental pain models in mice (Khanna
induced inflammation (1.7 nmol/ear) in mice et al. 1995). In the glacial acetic acid (GAA)-
with ID50 values of 0.22–0.57 μmol/ear (Akihisa induced writhing test, neem extract (10, 30 and
et al. 2011). Results of in vitro studies suggested 100 mg/kg) dose-dependently reduced both the
that azadirachtin interacted with retinoic acid incidence and the number of writhes. Similarly,
receptors and suppressed all trans-retinoic acid neem, at the dose levels tested, also enhanced
(ATRA) binding, inhibited falling off the recep- tail withdrawal latencies in the tail-flick test for
tors and activated transcription factors like CREB nociception. In the interaction studies, pretreat-
(cAMP-response element-binding protein), Sp1 ment with the opioid antagonist, naloxone (1 mg/
and NF-κB (Thoh et al. 2011). The data indicated kg), and the central noradrenaline depleter,
that azadirachtin exerted anti-inflammatory and DSP-4 (50 mg/kg), attenuated neem analgesia
antimetastatic responses by a novel pathway that by differential degrees in both experimental
would be beneficial for further anti-inflamma- models, whereas, the serotonin synthesis inhibi-
tory and anticancer therapies. Epoxyazadiradione, tor, parachlorophenylalanine (300 mg/kg),
a limonoid purified from neem, significantly potentiated the same. The results suggested that
inhibited macrophage migration inhibitory fac- both central and peripheral mechanisms and
tor (MIF) (human, Plasmodium falciparum and complex neural pathways, opioid and non-
Plasmodium yoelii)-mediated proinflammatory opioid, may be involved in Azadirachta indica-
activities in RAW 264.7 cells (Alam et al. induced analgesia.
2012). It prevented MIF-induced macrophage Patel et al. (2005) demonstrated the antinoci-
chemotactic migration, NF-κB translocation to ceptive effect of neem leaf extract in the pain
the nucleus, up-regulation of inducible nitric model of the tail-flick test due to thermal stimula-
oxide synthase and nitric oxide production in tion. Mice treated with either saline or neem leaf
RAW 264.7 cells. In vivo, epoxyazadiradione in a dose of 3.12 mg/kg showed no significant
prevented the release of proinflammatory cyto- change in tail-flick latency at intervals of 15, 30,
kines such as IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α 60, 120 and 180 min as compared to the control
when LPS and PyMIF were co-administered to value at 0 min. Administration of higher doses of
BALB/c mice. The results indicated an neem extract produced dose-dependent increase
immense therapeutic potential of epoxyazadi- in the tail-flick latency. The combination, con-
radione against proinflammatory reactions sisting of a low dose of neem extract (3.12 mg/
induced by MIF of both malaria parasites kg) and a low dose of morphine (0.5 mg/kg), pro-
and human. duced a significant increase in the tail-flick
Studies showed that animals treated with latency at all the time intervals. Naloxone pre-
100 mg/kg dose of carbon tetrachloride neem treatment antagonized the antinociceptive effect
fruit skin extract and its isolated constituent of neem extract suggesting the involvement of
azadiradione exhibited significant anti- endogenous opioid peptides or opioid receptors
inflammatory activity (Ilango et al. 2013). Anti- in the mediation of the antinociceptive response
inflammatory activity was observed using of neem leaf extract. Neem seed oil showed sig-
carrageenan-induced paw oedema model. The nificant dose-dependent analgesic effect at doses
hydroalcoholic neem leaf extract, ethyl acetate of 1 and 2 mL/kg in the tail-flick latency test in
and n-butanol fractions of at 100 mg/kg body albino rats (Kumar et al. 2012).
weight reduced significantly the formation of Recent studies showed that animals treated
oedema induced by carrageenan in mice (Dinda with 100 mg/kg dose of carbon tetrachloride
et al. 2013). neem fruit skin extract and its isolated constituent
Azadirachta indica 429

azadiradione exhibited significant antinociceptive like, CD19 and CD11b. NLGP also directed
activity (Ilango et al. 2013). Antinociceptive carcinoembryonic antigen vaccination towards
screening by writhing test and hot plate technique Th1 bias, by modulating cytokine secretion. This
supported both peripheral and central mecha- NLGP-generated anti-CEA immune response
nisms, respectively. In the acetic acid-induced would be effective as a vaccine to lyse CEA(+)
writhing mice model, the hydroalcoholic neem tumours in vitro and in vivo. Recent studies by
leaf extract and ethyl acetate and n-butanol frac- Mallick et al. (2013a) found that treatment of
tions exerted a good analgesic effect characterized mice bearing established sarcomas with neem
by a reduction in the number of writhes when com- leaf glycoprotein (NLP) (25 μg/mice/week sub-
pared to the control (Dinda et al. 2013). In tail-flick cutaneously for 4 weeks) resulted in tumour
method, the extract and all the fractions at 100 mg/ regression or dormancy. NLGP promoted the
kg showed significant activity after 30 min. therapeutic antitumour immunity in mice by
dynamically modulating the activation, expan-
sion and recruitment of CD8(+) T cells into
Immunomodulatory Activity established tumours to induce significant tumour
cell lysis and inhibit growth of mouse sarcoma.
The crude aqueous extract of Azadirachta indica
bark was found to possess an inhibitory activity
on both classical (CP) and alternative pathway Antidiabetic Activity
(AP) activation of human complement (van der
Nat et al. 1989). Two peptidoglycans, polymers Oral administration of neem seed oil and nimbi-
NB-I and NB-II, were purified from the crude din exerted significant hypoglycaemic effect in
bark extract. fasting rabbits (Pillai and Santhakumari 1981b).
Ghosh et al. (2009) found that neem leaf prep- Neem leaf extract was found to significantly
aration protected against apoptosis of circulating block the inhibitory effect of serotonin on insulin
blood cells (leucocytes) induced by cisplatin and secretion mediated by glucose in hyperglycaemic
5-fluorouracil (cis + 5-FU) in carcinoma-bearing rat pancreas (Chattopadhyay 1999). Earlier
mice. It also increased T lymphocyte and NK Chattopadhyay (1996) found that the reduction in
(natural killer) cell pool and augmented CD3– peripheral utilization of glucose and glycogeno-
CD56+ natural killer (NK) and CD8 + CD56 lytic effect due to epinephrine action was blocked
T-cell-mediated tumour cell cytotoxicity (Bose by A. indica leaf extract, however, almost com-
et al. 2009). Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-mediated pletely in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rabbits
killing of oral cancer KB cells and NK cell- and to a certain extent in normal ones.
mediated killing of K562 (erythroleukaemic) In a study of patients with type 2 diabetes mel-
cells were associated with activation of these T litus, administration of high dose (2 g three times
and NK cells by neem leaf glycoprotein. The data per day) of Azadirachta indica extract for 14 days
suggested that neem glycoprotein induced elicited significant hypoglycaemic activity
perforin-mediated tumour cell killing by T and (Waheed et al. 2006). In high dose, it can be suc-
NK cells through differential regulation of IFN- cessfully combined with oral hypoglycaemic
gamma signalling. agents in type 2 diabetic patients wherein diabetes
Vaccination of mice with carcinoembryonic was not controlled by these agents. Azadirachta
antigen plus adjuvant assistance from neem leaf indica was reported as one of six Indian ethnobo-
glycoprotein (NLGP) generated significantly tanically known plants with antidiabetic property
higher antibody (IgG2a) and T-cell response (Bhat et al. 2011b). They found that A. indica
than immunization protocol without NLGP chloroform extract exhibited a good oral glucose
(Sarkar et al. 2008). NLGP regulated the func- tolerance and significantly reduced the intestinal
tion of both B cells and macrophages by altering glucosidase activity in a diabetic murine model
the expressions of various regulatory molecules, (Bhat et al. 2011a). Moreover, A. indica chloroform
430 Meliaceae

extract showed significant increase in glucose- protection against acetylsalicylic acid-, stress-,
6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity and hepatic, serotonin- and indomethacin-induced gastric
skeletal muscle glycogen content after 21 days of lesions in rats (Pillai and Santhakumari 1984)
treatment. In immunohistochemical analysis, and also in both types of chemically induced
they observed a regeneration of insulin-produc- duodenal lesions in rodents. In ulcer healing
ing cells and corresponding increase in the tests, nimbidin significantly enhanced the heal-
plasma insulin and c-peptide levels with the treat- ing process in acetic acid-induced chronic gas-
ment of A. indica chloroform extract. Oral treat- tric lesions in albino rats and dogs. Nimbidin
ment of alloxan diabetic rats with neem leaf and exhibited significant antisecretory activity in
bark extracts were found significantly effective in pylorus-ligated rats and cats (Pillai and
reducing hyperglycaemia-induced oxidative Santhakumari 1985). In lumen-perfused rats it
stress (Shailey and Basir 2012). suppressed the basal as well as histamine- and
Oral administration of combined Abroma carbachol-stimulated gastric acid output at
augusta roots and A. indica leaves aqueous 40 mg/kg (i.v). The antisecretory activity of
extract to alloxan diabetic rats once a day for 8 nimbidin was found to be similar to that of H2
weeks caused significant lowering of blood sugar receptor antagonists, in suppressing histamine-
and serum lipids, formation of lipid peroxides induced gastric secretion in animals and man.
and increased antioxidants (superoxide dis- In a clinical trial of patients suffering from
mutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glu- acid-related problems and gastroduodenal ulcers,
tathione transferase) in erythrocytes (Halim oral administration of neem bark extract
2003). There was reduction in lipid peroxidation 30–60 mg twice daily for 10 weeks almost com-
as thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) pletely healed the duodenal ulcers. One case of
in the heart, liver, kidney and muscles. It also pre- oesophageal ulcer (gastroesophageal reflux dis-
vented decrease in body weight. Combined ease) and one case of gastric ulcer were also
herbal treatment gave more effective hypoglycae- healed completely when treated at the dose of
mic effect than given alone. An extract of 30 mg twice daily for 6 weeks (Bandyopadhyay
Hypericum flowers (Hypericum perforatum) and et al. 2004). The volume of gastric hypersecre-
neem oil was reported to be effective in diabetic tion and its pepsin activity were also inhibited by
foot wounds with exposed bone in a patient with 63 % and 50 %, respectively. Neem leaf aqueous
bilateral advanced diabetic ulcers (Iabichella extract dose-dependently inhibited gastric lesions
2013). The use of this extract, administered by induced by restraint–cold stress, indomethacin
relatives at home, together with improved glycae- and ethanol (Chattopadhyay et al. 2004). In stress
mic control, reversed the worsening of ulcers in ulcer model, it is more effective than ranitidine
all treated patients, without performing any sur- but less effective than omeprazole. It also dose-
gical intervention or hospital treatment. Ulcers dependently blocks pylorus ligation and
fully recovered within a couple of months in all mercaptomethylimidazole-induced acid secre-
patients as well as improved diabetes control. tion. It inhibited H +–K +–ATPase activity in
vitro in concentration-dependent manner to
inhibit acid secretion. Oxidative membrane dam-
Gastroprotective Activity age by hydroxyl radical (*OH) as measured by
lipid peroxidation in stress ulcer was significantly
Neem had been reported to have potent gastro- blocked by neem leaf extract. Stress-induced
protective and antiulcer effects and to have the apoptotic DNA fragmentation was also protected.
potential for the development of novel medi- The extract also prevented *OH-mediated
cines for the therapeutic control of gastric mucosal DNA damage in vitro by scavenging the
hyperacidity and ulcer (Maity et al. 2009). *OH. Aqueous neem leaf extract inhibited acid–
Nimbidin, isolated from neem seed oil, in doses pepsin secretion in 4 h in pylorus-ligated rats
of 20–40 mg/kg (p.o.) exhibited significant (Dorababu et al. 2006). Pretreatment with the
Azadirachta indica 431

extract significantly reduced pentagastrin-induced caspase-3 and caspase-9, thus reducing neuronal
acid secretion and inhibited the rat gastric muco- loss in focal cerebral ischemia–reperfusion rats.
sal proton pump activity but did not show any
effect on mucin secretion. Thus, the data sug-
gested that the ulcer-protective activity of neem Hepatoprotective Activity
leaf extract may be due to its antisecretory and
proton pump inhibitory activity rather than on Fresh neem leaf (200 mg/kg body wt. p.o.) inhib-
defensive mucin secretion. Further, acute as well ited paracetamol (2 g/kg body wt. p.o.)-induced
as subacute toxicity studies indicated no mortal- lipid peroxidation in albino rats and prevented
ity with 2.5 g/kg dose of the extract in mice and depletion of sulphydryl groups in liver cells
no significant alterations in body or tissue weight, (Yanpallewar et al. 2003). Neem pretreatment
food and water intake, haematological profile and restored the elevated serum levels of aspartate
various liver and kidney function tests in rats transaminase, alanine transaminase and alkaline
when treated for 28 days with 1 g/kg dose of phosphatase enzymes induced by paracetamol
neem leaf extract. Oral pretreatment of rats with administration. Neem leaf extract has reversal
neem extract (300 mg/kg) afforded protection effects on the adverse levels of blood and liver
against ethanol-induced gastric mucosal damage glutathione, Na + K(+)–ATPase activity and thio-
such as ulcerated mucosa with marked apoptotic barbituric acid reactive substances in paracetamol
bodies, mucosal haemorrhage and destruction of hepatotoxicity (Chattopadhyay 2003).
glandular elements (Ofusori et al. 2008). Their Treatment of DMBA-induced skin tumour-
data suggested that pretreatment with neem bearing male BALB/c mice with aqueous neem
extract may be useful in preventing prolonged leaf extract significantly reduced hepatic dam-
ethanol-induced gastric ulcers. ages and reversed the increased activities of
hepatic tissue injury marker enzymes, namely,
alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase
Neuroprotective Activity and aspartate aminotransferase (Koul et al.
2006a). Neem extract reduced oxidative stress by
Administration of A. indica (500 mg/kg/day × 15 decreasing lipid peroxidation levels and enhanc-
days) to rats with cerebral ischaemia–reperfusion ing the reduced glutathione contents and activi-
injury significantly reduced hypoperfusion-induced ties of various antioxidant enzymes. It reduced
functional disturbances (anxiety and disturbances oxidative stress by decreasing lipid peroxidation
of learning/memory) as tested by open-field levels and enhancing the reduced glutathione
paradigm and Morris water maze tests contents and activities of various antioxidant
(Yanpallewar et al. 2005). Reactive changes in enzymes. Further, it caused a decrease in the
brain histology like gliosis, perivascular lym- activity of cytochrome P450 and cytochrome b5
phocytic infiltration, recruitment of macro- and up-regulated the activity of glutathione
phages and cellular oedema following long-term S-transferase.
hypoperfusion were also attenuated effectively Oral administration of neem seed kernel active
by A. indica. Studies by Vaibhav et al. (2013) principle protected the male albino rat liver hepa-
found that neem seed extract exhibited antioxi- tocytes and testis seminiferous tubules from
dant and anti-apoptotic properties in transient phenobarbital-induced damage (degeneration of
middle cerebral artery occlusion rat model. It cytoplasm and nucleus, necrosis and fragmenta-
exhibited potent in-vitro reducing power tion of nucleus) (Raveendra et al. 2007). These
(126.2 mg ascorbic acid equivalent/g extract) deleterious changes almost returned to normal
and free radical scavenging activities (DPPH conditions in the rat liver and testis upon the oral
171.0 and NO 176.0 μg/mL) and inhibited administration of an antioxidant present in neem
oxidative stress and decreased the activities of seed kernel extract.
432 Meliaceae

Cardioprotective/Cardiovascular with experimental Alzheimer’s disease, which

Activity was comparable to that of diazepam (Raghavendra
et al. 2013). In the elevated plus-maze test,
Studies showed that aqueous neem leaf extract A. indica significantly alleviated ibotenic acid
(250, 500 and 1,000 mg/kg, p.o.) exerted equipo- and colchicine-induced anxiety. Ibotenic acid-
tent cardioprotective activity in the experimental and colchicine-induced depression was mitigated
model of isoprenaline-induced myocardial necro- by A. indica, and the results were comparable to
sis in rats as compared to vitamin E (100 mg/kg, that of imipramine. In Morris water maze test,
p.o.), a known cardioprotective antioxidant (Peer A. indica pretreatment improved reference mem-
et al. 2008). Neem leaf extract and vitamin E sig- ory, working memory and spatial learning, which
nificantly restored most of the adversely altered were at par with the effects of donepezil. Both
haemodynamic, biochemical and histopathologi- ibotenic acid- and colchicine-induced deficits in
cal parameters caused by isoprenaline. active avoidance learning and retention of learned
The hydroalcoholic neem leaf extract was behaviour were significantly reversed by A. indica.
found to reduce a dose-dependent hypotensive Also, ibotenic acid- and colchicine-induced
effect without altering the amplitude or rate of increased lipid peroxidase activity was signifi-
respiration (Chattopadhyay 1997). In isolated cantly reversed by A. indica (reductions in malo-
frog heart, there was no noticeable change in ndialdehyde level). A. indica stabilized rise in
amplitude of contraction or rate of the heart at superoxide dismutase, and a decreasing trend in
lower doses, but at higher doses there was tempo- acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was seen
rary cardiac arrest in diastole. with ibotenic acid and colchicine lesions. A. indica
had no effect over the AChE activity.

Antidiarrhoeal Activity
Melanogenesis Inhibitory Activity
In vitro and animal studies showed that neem leaf
extract had antibacterial and antisecretory activity Five nortriterpenoids isolated from the seeds,
against Vibrio cholerae, a causative agent of nimolicinol, nimbin, 6-deacetylnimbin, α-nimolac-
watery diarrhoea such as cholera (Thakurta et al. tone and desfuranoazadiradione, exhibited marked
2007). Neem extract had significant antibacterial inhibitory effect on melanogenesis (74–91 %
activity against multidrug-resistant Vibrio chol- reduction of melanin content at 25 μg/mL) with no
erae of serotypes O1, O139, non-O1 and non- or almost no toxicity to B16 melanoma cells
O139 with MIC50 of 2.5 mg/mL, MIC90 of >5 g/ (Akihisa et al. 2009). Two nortriterpenoid
mL and MBC of 10 mg/mL. Neem extract showed limonoids isolated from the seeds, salannin and
antisecretory activity on Vibrio cholerae-induced 3-deacetylsalannin, exhibited marked inhibitory
fluid secretion in the mouse intestine with inhibi- effects (70–74 % reduction of melanin content at
tion values of 27.7, 41.1, 43.3, 57.0 and 77.9 % at 25 μg/mL) on melanogenesis with only minor
doses of 100, 200, 300, 450 and 1,800 mg/kg, cytotoxicity (79–85 % of cell viability) in B16 mel-
respectively. Oral administration of neem extract anoma cells (Akihisa et al. 2011).
inhibited haemorrhage induced by Vibrio chol-
erae in the mouse intestine at a dose ≥300 mg/kg.
The results supported the traditional use of neem Antipyretic Activity
in the treatment for diarrhoea and cholera.
Murthy and Sirsi (1958a) reported antipyretic
activity in neem oil and its fraction. They found
Anxiolytic/Antidepressant Activities nimbidiol to have higher antipyretic activity than
acetanilide experimentally. The antipyretic activ-
A. indica exhibited anxiolytic activity in the ity of nimbidin was reported by David (1969).
open-field test in colchicine-lesioned animals Neem leaf extract was reported to have beneficial
Azadirachta indica 433

antipyretic effect in Escherichia coli endotoxin- and Mulla 1998b). The wettable powder (WP)
induced fever in rats (Ashorobi 1998). formulation was slightly more persistent and
Administration of the same doses of neem leaf effective than the emulsifiable concentrate (EC).
extract (125–375 mg/kg) during the early phase Two triterpenoids, 23-O-methylnimocinolide
of fever development (during temperature rise) [7α-acetoxy-6α-hydroxy-23ξ-methoxy-3-oxo-
produced a significant fall in the rectal tempera- 24,25,26,27-tetranorapotirucalla(apoeupha)-
ture to near normal. The maximum rise was 1,14,20(22)-trieno-21,23-lactone] and 1, 7-O-
1.0 °C which later dropped to 0.18 °C and was deacetyl-23-O-methyl-7α-O-senecioy-
sustained even beyond the experimental session. lnimocinolide [6α-hydroxy-23ξ-methoxy-3-oxo-
7α-senecioyloxy-24,25,26,27- tetranora-
potirucalla(apoeupha)-1,14,20(22)-trieno- 21,
Diuretic Activity 23-lactone] isolated from leaves, showed insect
growth-regulating effect on mosquitoes (Aedes
Sodium nimbidinate obtained from neem seed oil aegypti) with LC50 53 ppm and 2.14 ppm, respec-
showed dose-dependent diuretic activity in dog tively (Afshan et al. 1999). The senecioyloxy
when administered orally (Bhide et al. 1958). substituent at C-7 resulted in a significant
The action was primarily on the renal tubules, increase of activity. Nimocinol and 6 α-O-acetyl-
retarding the extraction of phenolsulphonaphtha- 7-deacetylnimocinol isolated from neem leaf
lein and reabsorption of electrolytes and water. methanol extract exhibited toxicity on the fourth
The authors also conducted a clinical trial in nine instar larvae of mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) with
patients with congestive cardiac failure (Sha LC50 values of 83 and 21 ppm, respectively
et al. 1958). A good diuretic response was (Siddiqui et al. 2000a). Meliacinin and azadironic
obtained in eight patients. No side effects were acid from neem fruit coats showed toxicity
observed. against mosquito (Anopheles stephensi) with
LC50 13 and 4.5 ppm, respectively (Siddiqui et al.
2000b). Two triterpenoids, 22,23-dihydroni-
Insect Growth-Regulating/Larvicidal mocinol (1) and desfurano-6α-hydroxyaza-
Activities diradione (2), from neem leaves, showed mortal-
ity for the fourth instar larvae of the mosquito
A γ-hydroxybutenolide tetranortriterpenoid (Anopheles stephensi), with LC50 values of 60
named as isonimbocinolide isolated from the and 43 ppm, respectively (Siddiqui et al. 2002).
acidic fraction of the fresh, undried neem leaves Meliatetraolenone and odoratone from neem
showed insect growth-regulating properties leaves both showed mortality on the fourth
against mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) (Siddiqui instar larvae of mosquitoes (Anopheles ste-
et al. 1986a). Two bitter meliacins, nimocinolide phensi) with LC50 values of 16 and 154 ppm,
and isonimocinolide, from leaves acted as insect respectively (Siddiqui et al. 2003a). Twenty-
growth regulators against houseflies (Musca seven compounds identified in nonpolar to less
domestica) and mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) polar fractions of the ethanolic extract of fresh
(Siddiqui et al. 1986c). Su and Mulla (1998a) neem fruit showed pesticidal activity deter-
found a significant antifeedancy at 5 and 10 ppm mined by WHO method against Anopheles ste-
azadirachtin (AZ) for all neem formulations for phensi (Siddiqui et al. 2004b). Gedunin
larvae of Culex tarsalis and Culex quinquefascia- exhibited 100 % toxic action against the fourth
tus. Some differences in larval susceptibility in instar larvae of Aedes aegypti and Culex quin-
terms of antifeedancy to the test formulations quefasciatus at 50 and 10 ppm (Gurulingappa
were noted between the two species. The formu- et al. 2009). Epoxyazadiradione and epoxyni-
lated neem azadirachtin products were more per- molicinol also showed significant toxicities
sistent and effective than the technical (≥50 %) against larvae of both mosquito species
azadirachtin in mosquito ovicidal activity (Su at 50 ppm.
434 Meliaceae

Oral administration of a commercial formulation more susceptible to natural predators. Aqueous

NeemAzal to Anopheles stephensi females extracts of neem wood chippings could be pro-
through artificial blood meals diminished blood duced locally, and their use had the potential to
intake and oviposition in a concentration- be a low-tech component of integrated malaria
dependent manner (Lucantoni et al. 2006). vector control schemes.
Similar results were obtained on females, which The toxicity of neem fruit fractions (KEA-1 to
had consumed NeemAzal in sucrose solution KEA-5) obtained from the kernels exhibited tox-
before taking a blood meal of plain blood. Neem- icity against the 3rd instar larvae of Aedes
treated females displayed a delay in oocyte devel- aegypti; toxicity of these fractions was observed
opment in both the phase of vitellogenesis and to increase with the maturity of the fruits
the phase of choriogenesis. The ultrastructural (Siddiqui et al. 2009a). The n-hexane-soluble
studies on ovaries from NeemAzal treated fraction of fresh neem flowers exhibited larvici-
females revealed distinct structural modifications dal activity against Anopheles stephensi, a vector
indicative of (1) a complete block of oogenesis, of malaria parasite (Siddiqui et al. 2009b). A field
(2) an impairment of vitellogenesis and vitelline study conducted in Sanambele (Mali) in 2010
envelope formation and (3) a severe degeneration demonstrated that neem leaf slurry could be use
of follicle cells. The results indicated that as a sustainable dry season management strategy
NeemAzal impaired hormone control of oogen- to control the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae
esis and exerted a cytotoxic effect on both follic- using available tools and resources in the village
ular cells and oocytes of the Asian malaria vector, (Luong et al. 2012). The 50 and 90 % lethal con-
A. stephensi. In laboratory conditions, LC50 and centrations at 72 h were 8,825 mg/L and
LC90 values for Neemarin (a neem extract) were 15,212 mg/L, respectively, and experimental
0.35 and 1.81 mg/L for Anopheles stephensi, the concentration ranges were 1,061–21,224 mg/L
main local malaria vector, and 0.69 and 3.18 mg/L pulverized neem leaves in distilled water.
for Culex quinquefasciatus (Vatandoost and Azadirachtin was found to possess larvicidal
Vaziri 2004). The mortality in the pupal stage activity similar to those of insect growth regula-
was significantly higher than the other stages. In tors against the immature stages of the horn fly,
field trials, using recommended dosages of 1 and Haematobia irritans; the stable fly, Stomoxys cal-
2 L/ha, mortality of Anopheles spp. larvae was citrans; and the housefly, Musca domestica
also higher than Culex spp. Prevention of adult (Miller and Chamberlain 1998). An emulsifiable
emerged and pupal mortality was the main activ- concentrate had an LC50 for larval horn flies of
ity of these compounds. The maximum time of 0.151 ppm and an LC90 of 0.268 ppm. For larval
efficacy was 7 days at the highest concentration stable flies, the EC formulation had an LC50 of
(2 L/ha). 7.7 ppm and an LC90 of 18.7 ppm azadirachtin in
Neem oil exhibited good larvicidal properties manure. Against larval houseflies, the LC50 and
against the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae LC90 were 10.5 and 20.2 ppm, respectively.
(Okumu et al. 2007). The oil suppressed adult Laboratory tests showed that neem products con-
emergence by 50 % at a low concentration of taining 0.24 % azadirachtin A significantly
6 ppm. It had an LC50 value of 11 ppm after reduced larval and pupal survival, adult emer-
8 days, which was nearly five times more toxic gence, pupal weight, adult wing length and fecun-
than the corn oil formulation. Aqueous extract of dity on the subsequent generation, in a
neem wood chippings inhibited all larval stages dose-dependent manner in housefly, Musca domes-
of the malarial vector Anopheles gambiae with tica, and blowfly, Chrysomya megacephala
IE50 of (<4 g/L) (Howard et al. 2009). For pupae, (Siriwattanarungsee et al. 2008). The data rein-
significant mortality occurred at 5 g/L. In addi- forced the efficacy of neem extract in reduced adult
tion to growth retardation, reduced reaction by emergence and anti-fecundity in the subsequent
larvae to visual and mechanical stimuli observed generation. However, neem extract induced only
at higher neem concentrations may make them low to moderate larval and pupal mortalities.
Azadirachta indica 435

Antiparasitic Activity within Rhodnius prolixus and other triatomines

(de Azambuja and Garcia 1992). Administered
Nimbolide, a constituent of A. indica, inhibited through a blood meal, azadirachtin affected the
Plasmodium falciparum in vitro with EC50 of immune reactivity as shown by a significant reduc-
0.95 μg/mL (Rochanakij et al. 1985). The EC50 of tion in numbers of haemocytes and consequently
crude aqueous neem extract was 115 μg/mL and nodule formation following challenge with
of crude ethanol extract was 5.0 μg/mL. However, Enterobacter cloacae beta-12, reduction in ability
neither the crude extracts nor nimbolide showed to produce antibacterial activities in the haemo-
any activity in vivo against Plasmodium berghei lymph when injected with bacteria and decreased
in the mouse either through ingestion or subcuta- ability to destroy the infection caused by inocula-
neous injection. tion of E. cloacae cells. A single dose of azadi-
Azadirachtin, from neem and selected semi- rachtin was able to inhibit the development of
synthetic derivatives, inhibited the development Trypanosoma cruzi in Rhodnius prolixus if given
of the motile male malarial gamete in vitro (Jones through the meal at different intervals, together
et al. 1994). Changes in the hemiacetal group at with, before or after parasite infection. Similarly,
position C-11 in the molecule resulted in a loss of these results were observed with different triato-
activity in this assay. Udeinya et al. (2006) found mine species and different strains of T. cruzi.
two neem leaf fractions lysed 50 and 100 % of Azadirachtin induced a permanent resistance of
developing gametocytes of Plasmodium falci- the vector against reinfection with T. cruzi. Three
parum, at 10−3 and 1.0 μg/mL, respectively, and tetranortriterpenoids from neem leaves, 7 α-acetyl-
50 and 100 % of mature gametocytes at 10−3 and 15B-methoxy-29methylene 7,15-deoxonimbo-
102 μg/mL, respectively. The activity was supe- lide, 2-oxo-3-deacetylsalannin and 7 α-hydroxy-
rior to chloroquinone. In another subsequent 15β-hydroxy-7,15-deoxonimbin, exhibited strong
study, they reported that separate 72 h cultures of antitrypanosomal activities against Trypanosoma
both asexual parasites and mature gametocytes, brucei rhodesiense with MIC values ranging of
treated with crude acetone–water (50/50) neem 6.9, 15.6 and 7.8 μg/mL, respectively, and were
leaf extract (0.5 μg/mL), had parasite numbers of more active than Cymelarsan (a standard drug),
less than 50 % of the numbers in control cultures, which had an MIC value of 187.5 μg/mL (Githua
which had 8.0 % and 8.5 % parasitaemia, respec- et al. 2010).
tively (Udeinya et al. 2008). In cultures contain- Alcohol and aqueous neem flower extracts
ing 2.5 μ/gmL of the extract, asexual parasites exerted lethal contractile and paralysis effect on
and mature and immature gametocytes were the microfilariae of the parasite Setaria cervi,
reduced to 0.1 %, 0.2 % and 0 % parasitaemia, with LC50 of 15 and 18 ng/mL, respectively
respectively. There were no parasites in the cul- (Mishra et al. 2005). A commercial shampoo
tures containing 5.0 μg/mL of the extract. based on neem seed extract was found to be more
NeemAzal (R), an azadirachtin-enriched neem effective in vitro on head lice collected from
seed extract, completely obstructed the develop- schoolchildren than the permethrin-based prod-
ment of Plasmodium berghei in its vector uct (Heukelbach et al. 2006). Three hours after
Anopheles stephensi at an azadirachtin dose of neem treatment, a mortality of 94 % was obtained.
50 mg/kg mouse body weight (Lucantoni et al. NeemAzal F (neem seed oil extract) induced a
2010). Examination of treated mosquitoes did significant increased in mortality rates of newly
not reveal any oocyst, and none of the healthy hatched larvae, unfed larvae and unfed adults
mice exposed to their bites developed parasitae- reaching 100 % on the 15th, 3rd and 15th days
mia. Gedunin, azadirone and neemfruitin A from posttreatment of the tick species Hyalomma ana-
neem fruit exhibited significant antiplasmodial tolicum excavatum, respectively (Abdel-Shafy
activity (Chianese et al. 2010). and Zayed 2002). The mortality rates increased
Azadirachtin was found to have an effect on with the extract concentrations. Although it had
both immunity and Trypanosoma cruzi interaction no significant effect on the moulting rates of fed
436 Meliaceae

nymphs, it caused malformation or deformities in from 107 to 180 days even after repeated matings
4 % of adults moulted. It was concluded that the with males of proven fertility (Upadhyay et al.
concentration of NeemAzal F which may be used 1990). Neem-treated animals showed a signifi-
for commercial control of this tick species was cant leucocytic infiltration in the uterine epithe-
1.6 and 3.2 %. Results of in vitro studies with lium between days 3 and 5 post coitus, i.e. during
engorged females of tick, Rhipicephalus microp- the preimplantation period. Intrauterine applica-
lus, showed that the neem seed extracts had acari- tion of neem oil appeared to induce a preim-
cide activity inhibiting egg laying and the larval plantation block in fertility. Subcutaneous
hatching rate, with the extract containing administration of neem oil to cyclic rats caused
10,000 ppm azadirachtin being the most effective significant damage to the luminal epithelium of
(Giglioti et al. 2011). the uterus and to the uterine glands, also decreased
Neem leaf and fruit extract and fractions were glycogen and total protein contents in the ovary
found to have cytotoxic and antileishmanial and uterus and augmented the activity of acid
activity against promastigotes and amastigotes of phosphatase in these organs (Tewari et al. 1989).
Leishmania amazonensis (Carneiro et al. 2012). Administration of neem oil to ovariectomized
The ethanolic leaf extract and dichloromethane rats decreased protein and glycogen content and
and chloroform fractions had IC50 values of 38, increased acid phosphatase activity in the uterus,
3.9 and 1.2 μg/mL for promastigotes and 9.8, 1.1 whereas its conjoint administration with estradiol
and 0.6 μg/mL for amastigotes, respectively, at dipropionate or progesterone did not cause sig-
72 h. For the ethanolic fruit integument extract nificant changes relative to those seen with the
and dichloromethane fraction, the IC50 was 2.7 steroids per se. It was concluded that the histo-
and 2.1 μg/mL for promastigotes and 0.4 and logical and biochemical alterations observed
0.6 μg/mL for amastigotes. were due to the toxicological potential of the
neem oil rather than to hormonal properties. Oral
administration of Praneem (neem seed extract)
Antifertility Activity abrogated pregnancy in baboons and bonnet
monkeys (Mukherjee et al. 1996). Termination of
The number of pregnancies as well as the litter pregnancy was observed with the appearance of
size was reduced when male mice were treated blood in the vaginal smears and decline in chori-
with Azadirachta indica, while control mice onic gonadotropin and progesterone. Pregnancy
showed 100 % fertility rate (Deshpande et al. continued in the control animals treated with pea-
1980). After one and half month of drug-free nut oil at the same dose. Pregnancy was termi-
interval, the male mice showed a normal repro- nated successfully in both rodents and primates
ductive function as indicated by the number of with no significant side effects by purified neem
pregnancies. Histological examination of testes extracts (Talwar et al. 1997). Treatment caused
revealed no evidence of inhibition of spermato- an elevation of both immunoreactive and bioac-
genesis. At subcutaneous doses up to 0.3 mL/rat, tive TNF-alpha and gamma-interferon in serum,
neem oil did not possess any oestrogenic, anti- mesenteric lymph nodes and foetoplacental tis-
oestrogenic or progestational activity and sue and an early decrease in progesterone in pri-
appeared not to interfere with the action of pro- mates. Mukherjee et al. (1999) showed that a
gesterone (Prakash et al. 1988). These findings pure active fraction (containing six components)
were confirmed using the histo-architecture of of neem seeds could be obtained for the purpose
the uterus of treated rats. Since the post-coital of early post-implantation contraception when
contraceptive effect of neem oil appeared to be given orally, and its mechanism of action
nonhormonal, neem oil would be expected to appeared to be by activating cell-mediated
elicit less side effects than the steroidal contra- immune reactions. The fraction could completely
ceptives. Female rats treated with neem oil abrogate pregnancy in rodents up to a concentra-
remained infertile for variable periods ranging tion of 10 %. The active fraction was identified to
Azadirachta indica 437

be a mixture of six components, comprising release of ova during ovulation (Owolabi et al.
saturated and mono- and diunsaturated free fatty 2008). Animal studies showed that both neem
acids and their methyl esters (Garg et al. 1998). seed oil and azadirachtin impaired intrauterine
Volatile fraction of neem oil coded NIM-76 development and altered antioxidant/oxidative
inhibited spermatozoal motility in a dose- status during pregnancy (Dallaqua et al. 2012).
dependent manner; the minimum concentration Treatment with both during pregnancy exerted no
was 0.25 mg/mL for rat and 25 mg/mL for human hypoglycaemic and antihyperglycaemic effects
spermatozoa (Riar et al. 1990). The activity of on nondiabetic and diabetic rats, respectively;
this fraction was not altered in the presence of affected OGTT (oral glucose tolerance test) gly-
vaginal or cervical mucus. Intravaginal applica- caemic levels in diabetic rats; increased the pro-
tion of NIM-76 in rabbits showed no irritation to portion of foetuses classified as small for
the vaginal mucosa. NIM-76 was found to have pregnancy age in all groups; and did not interfere
antifertility effects in rats, rabbits and rhesus with the lipid profile in nondiabetic dams. Neem
monkeys when applied before coitus but not so oil reduced the rate of total cholesterol and non-
when applied during post-coital stages (Riar esterifed fatty acids in diabetic animals. Both
et al. 1991). Thus, it appeared to act mainly by its neem oil and azadirachtin increased lipoperoxi-
spermicidal effect. No alteration in the estradiol dation, characterized by increased malondialde-
(E2) and progesterone values was observed after hyde levels in nondiabetic rats.
the application of the drug in monkeys.
Supplementation of pentoxifylline, a drug
known to enhance the motility of the sperm, Toxicity Studies/Case Reports
could not prevent the spermicidal action of NIM-
76 (Sharma et al. 1996). There was damage to the Reported toxicity of preparations and isolated
cell membrane and a gradual leakage of cytosolic neem compounds was reported to be low, except
LDH from the sperm in the presence of NIM-76. for neem seed oil (van der Nat et al. 1991a).
Neem leaf extract (200 mg/kg) induced corni- Margosa oil was reported to cause toxic encepha-
fied phase of oestrous cycle of adult rats which lopathy particularly in infants and young children
persisted till the last day of treatment (Sinniah and Baskaran 1981; Lai et al. 1990).
(Chattopadhyay 1993). Oral administration of Usual symptoms included vomiting, drowsiness,
polar and nonpolar fractions of A. indica seed tachypnoea and recurrent generalized seizures;
extract inhibited folliculogenesis in female albino leucocytosis and metabolic acidosis were also
rats (Roop et al. 2005). The extract reduced the observed. Sinniah and Baskaran (1981) reported
number of follicles in various stages (I–VII) of that margosa oil may be involved in the aetiology
follicular development. The results suggested of Reye’s syndrome among Indians in Malaysia.
that neem extract may have potential as an eco- Dhongade et al. (2008) reported a case of neem
logical safe and active control of rodent population. oil poisoning in a 5-year-old child presented with
Aqueous neem leaf extract induced granulosa refractory seizures and was having metabolic aci-
cell apoptosis through the mitochondria-mediated dosis. Late neurological sequelae in the form of
pathway, reduced estradiol 17β concentration and auditory and visual disturbances and ataxia were
induced apoptosis in ovulated oocytes in sexually present. Bhaskar et al. (2010) reported a case of a
immature female rats (Tripathi et al. 2013). The 35-year-old female patient with ophthalmopathy,
results indicated that granulosa cell apoptosis loss of bilateral vision, after suicidal consump-
mediated neem leaf extract-induced oocyte apop- tion of neem oil for 5 days.
tosis during female fertility regulation in rat. Technical azadirachtin administered 12 %
Studies showed that gavage administration of orally to male and female rats at doses of 500,
neem leaf methanol extract adversely affected the 1,000 and 1,500 mg/kg/day for 90 days did not
fertility of Wistar rats by reducing serum levels produce any signs of toxicity and mortality and
of luteinizing hormone and, subsequently, the changes in tissue weight, pathology and serum
438 Meliaceae

and blood parameters (Raizada et al. 2001), it caused adverse alterations in biochemical
indicating that azadirachtin tested at the highest parameters (serum globulins, total and conju-
dose was well-tolerated by rats of both sexes. gated bilirubin, serum cholesterol, low-density
Thus, the highest dose, 1,500 mg/kg, could be lipoprotein cholesterol and computed athero-
used as a basal dose for the determination of the genic index) with consequential effects on the
no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of normal functioning of the organs (liver, kidney,
azadirachtin to calculate its safety margin. lungs and heart) of the animals. In a 90-day sub-
Feeding of rats with 100, 500 and 1,000 ppm chronic toxicity study of neem oil, histopatho-
technical azadirachtin through diet (equivalent to logical examinations at the 90th day showed that
5, 25 and 50 mg/kg body weight of rats) has not the 1,600 mg/kg/day dose of neem oil had vary-
produced any adverse effects on reproductive ing degrees of damage on each organ except the
function of rats, and data were comparable to heart, uterus and ovaries (Wang et al. 2013a).
control animals over two generations (Srivastava After a 30-day recovery, the degree of lesions to
and Raizada 2007). There were no toxicological the tissues was lessened or even restored. The
effects in parent rats as evidenced by clinical no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of
signs of toxicity; enzymatic parameters like AST, neem oil was 177 mg/kg/day for mice and the tar-
ALT, ALP, serum bilirubin, serum cholesterol get organs of neem oil were determined to be the
and total protein; and histopathology of the liver, testicle, liver and kidneys. In another recent toxi-
brain, kidney and testes/ovary. The litters of cological evaluation of neem oil, the LD50 values
F(1B) and F(2B) generations were devoid of any of neem oil were found to be 31.95 g/kg and the
morphological, visceral and teratological subacute treatment with neem oil failed to change
changes. Absence of any major adverse repro- body weight gain and food and water consump-
ductive effects in adults as well as in 21-day-old tion (Deng et al. 2013). Serum biochemistry
pups of F(2B) generation suggested the safe use analysis showed no significant differences in any
of technical azadirachtin as a biopesticide. of the parameters examined under the dose of
Toxicity studies by Kupradinun et al. (2010) 1,600 mg/kg/day. Histopathological examina-
revealed that methanol extract of neem flowers tions showed that the target organs of neem oil
had high LD50 value, greater than 12 g/kg bw were the testicle, liver and kidneys up to the dose
which was about 800 times of human use. In sub- of 1,600 mg/kg/day.
acute toxicity, the extract showed slight toxicity Injection of Swiss mice and Sprague–Dawley
to rats at the dose greater than 150 mg/kg/day rats with neem leaf glycoprotein (NLGP) even in
(10 times of human use). higher doses than effective concentration caused
Oral administration of a crude ethanol neem no behavioural changes in animals and no death
leaf extract to adult Swiss albino mice for 7 days (Mallick et al. 2013b). NLGP showed no adverse
at 5 mg, 10 mg or 20 mg/10 g bw/day signifi- effect on the haematological system and caused
cantly increased the incidence of structural and no histological alterations in the organ micro-
mitotic disruptive changes in metaphase chromo- structure of the NLGP-treated mice and rats.
somes of bone marrow cells (Awasthy et al. Histological normalcy of the liver and kidney
1999). They postulated that one or the other of was further confirmed by the assessment of liver
the many constituents of the extract, along with enzymes like alkaline phosphatase, SGOT and
genera free radicals, interfered with DNA to yield SGPT and nephrological products like urea and
chromosome strand breakage or produced spin- creatinine. NLGP had no apoptotic effect on
dle disturbances, inducing belated genotoxic immune cells but induced proliferation of mono-
effect. Recent studies by Ashafa et al. (2012) nuclear cells collected from mice and rats.
reported that the ethanolic extract of neem stem Accumulated evidence strongly suggested the
bark at the doses of 50, 100, 200 and 300 mg/kg nontoxic nature of NLGP. Thus, it was concluded
body weight may not be completely safe as an that neem leaf glycoprotein could be recom-
oral remedy and should be taken with caution as mended for human use in anticancer therapy.
Azadirachta indica 439

Traditional Medicinal Uses 1929). In India and Sri Lanka, neem oil is
employed as an anthelmintic and as antiseptic for
Since antiquity, neem has been extensively used wounds, eczema, scrofula and other skin diseases
in Ayurveda, Unani and homoeopathic medicine and also to kill hair lice (Burkill 1966). In
and has become a cynosure of modern medicine Madura, neem oil is used for itch.
(Subapriya and Nagini 2005). In traditional med- In Nigeria, neem chewing stick is used for oral
icine literature, preparations of neem tree are diseases (Etkin 1981). In Niger, an infusion of
claimed to be useful in a wide spectrum of dis- pounded leaves is used to treat asthenia
eases especially for inflammation-related dis- (Adjanohoun et al. 1980). In Togo, pounded
eases (van der Nat et al. 1991a). Neem oil and the leaves of neem and other species are used to treat
bark and leaf extracts have been therapeutically malaria; a leaf decoction is used as anthelmintic
used as folk medicine to control leprosy, intesti- for Ascaris; for hepatic disorders pulp is used for
nal helminthiasis, respiratory disorders and con- local application on the head (Adjanohoun et al.
stipation and also as a general health promoter. 1986). In south Senegal, the Diola people use a
Its use for the treatment of rheumatism, chronic leaf decoction for diarrhoeas (Grand and
syphilitic sores, scabies and indolent ulcer has Wondergem 1987). In central Nigeria (Kawar
also been evident. Neem oil finds use to control state), a leaf decoction is taken hot or cold for
various skin infections. Bark, leaf, root, flower malaria; hot leaf extract is taken orally for catarrh
and fruit together cure blood morbidity, biliary or inhaled from a steam bath; stem is used as a
afflictions, itching, skin ulcers, burning sensa- chewing stick to clean teeth and gums, and juice
tions and phthisis. Neem finds use in skin care for is used to prevent tooth decay and gum infections
acne and keeping skin elasticity. (Bhat et al. 1990). In Senegal, crushed leaf extract
In India, neem leaves have been employed by is used to treat malaria (Van der Steur 1994). In
the indigenous people treating gastrointestinal Ivory Coast, leaf decoction is employed as malar-
disorder such as diarrhoea and cholera (Thakurta ial therapy (Ambe and Malaisse 2000). In Ghana,
et al. 2007). Azadirachta indica has been exten- pounded leaves are used for enema, and neem
sively used in Ayurvedic medicine by Indian leaves alone or mixed with other plant leaves are
population for over 2,000 years (Faccin-Galhardi used in steam baths and as a drink for malaria
et al. 2012). It is used traditionally for the healing (Asase et al. 2005; Asase and Oppong-Mensah
of various diseases. Azadirachta indica was 2009). In the Dangme West District of Ghana,
found to be one of 16 traditional plant species various recipes of neem leaves are sued for
commonly employed as malaria prophylactic by malaria treatment: decoction of boiled neem
the traditional healers of three districts of Odisha, leaves, decoction of boiled pineapple fruit peels
India (Nagendrappa et al. 2013). and neem leaves, decoction of boiled neem
According to Watt (1908), the root bark, bark leaves and lime fruit or leaves and decoction of
and young fruits are tonic and antiperiodic; the sugar cane stem and neem leaves (Asase et al.
oil, seeds and leaves are antiseptic, stimulant and 2010). In south-western Nigeria, the leaves are
insecticidal; the flowers are stimulant, tonic and used as a paste for wound dressing (Adetutu
stomachic; the gum is demulcent and tonic; the et al. 2011). In Angola, a decoction of pounded
sap or ‘toddy’ is refrigerant, nutrient and an alter- leaves is taken for constipation; tea of the plant
ative tonic. In India, Malaysia and Indonesia, the is used for malaria; tea prepared from roots is
root bark, and stem bark is prescribed as an taken for asthma, root pieces in used in bath for
astringent, febrifuge, malaria and fever (Burkill asthenia and rickets and roots chewed for caries
1966). The young fruits are similarly used in India. (Bossard 1996).
The leaves are used for poulticing, for treating In Madagascar, bark and wood decoction is
sores. In Indochina, tinctures of leaves and bark taken for diarrhoea, skin disease and itch (Rivière
are taken internally for malaria and as a tonic and et al. 2005). In North Kordofan, Sudan, neem
applied externally for sores (Crevost and Petelot leaves are used as antipyretic, in steam bath
440 Meliaceae

and as a cushion for sleeping (El-Kamali 2009). In the tropics and subtropics, neem is commonly
In the pastoral and agropastoral communities in planted as shade plants around building, along
Erer Valley of Babile Wereda, eastern Ethiopia, roadsides, in pastures and farms as shade trees for
leaf concoction is given for treatment of malaria; livestock and boundary rows and as windbreaks
leaf concoction, oil from seed and flower, used and shelter belts to protect crops from wind dam-
topically for fungal infections; and seed oil used age because of its low branching and soil erosion.
for treating intestinal worms (Belayneh et al. Being drought resistant with a well-developed
2012). In South Africa, a crushed leaf infusion is root system capable of extracting nutrient and
drunk twice a day for diarrhoea (de Wet et al. water from the lower soil levels, it is a suitable
2010). In Tanzania, traditional healers used infu- tree for dune fixation. Its twigs and leaves are
sions or decoctions of neem leaves, roots, stem relatively rich in potash and phosphates, are
barks on their own or in combination with other employed as mulch and green manure in southern
plant species to treat malaria and to reduce fever India neem oil cake (residues after oil extraction
(Gessler et al. 1995). In villages around Kimboza from seeds) and are useful as organic manure,
forest reserve in Morogoro, Tanzania, decoctions soil ameliorant and soil amendment. It is believed
of leaves, bark and seeds are used for treating to enhance the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizers
headache, backache, malaria, fever and stomach by reducing the rate of nitrification and suppress-
ache and as an insecticide (Amri and Kisangau ing soil pests including nematodes, fungi and
2012). In Cameroon, leaves, bark and fruits are insects. Uses of neem oil include the following:
used for malaria treatment: leaves are boiled with fuel for lamps, lubricant for machinery, insect
sugar; solution is filtered and administered to repellent and in the production of soap, tooth-
children and adults; also, patients take a bath paste, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics and to
with warm leaf solution for malaria (Saotoing remove tobacco suckers. Neem oil may also have
et al. 2011). In Nigeria, Ndokwa, Delta State, the potential in the development of pesticides and
Abbi people boiled the leaves, stem and bark and fungicides. Neem oil is also used in sprays
the decoction is taken for malaria and fever against fleas in pet animals. Studies found that
(Ogie-Odia and Oluowo 2009). The Luo mothers neem oil and mustard oils at 20 % blend with die-
in the Bondo district of Kenya used decoction or sel could be used as a diesel substitute (Anbumani
infusion of neem leaves for diarrhoea and other and Singh 2010). However, mustard oil at 20 %
stomach ailments; a leaf and root decoction is blend with diesel gave better performance as
used as a wash for measles/chickenpox (Geissler compared to neem oil blends in terms of low
et al. 2002). In the south coast community, Kenya, smoke intensity, emission of hydrocarbon and
the stem and root barks and leaves are used as nitric oxide.
antimalarial remedies (Nguta et al. 2010). In the The leaves are said to be used as fodder for
Suba district, Kenya, decoctions or steam bath of livestock. In India and Pakistan, dried neem
the leaves and bark is used to treat skin rashes, leaves are placed in cupboard to repel insect
malaria and opportunistic infection from HIV/ devouring clothes and also in stored grains and
AIDS and leaves and bark rubbed on teeth and seeds in containers to repel insects and prevent
gums (Nagata et al. 2011). In Guinea Conakry, food and seed losses. The leaves are rich in aza-
decoction of the leaves is used as an antiseptic dirachtin, a potent antifeedant and insect growth
against infection (Magassouba et al. 2007). inhibitor, that disrupts insects’ growth, metamor-
phosis and reproduction.
Neem has been cultivated in plantations in the
Other Uses Sudan and Sahelian zones of Africa as well as in
Sierra Leone, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Tanzania,
Neem tree has many nonedible and non- Zanzibar and the non-Sahelian areas of Guinea,
medicinal uses (Burkill 1966; Anonymous 1980; Nigeria and Ghana. In Nigeria, neem is planted
Radwanski and Wickens 1981; Lemmens et al. for fuel wood and poles for fencing. In Central
1995; Stoney 1997). America, neem is widely planted as a plantation
Azadirachta indica 441

tree, its timber being a good substitute for as azadirachtin (both isolated from neem fruit) in
Swietenia. Neem timber is tougher than teak, but the inhibition of insect ecdysis when fed in artifi-
the grain is rough and does not polish well. cial diet to larvae of the tobacco budworm,
Nevertheless, the wood is used for light construc- Heliothis virescens (Kubo et al. 1986). The activ-
tion; to make furniture, wardrobes, bookcases ity of 7-deacetyl-17β-hydroxyazadiradione, iso-
and closets; for cart making; ship building; and lated from the seeds, as an insect growth inhibitor
for making packing crates, agricultural imple- against Heliothis virescens was found to be
ments, and wooden idols. Neem bark contains greater than that of azadiradione and 7-deacety-
12–14 % tannins and compares favourably with lazadiradione (Lee et al. 1988). The hexane neem
conventional tannin chemicals. seed kernel extract with an LC50 of 0.674 %
Besides azadirachtin, many other bioactive exhibited a much higher activity against the mus-
phytochemicals from leaves, fruit, seeds and bark tard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi, than the aqueous
have been reported to have insecticidal, nemati- and ethanol extracts (Singh et al. 1988). When
cidal, molluscicidal and fungicidal properties and the hexane extract was partitioned with ethanol,
have potential to be used as biopesticides. the ethanol-soluble fraction had an LC50 of
It was observed that the molluscicidal activity 0.328 %. Among the constituents in the fraction,
of the leaf, bark, cake, neem oil and the neem- salannin, a salannin derivative and the nonterpe-
based pesticides, Achook and nimbecidine, was noid gave LC50 values of 0.055, 0.096 and
both time and dose dependent (Singh et al. 0.104 %, respectively.
1996). The toxic effect of pure azadirachtin Deacetylgedunin, from the methanol extract
against both the snails was greater than the syn- of neem oil, was the most active compound (95 %
thetic molluscicides. protective concentration) exhibiting antifeedant
All four neem seed compounds, azadirachtin, activity against Reticulitermes speratus (Ishida
salannin, nimbin, and 6-desacetylnimbin, were et al. 1992). This was followed by salannin,
found to inhibit, in a dose-dependent fashion, gedunin, 17-hydroxyazadiradione, nimbandiol,
ecdysone 20-monooxygenase activity in three azadiradione, deacetylsalannin, and deacetylnim-
insect species, Aedes aegypti, Drosophila mela- bin in descending order. Epoxyazadiradione,
nogaster and Manduca sexta (Mitchell et al. 17-epiazadiradione, and nimbin were not active.
1997). The concentration of these compounds 6β-Hydroxygedunin, isolated from Azadirachta
required to elicit a 50 % inhibition of this steroid indica, exhibited growth inhibitory activity in
hydroxylase activity in the three insect species feeding bioassays against gram pod borer,
examined ranged from approximately 2 × 10−5 to Helicoverpa armigera, and Asian armyworm,
1 × 10−3. Azadirachtin inhibited oogenesis and Spodoptera litura, with EC50 of 24.2 and
ovarian ecdysteroid synthesis in Locusta migra- 21.5 ppm, respectively (Koul et al. 2003). Its effi-
toria migratorioides (Rembold and Seiber 1981). cacy was higher in comparison to gedunin
All azadirachtins (A–G) were reported to be (EC50 = 50.8 and 40.4 ppm), salannin (EC50 = 74.5
potent insect growth inhibitors with high toxicity and 72.0 ppm) and nimbinene (EC50 = 391.4 and
below <10 ppm in the Epilachna varivestis bioas- 404.5 ppm). Azadirachtin, however, remained the
say (Rembold 1987). Isonimolicinolide and most active neem allelochemical against both
nimolicinoic acid, two triterpenoids from neem insect species. It was found that potentiation
fruits, showed insect growth-regulating proper- among non-azadirachtin limonoids having
ties against the pulse beetle (Callosobruchus explicitly two different modes of action, such as
analis) (Siddiqui et al. 1987a). Tetrano- feeding deterrence and physiological toxicity,
rtriterpenoid lactams, salannolactam-(21) and may be playing a significant role in the potentia-
salannolactam-(23), from neem seeds showed tion effect. Neem limonoids of salannin group,
antifeeding activity towards the Mexican bean namely, 3-O-acetyl salannol, salannol and salan-
beetle, Epilachna varivestis (Kraus et al. 1987b). nin, exhibited strong antifeedant activity in
Deacetylazadirachtinol was found to be as potent tobacco armyworm Spodoptera litura larvae in a
442 Meliaceae

choice leaf disc bioassay (Koul et al. 2004). No compounds caused 50–65 % mortality of
enhancement in activity was observed when the Caenorhabditis elegans nematode. Azadirachtin
three compounds were co-administered. H showed the highest activity against the phy-
Azadirachtin-based insecticide, NeemAzal, tophagous fungi Rhizoctonia solani (EC50
exhibited insecticidal effect against three stored 63.7 ppm) and Sclerotium rolfsii (EC50
product beetle species on rye and oats 43.9 ppm), followed by azadirachtins B and A.
(Athanassiou et al. 2005). For Rhyzopertha domi- Application of neem seed granules at 0.2 and
nica, NeemAzal was more effective on oats than 0.4 % w/w and kernel granules at 0.1, 0.2 and
on rye and peeled oats. In contrast, at rates 0.4 % w/w to soil significantly reduced the root
≥100 ppm, azadirachtin was equally effective galling due to Meloidogyne incognita and popu-
against Sitophilus oryzae on whole rye and oats, lation density of M. incognita J2 in soil (Abbas
where mortality was 100 % after 7 and 14 days of et al. 2009). Application of both also improved
exposure, respectively. NeemAzal was not very the growth of root and shoot of the nematode-
effective against Tribolium confusum where adult infested tomato plants.
mortality was low, even after 14 days of exposure Release of azadirachtin A from the commer-
at the highest rate. cial polyethylene glycol (PEG) formulation was
Photo-oxidation of the neem limonoids nim- faster than the other controlled release formula-
bin and salannin with UV light in the presence of tions (Kumar et al. 2010b). The study found that
oxygen afforded two isomeric lactone products depending upon the polymer matrix used, the
per limonoid, nimbinolide and isonimbinolide application rate of azadirachtin A can be opti-
and salanninolide and isosalanninolide, respec- mized to achieve insect control at the desired
tively (Simmonds et al. 2004). When compared level and period. Starch-coated encapsulation of
in insect (larvae of Spodoptera littoralis, neem oil nanoemulsion was found to be effective
Spodoptera frugiperda and Helicoverpa armig- for controlled release of azadirachtin when com-
era and nymphs of the locusts Schistocerca pared to polyethylene glycol (PEG)-coated
gregaria and Locusta migratoria) tests with the encapsulation of neem oil nanoemulsion (Jerobin
important limonoids of neem seeds, azadirachtin, et al. 2012). Further, neem oil nanoemulsion
nimbin and salannin, isonimbinolide and iso- encapsulated beads coated with PEG was found
salanninolide showed activity greater than that of to be toxic in lymphocyte cells.
nimbin or salannin and in some respects demon-
strated activity approaching that of azadirachtin.
Neem limonoids were found to affect larval dura- Comments
tion, pupal duration, adult longevity, fecundity
and mortality of the rice leaffolder Cnaphalocrocis Fresh neem seeds germinate readily without any
medinalis (Nathan et al. 2006). Azadirachtin, pretreatment. Neem can also be propagated veg-
salannin and deacetylgedunin showed high bio- etatively by root and shoot cuttings, air layering,
activity at all doses, while the rest of the neem grafting and marcotting and from tissue culture.
limonoids were less active and were only biologi-
cally active at high doses. Azadirachtin was most
potent in all experiments and produced almost Selected References
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 Corymbia calophylla

Scientific Name Origin/Distribution

Corymbia calophylla (R. Br.) K.D. Hill & The species is indigenous to Western Australia,
L.A.S. Johnson widely distributed in the south-west of Western
Australia, from north of Geraldton (28°S) to
Cape Riche (34°S), and inland beyond Narrogin.
Synonyms

Eucalyptus calophylla Lindl., Eucalyptus calo- Agroecology

phylla R. Br. nom. nud., Eucalyptus calophylla
var. maideniana Hochr., Eucalyptus calophylla In its native area, Marri occurs in a range of
var. multiflora Guilfoyle nom. nud., Eucalyptus habitat flats, hills, slopes, breakaways, wetlands,
calophylla var. parviflora Blakely, Eucalyptus fringing salt marches and beside drainage lines.
calophylla var. rosea Guilfoyle nom. nud., It is an important component of both the Jarrah and
Eucalyptus calophylla var. rubra Guilfoyle nom. Karri forests of Western Australia. It also occurs
nud., Eucalyptus calophylla var. typica Hochr., on the coastal plain on a range of soils. It will grow
Eucalyptus ficifolia var. alba Maiden ex Blakely, on comparatively poor soil and good soils that
Eucalyptus glaucophylla Hoffsgg. include clay loam, orange-brown sandy clay, gravel,
grey sand over limestone, granite and laterite.

Family
Edible Plant Parts and Uses
Myrtaceae
Blossoms called ngumbit soaked in water make a
sweet drink; seeds can also be eaten (SERCUL
Common/English Names undated).

Marri, Port Gregory Gum, Red Gum

Botany

Vernacular Names Medium-sized tree up to 40 m high, 1.5 m dbh,

dense and much branched, with grey-brown to
Australia: Marri (Nyoongar Aborigines) red-brown brownish to dark grey, tessellated with

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 456
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_31, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Corymbia calophylla 457

Plate 1 Flowers and buds leaves

Plate 3 Cluster of fruits

neck (Plate 3), pedicellate, 4 locular, 30–50 mm

long by 25–40 mm across, thick and woody.
Calyptra scar flat and disc depressed. Seeds regular
and laterally compressed, cymbiform (boat-shaped),
large, shallowly reticulate, dull, black.

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
Plate 2 Flowers and leaves
Flower Phytochemicals
reddish kino (gum) exudates. Leaves with
prominent oil glands. Juvenile leaves, lanceolate to Composition of Marri honey bee-collected pollens
ovate, hispid with simple hairs and bristle glands, was found as protein 27.9 %, moisture 5.1 %,
petiolate. Intermediate leaves disjunct early, lan- crude fibre 6.9 %, ash 2.3 %, lipids 1.0 %, carbo-
ceolate to elliptic, straight, entire, dull green, hydrate 56.8 %; minerals (mg/100 g) P 386 mg,
petiolate. Adult leaves disjunct, broad lanceolate Ca 58 mg, Na 86.5 mg, K 462.7 mg, Zn 6.6 mg,
to ovate, falcate or not falcate, acuminate, basally Mg 88 mg, Cu 2.5 mg; and amino acids (mg/g N)
tapered or basally rounded, glossy, green, thick, isoleucine 252 mg, leucine 3245 mg, lysine
concolorous (Plates 1, 2), 9–14 cm long, 25–40 mm 226 mg, methionine 170 mg, cysteine 123 mg,
wide with distinct lateral and intramarginal veins. phenylalanine 260 mg, tyrosine 217 mg, threonine
Petioles narrowly flattened or channelled, 240 mg, tryptophan 69 mg, valine 240 mg, aspar-
15–20 mm long. Inflorescence terminal panicles tic acid 417 mg, arginine 367 mg, serine 233 mg,
with 3–7-flowered umbellasters. Peduncles terete glutamic cid 383 mg, proline 399 mg, glycine
or narrowly flattened or angular, 15–35 mm long 188 mg, alanine 197 mg and histidine 202 mg
by 3 mm wide. Pedicels terete, 10–30 mm long. (Bell et al. 1983). Marri pollen was found to be
Buds clavate 7–14 mm by 7–10 mm across. Calyx relatively high in protein and to have favourable
calyptrate, conical, narrower than hypanthium or amino acid patterns; however, their relatively low
as wide as smooth hypanthium; persisting to digestibility will be a limiting factor in their
anthesis. Flowers white (Plates 1 and 2), cream or usefulness as a food for humans and monogastric
pink. Fruits ovoid to urceolate, with constricted animals.
458 Myrtaceae

C. calophylla pollen was found to have the (Hillis and Carle 1960). Eucalyptus calophylla
highest concentration of myristic and linolenic kino yielded besides aromadendrin and sakurane-
fatty acids; boron, copper, zinc, phosphorus, tin, levorotary leucopelargonidin (3,4,5,7,4′-pen-
magnesium and sulphur minerals; crude protein; tahydroxyflavan) (Ganguly and Seshadri 1961).
and the following amino acids: aspartic acid, Reduction of aromadendrin trimethyl ether
methionine, threonine, glutamic acid, glycine, ala- yielded two isomeric flavandiols.
nine, valine, isoleucine, tyrosine, leucine, phenyl-
alanine, lysine and histidine compared to the
pollens of Eucalyptus accedens powderbark, Leaf Phytochemicals
Eucalyptus wandoo winter wandoo, Eucalyptus
diversicolor karri, Eucalyptus marginata jarrah, The leaf volatile oil of many Eucalyptus species
Eucalyptus patens forest blackbutt analyzed including E. calophylla contained α-pinene
(Mannings 2001). Mannings (2001) reported the (0.2–31.1 %), β-pinene (0–12.5 %), 1,8-cineole
following nutrient profile in Marri pollens: amino (0.2–76.8 %), p-cymene (0–20.8 %), aromaden-
acids (isoleucine 1.07 %, leucine 1.82 %, lysine drene (0–13.6 %), bicyclogermacrene (0–43.4 %)
1.88 %, methionine 0.61 %, cysteine 0.4 %, phe- and spathulenol (0.1–15.2 %) as principal leaf
nylalanine 1.11 %, tyrosine 0.78 %, threonine oil components; all species also contained
0.96 %, tryptophan 0.58 %, valine 1.28 %, aspartic torquatone (Bignell et al. 1996).
acid 2.23 %, arginine 31.90, serine 1.17 %, glu-
tamic cid 2.69 %, proline 3.45 %, glycine 1.27 %,
alanine 1.38 % and histidine 0.85 %); total fats Root Phytochemicals
(0.88 %, myristic acid (C-14) 2.98 %, palmitic acid
(C-16) 17.4 %, stearic acid (C-18) 4.54 %, oleic E. calophylla roots contained lignin, suberin and
acid (C-18) 15 %, linoleic acid (C-18) 35.7 %, phenolic compounds; there were rapid increases
linolenic acid (C-18) 12.7 % and arachidic acid in total soluble phenolics and lignin in roots of
(C-20) 2.22 %); minerals (B 18.9 mg/kg, Cu E. calophylla after infection by Phytophthora
21.9 mg/kg, Fe 124.4 mg/kg, Mn 35.8 mg/kg, Zn cinnamomi (Cahill and McComb 1992).
78.9 mg/kg, P 0.42 %, K 0.54 %, Na 0.01 %, Ca
0.10 %, Mg 0.09 % and S 0.3 %); and vitamin con-
tent (ascorbic acid 64.3 mg/kg, thiamin mg/100 g, Antimicrobial Activity
riboflavin 0.62 mg/100 g, niacin 3.5 mg/100 g,
pyridoxine 0.4 mg/100 g and folic acid Exceptionally high antibacterial activity was
2 mg/100 g). seen in hydrogen peroxide-dependent honeys
derived from Marri (C. calophylla; median activity
25.7, maximum 29.7) and jarrah (E. marginata;
Kino (Gum) Phytochemicals median activity 25.1, maximum 31.4) from
Western Australia (Irish et al. 2011). In most
Kinos are dark cellular astringent exudations cases, the antibacterial activity was attributable to
(gums) containing phenolic substances, and 12 hydrogen peroxide produced by the bee-derived
components were resolved from E. calophylla enzyme glucose oxidase. Honeys with hydrogen
kino (Hillis 1950). The kino of E. calophylla peroxide-dependent activity had been reported to
yielded tannin (McGookin and Heilbron 1926), be more effective than manuka honey at inhibiting
aromadendrin (3,4′,5,7-tetrahydroxyflavanone) dermatophyte fungi (Brady et al. 1996) and
(5 %), kaempferol and ellagic acid (Hillis 1952). species of the yeast Candida (Irish et al. 2006),
Pyrogallol, (+)-catechin, and a flavanol, (+)-afzel- indicating that these honeys may be more broad
echin (3,5,7,4′-tetrahydroxy-flavan), gallocatechin spectrum and valuable as antifungal agents than
and epicatechin were isolated from kino manuka honey.
Corymbia calophylla 459

Traditional Medicinal Uses MW, Turner JD (2006) Forest trees of Australia.

CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, 768 pp
Brady NF, Molan PC, Harfoot CG (1996) The sensitivity
Resin is used as a medicine by the local aborigi- of dermatophytes to the antimicrobial activity of
nes to treat upset stomach; resin mixed with manuka honey and other honey. Pharm Sci 2:
water is rubbed on skin to treat eczema (SERCUL 471–473
Cahill DM, McComb JA (1992) A comparison of changes
undated).
in phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity, lignin and
phenolic synthesis in roots of Eucalyptus calophylla
(field resistant) and E. marginata (susceptible) when
Other Uses infected with Phytophthora cinnamoni. Physiol Mol
Plant Pathol 40(5):315–332
GangulyAK, Seshadri TR (1961) 543. Leucoanthocyanidins
Marri is not suitable for most gardens or street of plants. Part III. Leucopelargonidin from Eucalyptus
plantings, but it is an excellent tree for paddock calophylla kino. J Chem Soc 1961:2787–2790
plantings providing shade for animals. Hillis WE (1950) Chromatographic analysis of Eucalypt
kinos. Nature (London) 166(4213):195
Marri honey-coloured timber is increasingly
Hillis WE (1952) The chemistry of eucalypt kinos. II.
featured in modern household furniture. Aromadendrin, kaempferol, and ellagic acid. Aust J
Sci Res 5(2):379–386
Hillis WE, Carle A (1960) The chemistry of eucalypt
kinos. iii. (+)-afzelechin, pyrogallol, and (+)-catechin
Comments from Eucalyptus calophylla kino. Aust J Chem
13(3):390–395
The tree can be propagated from seed which ger- Irish J, Carter D, Shokohi T, Blair S (2006) Honey has an
minates readily. antifungal effect against Candida species. Med Mycol
44:289–291
Irish J, Blair S, Carter DA (2011) The antibacterial activity
of honey derived from Australian flora. PLoS ONE
References 6(3):e18229
Manning R (2001) Pollen analysis of Eucalyptus in
Bell RR, Thornber EJ, Seet JL, Groves MT, Ho NP, Bell Western Australia. A report for the Rural Industries
DT (1983) Composition and protein quality of Research & Development Corporation. RIRDC
honeybee-collected pollen of Eucalyptus marginata Publication No 01/53, Canberra, Australia
and Eucalyptus calophylla. J Nutr 113(12): McGookin A, Heilbron IM (1926) Tannin occurring in the
2479–2484 kino of Eucalyptus calophylla. J Pharm Exp Therap
Bignell CM, Dunlop PJ, Brophy JJ, Jackson JF (1996) 26(6):421–446
Volatile leaf oils of some South-western and Southern Parra-O C, Bayly MJ, Drinnan A, Udovicic F, Ladiges P
Australian species of the genus Eucalyptus (Series I). (2009) Phylogeny, major clades and infrageneric clas-
Part XIII. (a) Series Subulatae, (b) Series Curviptera, sification of Corymbia (Myrtaceae), based on nuclear
(c) Series Contortae, (d) Series Incognitae, (e) Series ribosomal DNA and morphology. Aust Syst Bot 22(5):
Terminaliptera, (f) Series Inclusae, (g) Series 384–399
Microcorythae and (h) Series Cornutae. Flavour Fragr South East Regional Centre for Urban Landcare
J 11:339–347 (SERCUL) (undated) Bush Tucker plants for your
Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N, garden. SERCUL, Perth. http://www.sercul.org.au/
Hyland BPM, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, McDonald docs/Bush%20Tucker%20Brochure.pdf
 Syzygium aromaticum

Scientific Name Chinese: Ding Xiang, Mu Ding Xiang, Ding

Heung
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry Czech: Hřebíčkovec kořenný, Hřebíčkovec vonný
Danish: Ægte kryddernellike, Kryddernellike,
Kryddernelliketræ, Nellike
Synonyms Dutch: Kruidnagel, Kruidnagelboom, Myrte
soort
Caryophyllus aromaticus L., Caryophyllus Estonian: Harilik nelgipuu
hortensis Noronha, Caryophyllus silvestris Finnish: Mausteneilikka
Teijsm. ex Hassk., Eugenia aromatica (L.) Baill. French: Clous De Girofle, Giroffle, Giroflier
nom. illeg., Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb., German: Gewürznelke, Gewürznelkenbaum,
Eugenia caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bullock & S. G. Nägelein, Nelke, Negelken
Harrison, Jambosa caryophyllus (Thunb.) Nied., Greek: Garifalo
Myrtus caryophyllus Spreng. Hebrew: Tziporen
Hungarian: Szegfuszeg (fa)
India: Lavanga (Bengali), Laumg, Lavamg
Family (Hindi), Daevakusuma, Lavanga (Kannada),
Grampu, Karampu, Karayampu (Malayalam),
Myrtaceae Kala Phur, Lavang (Marathi), Lawngpar
(Mizoram), Bhadrasriya, Devakusuma,
Devapuspa, Haricandana, Karampu, Lavanga,
Common/English Names Lavangaka, Lavangam, Varala (Sanskrit),
Kiraambu, Kirambu, Kirampu, Ilavankam
Clove, Cloves, Clove Tree, Zanzibar Redheads (Tamil), Devakusumamu, Kaaravallu,
Lavangamu, Lavangalu (Telugu), Laung,
Lavang, Qaranful (Urdu)
Vernacular Names Indonesia: Bunga Cengkeh, Bunga Cingkeh,
Cingkeh
Amharic: K’rinfudm Italian: Chiodo Di Garofano
Arabic: Qaranful, Habahan, Kerounfel, Laung Japanese: Kuroobu, Shouji
Ud Annawar Khmer: Khan Phluu, Khlam Puu
Brazil: Cavo-Aromático, Cravo-da-India, Cravo- Laotian: Dok: Chan, Ka:nz Ph’u
Das-Molucas, Cravo-De-Doce (Portuguese) Malaysia: Bunga Cengkeh, Cengkeh
Burmese: Lay-Hyin, Ley Nyim Bwint Nepalese: Lwaang

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 460
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_32, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Syzygium aromaticum 461

Norwegian: Kryddernellik liqueur, beverage, bakery and confectionary

Persian: Mekhak products and for mulling wine. Cloves are com-
Philippines: Clovas De Comer (Spanish), monly used in Asian, African, Middle Eastern
Klabong Pako (Tagalog) and European cuisine. Cloves can be used in
Polish: Gozdzik korzenny, Gozdziki cooking either whole or in a ground form, but as
Portuguese: Cravinho, Cravo-da-India, Craveiro they are extremely strong, they are used spar-
Da Índia, Cravina De Túnis, Cravoária, Cravo- ingly. In northern Indian cuisine, clove is used
De-Cabecinha, Rosa Da Índia in almost every sauce or side dish made, mostly
Russian: Gvozdika, Sitsigiui Gvozdichnyi ground up along with other spices. In the south
Sri Lanka: Karabu Nati (Sinhalese) Indian cuisine, it finds extensive use in the
Spanish: Arbol Del Clavo, Clavero, Clavero biryani chicken dish. Ingredients and spices
Giroflé, Clavo, Clavo De Olor, Clavoaromatico, used for biryani chicken usually include ghee,
Dientes peas, beans, cumin, cloves, cardamom, cinna-
Swahili: Karafuu mon, bay leaves, coriander, mint leaves, ginger,
Swedish: Kryddnejlika, Kryddnejlikor, Nejlikor onions and garlic. Cloves are also a key ingredi-
Thai: Kaan Phlûu, Khan Plu ent in tea along with green cardamoms. Cloves
Tibetan: Li Si are also widely used in Mexican cuisine, where
Vietnamese: Dinh Hu‘o’ng it is often paired together with cumin and cin-
namon. Cloves are used to spice up fish, poultry,
game and meat dishes. In China, Sri Lanka,
Origin/Distribution northern India, Middle East, many Arab coun-
tries, northern Africa, Indonesia and Malaysia,
Cloves are native to Indonesia and occur espe- cloves are preferred for meat dishes. Cloves are
cially in the north and central Maluka (Moluccas) featured in classic sauces and are used in the
and Papua Barat (Irian Jaya). It has been intro- bakery/confectionary industry and the pro-
duced and now widely cultivated in Brazil, Haiti, cessed meat industry as a ground spice. Whole
India, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritius, cloves are frequently used to flavour cooking
Mexico, Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Tanzania. liquids. Cloves have a traditional association
with apples and are added to apple tarts, sauces,
pies and puddings.
Agroecology Ground cloves are a vital ingredient in many
spice mixtures: Chinese five-spice powder (mix-
Being strictly a tropical species, clove requires a ture typically made from fennel, cloves,
warm humid tropical climate with an annual Szechuan peppercorns, star anise and cinna-
rainfall from 1,500 to 2,500 mm. It grows well mon); Indian curry powder and garam masala
from mean sea level up to an elevation of 1,000 m. (spicy mixture of ground roasted spices com-
In its native habitat it is commonly found in prising green cardamom pods, cloves, black
woodlands and rainforests. It prefers well-drained, cardamom pods, mace, cinnamon, cumin seeds,
deep loamy soils with high humus content and coriander seeds, fennel seeds, black pepper-
black loams of semi-forest regions and will also corns and fenugreek seeds); Arabic baharat
grow on loose well-drained lateritic soils. (a spicy blend that usually contains hot spices
(such as paprika, chillies and black pepper),
sweet spices (such as allspice, cloves, cinna-
Edible Plant Parts and Uses mon, nutmeg and cardamom), warm spices
(such as cumin and coriander) and herbs (such
The dried unopened flower buds of the tree are as savoury and mint); Moroccan ras el hanout
the cloves of commerce (Plate 6). Cloves are a (spicy mixture that includes cardamom, clove,
versatile spice that is widely used in food, cinnamon, ground chilli peppers (also known as
462 Myrtaceae

paprika), coriander, cumin, mace, nutmeg, pep-

percorn and turmeric); Tunisian gâlat dagga (a
five-spice mixture of black peppercorn, grains
of paradise, cloves, ground nutmeg and cinna-
mon); Ethiopian berbere (spice mixture of chilli
peppers, ginger, cloves, coriander, allspice, rue
berries and ajowan); French quatre épices (a
four-spice mix containing ground pepper (white,
black or both), cloves, nutmeg and ginger);
Mexican mole sauces and many others. Mexican
mole is a dark-coloured, thick gravy sauce that
can have up to 50 ingredients; one recipe con-
sists of dried chilli pasilla peppers, chopped
Plate 1 Clove tree habit
onions, crushed garlic, shelled pumpkin seeds,
whole cloves, sesame seeds, dried oregano,
anise seeds, whole tomatoes, crumbled small
corn tortillas, smooth peanut butter, raisins,
grated chocolate, olive oil and chicken stock.
The taste of the famous Worcestershire sauce is
markedly dominated by clove aroma. The sauce
is composed of several spices besides cloves—
garlic, tamarind, paprika or chillies are most fre-
quently found, along with fish extract, soy
sauce, syrup, vinegar (or lemon juice) and salt.
In Europe, cloves are much used for special
types of sweets or sweet breads but especially
for stewed fruits. In France, cloves often go into
long-simmered meat stews or hearty meat
Plate 2 Young leaf flushes
broths. In England, they are most popular in
pickles. In Ethiopia, coffee is often roasted
together with some cloves in the so-called cof-
fee ceremony. Clove bud oil is also used for fla- on 4 cm long petioles. The lamina is ovate–
vouring food. In Indonesia, it is used to flavour lanceolate, 10 cm long by 5 cm wide; simple
tobacco cigarettes called kretek which are com- with an entire margin, acute apex and a tapering
posed of ground cloves (about 30 %) and base; and pinkish-bronze when young turning to
tobacco (70 %). Indonesia is the world largest lime green with age (Plates 2 and 3). The aromatic
consumer of cloves followed by India. bisexual flowers are borne in short, terminal
Clove berry has little pulp, but it can be eaten. many-flowered panicles, trichotomously divided
and jointed at every division. The flower buds are
pale yellowish-green turning green and then
Botany develop into a bright crimson colour when they
are ready for harvesting (Plates 4 and 5). Cloves
A medium-sized, branched, glabrescent, ever- are harvested when 1.5–2 cm long, with four
green tree growing to 6–15 m tall with a conical spreading sepals and four unopened petals which
or pyramidal canopy (Plate 1) and a greyish bark. form a small ball in the centre. Flower peduncle
The leaves are opposite and decussate, coria- is cylindrical and green. The flower consists of a
ceous and shining, minutely punctuated with subcylindrical, solid and glandular calyx tube,
numerous oil glands on lower surface and borne terminating in 4 concave ovate lobes, corolla
Syzygium aromaticum 463

Plate 3 Close view of young and mature clove leaves Plate 5 Cloves buds and opened flowers

Plate 4 Matured clove buds Plate 6 Dried clove buds

with 4 round concave petals imbricated into a galactose 0.15 g; minerals—Ca 646 mg, Fe
globe in the bud, subsequently spreading, short 8.68 mg, Mg 264 mg, P 105 mg, K 1,102 mg, Na
obtusely subulate style above the oblong, 243 mg, Zn 1.09 mg, Cu 0.347 mg, Mn
2-loculed ovary and numerous curved, inserted 30.033 mg, Se 5.9 μg; vitamins—vitamin C (total
stamens with small, yellow, ovate–cordate, ascorbic acid) 80.8 mg, thiamin 0.115 mg, ribo-
2-celled anthers (Plate 5). Fruit a berry purplish, flavin 0.267 mg, niacin 1.458 mg, vitamin B6
elliptical and 2-seeded with sparse pulp. 0.590 mg, total folate 93 μg, total choline
37.4 mg, betaine 1.4 mg, vitamin A 530 IU, vita-
min E (α-tocopherol) 8.52 mg, vitamin K (phyl-
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties loquinone) 141.8 μg; total saturated fatty acids
5.438 g, 14:0 (myristic acid) 0.022 g, 16:0 (pal-
The food value of ground cloves per 100 g edible mitic acid) 3.967 g, 18:0 (stearic acid) 0.847 g;
portion of ground cloves was reported as: water total monounsaturated fatty acids 1.471 g, 16:1
6.86 g, energy 323 kcal (1,350 kJ), protein 5.98 g, undifferentiated (palmitoleic acid) 0.089 g, 18:1
total lipid 20.07 g, ash 5.88 g, carbohydrate undifferentiated (oleic acid) 1.337 g, 20:1 (gad-
61.21 g, total dietary fibre 34.2 g, total sugars oleic acid) 0.022 g; total polyunsaturated fatty
2.38 g, sucrose 0.02 g, glucose (dextrose) 1.14 g, acids 7.088 g, 18:2 undifferentiated (linoleic acid)
464 Myrtaceae

2.586 g, 18:3 undifferentiated (linolenic acid) S. aromaticum dried buds (Sutthanont et al. 2008).
4.257 g, 20:4 undifferentiated (arachidonic The average recoveries of gallic acid, caffeic acid
acid) 0.045 g, 22:5 n-3 (docosapentaenoic acid, and syringic acid using high-performance thin-
DPA) 0.022 g; phytosterols 256 mg; β-carotene layer chromatography densitometric method were
94 μg; and β-cryptoxanthin 468 μg (USDA 2012). 96.3, 95.7 and 92.4 %, respectively. Lee et al.
Clove powder is rich in calories, protein, total (2009) isolated nine compounds in the flower bud
carbohydrates, minerals (Ca, Fe, Mg, P, K, Mn essential oil, namely, eugenol (49 %), caryophyl-
and Na), vitamin C, niacin, vitamin A, vitamin E lene 7.5 %, 2-propanone, methylhydrazone 5.6 %,
and K, phytosterol and folate and also contains cyclopentane, methyl 4.0 %, furan, tetrahydro-
betaine, choline, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin. 3-methyl 2.5 %, a-caryophyllene 1.4 %, copaene
Twenty-eight and 35 constituents representing 0.5 %, 2H-Pyran-2-one, tetrahydro-6,6-dimethyl
99.9 % each were identified from the clove bud 0.4 % and pyrrolidine, 2-buthyl-1-methyl (0.1 %).
oils of Indian and Madagascan origins, respec- A new polyphenolic glucoside 6′-O-
tively. On the other hand leaf oil from Madagascar acetylisobiflorin together with fifteen known
resulted in the identification of 22 constituents compounds, namely, gallic acid, ellagic acid,
representing 99.9 % of the oil. The major con- 3,3′,4-tri-O-methylellagic acid, eugenol 4-O-(6′-
stituents in bud and leaf oils were eugenol and O-galloyl)-glucoside, biflorin, isobiflorin, isorh-
β-caryophyllene (Srivastava et al. 2005). Another amnetin 3-O-glucoside, quercetin 3-O-glucuronide
study reported 16 identified from clove leaf oil 6″-O-methyl ester, 1,2,3-tri-O-galloylglucose,
(Raina et al. 2001). The major compound was 1,2,3,6-tetra-O-galloylglucose, 1,2-di-O-galloyl-
eugenol (94.4 %) followed by β-caryophyllene 4,6-HHDP-glucose, strictinin, tellimagrandin I,
(2.9 %). The clove oil from Andaman was found tellimagrandin II and casuarictin were isolated
to be comparable with the best oil produced in from S. aromaticum flower buds (Yoshimura
south India in terms of its eugenol content. et al. 2011). Forty-seven compounds were identi-
The major components of the essential oil fied in the hexane extract of the flower buds
from clove buds were eugenol (71.56 %) and (Bagavan et al. 2011a). The predominant con-
eugenol acetate (8.99 %) (Nassar et al. 2007). stituent was chavibetol (5-allyl-2-methoxyphenol)
The volatile compounds identified in the n-hexane (58.79 %). Other major components included
extract of Syzygium aromaticum buds by using eugenol acetate (phenol,2-methoxy-4-(2-
GC–MS were in descending order: eugenol propenyl)-acetate) (15.09 %), caryophyllene-(I1)
71.565, eugenyl acetate 8.99 %, caryophyllene (2,6,10,10-tetramethyl bicyclo [7.2.0] undeca-1,6-
oxide 1.67 %, nootkatin 1.05 %, phenol-4-(2,3- diene) (13.75 %), caryophyllene oxide (3.04 %),
dihydro)-7-methoxy-3-methyl-5-(1-propenyl)-2- 2,6,6,9-tetramethyl-1,4,8- cycloundecatriene
benzofurane 0.98 %, p-cymene 0.9 %, guaiol (1.67 %) and copaene (1.33 %). Other minor
0.90 %, thymol 0.87 %, isolongifolanone (trans) constituents (<1 %) included 4-allylphenol;
0.86 %, 5-hexene-2-one 0.67 %, benzene-1- α-cubebene; germacra-1(10),4(15),5-triene, (−)-;
butylheptyl 0.55 %, hexadecanoic acid 0.50 %, 1,1,7-trimethyl- 4-methylenedecahydro-1H-
vitamin E acetate 0.43 %, dodecatrienoic acid- cyclopropa[e]azulene; 1-isopropyl-7-methyl-
3,7 0.38 %, octadecanoic acid butyl ester 0.33 %, 4-methylene-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a-octahydronaph-
9,17-octadecadienal 0.24 % and 11-trimethylethyl thalene; 6-α-cadina-4,9-diene, (−)-; 1,5-dimethyl-
ester. The dichloromethane extract of the buds 8-(1- methylethylidene)-1,5-cyclodecadiene;
yielded limonene and ferulic aldehyde, along 1-β-cadin-4-en-10-ol; 1,3,6,10-dodecatetraene,
with eugenol. The flavonoids tamarixetin 3- 3,7,11-trimethyl; 4-isopropyl-1,6-dimethyl-1,2,
O -β- D-glucopyranoside, ombuin 3-O -β-D- 3,4,4a,7-hexahydronaphthalene; 1,1,6-trimethyl-
glucopyranoside and quercetin were isolated 1,2-dihydronaphthalene; (2R, 5E)-caryophyll-5-
from the ethanol extract. Gallic acid, caffeic acid en-12-al; 1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene;
and syringic acid were found to be present at levels (Z,Z)-α-farnesene; 2,5-dimethyl-3-vinyl-hexa-
of 1.58, 0.06 and 0.05 % (w/w), respectively, in 1,4-diene; 1,1,4,7-tetramethyldecahydro-1H-
Syzygium aromaticum 465

cyclopropa[e]azulen-4-ol; humulene oxide; 3- kaempferol, rhamnetin and eugenitin), triterpe-

methyl-2-(1′,1′,5′-trimethyl-5′-hexenyl)-2-cyclo- noids (oleanolic acid, stigmasterol and campes-
propenyl methyl ketone; 1-isopropyl-4,7-dimethyl- terol) and several sesquiterpenes (Kramer 1985;
1,3,4,5,6,8a- hexahydro-4a(2H)-naphthalenol; Musenga et al. 2006).
4,8a-dimethyl-4a, 5,6,7,8,8a-hexahydro-2(1H)- Cloves have been reported to possess the
naphthalenone; 4,4-dimethyltetracyclo[6.3.2.0E following pharmacological properties.
2,5.0E1,8]tridecan-9-ol;4-isopropyl-1,6-dimethyl-
1,2,3,4,4a,7,8,8a-octahydro-1-naphthalenol;
3-methyl-5-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexen-1-yl)- Antioxidant Activity
1-pentyn-3-ol; 2,2,6,7-tetramethyl bicyclo(4.3.0)
nona-4,9(1)-dien-8-ol;3-methyl-5-(2,6,6-trimethyl- Of 19 Thai medicinal plants, ethanol, water and
1-cyclohexen-1-yl)-1-pentyn-3-ol; 2′,3′,4′ trime- hot water extract of S. aromaticum showed the
thoxyacetophenone;1,1,4,7-tetramethyldecahydro- highest antioxidant activity using DPPH assay
1H-cyclopropa[e]azulen-4-ol; 2,2-dimethyl-2- (EC50 = 6.56, 4.73 and 5.30 μg/mL, respectively)
methylene-1-(3′-methyl-4′-pentenyl)-3- (Makchuchit et al. 2010).
cyclohexen-1-ol; L-alanine, N-(4-butylbenzoyl)-, Gallic acid and eugenol were identified as the
pentyl ester; N-[2-(4-tert-butyl phenoxy)ethyl]- two major antioxidants in clove (Kramer 1985).
3-(2-furyl)-2-propenamide;3-[4-(4-methylphenyl)- The amounts of gallic acid and eugenol were
1,3-thiazol-2-yl]-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1- determined to be 1.26 g and 3.03 g, respectively,
benzothien-2-ylamine; phenol, 4-[2,3-dihydro-7- in 100 g of clove. All extracts (ethanol, dichloro-
methoxy-3-methyl-5-(1-propenyl)-2- methane) and the isolated flavonoids (tamarixetin
benzofuranyl]-2-methoxy-; 1,2-Bis(4-methoxy- 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, ombuin 3-O-β-D-
phenyl)-N,N,N′,N′-tetramethyl-ethane-1,2- glucopyranoside and quercetin) showed strong
diamine; 1-(10-hydroxy-6,9,10-trimethylspiro[4.5] antioxidant activity against 1, 2-diphenyl picryl-
dec-6-en-2-yl)ethanone; phenol, 2-methoxy-4- hydrazyl (DPPH) (Nassar et al. 2007). Among the
propenyl-, (Z)-; N-tetracontane; and n-hexatriac- tested extracts, the ethanol extract of the clove
ontane. Kuroda et al. (2012) identified eight buds showed remarkable scavenging activity, as
compounds in the ethanol flower bud extract: compared with synthetic antioxidants such as
eugenol (1), dehydrodieugenol (2), dehydrodieu- butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT). In other stud-
genol B (3), oleanolic acid (4), arjunolic acid (5), ies, the spices, namely, cloves (Syzygium aromati-
corosolic acid (6), Asiatic acid (7) and betulinic cum), liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), mace (aril
acid (8). Compounds 2–4 were found to have of Myristica fragrans) and greater cardamom
hypoglycaemic activity. (Amomum subulatum), were reported to exhibit
Clove leaves also contained ellagitannins and antioxidant activities at various concentrations
syzyginins A and B (Tanaka et al. 1996). Two (Yadav and Bhatnagar 2007b). None of the spices
new apigenin triglycosides, apigenin 6-C-[β- showed pro-oxidant properties. The effect of
D - x y l o py r a n o s y l - ( 1 ′ ″ → 2 ″ ) - β - D - g a l a c t o - spices on the inhibition of LPO (lipid peroxida-
pyranoside]-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and api- tion) was concentration dependent. Cloves, mace
genin 6-C-[β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1′″→2″)-β-D- and cardamom inhibited the initiation as well as
galactopyranoside]-7-O-β-D-(6-O-p-coumaryl- propagation phases of FeCl3-induced lipid peroxi-
glucopyranoside), were isolated from the ethanol dation LPO, while liquorice inhibited the initia-
extract of the seeds of Syzygium aromaticum tion phase only. The reducing power of various
(Nassar 2006). spices increased with concentration. The percent-
Other studies reported the following con- age inhibition of superoxide radical generation by
stituents of clove: eugenol, acetyl eugenol, β- the spices was also observed to be concentration
caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, α-humulene, dependent. The results showed that spices used in
vanillin, crategolic acid, tannins, gallotannic the study had the significant ability to inhibit LPO
acid, methyl salicylate, flavonoids (eugenin, due to their polyphenol content, strong reducing
466 Myrtaceae

power and superoxide radical scavenging activity. ated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and α-tocopherol
Cloves showed the highest antioxidant activity exhibited 96.5, 99.2 and 61.1 % inhibition on
probably due to the higher polyphenol content as peroxidation of linoleic acid emulsion, respec-
compared to other spices. Metal chelating activity tively. Clove extracts had effective reductive
was significantly high with all the spice extracts potential, free radical scavenging, superoxide
except mace (Yadav and Bhatnagar 2007a). The anion radical scavenging and metal chelating
spices due to higher reducing potential (in the activities at all tested concentrations (20, 40 and
presence of bleomycin-FeCl3) showed increased 60 μg/mL). Those various antioxidant activities
DNA oxidation. Cloves showed the highest DPPH were comparable to standard antioxidants such as
(1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical scaveng- BHA, BHT and α-tocopherol.
ing activity, followed by liquorice, mace and car- Treatment with Nigella sativa and Syzygium
damom. FRAP (ferric reducing/antioxidant aromaticum oils of rats fed an aflatoxin-
power) values for cloves were also the highest, contaminated diet resulted in significant protec-
while other spices showed comparatively lesser tion against aflatoxicosis (Abdel-Wahab and Aly
FRAP values. The results showed that the spices 2005). This was attributed to the ability of these
tested were strong antioxidants and may have volatile oils to scavenge free radicals generated
beneficial effects on human health. during aflatoxicosis. Moreover, Nigella sativa oil
The antioxidant activity of clove bud extract was found to be more effective than Syzygium
and its major aroma components, eugenol and aromaticum oil in restoring the haematological
eugenyl acetate, were found to be comparable to and biochemical parameters that were altered by
that of the natural antioxidant, α-tocopherol aflatoxin in rats. The n-hexane extract of clove
(vitamin E) (Lee an Shibamoto 2001). The aroma exhibited high oxygen radical absorbance capac-
extract isolated from clove buds inhibited the oxi- ity (ORAC) value of 25,975 μmol TE (Trolox
dation of hexanal for 30 days at a level of 50 μg/ equivalent)/g; its high activity was attributed to
mL. Clove bud extract inhibited malonaldehyde the major constituent, eugenol, which had the
formation from cod liver oil by 93 % at 160 μg/ most potent ORAC value (39,271 μmol TE/g)
mL level. Twenty-two compounds were identi- (Yoshimura et al. 2011). The ethyl acetate extract
fied in the extracts of clove buds by gas containing galloylated compounds and hydrolys-
chromatography and gas chromatography/mass able tannins also exhibited high ORAC value
spectrometry. The major aroma constituents of (>9,000 μmol TE/g). The flavonol glycosides
clove buds were eugenol (24.371 mg/g) and eug- isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside and quercetin
enyl acetate (2.354 mg/g). Eugenol, eugenyl ace- 3-O-glucuronide 6″-O-methyl ester also contrib-
tate and benzyl alcohol inhibited the oxidation of uted significantly to the antioxidative activity.
hexanal by 99, 99 and 82 %, respectively, for a The electron spin resonance (ESR)-spin trap-
period of 30 days at 500 μg/mL. Eugenol, euge- ping method coupled with steady state kinetic
nyl acetate and benzyl alcohol inhibited malonal- analysis showed that all of the four extracts from
dehyde formation from cod liver oil by 88, 79 and Punica granatum (peel), Syzygium aromaticum
63 %, respectively, at 160 μg/mL. The extracts of (bud), Mangifera indica (kernel) and Phyllanthus
Eugenia caryophyllata exhibited strong total emblica (fruit) directly scavenged superoxide
antioxidant activity (Gülçin et al. 2004). At the anions and that the superoxide scavenging
concentrations of 20, 40 and 60 μg/mL, water potential of any of the extracts was comparable to
clove extract showed 93.3, 97.9 and 92.3 % that of L-ascorbic acid (Saito et al. 2008). The
inhibition on lipid peroxidation of linoleic acid four edible herbal extracts exhibited prominently
emulsion, respectively. At the same concentra- potent ability to reduce the signal intensity
tions, ethanol clove extract lavender exhibited of 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO)–
94.9 %, 98.2 % and 93.8 %, respectively. OOH, a spin adduct formed by DMPO and
Comparably, 60 μg/mL of standard antioxidant superoxide anion. Furthermore, polyphenol deter-
such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butyl- mination indicated that the activity was at least in
Syzygium aromaticum 467

part attributable to polyphenols. These extracts cell lines, namely, endothelial cells and breast
are allowed to be used as foodstuffs according to and colon cancer cells, indicated high cytotoxic
the Japanese legal regulation. effects with the highest activity obtained on the
oestrogen-dependent breast cancer cells. The
results illustrated the importance of Syzygium
Anticancer/Antimutagenic Activity aromaticum leaves, stems and bark as good
sources of phenolic-rich extracts. Water, ethanol
The aqueous infusion of cloves exhibited protec- and oil extracts of cloves showed different
tion against skin papilloma formation by patterns of cell growth inhibition activity of HeLa
9,10-dimethyl benz(a)anthracene (DMBA) and (cervical cancer), MCF-7 (ER-positive) and
croton oil-induced skin carcinogenesis in Swiss MDA-MB-231 (ER-negative) breast cancer,
mice in a dose-dependent manner (Banerjee and DU-145 prostate cancer and TE-13 oesophageal
Das 2005). It was demonstrated that oral admin- cancer cell lines with the oil extract having
istration of aqueous infusions of clove at a dose of maximal cytotoxic activity (Dwivedi et al. 2011).
100 μL/mouse/day not only delayed the forma- Maximum cell death and apoptotic cell demise
tion of papilloma but also reduced the incidence occurred in TE-13 cells within 24 h by clove oil
of papilloma as well as the cumulative number at 300 μl/mL with 80 % cell death, whereas
of papillomas per papilloma-bearing mouse. DU-145 cells showed minimal cell death. At the
Using mice models, the incidence of hyperplasia, same time, no significant cytotoxicity was found
dysplasia and carcinoma in situ evident in the in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells at
carcinogen control group on the 8th, 17th and the same dose.
26th weeks, respectively, was effectively reduced A methanol extract from clove (Syzygium
after treatment with clove infusion (Banerjee aromaticum) showed a suppressive effect of the
et al. 2006). Significant reduction in the number SOS-inducing activity on the mutagen 2-(2-furyl)-
of proliferating cells and an increased number of 3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)acrylamide (furylfuramide) in
apoptotic cells were also noted in these benzo[a] the Salmonella typhimurium TA1535/pSK1002
pyrene-induced lung lesions following clove umu test (Miyazawa and Hisama 2001). The hex-
treatment. Western blotting analysis revealed that ane fraction of the methanol extract also showed
clove infusion up-regulates the expression of pro- a suppressive effect. Suppressive compounds in
apoptotic proteins p53 and Bax and downregu- the hexane fraction were identified as trans-
lated the expression of anti-apoptotic protein isoeugenol (1) and eugenol (2). Compounds 1
Bcl-2 in the precancerous stages. Expression of and 2 suppressed the furylfuramide-induced SOS
caspase-3 and its activation by clove infusion response in the umu test. Compounds 1 and 2
were evident from a very early stage of carcino- suppressed 42.3 and 29.9 % of the SOS-inducing
genesis (eighth week). Clove infusion was also activity at a concentration of 0.60 μmol/mL.
found to downregulate the expression of some When assayed with other mutagens, 4-nitro-
growth-promoting proteins, namely, COX-2, quinolin 1-oxide (4NQO) and N-methyl-N′-
cMyc and Hras. The observations indicated the nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG), aflatoxin
chemopreventive potential of clove in view of its B(1) (AfB(1)) and 3-amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-
apoptogenic and antiproliferative properties. pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-1), these compounds
Extracts from the leaves, stem and bark of showed suppressive effects of the SOS-inducing
Syzygium aromaticum were found to have anti- activity against furylfuramide, 4NQO, AfB(1)
oxidant, antiangiogenic and cytotoxic effects and Trp-P-1. In subsequent studies, Miyazawa and
(Aisha et al. 2011). The extracts were found to Hisama (2003) reported that phenylpropanoids
contain high levels of total phenolics with strong with antimutagenic activity were isolated from
antioxidant activity. Significant inhibition of the the buds of clove (Syzygium aromaticum). The
blood vessel outgrowth was also obtained in the isolated compounds suppressed the expression of
angiogenesis model. Cytotoxicity testing on three the umu gene following the induction of SOS
468 Myrtaceae

response in the Salmonella typhimurium TA1535/ for the treatment of diabetes and indicated a
pSK1002 that have been treated with various potential role for compounds derived from clove
mutagens. The suppressive compounds were as insulin-mimetic agents. This was also con-
mainly localized in the ethyl acetate extract firmed in another study (Broadhurst et al. 2000),
fraction of the processed clove which in further where extracts of the plants Cinnamomum zeyl-
fractionation afforded secondary suppressive anicum, Hamamelis virginiana (witch hazel),
compounds identified as dehydrodieugenol (1) Camellia sinensis (green and black teas), Pimenta
and trans-coniferyl aldehyde (2). When using dioica (allspice), Laurus nobilis (bay leaves),
2-(2-furyl)-3-(5-nitro-2-furyl) acrylamide (furyl- Myristica fragrans (nutmeg) and Syzygium aro-
furamide) as the mutagen, compound 1 suppressed maticum (cloves) showed a positive effect on
58 % of the umu gene expression as compared to insulin activity suggesting a possible role of
the controls at a concentration of 0.60 μmol/mL, these plants in improving glucose and insulin
with an ID50 (50 % inhibitory dose) value of metabolism.
0.48 μmol/mL, and compound 2 suppressed 63 % Syzygium aromaticum-derived oleanolic acid
of the umu gene expression as compared to the like insulin decreased blood glucose concentra-
controls at a concentration of 1.20 μmol/mL, tions in nondiabetic and streptozotocin (STZ)-
with an ID50 value of 0.76 μmol/mL. Additionally, induced diabetic rats (Musabayane et al. 2010).
compounds 1 and 2 suppressed the mutagenic Combined oleanolic acid and insulin treatment
activity of other well-known mutagens such as had even greater antihyperglycaemic response,
4-nitroquinolin 1-oxide (4NQO) and N-methyl- suggestive of a synergistic effect of the two.
N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG), which After 5 weeks, STZ-induced diabetic rats exhib-
did not require liver-metabolizing enzymes, and ited hyperglycaemia and depleted hepatic and
aflatoxin B(1) (AfB(1)) and 3-amino-1,4-dimethyl- muscle glycogen concentrations. Oleanolic acid
5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-1), which required treatment lowered the blood glucose with con-
liver-metabolizing enzymes and activated Trp-P-1 comitant restoration of glycogen concentrations
and UV irradiation. Finally, the antimutagenic to near normalcy. The results suggested that ole-
activities of all the identified compounds against anolic acid may have a role in improving insulin
furylfuramide, Trp-P-1 and activated Trp-P-1 sensitivity. The antihyperglycaemic effects of
were also shown when assayed by the Ames test Syzygium aromaticum-derived oleanolic acid
using the S. typhimurium TA100 strain. (OA) in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic
rats had been reported to be mediated in part via
increased hepatic glycogen synthesis (Ngubane
Antidiabetic Activity et al. 2011). OA administration was found to
restore the activity of key glycogenic enzymes in
Clove extract was reported to act like insulin in the liver and skeletal muscle of STZ-induced
hepatocytes and hepatoma cells by reducing diabetic rats to enhance glycogen synthesis to
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) improve the glycaemic status. The restoration of
and glucose 6-phosphatase (G6Pase) gene this principal glucose utilization pathway by OA
expression (Prasad et al. 2005). It increased glu- may constitute a novel therapeutic strategy for
cose uptake into adipocytes, an insulin-like diabetes treatment. It was found that the combi-
effect. A more global analysis of gene expression nation of OA and insulin did not significantly
by DNA microarray analysis revealed that clove alter the activities of hexokinase and glucoki-
and insulin regulated the expression of many of nase of STZ-induced diabetic rats suggesting
the same genes in a similar manner. Insulin action that glycogen synthesis could also occur from
was impaired in diabetic patients, which led to precursors such as amino acids or fructose and
increased hepatic glucose production. The lactate. Studies showed that glucose transport
research demonstrated that consumption of cer- from the mucosa to the serosa was decreased by
tain plant-based diets may have beneficial effects treatment with phlorizin hypoglycaemic drug
Syzygium aromaticum 469

and oleanolic acid derived from S. aromaticum Antimicrobial Activity

(Khathi et al. 2013). All treatments increased the
glycogen concentrations of the small intestines The oils of bay, cinnamon, clove and thyme were
of fasted and non-fasted nondiabetic and STZ- found to be highly inhibitory to five important
induced diabetic rats after 18h. The data sug- food-borne pathogens, Campylobacter jejuni,
gested that oleanolic acid could be a potential Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli,
alternative drug therapy of postprandial hyper- Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocyto-
glycaemia via inhibition of glucose uptake genes (Smith-Palmer et al. 1998). These oils
across the small intestine and concomitant con- exhibited potent inhibition of L. monocytogenes
version of glucose to glycogen in the intestinal and S. enteritidis in tryptone soya broth (TSB)
gut wall. and cheese and acted as natural food preserva-
Clove (flower bud) ethanol extract signifi- tives. In the low-fat cheese, all four oils (bay leaf,
cantly suppressed an increase in blood glucose thyme, clove, cinnamon) at 1 % reduced L. mono-
level in type 2 diabetic KK-A(y) mice (Kuroda cytogenes to ≤1 · 0 log10cfu/mL (Smith-Palmer
et al. 2012). In vitro evaluation showed the extract et al. 2001). In contrast, in the full-fat cheese, oil
had human peroxisome proliferator-activated of clove was the only oil to achieve this reduction.
receptor (PPAR)-γ ligand-binding activity in a In another study, five plant essential oils—bay,
GAL4-PPAR-γ chimera assay. Bioassay-guided clove, cinnamon, nutmeg and thyme—significantly
fractionation of the EtOH extract resulted in the reduced the production of listeriolysin O by
isolation of eight compounds, of which dehydro- Listeria monocytogenes (Smith-Palmer et al. 2002).
dieugenol (2) and dehydrodieugenol B (3) had Clove oil was the only oil that also significantly
potent PPAR-γ ligand-binding activities, whereas reduced phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholi-
oleanolic acid (4), a major constituent in the pase C activity of Listeria monocytogenes. In
extract, had moderate activity. Furthermore, 2 other studies, clove bud oil was found to be
and 3 were shown to stimulate 3 T3-L1 preadipo- highly active against Escherichia coli, Listeria
cyte differentiation through PPAR-γ activation. monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica (Friedman
The results indicated clove to have potential as a et al. 2002). Clove was reported to have potent
functional food ingredient for the prevention of antimicrobial activities against Bacillus subtilis,
type 2 diabetes and that compounds 2–4 mainly Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae
contribute to its hypoglycaemic effects via (De et al. 1999); yeast fungi (Arora and Kaur
PPAR-γ activation. 1999 ) and common fungi causing spoilage
The aqueous extracts of several tropical spices of bakery products include Eurotium amstelo-
including S. aromaticum inhibited α-amylase dami, Eurotium herbariorum, Eurotium repens,
(IC50 = 2.81–4.83 mg/mL), α-glucosidase (IC50 = Eurotium rubrum, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus
2.02–3.52 mg/mL), DPPH radicals (EC50 = 15.47– niger and Penicillium corylophilum (Guynot
17.38 mg/mL) and sodium nitroprusside (SNP)- et al. 2003).
induced lipid peroxidation (14.17–94.38 %), A crude methanol extract of Syzygium aro-
with the highest α-amylase and α-glucosidase maticum exhibited preferential growth-inhibitory
inhibitory actions and DPPH radical scavenging activity against Gram-negative anaerobic peri-
ability exhibited by Xylopia aethiopica, odontal oral pathogens, including Porphyromonas
Aframomum danielli and S. aromaticum, respec- gingivalis and Prevotella intermedia (Cai and
tively (Adefegha and Oboh 2012). Also, the Wu 1996). Eight active compounds were isolated
spices possessed high total phenol (0.88–1.3 mg/ from this extract and were identified as 5,7-
mL) and flavonoid (0.24–0.52 mg/mL) contents. dihydroxy-2-methylchromone 8-C-β-D-gluco-
The results suggested that the spices may exert pyranoside, biflorin, kaempferol, rhamnocitrin,
their antidiabetic properties through the mecha- myricetin, gallic acid, ellagic acid and oleanolic
nism of enzyme inhibition, free radical scavenging acid. The antibacterial activity of these pure com-
ability and prevention of lipid peroxidation. pounds was determined against Streptococcus
470 Myrtaceae

mutans, Actinomyces viscosus, Porphyromonas Hyphal growth was completely inhibited in

gingivalis and Prevotella intermedia. The fla- T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum and M. gypseum
vones, kaempferol and myricetin, demonstrated by treatment with clove oil at a concentration of
potent growth-inhibitory activity against the peri- 0.2 mg/mL. Eugenol was the most effective
odontal pathogens Porphyromonas gingivalis antifungal constituent of clove oil against the
and Prevotella intermedia. The n-hexane extract dermatophytes T. mentagrophytes and M. canis.
of clove seeds demonstrated preferential growth- Morphological changes in the hyphae of T. menta-
inhibitory activity against the causal cariogenic grophytes, such as damage to the cell wall and cell
pathogens (Streptococcus mutans) in dental car- membrane and the expansion of the endoplasmic
ies (Uju and Obioma 2011). The aqueous extract reticulum, after treatment with 0.11 mg/mL euge-
of several Mexican medicinal plants including nol were observed by transmission electron
Syzygium aromaticum exhibited high inhibitory microscopy. Another recent study showed that
effect against oral pathogens, Streptococcus clove essential oil and eugenol exhibited inhibi-
mutans and Porphyromonas gingivalis (10.5– tory activity against all the tested strains (Candida,
78.0 μg/mL) (Rosas-Piñón et al. 2012). Aspergillus) and dermatophyte clinical and ATCC
Essential oil of clove, dispersed (0.4 % v/v) in (American Type Culture Collection) strains (Pinto
a concentrated sugar solution, displayed a marked et al. 2009). Clove oil and eugenol caused also a
germicidal effect against Candida albicans, considerable reduction of the quantity of ergosterol,
Staphylococcus aureus (five strains), Klebsiella a specific fungal cell membrane component.
pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Germ tube formation by Candida albicans was
Clostridium perfringens and Escherichia coli completely or almost completely inhibited by con-
(Briozzo et al. 1989). Sugar was not necessary centrations below the MIC values, for the oil and
for the antimicrobial activity of clove oil, but the eugenol. The study indicated that clove oil and
concentrated sugar solution provided a good eugenol had considerable antifungal activity
vehicle for obtaining an oil dispersion that was against clinically relevant fungi, including flucon-
relatively stable for certain practical applications. azole-resistant strains. The antifungal activity of
Clove oil also inhibited growth of Fusarium pro- essential oils and their major constituents was in
liferatum in maize grains. Prasaprohyai formula, the order of cinnamaldehyde > eugenol > gera-
a Thai traditional medicine used for reducing niol = Cinnamomum verum > citral > Syzygium aro-
fever in children, and its component, namely, maticum > Cymbopogon citratus > Cymbopogon
S. aromaticum, were found to inhibit growth of martini, both in liquid and solid media against
Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, but Aspergillus fumigatus and Trichophyton rubrum
other components, namely, Lepidium sativum, (Khan and Ahmad 2011). More than 70 % reduction
Myristica fragrans (seed) and Myristica fragrans in elastase activity was recorded in A. fumigatus
(aril), had no antibacterial activity (Sattaponpan by the oils of C. verum, C. martini, eugenol, cin-
and Kondo 2011). Ethanol extracts of namaldehyde and geraniol.
Cinnamomum zeylanicum and S. aromaticum Water extract of Syzygium aromaticum buds
showed the strongest in vitro antibacterial activ- was found to inhibit growth of human pathogenic
ity followed by Cuminum cyminum against bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Salmonella
(Mandal et al. 2011). enterica serovar Typhi and Pseudomonas aerugi-
The antifungal activities of S. aromaticum nosa (Ali et al. 2011). Syzygium aromaticum
oil (clove oil) against the dermatophytes (clove) showed the highest inhibitory effect of
(Microsporum canis, Trichophyton mentagro- 12 plant extracts tested against Salmonella
phytes, Trichophyton rubrum, Epidermophyton typhimurium, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and
floccosum and Microsporum gypseum) tested were Listeria monocytogenes using a disc diffusion
highest at a concentration of 0.2 mg/mL, with an assay (Kim et al. 2011). Clove extract treatment
effectiveness of more than 60 % (Park et al. 2007). significantly reduced populations of the three
Syzygium aromaticum 471

tested pathogens from the surface of lettuce. production was estimated photometrically and
Clove essential oil showed the highest inhibitory found to be concentration dependent. At sub-
effect of food pathogen and spoilage bacteria, MICs of clove oil, 78.4 % reductions in violacein
followed by rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) production over control and up to 78 % reduction
and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) (Gómez- in swarming motility in Pseudomonas aerugi-
Estaca et al. 2010). When tested on an extract nosa over control were recorded. Hexane, chloro-
made of fish, clove and thyme, essential oils were form and methanol extracts of clove (Syzygium
the most effective as food preservative. Gelatin– aromaticum) exhibited anti-quorum sensing
chitosan-based edible films incorporated with activity (Krishnan et al. 2012). Hexane and meth-
clove essential oil exhibited antimicrobial activ- anol extracts of clove inhibited the response of
ity when tested against six selected microorgan- Chromobacterium violaceum to exogenously
isms: Pseudomonas fluorescens, Shewanella supplied N-hexanoylhomoserine lactone, in turn
putrefaciens, Photobacterium phosphoreum, preventing violacein production. Chloroform and
Listeria innocua, Escherichia coli and methanol extracts of clove significantly reduced
Lactobacillus acidophilus. Additionally, when bioluminescence production by E. coli [pSB1075]
the complex gelatin–chitosan film incorporating grown in the presence of N-(3-oxododecanoyl)-
clove essential oil was applied to fish during L-homoserine lactone. They also demonstrated
chilled storage, the growth of microorganisms that clove extract inhibited quorum sensing-
was drastically reduced in Gram-negative bacte- regulated phenotypes in Pseudomonas aerugi-
ria, especially enterobacteria, while lactic acid nosa PA01, including expression of lecA::lux (by
bacteria remained practically constant for much hexane extract), swarming (maximum inhibition
of the storage period. The effect on the microor- by methanol extract) and pyocyanin (maximum
ganisms during this period was in accordance inhibition by hexane extract). Their data sug-
with biochemical indexes of quality, indicating gested that clove extracts may be useful as the
the viability of these films for fish preservation. lead of anti-infective drugs.
Lee et al. (2009) found that the essential oil The multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains of
obtained from clove flower buds exhibited Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and
antibacterial activity against Vibrio spp. (n = 6), Candida albicans were sensitive to the antimi-
Edwardsiella spp. (n = 21), Aeromonas spp. crobial activity of Acacia nilotica, Syzygium
(n = 2), Escherichia coli (n = 2), Flavobacterium aromaticum and Cinnamomum zeylanicum,
spp. (n = 1), Salmonella spp. (n = 2), Streptococcus whereas they exhibited strong resistance to the
spp. (n = 1) and Pseudomonas spp. (n = 1). extracts of Terminalia arjuna and Eucalyptus
Citrobacter freundii, Aeromonas hydrophila, globulus (Khan et al. 2009a). Community-
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus aga- acquired infections showed higher sensitivity
lactiae, Edwardsiella tarda and Yersinia entero- than the nosocomial infections against these
colitica. The MIC values ranged from 0.015 extracts. Taguchi et al. (2005) found that when
to 0.062 μg/mL. the clove preparation was administered into the
Essential oils having new antipathogenic drug oral cavity of Candida albicans-infected mice,
principle because of its anti-QS activity might be their oral symptoms were improved, and the
important in reducing virulence and pathogenic- number of viable Candida albicans cells in the
ity of drug-resistant bacteria in vivo. Syzygium cavity was reduced. In contrast, when the clove
aromaticum (clove) oil showed promising anti- preparation was administered intragastrically,
quorum sensing (QS) activity on both wild and oral symptoms were not improved, but viable
mutant strains of Chromobacterium violaceum cell numbers of Candida albicans in the stom-
with zones of pigment inhibition 19 and 17 mm, ach and faeces were decreased. Their findings
respectively, followed by activity in cinnamon, demonstrated that oral intake of a herbal food,
lavender and peppermint oils (Khan et al. 2009b). clove, may suppress the overgrowth of C. albi-
The effect of clove oil on the extent of violacein cans in the alimentary tract including the oral
472 Myrtaceae

cavity. Syzygium aromaticum and Cymbopogon were not toxic to mice. They reduced virus
citratus oils were more active against preformed yields in the brain and skin more strongly than
Candida albicans biofilms compared to ampho- acyclovir alone and exhibited stronger anti-
tericin B and fluconazole (Khan and Ahmad HSV-1 activity in the brain than in the skin, in
2012). At 0.5× MIC, C. citratus followed by S. contrast to acyclovir treatment by itself. The
aromaticum were most inhibitory against bio- anti-HSV action of eugeniin purified from Geum
film formation. The results suggested exploita- japonicum and Syzygium aromaticum was char-
tion of these oils as new anti-biofilm products to acterized. The effective concentration (5.0 μg/
deal with the problem of drug resistance and mL) for 50 % plaque reduction of eugeniin for
recurrent infection associated with biofilm mode wild HSV type 1 (HSV-1) on Vero cells was
of growth of Candida spp. 13.9-fold lower than its 50 % cytotoxic concen-
Cinnamon and clove exhibited a significant tration determined by a yield-reduction assay.
inhibitory effect on histamine production and Eugeniin also inhibited the growth of acyclovir-
histidine decarboxylase activity of Morganella phosphonoacetic acid-resistant HSV-1, thymi-
morganii (a potent histamine-producing bacteria dine kinase-deficient HSV-1 and wild HSV type
in fish), whereas turmeric and cardamom had a 2 (Kurokawa et al. 1998). The results showed
moderate effect (Shakila et al. 1996). When that one of the major target sites of inhibitory
applied to whole mackerel at a level of 3 %, clove action of eugeniin is viral DNA synthesis; the
and cinnamon showed a significant inhibitory inhibitory action for viral DNA polymerase
effect on histamine, putrescine and tyramine for- activity was novel compared with anti-HSV
mation but not on that of cadaverine. Cardamom nucleoside analogues.
and turmeric exhibited a moderate effect, and Geum japonicum, Syzygium aromaticum,
pepper was ineffective. Both clove and cinnamon Terminalia chebula and Rhus javanica were
were found to be more helpful than cardamom found to inhibit replication of human cytomega-
and turmeric in the minimization of the formation lovirus (HCMV) and murine cytomegalovirus
of toxic histamine in mackerel. (MCMV) in vitro (Yukawa et al. 1996; Shiraki
et al. 1998). All four plants significantly sup-
pressed MCMV yields in lungs of treated mice
Antiviral Activity compared with water treatment. These herbs may
be beneficial for the prophylaxis of CMV dis-
Aqueous extracts of Syzygium aromaticum was eases in immune-compromised patients.
one of eight plant extracts that exhibited active
(≥90 % inhibition at 100 μg/mL) inhibition on
hepatitis C virus (HCV) protease (Hussein et al. Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic
2000). Activities
Of 10 traditional herbal extracts, Geum
japonicum, Rhus javanica, Syzygium aromati- In Korea, clove oil has been successfully used for
cum and Terminalia chebula showed a stronger asthma and various allergic disorders by oral
antiherpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) activity administration. An aqueous extract of clove was
in combination with acyclovir than the other found to inhibit immediate hypersensitivity by
herbal extracts in vitro (Kurokawa et al. 1995). inhibition of histamine release from mast cells in
When acyclovir and/or a herbal extract was vivo and in vitro (Kim et al. 1998). Using animal
orally administered at doses corresponding to models, eugenol was found to significantly
human use, each of the 4 combinations signifi- reduce serum histamine level (Kim et al. 1997).
cantly limited the development of skin lesions Eugenol was reported to prevent the anaphylactic
and/or prolonged the mean survival times of degranulation of peritoneal mast cells. It was
infected mice compared with both acyclovir and reported that the b-caryophyllene component in
the herbal extract alone. These combinations clove oil showed anti-inflammatory activity in
Syzygium aromaticum 473

several experiments. Studies reported on the local Hepatoprotective Activity

anaesthetic activity of β-caryophyllene
(Ghelardini et al. 2001). β-caryophyllene, but not The ethanol extract of clove showed remarkable
caryophyllene oxide, was able to reduce drasti- hepatoprotective activity against paracetamol-
cally, in a dose-dependent manner, the electri- induced liver injury in female rats (Nassar et al.
cally evoked contractions of the rat phrenic 2007).
hemidiaphragm. In the rabbit, conjunctival reflex Clove exhibited a modulatory effect on hepatic
test treatment with a solution of β-caryophyllene detoxification systems (Kumari 1991). Following
(10–1,000 μg/mL) allowed a dose-dependent clove administration (0.5, 1 and 2 % w/w in the
increase in the number of stimuli necessary to diet) to Swiss albino mice for 10, 20 and 30 days,
provoke the reflex. enhanced glutathione S-transferase (GST), cyto-
Eugenol was reported to act on contact to chrome b5 and acid-soluble sulphhydryl (SH)
depress nociceptors, the sensory receptors levels were observed in all the treatment groups,
involved in pain perception (Brodin and Røed excepting those maintained on a 0.5 % diet for 10
1984). The findings suggested that eugenol days which did not show significant increase in
acted as a membrane-stabilizing (local anaes- the GST and SH levels as compared to their
thetic) drug at low concentrations. It exhibited respective controls. Significant reduction in cyto-
reversible inhibition of compound-action chrome P-450 and malondialdehyde levels was
potential (cAP) of the nerve and increased observed in all groups at 30 days duration. While
threshold, high-frequency inhibition and unre- aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase levels remained
sponsiveness of the resting membrane potential unaltered by clove administration, DT-diaphorase
of the muscle to the drug. Eugenol was also activity was elevated by 1 and 2 % clove diets at
found to exhibit inhibition of COX-2-catalyzed 30 days duration. An in vivo bone marrow micro-
prostaglandin PGE(2) biosynthesis with an IC50 nucleus assay demonstrated that administration
of 129 μM (Huss et al. 2002). In vitro studies of 0.5 and 2 % clove diets for 10 days neither sig-
in murine macrophages showed that clove nificantly induced micronuclei nor could effec-
(100 μg/well) markedly inhibited cytokine tively modulate the 7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]
interleukin IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 production anthracene genotoxicity in mice. The results sug-
either before or after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) gested whole cloves as potential chemopreven-
challenge (Bachiega et al. 2012). Eugenol, the tive agents.
principal component of clove oil, did not affect
interleukin IL-1β production but inhibited IL-6
and IL-10 production. Antiplatelet Aggregation Activity
The ethanol extracts of Syzygium aromaticum
flower bud exhibited antinociceptive and anti- Eugenol and acetyl eugenol in clove oil showed
inflammatory effects in mice and Wistar rats as potent antiplatelet aggregation activity. They
evaluated using acetic acid-induced abdominal inhibited arachidonate-, adrenaline- and collagen-
contractions in mice and formalin-induced hind induced platelet aggregation (Srivastava and
paw oedema in Wistar rats, respectively (Tanko Malhotra 1991). Inhibition of aggregation
et al. 2008). The extract had an LD50 of 565.7 mg/ appeared to be mediated through a reduced for-
kg body weight intraperitoneally in mice. The mation of thromboxane. In another study, clove
extracts (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight oil inhibited human platelet aggregation induced
i.p.) produced significant anti-inflammatory by arachidonic acid (AA), platelet-activating fac-
effect at all the three doses. Similarly, the antino- tor (PAF) or collagen (Saeed and Gilani 1994).
ciceptive activity produced significant effects at Clove oil was a more effective inhibitor for
all the three doses of the extract. The result sup- aggregation induced by AA and PAF (IC50 = 4
ported the local use of the plant in painful and and 6 μM, respectively) than collagen (IC50:
inflammatory conditions. 132 μM). The in vivo experiments in rabbits
474 Myrtaceae

showed that clove oil (50–100 mg/kg) afforded Gastroprotective Activity

100 % protection against PAF (11 mg/kg, i.v.)
and 70 % protection against AA (2.0 mg/kg, Clove essential oil and eugenol, its main constit-
i.v.)-induced thrombosis and shock due to pul- uent, exhibited antiulcer activities in the rat mod-
monary platelet thrombosis. It also inhibited els of indomethacin- and ethanol-induced ulcer
thromboxane-A2 and 12-HETE production by (Santin et al. 2011). The effectiveness of clove
human platelets incubated with [C14] AA. essential oil and eugenol was attributed to the
These results indicated that clove oil was ability to stimulate the synthesis of mucus, an
inhibitory of platelet aggregation and throm- important gastroprotective factor, and not to the
boxane synthesis and may act as antithrom- activities of the nitric oxide and endogenous sul-
botic agent. phhydryls. Syzygium aromaticum extract at both
Two antithrombotic polysaccharides with 50 and 100 μg/mL. was one of four plant extracts
relatively high molecular weight (HMW) and that markedly inhibited interleukin-8 secretion
low molecular weight (LMW) were isolated activity in Helicobacter pylori-infected gastric
from the flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum epithelial cells (Zaidi et al. 2012). The study
(Lee et al. 2001). The LMW polysaccharide was revealed anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective
mainly composed of Rha, Gal, GalA and Ara effects of selected medicinal plants which could
(molar % 24.1, 18.9, 18.0 and 17.9, respec- partially validate the traditional use of these
tively) with 10.8 % of sulphate and 18.2 % of plants in gastric intestinal disorders.
protein. The HMW fraction consisted of Ara,
Gal, Glc and Rha (molar % 26.0, 23.7, 17.5 and
12.4, respectively) with 15.4 % of sulphate and Immunomodulatory Activity
8.0 % of protein. Both polysaccharides had the
backbone of type I rhamnogalacturonan and the Studies established that the immunostimulatory
side chain of arabinan. Compared to the anti- activity found in mice treated with clove essential
thrombotic activity of the HMW fraction oil was due to improvement in humoral- and
(plasma clotting time of 145 s in APTT assay), cell-mediated immune response mechanisms
the LMW fraction displayed a slightly low (Carrasco et al. 2009). Clove essential oil
activity (90 s). However, animal studies indi- increased the total white blood cell (WBC) count
cated that crude LMW polysaccharide did not and enhanced the delayed-type hypersensitivity
show acute toxicity, while the acute LD50 of the (DTH) response in mice. Moreover, it restored
HMW fraction was approximately 2-fold lower cellular and humoral immune responses in
than that of heparin. cyclophosphamide-immunosuppressed mice in a
dose-dependent manner.

Appetite Stimulating Activity

Skin Whitening Activity
Aydin et al. (2011) detected a ghrelin-like sub-
stance at a concentration of 4,070.75 pg/mg in The methanol extract of Syzygium aromaticum
the tissues of flower bud of S. aromaticum. flowering bud was found to have mushroom
Ghrelin was predominantly localized to the tyrosinase inhibitory activity (69.4 %) in a
trachea and parenchyma cells in the flower concentration-dependent manner (Adhikari et al.
bud of S. aromaticum. The concentration of 2008) and to have potential to control hyperpig-
ghrelin in human salivary gland tissue was mentation. Eugenol and eugenol acetate were
436.00 pg/mg. Ghrelin is an endogenous isolated as the active compounds in the methanol
ligand of the growth hormone secretagogue extract from clove bud and showed melanin inhi-
receptor found in mammals and some plants bition of 60 and 40 % in B16 melanoma cell with
that stimulate hunger. less cytotoxicity at the concentration of 100 and
Syzygium aromaticum 475

200 μg/mL, respectively (Arung et al. 2011). hexane extract of Syzygium aromaticum flower
Additionally, an essential oil prepared from bud on testicular function, thereby advocating a
clove bud containing eugenol and eugenol ace- cautious use of the flower bud as an aphrodisiac
tate as dominant components showed melanin in indigenous systems of medicine in Asian coun-
inhibition of 50 and 80 % in B16 melanoma cells tries. Oral administration of hexane extract of
at the concentration of 100 and 200 μg/mL, Syzygium aromaticum flower buds to Parkes
respectively. strain mice did not induce systemic toxicity at the
doses tested. Lower dose (15 mg) of the extract
increased the activities of delta(5) 3 beta-HSD
Renal Stimulatory Activity and 17 beta-HSD and serum level of testosterone.
The higher doses (30 and 60 mg) of extract inhib-
Studies indicate that Syzygium aromaticum- ited these parameters and induced non-uniform
derived oleanolic acid enhanced renal function of degenerative changes in the seminiferous tubules
streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats as associated with decrease in daily sperm produc-
evidenced by its reversal of the previously tion and depletion of 1C (round and elongated
reported inability of the kidney to excrete Na(+) spermatids) population.
in these animals (Madlala et al. 2012). They Kumar Goswami et al. (2012) postulated that
found that oleanolic acid increased Na+ excretion some of the Indian medicinal plants including
of conscious male Sprague-Dawley rats from Syzygium aromaticum used traditionally as
week 3 to week 5. By the end of the 5-week aphrodisiacs and for male sexual disorder (MSD)
experimental period, oleanolic treatment signifi- may have rho-kinase 2 (ROCK-II) inhibitory
cantly reduced plasma creatinine concentration potential and deserve further investigation. Their
of STZ-induced diabetic rats with a concomitant studies showed that plant extracts capable of
elevation in glomerular filtration rate. MTT assay inhibiting ROCK-II enzyme may be useful in
studies demonstrated that oleanolic increased the management of erectile dysfunction.
metabolic activity of the kidney and liver cell
lines.

Osteogenic/Antiarthritic Activity
Aphrodisiac Activity
Studies indicated that serum alkaline phospha-
Studies reported that a 50 % ethanolic extract of tase (AP; 48.25 %), serum tartrate-resistant acid
clove produced a significant and sustained phosphatase (TRAP; 63.48 %), urinary calcium
increase in the sexual activity of normal male (14.70 %), urinary phosphate (50.30 %) and uri-
rats, without any conspicuous gastric ulceration nary creatinine (122.44 %) were significantly
and adverse effects (Tajuddin et al. 2004). Oral altered in ovariectomized female Wistar rats
administration of the extract significantly compared to control (Karmakar et al. 2012). All
increased mounting frequency, intromission fre- these altered responses were significantly
quency, intromission latency, erections, quick restored (AP 27.53 %, TRAP 33.51 %, calcium
flips, long flips, as well as aggregate of penile 53.15 %, phosphate 27.49 %, creatinine
reflexes. It caused significant reduction in the 46.40 %) by supplementation with hydroalco-
mounting latency and post-ejaculatory interval. holic extract of dried clove buds. Results of
The most appreciable effect of the extract was bone density, bone mineral content, bone tensile
observed at the dose of 500 mg/kg. Thus, the strength and histological analysis also showed
resultant aphrodisiac activity of the extract sup- similar trend of results. The results suggested
ported claims for its traditional usage in sexual the hydroalcoholic extract of dried clove buds to
disorders. The results of studies by Mishra and have bone-preserving efficacy against hypogo-
Singh (2008) suggested the biphasic action of nadal osteoporosis.
476 Myrtaceae

Treatment with eugenol starting at the onset of acetate extract and 6.25 μg/mL for methanol
arthritis (day 25) ameliorated these clinical signs extract.
of collagen-induced arthritis in mice (Grespan The hexane flower bud extract of Syzygium
et al. 2012). Eugenol inhibited mononuclear cell aromaticum was found to be toxic to the head
infiltration into the knee joints of arthritic mice lice, Pediculus humanus capitis, an obligate
and also lowered the levels of cytokines (tumour ectoparasite of humans that causes pediculosis
necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (IFN)-γ and capitis (Bagavan et al. 2011a). The filter paper
tumour growth factor (TGF)-β) within the ankle contact bioassay study showed pronounced
joints and did not affect the in vitro cell viability. pediculicidal activity in the flower bud hexane
The authors concluded that eugenol could be use- extract. The vapour phase toxicity showed a
ful as a beneficial supplement in treating human significant difference in pediculicidal activity of
arthritis. S. aromaticum extract against P. humanus
capitis between close- and open-container meth-
ods. The mortality was higher in the closed
Antiparasitic Activity containers than in open ones, indicating that the
effect of hexane extract was largely a result of
Of several plant essential oils tested, clove action in the vapour phase-exhibited fumigant
oil was found to be the most effective in toxicity.
inhibiting growth of Trypanosoma cruzi with
IC50 of 99.5 μg/mL for epimastigotes and
57.5 μg/mL for trypomastigotes (Santoro et al. Insecticidal Activity
2007).
Clove oil was found to have anti-giardial Clove oil was reported to provide the longest
activity (Machado et al. 2011). Clove essential duration of 100 % repellency (2–4 h) against all
oil (IC50 = 134 μg/mL) and eugenol (IC50 = 101 μg/ three species of mosquito, Aedes aegypti, Culex
mL) inhibited the growth of Giardia lamblia. quinquefasciatus and Anopheles dirus, when
Clove oil inhibited trophozoites adherence since compared with other inhibitory oils of Cymbopogon
the first hour of incubation and was able to kill nardus (citronella), Pogostemon cablin (patchouli)
almost 50 % of the parasite population in a and Zanthoxylum limonella (Thai name: makaen)
time- dependent manner. Eugenol inhibited (Trongtokit et al. 2004, 2005). It can be adminis-
G. lamblia trophozoites adherence from the tered in the form of a gel product for possible use
third hour and did not induce cell lyses. The main by low-income rural communities against various
morphological alterations were modifications on mosquito species. Eugenol, isoeugenol and meth-
the cell shape, presence of precipitates in the yleugenol were found to inhibit the development
cytoplasm, autophagic vesicles, internalization of stored product pests, Sitophilus zeamais and
of flagella and ventral disc, membrane blebs and Tribolium castaneum (Huang et al. 2002).
intracellular and nuclear clearing. The overall Clove essential oil was found to be toxic
findings suggested that eugenol was responsible against both pyrethroid-susceptible and
for the anti-giardial activity of the S. aromaticum pyrethroid-resistant Aedes aegypti laboratory
essential oil and the oil and eugenol had potential strains at LC50, LC95 and LC99 levels (Sutthanont
for use as therapeutic agents against giardiasis. et al. 2008). The main component of S. aromati-
The flower bud extract of S. aromaticum was cum bud oil was eugenol (77.37 %), with minor
found to have antimalarial activity (Bagavan amounts of trans-caryophyllene (13.66 %).
et al. 2011b; Bagavan and Rahuman 2011). The Flower bud extracts of S. aromaticum exhibited
extract was active against the chloroquine (CQ)- mosquito larvicidal activity: hexane extract
sensitive (3D7) and CQ-resistant (Dd2 and against Anopheles vagus with LC50 value of
INDO) strains of Plasmodium falciparum. The 85.90 μg/mL, hexane extract against Culex
IC50 value for 3D7 strain was 13 μg/mL for ethyl vishnui with LC50 value of 149.56 μg/mL and
Syzygium aromaticum 477

methanol extract against Armigeres subalbatus Toxicity Studies

with LC50 value of 78.28 μg/mL (Bagavan and
Rahuman 2011). The essential oil extracted from clove (Syzygium
S. aromaticum essential oil was active against aromaticum) is used as a topical application to
Ae. aegypti larvae (LC50 = 62.3 and 77.0 ppm, for relieve pain and promote healing in herbal med-
field-collected and Rockefeller larvae, respec- icine and also finds use in the fragrance and fla-
tively) (Barbosa et al. 2012). The larvicidal activity vouring industries. Clove oil has two major
of eugenol, the major compound of the essential components, eugenol and β-caryophyllene,
oil, was also active with LC50 = 93.3 and 71.9 ppm which constitute 78 % and 13 % of the oil,
for field-collected and Rockefeller larvae, respec- respectively. Clove oil and these components
tively. The larvicidal activity of eugenol derivatives are generally recognized as ‘safe’, but the in
varied between 62.3 and 1,614.9 ppm. Oxidation of vitro study by Prashar et al. (2006) demon-
eugenol allylic bond to a primary alcohol and strated cytotoxic properties of both the oil and
removal of the phenolic proton resulted in decreased eugenol, towards human fibroblasts and endo-
potency. However, oxidation of the same double thelial cells. Clove oil was found to be highly
bond in 1-benzoate-2-methoxy-4-(2-propen-1-yl)- cytotoxic at concentrations as low as 0.03 %
phenol resulted in increased potency. (v/v) with up to 73 % of this effect attributable
Scrub typhus, a rickettsial disease transmit- to eugenol. β-caryophyllene did not exhibit any
ted by several species of Leptotrombidium cytotoxic activity, indicating that other
chiggers (larvae), is endemic in many areas of cytotoxic components may also exist within the
Asia. Four (including clove oil) of the 13 essen- parent oil.
tial oils showed promise as effective repellent
against Leptotrombidium imphalum chiggers
(Eamsobhana et al. 2009). Syzygium aromati- Traditional Medicinal Uses
cum (clove) oil exhibited 100 % repellency at
5 % concentration (dilution with absolute In European traditional medicine clove is consid-
ethanol), whereas Melaleuca alternifolia (tea ered an agreeable aromatic stimulant, antispas-
tree) oil exhibited 100 % repellency at 40 % modic and carminative. In Malaysia cloves are
concentration. Undiluted oils of Zingiber cassu- added to other substances and administered in
munar (plai) and Eucalyptus globulus (blue tonics particularly after confinement. Cloves are
gum) exhibited 100 % repellency. used in poultices for headaches and may be
applied to aching teeth. Powdered cloves are
rubbed upon the abdomen after childbirth. They
Molluscicidal Activity are also regarded as aphrodisiac. Cloves are used
to stimulate appetite and are added to roots of
Bait formulations containing molluscicidal com- Moringa in treating flatulence and colic.
ponent of Ferula asafoetida (ferulic acid, umbel- In Ayurvedic and Tibetan folk medicine,
liferone), Syzygium aromaticum (eugenol) and cloves are used internally as a tea and topically as
Carum carvi (limonene) caused maximum sig- an oil for hypotonic muscles, including multiple
nificant reduction in free amino acid, protein, sclerosis. The use of cloves internally is avoided
DNA and RNA levels, i.e. 41.37, 23.56, 48.36 in the presence of pitta (bile) inflammation such
and 14.29 % of control in the ovotestis of the as the one found in acute flares of autoimmune
snail Lymnaea acuminata, respectively (Kumar diseases. In West Africa, the Yorubas use a water
et al. 2011). Discontinuation of feeding after infusion of cloves called Ogun Jedi-jedi as a
treatment of 60 % of 96 h LC50 of molluscicide treatment for stomach upsets, vomiting and
containing bait for the next 72 h caused a signifi- diarrhoea.
cant recovery in free amino acid, protein, DNA In traditional Chinese medicine, cloves are
and RNA levels in the ovotestis of L. acuminata. considered acrid, warm and aromatic, entering
478 Myrtaceae

the kidney, spleen and stomach meridians, and Clove oleoresin may be prepared by cold or
are notable in their ability to warm the middle, hot extraction of crushed spices using organic
direct stomach qi downward, to treat hiccup and solvents like acetone. The oleoresin is primarily
to fortify the kidney yang. It is used in herbal tea used in perfumery, and when used for flavouring
formulas for impotence to increase ejaculation or it is dispersed on salt and flour. Cloves are also
clear vaginal discharge from yang deficiency, for an important incense material in Chinese and
morning sickness together with ginseng and Japanese culture. Jews smell cloves in the ser-
patchouli or for vomiting and diarrhoea due to vice that closes the Sabbath (Havdalah). Clove
spleen and stomach coldness. trees can be intercropped with coconut or
In Western herbalism and dentistry, clove is planted as an ornamental shade tree.
used as an anodyne (painkiller) for dental emer-
gencies. Cloves are used as a carminative, to
treat hypochlorhydria by increasing hydrochlo- Comments
ric acid in the stomach and to improve peristal-
sis. Hypochlorhydria refer to a state where the Cloves are usually propagated by seeds or by cut-
production of gastric acid in the stomach is tings. They can also be propagated by approach
absent or low. Cloves are also said to be a natural grafting or cleft grafting.
anthelmintic.
Clove oil is aromatic, stimulant and irritant.
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 Bougainvillea glabra

Scientific Name Roseta, Snata-Rira, Sempre-Lustrosa,

Tres-Marias (Portuguese)
Bougainvillea glabra Choisy Burmese: Sekku-Pan
Catalan: Buguenvíl.Lea, Buguenvíl.Lea Comuna
Chinese: Guang Yi Zi Hua
Synonyms French: Bougainvillée, Bougainvillier
German: Bougainvillie, Drillingsblume
Bougainvillea brachycarpa Heimerl, Bougainvillea India: Baganbilas (Bengali), Booganbel (Hindi),
glabra var. acutibracteata Heimerl, Bougainvillea Bouganvila (Konkani), Booganvel (Marathi),
glabra var. alba Mendes & Viégas, Bougain-villea Cherei (Manipuri), Kagithala Puvvu (Telugu)
glabra var. brachycarpa (Heimerl) Heimerl, Indonesia: Kembang Kertas
Bougainvillea glabra var. graciliflora Heimerl, Italian: Buganvillea
Bougainvillea glabra var. obtusibracteata Heimerl, Malaysia: Bunga Kertas, Buganvil, Buginvila
Bougainvillea glabra var. sanderiana Boss-chere, Mexico: Bugambilia, Shpupu-Kutshanat
Bougainvillea rubicunda Schott ex Rohrb., Philippines: Bogambilya, Bongabilya (Tagalog)
Bougainvillea spectabilis var. glabra (Choisy) Hook. Spanish: Bogambilia, Boganvilla, Bugambilia
Morada, Bugambilia Roja, Buganvilla,
Buganvillea Lisa, Buganvilia, Bugenvil, Dania,
Family Enredadera De Papel, Flor De Papel, Flor De
Varano, Santa Rita, Trinitaria, Veranilla
Nyctaginaceae Swedish: Blank Trillingblomma
Thai: Fueangfa
Vietnamese: Hoa Giấy Nhẵn
Common/English Names

Bougainvillea, Glory of the Garden, Lesser Origin/Distribution

Bougainvillea, Paper Flower
Bougainvillea species including B. glabra are
native to South America from Brazil to Peru and
Vernacular Names to Southern Argentina (Chubut Province). It has
been introduced pantropically and is a popular
Brazil : Buganvilea, Cansarina, Ceboleiro, ornamental plant in the warm areas of Asia,
Flor-De-Papel, Juvu, Pataguinha, Southeast Asia, Australia, the Pacific Islands, the
Primavera, Rios Do Prado, Roseiro, Mediterranean region, the Caribbean, Mexico,

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 483
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_33, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
484 Nyctaginaceae

South Africa and the United States in Arizona,

California, Florida, Hawaii and Southern Texas.

Agroecology

All Bougainvillea species do well in warm to hot

climates and are frost sensitive. Bougainvilleas
perform best in a well-drained, fertile, light soil in a
sunny position. Although drought tolerant, they need
plenty of moisture during the flowering season.
Plate 1 Bougainvillea glabra cv. Easter Parade

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

In Thailand, flower bracts are used in salad and

frying (Kaisoon et al. 2011, 2012).

Botany

Vigorous, evergreen rambling shrub or woody

liane, 1–7 m high with thick, glabrous to sparsely
pubescent stem and pendent branches with curved
axillary spines, 5–15 mm long. Leaves on 1 cm Plate 2 Purplish-red Bougainvillea flowers
long petioles, alternate, finely pubescent abaxially,
glabrous adaxially, ovate, ovate–lanceolate to ellip- 19.96 mg, chlorogenic acid 9.72 mg, vanillic acid
tical, 5–13 × 3–6 cm, chartaceous, dark green. 12.17 mg, caffeic acid 7.24 mg, syringic acid
Flowers insignificant, bisexual, occurs in 3-flow- 6.03 mg, p-coumaric acid 65.15 mg, ferulic
ered cymose units subtended by showy colourful acid 14.50 mg and sinapic acid 78.49 mg, total
chartaceous, foliaceous bracts. Bracts ovate to del- 228.29 mg (Kaisoon et al. 2012). Flavonoid
toid–ovate, 2–5 cm long, 1.54 cm wide, with acu- compounds found in the lyophilized hydrophilic
minate or acutely pointed tips and cordate bases, extracts of Bougainvillea glabra flowers
usually purple or magenta, but also red, pink, (mg/100 g DW): rutin 1.3 mg, myricetin 61.52 mg,
orange or white (Plates 1 and 2). Flowers with quercetin 14.17 mg, apigenin 8.89 mg and
1–2.5 cm long perianth tube which is dilated kaempferol 87.18 mg, and total 173.06 mg.
basally, distinctly angled, sparsely pubescent, Alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds and
ribbed, apex 5-lobed white to creamy white, curved tannins were detected in the flowers and floral
away from pedicel. From the base of the tube arises bracts of B. glabra (Sahu and Saxena 2012).
a single carpel, and encircling the ovary is a cup- Betacyanins were isolated from the bracts of
shaped nectar, from its rim arises 6–8 stamens. Bougainvillea glabra and characterized as
Fruit small, dry, one-seeded and ribbed achene. gomphrenin I (betanidin 6-O-β-glucoside) and
various derivatives of bougainvillein-v (betanidin
6-O-β-sophoroside), i.e. mono- and diglucosyl-
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties sophorosides, acylated with 4-coumaric and
caffeic acid (monoesters and diesters) (Heuer
The following phenolic acids were detected in et al. 1994). Besides the betacyanins, B. glabra
the ethanol extract of Bougainvillea glabra flow- bracts accumulated large amounts of flavonols
ers (mg/100 g DW): gallic acid 9.77 mg, proto- (kaempferol and quercetin conjugates) reaching
catechuic acid 5.27 mg, p-hydroxy benzoic acid ratios of flavonol to betacyanin of 1:1.
Bougainvillea glabra 485

The natural pigment composition of purple Antiproliferative Activity

bracts of Bougainvillea glabra was found to
consist of a highly complex mixture of betacya- Bougainvillea glabra flower extract exhibited
nins solely differing by the substitution with a antiproliferative activity among four edible flow-
variety of acyl-oligoglycoside units (Wybraniec ers tested against several cancer cell lines
et al. 2010; Jerz et al. 2010). Six principal acyl- (Kaisoon et al. 2012). Antiproliferative activity
oligosaccharide linked betacyanins were found. (IC50 mg/mL) of polyphenolic extract against
The detected molecular weights of the pigments HC-29 (colorectal adenocarcinoma) cells was
ranged up to maximum values of 1,653 and Tagetes erecta > (1.5) > Bougainvillea glabra
1,683 Da for the largest molecules due to oligo- (1.7) > Antigonon leptopus (2.4) > Cosmos sul-
saccharide linkage and multiple acyl substitu- phureus (5.2). Antiproliferative activity (IC50
tions. A total sum of 146 different betacyanin mg/mL) of polyphenolic extract against AGS
pigments were detected in the CCC (countercur- (gastric adenocarcinoma) cells was Antigonon
rent chromatography) fractions of reduced leptopus (0.2) > Bougainvillea glabra (2.1) >
complexity. Tagetes erecta (2.2) > Cosmos sulphureus (44.8).
Three glycosides were isolated from Antiproliferative activity (IC50 mg/mL) of
Bougainvillea glabra and their structures elucidated polyphenolic extract against Bl-13 (bladder
as momordin IIc (quinoside D) [β-D-glucopyranosyl cancer) cells was Antigonon leptopus (0.9) >
3- O -[β- D -xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3)- O -(β- D - Bougainvillea glabra (2.3) > Tagetes erecta
glucopyranosyluronic acid)] oleanolate]; second (3.0) > Cosmos sulphureus (56.5).
compound was quercetin 3-O-α-L-(rhamnopy-
ranosyl)(1 → 6)-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 2)]-
β-D-galactopyranoside and the third compound Antidiabetic Activity
was its derivative quercetin 3-O-α-L-(4-caffeoyl-
rhamnopyranosyl)(1 → 6)-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl The aqueous leaf extract of Bougainvillea gla-
(1 → 2)]-β-D-galactopyranoside (Simon et al. 2006). bra at a dose level of 150 mg/kg showed signifi-
cant antihyperglycaemic activity (Edwin et al.
2006). Studies showed that the aqueous leaf
Antioxidant Activity extract of B. glabra significantly reduced hyper-
glycaemia in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
Of four edible flowers, the phenolics (mg GAE (from 12 mmol/L in untreated control to
(gallic acid equivalent)/g DW) of the flowers 4.04 mmol/L in treated) (Adebayo et al. 2009).
were determined as follows: Tagetes erecta Likewise, the extract significantly reduced the
(212.9) > Antigonon leptopus (177.2) > Bougain- total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG) and
villea glabra (138.2) > Cosmos sulphureus low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL cho-
(102.5) (Kaisoon et al. 2012). Total reducing lesterol), while increasing the high-density lipo-
capacity (FRAP) (μmol Fe2+/g DW) was ranked protein cholesterol (HDL-C). The results
as Tagetes erecta (329.4) > Bougainvillea glabra supported the use of the plant by traditional
(307.1) > Antigonon leptopus (281.9) > Cosmos medicine practitioners for the treatment of dia-
sulphureus (99.9). The ORAC (oxygen radical betes mellitus.
absorbance capacity) (μmol T Eq (trolox Inhibitory activity of lyophilized hydrophilic
equivalent)/g DW) ranks were Antigonon leptopus extracts obtained from four edible Thai flowers
(491.9) > Tagetes erecta (394.2) > Bougainvillea against α-glucosidase enzyme was found as
glabra (276) > Cosmos sulphureus (214.8). Tagetes erecta (98.51 % inhibition, IC50 0.06 mg/
Cellular antioxidant activity (CAA) (μM QE mL) > Antigonon leptopus (58.24 % inhibition,
(quercetin equivalent)/g DW) ranks were Tagetes IC50 3.26 mg/mL) > Bougainvillea glabra (37.30 %
erecta (413, most effective) > Bougainvillea inhibition, IC50 5.21 mg/mL) > Cosmos sulphureus
glabra (859.6) > Cosmos sulphureus (966.1) > (32.32 % inhibition, IC50 5.62 mg/mL) (Kaisoon
Antigonon leptopus (967.4). et al. 2012).
486 Nyctaginaceae

Hypolipidemic Activity due to the presence of steroidal component in

the leaves. In another study, the methanolic
Inhibitory activity of lyophilized hydrophilic extract of B. glabra leaves exhibited dose-
extracts obtained from four edible Thai flowers dependent inhibition of carrageenan-induced rat
against lipase activity was determined as paw oedema and was comparable to indometha-
Cosmos sulphureus (43.39 % inhibition, IC 50 cin (Elumalai et al. 2012).
4.60 mg/mL) > Tagetes erecta (41.61 % inhibition,
IC50 4.82 mg/mL) > Bougainvillea glabra (40.05 %
inhibition, IC50 5.14 mg/mL) > Antigonon lepto- Antiulcer Activity
pus (26.70 % inhibition, IC50 7.87 mg/mL)
(Kaisoon et al. 2012). The acetone, ethanolic and aqueous of B. glabra
leaves exhibited antiulcer activity (ethanol-
induced ulcers) in rats (Edwin et al. 2007). The
Antidiarrhoeal Activity acetone extract showed marked antiulcer (70 and
83.4 % protection at 200 and 400 mg/kg doses,
The acetone, ethanolic and aqueous of B. glabra respectively) which was comparable to standard
leaves exhibited antidiarrhoeal activity (castor drug (omeprazole) used, followed by aqueous
oil-induced diarrhoea) in rats, and comparatively, and ethanolic extract.
acetone extract was found to be the most effective
followed by the aqueous extract (Edwin et al. 2007).
Antimicrobial Activity

Antipyretic Activity The acetone leaf extract exhibit good antimicrobial

activity in vitro against all the microorganisms
The methanolic extract of Bougainvillea glabra tested, namely, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis,
leaves exhibited significant antipyretic activity in Klebsiella Pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus
Brewer’s yeast-induced pyrexia in rats (Elumalai and Proteus vulgaris (Edwin et al. 2007).
et al. 2012). Hydroalcoholic extract of B. glabra leaves was
found to be inhibitory in vitro against Staphylo-
coccus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli,
Analgesic Activity Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumoniae and
Vibrio cholera (Gupta et al. 2009).
Using the tail immersion method in mice, the
methanolic extract of Bougainvillea glabra
leaves exhibited significant analgesic activity Wound Healing Activity
(Elumalai et al. 2012). At 300 mg/kg dose, the
extract recorded 79.88 % inhibition compared to Studies by Rupesh et al. (2011) found that after
81.21 % inhibition with pentazocaine 30 mg/kg. 10 days of topical application of albino Wistar
rats with the ointment of aqueous extract of
Bougainvillea glabra leaves or oral administra-
Anti-inflammatory Activity tion of aqueous Bougainvillea leaf extract
(200 mg/kg) in the dead space and incision
The petroleum-ether fraction of the methanol wound models, significantly increased wound
leaf extract of B. glabra leaves showed signifi- contraction, wound breaking strength, granula-
cant anti-inflammatory action in carrageenan- tion tissue weight as compared to the control
induced rat paw oedema when given groups. The results suggested a beneficial role of
intraperitoneally at a dose of 100 mg/kg (Giri Bougainvillea glabra leaf aqueous extract in
et al. 1988). The anti-inflammatory activity was healing of wounds in experimental rats.
Bougainvillea glabra 487

Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory
Activity Other Uses

The extract of the stem and branch of B. glabra B. glabra is popularly cultivated as ornamental
was found to have acetylcholinesterase (AChE) landscape features, garden, potted and indoor
inhibitory activity (Gupta and Gupta 1997). plants and can also be used for bonsai.
The juice obtained from flowers of
Bougainvillea glabra could be used to differenti-
Antileishmanial Activity ate solutions in pH range of 7–10 because it
showed different colours at each pH from 7 to 10
Schlein et al. (2001) found that one night on (Gaurav et al. 2010). It afforded similar results as
branches of Solanum jasminoides, Ricinus com- obtained by phenolphthalein and could be used
munis or Bougainvillea glabra drastically short- as an acid-base indicator.
ened the life span of the sand fly Phlebotomus Hernandez-Martinez et al. (2011) compared the
papatasi which transmits Leishmania major, the performance of new dye-sensitized solar cell
causal agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis, in vast (DSSC) based in a natural dye extracted from the
regions of the Old World. Flowering B. glabra Bougainvillea spectabilis’ bracts and B. glabra and
attracted P. papatasi in the field. Nevertheless, their mixtures. In all cases the pigments were beta-
in the region endemic for L. major in yards lains, obtained from reddish-purple extract. The
abounding with vector sand flies, the number of obtained solar energy conversion efficiency was of
P. papatasi trapped near hedges of B. glabra 0.48 % with a current density J(SC) of 2.29 mA/
was eight times less (62 vs. 502 flies trapped) cm2 using an irradiation of 100 mW/cm2 at 25 °C.
than in the control sites. The results implied that
B. glabra afforded local protection against
sand fly bites and decreased the risk of Comments
leishmaniasis.
The genus Bougainvillea comprises about 33
species but only 18 are accepted species name.
Anthelmintic Activity Of these 18 species only three species, B. glabra,
B. spectabilis and B. peruviana, are involved
The methanol leaf extract of B. glabra exhibited in the origin of modern-day cultivars of
anthelmintic activity against the earthworm, Bougainvillea. Three major hybrid groups have
Pheretima posthuma, in a dose-dependent man- been recognized Bougainvillea × buttiana
ner (Eswaraiah et al. 2012). ( B. glabra × B. peruviana), Bougainvillea
spectro-glabra (B. glabra × B. spectabilis) and
Bougainvillea spectoperuviana (B. spectabilis ×
Traditional Medicinal Uses B. peruviana). Double floral-bracted cultivars
have been evolved from the cultivars of B. ×
In India, Bougainvillea glabra (mainly leaves) buttiana. Variegated bud sports have occurred in
have been used by traditional practitioners of many of the hybrid cultivars.
Mandsaur for variety of disorders like diarrhoea,
excessive stomach acidity, cough and sore throat;
decoction of dried flowers for blood vessels and Selected References
leucorrhoea; and decoction of the stem for hepa-
titis (Gupta et al. 2009). The plant has been Adebayo GI, Alabi OT, Owoyele BV, Soladoye AO
(2009) Anti-diabetic properties of the aqueous leaf
reported to be used by traditional medicine prac-
extract of Bougainvillea glabra (Glory of the Garden)
titioners for the treatment of diabetes mellitus on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Rec Nat Prod
(Adebayo et al. 2009). 3(4):187–192
488 Nyctaginaceae

Edwin E, Edwin S, Amalraj A, Soni R, Smita G, Gupta VB of edible flowers from Thailand. J Funct Food
(2006) Antihyperglycemic activity of Bougainvillea 2:88–99
glabra, Choisy. Plant Indica 2(3):25–26 Kaisoon O, Konczak I, Siriamornpun S (2012) Potential
Edwin E, Sheeja E, Toppo E, Tiwari V, Dutt KR (2007) health enhancing properties of edible flowers from
Antidiarrheal, antiulcer and antimicrobial activities of Thailand. Food Res Int 46(2):563–571
leaves of Bougainvillea glabra Choisy. Ars Pharm Kobayashi KD, McConnell JM, Griffis J (2007)
48(2):135–144 Bougainvillea OF-38. Cooperative Extension Service,
Elumalai A, Eswaraiah MC, Lahari KM, Shaik HA (2012) College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources,
In-vivo screening of Bougainvillea glabra leaves for University of Hawaii, Manos
its analgesic, anti-pyretic and anti-inflammatory activ- Lu D, Gilbert MG (2003) Nyctaginaceae A.L. Jussieu. In:
ities. Asian J Pharm Sci 2(3):85–87 Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY (eds) Ulmaceae through
Eswaraiah MC, Elumalai A, Boddupalli A, Gollapalli RK Basellaceae, vol 5, Flora of China. Science Press/
(2012) Evaluation of anthelmintic activity of Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis
Bougainvillea glabra leaves. Int J Drug Discov Herb Rupesh S, Rahul T, Narendra S, Pradeep D, Srivastava DN
Res 2(1):272–274 (2011) Effect of Bougainvillea glabra leaves extract on
Gaurav P, Kumar JN, Narendra N, Chatap VK (2010) wound healing in experimental rats. Invent Rapid
Bougainvillea glabra—a natural indicator. Pharmacogn Ethnopharmacol 2011: Article ID- Inventi:ep/271/11
J 2(5):25–28 Sahu N, Saxena J (2012) A comparative phytochemical
Giri SN, Biswas AK, Saha BP, Pal SP (1988) Studies of analysis of Bougainvillea glabra Choisy and California
the anti-inflammatory action of Bougainvillea glabra gold. J Pharm Bio Sci 3(3):247–250
leaves. Indian J Pharm Sci 50(1):42–44 Schlein Y, Jacobson RL, Müller GC (2001) Sand fly
Gupta A, Gupta R (1997) A survey of plants for presence of feeding on noxious plants: a potential method for the
cholinesterase activity. Phytochemistry 46(5):827–831 control of leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg
Gupta V, George M, Joseph L, Singhal M, Singh HP 65(4):300–303
(2009) Evaluation of antibacterial activity of Simon A, Tóth G, Duddeck H, Soliman HS, Mahmoud II,
Bougainvillea glabra ‘Snow White’ and Bougainvillea Samir H (2006) Glycosides from Bougainvillea glabra.
glabra ‘Choicy’. J Chem Pharm Res 1(1):233–237 Nat Prod Res 20(1):63–67
Hernandez-Martinez AR, Estevez M, Vargas S, The Plant List (2013) Bougainvillea glabra Choisy. http://
Quintanilla F, Rodriguez R (2011) New dye-sensi- www.theplantlist.org/
tized solar cells obtained from extracted bracts of Wybraniec S, Jerz G, Gebers N, Winterhalter P (2010)
Bougainvillea glabra and spectabilis betalain pig- Ion-pair high-speed countercurrent chromatography in
ments by different purification processes. Int J Mol fractionation of a high-molecular weight variation of
Sci 12(9):5565–5576 acyl-oligosaccharide linked betacyanins from purple
Heuer S, Richter S, Metzger JW, Wray V, Nimtz M, Strack bracts of Bougainvillea glabra. J Chromatogr B
D (1994) Betacyanins from bracts of Bougainvillea Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 878(5–6):538–550
glabra. Phytochemistry 37(3):761–767 Zadoo SN, Roy RP, Koshoo TN (1975a) Cytogenetics of
Holttum RE (1955) The cultivated bougainvilleas I. Malay cultivated bougainvilleas. I. Morphological variation.
Agric Hortic Assoc Mag 12:2–10 Proc Indian Natl Sci Acad B Biol Sci 41(1):121–132
Iredell J (1990) The bougainvillea growers handbook. Zadoo SN, Roy RP, Koshoo TN (1975b) Cytogenetics of
Simon Schuster, Brookvale, 111 pp cultivated bougainvilleas. II. Pollination mechanism
Jerz G, Wybraniec S, Gebers N, Winterhalter P (2010) and breeding system. Proc Indian Natl Sci Acad B
Target-guided separation of Bougainvillea glabra Biol Sci 41(5):498–502
betacyanins by direct coupling of preparative ion-pair Zadoo SN, Roy RP, Koshoo TN (1975c) Cytogenetics of
high-speed countercurrent chromatography and elec- cultivated Bougainvilleas. VI. Hybridization. Z
trospray ionization mass-spectrometry. J Chromatogr Pflanzenzucht 75(2):114–137
A 1217(27):4544–4554 Zadoo SN, Roy RP, Koshoo TN (1976) Cytogenetics of
Kaisoon O, Siriamornpun S, Weerapreeyakul N, Meeso N cultivated bougainvilleas VII. Origin and evolution of
(2011) Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities ornamental taxa. Indian J Hortic 33(3/4):279–288
 Bougainvillea spectabilis

Scientific Name Burmese: Sekku-Pan

Catalan: Bungavillea, Buguenvíl.Lea Vermella
Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Chamorro: Putitainubyu
Chinese: Ye Zi Hua
Chuukese: Irátong
Synonyms Cook Islands: ‘Ītāria, Tāria, Tiare Taratara
(Maori)
Bougainvillea bracteata Pers., Bougainvillea French: Bougainvillée, Bougainvillier
brasiliensis Raeusch., Bougainvillea brasilien- Galápagos Islands: Buganvilla, Veranera
sis Lund ex Choisy [Invalid], Bougainvillea (Spanish)
peruviana Nees & Mart. [Illegitimate], German: Bougainvillie, Drillingsblume
Bougainvillea speciosa Schnizl., Bougainvillea India: Kagithampoolu (Andhra Pradesh),
spectabilis var. hirsutissima J.A. Schmidt, Baganbilas (Bengali), Booganbel (Hindi),
Bougainvillea spectabilis var. parviflora Mart. Bouganvila (Konkani), Booganvel (Marathi),
ex J.A. Schmidt, Bougainvillea spectabilis var. Cherei (Manipuri), Kagithala Puvvu (Telugu)
virescens (Choisy) J.A. Schmidt, Bougainvillea Indonesia: Bougenvil, Bunga Kerta, Kembang
virescens Choisy Kertas
Italian: Buganvillea
Japanese: Bugenbirea, Ikadakazura
Family Kiribati: Te Akanta
Majorcan: Bungavilia
Nyctaginaceae Malaysia: Bunga Kertas, Buganvil, Buginvila
Marshallese: Ikdeele, Kõtõmãnlimpo, K Limpok, L
Mexico: Bugambilia, Shpupu-Kutshanat
Common/English Names Naruan: Tsita, Tsitta
Niuean: Felila, Malila
Bougainvillea, Great Bougainvillea, Paper Philippines: Bogambilya, Bongabilya (Tagalog)
Flower, Purple Bougainvillea Samoan: Felila
Spanish: Bongavilia, Bougainvillea, Bugambilia,
Buganvilla
Vernacular Names Swedish: Stor Trillingblomma
Tahitian: Tiare Vareau
Brazil: Buganvilia, Espinho-De-Santa-Rita, Thai: Fueang Fa
Primavera, Três-Marias Vietnamese: Hoa Giấy Nhẵn

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 489
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_34, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
490 Nyctaginaceae

Origin/Distribution

B. spectabilis is native to South America from

Brazil to Peru and to Southern Argentina (Chubut
Province). It has been introduced pantropically
and is a popular ornamental plant in the warm
areas of Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, the
Pacific Islands, the Mediterranean region, the
Caribbean, Mexico, South Africa and the United
States in Arizona, California, Florida, Hawaii
and Southern Texas. Plate 1 Red single-bracted cultivar

Agroecology

All Bougainvillea species do well in warm to hot

climates and are frost sensitive. It does best in
areas with night temperature of 18–20 °C and day
temperatures of 24–32 °C. It can tolerate
temperatures above 37 °C and will grow in areas
with more than 600 mm rainfall per annum.
Bougainvilleas perform best in a well-drained,
fertile, light, acidic soil with pH 5.5–6.in a sunny
position. It abhors water-logged conditions. Plate 2 Close view of red single-bracted cultivar
Although drought tolerant, they need plenty of
moisture during the flowering season.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Floral bracts are edible and used in salad and

drinks (Kaisoon et al. 2011; King 2007).

Botany

A woody, evergreen rambling vine; stems and

branches pubescent with stout, recurved spines. Plate 3 Purplish-pink single-bracted cultivar
Leaves alternate, petiolate, simple, ovate or ellip-
tic, to 10 cm long, margin entire, pubescent 2, 3 and 4). Flowers with a narrowly tubular,
(Plates 2, 3 and 4). Flowers in axillary cymose rounded, 1.6–2.4 cm, densely pubescent, perianth
inflorescence of three small, trumped flowers tube concolorous with the bracts, with five
subtended by showy bracts of various colours: spreading creamy or white lobes at the apex.
dark red or light purple-red, pink, orange or From the base of the tube arises a single carpel,
white; elliptic–ovate, 2.5–6.5 × 1.5–4 cm, base and encircling the ovary is a cup-shaped nectar,
rotund to cordate, tips obtuse to broadly sub- from its rim arises usually 8 stamens. Fruit small,
acute, single-bracted or double-bracted (Plates 1, dry, elongate, one-seeded ribbed achene.
Bougainvillea spectabilis 491

phytochemicals and higher antioxidant activity

than aqueous leaf extract (Venkatachalam et al.
2012). The amount of phytochemical constituents
and antioxidant activity exhibited significant
linear relationship. The methanolic leaf extract had
3.17 mg/g total phenol content, 5.40 mg/g total
flavonoids, 2.26 mg/g sugar and 1.48 mg/g tannin,
while the aqueous leaf extract had 2.85 mg/g total
phenol content, 4.03 mg/g total flavonoids, 1.81 mg/g
sugar and 1.33 mg/g tannin. The leaves contained
0.017 g/L of total chlorophyll made up of 0.006 g/L
Plate 4 Pink double-bracted cultivar chlorophyll a and 0.011 g/L chlorophyll b and
also had 0.419 g/L carotenes. Both aqueous
and alcoholic leaf extracts produced DPPH anion
Varieties with multi-whorled bracts do not scavenging power, but the methanolic extract
develop any sexual organs, i.e. perianth, pistil (226.66 mg/g) showed a far higher scavenging
(ovary, style, stigma) and stamens. property than the aqueous leaf extract (79.16 mg/g).
The NO scavenging activity in bougainvillea
leaves was estimated to be 77.16 mg ascorbic
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties acid equivalent in methanolic extract and 58.66 mg
ascorbic acid equivalent in aqueous extract
Srivastava and Krishnan (1962) found the pres- indicating a significant difference between both
ence of a plastid-bound oxalic acid oxidase in the extracts of bougainvillea leaves. DPPH and NO
leaves of Bougainvillea spectabilis. Phytoferritin scavenging activity of the extracts could be cor-
was found in the cambial zone of B. spectabilis related to the presence of flavonoids. The FRAP
plant and represented the nontoxic storage form in bougainvillea leaves was estimated to be
of iron as iron-protein complex which could later 27.83 mg ascorbic acid equivalent in methanolic
be used to elaborate materials required for photo- extract and 43.5 mg ascorbic acid equivalent in
synthetic and other activities (Nwankiti 1982). aqueous extract. This shows a significant difference
between both extracts indicating a high FRAP of
bougainvillea leaves. The FRAP activity was
Antioxidant Activity correlated to catechin, ferulic acid and total
phenols which were present in bougainvillea.
In radical scavenging activity (RSA) studies, The reducing power in 30 g bougainvillea leaves
it was found that stem aqueous extracts from was found to be higher in methanolic extract
Bougainvillea spectabilis produced more DPPH (1.48 mg/g ascorbic acid equivalent) than in
absorbance reduction (95.66 %), with an IC50 and aqueous extract (1.33 mg/g). The SO scavenging
AP (reciprocal of IC50) values of 0.03 μg/mL and activity in bougainvillea leaves was estimated to
33.33, respectively, than Bauhinia divaricata stem be 299.16 mg ascorbic acid equivalent in metha-
aqueous extracts (Chaires-Martinez et al. 2009). nolic extract and 321.6 mg ascorbic acid equiva-
The results were superior to common synthetic lent in aqueous extracts of bougainvillea leaves.
antioxidants used in the food industry like butyl- The H2O2 scavenging activity in 1 g bougainvillea
ated hydroxyl toluene (BHT, IC50 = 62 μg/mL) leaves was estimated to be 11.2 mg ascorbic acid
and can be useful for further applications of these equivalent in methanolic extract and 7.9 mg ascor-
plants or its constituents in pharmaceutical and bic acid equivalent in aqueous extract indicating
alimentary preparations. a significant scavenging activity in bougainvillea
Studies found that the methanolic leaf extract leaves. In the linoleic assay, the antioxidation
of B. spectabilis showed greater amount of activity was estimated to be 44 mg ascorbic acid
492 Nyctaginaceae

equivalent in methanolic extract and 39.6 mg and VLDL cholesterol levels and increased
ascorbic acid equivalent in aqueous extract indi- significantly HDL cholesterol levels in the serum
cating better activity in the methanolic extract. of diabetic rats. Results clearly indicated the anti-
hyperlipidemic effect of D-pinitol in STZ-induced
type II diabetic rats.
Antidiabetic Activity In a randomized placebo, 7-week study of 15
old people (age 66 ± 8 y), pinitol supplementation
The alcoholic leaf extract of B. spectabilis admin- was found not to influence whole-body insulin-
istered to diabetic mice elicited significant hypo- mediated glucose metabolism and muscle insulin
glycaemic activity (Narayanan et al. 1984). The receptor content and phosphorylation in
use of B. spectabilis leaves as an antidiabetic non- diabetic, older people (Campbell et al. 2004).
led to the isolation of its hypoglycaemic principle, Pinitol did not affect indices of hepatic and
pinitol, from the leaves (Narayanan et al. 1987). whole-body insulin sensitivity from the oral
Pinitol was determined to be a methyl ester glucose tolerance test and indices of insulin
of chiro-inositol and elucidated as 3-O-methyl- sensitivity, acute insulin response to glucose and
1,2,4-cis-3,5,6-trans-hexahydroxycyclohexanol. glucose effectiveness from the intravenous
Pinitol had been reported to be metabolized to glucose tolerance test, estimated using minimal
chiro-inositol in humans (Phillips et al. 1982). modelling. Pinitol did not differentially affect
Studies confirmed that D-pinitol (3-O-methyl- total insulin receptor content and insulin receptor
chiro-inositol), an active principle of B. spectabilis, phosphotyrosine 1158 and insulin receptor phos-
could exert an insulin-like effect to improve photyrosine 1162/1163 activation in vastus later-
glycaemic control in hypoinsulinaemic STZ- alis samples taken during an oral glucose-induced
diabetic mice (Bates et al. 2000). In streptozotocin hyperglycaemic and hyperinsulinemic states.
(STZ)-diabetic mice, D-pinitol (100 mg/kg p.o.) The chloroform extract of B. spectabilis leaves
acutely decreased the hyperglycaemia (by 22 % was found to have significant α-amylase inhibitory
at 6 h). A similar decrease in plasma glucose activity and could be useful in managing
(by 21 %) was observed after 100 mg/kg i.p. postprandial hyperglycaemia, a complication of
D-pinitol. Insulin concentrations and the rate of diabetes (Bhat et al. 2011b). In vivo studies using
insulin-induced glucose disappearance were not a diabetic murine model showed that B. spectabilis
altered by 100 mg/kg p.o. D-pinitol. Chronic aqueous and methanolic extracts showed a good
administration of D-pinitol (100 mg/kg i.p. twice oral glucose tolerance and significantly reduced
daily for 11 days) to STZ-diabetic mice main- the intestinal glucosidase activity (Bhat et al. 2011a).
tained a reduction in plasma glucose concentra- Also, B. spectabilis aqueous extracts showed
tions from about 14 to 10 mmol/L. In normal significant increase in glucose-6-phosphate
non-diabetic and severely insulin-resistant ob/ob dehydrogenase activity and hepatic, skeletal
mice, 100 mg/kg p.o. D-pinitol did not significantly muscle glycogen content after 21 days of treatment.
affect plasma glucose or insulin during acute stud- They observed a regeneration of insulin-producing
ies. The study showed that D-pinitol may act via a cells and corresponding increase in the plasma
post-receptor pathway of insulin action affecting insulin and c-peptide levels with the treatment of
glucose uptake. In separate studies, oral adminis- B. spectabilis aqueous and methanolic extracts.
tration of D-pinitol (3-O-methyl-chiro-inositol), The results suggested B. spectabilis aqueous
an active principle of B. spectabilis, to strepto- extracts to be potential d candidates for developing
zotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic Wistar rats elic- new nutraceuticals treatment for diabetes.
ited significant decrease in the elevated levels of Jawla et al. (2011) found that permanent
blood glucose and total cholesterol, triglycerides, hyperglycaemia in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
free fatty acids and phospholipids in serum, liver, was reversed when treated up to a week with
kidney, heart and brain (Geethan and Prince ethanol extract of B. spectabilis root bark. Highest
2008). D-pinitol also lowered significantly LDL hypoglycaemic activity was observed with root
Bougainvillea spectabilis 493

bark extract at 100 mg/kg/day after 7 days. It was from the leaf of Bougainvillea spectabilis, was
found to be 12.5 % more potent than standard oral constructed by genetically linking the T-cell
hypoglycaemic drug, glibenclamide 0.2 mg/ kg. epitope-depleted variant of bouganin to an anti-
epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) Fab
moiety via a peptidic linker containing a furin
Anti-inflammatory Activity proteolytic site (Cizeau et al. 2009). An in vitro
assessment of the biological activity of VB6-845
Ethanolic leaf extract of B. spectabilis produced showed that it bound and selectively killed
significant anti-inflammatory activity when EpCAM-positive cell lines with a greater potency
compared with the standard indomethacin and than many commonly used chemotherapeutic
untreated control (Manivannan et al. 2012). The agents. In vivo efficacy was demonstrated using
extract (300 mg/kg, p.o.) inhibited carrageenan- an EpCAM-positive human tumour xenograft
induced left hind paw oedema in Wistar rats. model in SCID mice with the majority of the mice
It also reduced granuloma weight in the cotton treated being tumour free at the end of the study.
pellet granuloma model.

Antibacterial Activity
Antiviral/Antitumour Activities
The ethanolic, methanolic, chloroform and ethyl
A single-chain (type 1) ribosome-inactivating acetate extracts of Bougainvillea spectabilis
protein (RIP) was isolated from the leaves of leaves showed maximum in vitro inhibitory effect
Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. (Bolognesi et al. on all tested Gram-positive and Gram-negative
1997). The RIP inhibited protein synthesis both in bacteria, namely, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus
a cell-free system and in various cell lines. The subtilis, Streptococcus faecalis, Micrococcus
protein had toxicity to mice with an LD50 > 32 mg/g luteus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aerugi-
and did not cross-react with any antiserum tested. nosa, Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
The protein inhibited infection of Nicotiana Proteus vulgaris, Serratia marcescens, Shigella
benthamiana by artichoke mottled crinkle virus flexneri except Vibrio cholerae (Umamaheswari
(AMCV). An antiviral protein, Bougainvillea anti- et al. 2008).
viral protein I (BAP I), active against mechanical
transmission of tomato spotted wilt virus was
identified in the root tissues of Bougainvillea spec- Antihypercholesterolemic Activity
tabilis and purified (Balasaraswathi et al. 1998).
The N-terminal sequence of BAP I showed homol- Administration of the ethanol extract of
ogy with other plant antiviral proteins. Preliminary Bougainvillea spectabilis leaves to rats was found
tests suggested that purified BAP I was capable of to significantly reduce packed cell volume,
interfering with in vitro protein synthesis. haemoglobin concentration and red blood cell
Bouganin, a ribosome-inactivating protein iso- count at the dose of 200 mg/kg body weight when
lated from Bougainvillea spectabilis, was synthe- compared with controls, while other doses
sized as a pro-peptide consisting of 305 amino administered had no significant effect on these
acids (den Hartog et al. 2002). The mature protein parameters (Adebayo et al. 2005). The extract
consists of 250 amino acids and had similar activity also significantly reduced white blood cell count
in a cell-free protein synthesis assay and had at all doses administered when compared with
comparable toxicity on living cells as compared control. Additionally, the extract significantly
to the isolated native bouganin. VB6-845, an anti- reduced total cholesterol concentration in the
EpCAM immunotoxin containing a T-cell epitope- serum while it had no significant effect on serum
depleted variant of the plant toxin bouganin, a HDL cholesterol concentration at all doses
type I ribosome inactivating protein isolated administered when compared with controls.
494 Nyctaginaceae

However, the extract significantly increased 7 days significantly reduced serum albumin and
serum triacylglycerol concentration at the dose calcium ion concentrations while it significantly
of 50 mg/kg body weight, while other doses increased serum phosphate ion, urea and creati-
administered had no significant effect on serum nine concentrations compared with control
triacylglycerol concentration. The results sug- (Malomo et al. 2007). The extract did not have
gested that the extract may have beneficial effect any significant effect on the serum sodium ion
on serum cholesterol concentration reduction, concentration while it reduced serum potassium
although it possibly possesses the potential of ion concentration significantly at the dose of
adversely affecting haematological indices. 200 mg/kg body weight compared with controls.
Generally, activities of liver ALP, AST, ALT
and Ca2+−Mg2+ ATPase were not significantly
Antihyperlipidemic Activity affected.

The alcoholic leaf extract of Bougainvillea

spectabilis elicited a significant reduction in total Miscellaneous Pharmacological
cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low density Activities
lipoprotein (LDL), very low density lipoprotein
(VLDL) levels and significant increase in high Ali et al. (2005) found that the methanolic extract
density lipoproteins (HDL) in hypercholesteromic of white B. spectabilis flowers was the most
rats; the extract at 200 mg/kg/day was more biologically active among all tested extracts.
effective than that at 100 mg/kg/day (Saikia and The extracts of white, orange and shocking pink
Lama 2011). There was also significant improvement flowers inhibited, while the extracts of red and
in atherogenic index in extract treated animals. violet flowers promoted the growth of Lemna
The results indicted the B. spectabilis leaf extract plants. The extract of white flowers also exhibited
to have excellent lipid lowering potential. toxicity against shrimp larvae with a LD50 value
of 33.5627 μg/mL. However, none of the tested
samples gave positive responses against any
Antifertility Activity tested fungi.

Oral administration of the aqueous leaf extract

(800 mg/kg body weight) to male Swiss albino Traditional Medicinal Uses
mice for 30 days caused a decrease testis weight,
sperm count and reduction in size of seminiferous The Yanadi tribe in the Chittoor district in Andhra
tubules along with thickness of germinal cells, Pradesh, India, used the leaves for diabetes
though some epithelial cells and interstitial (Vedavathy et al. 1997).
cells of Leydig showed hypertrophy (Mishra
et al. 2009). Also the lumen of tubules was found
to be devoid of sperms. In female Swiss albino Other Uses
mice, there was a slight disruption of estrous
cycle with prolonged metaestrous phase which was B. spectabilis is popularly cultivated as ornamental
increased by 145.28 %. Testosterone and oestro- landscape features, garden, potted and indoor
gen levels were decreased significantly. plants and can also be used for bonsai.

Effect on Liver/Kidney Function Comments

Studies showed that administration of the ethanol Bougainvillea may be readily propagated from
leaf extract of B. spectabilis leaves to rats for root and branch cuttings.
Bougainvillea spectabilis 495

Iredell J (1990) The bougainvillea growers handbook.

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Jawla S, Kumar Y, Khan MSY (2011) Hypoglycemic poten-
Adebayo JO, Adesokan AA, Olatunji LA, Buoro DO, tial of Bougainvillea spectabilis root bark in normal and
Soladoye AO (2005) Effect of ethanolic extract of alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Pharmacologyonline
Bougainvillea spectabilis leaves on haematological 3:73–87
and serum lipid variables in rats. Biokemistri Kaisoon O, Siriamornpun S, Weerapreeyakul N, Meeso N
17(1):45–50 (2011) Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities
Ali MS, Ibrahim SA, Ahmed F, Pervez MK (2005) Color of edible flowers from Thailand. J Funct Food 2:88–99
versus bioactivity in the flowers of Bougainvillea King A (2007) Edible flowers. STG Subtrop Gard Mag
spectabilis (Nyctaginaceae). Nat Prod Res 19(1):1–5 11:82–83
Balasaraswathi R, Sadasivam S, Ward M, Walker JM Kobayashi KD, McConnell JM, Griffis J (2007)
(1998) An antiviral protein from Bougainvillea Bougainvillea OF-38. Cooperative Extension Service,
spectabilis roots; purification and characterisation. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources,
Phytochemistry 47(8):1561–1565 University of Hawaii, Manos
Bates SH, Jones RB, Bailey CJ (2000) Insulin-like effect Lu D, Gilbert MG (2003) Nyctaginaceae A.L. Jussieu. In:
of pinitol. Br J Pharmacol 130(8):1944–1948 Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY (eds) Ulmaceae through
Bhat M, Kothiwale SK, Tirmale AR, Bhargava SY, Joshi Basellaceae, vol 5, Flora of China. Science Press/
BN (2011a) Antidiabetic properties of Azardiracta Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis
indica and Bougainvillea spectabilis: in vivo studies in Malomo SO, Adebayo JO, Rise RO, Olorunniji FJ, Egwim
murine diabetes model. Evid Based Complement EC (2007) Effects of ethanolic extract of Bougainvillea
Altern Med 2011:561625 spectabilis leaves on some liver and kidney function
Bhat M, Zinjarde SS, Bhargava SY, Kumar AR, Joshi BN indices in rats. Phytochem Pharmacol 17:261–271
(2011b) Antidiabetic Indian plants: a good source of Manivannan E, Kothai R, Arul B, Rajaram S (2012) Anti-
potent amylase inhibitors. Evid Based Complement inflammatory activity of Bougainvillea spectabilis
Altern Med 2011:810207 Linn. Res J Pharm Biol Chem Sci 3(1):642–646
Bolognesi A, Polito L, Olivieri F, Valbonesi P, Barbieri L, Mishra N, Joshi S, Tandon VL, Munjal A (2009)
Battelli MG, Carusi MV, Benvenuto E, Del Vecchio Evaluation of anti-fertility potential of aqueous extract
Blanco F, Di Maro A, Parente A, Di Loreto M, Stirpe of Bougainvillea spectabilis leaves in Swiss albino
F (1997) New ribosome-inactivating proteins with mice. Int J Pharm Sci Drug Res 1(1):19–23
polynucleotide: adenosine glycosidase and antiviral Narayanan CR, Joshi DD, Mujumdar AM (1984)
activities from Basella rubra L. and Bougainvillea Hypoglycemic action of Bougainvillea spectabilis
spectabilis Willd. Planta 203(4):422–429 leaves. Curr Sci 53:579–581
Campbell WW, Haub MD, Fluckey JD, Ostlund RE Jr, Narayanan CR, Joshi DD, Mujumdar AM, Dhekne VV
Thyfault JP, Morse-Carrithers H, Hulver MW, Birge (1987) Pinitol—a new antidiabetic compound from
ZK (2004) Pinitol supplementation does not affect the leaves of Bougainvillea spectabilis. Curr Sci
insulin-mediated glucose metabolism and muscle 56(30):138–141
insulin receptor content and phosphorylation in older Nwankiti OC (1982) Phytoferritin in the cambium of
humans. J Nutr 134:2998–3003 Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. (Nyctaginaceae). Z
Chaires-Martinez L, Monroy-Reyes E, Bautista-Bringas Pflanzenphysiol 105(2):173–178
A, Jimenez-Avalos HA, Sepulveda-Jimenez G (2009) Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) (2011)
Determination of radical scavenging activity of Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Nyctaginaceae.
hydroalcoholic and aqueous extracts from Bauhinia http://www.hear.org/pier/species/bougainvillea_
divaricata and Bougainvillea spectabilis using the spectabilis.htm
DPPH assay. Pharmacogn Res 1:238–244 Phillips DV, Dougherty DE, Smith AE (1982) Cyclitols in
Cizeau J, Grenkow DM, Brown JG, Entwistle J, MacDonald soybean. J Agric Food Chem 30:456–458
GC (2009) Engineering and biological characterization Saikia H, Lama A (2011) Effect of Bougainvillea specta-
of VB6-845, an anti-EpCAM immunotoxin containing bilis leaves on serum lipids in albino rats fed with high
a T-cell epitope-depleted variant of the plant toxin fat diet. Int J Pharm Sci Drug Res 3(2):141–145
bouganin. J Immunother 32(6):574–584 Sattler R, Perlin L (1982) Floral development of
den Hartog MT, Lubelli C, Boon L, Heerkens S, Ortiz Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd., Boerhaavia diffusa
Buijsse AP, de Boer M, Stirpe F (2002) Cloning and L. and Mirabilis jalapa L. (Nyctaginaceae). Bot J Linn
expression of cDNA coding for bouganin. Eur J Soc 84:61–82
Biochem 269(6):1772–1779 Srivastava SK, Krishnan PS (1962) An oxalic acid oxidase
Geethan PK, Prince PS (2008) Antihyperlipidemic effect in the leaves of Bougainvillea spectabilis. Biochem J
of D-pinitol on streptozotocin-induced diabetic Wistar 85:33–38
rats. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 22(4):220–224 Stone BC (1970) The flora of Guam. A manual for the
Holttum RE (1955) The cultivated bougainvilleas I. Malay identification of the vascular plants of the island.
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http://www.theplantlist.org/ of cultivated bougainvilleas. I. Morphological
Umamaheswari A, Shreevidya R, Aparna Nuni A (2008) variation. Proc Indian Natl Sci Acad Part B Biol Sci
In vitro antibacterial activity of Bougainvillea specta- 41(1):121–132
bilis leaves extracts. Adv Biol Res 2(1–2):1–5 Zadoo SN, Roy RP, Koshoo TN (1975b) Cytogenetics of
Vedavathy S, Sudhakar A, Mrdula V (1997) Tribal medi- cultivated bougainvilleas. II. Pollination mechanism
cine of Chittoor. Anc Sci Life 16(4):307–331 and breeding system. Proc Indian Natl Sci Acad Part B
Venkatachalam RN, Singh K, Marar T (2012) Biol Sci 41(5):498–502
Bougainvillea spectabilis, a good source of antioxi- Zadoo SN, Roy RP, Koshoo TN (1975c) Cytogenetics of
dant phytochemicals. Res J Pharm Biol Chem Sci cultivated bougainvilleas. VI. Hybridization. Z
3(3):605–613 Pflanzenzucht 75(2):114–137
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Reproductive organography of Bougainvillea specta- cultivated bougainvilleas VII. Origin and evolution of
bilis Willd. Sci Hortic 120:399–405 ornamental taxa. Indian J Hortic 33(3/4):279–288
 Mirabilis jalapa

Scientific Name Vernacular Names

Mirabilis jalapa L. Afrikaans: Vieruurtjie

Arabic: Zahr-Ul-Ajl
Benin: Azehonzo (Fon), Azehonzo (Goun)
Synonyms Brazil: Boa-Noite, Bonina, Clavillia, Maravilha
Burundi: Karifomo (Kirundi)
Jalapa congesta Moench, Jalapa officinalis Chamorro: Maravilla
Garsault (Inval.), Mirabilis ambigua Trautv., Chinese: Xǐzǎo Huā, Zhǔfàn Huā, Yan Zhi
Mirabilis pedunculata Stokes, Mirabilis plani- Hua, Fen Dou Hua, Ye Fan Hua, Zhuang
flora Trautv., Mirabilis pubescens Zipp. ex Span., Yuan Hua, Ding Xiang Ye, Ku Ding Xiang,
Mirabilis suaveolens Billb. ex Beurl., Mirabilis Zi Mo Li
xalapa Noronha, Nyctago hortensis Juss. ex Chuukese: Apetin Woun, Kulok Elu, Pilooris,
Roem. & Schult., Nyctago jalapae (L.) DC., Pilores
Nyctago versicolor Salisb. (Illeg.) Cook Islands: Tiare Moe, ‘Ura‘Ura (Maori)
Czech: Nocenka Jalapovitá, Nocenka Zahradní
Danish: Vidunderblomst
Family Democratic Republic Of Congo: Kalofomo
(Kivu, Swahili)
Nyctaginaceae Estonian: Lõhnatu Imelill
Esperanto: Niktago
Fijian: Lalawavu, Lali Vau, Laweivou, Ronggolali,
Common/English Names Vakarau Ni Lali
Finnish: Ihmekukka
Beauty of the Night, Common Four O’Clock, French: Belle-De-Nuit
False Jalap, Four O’Clock, Four O’Clock Flower, German: Wunderblume
Four O’Clock Plant, Garden Jalap, Jalap Plant, Hawaiian: Nani Ahiahi, Pua Ahiahi, Puahiahi
Japanese Wonder Flower, Low Red Shrub, I-Kiribati: Marvel Of Te Aoaua, Te Aoaaua, Te
Marvel of Peru, Marvel of the World, Pearl of Aoaua, Te Aoua, Te Auaua, Te Awaaua, Te
Egypt, Prairie Four O’Clock, Pretty-by-Night Awaava, Te Awaawa

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 497
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_35, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
498 Nyctaginaceae

India: ‘Godhuli Gopal (Assamese), Sandhya- Bungga Ledonosko (Roti), Cako Rana
maloti, Sandhya Malati (Bengali), Gulabans, (Ternate), Loro Laka (Timor)
Gulabash, Gulabbas, Gule-Aabbas, Italian: Bella Di Notte, Bella-Di-Notte Comune
Guleaabbas (Hindi), Chandra Mallige, Japanese: Oshiroi-Bana
Chandra-Mallige, Chandramallige, Gulabaasa, Korean: Punkkot
Gulamaji, Gullumunchi, Kalluli, Madhyaana Madagascar: Belakariva (Betsileo), Folera,
Mallige, Madhyahna Mallige, Madhyanha Voampolera (Merina), Belakariva (Sakalawa)
Malligay, Madhyanhamallige, Naalku Gante Malaysia: Bunga Pukul Empat, Bunga Pecah
Hoo, Naalku Gante Hoovu, Naalku Ghante Empat, Bunga Wakyu Kecil, Kembang Dzohor,
Hoo, Sanja-Mallige, Sanjamallige, Sanje Kembang Lohor, Kembang Pukul Empat, Seroja
Amllige, Sanjimallige, Vibhoothi Gida Marshallese: Eman Aur, Eman Awa, Emân Awa,
(Kannada), Akashmuri, Meremdi (Konkani), Emãn-Awa, Emen Auö, Emen Aur
Sanjhaa Phool (Maithili), Andi-Malleri, Mokilese: Pohk Kiloak
Anthimalari, Anti-Malari, Anti-Mantaram, Nauruan: Teoua, Teowa
Antimalari, Antimantaram, Naalumani Poovu Nepal: Maritidhs, Nakajali (Gurung), Lankaphul,
(Malayalam), Emdraks, Gulabakshi, Lankasoni, Malati (Nepali), Labujana, Langasani
Gulbaashi, Gulbas, Meremdi, Saayankaali (Tamang), Barka Gurubands (Tharu)
(Marathi), Rangami (Oriya), Krishnakeli, Pakistan: Gul Abas (Urdu)
Krisnakeli, Sandhya-Raga, Sandhyakali Persian: Gule-Aabbas, Guli-Aabbas
(Sanskrit), Ammukkili, Andimalli, Peru: Jalapa, Maravilla
Andimalligai, Andimandarai, Annmalarntan, Philippines: A Las Cuatro, Maravillas, Oracion,
Anthi-Mallikai, Anthi Mandhaarai, Anti, Suspiros (Spanish–Filipino), Talang (Sulu),
Antimalakikacceti, Antimalarakikam, Gilala (Tagalog)
Antimalarantan, Antimalari, Antimallai, Pingelapan: Pesikulck
Antimalli, Antimallikai, Antimantarai, Pohnpeian: Pwohrkuloak
Antimantaram, Antinarulu, Antippu, Polish: Dziwaczek Jalapa, Dziwaczek Pospolity
Arukolacceti, Arukolam, Bhathrakshi, Cannata Popular Republic Of Congo: Bende (Mbaamba)
Vali, Cannatavali, Cantira Mallikai, Portuguese: Jalapa Verdadeira
Cantiramallikai, Civappuantimalli, Rakahanga-Manihiki: Tiare Nūmero
Kanankacikam, Kenta, Malai Antimalli, Samoan: Peteli
Malaiantimalligaicceti, Malaiyantimalli, Satawalese: Flores
Malaiyantimallikaicceti, Paruvaikkantam, Slovašcina: Navadna Nočna Lepotica, Sorta
Paruvatikantam, Patrashi, Pattarachi, Pattaracu, Spanish: Arrebolera, Clavellina, Buenas Tardes,
Pattarashu, Pattiraksi, Pattiratcam, Pattiratci, Dondiego, Dondiego De Noche, Hoja De
Ripuncakacceti, Ripuncakaceti, Ripuncakam, Xalapa, Jalapa Falsa, Maravilla, Maravilla Del
Taimilamuli, Taittilamuli, Taittilamulicceti, Perú, Mechoacán Negro, Pasana, Pericón, San
Tivacattiyacceti, Tivacattiyam, Tivacttiyaceti, Pedro
Tumpara Mallikai, Tumparamallikai (Tamil), Swedish: Underblomma
Badrakshi, Batharachi, Bhadraakshi, Sri Lanka: Hendirikka, Sendirika
Bhadrakshi, Bhandrakanta, Chandra-Kanta, Thai: Baan Yen, Dtôn Baan Yen, Dtôn Jan Yam,
Chandra-Kantha, Chandra-Mali, Chandra- Dtôn Jam Yam, Dtôn Dtaam Yam,
kaantha, Chandrakanta, Chandramalle, Dtôn-Dtee-Dtâa-Châo
Chandramalli (Telugu) Tongan: Matala Po‘Uli
Indonesia: Kupa Oras (Ambon), Noja (Bali), Tuamotuan: Numera
Kederat, Segerat, Segerat Tegerat (Java), Turkish: Akşam Sefası
Kembang Pagi Sore, Kembang Pukul Empat, Tuvaluan: Petel, Peteli
Bunga Waktu Kechil (Malay), Bunga-Bunga Ulithian: Gaelun
Paranggi (Makasar), Pukul Ampa (Minahasa), Vietnamese: Hoa Phấn, Bông Phấn, Sâm Ớt
Mirabilis jalapa 499

Origin/Distribution

M. jalapa is native to tropical south America but

has become naturalized throughout tropical and
warm temperate regions. In cooler temperate
areas, it will die back with the first frosts,
resprouting in the following spring from the
tuberous roots.

Agroecology Plate 1 Flowers, buds and leaves

The plant thrives in moderately fertile, moist but

well-drained, sandy, loamy or chalky soil in full
sun. It benefits from shelter from cold, drying
winds and a good mulch. Top growth is killed by
frost but the plant will resprout from the tubers
with the advent of spring.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Tender young leaves are cooked as a vegetable

(Tanaka 1976; Facciola 1990; Manandhar and
Manandhar 2002). An edible crimson dye is Plate 2 Flowers, leaves and fruit (black)
obtained from the flowers (Uphof 1968; Usher
1974; Tanaka 1976; Kunkel 1984) and is used 5-lobed, lobes triangular–ovate, acuminate, gla-
for colouring cakes and jellies (Facciola 1990). brous, persistent. Perianth purple, red, pink, yel-
The seed is crushed and used as a pepper sub- low, white or variegated (Plates 1 and 2);
stitute (Tanaka 1976; Kunkel 1984; Facciola five-lobed, fused into a tube 2–6 cm long, con-
1990). stricted above ovary; limb 2.5–3 cm in diameter,
spreading and deciduous. Stamens 5, filaments
slender, exserted and united at the base, anthers
Botany globose. Ovary superior, unilocular with a single
ovule, and surrounded by a nectariferous disc;
An erect, bushy, branched, glabrous or slightly style filiform with capitate stigma. Fruit a leath-
pubescent, perennial often grown as an annual ery ribbed, plicate, black, globose or ovoid
0.5–1 m high and wide, with blackish brown achene (Plate 2), 5–9 mm across with white
tuberous roots and fragrant flowers opening in mealy endosperm.
the late afternoon and closing in the morning.
Leaves are opposite, ovate or ovate–deltoid,
3–15 by 2–9 cm, base truncate or cordate, mar- Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
gin entire, apex acuminate and borne on 1–4 cm
petioles (Plates 1 and 2). Flowers regular, bisex- Flower Phytochemicals
ual and sweetly fragrant, usually several (3–5)
clustered at apex of branches and on 1–2 mm Eight betaxanthins were isolated from Mirabilis
pedicels. Involucre campanulate, about 1 cm, jalapa flowers: indicaxanthin, vulgaxanthin-I,
500 Nyctaginaceae

miraxanthin-I, miraxanthin-II, miraxanthin-III, other scent compounds as follows: monoterpe-

miraxanthin-IV, miraxanthin-V and miraxanthin- noids (myrcene 0.58 %, cis-β-ocimene 1.31 %,
VI (Piattelli et al. 1965). From Mirabilis jalapa trans-β-ocimene 38.10 %, allo-ocimene trace,
flowers, an aliphatic monocarboxylic acid (mira- unknown 3.12 %), sesquiterpenoids
balisoic acid) and a monocyclic homoditerpene (4,8-dimethyl-nona-1,3,7-triene 0.81 %,
(mirabalisol) were isolated and their structures α-farnesene 57.03 %, nerolidol 0.21 %, unknown
were established as n-tetracos-5-one-8-o1-24-oic 0.7 %), aliphatic compounds (cis-3-hexenyl ace-
acid and 10-(12, 16, 16-trimethyl cyclohexanyl)-4, tate 3.44 %, cis-3-hexen-1-ol 0.79 %, cis-3-
8-dimethyl decan-8-ol-10-one (Ali et al. 2001). hexenyl-2-methyl butanoate 0.43 %, cis-jasmone
A family of expansin transcripts that include 1.32 %) and benzenoids (methyl benzoate
seven α-expansins (MjExp1 through MjExp7) 0.44 %, benzyl acetate 5.31 %, methyl salicylate
and three β-expansins (MjExpB1 through 0.57 %, benzyl butanoate 0.27 %, benzyl alcohol
MjExpB3) were identified from Mirabilis jalapa 1.67 %, cis-3-hexenyl benzoate 0.27 % and ben-
flowers that showed dramatic changes in tran- zyl benzoate 3.63 %). Effmert et al. (2005) found
script abundance during the rapid expansion and β-myrcene, (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate, (Z)-ocimene,
subsequent senescence of the ephemeral flowers (4) (E)-β-ocimene, (5) (E)-epoxy-ocimene, ben-
(Gookin et al. 2003). Amino acid, carbohydrate, zyl benzoate and traces of methyl salicylate in the
lactone, organic acid, phenol and volatile oil floral volatiles.
were found in the water extracts of M. jalapa
flowers (Li and Tuerxunayi 2009). Phenol, cou-
marin, cardiac glycoside and flavonoid were Aerial Parts/Leaf Phytochemicals
obtained from the ethanol extracts of flowers and
lactone found in the petroleum flower extracts. The plant was reported to contain galactose and
Betaxanthins were detected in Mirabilis arabinose (Wehmer 1911). The alkaloid trigonel-
jalapa flowers by HPLC using a fluorescence line, with purgative action, was detected in the
detector (Gandía-Herrero et al. 2005). Another leaves and stems (Yoshimura and Trier 1912;
pathway involving UDP-glucose/cyclo-DOPA Zhou et al. 2013). The methanolic extract of the
5-O-glucosyltransferase activity was proposed aerial parts yielded β-sitosterol, stigmasterol,
by Sasaki et al. (2004) besides the postulated ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and brassicasterol
pathway for betacyanin biosynthesis in M. jalapa (Siddiqui et al. 1990). From the aerial plant parts,
flowers in which the glucose moiety of betanin the steroids brassicasterol, β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol
was conjugated to the aglycone, betanidin, as the acetate and stigmasterol; triterpenes oleanoic
glucosyltransferase activity that produced betanin acid, ursolic acid and 3-oxo-urs-12-en-28-oic
had been reported and its cDNA isolated. In this acid methyl ester; and diterpene trans-phytol
other pathway, betanin was proposed to be were found (Siddiqui et al. 1994).
formed by glucosyltransferase acting at the An active polyphenolic amide: N-trans-
5,6-dihydroxyindoline-2-carboxylic acid (cyclo- feruloyl 4′-O-methyldopamine was isolated from
DOPA) step, followed by condensation of the M. jalapa methanol extract (Michalet et al. 2007).
product with betalamic acid and not at the betani- The methanol plant extract of M. jalapa was
din aglycone step. found to contain the ether compound 3,3′-
The floral scent of M. jalapa was found to methylenebis(4-hydroxycoumarin) (17.07 %),
consist primarily of the monoterpene (E)-β- N-D-α-phenylglycine (38.76 %), laminaribiitol
ocimene with additional compounds such as (7.75 %), 3-(4-(dimethylamino)cinnamoyl)-
α-farnesene, (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and myrcene 4-hydroxycoumarin (16.89 %) and two unknown
(Heath and Manukian 1994; Levin et al. 2001; compounds (5.28 % and 10.26 %) (Mahalingam
Effmert et al. 2005). Heath and Manukian (1994) et al. 2012).
also reported the presence of indole and benzal- Light petroleum extract of M. jalapa leaves
dehyde, while Levin et al. (2001) detected 14 was found to contain hydrocarbon (17.8 %),
Mirabilis jalapa 501

ketones (18 %), alcohols (12.1 %), sterols 1.5–3.0 μm in diameter and had a pasting tem-
(21.2 %), acids (7 %) and an unidentified residue perature of 72.5 °C and an iodine affinity of
(23.9 %) (Behari et al. 1976). The compounds 3.6 %. The Bra-bender viscoamylogram and the
detected included campesterol, β-sitosterol, swelling pattern indicated the starch underwent
stigmasterol, n-dotriacontane, n-hentriacon- restricted swelling. The starch contained only
tane, n-triacontane, n-tricosane, tricosane-12-one, trace amounts of phosphate. The properties of
n-tritriacontane, n-tetracosane, n-tetratriacon- this isolated small-granule starch differed from
tane, n-pentacosane, n-pentatriacontane, n-hexa- other such starches reported in the literature.
cosane n-heptacosane, n-octacosane, n-nonasane, M. jalapa seeds yielded only 3.0 % of oil, of
hexacosan-1-ol and lignoceric acid. Presence of 0.70 g/mL density, 26.10 dynes/cm surface
valine, tryptophan, leucine, alanine, glycine, tar- tension and 169.5 millipoise viscosity at 20.5 °C
taric acid and citric acid was also detected in the (Uma Devi et al. 1983). The determined iodine
aqueous–ethanolic leaf extract. Amino acid, value was 80 and saponification value 172. It was
organic acid and phenol were found in the water found to have a high oleic content. A fatty acid,
extracts of leaves (Li and Tuerxunayi 2009). 8-hydroxyoctadeca-cis-11,14-dienoic acid, was
Flavonoid, phenol, coumarin, and anthraquinone found as a minor component in the seed oil of
were obtained from the ethanol extracts of leaves Mirabilis jalapa (Ahmad et al. 1984). In a sepa-
and steroid and terpenoid detected in the petro- rate study, Mirabilis jalapa seeds yielded 4–5 %
leum leaf extracts. The presence of alkaloids, fla- of fatty oil, comprising 18.3 % C16:0, 55.3 %
vanoids, phenols, glycosides, tannins, saponins C18:1, 11.5 % C18:2 and 14.9 % C18:3 (Patel
and lignins was detected in the methanol leaf and Patel 1985). β-Amyrin and β-amyrin 3-O-α-
extract of M. jalapa (Kumar et al. 2010). l-rhamnosyl-O-β-D-glucoside were found in the
The following compounds were identified in seeds (Saxena and Gupta 1986).
the bioactive fraction of the leaves: 4-phenyl- Two antimicrobial peptides, designated
tetrahydro-pyran-4-nyl-piperidinyl methanone; Mj-AMP1 and Mj-AMP2, were isolated from
threonine; isoquinoline-1-(3- benzyloxy M. jalapa seeds (Cammue et al. 1992). These
5-hydroxy benzyl)-N-formyl-1,2,3,4; 4-benzyloxy- peptides were highly basic and consist of 37 and
3-methoxy-2-nitro benzoic acid; oleic acid; 36 residues for Mj-AMP1 and Mj-AMP2, respec-
2,6,10 trimethyl dodecane; and 3,8 dimethyl dec- tively, and contained three disulphide bridges and
ane (Eneji et al. 2011). Aqueous and alcoholic differ from one another only by 4 amino acids.
leaf extracts were found to contain glycosides, The peptides associated into dimers in their
tannins, phenolic compounds, resins, alkaloids native form. A genomic gene for MAP, a
and proteins, while saponins and flavonoids were ribosome-inactivating protein from Mirabilis
not found (Mohammed 2013). The leaves of jalapa, was found to contain an intron (Kataoka
M. jalapa were also found to contain in μg/mL K et al. 1993). The cDNAs encoding the seed anti-
161.2, Ca 12, Na 19, Zn 14.2, Fe 18.7, Cd 0.8, Cu microbial peptides (AMPs) from Mirabilis jalapa
0.3 and Pb 0.1 μg/mL. (Mj-AMP2) had previously been characterized,
and it was found that Mj-AMP2 was processed
from a precursor preprotein (De Bolle et al.
Seed Phytochemicals 1995). The Mj-AMP1- and Mj-AMP2-encoding
genes were interrupted in their coding sequences
The cotyledon of the seed of Mirabilis jalapa by a single intron (380 bp and 900 bp for
was found to contain a D-glucan (Ghosh and Rao Mj-AMP1 and Mj-AMP2 genes, respectively).
1981). Both α- and β-D-glucosidic linkages were The processing, sorting and biological activity of
present in the polysaccharide, the former prepon- Mj-AMP2 wild-type gene construct and
derating. Starch was isolated from Mirabilis Mj-AMP2 mutant gene construct in transgenic
jalapa seed (Chang et al. 1983). The nearly tobacco were studied (De Bolle et al. 1996). The
spherical starch granules were approximately in vitro antifungal activity of the AMPs purified
502 Nyctaginaceae

from transgenic tobacco expressing any of the aurantiamide acetate, glycerin monoeicosate,
two different precursor proteins was similar to β-sitosterol and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic
that of the authentic proteins. However, none of acid (Zou 2007). Eleven compounds were iso-
the transgenic plants showed enhanced resistance lated from the roots and identified as astragalo-
against infection with either Botrytis cinerea or side II; astragaloside III; astragaloside IV;
Alternaria longipes. astragaloside VI; flazin; 4′-hydroxy-2,3-dihydro-
Proteins isolated from the ripe seeds of flavone 7-β-D-glucopyranoside; gingerglycolipid
Mirabilis jalapa showed both antifungal and anti- A; 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde; p-hydroxyben-
bacterial activities (Leelamanit et al. 2002). SDS- zaldehyde; β-sitosterol; and daucosterol (Lai et al.
PAGE analysis showed three major bands of 2008). GC/MS analysis of M. jalapa tubers
molecular weight of approximately 31, 24.5 and dichloromethane and methanol extracts showed
13 kDa that were proved to be glycoproteins. that oleic acid and β-sitosterol were, respectively,
Mirabilis jalapa trypsin inhibitors, MJTI I and the major compounds (Hajji et al. 2010). LC/MS
II, were isolated from the seeds (Kowalska et al. analysis of the aqueous extract showed a high
2007). Their primary structures differed from content of flavanol and flavonol compounds.
those of known trypsin inhibitors but showed sig- Phenolic acids such as ferulic and caffeic acid were
nificant similarity to the antimicrobial peptides also detected. The total phenolic and flavonoid
isolated from the seeds of M. jalapa (Mj-AMP1, contents varied from 21.45 to 364.6 mg gallic acid
Mj-AMP2), Mesembryanthemum crystallinum equivalent (GAE)/g dried extract and 5.2–71.6 mg
(AMP1) and Phytolacca americana (AMP-2 and quercetin/g dried extract, respectively.
PAFP-S) and from the haemolymph of Acrocinus The protein MAP, which is active against
longimanus (Alo-1, 2 and 3). mechanical transmission of plant viruses, was
purified to homogeneity from M. jalapa roots
(Takanami et al. 1990). MAP was found to be a
Root/Tuber Phytochemicals lysine-rich, basic simple protein having an iso-
electric point of 9.8 and containing no sugar moi-
The roots were reported to the alkaloid trigonel- ety and made up of a polypeptide chain of approx.
line (Yoshimura and Trier 1912) and oxymethyl- 24–200 MW. Mirabilis antiviral protein (MAP)
anthraquinone (Maurin 1925; Jayaweera 1982). was also purified from root tubers of M. jalapa by
A neutral polysaccharide was isolated from the Wong et al. (1992) and crystal of MAP obtained
roots (Ray et al. 1988). The following sterols by Miyano et al. (1992).
were found in the roots: stigmasterol, β-sitosterol
(Stanic et al. 1988) and triterpenes: α-amyrin and
α-amyrin acetate (Begum et al. 1994). Callus/Culture Phytochemicals
Four new rotenoids named mirabijalones A–D,
together with 9-O-methyl-4-hydroxyboeravinone Mirabilis anti-plant viral protein (MAP) was
B, boeravinone C, boeravinone F and 1,2,3,4- found in M. jalapa suspension-cultured cells
tetrahydro-1-methylisoquinoline-7,8-diol, were (Ikeda et al. 1987). The MAP content of cultured
isolated from Mirabilis jalapa roots (Wang cells reached the highest level (0.6 mg/g dry
et al. 2002). The rotenoids boeravinone B, weight) on the 9th day after inoculation, which
boeravinone E and mirabijalone B were isolated was less than one-third of the content of the roots
from the roots (Xu et al. 2010). Four com- but three times larger than that of the leaves. The
pounds, 2,5-dioxoimidazolidin-4-yl-urea, glycerin MAP content of the Mirabilis jalapa cell strain
monoeicosate, boeravinone and β-sitosterol, were H9-52 obtained in the 9th selection was 6.3 mg/g
isolated from 75 % ethanol extract of the roots dry weight which was about 3 times that of the
(Wei et al. 2003). The following compounds were root and was about 20 times that of the original
isolated from the roots: chrysophanol, physcion, cells (Ikeda et al. 1988a, b). MAP was also iso-
stigmasterol, mirabijalone A, boeravinone C, lated from the strain H8-50, and its anti-plant
Mirabilis jalapa 503

viral activity was the same level as that of the nolic compounds and tannins. The total flavonoid
root. The MAP productivity of strain H8-50 was content of the extract was found to be 4.41 mg/g.
maintained during 14 successive subculturings. M. jalapa ethanol leaf extract showed high activ-
Callus, suspension and immobilized cell cul- ity in reducing iron chloride solution, and it
tures of M. jalapa on Murashige–Skoog medium also exhibited high antioxidant activity in
synthesized both extracellular and intracellular 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical
protease (Tamer and Mavituna 1997). When scavenging test with IC50 value of 0.84 mg/mL
compared with the leaves of the original plant, (Oladunmoye 2012).
the proteolytic enzyme activity was 54- and The total phenolic content (TPC), total flavo-
36-fold higher in the cell suspension and the cal- noid content (TFC), ferric reducing/antioxidant
lus cultures, respectively. Some of the sucrose power (FRAP) and scavenging activities of dif-
was converted to glucose and fructose by the cul- ferent solvent extract of M. jalapa seed against
tures, and all three sugars were consumed simul- DPPH and OH radical were in the following
taneously. Suspension and immobilized cultures order: ethyl acetate > ethanol > methanol > water
also produced ethanol during batch cultivation. (Wang and Dai 2012). The TPC of ethyl acetate
Three phenolic compounds, the isoflavone extract was 4.24 mg GAE/g of dry power weight
2′-O-methyl abronisoflavone and dehydrorot- (DPW) and TFC 0.39 mg RE/g DPW. Ethyl ace-
enoid 9-O-methyl-4-hydroxyboeravinone B and tate extract exhibited high free radical scaveng-
rotenoid 6-methoxy boeravinone C, were iso- ing rate; IC50 of DPPH and OH assay were
lated from M. jalapa plant cell culture (Yang 6.62 mg DPW/mL and 3.49 mg DPW/mL,
et al. 2001). respectively. The TPC values and IC50 obtained
from DPPH assay and FRAP assay were highly
correlated with correlation of determination
Antioxidant Activity (R2 = 0.9878, R2 = 0.9419).

Water extract of Mirabilis jalapa tubers was the

most potent antioxidant in all assays used, Antidiabetic/Hypoglycaemic
followed by methanol extract (Hajji et al. 2010). and Hypolipidaemic Activities
The total phenolic and flavonoid contents varied
from 21.45 to 364.6 mg gallic acid equivalent Repeated administrations to mice pre- and post-
(GAE)/g dried extract and 5.2–71.6 mg streptozotocin induction with 4 and 8 g/kg ethanolic
quercetin/g dried extract, respectively. The aerial root extract of Mirabilis jalapa continually low-
parts (stem bark and leaves) and the root methanol ered blood glucose level, decreased serum insulin
extracts of Mirabilis jalapa exhibited antioxidant level and improved insulin sensitivity index, and
activity in the ABTS+ (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethyl lowered serum total cholesterol, triglyceride lev-
benzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) and DPPH els and triglyceride content in liver and skeletal
(1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) free radical muscle and increased glycogen content in these
scavenging assays (Zachariah et al. 2011). The tissues; but repeated administration had no influ-
extracts showed the presence of alkaloids, tan- ence on those indexes of normal mice (Zhou
nins, phytosterols, triterpenoids and flavonoids in et al. 2012b). The results suggested that ethanolic
significantly detectable amounts. M. jalapa plant root extract of M. jalapa possessed potential
exhibited significant antioxidant properties in insulin sensitivity, hypoglycaemic and hypolipi-
various in vitro models like hydrogen peroxide daemic effects on diabetes. In a separate study,
scavenging method and reducing power assay fasting blood glucose level in normoglycaemic,
and could serve as a free radical inhibitor or scav- streptozotocin-induced hyperglycaemic rats and
enger (Zachariah et al. 2012b). Preliminary phy- in oral glucose tolerance test showed a significant
tochemical screening revealed the presence of decrease at defined time points after administra-
alkaloids, flavonoids and polyphenols like phe- tion of the hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts
504 Nyctaginaceae

of Mirabilis jalapa, while the observed biochemi- rabbit aortic muscle (EC50 = 11.60 μg/mL) in a
cal and physical parameters showed a good agree- concentration-dependent manner (Aoki et al.
ment with antihyperglycaemic property of the 2008). These effects were not due to either ace-
extract (Prakash et al. 2012). Treatment with tylcholine or histamine receptor blockage, inosi-
trigonelline, a compound from M. jalapa, signifi- tol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3), cyclic nucleotides
cantly decreased blood glucose, total choles- cAMP and cGMP, Ca2+ release from intracellular
terol and triglyceride levels of diabetic rats storage or protein kinase-mediated contraction–
induced by streptozotocin and a high-carbohy- relaxation mechanisms. The effects elicited by
drate/high-fat diet (Zhou et al. 2013). Pancreas-to- the Mirabilis jalapa extract may involve a sero-
body weight ratio, insulin level, insulin sensitivity toninergic mechanism, which, in turn, interacted
index, insulin content in pancreas, malonalde- with other adrenergic systems.
hyde and nitric oxide contents and superoxide
dismutase, catalase, glutathione and inducible
nitric oxide synthase activities were altered in Central Nervous System/
diabetic rats and were near control levels when Antinociceptive Activity
treated with trigonelline. The findings suggested
that trigonelline had beneficial effect for diabetes The crude hydroethanolic extract from M. jalapa
through decreasing blood glucose and lipid levels, leaves (CrdL) was more potent than the crude
increasing insulin sensitivity index and insulin extract from stems (CrdS) to inhibit abdominal
content, up-regulating antioxidant enzyme activ- constrictions induced by acetic acid, with ID50
ity and decreasing lipid peroxidation. Studies by values of 5.5 (2.3–13.1) and 18.0 (11.3–28.5)
Ghule et al. (2012) found that trigonelline ame- mg/kg, respectively (Walker et al. 2008). Among
liorated diabetic hypertensive nephropathy by the fractions tested, the ethanol fraction from
suppression of oxidative stress in kidney and leaves (Eta) was more effective (maximal inhibi-
reduction in renal cell apoptosis and fibrosis in tion of 83 %) and potent (ID50 of 1.1 (0.6–2.1)
streptozotocin-induced neonatal diabetic rats. mg/kg) to induce antinociception. Eta and CrdL
also possessed an antinociceptive effect in the
tail-flick test. Pre-treatment with naloxone did
Spasmolytic/Spasmodic Activity not modify the antinociceptive effect of Eta, but
co-administration with atropine completely pre-
Of eight medicinal plant extracts, M. jalapa and vented it. This suggests that the antinociceptive
Satureja macrostema extracts exhibited highest effect might depend on the cholinergic system.
inhibitory activity on jejunum muscular contrac- Eta did not alter locomotor activity, body tem-
tility with concentrations (IC50) of 18 and 73 μg/ perature, gastrointestinal transit and did not pro-
mL, respectively (Arroyo et al. 2004). Flowers duce gastric lesions. The study suggested that
(petals, calices and buds) of M. jalapa were the Mirabilis jalapa possessed antinociceptive activ-
most active part of the plant. A semi-purified ity in mice, which supported its folkloric use as
sample of the flowers was found to be about five an analgesic.
times more active than the crude extract. Trigonelline, an alkaloid found in M. jalapa
Furthermore, β-sitosterol, a compound reported and fenugreek, had been reported to have ben-
as constitutive of M. jalapa, showed no effect on eficial effects in the treatment of diabetes and
jejunum contractility. central nervous system disease (Zhou et al.
The flower extract of Mirabilis jalapa 2012a). Trigonelline had been reported to possess
(1–1,000 μg/mL) exhibited an inhibitory effect hypoglycaemic, hypolipidaemic, neuroprotective,
(IC50 = 18 μg/mL) on gut smooth muscle contrac- antimigraine, sedative, memory-improving, anti-
tility, whereas it stimulated the contraction of bacterial, antiviral and antitumour activities.
Mirabilis jalapa 505

Anti-inflammatory/Anti-allergic/ from M. jalapa leaves was shown to be more

Antiasthmatic/Antiarthritic Activities cytotoxic to HeLa cell line (LC50 = 0.65 mg/mL)
than to Raji cell line (1.815 mg/mL) after 48 h
The aqueous leaf extract of M. jalapa was found incubation (Ikawati et al. 2003). It was demon-
to possess significant anti-inflammatory potential strated that the death of HeLa cells caused by RIP
(Singh et al. 2010). The aqueous extract showed was due to induction of apoptosis, while death of
significant inhibition of paw oedema, 37.5 % and Raji cell line was not due to apoptosis, presumably
54.0 % on the 4th hour at the doses of 200 and via necrosis. The 30 kDa protein fraction with
400 mg/kg, respectively, in the carrageenan- properties of ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP)
induced paw model in Wistar albino rats. Similar was isolated from Mirabilis jalapa leaves and
pattern of paw oedema inhibition 32.9 % and named MJ-30 (Ikawati et al. 2006). MJ-30 exhib-
43.0 % on the 4th day at the doses of 200 and ited cytotoxicity against breast cancer T47D cell
400 mg/kg, respectively, was seen in formalin- and cervical cancer SiHa cell lines, and the LC50
induced paw oedema model. values were 0.36 μg/mL and 5.6 μg/mL, respec-
The effect of an ethanol to acetone (1:1) extract tively. In normal cells, represented by human
of M. jalapa roots (0.5 mL of 100 mg/mL) inhib- mononuclear cells, MJ-30 was considerably less
ited histamine-induced guinea pig tracheal chain toxic, with an LC50 of 21.04 μg/mL.
contractions noncompetitively (Maxia et al. The petroleum ether extract of M. jalapa bark
2010). The extract (100 or 200 mg/kg i.p.) inhib- showed significant cytotoxic activity with the
ited milk-induced eosinophilia, albumin-induced LC50 value 8.12 μg/mL compared to vincristine
paw oedema and protected mast cells against sulphate (LC50 0.33 μg/mL) in the brine shrimp
clonidine-induced granulation in mice. The results lethality bioassay (Rumzhum et al. 2008). On the
supported the folkloric use of M. jalapa in the other hand, the methanol crude extract of the bark
treatment of allergic diseases and asthma. showed mild antioxidant activity with the IC50
The alcoholic leaf extract at the dose of value 598.02 μg/mL compared to ascorbic acid
300 mg/kg p.o. and successive petroleum ether (IC50 70.985 μg/mL) in the 1,1-diphenyl-2-
fraction at the dose of 200 mg/kg exhibited sig- picrylhydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) free radical scav-
nificant anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan- enging assay.
induced paw oedema model (Nath et al. 2010). The rotenoids boeravinone B, boeravinone E
Hydroethanolic flower extract of Mirabilis jalapa and mirabijalone B isolated from the roots exhib-
significantly suppressed the paw oedema in both ited cytotoxic activity against tumour cell lines
formaldehyde-induced and complete Freund’s tested (Xu et al. 2010).
adjuvant (CFA)-induced arthritic models in
Wistar rats (Augustine et al. 2013). Body weight
and haematological and antioxidant changes in Antimicrobial Activity
the CFA arthritic rats were restored to normal.
The ethanol extract of the plant (Oskay and Sari
2007) and extract of the seed powder had been
Anticancer/Cytotoxicity Activity reported to have antibacterial activity (Kusamba
et al. 1991). The antimicrobial peptides Mj-AMPs
Mirabilis antiviral protein (MAP) was demon- isolated from M. jalapa seeds exhibited a broad
strated to possess inhibitory effect on cell-free spectrum of antifungal activity since they are
protein synthesis and antiproliferative effect on active against all 13 tested plant pathogenic fungi
tumour cells (Wong et al. 1992). Proteins isolated (Cammue et al. 1992). Concentrations required
from the ripe seeds of Mirabilis jalapa exhibited for 50 % inhibition of fungal growth vary from 6
potent anticancer activity to permanent cell lines to 300 μg/mL for Mj-AMP1 and from 0.5 to
L929 (mouse fibroblasts) (Leelamanit et al. 20 μg/mL for Mj-AMP2. These peptides were
2002). The ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) also active on two tested Gram-positive bacteria
506 Nyctaginaceae

but were apparently nontoxic for Gram-negative the most effective with minimum inhibitory
bacteria and cultured human cells. Although the concentration <200 μg/mL against Staphylococcus
Mj-AMPs showed sequence similarity to mu- aureus, Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas
agatoxins, a class of insecticidal neurotoxic pep- aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus
tides isolated from the venom of spiders, they did cereus and Enterococcus faecalis (Hajji et al.
not affect pulse transmission in insect nerves. 2010). Only water extract showed antifungal
Mj-AMPs, antimicrobial peptides from Mirabilis activity against Aspergillus niger, Fusarium
jalapa seeds, showed significant sequence simi- solani, Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium
larities with PAFP-S, antifungal peptides from granularium.
Phytolacca americana seeds, and were found to Leaf extracts of Mirabilis jalapa exhibited
belong to the knottin-type antimicrobial peptide antimicrobial effect in vitro against
(Shao et al. 1999). Proteins isolated from the ripe Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epider-
seeds of Mirabilis jalapa showed both antifungal midis, Bacillus subtilis, Gram-negative Escherichia
and antibacterial activities (Leelamanit et al. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella
2002). The antibacterial activity of crude pro- pneumoniae and against the fungus Candida
teins was tested against Staphylococcus aureus, albicans (Muthumani et al. 2009). The ethanolic
Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and Salmonella leaf extract of Mirabilis jalapa was found to be
typhimurium and was only active against B. sub- inhibitory in vitro to the disease-causing enteric
tilis at protein concentration of 0.37 mg/disc. pathogens Salmonella typhi and Bacillus cereus
Three phenolic compounds, the isoflavone (Eneji et al. 2011). The ethanol leaf extract
2′-O-methyl abronisoflavone, dehydrorotenoid showed highest antimicrobial effect in vitro
9-O-methyl-4-hydroxyboeravinone B and rotenoid against some of the tested pathogenic bacteria,
6-methoxy boeravinone C, were identified as the Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis and
principal antifungal principles from this plant Salmonella typhi, in descending order, followed
cell culture with IC50’s of 25 and 48 μg/mL, by the methanol extract (Akintobi et al. 2011).
respectively, against the test organism, Candida Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and
albicans (Yang et al. 2001). The rotenoid was Klebsiella pneumoniae were resistant to the eth-
inactive at 200 μg/mL in this assay. anol extract. The ethanol leaf extract exhibited
An active polyphenolic amide, N-trans- antimicrobial activity in vitro against Klebsiella
feruloyl 4′-O-methyldopamine, isolated from pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escheri
M. jalapa methanol extract exhibited moderate chia coli, Clostridium botulinum, Bacillus cereus,
activity as an efflux pump inhibitor (EPI) against Staphylococcus aureus and fungi Aspergillus fla-
multidrug-resistant (MDR) Staphylococcus vus, Aspergillus niger and Candida sp.
aureus overexpressing the multidrug efflux trans- (Oladunmoye 2012). Generally bacteria were
porter NorA, causing an eightfold reduction of found to be more susceptible to the extract than
norfloxacin MIC at 292 μM (100 μg/mL) fungi.
(Michalet et al. 2007). Aqueous extracts of Ethanol extract of M. jalapa leaves exhibited
Mirabilis jalapa (white-, cream-, yellow- and antimicrobial activity against all tested biofilm-
pink-flowered plants) did not display any inhibition producing uropathogenic Escherichia coli
to Staphylococcus aureus (Naveed et al. 2010, (UPEC) strains, whereas it inhibited only the
2011). However, the ethanolic extract of only extended spectrum beta lactamase (ESBL)-
white-flowered plant showed good antibacterial producing UPEC strains 42 and 96 (Poovendran
activity (54 %) against S. aureus, while that of the et al. 2011). Similarly, the acetone extract of
other three colours, i.e. cream, yellow and pink, M. jalapa leaves inhibited the growth of biofilm-
did not show any inhibitory activity. The methanol producing UPEC strains 1, 17 and 82, whereas it
leaf extract of M. jalapa inhibited in vitro growth inhibited only the ESBL-producing UPEC strains
of Staphylococcus aureus (MIC 39 μg/mL) and 42 and 96. Mirabilis jalapa was found to possess
Aspergillus flavus (MIC 45 μg/mL) (Kumar et al. antibacterial potential (Zachariah et al. 2012b).
2010). Water extract of M. jalapa tubers was Its methanol plant extract displayed a wide
Mirabilis jalapa 507

spectrum of inhibition against Gram-positive and changed to Leu) was found to be similar to that of
Gram-negative bacteria in vitro, in particular native MAP. Both purified Y72F and Y118F had
against Pseudomonas sp. The aqueous and alco- the same effect as native MAP, and E168D had a
holic leaf extracts of M. jalapa were found to be slightly weaker effect. In contrast, on the protein
inhibitory to growth of Staphylococcus aureus, synthesis of E. coli, Y118F had one-tenth the
E. coli and Proteus mirabilis (Mohammed 2013). effect of native MAP, and Y72F and E168D
approximately one-hundredth the effect. These
three variant proteins also exhibited reduced RNA
Antiviral Activity N-glycosidase activity on substrate E. coli ribo-
somes. These results suggested that Tyr-72 and
Mirabilis anti-plant viral protein (MAP) was Glu-168 were involved in RNA N-glycosidase
highly effective in preventing viral infection activity. Kataoka et al. (1991) cloned a cDNA for
caused by contact-transmitted virus and that cul- Mirabilis antiviral protein (MAP), a ribosome-
tured cells of M. jalapa also produced MAP (Ikeda inactivating protein (RIP), that inhibited the
et al. 1987, 1988a, b). Mirabilis antiviral protein mechanical transmission of plant virus and the in
(MAP) was purified from root tubers of M. jalapa vitro protein synthesis of both prokaryotes and
(Wong et al. 1992). MAP was found to be a type I eukaryotes. The cDNA consisted of 1,066 nucleo-
ribosome-inactivating protein. Among the rot- tides and could encode 278 amino acids. The
enoids isolated from the roots, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro- major part of the amino acid sequence (from
1-methylisoquinoline-7,8-diol showed a 48 % Ala29 to Ser278) was identical with the sequence
inhibition against HIV-1 reverse transcriptase at of native MAP as determined by protein sequenc-
210 μg/mL (Wang et al. 2002). ing. MAP precursor also appeared to inhibit the
protein synthesis of E. coli just as native MAP had
been observed to do.
Protein Synthesis Inhibitory/ Activities of ribosome-inactivating proteins
Ribosome-Inactivating Activity (RIPs), currently classified as rRNA N-glycosylases,
were highest in seed; intermediate in flower bud,
Mirabilis antiviral protein (MAP), a ribosome- immature seed, sepal+gynoecium, leaf and root;
inactivating protein, exhibits inhibitory effects on and very low in all other tissues of M. jalapa
both eukaryotic and prokaryotic protein synthesis (Bolognesi et al. 2002). MAP depurinated not only
in vitro (Habuka et al. 1990). MAP was found to rRNA in intact ribosomes, thus inhibiting protein
inhibit plant virus infection, the in vitro protein synthesis, but also other polynucleotides such as
synthesis of rabbit reticulocyte and wheat germ. It poly(A), DNA and tobacco mosaic virus RNA.
further showed an IC50 concentration of approxi- Autologous DNA was depurinated more exten-
mately 200 nM in an Escherichia coli in vitro sively than other polynucleotides. Therefore, the
translation system in contrast to ricin A chain, enzymatic activity of this protein may be better
a well-known ribosome-inactivating protein. described as adenine polynucleotide glycosylase
Escherichia coli ribosome was found to be inacti- activity rather than rRNA N-glycosylase activity.
vated by Mirabilis antiviral protein (MAP) which Further, MAP did not cross-react immunologically
cleaved the N-glycosidic bond at A2660 of 23S with other commonly utilized RIPs.
ribosomal RNA (Habuka et al. 1991). Mirabilis
antiviral protein (MAP) inactivated both eukary-
otic and prokaryotic ribosomes by means of site- Wound Healing Activity
specific RNA N-glycosidase activity (Habuka
et al. 1992). When the in vitro protein synthesis of In the excision wound and dead space wound
rabbit reticulocyte was treated with MAP variants models, significant wound healing was
secreted into culture media of Escherichia coli observed in Wistar albino rats treated with
transformants, the inhibitory effect of R26L and M. jalapa tuberous root extract as compared to
R48L (R26L designates MAP variant with Arg-26 control (Gogoi et al. 2013). A significant
508 Nyctaginaceae

increase in rate of wound contraction, a Anthelmintic Activity

decrease in colony-forming unit (CFU) count
and a decrease in epithelialization period were The methanolic extracts of M. jalapa aerial parts
observed in 5 and 10 % of treated groups as at 80 % w/v concentration were found to be
compared to control. A significant increase in potent as anthelmintic giving shortest time of
hydroxyproline content and up-regulated paralysis and death of the test worm Pheretima
expression of collagen type III were observed posthuma in a dose-dependent manner (Zachariah
in treated groups as compared to control which et al. 2012a). This was postulated to be due to the
was supported by histological evidences. The presence of flavonoids, glycosides and tannins in
results validated its traditional use in wounds the extracts. The methanolic extract caused paral-
and inflammation. ysis in 12.6 min and death in 13.5 min. The refer-
ence drug albendazole showed the same at 2.3
and 3.24 min.
Blood Clotting Activity

Studies found that the seed extract of M. jalapa Traditional Medicinal Uses
elicited a decrease in prothrombin time, a
decrease in activated partial thromboplastin The root is aphrodisiac, diuretic and purgative
time, a decrease in bleeding time and pro- and used in the treatment of dropsy (Uphof
longed blood clotting time in rabbits (Alam 1968; Usher 1974; Duke and Ayensu 1985;
et al. 2012). The bleeding time in the high- Chopra et al. 1986). The tuberous root is a mild
dose-treated rabbits was 79.1 s compared to purgative and the fresh juice of the leaves is
95.6 s in the control group. The clotting time applied to the body to allay heat and itching
was 103.9 s in control group compared to 121.7 (urticaria) arising from dyspepsia (Jayaweera
in the low-dose group and 115 s in the high- 1982). In Nepal, a paste of the root is applied as
dose group. Prothrombin time was 9.0 s in a poultice to treat scabies and muscular swell-
the control group versus 8.7 in the high-dose ings; root juice is used in the treatment of diar-
group. Activated partial thromboplastin time rhoea, indigestion and fevers, and powdered
was 25.2 s in control group and 23.4 s in the high- root, baked with corn flour, is employed for the
dose groups. treatment of menstrual disorders (Manandhar
and Manandhar 2002). The leaves are deemed
diuretic (Manandhar and Manandhar 2002); an
Haemolytic Activity infusion of the leaves is prescribed as a diuretic
for dropsy (Jayaweera 1982) and used to reduce
M. jalapa ethanol leaf extract was found to inflammation (Chopra et al. 1986). Bruised
lyse blood cells in the haemolytic assay leaves are used for poulticing boils and abscesses
(Oladunmoye 2012). The observed haemolytic (Jayaweera 1982), and leaf decoction is used to
ability of the extract could be associated with treat abscesses and leaf juice is used to treat
the presence of constituents like saponins, tan- wounds (Duke and Ayensu 1985).
nins and cardioglycosides. According to Burkill (1966), crushed leaves
are used in India and Java for poulticing boils and
abscesses and juice used for uterine discharges.
Abortifacient Activity Leaf juice is prescribed internally in a mixture for
gonorrhoea in the Medical Book of Malayan
Besides its antiviral property, Mirabilis antiviral Medicine. The tubers are employed as a purgative
protein (MAP) was demonstrated to possess in Europe, and in western India, the dried root is
abortifacient activity in pregnant mice (Wong given with milk as a strengthening medicine.
et al. 1992). Pounded seeds are used in Peninsular Malaysia
Mirabilis jalapa 509

and elsewhere by Chinese and Japanese women powder decoction is used with sugar in chicken
for making cosmetic powder and are believed to soup as a purgative (Boiteau and Allorge-Boiteau
remove acne, hence their appellation of ‘ubat jer- 1993). Root pulp diluted in palm oil is used as
awat’. Citing Rumpf, Burkill (1966) reported that local topical application for local application
powdered root is employed with rice powder and swellings in Popular Republic of Congo (Bouquet
sandalwood for the same purpose by Spanish 1969). In Burundi, the whole ripe fruit is dried,
women in Ternate and the juice of white flowers powdered and used locally for wounds (Baerts
applied on the face when going out in the sun. and Lehmann 1989). In Benin, powdered dried
The Malays use the plant to treat influenza, fever roots are used to treat female sterility, and leaves
and inflammation, and the Chinese used it for are used as a magical charm in a sauce with belly
diabetes (Herbal Medicine Research Center of beef, fruits of Piper guineense and palm oil
2002). In Thailand, seed powder is used to treat (Adjanohoun et al. 1989).
infections (Stuart 2012).
The indigenous people of Mexico use
Mirabilis jalapa to cure many infirmities includ- Other Uses
ing dysentery, diarrhoea, muscular pain and
abdominal colic (Aoki et al. 2008). Mirabilis This species is used as a medicinal herb and as an
jalapa leaf infusions or decoctions are used as ornamental in pots or in the ground.
traditional folk medicine in the south of Brazil to A protein designated as MAP (Mirabilis
treat inflammatory and painful diseases (Walker antiviral protein) was highly active against
et al. 2008; Singh et al. 2010). Mirabilis jalapa is mechanical transmission of tobacco mosaic
extensively used for treatment of dysentery and tobamovirus (TMV), cucumber green mottle
vaginal discharge and as a laxative (purgative) mosaic tobamovirus, potato Y potyvirus, turnip
by Mexican people (Encarnacion et al. 1998; mosaic potyvirus and cucumber mosaic cucumo-
Marquez et al. 1999) and for treatment of diar- virus (Kubo et al. 1990). Almost complete inhibi-
rhoea, muscular pain and abdominal colic by tion was achieved when MAP at 0.8 μg/mL was
people in the Easter Island, Guatemala and Brazil applied to the upper surface of Xanthi nc tobacco
(Holdsworth 1992; Comerford 1996; Moreira leaves 24 h before TMV inoculation and 50 %
1996). In Brazil, Kayapo Indians inhale the pow- inhibition with MAP at 10 μg/mL on the under-
dered dried flowers as a snuff for headaches; the surface. The content of MAP was much higher in
Assurani Indians grate the tuberous seeds and the root than in other plant parts and that of a
drink it for intestinal parasites. Indigenous yellow flower variant of M. jalapa reached
Peruvian people use a root decoction as a diuretic; 1.1 mg/g fresh wt. M. jalapa appeared to be a
the Shipibo–Conibo Indians put the flowers in promising source of antiviral substances for
baths to treat colds and flu (Oladunmoye 2012). practical use. In another study, root extracts of
In the United States, the plant is used for mumps M. jalapa containing Mirabilis antiviral protein
and bone fractures and as a uterine stimulant to (MAP) sprayed on potato plants 24 h before virus
hasten childbirth (Simpson and Orgazaly 1986). or viroid inoculation inhibited infection by
The roots of Mirabilis jalapa are used tradi- almost 100 %, as corroborated by infectivity
tionally in allergic skin disorders and asthma assays and the nucleic acid spot hybridization
(Maxia et al. 2010). M. jalapa was one of many test (Vivanco et al. 1999). Antiviral activity of
plants used for the treatment of gonorrhoea in MAP extracts was observed against mechani-
Guatemala (Cáceres et al. 1995). In Kivu, cally transmitted viruses but not against aphid-
Democratic Republic of Congo, powder of the transmitted viruses. Purified MAP showed the
seeds is employed for conjunctivitis, and juice same antiviral effect as the crude extracts.
of the flower and scrapings of banana stem is Mirabilis jalapa flower extract was found to
used for cataracts in animals (Balagizi et al. have use as a natural indicator in different types
2005). In Madagascar, washed root or root of acid–base titrations (Shishir et al. 2008). This
510 Nyctaginaceae

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economical, simple and accurate.
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Mirabilis jalapa roots. Plant Dis 83(12):1116–1121 27(3):279–287
Walker CIB, Trevisan G, Rossato MF, Franciscato C, Zou JL (2007) Study on the antidiabetic chemical con-
Pereira ME, Ferreira J, Manfron MP (2008) stituents of Mirabilis jalapa L. Master’s thesis,
Antinociceptive activity of Mirabilis jalapa in mice. J Guangdong College of Pharmacy, China. http://www.
Ethnopharmacol 120(2):169–175 dissertationtopic.net/doc/714734
 Nymphaea lotus

Scientific Name Burkina Faso: Béli

Burmese: Kra
Nymphaea lotus L. Catalan: Lotus Egipci
Czech: Leknín Posvátný
Democratic Republic of Congo: Mitoko-Toko,
Synonyms Kilonga-Longa (Kikongo)
French: Lotier d’Egypte, Lotus Tigré, Nénuphar
Castalia edulis Salisb., Castalia lotus Tratt., Blanc
Castalia mystica Salisb., Castalia pubescens German: Ägyptische Lotosblume, Weiße
Wood, Castalia sacra Salisb., Leuconymphaea Ägyptische Seerose, Weißer Ägyptischer Lotus
lotus Kuntze, Nymphaea dentata Schumach. & Tigerlotus
Thonn., Nymphaea liberiensis A. Chev. Ghana: Kùlchí (Dagomba)
India: Kumud (Hindi), Aambal, Alli (Tamil)
Japanese: Nettai Suiren
Family Korean: Sulyeon
Madagascar: Agoagga, Retsimilana, Voahirana
Nymphaeaceae Niger: Bödo (Beriberi), Nénuphar (Local French),
Bâdo (Hausa), Baloli (Peuhl), Tikindint
(Tamacheck), Dundu (Zarma)
Common/English Names Nigeria: Ira, Osibata (Yoruba)
Norwegian: Bokmål
Egyptian Lotus, Egyptian White Water Lily, Polish: Grzybienie Egipskie
Tiger Lotus White Egyptian Lotus, White Lotus, Portuguese: Golfão-Vermelho
White Water Lily Senegal: Agname (Niominka), Bakoyo (Socé)
Serbian: Egyptowska Lotoska
Slovencina: Lekno Egyptské
Vernacular Names Spanish: Lirio De Agua Egipcio. Loto
Sri Lanka: Olu (Sinhala), Ambal (Tamil)
Angola: Mbandu (Kimbundu) Sudan: Suteib
Arabic: Bashneen Abiad Swedish: Egyptisk Vitlotus
Benin: Sotodyame (Peul) Thai: Bua Kin Saai
Brazzaville: Itookopeli (Akwa), Biloolonga Uganda: Lora
(Laadi) Vietnamese: Súng

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 514
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_36, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Nymphaea lotus 515

Origin/Distribution

N. lotus is native to Egypt, central and west

Africa and Madagascar.

Agroecology

It is found in slow-moving rivers, streams,

marshes, lakes and fresh and stagnant ponds in its
native range.

Plate 1 Leaves and flower

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The flower stalks (Plate 3) are edible, raw or cooked

(Hedrick 1972; Tanaka 1976; Pongpangan and
Poobrasert 1985; Facciola 1990). In Thailand, the
flower stalks eaten raw with chilli sauce or added to
‘kaeng som’ (sweet and sour curry), cooked with
mackerel in curry or fried with pork, prawns or
shrimp (JIRCAS 2010). Fishing communities in
the Kanji Lake basin, Nigeria, use leaves, petioles,
roots and seeds in preparation of concoctions for
consumption and medicine (Mohamad et al. 2008).
Rhizome is used as food in Angola (Bossard 1996).
Seed is used as famine food or eaten by children in Plate 2 Close view of flower
Ghana (Blench 2012). Seeds are pickled, put into
curries, roasted in sand or ground and mixed with green, floating (Plates 1 and 2); petiole cylindri-
flour to make cakes; unripe fruits are eaten raw in cal, glabrous, long. Submerged leaves are reddish
salads and tubers consumed raw or roasted brown. Flowers solitary, large, 5–8 cm across,
(Hedrick 1972; Tanaka 1976; Facciola 1990). with 4 outer green oblong, caducous sepals; pet-
White lotus is a wholly edible species and is culti- als 12–14 (−30), elliptic–oblong, obtuse, white
vated widely for its crisp rhizome and seeds, though (occasionally pink); stamens with yellow anthers
the flowers and leaves are also eaten in some parts. (Plates 1 and 2); carpels united into single ovary,
Petals of the lotus flowers are used as garnish, stigma 12–15 (−20) rays. Fruit globose, com-
while the stems are dried and used as a fragrant pressed, 3.5–5 cm., fleshy, ripening under the
herbal tea. Rhizomes are used in soups or stir-fried water. Seeds subglobose, 1–2 mm, numerous.
and eaten (Anonymous 2013).

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
Botany
Proximate nutrient composition (% dry weight)
Annual or perennial aquatic herb with rhizome of Nymphaea lotus was determined as follows:
submerged in mud. Leaves ovate to suborbicular, Leaves: 6.40 % moisture, ash 14.48 %, crude fat
deeply cordate with a notch at the petiole, 4.83 %, crude protein 19.54 %, crude fibre
coarsely dentate, 15–20 (−40 cm) cm in diameter, 15.53 %, nitrogen (N) free extract 44.78 %
516 Nymphaeaceae

The polysaccharide fraction on complete

hydrolysis with 90 % formic acid was shown to
contain only glucose; and ten amino acids were
found in the protein fraction.
A number of alkaloids had been recorded
from Nymphaea spp. including N. lotus, namely,
nymphaeine, nymphaline, nupharine and α- and
β-nupharidine (Hegnauer 1962–1968; Chopra
et al. 1986; Schmelzer 2001). These chemicals
had been reported to be respiratory excitants; an
overdose may cause death by respiratory poison-
ing, as had been seen in frogs, mice rats, guinea
pigs and pigeons (Delphaut and Balansard 1943;
Plate 3 Flower peduncles sold as vegetables in a local
Chopra et al. 1986).
Thai market

Petiole: 6.17 % moisture, ash 27.36 %, crude fat Antioxidant Activity

2.27 %, crude protein 9.04 %, crude fibre
15.10 %, N free extract 34.74 % The IC50 results indicated that the extracts of
Root: 4.85 % moisture, ash 22.55 %, crude fat Nymphaea lotus flowers, Acacia nilotica beans,
2.98 %, crude protein 19,545.03 %, crude Terminalia bellirica fruits and Terminalia cheb-
fibre 1,512.53 %, N free extract 42.71 % ula (fruits, brown) were stronger antioxidants
Rhizome: 20.40 % moisture, ash 9.68 %, crude than alpha-tocopherol, exhibiting 85 % inhibition
fat 2.82 %, crude protein 11.74 %, crude fibre of lipid peroxidation in vitro (Saleem et al. 2001).
13.24 %, N free extract 31.21 % Total phenolic concentration (hydroxycinnamic
Seeds: 4.18 % moisture, ash 2.81 %, crude fat acid derivatives, flavonol aglycones and their gly-
9.95 %, crude protein 3.27 %, crude fibre cosides), expressed as gallic acid equivalents,
1.60 %, N free extract 78.15 % (Mohamad showed close correlation with the antioxidant
et al. 2013) activity.
Nine known amino acids (alanine, tyrosine,
phenyl alanine, valine, threonine, arginine, leu-
cine, D- and L-isoleucine and aspartic acid), 2 Antibacterial Activity
alkanoic acids in the form of butanoic acids and
its α-hydroxyl isomer, a dipeptide (serine–argi- In vitro studies showed that both methicillin-
nine) as well as a rare compound named 2-amino- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and
7-methyl octanoic acid, were isolated from vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
Nymphaea lotus plant (Sowemimo et al. 2007b). (VRSA) were susceptible to Nymphaea lotus leaf
Three novel flavonols, myricetin-3′-O-(6″-p- ethanol extracts at various concentrations (5, 10,
coumaroyl)glucoside and two epimeric macrocy- 20, 40, 80 mg/mL) (Akinjogunla et al. 2010).
clic derivatives nymphalid A and B, as well as the
known myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside (myricitrin)
and 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloyl glucose, were isolated Anticancer Activity
from the wild water lily Nymphaea lotus (Elegami
et al. 2003). The ethanol extract of N. lotus plant was found to
Glucose, fructose and sucrose were identified have potential as an anticancer agent when evalu-
in the cold water extract of N. lotus roots and ated by the brine shrimp lethality test, standard
mannitol, galacturonic acid and raffinose in the telomerase elongation assay (STEA) as well as
80 % ethanolic extract (Hujjatullah et al. 1967). the observed induced chromosomal aberrations
Nymphaea lotus 517

in rat lymphocytes (Sowemimo et al. 2007a).

The results supported the use of the plant in the Other Uses
traditional management of cancer in south-west
Nigeria. Nymphaea lotus is often used as an aquarium
plant or in water gardens. It is also cultivated in
ponds and lakes in parks and gardens. Sometimes
Antiviral Activity it is grown for its flowers, while other aquarists
prefer to trim the lily pads and just have the
In the single-cycle vector-based antiviral screening underwater foliage.
assays, the dichloromethane extract of N. lotus
plant was also the most active against HIV, with
an IC50 of 42.5 μg/mL and a selectivity index of Comments
3.62 among all the extracts tested (Esimone
et al. 2006). This extract also ranked second in The Egyptian lotus is the national flower of
activity after Jatropha tanjorensis dichloro- Egypt. It is depicted on many of the seals of the
methane extract among all the tested extracts. different provinces in Thailand. It is also an ele-
The other extracts from N. lotus that exhibited ment of the Coptic flag.
anti-HIV activity were in the order: hexanol >
ethyl acetate > water > butanol.
Selected References

Traditional Medicinal Uses Adetutu A, Morgan WA, Corcorana O (2011)

Ethnopharmacological survey and in vitro evaluation
of wound-healing plants used in South-western
In Africa, the plant is used in traditional medi- Nigeria. J Ethnopharmacol 137:50–56
cine for treatment of fever, skin diseases, cancer, Adjanohoun EJ, Ahyi MRA, Aké Assi L, Dicko DL,
gonorrhoea and bronchitis (Burkill 1998). In Daouda H, Delmas M, de Souza S, Garba M, Guinko S,
Kayonga A, N’Golo D, Raynal J, Saadou M (1980)
Senegal, the fruit is employed as a vermifuge,
Contribution aux Études Ethnobotaniques et floris-
for nausea, anxiety and nervous disorder tiques au Niger, Médecine Traditionelle et
(Kerharo and Adam 1964). In Brazzaville, leaf Pharmacopée. Agence de Coopération Culturelle et
juice is prescribed for tachycardia and anxiety Technique, Paris, 250 pp
Akinjogunla OJ, Yah CS, Eghafona NO, Ogbemudia FO
and nervous disorders (Bouquet 1969). In Niger,
(2010) Antibacterial activity of leave extracts of
powdered ripe fruit is used to treat urogenital Nymphaea lotus (Nymphaeaceae) on methicillin resis-
infections (Adjanohoun et al. 1980). A decoction tant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and mancomycin
of leaf and bark from a selection of plants resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) isolated
from clinical samples. Ann Biol Res 1(2):174–184
such as N. lotus, Noronhia linocerioides, Vepris
Anonymous (2013) Nymphaea lotus. http://infolanka.lk/
ampody, Zanthoxylum tsihanimposa and Peddia page-flowers-210.html; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
involucrata, is used to relieve malarial symptoms, Nymphaea
tiredness, muscular aches and pains and poison- Ashidi JS, Houghton PJ, Hylands PJ, Efferth T (2010)
Ethnobotanical survey and cytotoxicity testing of
ing in eastern Madagascar (Randrianarivelojosia
plants of South-western Nigeria used to treat cancer,
et al. 2003). In western Sudan, cataplasm of with isolation of cytotoxic constituents from Cajanus
roots of Nymphaea lotus is used as a treatment cajan Millsp leaves. J Ethnopharmacol 128:501–512
for hangnail (Doka and Yagi 2009). In south- Blench R (2012) Dagbani plant names. http://www.
rogerblench.info/Ethnoscience/Plants/General/
western Nigeria, a leaf decoction of N. lotus is
Dagbani%20plant%20names.pdf
used topically for cancer (Ashidi et al. 2010); Bossard E (1996) Quelques notes sur l’alimentation et les
Poultice of the leaves is applied to wounds and apports nutritionnels occultes en Angola. Garcia de
burns (Adetutu et al. 2011). The fresh leaves are Orta, Sér Bot Lisboa 13(1):7–41
Bouquet A (1969) Féticheurs et Médecines Traditionnelles
ground and then applied to boils in Ghana
du Congo (Brazzaville). Mém. O.R.S.T.O.M, Paris,
(Blench 2012). p 36, 282 pp
518 Nymphaeaceae

Burkill HM (1998) Useful plants of west tropical Africa, Kerharo J, Adam JG (1964) Les plantes médicinales,
vol 4. Families M–R. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew/ toxiques et magiques des Niominka et des Socé des
Richmond, 969 pp Iles du Saloum (Sénégal). Acta Trop Suppl
Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC (1986) Glossary of Indian 8:279–334
medicinal plants (including the supplement). Council Mohamad HA, Awodoyin RO, Daddy F, Adesina GO
Scientific Industrial Research, New Delhi, 330 pp (2008) Ethnobotany of water lily (Nymphaea lotus
Delphaut J, Balansard J (1943) Recherches pharma- Linn) among the riparian communities in Nigeria: a
cologiques sur le nenuphar blanc (N. alba L.). Rev case study of Kanji Lake Basin. Biol Environ
Phytother 7:83–85 5:52–55
Doka IG, Yagi SM (2009) Ethnobotanical survey of Mohamad HA, Uka UN, Yauri YAB (2013) Evaluation of
medicinal plants in west Kordofan (Western Sudan). nutritional composition of water lily (Nymphaea lotus
Ethnobot Leafl 13:1409–1416 Linn.) from Tatabu Flood Plain, north-central, Nigeria.
Elegami AA, Bates C, Gray AI, Mackay SP, Skellern GG, J Fish Aquat Sci 8(1):261–264
Waigh RD (2003) Two very unusual macrocyclic fla- Oliver-Bever B (1986) Medicinal plants in tropical
vonoids from the water lily Nymphaea lotus. West Africa. Cambridge University Press, New
Phytochemistry 63(6):727–731 York, 375 pp
Esimone CK, Omobuwajo RL, Sowemimo AA, Proksch P Pongpangan S, Poobrasert S (1985) Edible and poisonous
(2006) Single-cycle vector based antiviral screening plants in Thai forests. Science Society of Thailand,
assays for high throughput evaluation of potential anti- Science Teachers Section, Bangkok, 206 pp
HIV medicinal plants: a pilot study on some Nigerian Randrianarivelojosia M, Rasidimanana VT, Rabarison H,
herbs. In: Singh VK, Govil JN, Arunachalam C (eds) Cheplogoi PK, Ratsimbason M, Mulholland DA,
Phytopharmacology and therapeutic values, vol 19, Mauclère P (2003) Plant traditionally prescribed to
Recent progress in medicinal plants. Stadium Press treat tazo (Malaria) in the eastern region of Madagascar.
LLC, Houston, pp 50–60 Malar J 2:25
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible Saleem A, Ahotupa M, Pihlaja K (2001) Total phenolics
plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp concentration and antioxidant potential of extracts of
Fu D, Wiersema JH, Padgett D (2001) Nymphaeaceae medicinal plants of Pakistan. Z Naturforsch C
Salisbury. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY (eds) 56(11–12):973–978
Caryophyllaceae through Lardizabalaceae, vol 6, Schmelzer GH (2001) Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. In:
Flora of China. Science Press/Missouri Botanical van Valkenburg JLCH, Bunyapraphatsara N (eds)
Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 12(2): medici-
Hedrick UP (1972) Sturtevant’s edible plants of the world. nal and poisonous plants 2. Backhuys Publisher,
Dover Publications, New York, 686 pp Leiden, pp 384–386
Hegnauer R (1962–1968) Chemotaxonomie der Pflazen, Sowemimo AA, Fakoya FA, Awopetu I, Omobuwajo OR,
vol 5. 5 vols. Birkhausen Verlag, Basel/Stuttgart, p 441 Adesanya SA (2007a) Toxicity and mutagenic activity
Hujjatullah S, Bloch AK, Jabbar A (1967) Chemical com- of some selected Nigerian plants. J Ethnopharmacol
position and utilisation of the roots of Nymphaea lotus 113(3):427–432
L. J Sci Food Agric 18:470–473 Sowemimo AA, Omobuwajo OR, Adesanya SA (2007b)
Huxley AJ, Griffiths M, Levy M (eds) (1992) The new RHS Constituents of Nymphaea lotus Linn. Niger J Nat
dictionary of gardening (4 vols). MacMillan, New York Prod Med 11:83–84
JIRCAS (2010) Local vegetables of Thailand. Japan Tanaka T (1976) Tanaka’s cyclopaedia of edible plants of
International Research Centre for Agricultural the world. Keigaku Publishing, Tokyo, 924 pp
Sciences. http://www.jircas.affrc.go.jp/project/value_ The Plant List (2013) Nymphaea lotus L. http://www.
addition/Local_Vegetables_of_Thailand_home.html theplantlist.org
 Nymphaea nouchali

Scientific Name Burmese: Kra-Ño

Chinese: Yan Yao Shui Lian
Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. Danish: Indiens Blå Lotusblomst
German: Stern-Seerose
India: Boga Bhet, Seluk (Assamese), Kumud,
Synonyms Sundi (Bengali), Poyanu (Gujarati), Bhenght,
Kamal, Kanval, Koi, Koka, Kokka, Kumudini,
Castalia caerulea Tratt., Castalia scutifolia Neel Kamal (Hindi), Bilenaydilie, Biletavare,
Salisb., Castalia stellaris Salisb. [Illeg.], Castalia Neela Naidile, Neela Thaavare, Neela
stellata (Willd.) Blume, Leuconymphaea stellata Thavare, Neeltare (Kannada), Ambal Poovu,
(Willd.) Kuntze, Nymphaea bernierana Planch., Ampal, Cit-Ambel (Malayalam), Kamoda,
Nymphaea cyanea Roxb. ex G. Don, Nymphaea Krishnakamal, Neel Kamal (Marathi),
emirnensis Planch., Nymphaea madagascariensis Kamalini, Neel Kamal (Punjabi), Indeevaram,
DC., Nymphaea stellata Willd., Nymphaea Indivar, Kamala, Kumuda, Kumudam,
stellata var. cyanea (Roxb. ex G. Don) Hook.f. & Nilakamal, Nilotpala, Padma, Raktotpala,
Thomson, Nymphaea stellata var. parviflora Utpala (Sanskrit), Alli, Allittamarai, Ambal,
Hook.f. & Thomson. Karuneythal, Nilotpalam, Vellampal (Tamil),
Alli Kaada, Allikada, Indeevaramu, Indivara,
Kalava Puvvu, Kaluvva Poovu, Nalla Kalava,
Family Nallani Padmamu, Neeti Tamara, Tellakaluva
(Telugu), Neelofar (Urdu)
Nymphaeaceae Indonesia: Tunjung
Kampuchea: Rum-Chang
Laos: Bwa Khiiz Beez, Bau-Na Neai
Common/English Names Malaysia: Ati-Ati Paya, Kelipok, Seroja Biru,
Telepok, Teratai Kecil, Tunjong Biri
Blue Star Water Lily, Blue Water Lily, Indian Blue Nepali: Nilo Kamal
Water Lily, Lotus Lily, Red Water Lily, Star Lotus Philippines: Talailo, Tunas (Bisaya), Labas,
Lauas, Pulau, Tunas (Tagalog)
Spanish: Nenúfar De Sri Lanka, Rojo Azul
Vernacular Names Sri Lanka: Nil Mahanel, Nil Mānel
Swedish: Stjärnlotus
Bangladesh: Shapla Thai: Bua-Phuan, Bua-Khap, Bua-Phan, Bua-Sai
Brazil: Loto, Ninféia Vietnamese: Súng, Súng Lam

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 519
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_37, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
520 Nymphaeaceae

Origin/Distribution

The native range of this aquatic plant extends

from the Indian subcontinent to Papua New
Guinea and Australia.

Agroecology

In its native range, this aquatic plant occurs in full

sun, in ponds, in shallow lakes and in waterways.
Plate 1 Lotus lily flower and leaf

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The rhizomes are eaten raw or roasted, seeds are

parched and eaten and flowers are also eaten
(Uphof 1968; Hedrick 1972; Tanaka 1976;
Facciola 1990). The rhizomes are rich in starch
and eaten as food (Schmelzer 2001). The tender
young leaves and flower peduncles are also
valued as food (Irvine and Trickett 1953).

Botany Plate 2 Close view of flower on long erect stalk

A clump forming perennial with underwater, thick,

black, spongy, unbranched tuberous rhizomes
anchored in the mud by spreading roots. Leaf
blade large, flat, elliptic–orbicular to orbicular
(Plate 1), 7–15(−40) cm in diameter papery,
abaxially glabrous, green and waxy, abaxially
darker and pubescent, peltate a few mm from
base of sinus, base cordate, basal lobes parallel to
spreading, margin subentire to crenate. Leaves
floating on the water surface, on long petiole, and
may spread 1.4–1.5 m from where the rhizome is
rooted. Flower slightly emergent above water,
4–15 cm across, bisexual, stellate and regular
(actinomorphic), solitary, on 1–1.5 m long
peduncle, with 4 lanceolate to oblong–lanceolate Plate 3 Close-up of lotus lily flower
sepals, 2.5–6 cm, slightly veined, persistent,
green on the outside and white to blue on the white tinged with purple, weakly fragrant; stamens
inside, adnate to base of receptacle; receptacle numerous, outer with broad petaloid yellow fila-
with cup-shaped apex; petals numerous 10–35, ments, and anthers yellow with apically append-
multiseriate, linear–oblong to lanceolate, 4.5–5.5 cm, aged connective; carpels 10–16 partially connate
purple, blue (Plates 1, 2 and 3), or purple-red, or with triangular tapering appendages, multiloculed;
Nymphaea nouchali 521

stigma radiate with 8–10 or more rays. Fruit oblate, contain alkali-soluble polysaccharides (Hoque and
3–5 cm diameter, spongy containing numerous Hannan 1997).
ellipsoid–globose, 1–1.7 mm long seeds striated β-sitosterol and coclaurine were identified in
with longitudinal rows of hairs. aerial parts of N. stellata (Mukherjee et al. 1986).
Three steroids, namely, 24-ethyl-5α-cholestan-3-
one, 5α-stigmast-22-en-3-one and stigmast-5,
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties 22-dien-3-one, were isolated from N. stellata
stem (Chowdhury et al. 2013).
The following phenolics were isolated from A lectin (termed NNTL) with molecular mass
the hot methanol flower extract: 3-O-methyl 27 kDa was purified from Nymphaea nouchali
kaempferol, kaempferol, 3-O-methyl quercetin, tuber extracts (Kabir et al. 2011). NNTL was
quercetin, methyl gallate, gallic acid and equili- glycoprotein containing 8 % neutral sugar and rich
brated mixture of methyl m- galloylgallate and in leucine, methionine and glycine residues. NNTL
p-galloylgallate, corilagin, astragalin, 3-O-methyl was an o-nitrophenyl β-D-galactopyranoside
quercetin 3′-O-β-D-xylopyranoside, quercetin sugar-specific lectin that agglutinated rat, chicken
3′-O-β-D-xylopyranoside and 2,3,4,6-tetra-O- and different groups of human blood cells and
galloyl D-glucose (Kizu and Tomimori 2003). exhibited high agglutination activity over the
Gallic acid in hydroalcoholic extract of dried pH range 5–9 and temperatures of 30–60 °C. It had
flowers was quantified (Rakesh et al. 2009). a requirement of Ca(2+) for the stability.
The average recovery of gallic acid was found to Proximate composition of N. nouchali (red-
be 98.33 %. 1,2,3,4,6-Penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose flowered) and N. stellata (blue-flowered) plants
was identified together with two phenolic com- were reported respectively as dry matter 8.4, 7.0 %,
pounds of gallic acid and corilagin from the crude protein 16.8, 16.7 %, ash 18.7, 14.1 %, crude
flowers (Huang et al. 2010). Nymphayol fat 2.8, 2.6 %, crude fibre 24, 19.1 %, nitrogen free
(25,26-dinorcholest-5-en-3beta-ol), a steroid, was extract 35.4, 42.6 %, Na 1.19, 0.93 %, K 2.23,
isolated from the flowers (Subash-Babu et al. 1.30 %, Ca 0.52, 0.95 % and P 0.32, 0.21 %
2009; Raja et al. 2010). The flowers were found (Banerjee and Matai 1990). The plants also
to contain flavonoids, gallic acid, astragalin, contained anti-nutritive factors such as nitrates
quercetin and kaempferol and nymphayol 2.0, 0.9 %; total polyphenols 8.7, 10.2 %; free
(Das et al. 2012). A steroid was isolated from polyphenols 5.9, 9.3 %; bound polyphenols 2.8,
methanolic fraction of ethanol extract of seeds of 0.9 %; and alkaloids. All parts of the plant except
Nymphaea stellata and was characterized as the seeds were reported to contain the alkaloid
24-methyl-cholesta-5-ene-3-ol-(23,24,29)- nymphaeine (Schmelzer 2001).
cyclopropane (1) and designated as nymphasterol
(Verma et al. 2012). Phytochemical analysis
revealed the presence of phenols, flavones, tannins, Antioxidant Activity
protein, reducing sugars, glycosides, saponins,
alkaloids and steroids in N. nouchali seeds N. nouchali leaf extracts exhibited good anti-
(Parimala and Shoba 2013). The total tannin oxidant activity in the DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-
content of hydroalcoholic seed extract was high picrylhydrazyl) assay (Noor et al. 2013). The IC50
(195.84 GE/g), followed by phenolics (179.56 value of the ethanol extract was 10.02 μg/mL and
GE/g) and flavonoids (23.55 QE/g); total carbo- chloroform extract 13.11 μg/mL compared to
hydrate content was 13.92 %, total protein ascorbic acid with an IC50 value of 19.89 μg/mL.
17.47 % and total content lipid 0.1 %. The total The content of phenolic compounds in the extracts
antioxidant capacity was high with 577.73 mg correlated with the antioxidant activity, being
vitamin E/g of the extract, and the seed extract higher in ethanol leaf extract (6.53 mg/g GAE) and
showed a moderately high vitamin C content of lower in chloroform leaf extract (5.55 mg/g GAE).
197.22 mg/g. The flowers were reported to Flavonoid contents were 4.58 mg/g quercetin
522 Nymphaeaceae

equivalent for chloroform extract and 5.99 mg/g insulin, protein, haemoglobin and high-density
quercetin equivalent for the ethanol extract. lipoprotein levels. Treatment with the flower
Both extracts contained almost similar amount of extract in alloxan-induced diabetic rats increased
total antioxidant capacity 2.75 mg/g ascorbic the hexokinase and LDH activities and decrease
acid equivalent (AAE) for the ethanol extract and glucose-6-phosphate. The results indicated that
2.69 mg/g AAE for the chloroform extract. N. stellata flowers possessed promising antidia-
The ethanolic and aqueous extracts of betic activity. Oral administration for 45 days of
Nymphaea stellata flower exhibited high antirad- nymphayol (25,26-dinorcholest-5-en-3beta-ol)
ical activity against DPPH, nitric oxide and (isolated from the flowers) significantly lowered
hydroxyl radicals (Somasundaram et al. 2012). the blood glucose level, and more importantly it
The ethanolic extract showed more scavenging effectively increased the insulin content in diabetic
activity than the aqueous extract. The antioxidant rats (Subash-Babu et al. 2009). Further, nymphayol
activity of the extract was comparable with that increased the number of beta cell mass enormously.
of the standard. In the DPPH, peroxynitrate Islet-like cell clusters in the islets of Langerhans
(ONOO−) and total ROS scavenging assays, the were clearly observed.
methanolic flower extract showed good antioxidant Studies showed that Nymphaea stellata
activity with IC50 values of 10.33, 20.16 and flower extract exhibited significant intestinal
31.72 μg/mL, respectively (Jahan et al. 2012). α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, without show-
The activities of the seed extract against ing any acute toxicity or genotoxicity, which
DPPH, nitric oxide and lipid peroxidation were may be useful in suppressing postprandial hyper-
concentration dependent with IC50 values of glycaemia in diabetics (Huang et al. 2010). The
42.82, 23.58 and 54.65 μg/mL, respectively main α-glucosidase inhibitor, 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-
(Parimala and Shoba 2013). galloyl-β-D-glucose, was identified in the flower
extract. Nymphayol, a steroid isolated from the
flowers, had been scientifically proven to be
Antidiabetic Activity responsible for the traditionally claimed antidia-
betic activity; it reverted the damaged endocrine
Oral administration of Nymphaea stellata leaf tissue and stimulated secretion of insulin in the B
ethanol extract to alloxan diabetic rats at dose of 100 cells (Raja et al. 2010).
and 200 mg/kg/day for 7 days reduced significantly
the elevated plasma glucose level induced by
intraperitoneal injection of 120 mg/day of alloxan Antitumour Activity
by 31.6 and 42.6 % respectively (Dhanabal et al.
2007). Further, the treatment significantly lowered N. nouchali was found to be moderately
the plasma level of cholesterol and triglyceride. active in inhibiting tumour promoter
Results of animal studies suggested that 12-O-hexadecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (HPA)-
N. stellata flower hydroethanol extract exhibited induced Epstein–Barr virus activation in Raji
antihyperglycaemic as well as antihyperlipidae- cells (Murakami et al. 2000).
mic effects on alloxan-induced diabetic rats A lectin (termed NNTL) from N. nouchali
(Rajagopal and Sasikala 2008a, b). The flower tuber, exhibited antiproliferative activity against
extract exerted a significant reduction in levels of EAC (Ehrlich ascites carcinoma) cells with 56
fasting blood glucose, water intake, food intake, and 76 % inhibition in vivo in mice at 1.5 and
urine sugar, blood urea, total lipids, total choles- 3 mg/kg/day, respectively (Kabir et al. 2011).
terol, triglycerides, phospholipids, free fatty The crude extract and the fractions of N. stellata
acids, low density lipoproteins, very low density showed significant cytotoxic effect when
lipoproteins and atherogenic index. It also elicited subjected to brine shrimp lethality bioassay
a significant increase in body weight, plasma (Chowdhury et al. 2013).
Nymphaea nouchali 523

Hepatoprotective Activity RBC as compared to 71.9 % produced by acetyl

salicylic acid. The chloroform and petroleum
Oral administration of varying dosage of extract ether-soluble extractives also revealed significant
of Nymphaea stellata flower extract to albino rats inhibition of haemolysis of RBCs.
for 10 days afforded good hepatoprotection
against carbon tetrachloride-induced elevation
in serum marker enzymes and serum bilirubin, Analgesic Activity
liver lipid peroxidation and reduction in liver
glutathione, liver glutathione peroxidase, glyco- Methanolic flower extract at the dose of 100
gen, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities and 200 mg/kg produced a significant increase
(Bhandarkar and Khan 2004). Recently, in pain threshold in hot plate method whereas
Nymphaea stellata flowers had been reported significantly reduced the writhing caused by
to have hepatoprotective activity against CCl4- acetic acid and the number of licks induced by
induced hepatic damage (Das et al. 2012). formalin in a dose-dependent manner (Jahan
et al. 2012).

Aphrodisiac Activity
Antimicrobial Activity
Administration of the ethanol leaf extract to
male rats produced an overall increase in sexual A lectin (termed NNTL) from N. nouchali tuber
behaviour as evidenced by an increase in mounting showed toxicity against brine shrimp nauplii with
frequency, intromission frequency and ejaculatory an LC50 value of 120 μg/mL and exerted strong
latency and a decrease in mounting latency, agglutination activity against four pathogenic
intromission latency and post-ejaculatory inter- bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Sarcina lutea, Shigella
val (Raja et al. 2012). Increase in orientational shiga and Shigella sonnei) (Kabir et al. 2011).
activities, weight of primary and accessory sex Both the aqueous-soluble and chloroform-soluble
organs, libido and potency were also observed. fractions of N. nouchali petals exhibited the
The results indicated that N. stellata leaf extract significant growth inhibition of in vitro Bacillus
had aphrodisiac activity particularly at the dose megaterium, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus
level 500 mg/kg and supported its traditional claim. aureus, Sarcina lutea, Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella boydii,
Shigella dysenteriae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Anti-inflammatory Activity and also Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sikder et al.
(Membrane Stabilizing Activity) 2012) The carbon tetrachloride-soluble fraction
showed highest growth inhibitory activity against
Methanolic flower extract at the dose of 100 and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. The crude methanol
200 mg/kg caused significant inhibition of extract exhibited mild antimicrobial activity
carrageenan-induced paw oedema after 4 h in a against most of the test organisms, while the
dose-dependent manner (Jahan et al. 2012). The petroleum ether-soluble fraction revealed
methanol extract and fractions of N. nouchali moderate inhibition against Shigella boydii.
petals at a concentration of 1.0 mg/mL signifi- Methanol flower extract of N. nouchali was
cantly protected the lysis of mice erythrocyte found to possess better antibacterial activity in
membrane induced by hypotonic solution and heat, vitro against two pathogenic bacteria, Bacillus
as compared to the standard acetyl salicylic acid subtilis and Sarcina lutea, than the commercial
(0.10 mg/mL) (Sikder et al. 2012). In hypotonic antibiotic nalidixic acid (Dash et al. 2013).
solution-induced haemolysis, the aqueous-soluble The acetone flower extract showed moderate
fraction (AQSF) inhibited 66.55 % haemolysis of sensitivity and Xanthomonas campestris
524 Nymphaeaceae

showed resistance to ethyl acetate and petroleum are used as an ingredient of a lotion applied to the
spirit extracts. skin for fever. The flowers are astringent and
taken as a cardiotonic in India and Thailand.

Traditional Medicinal Uses

Other Uses
Nymphaea stellata is an important and well-
known medicinal plant, widely used in the N. nouchali is highly valued as a garden orna-
Ayurveda and Siddha systems of medicines for mental flower in Thailand and Myanmar to deco-
the treatment of diabetes, inflammation, liver rate ponds and gardens. It is also popularly grown
disorders, urinary disorders, menorrhagia, for its flowers, and dwarf varieties are used as an
blennorrhagia and menstruation problem, as an aquarium plant for its underwater foliage.
aphrodisiac and as a bitter tonic (Raja et al. Although the plant has been reported to be
2010). In India, the leaves, roots and flowers are used for animal forage, studies revealed that on the
used as cardiotonic, emollient, diuretic, antidia- basis of overall nutrient compositions, N. nouch-
betic, and aphrodisiac and used for inflammatory ali (red-flowered) and N. stellata (blue-flowered)
diseases of brain, for removing impurities from plants do not contain sufficient quantities of
blood and treating urinary tract infections nutrients but are safe enough to be considered as
(Kirtikar and Basu 1989). potential livestock feed (Banerjee and Matai 1990).
In Bangladesh, powdered rhizomes are
deemed to be demulcent and diuretic and used in
piles, dysentery and dyspepsia (Yusuf et al. Comments
2009). Flowers are astringent, cardiotonic and
refrigerant used to alleviate cough, bile, vomiting, Nymphaea nouchali (white-flowered form) is the
giddiness, worms and burning of the skin. national flower of Bangladesh while the blue-
Filaments are astringent and cooling and deemed flowered form is the national flower of Sri Lanka.
useful in burning of the body, bleeding piles and
menorrhagia. Seeds are used as a cooling medi-
cine in cutaneous diseases; Nymphaea stellata Selected References
flowers are used as a traditional medicine in India
and Nepal to treat diabetic disease (Huang et al. Banerjee A, Matai S (1990) Composition of Indian aquatic
plants in relation to utilization as animal
2010). Especially the rhizomes, but also the other
forage. J Aquat Plant Manag 28:69–73
parts of Nymphaea nouchali, are considered Bhandarkar MR, Khan A (2004) Antihepatotoxic effect of
astringent and tonic in Southeast Asia, and a Nymphaea stellata Willd., against carbon tetrachloride-
decoction is given for diarrhoea (Schmelzer induced hepatic damage in albino rats. J Ethnopharmacol
91(1):61–64
2001). In Vietnam, the rhizomes are also used as
Burkill IH (1966) A dictionary of the economic products
remedy back ache and stomach ache and in of the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint, 2 vols. Ministry
Cambodia as a therapy for colic. An infusion of of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur,
the fresh rhizomes is deemed emollient and vol 1 (A–H) pp 1–1240, vol 2 (I–Z) pp 1241–2444
Chowdhury BN, Haque MM, Sohrab MH, Afroz F,
diuretic and employed for blennorrhagia and
Al-Mansur MA, Sultana T, Hasan CM (2013) Steroids
infections of the urinary tract. In the Philippines, from the stem of Nymphaea stellata. J Bangladesh
the slightly bitter juice of the leaves and petioles Acad Sci 37(1):109–113
is administered for gonorrhoea. Leaf juice pos- Das DR, Sachan AK, Mohd S, Gangwar SS (2012)
Nymphaea stellata: a potential herb and its medicinal
sesses mildly narcotic properties and is rubbed
importance. J Drug Deliv Ther 2(3):41–44
on the forehead and temples to produce sleep. Dash BK, Sen MK, Alam K, Hossain K, Islam R, Banu NA,
In Cambodia, leaf juice or the macerated leaves Rahman S, Jamal AHF (2013) Antibacterial activity of
Nymphaea nouchali 525

Nymphaea nouchali (Burm. f) flower. Ann Clin Parimala M, Shoba FG (2013) Phytochemical analysis
Microbiol Antimicrob 12:27 and In vitro antioxidant activity of hydroalcoholic
Dhanabal SP, Raja MK, Ramanathan M, Suresh B (2007) seed extract of Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. Asian Pac
Hypoglycemic activity of Nymphaea stellata leaves J Trop Med 3(11):887–895
ethanolic extract in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Raja MKMM, Sethiya NK, Mishra SH (2010) A compre-
Fitoterapia 78(4):288–291 hensive review on Nymphaea stellata: a traditionally
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible used bitter. J Adv Pharm Technol Res 1(3):311–319
plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp Raja MKMM, Agilandeswari D, Madhu BH, Math MM,
Hedrick UP (1972) Sturtevant’s edible plants of the world. Sowjanya PJS (2012) Aphrodisiac activity of ethanolic
Dover Publications, New York, 686 pp extract of Nymphaea stellata leaves in male rats.
Hoque MD, Hannan MA (1997) Studies on polysaccha- Contemp Invest Obs Pharm 1(1):24–30
rides from Nymphaea stellata Willd. Part II, Alkali Rajagopal K, Sasikala K (2008a) Antidiabetic activity of
soluble polysaccharides from flowers. Bangladesh J hydro-ethanolic extracts of Nymphaea stellata flowers
Sci Ind Res 32:519–522 in normal and alloxan induced diabetic rats. Afr J
Huang YN, Zhao YL, Gao XL, Zhao ZF, Jing Z, Pharm Pharmacol 2(8):173–178
Zeng WC, Yang R, Peng R, Tong T, Wang LF, Cen JQ, Rajagopal K, Sasikala K (2008b) Antihyperglycaemic and
Gao H (2010) Intestinal alpha-glucosidase inhibi- antihyperlipidaemic effects of Nymphaea stellata in
tory activity and toxicological evaluation of alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Singapore Med J
Nymphaea stellata flowers extract. J Ethnopharmacol 49(2):137–141
131(2):306–312 Rakesh SU, Salunkhe VR, Dhabale PN, Burande KB (2009)
Huxley AJ, Griffiths M, Levy M (eds) (1992) The new HPTLC method for quantitative determination of gallic
RHS dictionary of gardening, 4 vols. MacMillan, acid in hydroalcoholic extract of dried flowers of
New York Nymphaea stellata Willd. Asian J Res Chem 2:131–134
Irvine FR, Trickett RS (1953) Water lilies as food. Kew Schmelzer GH (2001) Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. In:
Bull 3:363–370 van Valkenburg JLCH, Bunyapraphatsara N (eds)
Jahan I, Mamun MAA, Hossen MA, Sakir JAMS, Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 12(2): medici-
Shamimuzzaman M, Uddin MJ, Haque ME (2012) nal and poisonous plants 2. Backhuys Publisher,
Antioxidant, analgesic and anti-inflammatory activi- Leiden, pp 384–386
ties of Nymphaea nouchali flowers. Res J Pharmacol Sikder MAA, Jisha HR, Kuddus MR, Rumi F, Kaisar MA,
6:62–70 Rashid MA (2012) Evaluation of bioactivities of
Kabir SR, Zubair MA, Nurujjaman M, Haque MA, Hasan I, Nymphaea nouchali (Burm. f)—the national flower of
Islam MF, Hossain MT, Hossain MA, Rakib MA, Bangladesh. Bangladesh Pharm J 15(1):1–5
Alam MT, Shaha RK, Hossain MT, Kimura Y, Absar Somasundaram G, Inbaraj SD, Madhusudhanan N, Rao
N (2011) Purification and characterization of a Konda VG, Madhavi E (2012) Antioxidant and free
Ca(2+)-dependent novel lectin from Nymphaea radical scavenging activity of Nymphaea stellata: in
nouchali tuber with antiproliferative activities. Biosci vitro study. J Pharm Res 5(3):1350
Rep 31(6):465–475 Subash-Babu P, Ignacimuthu S, Agastian P, Varghese B
Kirtikar KR, Basu BD (1989) Indian medicinal plants, (2009) Partial regeneration of beta-cells in the islets of
vol I, 2nd edn. Lalit Mohan Basu, Allahabad Langerhans by nymphayol a sterol isolated from
Kizu H, Tomimori T (2003) Phenolic constituents from Nymphaea stellata (Willd.) flowers. Bioorg Med
the flowers of Nymphaea stellata. Nat Med Chem 17(7):2864–2870
57(3):118 Tanaka T (1976) Tanaka’s cyclopaedia of edible plants of
Mukherjee KS, Bhattacharya P, Mukheriee RK, Ghosh PK the world. Keigaku Publishing, Tokyo, 924 pp
(1986) Chemical examination of Nymphaea stellata The Plant List (2013) Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. http://
Willd. J Indian Chem Soc 513:530–531 www.theplantlist.org/
Murakami A, Ali AM, Mat-Salleh K, Koshimizu K, Uphof JCT (1968) Dictionary of economic plants, 2nd
Ohigashi H (2000) Screening for the in vitro anti- edn (1st edn 1959). Cramer, Lehre, 591 pp
tumor-promoting activities of edible plants from Verma A, Ahmed B, Upadhyay R, Soni N (2012)
Malaysia. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 64(1):9–16 Nymphasterol, a new steroid from Nymphaea stellata.
Noor A, Islam M, Anisuzzaman SM, Roy JH, Begum AA Med Chem Res 21(6):783–787
(2013) Evaluation of antioxidant activity of ethanolic Yusuf M, Begum J, Hoque MN, Chowdhury JU (2009)
and chloroformic extracts of Nymphaea nouchali Medicinal plants of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Council
leaves. Int J Pharm Phytopharm Res 2(6):417–420 of Scientific and Industrial Research, Dhaka, 1205 pp
 Forsythia × intermedia

Scientific Name Origin/Distribution

Forsythia × intermedia Zabel The hybrid is considered to be a cross between

Forsythia viridissima and F. suspensa var. for-
tune, both native of East Asia. A plant of seed-
Synonyms ling origin was discovered growing in the
Göttingen Botanic Gardens in Germany by the
Forsythia × densiflora (Koehne) Koehne, Forsythia × director of the municipal gardens in Münden,
intermedia var. densiflora Koehne, Forsythia × H. Zabel, in 1878 who formally described and
intermedia var. divaricata Koehne, named the hybrid in Gartenflora in 1885.
Forsythia × intermedia var. primulina Rehder, Repeated crosses of its two parents have made
Forsythia × intermedia var. spectabilis (Koehne) reiterations of F. × intermedia quite variable
Spath, Forsythia × intermedia var. vitellina Koehne, (Plate 1).
Forsythia × spectabilis Koehne, Forsythia × vitel-
lina (Koehne) Koehne

Agroecology
Family
A cool climate plant; thrives in full sun or partial
Oleaceae shade, in moist, well-drained acid, neutral or alka-
line soils including sand, loam, clay and chalk.

Common/English Names

Border Forsythia, Forsythia, Golden Bells, Edible Plant Parts and Uses
Showy Forsythia, Yellow Bells
The blossoms are spicy, minty and slightly bitter
(Derby 1997; Deane 2007–2012; Anonymous
Vernacular Names 2012). They add a cheery garnish to salads.
These beautiful flowers can be steamed and
French: Fosrsythia dried, used in decoctions and infusions or
German: Garten-Forsythie; Hybrid-Forsythie processed into teas and Forsythia syrup (Local
Italian: Forsizia Kitchen 2009).

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 526
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_38, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Forsythia × intermedia 527

derivatives (−)-arctigenin, arctiin [(−)-arctigenin

4′-O-glucoside], matairesinol and (−)-
matairesinol 4′-O-glucoside, together with the
furofuran lignans (+)-phillygenin, phillyrin
[(+)-phillygenin 4-O-glucoside], (+)-epipin-
oresinol and (+)-epipinoresinol 4′-O-glucoside
(Rahman et al. 1990b). The lignan contents varied
according to tissue type and season. Feeding
experiments with young shoots of Forsythia
intermedia showed phenylalanine and ferulic
acid to be good precursors of the dibenzylbutyro-
Plate 1 Flowers and leaves lactone lignan arctigenin and the furofuran lignans
phillygenin and epipinoresinol (Rahman et al.
1990a). Although matairesinol was incorporated
Botany into arctigenin, and epipinoresinol into philly-
genin, in accord with late methylation steps in the
A deciduous branched, erect shrub 1–2.5 m high. biosynthetic pathway, some incorporation of
Stem grey brown, quadrangular and prominently label from one lignan class into the other was
lenticellate. Leaves opposite, petiolate, medium observed, particularly from epipinoresinol into
to dark green above, pale green below, simple, arctigenin. It was found that the lignans arose by
narrowly ovate to lanceolate, 7.5–13.5 cm long oxidative coupling of two coniferyl alcohol units,
by 1.5–2.5 cm wide, sometimes tri-parted to rather than from two ferulic acid or coniferaldehyde
trifoliate, with entire or serrated margins and units. The observed increase in isotopic ratio
acute tips. Flowers relatively large, bright yellow, probably resulted from a primary isotope effect in
borne profusely before the leaves in Spring. the reversible oxidation–reduction reactions inter-
Calyx deeply 4-lobed. Corolla campanulate with relating cinnamic acids and cinnamyl alcohols.
4 spreading lobes longer than tube, imbricate in Callus and cell suspension cultures of Forsythia
bud. Stamen 2 inserted at base of corolla tube. intermedia exhibited the capacity to produce
Style slender with bifid stigma. Fruit a dry, locu- lignans which was markedly dependent on the
licidal capsule containing several winged seeds. culture medium used and not on the source of
the original explants (Rahman et al. 1990c). Cell
lines were established which synthesized either
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties matairesinol 4′-O-glucoside or epipinoresinol
4′-O-glucoside as the major lignans.
Four lignans [phillygenin, (+)-epipinoresinol, Studies by Ozawa et al. (1993) found that post-
arctigenin and matairesinol], four lignan glu- coupling methylation did not proceed via regio-
cosides [phillyrin, (+)-epipinoresinol-4″-β-D- specific methylation of matairesinol to give
glucoside, arctiin and matairesinoside], two arctigenin directly in Forsythia intermedia cell-
phenylpropanoids [forsythiaside and acteoside] free extracts. Instead, regiospecific glucosylation
and one flavonoid [rutin] were isolated from the first occurred to produce matairesinoside; subse-
leaves of Forsythia × intermedia Zabel, a hybrid, quent methylation afforded arctiin, which was
derived from parents F. suspensa Vahl and then converted into arctigenin via action of a
F. viridissima Lindley (Nishibe et al. 1988). All the β-glucosidase. Further, the cell-free extracts also
major compounds in both of the parents occurred catalyzed the synthesis of (+)- and (−)-isoarcti-
additively in the hybrid as major compounds. genins, with (−)-matairesinol again the preferred
Leaf and stem material of Forsythia intermedia substrate. A crude cell-free extract from Forsythia
were found to contain four main lignans and their intermedia catalyzed the formation of (−)secoiso-
O-glucosides, identified as the dibenzylbutyrolactone lariciresinol, and not its (+) enantiomer, when
528 Oleaceae

incubated with coniferyl alcohol in the presence

Selected References
of NAD(P)H and H2O2 (Umezawa et al. 1990).
Umezawa et al. (1991) found that in Forsythia Anonymous (2012) Edible wild food. http://www.
intermedia plant tissue, the lignans, (−)-secoiso- ediblewildfood.com/blog/2012/04/pruning-forsythia-
lariciresinol and (−)-matairesinol, were derived but-save-the-blossoms/
from two coniferyl alcohol molecules. Adminis- Deane G (2007–2012) Edible flowers: part one. http://
www.eattheweeds.com/edible-flowers-part-one/
tration of (+−)-[Ar-3H]secoisolariciresinols to Derby BC (1997) My wild friends: free food from
excised shoots of F. intermedia resulted in a field and forest. White Star Press, Northampton,
significant conversion into (−)-matairesinol. 264 pp
Experiments using cell-free extracts of Katayama T, Davin LB, Lewis NG (1992) An extraordi-
nary accumulation of (−)-pinoresinol in cell-free
F. intermedia confirmed and extended these extracts of Forsythia intermedia: evidence for enantio-
findings. In the presence of NAD(P)H and H2O2, specific reduction of (+)-pinoresinol. Phytochemistry
the cell-free extracts catalyzed the formation of 31(11):3875–3881
(−)-secoisolariciresinol, with either labelled Local Kitchen (2009–2013) Forsythia syrup. http://
localkitchenblog.com/2010/04/13/forsythia-syrup/
[8–14C]- or [9,9-2H2,OC2H3]coniferyl alcohols Nishibe S, Sakushima A, Kitagawa S, Klimek B, Benecke R,
as substrates. Katayama et al. (1992) found that Thieme H (1988) Phenolic compounds from Forsythia
soluble cell-free preparations from Forsythia leaves (III): on the comparison of constituents
intermedia catalyzed the formation of the enan- between hybrid and parents. Shoyakugaku Zasshi
42(4):324–328
tiomerically pure lignan, (−)-secoisolariciresinol, Ozawa S, Davin LB, Lewis NG (1993) Formation of
when incubated with coniferyl alcohol in the pres- (−)-arctigenin in Forsythia intermedia. Phytochemistry
ence of NAD(P)H and H2O2. Surprisingly, 32(3):643–652
(−)-pinoresinol also accumulates in this soluble Rahman MMA, Dewick PM, Jackson DE, Lucas JA
(1990a) Biosynthesis of lignans in Forsythia interme-
cell-free assay mixture in >96 % enantiomeric dia. Phytochemistry 29(6):1841–1846
excess, even though it is not the naturally occur- Rahman MMA, Dewick PM, Jackson DE, Lucas JA
ring antipode present in Forsythia sp. (1990b) Lignans of Forsythia intermedia. Phyto-
F. suspensa, one of its parents, is considered one chemistry 29(6):1971–1980
Rahman MMA, Dewick PM, Jackson DE, Lucas JA
of the 50 fundamental herbs in Chinese herbology. (1990c) Production of lignans in Forsythia intermedia
cell cultures. Phytochemistry 29(6):1861–1866
The Plant List (2013) Forsythia × intermedia Zabel http://
Other Uses www.theplantlist.org/
Umezawa T, Davin LB, Lewis NG (1990) Formation of
the lignan, (−) secoisolariciresinol, by cell free extracts
A popular ornamental plant in informal gardens of Forsythia intermedia. Biochem Biophys Res
and also planted as hedging, screens, on slopes and Commun 171(3):1008–1014
banks. The flowers are also used as cut flowers. Umezawa T, Davin LB, Lewis NG (1991) Formation of
lignans (−)-secoisolariciresinol and (−)-matairesinol
with Forsythia intermedia cell-free extracts. J Biol
Chem 166(16):10210–10217
Comments

The plant is readily propagated by using semi-

hardwood cuttings.
 Jasminum sambac

Scientific Name Family

Jasminum sambac (L.) Sol. Oleaceae

Synonyms Common Names

Jasminum bicorollatum Noronha, Jasminum Arabian Jasmine, Asian Jasmine, Asiatic Jasmine,
blancoi Hassk., Jasminum fragrans Salisb. Indian Jasmine, Jasmin, Maid of Orleans, Sacred
[Illeg.], Jasminum heyneanum Wall. ex G. Don, Jasmine, Sambac Jasmine, Tuscan Jasmine
Jasminum odoratum Noronha, Jasminum pubes-
cens Buch.-Ham. ex Wall. [Inval.], Jasminum
quadrifolium Buch.-Ham. ex Wall. [Inval.], Vernacular Names
Jasminum quinqueflorum B. Heyne ex G. Don,
Jasminum quinqueflorum var. pubescens G. Don, Arabic: Full
Jasminum sambac var. duplex Voigt, Jasminum Bangladesh: Bel, Beli
sambac var. gimea (Zuccagni) DC., Jasminum Chamorro: Sampagita
sambac var. goaense (Zuccagni) DC., Jasminum Chinese: Mo Li Hua, Mo Li
sambac var. heyneanum (Wall. ex G. Don) C.B. Chuukese: Ulo
Clarke, Jasminum sambac var. kerianum Kuntze, Cook Islands: Pitate, Pītate Papa‘Ā (Maori)
Jasminum sambac var. nemocalyx Kuntze, Cuba: Diamela
Jasminum sambac var. plenum Stokes, Jasminum Czech: Jasmín Arabský
sambac var. syringifolium Wall. ex Kuntze, Danish: Tempeljasmin
Jasminum sambac var. trifoliatum Vahl, Dutch: Arabische Jasmijn, Malati
Jasminum sambac var. trifoliatum (L.) Sims, Estonian: Valgeõieline Jasmiin
Jasminum sambac var. undulatum (L.) Kuntze, Finnish: Arabianjasmiini
Jasminum sambac var. verum DC., Jasminum French: Jasmin D’arabie
sanjurium Buch.-Ham. ex DC. [Inval.], Jasminum German: Arabischer Jasmin
undulatum (L.) Willd., Jasminum sambac Roxb., Hawaiian: Pikake, Pīkake
Mogorium gimea Zuccagni, Mogorium goaense I-Kiribati: Te Bitati
Zuccagni, Mogorium sambac (L.) Lam., India: Beli, Ban Mallika (Bengali), Banmallika,
Mogorium undulatum (L.) Lam., Nyctanthes Bel, Chamba, Bel Mogra, Mogra, Mogre-Ke-
goa Steud., Nyctanthes sambac L., Nyctanthes Phul, Motia, Mugra (Hindi), Chandumallige,
undulata L. Dundumallige, Elusuttinamallige, Gundumallige,

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 529
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_39, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
530 Oleaceae

Iravantige, Kadurumallige, Kolumallige, now cultivated widely in the Malesian region and
Mallige, Mallige-Huvvu (Kannada), Moghra the Pacific Islands.
(Marathi), Juhi Mahli (Oriya), Asphota, Mallika,
Navamalika, Vanamallika, Varshiki (Sanskrit),
Anaimalli, Anangam, Atittacenam, Cakurtti, Agroecology
Calparani, Caturtti, Ciriparani, Cumati, Curanaci,
Curanuva, Iruvachi, Iruvadi, Kalici, Karumugai, In its native habitat, it is found from near sea level
Kenta, Koguttam, Kudamalligai, Kuvaku, to 800 m altitude. Jasmine grows on almost any
Madurai, Makakocari, Maladi, Malli, Malligai, soil type with soil pH of 4.9–8.3 and ample water
Malligaip-Pu, Malligam, Mallikaipu, Mallip-Pu, supply and in full sun in areas with temperatures
Mukuram, Peramalli, Peramallikai, Pitari, from 11 to 28 °C and annual precipitation of
Tiraciravam, Tirikartta, Tirikattaceti, Tirikattam, 300–2,800 mm.
Tunkamalli, Tunkamallicceti, Visamaccuranacani
(Tamil), Boddumalle, Bondumalle,
Gundemalle, Malle, Malle-Puvvulu, Mallelu, Edible Plant Parts and Uses
Manmathabanamu, Virajadi, Virajaji (Telugu)
Indonesia: Melati, Melati Putih, Menur Jasmine flowers are edible, primarily used in teas
Italian: Gesimino D’arabia, Mugherine and flavouring; the flowers are also a source of an
Japanese: Jyasumin No Hana, Matsuri essential oil employed as flavouring (Grieve
Khmer: Molih 1971; Morton 1976; Tanaka 1976; Facciola 1990;
Malaysia: Melati, Bunga Melor Barash 1997; Creasey 1999; Roberts 2000; Hu
Marquesan: Pitate; 2005; Wetwitayaklung et al. 2008; Mittal et al.
Nauruan: Rimone 2011). Flowers are also added to dry food stuff
Pakistan: Kaliyan (tea, rice) for fragrance.
Philippines: Manul (Bisaya), Lumabi, Malul In China, the flower is processed and used as
(Maguindanao), Kulatai, Kampupot, Pongso the main ingredient in jasmine tea. It is similarly
(Pampangan), Hubar, Malur (Sulu), Sampagita, used in Java to flavour tea to prepare jasmine tea.
Kampupot (Tagalog) The flowers are also used for flavouring in other
Polish: Jaśmin Wielkolistny herbal and black teas and used in dessert, e.g.
Portuguese: Bogarim, Jasmim jasmine and strawberry dessert (Roberts 2000).
Samoan: Pua Samoa, Pua Sosola, Pua Sosolo The flowers can be used to infuse simple syrups,
Spanish: Jazmín De Arabia, Jazmín De Duque, and the syrups are used as a base for sorbets or
Sampaguita ice cream or it can be poured over melons, figs
Swedish: Arabisk Jasmin and peaches (Creasey 1999).
Tahitian: Pitate, Pitate Maohi
Thailand: Mali, Maliwan, Khao Taek, Tiamuun,
Mali Son Botany
Turkish: Arap Yasemini, Yasemini
Tuvaluan: Pitasi Scandent or erect, evergreen shrub growing to
Vietnamese: Lai, Lai Hoa Nhai 2 m tall with pubescent, terete, angular twigs.
Leaves are opposite or in whorls of three, entire,
elliptic or broad elliptic to suborbicular, obtuse at
Origin/Distribution both ends, very variable in size, up to 9 cm long
and 6 cm broad, glabrous, shining green above
The species probably originated from India, (Plates 1 and 2); nerves 4–6 on each side of midrib
Bengal to Sri Lanka and Myanmar, Yunnan and prominent beneath; petiole short, pubescent.
adjacent mountains of Guizhou and Guangxi in Flowers very fragrant, in 2–5-flowered terminal
China. It was introduced into Malaysia and Java, cymes, pedicels up to 6 mm; bracts linear, subulate
Jasminum sambac 531

Plate 1 Jasmine flowers, buds and leaves

Plate 3 Jasmine flower garland

Plate 2 Close view of jasmine flowers methyl anthranilate and indole. Other components
included 1-methylethyl-benzene; Δ-3-carene;
up to 6 mm long. Calyx lobe 5–9, linear, 1 cm styrene; 1,7-octadien-3-one, -2-methyl-6-methy-
long, V-shaped, pubescent. Corolla white, simple lene; 3-hexene-1-yl-acetate, cis-3-hexene-1-ol;
or double, tube 0.7–1.5 cm long, lobes 5–9, cis-3-hexenyl-N-butyrate, linalool oxide; α-copaene,
oblong, acute or obtuse (Plates 1, 2 and 3). β-elemene; trans-caryophyllene; methyl benzo-
Stamens, 2, included, ovary, 2-loculed. Berry ate; γ-muurolene; farnesol, γ-cadinene; benzyl
simple or didymous, globose, 10 mm across, alcohol; torreyol, cis-3-hexenyl benzoate; trans-
purplish-black when ripe. 3-hexenyl benzoate, trans-β-farnesene, 11-trico-
sane, tetracosane and benzyl benzoate. Besides a
known trimeric iridoidal glycoside, sambacoside
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties A, five new oligomeric iridoidal glycosides,
molihuasides, A–E were isolated from Jasminum
Flower Phytochemicals sambac flowers (Zhang et al. 1995). Among them,
molihuasides A and C–E represented new dimeric
A secoiridoid glucoside 8,9-dihydrojasminin (4), iridoidal glycosides and molihuaside B a new
4,9-deoxy-jasminigenin (1), jasminin (2) and trimeric iridoidal glycoside.
unidentified compound (3) were isolated from the Linalyl β-D-glucopyranoside 1 and its 6′-O-
flowers (Ross and Abdel-Hafiz 1985). Twenty malonate 2 were isolated as aroma precursors of
-eight volatile compounds were identified in the linalool from flower buds of Jasminum sambac
fragrance distillate of J. sambac (Sun et al. 1985). (Moon et al. 1994). Benzyl 6-O-β-D-xylopyrano-
The major components were linalool, benzyl syl-β-D-glucopyranoside (β-primeveroside) (1), 2-
acetate, cis-caryophyllene, cis-3-benzyl benzoate, phenylethyl β-primeveroside (2) and 2-phenylethyl
532 Oleaceae

6-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-β-D-glucopyranoside coumarins, cardiac glycosides, essential oils,

(β-rutinoside) (3) were isolated as aroma precur- flavonoids, phenolics, saponins and steroids, while
sors of benzyl alcohol and 2-phenylethanol alkaloids, anthraquinones and tannins were not
from flower buds of Jasminum sambac (Inagaki detected (Kunhachan et al. 2012).
et al. 1995). The potent odorants found in Thirty-seven constituents were identified in the
Jasmine flowers included linalool (floral), methyl headspace of J. sambac flowers (Zhu et al. 1984).
anthranilate (grapelike), 4-hexanolide (sweet), They are ethyl acetate (0.22 %), 3-methyl cyclo-
4-nonanolide (sweet), (E)-2-hexenyl hexanoate pentene (0.13 %), 2-methyl hexane (0.09 %),
(green) and 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)- 2,2,3,4-tetramethyl pentane (0.07 %), n-heptane
furanone (sweet) (Ito et al. 2002). Secondary (0.03 %), phenyl- 2-propanone (0.05 %), 2-methyl
metabolites, namely, caryophyllene oxide (1), a butate (0.03 %), 3-methyl heptane (0.02 %), butyl
mixture of benzyl benzoate (2) and farnesyl acetate (0.12 %), 2-methyl propen-2-1y acetate
acetate (3), methyl isoeugenol (4), squalene (5) (0.04 %), n-hexen-l-ol (1.06 %), 6-methyl-2-hepta
and sitosterol (6) were isolated from J. sambac none (0.18 %), 6-methyl 5-hepten-2-one (0.12 %),
flowers (Ragasa et al. 2003). The scent of the carbamyl benzoate (0.42 %), β-pinene (0.53 %),
flowers was attributed to compounds 2–4. Nine 3-hexenyl acetate (13.80 %), limonene (0.12 %),
known compounds were isolated from the flow- benzaldehyde (1.13 %), ocimene (0.06 %), methyl
ers of Jasminum sambac and elucidated as benzoate (6.27 %), linalool (25.01 %), trans-
benzyl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (1), benzyl-O-β- linalool oxide (0.32 %), benzyl acetate (23.71 %),
D-xylopyranosyl (1 → 6)-β-D-glucopyranoside 3-hexenyl butate (1.72 %), methyl salicylate
(2), tertraol (3), molihuaoside D (4), sambacoside (2.55 %), cyclohexyl formate (0.10 %), indole
A (5), sambacoside E (6), rutin (7), kaempferol- (1.83 %), 2, 6-dimethyl 5-heptenal (0.05 %),
3-O-(2, 6-di-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-D-galac- methyl anthranilate (1.56 %), 2,6-dimethyl hep-
topyranoside (8) and quercetin-3-O-(2, 6-di-O-α- tenal (0.53 %), β-caryophyllene (0.32 %),
L-rhamnopyranosyl)- β-D-galactopyranoside (9) β-farnesene (0.10 %), humulene (0.21 %), γ-
(Liu et al. 2004). cadinene (0.62 %), cis-caryophyllene (13.67 %),
Methyl anthranilate and (R)-(−)-linalool were trans, trans-farnesol (0.35 %) and cyclohexyl
found to be the key odorants of the jasmine tea benzoate (3.37 %). The main volatile constituents
flavour. The analytes identified in the volatile of the concrete headspace and absolute of J. sam-
organic compounds from J. sambac flowers bac flowers, respectively, were benzyl acetate
included alcohols, esters, phenolic compounds (23.7 and 14.2 %), indole (13.1 and 13.4 %), E-E-
and terpenoids (Pragadheesh et al. 2011). The α-farnesene (15.9 and 13.1 %), Z-3-hexenyl ben-
main constituents identified in the flower aroma zoate (4.9 and 9.4 %), benzyl alcohol (7.7 and
of Jasminum sambac using different solid-phase 8.4 %), linalool (10.6 and 6.3 %) and methyl
microextraction fibres were cis-3-hexenyl ace- anthranilate (5.0 and 4.7 %) (Edris et al. 2008).
tate, (E)-β-ocimene, linalool, benzyl acetate and The major volatile constituents of Egyptian
(E,E)-α-farnesene in a high proportion. Among J. sambac absolute were almost qualitatively
other constituents identified, cis-3-hexenyl ace- similar but quantitatively different from those
tate, linalool and benzyl acetate were major grown in other geographical regions.
aroma contributors in plucked and living flowers Four alkylated pyridines (1–4), viz.,
extracts. PDMS/DVB fibres recorded the highest 3-ethylpyridine (1), 3-vinylpyridine (2) 3-ethyl-4-
emission for benzyl acetate while the (E)-β- methylpyridine (3) and 4-methyl-3-vinylpyridine
ocimene proportion was highest in DVB/ (4), and ten alkyl-substituted nicotinates (8–17),
Carboxen/PDMS fibres when compared with the viz., methylnicotinate (8), ethyl nicotinate (9),
rest. The highest linalool content, with increasing methyl 4-methylnicotinate (10), methyl 5-ethyl-
proportion from morning to noon, was found nicotinate (11), 5-ethylnicotinic acid (12), methyl
using mixed coating fibres. The ethanolic Jasmine 5-vinylnicotinate (13), 5-vinylnicotinic acid (14),
flower extract was found to contain mixtures of methyl 5-ethyl-4-methylnicotinate (15), methyl
Jasminum sambac 533

4-methyl-5-vinylnicotinate (16) and ethyl 5-ethyl- zyl acetate 8.09 %, cis-caryophyllene 9.98 %,
4-methylnicotinate (17), were newly identified in methyl salicylate 0.81 %, farnesol 0.13 %, benzyl
jasmine absolutes with 3 known anthranilates, alcohol 4.06 %, dendrolasin 0.27 %, torreyol
viz., methyl anthranilate (5), methyl N-methyl 5.41 %, β-bisabolene 0.21 %, nor-hexenyl benzo-
anthranilate (6) and methyl N-acetyl anthranilate ate 0.30 %, trans-3-hexenyl benzoate 0.35 %, cis-
(7) (Toyoda et al. 1978). The major basic compo- 3-hexenyl benzoate 17.07 %, methyl anthranilate
nent (29 %) of the Chinese jasmine absolute based 4.34 %, 11-tricosane 9.11 %, methyl-9-cis, 12-cis,
on J. sambac was methyl 5-ethyl-4-methylnico- 15-cis octadecatrienoate 4.03 % and benzyl
tinate, while that (86, 72 %) of the other jasmine benzoate 2.25 %.
absolutes, e.g. Egyptian, Moroccan, based on Major compounds identified in J. sambac flower
J. grandiflorum, was methyl anthranilate. essential oil were citronellol, phenyl ethyl alcohol,
Fifty components of J. sambac absolute were geraniol, eugenol, farnesol, geranyl acetate, citrinyl
identified by GC–MS on capillary column OV acetate, 2-phenyl ethyl acetate, citral (mixture of
101 and GC–MS on capillary column PEG-20 M cis and trans), linalool, nerol, neryl acetate and
(Wu et al. 1987). Several important components benzaldehyde (Younis et al. 2011). Both harvesting
were 2,6-dimethyl heptanal; methyl n-methyl stages, i.e. closed bud and open flower stages,
anthranilate; bergamotene; torreyol; cis-3- yielded oil with differences in the percentage com-
hexenyl butyrate; cis-linalool oxide; 2H-pyran- position of each component, but flowers harvested
3-ol, 6-ethenyl tetrahydro-2,2,6-trimethyl and a at the open stage had higher yield and more com-
few sesquiterpenes. The chemical components of ponents than those from the closed bud stage.
J. sambac absolute by GC–MS on capillary col- Thirty-nine compounds were determined from
umn OV 101 identified included methyl n-methyl flower bud essential oils of J. sambac cv.
anthranilate 0.08 %, bergamotene 0.44 %, tor- Unifoliatum and 38 compounds from the flower
reyol 0.34 %, cis-3-hexenyl butyrate 0.27 %, buds of cv. Bifoliatum and cv. Trifoliatum, com-
2H-pyran-3-ol, 6-ethenyl tetrahydro-2,2,6- prising 27 terpenoid, 9 esters, 1 alkane, 1 alcohol
trimethyl 0.40 %, cis-3-hexenol 1.24 %, 3-hexen- and 1 indole compound (Guo et al. 2011). The
1-yl acetate 1.15 %, benzyl alcohol 6.75 %, most abundant compounds were p-menth-3-en-1-
methyl benzoate 0.45 %, linalool 8.35 %, benzyl ol,(−)-isoledene and α-longipinene. Other major
acetate 7.53 %, methyl salicylate 3.41 %, indole compounds included (Z)-3-hexenyl pentenoate;
2.44 %, 2,6-dimethyl hept-5-en-al 0.57 %, methyl acetic acid phenylmethyl ester; benzoic acid ethyl
anthranilate 1.15 %, β-elemene 0.38 %, trans- ester; butanoic acid; 4-hexen-1-yl ester; benzoic
caryophyllene trace, humulene trace, γ-cadinene acid 2-hydroxy-ethyl ester; 1H-indole; γ-elemene;
0.40 %, cis-caryophyllene 9.52 %, β-bisabolene trans-caryophyllene; cis-α-bisabolene; valencene
0.20 %, β-cadinene 0.32 %, cis-3-hexenyl benzo- 2,3-hexen-1-ol benzoate; and γ-gurjunene. Twenty
ate 15.58 %, benzyl benzoate 2.12 %, methyl pal- different sesquiterpenoids were found; cv.
mitate 0.61 %, 9,11,octadeca-9,12,15-trien-1ol Unifoliatum had 63.13 %, cv. Bifoliatum had
3.02 %, methyl 16-methyl heptadecanoate 22.71 % and cv. Trifoliatum 19.68 %. In terms of
0.25 %, dicosane 0.59 %, 11-tricosane 7.08 % scent richness, the ranking of the cultivars was cv.
and tricosane 0.31 %. Chemical components of J. Unifoliatum, cv. Bifoliatum and cv. Trifoliatum.
sambac absolute identified by GC–MS on capil-
lary column PEG-20 M included cis 3-hexen-1-yl
acetate 0.32 %, 6-methyl-hep-5-en-2-one 0.15 %, Leaf Phytochemicals
cis-3-hexenol-1-ol 0.41 %, cyclohexanol 0.11 %,
cis-3-hexenyl butyrate 0.15 %, cis-linalool oxide Ross et al. (1982) isolated a new iridoid glyco-
0.56 %, benzaldehyde 0.03 %, linalool 8.46 %, side, sambacin, quercetin, isoquercetin, rutin,
β-elemene 0.19 %, trans-caryophyllene 0.17 %, quercetin-3-dirhamnoglycoside, kaempferol-3-
methyl benzoate 0.60 %, ethyl benzoate 0.05 %, rhamnoglycoside, mannitol, α-amyrin and
benzyl formate 0.13 %, γ-cadinene 0.85 %, ben- β-sitosterol from the leaves. A lignan-secoiridoid
534 Oleaceae

glucoside named sambocolignoside and an activity, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity,

oligomeric iridoid glycoside oleoside 11-methyl β-carotene bleaching assay and reducing power,
ester were isolated from the leaves (Tanahashi aqueous extracts of Jasmine leaves exhibited the
et al. 1987). Three tetrameric iridoid glucosides, most potent antioxidant activities over ethyl acetate
sambacosides A, E and F, were isolated from the and n-butanol extracts (Tenpe et al. 2008). This
leaves (Tanahashi and Nagakura 1988). Leaves activity was attributed to the presence of polar phe-
of Jasminum sambac were reported to contain nolic compound flavonoid, tannin and other chemi-
the secoiridoid glycosides, jasminin, quercetin, cals. In the DPPH free radical scavenging assay,
isoquercetin, rutin, quercetin 3-dirhamnoglyco- the IC50 value of Jasminum sambac essential oil
side, kaempferol 3-rhamnoglycoside, mannitol, and methanol extract were 7.43 and 2.30 μg/mL,
alpha amyrin, beta sitosterol and an iridoid gly- respectively (Fatouma et al. 2010). In the
coside, sambacin (Khare 2004). J. sambac leaves β-carotene-linoleic acid assay, oxidation was effec-
were found to contain 14 total ash, 8.5 % acid- tively inhibited by Jasminum sambac; the reducing
insoluble ash, 7 % water-soluble ash, 32 % etha- antioxidant activity values of the essential oil and
nol-soluble extractive, 12.8 % water-soluble methanol extract were 96.6 and 93.9 %, respec-
extractive and 15 % crude fibre (Sabharwal et al. tively. When compared to BHT (butylated hydroxy-
2011). The leaves also contained fats, glyco- toluene), the essential oil and methanol extract had
sides, carbohydrates, flavonoids, steroids, sapo- nearly the same activities.
nins, proteins and amino acids, tannins and The methanolic extract of Jasminum sambac
phenolic compounds. flower exhibited strong in vitro antioxidant scav-
enging activity when evaluated using DPPH,
ABTS+, hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide,
Root Phytochemicals superoxide anion, nitric oxide radical, reducing
power, FRAP and total antioxidant capacity
Dotriacontanoic acid, dotriacontanol, oleanolic assays (Kalaiselvi et al. 2011b). The extract
acid, daucosterol and hesperidin were isolated showed maximum inhibition activity at 2.5 mg/mL
from the roots (Zhang et al. 2004). concentration when compared to the standard
antioxidants BHT, vitamin-C, vitamin-E and
rutin. The percentage of inhibition increased in
Antioxidant Activity a dose-dependent manner. Administration of
hydrogen peroxide induced a significant decline
The percent yield of extract and the amount of in the levels of antioxidant enzymes in goat
total polyphenols in g/100 g calculated as gallic liver homogenate (Kalaiselvi et al. 2011a).
acid on dried flowers and crude methanolic Pretreatment with J. sambac methanol extract
extracts basis for J. sambac were reported as significantly prevented the decline and main-
21.70 (% yield), 0.59 g total polyphenols (g/100 g tained them within the normal range. Also the
dried flower) and 2.71 g total polyphenols (g/100 g extract normalized the lipid peroxidation which
crude extract) (Wetwitayaklung et al. 2008). evidently showed that the methanolic extract of
Antioxidant capacity for J. sambac flowers J. sambac had a potent antilipid peroxidative
expressed in TEAC (trolox equivalent antioxidant effect.
capacity) = 0.02 and IC50 = 571.97 μg/50 μL.
There was good linear relationship between anti-
oxidant activity and flower extract concentrations Anticancer Activity
with R2 = 0.9925.
J. sambac was found to have antioxidant Jasminum sambac was one of the 16 plants
activity. Research demonstrated that using sev- tested, whose extracts showed significant antip-
eral in vitro models, namely, DPPH radical scav- roliferative activity against Hep-2, MCF-7 and
enging activity, nitric oxide radical scavenging Vero cell lines (Talib and Mahasneh 2010). The
Jasminum sambac 535

crude ethanolic leaf extract produced prominent elicited a significant decrease in heart rate and an
cytotoxic activity against brine shrimp Artemia increase in high-frequency component in com-
salina (LC50 = 50 μg/mL and LC90 = 100 μg/mL) parison with the controls and produced calm and
(Rahman et al. 2011). The methanolic extract of vigorous mood states. The results showed low
J. sambac flower was found to possess significant intensity of jasmine tea odour had sedative effects
anticancer properties against Dalton’s ascites on both autonomic nerve activity and mood
lymphoma-induced Swiss albino mice in in-vitro states, and (R)-(−)-linalool, one of its compo-
and in-vivo model (Kalaiselvi et al. 2012). The nents, could mimic these effects. The researchers
methanolic flower extract elicited dose-dependent also reported that the low-intensity odour pro-
tumour cell proliferation inhibitory activity in duced by diluting 20-fold the jasmine tea used for
both HeLa and mouse fibroblast cells. At concen- the high-intensity odour test elicited an increase
trations 25–400 μg/mL, the percentage of cell in parasympathetic nervous activity in both the
inhibition concentration of normal and cancer predilection and antipathy volunteer groups
cells was found to be 123.3 and 93.8 μg/mL, (Inoue et al. 2003). The high-intensity odour
respectively. The methanolic extract at oral dose produced an increase in parasympathetic nervous
of 100 mg/kg body weight exhibited a significant activity in the predilection group, and also an
change in the levels of haematological profiles, increase in sympathetic nervous activity in the
aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase, antipathy group. The odour of Chinese green
acid phosphatase and lactate dehydrogenase and tea, a basic ingredient of jasmine tea, produced
cancer marker enzymes such as 5′nucleotidase, no effects similar to those of the jasmine tea
β-D-glucuronidase and γ-glutamyl transferase as odour. Their results suggested that the jasmine
compared to Dalton’s ascites lymphoma-induced tea odour activated the parasympathetic nerve,
Swiss albino mice control group. whereas the higher-intensity odour activated the
sympathetic nerve in those subjects who disliked
the odour.
Antiviral Activity

The water flower extract was found to have vary- Vasodilatation Effect
ing antiviral potency against herpes simplex
viruses (HSV-1 and HSV-2) and adenoviruses Compared with the control group, the 95 % etha-
including ADV-11 (Chiang et al. 2003). nolic jasmine flower extract in 0.05 % DMSO
clearly reduced tonus of isolated rat endothelium
thoracic aortic rings preconstricted with phenyl-
Central Nervous System Activity ephrine (10−6 M) in a dose-dependent manner
(Kunhachan et al. 2012). This pharmacological
Jasmine sambac is very useful as an antidepres- effect disappeared after the preincubation of the
sant giving optimism and confidence, producing rings with atropine (10−6 M) or with N(ω)-nitro-l-
a feeling of euphoria and helps overcome apathy arginine (10−4 M). The effects were postulated to
and listlessness. Jasmine tea has a calming and the actions of the active components on the vessel
sedative effect on the nervous system and is espe- muscarinic receptors or by causing the release of
cially beneficial in conditions caused by psycho- nitric oxide.
logical stress and imbalance. Studies found
Jasmine tea to cause significant decrease in heart
rate and significant increases in spectral inte- Antimicrobial Activity
grated values at high-frequency component in
comparison with the control (Kuroda et al. 2005). Secondary metabolites, caryophyllene oxide (1),
The odour produced calm and vigorous mood benzyl benzoate (2), farnesyl acetate (3) and
states. (R)-(−)-linalool, one of its components, methyl isoeugenol (4), isolated from J. sambac
536 Oleaceae

flowers exhibited moderate activities against Puerperal Lactation Suppression

Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aspergillus niger Activity
and slight activity against Escherichia coli,
Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans and Jasmine flowers seem to be an effective and inex-
Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Ragasa et al. pensive method of suppressing puerperal lacta-
2003). Methyl isoeugenol had slight activity tion and can be used as an alternative in situations
against Staphylococcus aureus. Jasmine essential where cost and non-availability restrict the use of
oil and six major components exhibit bactericidal bromocriptine. Studies reported that both bro-
activity against Escherichia coli with MIC values mocriptine and jasmine flowers brought about a
of 1.9–31.25 μL/mL (Rath et al. 2008). J. sambac significant reduction in serum prolactin; the
essential oil and methanol extract showed higher decrease was significantly greater with bro-
activities against bacterial species than yeast mocriptine (Shrivastav et al. 1988). However,
(Fatouma et al. 2010). clinical parameters such as breast engorgement,
Jasminum sambac plant extract also has anti- milk production and analgesic intake showed the
microbial properties. Studies showed that the two modes of therapy to be equally effective.
plant callus extracts containing alkaloids, glyco-
side, flavonoids, terpenes, tannin, resin and sali-
cylic acid exhibited highest antimicrobial Hypotensive Activity
activity against all the tested skin pathogenic
strains: Staphylococcus albus, Staphylococcus J. sambac was one of the 22 Indian medicinal
aureus, Proteus mirabilis and Salmonella typhi plants surveyed that was found to have angioten-
at concentrations of 500, 250 mg/mL (Joy and sin converting enzyme inhibitory activity
Raja 2008). It scored highest with Salmonella (Somanadhan et al. 1999).
typhi and lowest against Staphylococcus aureus.
The studies supported its use in traditional med-
icine in India for skin disorders. The dried Analgesic Activity
leaves soaked in water and made into poultice
are used in indolent ulcers. The young leaves Studies showed that ethanol leaf extract of
and flowers are used to make a putty, which was J. sambac produced significant writhing inhibition
mixed and eaten with rice to dry scabies and in acetic acid-induced writhing in mice at the oral
other skin eruptions. J. sambac (flowers and dose of 250 and 500 mg/kg of body weight com-
leaves) extracts were very active (>15 mm inhi- parable to the standard drug diclofenac sodium at
bition zone) against Gram-positive methicillin- the dose of 25 mg/kg of body weight (Rahman
resistant S. aureus and B. subtilis, as well as et al. 2011). The petroleum ether extract leaf
against Gram-negative E. coli, S. typhimurium extract of Jasminum sambac at 200 and 400 mg/
and K. pneumoniae and fungi, including the fila- kg showed significant decrease in acetic acid-
mentous A. niger and A. fumigatus and the induced writhings in mice with a maximum of
yeasts Candida albicans and Candida glabrata 67.49 % at 400 mg/kg (Bhangale et al. 2012).
(Al-Hussaini and Mahasneh 2009). However, In tail immersion and hot plate method, treatment
weak anti-quorum sensing activities were with the extract (200 and 400 mg/kg) showed
observed with extracts of Jasminum sambac significant pain latencies as compared to vehicle-
(flowers and leaves). treated group of animals.
Jasminum sambac and J. grandiflorum leaf
extracts were found to be highly inhibitory in
vitro against Alternaria sp., one of the fungal Anti-inflammatory Activity
pathogens of foot infections in cancer patients
(Mishra et al. 2010). It inhibited hyphal growth The aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts
and sporulation of the fungus. exhibited anti-inflammatory activity against
Jasminum sambac 537

carrageenan-induced paw oedema in albino rats Wound Healing Activity

at a dose of 300 mg/kg (Bhagat et al. 2007).
The aqueous extract was more effective than J. sambac elicited significant increase in wound
the ethyl acetate extract. Bhangale et al. (2012) contraction, hydroxyproline content and
reported that the petroleum ether leaf extract decreased epithelization period in excision
of Jasminum sambac at 200 and 400 mg/kg wound model in albino mice as compared to eth-
significantly inhibited carrageenan-induced paw anol extract (Sabharwal et al. 2012). The
oedema in mice. The anti-inflammatory effects enhanced wound healing activity of aqueous
observed with the extract were comparable to extract was postulated to be due to free radical
that of the standard. scavenging action and antibacterial property of
the phytoconstituents (viz., tannins, phenolic
acids, flavonoids) present in it.
Antidepressant Activity

In a study of 40 healthy volunteers, topical Toxicity Studies

application of jasmine oil to the abdomen skin
caused significant increases of breathing rate, By intravenous injection at a single dose of
blood oxygen saturation and systolic and diastolic 0.5 mL/mouse (15 mg) of the ethanol flower
blood pressure, which indicated an increase of extract, no systemic biological toxicity was dem-
autonomic arousal (Hongratanaworakit 2010). At onstrated in ICR mice (Kunhachan et al. 2012).
the emotional level, subjects in the jasmine oil In Wistar rats, the LD50 of the extract was higher
group rated themselves as more alert, more than 5,000 mg/kg BW by oral administration.
vigorous and less relaxed than subjects in the
control group. The finding suggested an increase
of subjective behavioural arousal. The results Traditional Medicinal Uses
demonstrated the stimulating/activating effect of
jasmine oil and provided evidence for its use in All parts of the plant have been used in traditional
aromatherapy for the relief of depression and folk medicine in Asia (Burkill 1966; Duke and
uplifting mood in humans. Ayensu 1985; Chopra et al. 1986; Zhang et al.
1995; Khare 2004; Lu 2005; Joy and Raja 2008;
Rath et al. 2008; Fatouma et al. 2010; Mittal et al.
Gastroprotective Activity 2011; Stuart 2012). Jasminum sambac possesses
many beneficial medicinal properties such as
Studies showed that rats with acidified ethanol- thermogenic, aphrodisiac, antiseptic, emollient,
induced gastric ulcers exhibited significantly anthelmintic and tonic and is commonly used for
severe mucosal injury as compared to similarly stomatitis, ulcers and skin diseases. The action of
ulcerated rats treated with omeprazole or jasmine is deemed warming, opening and reliev-
J. sambac ethanol leaf extract (Alrashdi et al. ing of spasm and recommended where there is
2012). The latter treatments elicited significant cold, listlessness, spasm, depression, catarrh or
reduction of ulcer area and a marked reduction other discharge. In India, Jasmine sambac has a
of oedema and leucocytes infiltration of submu- long history of use as a major therapy for male
cosal layer. Immunohistochemistry showed and female reproductive conditions; it is said to
overexpression of Hsp70 protein and down- help prevent postnatal depression and infertility
expression of Bax protein in rats pretreated with and is ranked among the ‘aphrodisiac’ herbs and
jasmine leaf extract. Significant increases in pH, is considered calmative. In India, Jasmine
mucus of gastric content and high levels of (Jasminum sambac) is extensively used in manu-
PGE(2), SOD and reduced amount of MDA facturing high-grade aromatherapy oils. In aro-
were observed. matherapy, jasmine oil is recommended for any
538 Oleaceae

kind of physical pain. Jasmine oil is also beneficial

in treating many health problems. It is regarded Other Uses
to be a powerful antiseptic, sedative and tonic
recommended for breathing difficulties, coughing Jasmine is also a popular ornamental plant.
and nervous debility. Jasmine flower oil is important in high-grade per-
In traditional Chinese medicine, jasmine flow- fumes and cosmetics, such as creams, oils, soaps
ers are used to regulate energy in the body and bal- and shampoos. Jasmine flowers afford a yellow
ance the internal region and are deemed good for dye which is used as a substitute for saffron.
abdominal pains, diarrhoea, dermatitis and con- Jasmine is the national flower of the
junctivitis. The flowers act as lactifuge and are said Philippines. In South India, jasmines are strung
to arrest the secretion of milk in puerperal states in into thick strands and worn as a hair adornment
case of threatened abscess. In India flowers are or as neck garlands for honoured guests. The
applied to the breast. In Malaysia, an infusion of flowers of one of the double varieties (‘Belle of
flowers is used as a facial wash because of its fra- India’) are held sacred to Vishnu and are used as
grance, cleansing and soothing properties. Flowers votive offerings in Hindu religious ceremonies.
are used in ben oil or coconut oil for hair, facial or In Hawaii, jasmine flowers—single (pikake
body use or as a perfume oil or perfume base. The lahilahi) or double forms (pikake pupupu)—are
flowers are also digested with vegetable oil to make used to make fragrant leis.
oil tinctures or liniments. The flowers are used by
Malays in Malaysia in a paste compounded with
Gardenia flowers and the root of Acacia myrio- Comments
phylla and applied to the head for congestive head-
ache. Eye lotions are also made with jasmine Jasmine essential oil is one of the most expen-
flowers and the juice from Conocephalus or the sive oils used in cosmetics, the pharmaceutical
rhizome of Kaempferia. The flowers have also industry, perfumery and aromatherapy (Younis
been used to cure sapraemia. Flowers are also et al. 2011).
reported to be antipyretic and decongestant.
Leaves are also reported to be antipyretic and
decongestant. In Malaysia, a leaf decoction is Selected References
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 Syringa vulgaris

Scientific Name vulgaris var. rubra Loudon, Syringa vulgaris

var. transsilvanica Schur, Syringa vulgaris var.
Syringa vulgaris L. violacea Sol.

Synonyms Family

Lilac caerulea (Jonst.) Lunell, Lilac cordatifolia Oleaceae

Gilib. (Inval.), Lilac suaveolens Gilib. (Inval.),
Lilac vulgaris (L.) Lam., Lilac vulgaris var. alba
(Weston) Jacques & Hérincq, Lilac vulgaris var. Common/English Names
purpurea (Weston) Jacques & Hérincq, Lilac
vulgaris var. violacea (Sol.) Jacques & Hérincq, Common Lilac, French Lilac, Lilac, Syringa
Liliacum album (Weston) Renault, Liliacum
vulgare (L.) Renault, Syringa alba (Weston)
A.Dietr. ex Dippel, Syringa albiflora Opiz, Syringa Vernacular Names
amoena K.Koch, Syringa bicolor K.Koch,
Syringa caerulea Jonst., Syringa carlsruhensis Bulgarian: Ljuljak
K.Koch, Syringa cordifolia Stokes, Syringa Danish: Almindelig Siren, Syren
cordifolia var. alba Stokes, Syringa cordifolia Dutch: Gewone Sering
var. caerulescens Stokes, Syringa cordifolia var. Czech: Šeoík Obecný, Šeřík Obecný
purpurascens Stokes, Syringa latifolia Salisb., Estonian: Harilik Sirel
Syringa lilac Garsault (Inval.), Syringa marliensis Esperanto: Siringo
K.Koch, Syringa nigricans K.Koch, Syringa Finnish: Pihasyreeni, Yleinen Sireenipuu
notgeri K.Koch, Syringa philemon K.Koch, Syringa French: Bois De Lilas, Lilas, Lilas Commun,
rhodopea Velen., Syringa versaliensis K.Koch, Lilas Vulgaire
Syringa virginalis K.Koch, Syringa vulgaris German: Flieder, Garten-Flieder, Gemeiner
var. alba Sol., Syringa vulgaris var. alba Weston, Flieder, Gewöhnlicher Flieder, Gewöhnlicher
Syringa vulgaris f. albipleniflora S.D.Zhao, Syringa Flieder Lilac, Lila, Lilak, Nagelblume,
vulgaris var. caerulea Weston, Syringa vulgaris Nägelchenbaum, Nägelein, Pfeifenstrauch,
var. lilacina Sweet, Syringa vulgaris var. macrantha Spanischer Flieder, Türkischer Holunder
Borbás, Syringa vulgaris var. pulchella Velen., Hungarian: Orgona, Orgona Növény
Syringa vulgaris var. purpurea Weston, Syringa Icelandic: Dísarunni, Garðasýrena

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 541
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_40, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
542 Oleaceae

Italian: Lilacco Commune, Lilla, Lilla Commune,

Lillatro, Serenella, Siringa, Sirings Lilla
Norwegian: Syrin
Polish: Lilak, Lilak Pospolity
Portuguese: Lilás, Lilazeiro
Slovašcina: Lipovka, Španski Bezeg
Slovencina: Orgován Obyčajný
Spanish: Lila, Lilo
Swedish: Syren
Turkish: Leylak

Plate 1 Lilac inflorescences and leaves

Origin/Distribution

S. vulgaris is indigenous native to the Balkan

Peninsula in Southeastern Europe.

Agroecology

In its native range, it is found in woodlands

and scrub on rocky hills. Lilac prefers neutral
to slightly alkaline soils rich in organic matter.
It thrives best in well-drained soils in full sun.

Plate 2 Close view of flower and leaf

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Flowers can be eaten raw and in yoghurt or folded 2 mm long calyx; corolla tube narrowly cylindrical,
into batter and fried to make fritters (MacNicol 6–10 mm long with an open, 4 oval, lobed apex
1967; Facciola 1990; Barash 1997). The flowers 5–8 mm across. Anthers yellow included. Fruit a
can be crystallized by beating in egg white and dry, smooth, shining brown capsule, 1–2 cm
rolling in granulated sugar. long, dehiscing into two to release two-winged,
compressed seeds.

Botany
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
A large deciduous shrub or small, multi-stemmed
tree growing to 6 m high. Bark grey-brown, Phytochemicals from Flowers
smooth on young stems and flaky and furrowed
on older stems. Leaves simple, entire, pale green to Aceteoside (previously named verbascoside) and
glaucous, cordate to subcordate with acuminate salidroside were extracted from violet flowers
to mucronate apex, 5–10 cm long by 3–8 cm wide (Birkofer et al. 1968).
on 2 cm long petioles (Plates 1 and 2). Flowers Using modern headspace techniques, the
sweetly fragrant, lilac, deep purple or white, sweet and beautiful fragrance of lilac flowers
sometimes doubled in large panicles, 8–18 cm was found to be attributed to characteristic com-
long, arising from lateral buds with leaves at ponents such as (E)-ocimene as the predominant
the base (Plates 1 and 2). Flowers with 4-toothed, component, furanoid terpene aldehyde ‘lilac
Syringa vulgaris 543

aldehyde’ and the corresponding alcohols (four (2S,2′S,5′R)-Lilac alcohol = (2S)-2-[(2S,5R)-2,5-

diastereoisomers each), benzyl methyl ether, dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]prope-
1,4-dimethoxybenzene (hydroquinone dimethyl nol—herbaceous, slightly flowery, odour
ether) and indole (Mookherjee et al. 1990; Surburg threshold = 74 ng
and Güntert 1991; Kreck and Mosandl 2003; (2S,2′R,5′S)-Lilac alcohol = (2S)-2-[(2R,5S)-
Saveer et al. 2012). Minor constituents of the lilac 2,5-dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]
headspace were anisaldehyde, 8-oxolinalool, propenol—sweet, flowery, odour thresh-
cinnamic alcohol and elemicin. The so-called old = 2 ng and (2R,2′S,5′R)-lilac alco-
syringaldehyde or syringic aldehyde (= 4-hydroxy-3, hol = (2R)-2-[(2S,5R)-2,5-dimethyl-5-
5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde), derived from the vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]propenol—sweet,
glucoside syringin, was first isolated from lilac odour threshold = 22 ng
bark and appeared to be of little importance in The structure and olfactometric analysis of
the headspace of lilacs. lilac aldehydes stereoisomers were elucidated by
Headspace constituents of living dark purple, Kreck and Mosandl (2003) as:
purple and French purple lilac flowers included (2S,2′S,5′S)-Lilac aldehyde = (2S)-2-[(2S,5S)-
benzyl methyl ether 7.0, 6.5, 1.5 %; trans 2,5-dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]
β-ocimene 26.0, 38.0, 52 %; lilac aldehydes 9.3, propanal—fresh, flowery note, odour
11.0, 1.5 %; lilac alcohols 8.0, 4.3, 1.0 %; threshold = 0.2 ng
1,4′-dimethoxy benzene 3.0, 7.0, 5.0; indole-, (2R,2′R,5′R)-Lilac aldehyde = (2R)-2-[(2R,5R)-
0.2, 0.2 %, respectively (Mookherjee et al. 2,5-dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]
1990). Constituents from white lilac flowers propanal—flowery, odour threshold = 22 ng
were benzyl methyl ether 2.6 %, trans β-ocimene (2R,2′S,5′S)-Lilac aldehyde = (2R)-2-[(2S,5S)-
31.5 %, 1, 4′-dimethoxy benzene 21.4 %, lilac 2,5-dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]
alcohols 1.0 % and indole 0.8 %. Acteoside, propanal—pleasant, flowery, fresh, odour
a phenylpropanoid, was isolated from the violet threshold = 0.3 ng
flowers of Syringa vulgaris (Ahmad et al. (2S,2′R,5′R)-Lilac aldehyde = (2S)-2-[(2R,5R)-
1995). 2,5-dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]
The structure and olfactometric analysis of propanal—flowery, odour threshold = 20 ng
lilac alcohols stereoisomers were elucidated by (2S,2′R,5′S)-Lilac aldehyde = (2S)-2-[(2R,5S)-
Kreck and Mosandl (2003) as: 2,5-dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]
(2R,2′S,5′S)-Lilac alcohol = (2R)-2-[(2S,5S)-2,5- propanal—sweet, flowery, odour threshold
dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]prope- = 0.3 ng
nol imparting green, grassy, fresh note with (2R,2′S,5′R)-Lilac aldehyde = (2R)-2-[(2S,5R)-
odour threshold of 4 ng 2,5-dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]
(2S,2′R,5′R)-Lilac alcohol = (2S)-2-[(2R,5R)-2,5- propanal—flowery, fresh, odour threshold
dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]propenol— = 18 ng
sweet, odour threshold = 80 ng (2R,2′R,5′S)-Lilac aldehyde = (2R)-2-[(2R,5S)-
(2S,2′S,5′S)-Lilac alcohol = (2S)-2-[(2S,5S)-2,5- 2,5-dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]
dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]prope- propanal—sweet, flowery, odour threshold
nol—flowery, odour threshold = 2 ng; = 0.4 ng
(2R,2′R,5′R)-lilac alcohol = (2R)-2-[(2R,5R)- (2S,2′S,5′R)-Lilac aldehyde = (2S)-2-[(2S,5R)-2,5-
2,5-dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl] dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl]
propenol—odourless at >100 ng by GC sniff- propanal—flowery, fresh, odour threshold = 4 ng
ing, odour threshold = >100 ng Studies showed that deuterium-labelled pre-
(2R,2′R,5′S)-Lilac alcohol = (2R)-2-[(2R,5S)- cursors were bioconverted into lilac aldehydes
2,5-dimethyl-5-vinyltetrahydrofuran-2-yl] and lilac alcohols via the mevalonate-independent
propenol—flowery, sweet, body, odour 1-deoxy-D-xylose 5-phosphate/2C-methyl-D-
threshold = 4 ng erythritol 4-phosphate pathway in lilac flowers
544 Oleaceae

(Kreck et al. 2003; Burkhardt and Mosandl In the leaves, most of the chlorophyll was
2003). Incubation of petals with an aqueous found in the palisade parenchyma, the chloro-
solution of deuterated d(5)-(R/S)-linalool 3 indi- phyll a/b ratio being the highest in the upper layer
cated an autonomic terpene biosynthesis of lilac (Pilarski 1999). The highest concentration of
flavour compounds in the flower petals of lilac. chlorophyll in the leaves was 1.2 mg/dm2, and
Volatile odour compounds (ng/minute) emitted the highest value of the chlorophyll a/b ratio in
from lilac flower included lilac benzaldehyde the leaves varied from 4.5 to 3.8.
13.4 ng, benzyl methyl ether 13.3 ng,
4-methylanisole 1.1 ng, (Z)-β-ocimene 11.4 ng,
(E)-β-ocimene 114.2 ng, acetophenone 4.0 ng, Phytochemicals from Bark
unknown 3 ng, unknown 5.5 ng, (S)-(+)-linalool
5.8 ng, lilac aldehyde a 17.4 ng, lilac aldehyde B Ten phenolic compounds isolated from the
3.6 ng, 1,4-dimethoxybenzene 80.9 ng, unknown bark included derivatives of phenethyl alcohol
1.2 ng, estragole 3.5 ng and lilac alcohols 9.1 ng (tyrosol (4-hydroxyphenylethanol), 3,4-dihydr-
(Saveer et al. 2012). Also phenylacetadehyde oxyphenylethanol, salidroside and O-(3,4-
0.6 ng and benzyl alcohol 2.4 ng were detected dihydroxyphenethyl) β-D-glucopyranoside),
from DB wax column. phenylpropanoids (cinnamylglycosides syrigin
Damtoft et al. (1995a) characterized secoiri- and coniferin, the acylglycosides acetoside
doids, fliederoside and lilacoside from S. vul- and forsythiaside), a coumarin esculatin and a
garis. Using deuterium-labelled precursors, they flavonoid astragalin (Kurkin et al. 1989). Iridoids
showed that the biosynthesis of oleoside-type isolated from common lilac bark included
secoiridoids (e.g. oleuropein) proceeded via iri- oleuropein, ligustroside, nuzhenide and demeth-
dodial, iridotrial, deoxy-loganic acid aglycone yloleuropein (Kurkin et al. 1990). On saponifica-
and deoxy-loganic acid. Hydroxylation of the tion with 2 % NaOH, oleuropein, demethyl
7α-position followed by oxidation and methyla- oleuropein yielded 3,4-dihydroxy-β-phenylethanol
tion of C-11 afforded 7-ketologanin, the last car- (3-hydroxytyrosol), ligustroside gave 4-hydroxy-
bocyclic iridoid precursor of the oleosides. β-phenylethanol (tyrosol) and nuzhenide gave
8-Epi-kingisidic acid and 8-epi-kingiside could the tyrosol glycoside salidroside (4-hydroxy-
be formed from 8-ketologanic acid (and its β-phenylethyl 8-day-glucopoyranoside). Two
methyl ester). Further Damtoft et al. (1995b) lignans isolated from the bark of Syringa vul-
found that oleoside 11-methyl ester was an effi- garis were identified as (+)-lariciresinol
cient precursor for the oleosides in S. vulgaris, 4-β-D-glucopyranoside (I) and -olivil 4-β-D-
and the major pathway to the oleosides appeared glucopyranoside (Kurkin et al. 1991). The bark
to proceed via a direct ring fission of ketologanin was found to contain syrigin (Kurkin et al. 1992;
to oleoside 11-methyl ester. Ahmad and Aftab 1995). Fourteen components
were identified in the bark extract: phenylethanol
derivatives (tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol and their
Phytochemicals from Leaves glycosides salidroside and hydroxysalidroside);
phenylpropanoids (the acylglycosides acteoside
D-mannite, quercetin, rutin, kaempferol-3-rutinoside, and forsythiaside, the cinnamylglycosides syring-
isoquercetin and astragalin were isolated from ing and coniferin, lignan glucosides lariciresinol
the leaves, and rutin was found to be predominat- 4-glucoside and o1ivil 4-glucoside); and also
ing (Kurkin et al. 1980). Two new secoiridoid iridoids in the form of conjugates with tyrosol
glucosides, named syringa lactone A and syringa and hydroxytyrosol (oleuropein, noroleuropein,
lactone B, were isolated from S. vulgaris leaves ligustroside and nuzhenide) (Kurkin et al.
(Sticher et al. 1982). The leaves were found to be 1992).
a rich source of the iridoid glucoside, syringopi- Chlorophyll and carotenoids were present
croside (Asaka et al. 1970; Liu et al. 2010). through the whole thickness of the bark, except the
Syringa vulgaris 545

cork (Pilarski 1999). It was found that chlorophylls Daily verbascoside (from S. vulgaris) treatment
a and b and carotenoids were present mainly in for 4 days of rats with colitis induced by intracolonic
the outer layer of the bark, immediately under the instillation of 2,4 dinitrobenzene sulphonic
cork, to a depth of 400 μm. The highest concen- acid significantly reduced macroscopic damage
tration of chlorophyll in the bark is 0.44 mg/dm2, score, loss of body weight, myeloperoxidase
and the highest value of the chlorophyll a/b ratio activity and thiobarbituric acid-reactant substances
in the bark is 3.8 and the lowest 0.5. (Mazzon et al. 2009). Further, the intensity of the
Some of the pharmacological properties of positive staining for tumour necrosis factor-
lilac plant parts are elaborated below. alpha, interleukin-1beta, intercellular adhesion
molecule-1, P-selectin, inducible nitric oxide
synthase and poly(ADP-ribose) was also signifi-
Hypotensive Activity cantly reduced by verbascoside treatment.
Verbascoside treatment significantly reduced the
Intravenous administration of syrigin, isolated degree of nuclear factor-kappa B p65 and activa-
from the bark, caused a dose-dependent decline tion of the proactive form metalloproteinase
in systolic, diastolic and mean arterial blood (MMP)-2 and pro-MMP-9 activity. The results
pressure in anaesthetized Wistar rats, whereas suggested that administration of verbascoside
heart rate also decreased at a slightly higher dose may be beneficial for the treatment of inflamma-
(Ahmad and Aftab 1995). Syringin had no effect tory bowel disease. Verbascoside from Syringa
on the pressor effect induced by norepinephrine vulgaris was shown to exert an anti-inflammatory
or carotid occlusion. Acteoside, a phenylpro- role in a rat model of ligature-induced periodon-
panoid, was isolated from the violet flowers of titis and was able to ameliorate the tissue damage
Syringa vulgaris and exhibited a dose-dependent associated with ligature-induced periodontitis
decrease in systolic, diastolic and mean arterial (Paola et al. 2011). Oral administration of verbas-
blood pressure in normotensive pentothal anaes- coside (2 mg/kg daily for 8 days) significantly
thetized rats (Ahmad et al. 1995). The median decreased all of the parameters of inflammation:
effective dose was 10 mg/kg and lasted for (1) myeloperoxidase activity, (2) thiobarbituric
2–3 min, while heart rate also decreased. acid-reactant substance measurements, (3) NF-κB
expression, (4) iNOS expression, (5) nitration of
tyrosine residues, (6) activation of the nuclear
Anti-inflammatory Activity enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, (7) Bax
and Bcl-2 expression and (8) a degree of gingivo-
Studies showed that extract containing verbascoside mucosal tissue injury.
and teupolioside (produced from S. vulgaris cell
cultures) significantly accelerated wound healing
and exhibited remarkable anti-inflammatory Neuroprotective Activity
action in the excision wound model (Korkina
et al. 2007). These effects correlated with the Studies showed mice with induced spinal cord
inhibition of reactive oxygen species released injury exhibited severe trauma characterized by
from the whole blood leucocytes and with the oedema, tissue damage, a marked increase on
ferrous ion chelating capacity but not with free expression for nitrotyrosine, inducible nitric
radical scavenging or with the inhibition of oxide synthase, poly(ADP-ribose) and apoptosis
lipid peroxidation in the cell-free systems. events (increase of Bax and Bcl-2 expression) in
Additionally, both extracts were extremely effec- the spinal cord tissue (Genovese et al. 2010).
tive inhibitors of chemokine and growth factor Additionally, these inflammatory events were
expression by cultured human keratinocytes treated associated with the cytokines expression (TNF-α
with proinflammatory cytokines, TNF-alpha and and IL-1β), neutrophil infiltration (myeloperoxi-
interferon-gamma. dase) and activation of NF-κB. At 1 and 6 h after
546 Oleaceae

injury, administration of verbascoside from culture normal human keratinocytes (HaCaT) cells and
cells of S. vulgaris ameliorated all these parameters breast cancer cells (MCF 7). They found that UVC
of inflammation and tissue injury events associated protection strongly depended on the lipid peroxi-
with spinal cord trauma. In vitro studies showed dation inhibiting and Fe (2+) chelating properties
that verbascoside protected activated C6 glioma of the polyphenols, suggesting the potential of
cells via modulation of transcription factors and these plant polyphenols in photoprotection of
consequent altered gene expression, resulting in human skin.
downregulation of inflammation and may pro-
vide a promising approach for the treatment of
oxidative stress-related neurodegenerative diseases Hypothermic Activity
(Esposito et al. 2010). Treatment with bacterial
endotoxin/cytokine lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/ The leaf extract of S. vulgaris was reported to
interferon (IFN)-gamma for 24 h elicited the have antipyretic activity, when orally or intraperi-
induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase toneally administered to rats (Bálint et al. 1965).
(iNOS) activity. Preincubation with verbascoside
(10–100 μg/mL) dose-dependently abrogated the
mixed cytokine-mediated induction of iNOS Traditional Medicinal Uses
indicating an inhibitory effect of verbascoside on
neuronal nitric oxide synthase expression. The decoction of leaves is used as astringent and
Verbascoside was found to reduce the expression antipyretic, and macerated flower in oil is used to
of proinflammatory enzymes in LPS/IFN-gamma soothe the skin in Italy. In Bulgaria, the bark,
through the inhibition of the activation of nuclear fruits and leaves are crushed and boiled in water
factor-kappa B and mitogen-activated protein and used as appetizer and antipyretic (Leporatti
kinase signalling pathway. and Ivancheva 2003).

Neurostimulant Activity Other Uses

Syringin from S. vulgaris bark was found to have Planted worldwide in temperate areas as orna-
neurostimulant (spontaneous motor activity and mental for the showy and sweet-scented flowers.
antihypnotic) properties like other glycosides of In Ukraine special selections are cultivated for
cinnamyl alcohol (Sokolov et al. 1990). the essential oil from the flowers.

Photoprotective Activity Comments

The glycosylated phenylpropanoid verbascoside Lilac can be easily and successfully established
isolated from S. vulgaris cultured cells had been by using root sprouts, which is faster than seeds.
characterized as an effective scavenger of biologi-
cally active free radicals such as hydroxyl, super-
oxide and nitric oxide, as a chelator of redox active Selected References
transition metal ions (Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+ and Ni2+)
and an inhibitor of lipid peroxidation (Kostyuk Ahmad M, Aftab K (1995) Hypotensive action of syringin
et al. 2008). In subsequent studies they showed from Syringa vulgaris. Phytother Res 9:452–454
that verbascoside and the glycosylated flavonoid Ahmad M, Rizwani GH, Aftab K, Ahmad VU, Gilani AH,
Ahmad SP (1995) Acteoside: a new antihypertensive
rutin and its aglycone quercetin afforded effective
drug. Phytother Res 9:525–527
protection against UVC-induced necrosis and did Asaka Y, Kamikawa T, Tokoroyama T, Kubota T (1970) The
not prevent UVC-induced apoptosis in both structure and absolute configuration of syringopicroside.
Syringa vulgaris 547

A new iridoid glucoside from Syringa vulgaris L. Kurkin VA, Zapesochnaya GG, Grinenko NA, Zolotarev
Tetrahedron 26(10):2365–2370 BM (1989) Phenolic compounds of the bark of Syringa
Bálint G, Eperjessy ET, Thuránszky K (1965) Hypothermic vulgaris. Chem Nat Compd 25(4):499–500
action of the leaf extract of Syringa vulgaris. Acta Kurkin VA, Zapesochnaya GG, Grinenko NA (1990)
Physiol Acad Sci Hung 28(4):399–406 Iridoids of the bark of Syringa vulgaris. Chem Nat
Barash CW (1997) Edible flowers: desserts and drinks. Compd 26(5):592–593
Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, 84 pp Kurkin VA, Grinenko NA, Zapesochnaya GG (1991)
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neoacteoside: sugar esters from Syringa vulgaris (L.). Compd 27(6):678–680
Z Naturforsch B 23(8):1051–1058 (in German) Kurkin VA, Grinenko NA, Zapesochnaya GG, Dubichev
Burkhardt D, Mosandl A (2003) Biogenetic studies in AG, Vorontsov ED (1992) TLC and HPLC analysis
Syringa vulgaris L.: bioconversion of (18)O(2H)- of syringin in Syringa vulgaris. Chem Nat Compd
labeled precursors into lilac aldehydes and lilac alco- 28(1):36–39
hols. J Agric Food Chem 51(25):7391–7395 Leporatti ML, Ivancheva S (2003) Preliminary compara-
Damtoft S, Franzyk H, Jensen SR (1995a) Biosynthesis of tive analysis of medicinal plants used in the traditional
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Esposito E, Dal Toso R, Pressi G, Bramanti P, Meli R, Biotechnol 2010:572570
Cuzzocrea S (2010) Protective effect of verbascoside MacNicol M (1967) Flower cookery. Fleet Press, New York
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381(1):93–105 verbascoside biotechnologically produced by Syringa
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Genovese T, Paterniti I, Mazzon E, Esposito E, Di Paola Mookherjee BD, Trenkle RW, Wilson RA (1990) The
R, Galuppo M, Bramanti P, Cuzzocrea S (2010) chemistry of flowers, fruits and spices: live versus
Efficacy of treatment with verbascoside, biotechno- dead—a new dimension in fragrance research. Pure
logically produced by Syringa vulgaris plant cell cul- Appl Chem 62(7):1357–1364
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 Fuchsia × hybrida

Scientific Name Origin/Distribution

Fuchsia × hybrida Voss Fuchsias are native to Central and South

America from Northern Argentina to Colombia
and Venezuela, and. several species are found in
Synonyms Hispaniola in the Caribbean (two species), in New
Zealand (3 species) and in Tahiti (one species).
No synonyms recorded for this name

Agroecology
Family
Fuchsia thrives in a warm–cool subtropical climate
Onagraceae regime. It grows well in fertile, moist but well-
drained soil, with shelter from cold, drying winds
in the ground or containers. Fuchsias prefer shade
Common/English Names for the hottest part of the day. Fuchsia is intolerant
of drought or water-logged conditions.
Fuchsia, Hybrid Fuchsia

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Vernacular Names
Fuchsia petals are edible (Roberts 2000; Rop
Brazil: Brinco-De-Princesa et al. 2012) and used in salads or as garnish but
Czech: Fuchsie have no distinctive flavour. According to Wilson
Danish: Fuchsia (2013) Fuchsia flowers are not delicious—they
Dutch: Bellenplant have a slightly acidic flavour—but if used
French: Fuchsia sparingly, they make for a wonderfully colourful
German: Fuchsie garnish. Some recipes of fuchsia flowers include
Italian: Fucsia fuchsia and potato mash, cold chicken and fuchsia
Polish: Fuksja, Fuksja Ułanka salad (Roberts 2000). The fruit of all species
Spanish: Arete, Aretillo and cultivars of fuchsia are edible, but the quality

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 548
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_41, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Fuchsia × hybrida 549

is variable: some are tasteless, others have an deep purple, edible epigynous berry containing
unpleasant aftertaste. The fairly large fruit of numerous very small seeds. There are now over
Fuchsia splendens are reputedly the most worth- 7,000 Fuchsia varieties.
while, having a citrusy, peppery tang. They are
best used for jam.
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Botany Rop et al. (2012) reported that edible flowers of

Fuchsia × hybrida had a dry matter content
Most fuchsias including hybrid fuchsia are shrubs (%w/w) of 8.37 %, crude protein of 2.41 g/kg and
from 0.2 to 4 m, deciduous or evergreen. Fuchsia the following elements (mg/kg fresh mass (FM)):
leaves are opposite or in whorls of 3–5, simple P 215.46 mg, K 1,967.30 mg, Ca 239.10 mg,
lanceolate and usually have serrated margins or Mg 170.71 mg, Na 125.58 mg, Fe 8.12 mg,
entire margins in some species, 1–25 cm long. Mn 4.17 mg, Cu 2.70 mg, Zn 11.45 mg and Mo
The flowers are very decorative pendulous ‘ear- 0.71 mg. The flowers had total antioxidant
drop’ shape, borne in profusion. The flower is capacity of 5.20 g ascorbic acid equivalents/kg FM,
borne on a thin pedicel which swells out to form
the inferior ovary. Above the ovary is a tube
formed by four slender sepals; the nectary is
found at the top of the tube. When the flower is
only a bud, the sepals are closed. As the flower
bursts open, the sepals part and curl upward.
Above the sepals are the brightly coloured petals
(usually 4), from which the stamens (8) and
single style and stigma protrude. The sepals are
bright red and the petals purple, but the colours
can vary from white to dark red, pink, purple-
blue and orange (Plates 1, 2 and 3). A few have
yellowish tones, and recent hybrids have added the
colour white in various combinations. The fruit is
a small, 0.5–2.5 cm, dark reddish green, deep red or Plate 2 Fuchsia variety with white pink sepal, purple
single petal

Plate 1 Fuchsia ‘Blue Lagoon’ (red sepal double purple

petal) Plate 3 Fuchsia variety with pink sepal single red petal
550 Onagraceae

total phenolic content of 3.45 g gallic acid/kg FM examined (Averett et al. 1986). Flavonol diglyco-
and total flavonoid content of 1.66 g rutin/kg FM. sides were unusual and occurred in just eight
In two cultivars of Fuchsia, malvidin species in five of the nine sections of the genus.
3,5-diglucoside appeared to be the dominant Flavone glycosides were found in only nine
pigment, with peonidin 3,5-diglucoside as a minor species belonging to five sections and were
component (Nozzolillo 1970). There appeared to associated with primitive taxa. Thirteen anthocy-
be no change in the pigments themselves with anidin 3,5-diglucosides (six), 3-monoglycosides
age, although the colour ranged from blue in (five) and 3-(2″-galloylglucosides) (two), were
young flowers to magenta in old flowers. This identified in flowers of Fuchsia arborescens,
colour change was correlated with a decline in F. boliviana, F. fulgens var. ‘Variegata’, F. magel-
pH from about 5.5 in young blue flowers to about lanica and 29 F. magellanica cultivars (Jordheim
4.0 in old flowers, a reduction which appeared to et al. 2011). Peonidin 3-O-(2″-O-galloyl-β-
occur abruptly about the time of pollen release. glucopyranoside), which has not been reported
The operation of a co-pigmentation effect was before, was found in F. magellanica and F. fulgens
confirmed, and the presence of a co-pigment in var. ‘Variegata’. The various corollas with purple
addition to quercetin glucosides was suggested. nuances were correlated with a relatively high
Co-pigmentation was found to be effected in content of malvidin 3,5-diglucoside.
violet petals by pale yellow substance soluble in Flavonols were found to be abundant in the
isoamyl alcohol glycosides of quercetin, identi- leaves of all Fuchsia taxa except F. procumbens
fied as spiraesoside (4″-glucoside), isoquercetin (Williams et al. 1983). Flavone glycosides were
(3-glucoside) and quercetin (3-rhamnoside) found in only three species: luteolin 7-glucoside
(Yazaki and Hayashi 1967). The anthocyanin in F. splendens and luteolin and apigenin
malvin was found to be the sole component in 7-glucuronides and 7-glucuronidesulphates,
violet petals, while peonin and cyanin were tricin 7-glucuronidesulphate and diosmetin
present in nearly equal amounts in the red calyces 7-glucuronide from one or both of the New
malvin, and the 3 quercetin glycosides played a Zealand species. Luteolin 7- glucuronidesulphate
primary role in the manifestation of the violet was reported for the first time. Other less com-
colour in Fuchsia petals. mon phenolics identified include the flavanone,
Pure malvin was isolated from Fuchsia petals eriodictyol 7-glucoside from F. excorticata, a
and characterized as the malvin anhydro-base galloylglucose from F. triphylla and a galloyl-
(Yazaki 1976). The colour change from blue- glucosesulphate present in all taxa. Eight of the
violet in young Fuchsia petals to purple-red in flavonoid glycosides proved useful as marker
old ones was caused by co-pigmentation and the substances for particular Fuchsia species:
pH change from 4.8 to 4.2. The decrease of pH in quercetin 3-rhamnoside, 3-glucuronide and
the old petals was due to the increase of organic 3-rutinoside for F. fulgens; quercetin and kaemp-
acids such as aspartic, malic and tartaric. ferol 3-galactosides for F. boliviana var. luxurians;
3-Glucosides and 3,5-diglucosides of pelargonidin, diosmetin 7-glucuronide for F. excorticata; and
cyanidin, peonidin, delphinidin, petunidin and apigenin 7-glucuronide and 7-glucuronidesulphate
malvidin have been identified as flower pigments for F. procumbens. Among approximately 100
in Fuchsia species (Crowden et al. 1977). These species of Fuchsia, Averett and Raven (1984)
pigments in varying admixture appear to be identified 12 flavonoid glycosides, including
solely responsible for different flower colours in four flavones and eight flavonols. The flavones
this genus. include two sulphates. The flavonols include
A comprehensive survey of 225 populations six 3-O-glycosides based on kaempferol, quer-
of 80 taxa of Fuchsia showed flavonol mono- cetin, or myricetin and two methyl ethers.
glycosides, especially quercetin and kaempferol Flavonol glycosides were found in each of the
3-0-glucosides, to be ubiquitous in all species species examined.
Fuchsia × hybrida 551

Crowden RK, Wright J, Harborne JB (1977) Anthocyanins

Other Uses of Fuchsia (Onagraceae). Phytochemistry 16:400–402
Goulding E (1995) Fuchsias: the complete guide. Batsford
Ltd, London, 192 pp
Fuchsias are excellent in summer-bedding Jordheim M, Skaar I, Lunder H, Andersen ØM (2011)
schemes, hanging containers, pots or in the Anthocyanins from Fuchsia flowers. Nat Prod
ground. Fuchsias can also be trained as hoops or Commun 6(1):35–40
Nozzolillo C (1970) Flower color in Fuchsia cultivars.
standards. Some fuchsias are hard enough to be Can J Bot 48(6):1215–1217
used as hedges and in permanent plantings. Roberts MJ (2000) Edible & medicinal flowers. New
Africa Publishers, Claremont, 160 pp
Rop O, Mlcek J, Jurikova T, Neugebauerova J, Vabkova J
(2012) Edible flowers—a new promising source of
Comments mineral elements in human nutrition. Molecules
17:6672–6683
Fuchsias can be propagated by softwood, semi- Royal Horticultural Society (2012) Fuchsia. http://apps.
matured and hardwood cuttings. rhs.org.uk/advicesearch/profile.aspx?pid=579
Williams CA, Fronczyk JH, Harborne JB (1983) Leaf fla-
vonoid and other phenolic glycosides as indicators of
parentage in six ornamental species of Fuchsia species
and their hybrids. Phytochemistry 22(9):1953–1957
Selected References Wilson H (2013) Chelsea flower show: guide to edible
flowers. http://food.uk.msn.com/food/edible-flowers-
Averett JE, Raven PH (1984) Flavonoids of Onagraceae. chelsea-flower-show?page=3#image=19
Ann Mo Bot Gard 71(1):30–34 Yazaki Y (1976) Co-pigmentation and the color change
Averett JE, Hahn WJ, Berry PE, Raven PH (1986) with age in petals of Fuchsia hybrid. Shokubutsu-
Flavonoids and flavonoid evolution in Fuchsia gaku-zasshi 89(1):45–47
(Onagraceae). Am J Bot 33(11):1524–1534 Yazaki Y, Hayashi K (1967) Analysis of flower colors in
Berry PE (1982) The systematics and evolution of Fuchsia Fuchsia hybrida in reference to the concept of co-
Sect. Fuchsia (Onagraceae). Ann Mo Bot Gard pigmentation. (Studies on anthocyanins, Part 56). Proc
69:1–198 Jpn Acad 43:316–321
 Oenothera speciosa

Scientific Name Origin/Distribution

Oenothera speciosa Nutt. White evening primrose comes from the South-
Central United States. It is native to the rocky
prairies and savannas of the lower Midwest but
Synonyms occurs commonly along slopes and roadsides and
in disturbed areas over a much broader region.
Hartmannia speciosa (Nutt.) Small,
Xylopleurum drummondi Spach, Xylopleurum
nuttallii Spach, Xylopleurum obtusifolium Agroecology
Spach, Xylopleurum speciosum (Nutt.)
Raim. White evening primrose is adaptable to all kinds of
soil and will grow on poor, rocky soil in full sun.
Soil should be well drained and loose as the plant
Family is susceptible to root rot in wet soils. This plant can
spread aggressively at dry, sunny locations as it is
Onagraceae drought resistant and can become invasive.

Common/English Names Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Mexican Evening Primrose, Pink Evening The flowers have a similar taste to lettuce, so it
Primrose, Pink Ladies, Showy Evening will make a fine addition to any green salad while
Primrose, Snowy Evening Primrose, White also adding some colour (Anonymous 2012).
Evening Primrose

Botany
Vernacular Names
A herbaceous perennial, 20–60 cm high, with a
Spanish: Amapola del Campo spread of 38–40 cm, rosetted when young, forming
Swedish: Silvernattljus large patches from weakly ascending to erect,

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 552
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_42, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Oenothera speciosa 553

undulating margins. Flowers (4–5 cm) emerge

from distal axils on nodding pedicels, hypan-
thium 10–23 mm, sepals 15–30 mm, petals 4
each 25–40 mm, white fading to rosy-pink sta-
mens 8 with yellowish anthers, stigma yellowish
white, long and 4-cleft (Plates 1 and 2). Fruit
8-ribbed, cylindric capsule, 10–25 mm. Seeds
obliquely oblanceolate, finely granular-papillate.

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

The following flavonoids were found in

O. speciosa: kaempferol 3-O-glucoside; querce-
tin 3-O-glucoside; quercetin 3-O-arabinoside;
quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside; quercetin 3-O-
glucuronide; quercetin 3, 7-O-diglucuronide;
quercetin 3-O-sulphate; myricetin-3-O-galactoside;
myricetin-3-O-arabinoside; myricetin-3-O-
rhamnoside; myricetin 3,7-O-diglucuronide; and
myricetin 3 methyl ether, 3′O-glucoside (Averett
et al. 1987, 1988). Myricetin 3-O-methyl ether
Plate 1 White evening primrose flowers and leaves
3′-O-β-D-glucoside was found to be the major
flavonoid of Oenothera speciosa (Howard and
Mabry 1970).
Two new flavonol glycosides, myricetin
4′-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside and quercetin
3′-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, together with a
novel biflavonol compound, speciin (3), as well as
11 phenolic metabolites, namely, myricitrin,
europetin 3-O-α-L-1C4-rhamnopyranoside, quer-
cetin, hyperin, rhamnetin 3-O-β-galacto-
pyranoside, caffeic acid, caffeic acid methyl ester,
chlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid methyl ester,
gallic acid and gallic acid methyl ester, were iden-
tified from the 80 % methanol extract of the aerial
parts (leaves and stems) of Oenothera speciosa
(Marzouk et al. 2009). In addition, myricetin,
quercetin and ellagic acid were identified from the
Plate 2 Close-up of flower
chloroform extract. It was found that 80 % aque-
ous methanol extract of O. speciosa was nontoxic
to mice up to 5 g/kg body weight. The investi-
terete, minutely pubescent stems and woody rhi- gated extract exhibited significant antihypergly-
zomes. Leaves alternate, pubescent, sessile to caemic and anti-inflammatory activities in a
subsessile, 10 cm long by 4 cm wide, linear to dose-dependant manner. Also, the 80 % methanol
oblanceolate, with toothed (Plate 1) or wavy, extract, myricitrin and hyperin showed potent
554 Onagraceae

antioxidant activity in vitro using 1,1-diphenyl

2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical assay. Selected References
Anonymous (2012) Edible flowers guide. http://www.
thompson-morgan.com/edible-flowers
Other Uses Averett JE, Huang S, Wagner WL (1987) Flavonoid
analysis of Oenothera speciosa (Ongraceae).
White evening primrose is an excellent wild- Southwest Nat 32(1):117–120
flower for roadside beautification. It will readily Averett JE, Huang S, Wagner WL (1988) Flavonoid
survey of Oenothera (Onagraceae): sects. Gauropsis,
form showy colonies on rocky highway and grav-
Hartmannia, Kneiffia, Paradoxus and Xylopleurum.
elly driveway edges. The flowers also attract Am J Bot 75(4):476–483
bees, moths and hummingbirds. Howard G, Mabry TJ (1970) Myricetin 3-O-methyl ether
3′-O-β-D-glucoside, the major flavonoid of Oenothera
speciosa (Onagraceae). Phytochemistry 9(11):
2413–2414
Comments Marzouk MS, Moharram FA, El Dib RA, El-Shenawy
SM, Tawfike AF (2009) Polyphenolic profile and
White evening primroses are easy to grow from bioactivity study of Oenothera speciosa Nutt. aerial
parts. Molecules 14(4):1456–1467
seeds.
 Dendrobium bigibbum

Scientific Name Dendrobium phalaenopsis var. highburyense auct.,

Dendrobium phalaenopsis var. hololeuca
Dendrobium bigibbum Lindl. auct., Dendrobium phalaenopsis var. lindeniae
auct., Dendrobium phalaenopsis var. rothschil-
dianum Kraenzl., Dendrobium phalaenopsis var.
Synonyms rubescens Nash, Dendrobium phalaenopsis var.
schroderianum Rolfe, Dendrobium phalaenopsis
Callista bigibba (Lindl.) Kuntze, Callista var. splendens auct., Dendrobium phalaenop-
phalaenopsis (Fitzg.) Kuntze, Callista sumneri sis var. statterianum auct., Dendrobium phalae-
(F.Muell.) Kuntze, Dendrobium bigibbum var. nopsis var. thundersleyense auct., Dendrobium
albomarginatum F.M.Bailey, Dendrobium bigibbum sumneri F.Muell., Vappodes bigibba (Lindl.)
var. albopurpuratum auct., Dendrobium bigibbum M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones, Vappodes lithocola
var. album F.M.Bailey, Dendrobium bigibbum var. (D.L.Jones & M.A.Clem.) M.A.Clem. & D.L.Jones,
candidum Rchb.f., Dendrobium bigibbum var. Vappodes phalaenopsis (Fitzg.) M.A.Clem. &
compactum C.T.White, Dendrobium bigibbum D.L.Jones
var. macranthum F.M.Bailey, Dendrobium bigib-
bum var. phalaenopsis (Fitzg.) F.M.Bailey,
Dendrobium bigibbum f. phalaenopsis (Fitzg.) Family
St.Cloud, Dendrobium bigibbum var. sumneri
(F.Muell.) F.M.Bailey, Dendrobium bigibbum Orchidaceae
f. superbium G.Piper, Dendrobium bigibbum var.
superbum Rchb.f., Dendrobium bigibbum f. venosum
F.M.Bailey, Dendrobium lithocola D.L.Jones & Common/English Names
M.A.Clem., Dendrobium phalaenopsis Fitzg.,
Dendrobium phalaenopsis var. albopurpureum Cooktown Orchid, Den-Phal, Mauve Butterfly
auct., Dendrobium phalaenopsis var. album Orchid, The Two-Humped Dendrobium
B.S.Williams, Dendrobium phalaenopsis var.
album auct., Dendrobium phalaenopsis var.
chamberlainianum auct., Dendrobium phalae- Vernacular Names
nopsis var. compactum C.T.White, Dendrobium
phalaenopsis var. dellense B.S.Williams, None

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 555
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_43, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
556 Orchidaceae

Origin/Distribution

D. bigibbum is found naturally in a restricted

area from the Endeavour River Valley, west of
Cooktown, south to the Font Hills, west of Mount
Molloy, in far northern Queensland in Australia.

Agroecology

This orchid adapts to a humid tropical or subtrop- Plate 1 Dendrobium inflorescence with (>10 flowers)
ical environment growing as an epiphyte on the
trunks and branches of trees or as a lithophyte on
exposed rocks in dappled shade in its natural
habitat. The species prefers a growing regime of
50–75 % relative humidity, day temperature of
24–28 °C, night temperatures of 16–20 °C and
away from full sun. Cultivated plants have much
larger flowers than those in the wild. This orchid
requires infrequent watering, 2–3 time weekly
and grows well in well-drained orchid potting
mix containing sphagnum moss or fir-bark.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses Plate 2 Close-view of dendrobium flowers

The blossoms are used in salads and as a garnish arching racemes, 10–40 cm long carrying 6–20
(Deane 2007–2012). Dendrobiums are being flowers of 4–9 cm diameter in two rows along the
stir-fried in many Asian countries and also being stem (Plate 1). Flowers are pinkish-mauve or
used for making sauces in Singapore and Thailand lavender or purple or (occasionally) (Plates 1 and 2)
(Sotirov 2012). In Thailand, Dendrobium flowers white with a darker labellum base and long-lasting.
are dipped in batter and deep fried, while many Sepals oblong with acute apex, 2–3 cm long, the
European cooks garnish desserts and cakes with lateral sepals fused together at the base of the
them. In Hawaii, locals use orchids to prepare column forming a spur (mentum) bilobed 1–2 cm
salads and sugar-coated candies and in main long. Petals 3–3.5 cm long 2–2.5 cm broad, flat,
dishes with scallops. the labellum is trilobed with central lobe oblong
pubescent and darker at the base, lateral ones
obovate with attenuate bases, surrounding the col-
Botany umn. The stigma is located near the column foot
above the inferior ovary, the stamens containing
An epiphytic or lithophytic, sympodial orchid pollinia is located near the top of the column.
with cylindrical fleshy pseudobulbs, swollen at
the centre, tapering more towards the base and
top; 30–60 cm long and bearing in the upper Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
section of the stem a variable number of alternate,
distichous leaves, coriaceous, ovate to lanceolate, A new acylated anthocyanin with the structure
5–15 cm by 1–3.5 cm. Inflorescence terminal, cyanidin-3-O-(malonyl)-(β-D-glucopyranoside)
2–4 appearing from the upper nodes are curved or 7,3′-di- O -(6- O -(4- O -(β- D -glucopyranosyl)
Dendrobium bigibbum 557

oxybenzoyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside) was isolated Dendrobium affine, D. bigibbum (D. phalaenopsis),

from the red-purple flowers of Dendrobium D. compactum, D. dicuphum, D. superbiens,
‘Pramot’ (phalaenopsis type cultivar) as a major D. williamsianum and their hybrids. Two new
anthocyanin (Saito et al. 1994). The colours of three acylated anthocyanins were isolated from the
blue genotypes, Dendrobium gouldii K280-6, purple flowers of Dendrobium × superbiens
D. bigibbum ‘blue’ and D. kultana ‘blue’, were light (belonging to Dendrobium section Phalaenanthe),
violet to purple by RHS standards and contained along with four known pigments (Tatsuzawa
anthocyanins based on cyanidin (Kuehnle et al. 1997). et al. 2006). These pigments were all based on
Cyanidin appeared as 86 % (D. bigibbum ‘blue’) cyanidin 3,7,3′-triglucoside and acylated variously
and 92 % (D. gouldii K280-6, D. Kultana ‘blue’) with malonic, sinapic and p-hydroxybenzoic
of the total anthocyanins present, with peonidin acids. One of the anthocyanins was elucidated as
and pelargonidin comprising the remainder. cyanidin3-O-[6-O-(malonyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside]-
Predominant co-pigments were flavonol glycosides 7-O-[6-O-(p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside]-
based on kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin and 3′-O-[6-O-(4-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)-p-
methylated derivatives. Flavonol aglycones and hydroxybenzoyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside] and
glycosylation sites differed little among two colour the other cyanidin 3-malonylglucoside-7-
forms of D. gouldii and two Dendrobium Jaquelyn glucosyl- p - hydroxybenzoylglucoside -3′- p -
Thomas hybrids. Accumulation of quercetin, hydroxybenzoylglucoside. Recently Li et al.
myricetin and cyanidin indicated flavonoid 3′ and (2013) found astaxanthin glucoside (both
3′,5′ hydroxylation activities in several Dendrobium acylated cyanidin -3,7,3′- three glucoside) and
varieties. Additional accumulation of isorhamnetin, flavonol glycosides (aglycone with quercetin,
syringetin and peonidin indicated active flavo- kaempferol and isorhamnetin—three kinds) in
noid 3′- and 3′,5′- O-methyltransferase enzymes. Phalaenopsis type Dendrobium flowers.
Dendrobium Jaquelyn Thomas is a primary hybrid No nutritive or medicinal value or medicinal
of D. gouldii × D. phalaenopsis, registered by uses have been recorded for this species.
Thomas in 1949.
Two rare anthocyanins, cyanidin 3-(6-
malonylglucoside)-7,3′-di(6-sinapylglucoside) Other Uses
and the demalonyl derivative, were characterized
as the purple floral pigments of Dendrobium cv. This orchid is popularly cultivated as ornamental
‘Pompadour’ (Williams et al. 2002). Dendrobium × house plants, and many of its hybrids are culti-
Mme. ‘Pompadour’ is historically an old cross vated commercially for its cut flowers.
of the hybrid Dendrobium × Louis Bleriot
(Dendrobium phalaenopsis ‘Schroederianum’).
Nine known flavonol glycosides were also identi- Comments
fied, including the 3-rutinoside-7-glucosides of
kaempferol and quercetin. One new glycoside Cooktown Orchid, Dendrobium bigibbum var.
was detected: the ferulyl ester of quercetin phalaenopsis, was proclaimed as the floral
7-rutinoside-7-glucoside. emblem of Queensland in November 1959
Orchid flowers in the genus Dendrobium (Boden 1995).
section Phalaenanthe were found to contain
acylated anthocyanins: cyanidin 3-glucosyl-7,
3′-di-(glucosyl-p-hydroxybenzoylglucoside); 2, Selected References
cyanidin 3-malonylglucosyl-7,3′-di-(glucosyl-p-
hydroxybenzoylglucoside); 3, cyanidin 3-glucosyl-7, Boden A (1995) Cooktown orchid (Dendrobium phalae-
3′-di-(sinapoylglucoside); 4, cyanidin nopsis)—floral emblem of Queensland. Floral
emblems of Australia. Australian National Botanic
3-malonylglucosyl-7,3′-di-(sinapoylglucoside) Gardens, Canberra (Originally published by AGPS)
(Tatsuzawa et al. 2005). Dendrobium section Deane G (2007–2012) Edible flowers: Part eleven. http://
Phalaenanthe (Orchidaceae) includes species www.eattheweeds.com/edible-flowers-part-eleven/
558 Orchidaceae

Jones DL (2006) A complete guide to native orchids of Tatsuzawa F, Yukawa T, Shinoda K, Saito N (2005)
Australia including the Island territories, 2nd edn. Acylated anthocyanins in the flowers of genus
Reed New Holland, Sydney/Auckland/London/Cape Dendrobium section Phalaenanthe (Orchidaceae).
Town, 496 pp Biochem Syst Ecol 33(6):625–629
Kuehnle AR, Lewis DH, Markham KR, Mitchell KA, Tatsuzawa F, Saito N, Yukawa T, Shinoda K, Shigihara
Davies KM, Jordan BR (1997) Floral flavonoids and A, Honda T (2006) Acylated cyanidin 3,7,3′-trig-
pH in Dendrobium orchid species and hybrids. ulcosides with p-hydroxybenzoic acid from the
Euphytica 95(2):187–194 flowers of Dendrobium. Heterocycles 68(2):
Li CH, Ren Y, Huang SR, Huang SH, Yang GS (2013) Floral 381–386
colors of Phalaenopsis type Dendrobium and their flavo- The Plant List (2013) Dendrobium bigibbum Lindl.
noid composition. Acta Hortic Sin 40(1):107–116 http://www.theplantlist.org/
Saito N, Toki K, Uesato K, Shigihara A, Honda T (1994) An Williams CA, Greenham J, Harborne JB, Kong JM, Chia
acylated cyanidin glycoside from the red-purple flowers LS, Goh NK, Saito N, Toki K, Tatsuzawa F (2002)
of Dendrobium. Phytochemistry 37(1):245–248 Acylated anthocyanins and flavonols from purple
Sotirov KZ (2012) Edible orchids. http://www.ionopsis. flowers of Dendrobium cv. ‘Pompadour’. Biochem
com/edible_orchids.htm Syst Ecol 30(7):667–675
 Paeonia lactiflora

Scientific Name Family

Paeonia lactiflora Pallas Paeoniaceae also in Ranunculaceae

Synonyms Common/English Names

Paeonia albiflora Pall., Paeonia albiflora var. Chinese Peony, Common Garden Peony,
edulis (Salisb.) Pursh, Paeonia albiflora var. fra- Common Peony, Coral Peony, Fragrant Peony,
grans Sabine, Paeonia albiflora var. humei Sabine, White Peony
Paeonia albiflora f. nuda Nakai, Paeonia albiflora
f. pilifera Schipcz., Paeonia albiflora f. pilosella
Nakai, Paeonia albiflora var. purpurea Korsh., Vernacular Names
Paeonia albiflora var. spontanea Makino, Paeonia
albiflora var. trichocarpa Bunge, Paeonia albi- Chinese: Bái Shá, Jiu Chao Bai Shao, Moutan,
flora var. whitleyi Sabine, Paeonia chinensis Mu Dan Pi, Sháo, Shao Yao
L. Vilmorin, Paeonia edulis Salisb., Paeonia edulis Czech: Pivoňka Bělokorá
var. reevesiana Paxton, Paeonia edulis var. sinen- Danish: Silkepæon
sis Sims, Paeonia fragrans (Sabine) Redouté, Estonian: Valgeõieline Pojeng
Paeonia humei (Sabine) Bailly, Paeonia lactea Finnish: Jalopioni
Pall. (Invalid), Paeonia lactiflora f. nuda (Nakai) German: Garten-Pfingstrose, Weisse Pfingstrose
Kitag., Paeonia lactiflora f. pilosella (Nakai) Japanese: Shaku-Yaku
Kitag., Paeonia lactiflora var. trichocarpa (Bunge) Korean: Cham-Jag-Yak, Hambagggot, Ho-Jak-Yag,
Stern, Paeonia lactiflora var. villosa M.S.Yan & Jag-Yag, Min-Cham-Jag-Yak
K.Sun, Paeonia lobata Pall. (Invalid), Paeonia Polish: Piwonia Chinska
makoya Marnock, Paeonia officinalis Thunb., Slovenian: Potonika
Paeonia reevesiana (Paxton) Loudon, Paeonia Swedish: Luktpion
sinensis Steud. (Invalid), Paeonia whitleyi (Sabine) Vietnamese: Thuốc Ruoc, Mẫu Ðơn; Bạch
auct., Paeonia yui W.P.Fang Thược

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 559
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_44, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
560 Paeoniaceae

Facciola 1990) and stems eaten cooked (Kunkel

Origin/Distribution 1984). Seeds are powdered and mixed with tea
(Grieve 1971; Facciola 1990).
Chinese peony is native to temperate Asia—Japan,
Korea, China, Mongolia and Russia—and eastern
Siberia. Botany

Stout perennial, erect herb, 40–80 cm tall, with

Agroecology thickened (1.3 cm diameter), tuberous root and
glabrous branched stems. Leaves (Plate 1) alter-
A cold climate species found in woods and grass- nate, basal leaves biternate; all leaflets decurrent
lands from 400 to 2,300 m elevations in its native at base, terminal leaflets 2 or 3 segmented, leaflets
range. The plant is hardy to about −25 °C, but and segments up to 15, oblong–elliptic, oblique–
there are many named cultivars which are hardy ovate to lanceolate, 4.5–16 by 1.5–4.8 cm, pilose
to about −50 °C. It is tolerant of a wide range of beneath, margins rough–scabrous. Flowers 1–3
soil conditions, but is intolerant of too dry or per shoot, both terminal and axillary, single or
water-logged soil. The plant and thrives best in a double, 7–10 cm across, fragrant (Plates 1, 2).
deep rich, well-drained and moist soil, preferably Bracts 4 or 5, lanceolate, unequal. Sepals 3 or 4,
neutral or slightly alkaline in full sun or partial broadly ovate or suborbicular, 1–1.5 by 1–1.7 cm.
shade. It is lime tolerant. Plants grown on sandy Petals 9–13, white, red or pink (in wild plants), or
soils are reported to produce more foliage and varying in colour (in cultivated plants), obovate,
less flowers, while those growing on clayey soils 3.56 by 1.5–4.5 cm. Stamens numerous, with
take longer to become established but produce yellow filaments and anthers. Disc yellow,
better blooms. annular. Carpels 4–5, green or purple, apocar-

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Petals are edible and used in salad or floated

in punches and lemonade (Deane 2007–2012).
Another option is to parboil the petals, add a little
sugar and use them as a sweet treat. In China,
the fallen petals are parboiled and sweetened as
a tea-time delicacy. Peony water was used for
drinking in the middle ages. Steenbergs Dried
Peony Flowers are beautiful rose pink-coloured,
natural flower that look great in salads or used in
home baking or added as a flourish over fruit
salads (Steenbergs Organic 2012).
In China, slices of dried roots with bark
removed are used for preparing health food—an
important ingredient in the common bupin mix-
ture called the ‘Four Precious Tonifying Soup’
comprising roots of Paeonia lactiflora ‘bai-shao’,
Rehmannia glutinosa, Ligusticum wallichii and
Angelica sinensis and onions (Chevallier 1996;
Hu 2005).
Roots are also cooked and eaten in a broth
(Uphof 1968; Hedrick 1972; Grieve 1971; Plate 1 Chinese peony flower and leaves
Paeonia lactiflora 561

French or American peonies. Eight genes

encoding phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL),
chalcone synthase (CHS), chalcone isomerase
(CHI), flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H), flavo-
noid 3′-hydroxylase (F3′H), dihydroflavonol
4-reductase (DFR), anthocyanidin synthase
(ANS) and UDP-glucose: flavonoid 3–O–glucos-
yltransferase (UF3GT) were isolated from
Paeonia lactiflora (Zhao et al. 2012). Moreover,
the expression patterns of these eight genes
and UF5GT in the flowers were investigated in
three cultivars, namely, ‘Hongyanzhenghui’,
‘Yulouhongxing’ and ‘Huangjinlun’ with
purplish-red, white and yellow flower, res-
pectively. Additionally, anthoxanthins and antho-
cyanins were detected in ‘Hongyanzhenghui’ and
‘Yulouhongxing’, chalcones and anthoxanthins
were found in ‘Huangjinlun’.

Fruit Phytochemicals
Plate 2 Close-up of flower
Four dimeric ellagitannins, paeonianins A–D, were
pous, glabrous. Follicles oblong–ellipsoid, 2.53 isolated from Paeonia lactiflora fruit, together
by 1.21.5 cm in horizontal spreading clusters. with an ellagitannin monomer, paeonianin E.
Paeonianins A–D were found to be positional
isomers formed by condensation of pentagalloyl-
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties β-D-glucose with 5-desgalloylstachyurin or casu-
ariin. Paeonianin E was found to be a C-glycosidic
Flower Phytochemicals ellagitannin with a gallic acid methyl ester moiety
at the glucose C-1 position.
Two kaempferol glycosides, astragalin
(kaempferol-3-glucoside) and kaempferol-3,7-
diglucoside (paeoniside), were isolated from Seed Phytochemicals
double white flowers of Paeonia albiflora (Egger
1961). From the light petroleum extract of dried Seven stilbenes, a new cis-ε-viniferin and the
petals of peony, pyrethrin and gallotannin were six known stilbenes, trans-resveratrol, trans-
isolated (Chimielewska and Kasprzyk 1962). resveratrol-4′–O-β-D-glucopyranoside, trans-ε-
Fragrant components of fresh peony flower viniferin, gnetin H and suffruticosols A and B,
included oxygenated mono- and sesquiterpenes, were isolated from the seeds (Kim et al.
aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes and esters and 2002a, b, c). Six compounds, luteolin, resvera-
alcohols; 3-oxo-1,8-cineole was found as a new trol, trans-ε-viniferin, gnetin H, suffruticosol A
compound (Kumar and Motto 1986). Kazuhiko and suffruticosol B, were isolated from the seeds
et al. (2000) found that linalool, citronellol, citro- (Choi et al. 2009). The following resveratrol
nellyl acetate, geraniol, geranyl acetate, nerol, oligomers were isolated from the seeds:
benzaldehyde, 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene, etc., (−)-7a,8a-cis-ε-viniferin, trans-ε-viniferin, cis-ε-
identified in the headspace gases significantly viniferin, trans-resveratrol, vitisinol C, vitisinol
contributed to the flower odour in seven varieties E, gnetin H, suffruticosol A and suffruticosol B
of Chinese peony, three of Japanese, three of (Choi et al. 2011).
562 Paeoniaceae

Aerial Part/Plant Phytochemicals Catechin was not synthesized in the leaf, but
mainly in the root. The leaves and stem were
Two flavonoids, astragalin and peonosides, found to be rich in oleanoic and ursolic acids,
were isolated from the aerial parts (Kamiya reaching maximum levels in August–September
et al. 1997). Five compounds, paeoniflorin, ben- (Zhou et al. 2011a).
zoylpaeoniflorin, galloylpaeoniflorin, 1,2,3,4,6
galloyl glucose and daucosterol, were found in
P. lactiflora (Zhang et al. 2001). Nine com- Root Phytochemicals
pounds, paeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, benzoyl-
paeoniflorin, lactiflorin, 4-ethyl-paeoniflorin, 1,2,3- Radix Paeoniae was found to be rich in minerals
trihydroxybenzene, dihydroapigenin, benzoic acid K, Ca, Na, Mg, Zn and Fe (Xu et al. 2008). From
and β-sitosterol, were isolated from P. lactiflora the roots were isolated paeoniflorin, albiflorin,
(Wang et al. 2006b). Ten compounds, evofolin B, oxypaeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin and alliflo-
(1S,2S,4R)- trans -2-hydroxy-1,8-cineole- β- D - rin (Shibata and Nakara 1963; Shibata et al.
glucopyranoside, (2R,3R)-4-methoxyl-distylin, 1963; Aimi et al. 1969; Kaneda et al. 1972);
1,2,3,4,6-penta-galloyl-glucose, catechin, ben- 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl glucose, (+)-catechin
zoic acid, gallic acid, vanillic acid, methyl gallate and gallic acid (Shibutani et al. 1981); paeoniflo-
and progallin A, were isolated from the plant rigenone, benzoic acid and p-hydroxybenzoic
(Duan et al. 2009a). acid (Shimizu et al. 1981, 1983); lactiflorin
A homogeneous polysaccharide–protein com- (Lang et al. 1983); monoterpene glycoside (Z)-
plex PAII of average molecular weight 5.25 × 104, (1S,5R)-β-pinen-10-yl β-vicianoside (Lang et al.
comprising 85.0 % carbohydrate and 13.2 % pro- 1984); paeonilactones A, B and C monoter-
tein content, was isolated; the saccharide and pro- penoids (Hayashi et al. 1985); daucosterol
tein were linked by non-O-glycosidic band (Yu (β-sitosterol-D-glucoside) (Xu 1986); monoterpene
et al. 2008). PAII was consisted mainly of D-glu- glycoside lactiflorin (Yu et al. 1990); acylated
cose; the molar ratio of glucose, arabinose, man- monoterpene glucoside and galloylpaeoniflorin
nose, rhamnose and xylose was 153∶2.6∶1.25∶1∶1 (Kang et al. 1991); palbinone and a known com-
The amounts of paeoniflorin and albiflorin pound, paeonilactone-B (Kadota et al. 1993);
found in the raw peony herb were 33.2 and paeoniflorin and tannin (Yamashita et al.
1.8 mg/g, respectively; and in the dried aqueous 1994); paeoniflorin and 8-debenzoylpaeoniflorin
extract, the amounts were 34.8 and 15.7 mg/g, (Hsu et al. 1997); and paeoniflorin, albiflorin
respectively (Lee et al. 2009). The limits of detec- and pentagalloylglucose; other compounds
tion for paeoniflorin and albiflorin were 0.37 and included gallic acid, oxypaeoniflorin, benzoic
1.39 mg/g, respectively, for the raw peony herb acid, paeonol and benzoylalbiflorin from
and 0.25 and 0.06 mg/g, respectively, for the commercial root samples (Chuang et al. 1996);
dried aqueous extract. The contents of catechin 6–O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl) lactinolide; lactino-
and paeoniflorin in Paeonia lactiflora in different lide; 1–O- (β-D-glucopyranosyl) paeonisuffrone;
plant parts collected in autumn were the highest, oxybenzoyl-paeoniflorin; paeonilactinone; 8
and the contents of benzoic acid were lower than known constituents, 10-hydroxyverbenone, (+)-1-
that of those collected at other times (Jian et al. p-menthane-7.8-diol, paeoniflorin, lactiflorin,
2010). The older the plant of Paeonia lactiflora, benzoyloxypaeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin,
the higher were the contents of catechin and albiflorin and oxypaeoniflorin (Murakami et al.
paeoniflorin. The contents of catechin and pae- 1996); seven triterpenoids, oleanoic acid, betulinic
oniflorin in the root of Paeonia lactiflora were acid, 23-hydroxybetulinic acid, hederagenin,
higher than those in other parts of the plant. norhederagenin, 3β-hydroxyolean-12-en-28-al
Paeoniflorin was also found in the leaves. It was and 11α, 11α, 12α-epoxy-3β, 23-dihydroxy-
deduced that paeoniflorin was synthesized 30-norolean-20(29)-en-28,13 β-olide (Kamiya et al.
in the leaf and then transported to the root. 1997); albiflorin R1, a monoterpene glycoside
Paeonia lactiflora 563

(Zhang et al. 2002); monoterpene glycoside, β-D-glucopyraneose; pyrogallol; gallic acid; methyl
galloylalbiflorin together with nine known ones, gallate; ethyl gallate; catechin; 1,2,3,4,6-penta-
mudanpioside J, 3-O-methylpaeoniflorin, pae- galloylglucose; di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate;
oniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, sucrose; β-sitosterol (Tan et al. 2010); and three
benzoyloxypaeoniflorin, oxybenzoylpaeoniflorin, new monoterpene glycosides, 2′-O-benzoyl-
albiflorin and lactiflorin (Wang et al. 2006a); paeoniflorin, albiflorin R2 and albiflorin R3 (Fu
2-methoxy-5-(E)-propenyl-phenol-β-vicianoside et al. 2013).
(Guo et al. 2006); 6′-O-β-D-glucopyranosylalbi- Together with 1,2,3,6-tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-
florin, albiflorin, 6′-O-benzoylalbiflorin, paeoni- glucose and 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-
florin and benzoyl paeoniflorin (Pham et al. glucoses, homologous series of hexa- and
2007 ); monoterpene glycoside, 6′-O -β-D- heptagalloylglucoses were isolated from the tan-
glucopyranosylalbiflorin; albiflorin; 1-O-β-D- nin fraction of P. lactiflora roots (Nishizawa
glucopyranosyl-8- O - benzoylpaeonisuffrone, et al. 1983a, b). The hexagalloylglucose fraction
1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl paeonisuffrone and comprised three components: 2-O-di-galloyl-
paeonidanin (Kim et al. 2008; ten monoterpene 1,3,4,6-tetra-O-galloyl-β- D- glucose, 3- O-
glucosides were isolated and identified as di-galloyl-1,3,4,6-tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose
lactiflorin (1), benzoylpaeoniflorin (2), mudan- and 6-O-di-galloyl-1,3,4,6-tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-
pioside C (3), 1-O-β-D-glucosylpaeonisuffrone glucose. The heptagalloylglucose fraction yielded
(4), paeonidanin (5), 1-O-β-D-glucosyl-8-O- five components: 2,3-bis-O-digalloyl-1,4,6-tri-
benzoylpaeonisuffrone (6), paeoniflorin (7), albi- O-galloyl-β-D-glucose, 3-O-trigalloyl-1,2,4,6-
florin (8), oxypaeoniflorin (9) and mudanpioside tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose, 4,6- bis-O-digalloyl-
E (10) (Yean et al. 2008); 4-O-methyl-paeoniflorin, 1,2,3-tri- O -galloyl-β- D -glucose, 3,6,-bis- O -
isopaeoniflorin and isobenzoylpaeoniflorin and 1,2,4-tri-O-galloyl- β-D-glucose and 2,6,-bis-O-
paeoniflorin and benzoylpaeoniflorin (Braca 1,2,4-tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose. Octa-, nona- and
et al. 2008); four ‘cage-like’ monoterpene gluco- decagalloylglucose fractions comprised more
sides (Wang et al. 2009); 4′-O-benzoylpaeoniflorin than five components with a 1,2,3,4,6-pentagall-
and 4-O-galloylalbiflorin (Ren et al. 2009); oylglucose core, and octagalloylglucose com-
monoterpene glycoside, 3′-O-galloylpaeoniflorin prised a compound 2,3,6-tris-O-galloyl-1,4-
(1); four known compounds, 6′-O-galloylalbiflorin di-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose and more than five
(2), pentagalloylglucose (3), 6′-O-benzoyl- components.
paeoniflorin (4) and 6′-O-galloylpaeoniflorin From the roots of P. lactiflora, seven new
(5) (Washida et al. 2009a); two galloylated monoterpene glycoside esters related to pae-
monoterpene glycosides, 4-O-galloylalbiflorin oniflorin were isolated from Radix Paeoniae,
and 4′-O-galloylpaeoniflorin (Washida et al. together with polymeric proanthocyanidins,
2009b); eleven monoterpenes, paeonidangenin polygalloylglucoses and 48 known compounds
(1), paeonidanin A (2), paeonidanin B (3), pae- (a benzoyl sucrose, seven aromatic acids,
onidanin C (4), paeonidanin D (5), paeonidanin E adenosine, nine monoterpene glycosides, eight
(6), paeoniflorone (7), 4-O-methylbenzoyl- flavan-3-ols, a catechin dimer formed by oxida-
paeoniflorin (8), 4-O-methylgalloylpaeoniflorin tion, seven proanthocyanidins, three galloylsu-
(9), 4-O-methyldebenzoylpaeoniflorin (10) and croses, five galloylglucoses and six ellagitannins)
4-O-methylalbiflorin (11) (Duan et al. 2009c); (Tanaka et al. 2000). The seven new monoterpene
seven monoterpenes, paeonilactone-B, paeoni- glycoside esters were 8-O-galloyl desbenzoyl-
lactone-C, paeoniflorigenone, benzoylpaeoniflo- paeoniflorin, 8-O-isovaleryl desbenzoylpaeoni-
rin, paeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin and albiflorin florin, 6′-O-galloyl desbenzoylpaeoniflorin, 6′-O-
(Kim et al. 2009); 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl- vanillypaeoniflorin, 3′,6′-di-O-galloylpaeoniflorin,
D-glucopyranose (Baumgartner et al. 2010); 6′-O-α-glucopyranosylpaeoniflorin named iso-
paeoniflorin; albiflorin; 4-O-galloylalbiflorin; maltopaeoniflorin and 6′-O-galloyl desbenzo-
galloypaeonbiflorin; alloylalbiflorin; 6-O-galloyl- ylalbiflorin and 1′O-benzoylsucrose, isolated for
564 Paeoniaceae

the first time from natural source. The remaining named (3R,4S)-3-methyl-3,4-dihydro-5,6,
compounds were identified as seven aromatic 7-trihydroxy-4-(3′-methoxy-4′-hydroxyphenyl)-
carboxylic acids [gallic acid, benzoic acid, vanillic 1H-[2]-benzopyran-1-one (1), 5-hydroxy-6-
acid, syringic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, methyl-1H-indole-3-carbaldehyde (2), trans-
4,5-dihydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid and an equi- 5-hydroxy-2-methoxy-6-methyl-2,3-dihydro-
librium mixture of m-digallate and p-digallate]; benzofuran-3-yl methyl benzoate (3) and
adenosine; nine monoterpene glycosides [pae- cis -5-hydroxy-2-methoxy-6-methyl-2,3-
oniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin, dihydrobenzofuran-3-yl methyl benzoate (4)
benzoyloxypaeoniflorin, galloylpaeoniflorin, and two known ones, (7S,8S)-3-methoxy-3′,
galloyloxypaeoniflorin, mudanpioside E, 7-epoxy-8,4′-oxyneligna-4,9,9′-triol (5) and
mudanpioside F and desbenzoylpaeoniflorin]; (7S,8R)-dihydrodehydrodiconifery alcohol
three galloylsucroses [6-O-galloylsucrose, (6), were isolated from the roots (Duan et al.
1′-O-galloylsucrose, 6′-O-galloylsucrose]; eight 2009b).
flavan-3-ols [(+)-catechin, catechin 5-O-glucoside, Six gallotannins (pentagalloylglucose, hexa-
catechin 7-O-glucoside, catechin 3′-O-glucoside, galloylglucose, heptagalloylglucose, octagalloyl-
catechin 4′-O-glucoside, catechin 7-O-gallate, glucose, nonagalloylglucose, decagalloylglucose)
catechin 3′(4′)-O-gallate (an equilibrium mixture), were isolated from the roots (Nishizawa et al.
epicatechin 3-O-gallate]; catechin dimer formed 1980). The structure of pentagalloylglucose
by oxidation; seven proanthocyanidins [procyan- was elucidated as 1,2,3,4,6-pentakistri-O-
idin B-3, procyanidin B-1, procyanidin B-1 methylgalloyl-β-D-glucose and hexagalloylglu-
3-O-gallate, procyanidin B-2 3′-O-gallate, pro- cose as 6-m-digalloyl-1,2,3,4-tetragalloyl-β-D-
cyanidin B-7, procyanidin AC-trimer and procy- glucose. An acidic polysaccharide, called peonan
anidin arecatannin A-1]; five galloylglucoses PA, with molecular mass of 6.0 × 104,was iso-
[1,2,3-tri- O -galloyl-β- D - glucose,1,2,6-tri- O - lated from Paeonia lactiflora roots (Tomoda
galloyl-β-D-glucose, 1,2,3,4-tetra-O-galloyl-β-D- et al. 1994). It was composed of L-arabinose:
glucose, 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose, D-galactose:D-galacturonic acid in the molar
2,3,4,6-tetra-O-galloyl-D-glucose}; and six ratio of 2:1:10, in addition to small amounts of
ellagitannins [2,3-(S)-hexahydroxydiphenoyl- O-acetyl groups and peptide moieties. About
D-glucose, eugeniin, pterocaryanin B, casuariin, 40 % of the hexuronic acid residues in peonan
pedunculagin and 1(β)-O-galloylpedunculagin]. PA existed as methyl esters. Its main structural
Seventeen compounds were obtained from peony features was found to involve both alpha-1,5-
roots and their structures were identified as linked L-arabino-β-3,6-branched D-galactan-type
1,2,6-benzenetriol-1-O-α-D-glucoside (1), pae- and α-1,4-linked D-galacturonan-type struc-
oniflorin (2), 4-methylpaeoniflorin (3), albiflorin tural units.
(4), paeonidanin (5), benzoylpaeoniflorin (6),4- Benzoic acid (0.6635 %) was found mostly
methylbenzoylpaeoniflorin (7), benzoylalbiflorin distributed in peony root cortex (Wang et al.
(8), paeonidanin A (9), galloylalbiflorin (10), des- 2008). Paeoniflorin, sucrose, glucose and fruc-
benzoylalbiflorin (11), 4′,5-dihydroxyflavanone- tose in traditional Chinese medicine, Radix
7-O-β-D-glucoside (12), 5,7-dihydroxy flavanone- Paeoniae Alba, were separated and determined
4′-O-β-D-glucoside (13),(+)-catechin (14), gal- using capillary electrophoresis (Chen et al. 2005).
lic acid (15), vanillic acid (16) and 1,2,3-benzen- Peony roots were found to contain paeoniflorin,
etriol (17) (He et al. 2011). 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-glucoside, albiflorin,
Five phenolic compounds, (+)-taxifolin-3- methyl gallate and other compounds (Yang et al.
O-β-D-glucopyranoside (0.23–0.52 %), benzoic 2007). Monoterpene glycosides such as paeoni-
acid (0.2–0.3 %), gallic acid (0.26–0.28 %), florin, albiflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, benzoylpae-
(−)-epicatechin (0.09–0.12 %) and (+)-catechin oniflorin and benzoyloxypaeoniflorin and other
(0.34–0.63 %), were isolated from P. lactiflora compounds such as (+)-catechin) and β-sitosterol
roots (Choung et al. 2000). Four compounds were found to be common to both Radix
Paeonia lactiflora 565

Paeoniae Alba (Bai-shao in Chinese) and Radix benzoylpaeoniflorin, benzoyloxypaeoniflorin

Paeoniae Rubra (Chi-shao in Chinese), catego- and galloylpaeoniflorin] and five steroids and
ries of Paeonia lactiflora root (Yang et al. 2009). triterpenoids [betulinic acid, β-sitosterol, dau-
Furthermore, the two roots also contained costerol, hederagenin and oleanolic acid] (Koo
some galloyl glucoses, flavonoids and lipophilic et al. 2010).
components such as monoterpene aglycones, The compositions of the essential oil of
triterpenes and acetophenones. However, the fin- P. lactiflora roots with and without bark were,
gerprint of Bai-shao displayed more bands than respectively, determined as follows: benzoic acid
that of Chi-shao, and the ratios of peak-to-peak (44.38, 37.23 %), paeonol (13.25, 12.29 %),
intensities were also rather different between the benzyl alcohol (5.20, 6.65 %), butyl alcohol
two roots. Wild peony root (Radix Paeoniae (0.02, 0.03 %), furfural (0.95, 1.25 %),
Rubra, Chi-shao) extract had markedly higher 3-hydroxypyridine (tr (trace), tr), 2-furyl methyl
content of paeoniflorin and catechin than cultivated ketone (tr, tr), benzaldehyde (0.99, 1.4 %),
peony root (Radix Paeoniae Alba, Bai-shao) 5-methyl-2-furfural (1.25, 2.06 %), methyl
extract, whereas Bai-shao possessed higher con- benzoate (0.56, 0.79 %), phenyl acetaldehyde
tent of albiflorin than Chi-shao (Wang et al. (0.5, 0.3 %), acetophenone (0.75, 0.85 %), furfu-
2012b). Drying after boiling, drying after decor- ryl alcohol (0.03, 0.05 %), 4,7-dimethyl benzofu-
ticating and boiling and drying after boiling and ran (1.35, 1.38 %), α,α-dimethyl benzyl alcohol
decorticating methods reduced the content of (0.53, 0.65 %), methyl salicylate (1.35, 1.87 %),
benzoic acid and paeonol to trace in both root o-hydroxyacetophenone (tr, tr), ethyl salicylate
extract types. (0.05, 0.06 %), 2-methoxyphenol (tr, tr),
The main volatile chemical components β-phenylethyl alcohol (1.98, 2.25 %), 2,6-di-tert-
of Radix Paeoniae Rubra (P. lactiflora) were butyl-4-methyl phenol (tr, tr), 2-acetyl pyrrole
(Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid (30.11 %), (tr, tr), phenol (2.05, 2.34 %), p-cresol (tr, tr),
n-hexadecanoic acid (20.18 %), 2-hydroxybenz- m-cresol (tr, tr), m-tert-butyl (tr, tr), p-methoxy-
aldehyde (17.10 %), 1-(2-hydroxy-4-methoxy- acetophenone (0.62, 0.53 %), thymol (tr, tr),
phenyl)-ethanone (5.99 %), 6,6-dimethyl- carvacrol (tr, tr) and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy aceto-
bicyclo[3.1.1] heptane-2-methanol (3.39 %), phenone (tr, tr) (Miyazawa et al. 1984).
4,7-dimethyl-benzofuran (2.41 %), phenyl-
methyl ester 2-hydroxy-benzoic acid
(1.86 %), 4-(1-methylethenyl)-1-cyclohexene-1- Callus Tissue Phytochemicals
carboxaldehyde (1.55 %) and cyclohexadecane
(1.46 %) (Li et al. 2007b). Other components Four triterpenoids isolated from the callus
included as follows: (1,4-dimethyl-3-cyclohexen- tissues of Paeonia japonica, P. lactiflora and
1-yl)-ethanone (0.98 %), (E)-2-methoxy-4(1- P. suffruticosa included the following: 11α,12α-
propenyl)-phenol (0.85 %), 6,6-dimethyl- epoxy- 3β,23-dihydroxyolean-28,13β-olide;
bicyclo[3.1.1]heptane-2-carboxaldehyd (0.85 %), 3β-hydroxy-11-oxo-olean-12-en-28-oic acid,
1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) 1,4-cyclohexadiene 3β-hydroxy-oleana-11,13(18)-dien-28-oic acid
(0.66 %), benzyl benzoate (0.57 %), 6,6-dimethyl- and 3β,23-dihydroxy-oleana-11,13(18)-dien-28-
bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene- 2-carboxaldehyde oic acid (Ikuta et al. 1995).
(0.56 %), 3-hexyl-cyclopetene (0.13 %), trideca-
nol (0.04 %), 6-methyl-spiro[4.5] and decan-6-ol
(0.03 %). Eighteen compounds were isolated Antioxidative Activity
from the roots: seven simple phenolic or flavo-
noid compounds [benzoic acid, p-hydroxyben- Ethanol root extract of Paeonia lactiflora and its
zoic acid, gallic acid, methyl gallate, paeonol, constituents, gallic acid and methyl gallate,
paeonoside and (+)-catechin], six monoterpenoids exhibited protective free radical scavenging effect,
[paeoniflorigenone, paeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazine (DPPH),
566 Paeoniaceae

and lipid peroxidation (Lee et al. 2005). Among cytotoxic activity in a dose-dependent manner
seven stilbenes isolated from the seeds, trans-ε- and especially potent cytotoxic activity against
viniferin and gnetin H significantly inhibited C6 (mouse glioma) cancer cell with IC50 values
2-deoxyribose degradation and lipid peroxidation ranging from 8.2 to 20.5 μg/mL (Kim et al.
in rat liver microsomes (Kim et al. 2002a ). 2002a). trans-Resveratrol showed significant
In addition, cis-ε-viniferin and suffruticosols cytotoxic activity against HepG2 (liver hepa-
A and B also exhibited moderate antioxidative toma) and HT-29 (colon) human cancer cell lines
activity. The results suggested that resveratrol with IC50 values of 11.8 and 25.2 g/mL, respec-
dimers and trimers, together with resveratrol tively. In contrast, trans-epsilon-viniferin, cis-ε-
from seeds of Paeonia lactiflora, may be useful viniferin and gnetin H exhibited marked cytotoxic
as potential sources of natural antioxidants. The activity against Hela (cervix) and MCF-7 (breast)
total polyphenol content of peony root methanol human cancer cell lines with IC50 values of 20.4,
extract was 73.45 mg/g, and the content of the 21.5 and 12.9 μg/mL, respectively. However,
ethyl acetate fraction was 514.50 mg/g as the suffruticosols A and B had less cytotoxic effect
highest content of fractions (Im and Lee 2011). against all cancer cells except C6. All resvera-
In DPPH radical scavenging ability, SC50 value trol and its derivatives viniferin, gnetin H and
of the ethyl acetate was 3.86 μg/mL as a result suffruticosol B reduced viability of human pro-
of greater activity in the positive control myelocytic leukaemia HL-60 cells in a dose-
(ascorbic acid). dependent manner with their IC50 values of
Paeoniflorin, from peony root, exhibited a 20–90 μM (Kang et al. 2003). Ascending orders
protective effect against H2O2 oxidative damage of IC50 values were suffruticosol B, gnetin H,
in human umbilical vein endothelial cells viniferin and resveratrol, respectively. HL-60
(HUVECs) (Chen et al. 2011b). It markedly cells treated with the four stilbenes exhibited the
attenuated H2O2-induced apoptosis and intracel- distinct morphological change characteristics of
lular reactive oxygen species production and also cell apoptosis such as chromatin condensation,
displayed a dose-dependent reduction of lactate apoptotic bodies and DNA fragmentations.
dehydrogenase leakage, malondialdehyde for- Cells treated with 25 μ of resveratrol, viniferin,
mation and caspase-3 proteolytic activities in gnetin H and suffruticosol B for 24 h resulted in
H2O2-treated cells, which was accompanied by a increment of sub-G1 population by 51, 5, 11 and
restoration of the activities of endogenous anti- 59 %, respectively. Treatment of cells with 0–20 μ
oxidants, including total superoxide dismutase resveratrol for 5 h produced a concentration-
and glutathione peroxidase. Paeoniflorin also dependent decrease in cytochrome P450 (CYP)
reversed H2O2 up-regulated phosphorylation of 1B1 mRNA levels. Suffruticosol B also sup-
extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 in pressed CYP1B1 gene expression. The results
HUVECs. demonstrated that resveratrol oligomers also
strongly suppressed HL-60 cell proliferation and
induced DNA damage. Further, CYP1B1 gene
Anticancer Activity suppression may suggest an involvement in the
resveratrol-induced apoptosis in HL-60 cells.
In vitro studies showed that the aqueous peony Kwon et al. (2006) found that Radix Paeoniae
root extract inhibited the growth of both HepG2 Alba extract induced apoptotic changes in HL-60
and Hep3B hepatoma cell lines via apoptosis leukaemic cells in a dose-dependent manner. The
(Lee et al. 2002). The gene expression of BNIP3 results suggested that peony root-induced apop-
was up-regulated, while ZK1, RAD23B and tosis was stimulated by the release of cytochrome
HSPD1 were downregulated during early apop- C to the cytosol, by procaspase-9 processing and
tosis of the hepatoma cell mediated by peony via a caspase-3-dependent mechanism.
extract. Six stilbenes, trans-resveratrol, cis-ε- The compound 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-
viniferin, trans-ε-viniferin, gnetin H and suffruti- D-glucose (PGG) from P. lactiflora roots was
cosols A and B isolated from the seeds, showed found to have antiangiogenic activity; it inhibited
Paeonia lactiflora 567

the binding of vascular endothelial growth factor Antimutagenic Activity

(VEGF) to tyrosine kinase KDR/Flk-1 (Lee et al.
2004). PGG also efficiently blocked VEGF- Six stilbenes, trans-resveratrol, cis-ε-viniferin,
induced human umbilical vein endothelial cell trans-ε-viniferin, gnetin H and suffruticosols A
proliferation and the growth of immortalized and B, isolated from the seeds exerted antimuta-
human microvascular endothelial cells, but did not genic activity in a dose-dependent fashion (Kim
affect the growth of HT1080 human fibrosarcoma et al. 2002a). Among them, trans-resveratrol
and DU-145 human prostate carcinoma cells. exhibited the strongest antimutagenic effect
PGG also blocked VEGF-induced capillary-like against N-methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine
tube formation of endothelial cell on Matrigel. (MNNG) in Salmonella typhimurium TA100
Tsuboi et al. (2004) found that paeoniflorin with IC50 value of 27.0 μg/plate, while other five
induced apoptosis in both murine T-lineage cells resveratrol oligomers also did moderate antimu-
and human T-cell leukaemic Jurkat cells. This tagenic activity with IC50 values ranging from
apoptosis was mediated through the reduction of 31.7 to 35.2 μg/plate.
mitochondrial membrane potential, activation of
caspase and fragmentation of DNA. Additionally,
paeoniflorin induced the phosphorylation of Antiviral Activity
three mitogen-activated protein (MAP) family
kinases, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, The ethyl acetate fraction of P. lactiflora root
c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 showed anti-hepatitis B virus (HBV) activity
MAP kinase. (IC50, 8.1 μg/mL) (Lee et al. 2006). The active
TPG (total peony glucosides) (12.5, 62.5 anti-HBV principle was isolated and identified as
and 312.5 μg/mL) resulted in a dose-dependent 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (PGG). In
reduction in the proliferation of human vascular the extracellular medium of HepG2.2.15 cells
endothelial cells (Deng et al. 2010). Fluorescence- after an 8-day treatment, PGG decreased the level
activated cell sorting analysis data showed an of extracellular HBV (IC50, 1.0 μg/mL) in a
accumulation of cells in the G0/G1 phase of the dose-dependent manner. PGG also reduced the
cell cycle, which exhibited apoptotic features HBsAg level by 25 % at a concentration of
indicative of cell death. The migration properties 4 μg/mL. In vitro studies showed that P. lactiflora
and tube-forming abilities of endothelial cells was time-dependently and dose-dependently
were dramatically inhibited by the TPG extract. effective against human respiratory syncytial
The results indicated that TPG could inhibit virus (HRSV) in both human upper (human
angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. larynx epidermoid carcinoma cell line, HEp-2)
Peony root extract inhibited the growth of and lower (human lung carcinoma cell line,
urinary bladder TSGH-8301 cancer cells via A549) respiratory tract cells (Lin et al. 2013).
induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest (Ou P. lactiflora had a comparable anti-HRSV activity
et al. 2011). Treatment of TSGH-8301 cells with to 10 μg/mL ribavirin, a broad-spectrum antiviral
peony extract resulted in G2–M phase arrest that agent. P. lactiflora was dose-dependently effec-
was associated with a marked decline in protein tive against viral attachment, with a better effect
levels of cdc2, cyclin B1, cell division cycle 25B on A549 cells, and was effective against viral
(Cdc25B) and Cdc25C. Further, in a rat model penetration particularly if supplemented before
of bladder cancer induced by N-butyl-N- viral inoculation. Moreover, P. lactiflora stimu-
(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine (OH-BBN), tumours lated IFN-β secretion without any effect on
from peony-treated rats showed significant TNF-α secretion. P. lactiflora could be beneficial
decrease in the expression of Bcl2, cyclin D1 and at preventing HRSV infection by inhibiting viral
PCNA and increase in the expression of p-Chk2 attachment and internalization and stimulating
(Thr-68), Bax and Cip1/p21. The data suggested IFN secretion.
that peony extract could modulate apoptosis in The aqueous ethanol seed extract of Paeonia
models of bladder cancer. lactiflora exhibited potent neuraminidase inhibition
568 Paeoniaceae

(Yuk et al. 2013). Purification of the extract (Zheng et al. 2008). Paeonol was found to protect
yielded four chiral neuraminidase inhibitory the endothelial cells of streptozotocin-induced
polyphenols, suffruticosol A (1), suffruticosol B diabetic rat (Min et al. 2009). Expressions of
(2), trans-ε-viniferin (3) and trans-gnetin H intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1,
(4). Mechanistic analysis of 1-4′s inhibition vascular cell adhesion molecular VCAM-1,
showed that they were all reversible, non-com- C-reactive protein (CRP), endothelin-1 (ET-1)
petitive inhibitors. and thromboxane (TXA2) were decreased and
prostaglandin PGI increased.
In another study, total glucosides of peony
Antidiabetic Activity (TGP) treatment (50, 100, 200 mg/kg), once
daily for 8 weeks, significantly lowered 24-h
Paeoniflorin and 8-debenzoylpaeoniflorin, iso- urinary albumin excretion rate in diabetic rats
lated from roots, exerted significant blood sugar and attenuated glomerular volume (Su et al.
lowering effect in streptozotocin-treated rats and 2010a). TGP treatment with 100 and 200 mg/kg
had a maximum effect at 25 min after treatment significantly reduced indices for tubulointerstitial
(Hsu et al. 1997). This hypoglycaemic action was injury in diabetic rats. The level of malonalde-
also observed in normoglycaemic rats only at hyde was significantly increased in the kidney of
1 mg/kg. The antihyperglycaemic activity of diabetic rats and attenuated by TGP treatment at
8-debenzoylpaeoniflorin appeared lower than the dose of 200 mg/kg. TGP treatment in a
that of paeoniflorin. Plasma insulin was not dose-dependent manner decreased the level of
changed in paeoniflorin-treated normoglycaemic 3-NT protein of the kidney which increased
rats indicating an insulin-independent action. under diabetes. Total antioxidant capacity was
Also, this glucoside reduced the elevation of significantly reduced in diabetic rat kidney and
blood sugar in glucose-challenged rats. Results remarkably increased by TGP treatment at the
of in vitro studies suggested that paeoniflorin dose of 100 and 200 mg/kg. Activity of antioxi-
stimulated the release of adenosine from isolated dant enzyme such as superoxide dismutase
rat white adipocytes and the released adenosine and catalase was markedly elevated by TGP
may activate the adenosine A1 receptor to treatment with 200 mg/kg. P-p38 MAPK and
enhance glucose uptake (Tang et al. 2003). NF-kappaB p65 protein expression increased
Among the tested extracts, P. lactiflora seed in diabetic rat kidney, but were significantly
extract demonstrated a significant degree of decreased by TGP treatment.
inhibition on α-glucosidase (Choi et al. 2009). The ethanol peony root extract dose- and
Of six bioactive components isolated from the time-dependently suppressed diabetic hypergly-
extract, luteolin (1), resveratrol (2), trans-e-vi- caemia and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
niferin (ε), gnetin H (4), suffruticosol A (5) and (PEPCK) transcription in streptozotocin-induced
suffruticosol B (6), compounds 3–6 exhibited diabetic and db/db mice (Juan et al. 2010)
relatively strong inhibition of α-glucosidase, and Paeonol and paeoniflorin, two well-known con-
their IC50 values were calculated as 0.92 mM stituents in peony root, did not suppress PEPCK
(2), 3.15 mM (3), 1.15 mM (4), 2.53 mM (5) and expression at testing concentration. It was clearly
3.15 mM (6). In contrast, the (IC50) value of demonstrated that transcriptional inhibition of
the reference drug, acarbose, was estimated as gluconeogenesis was one of the important anti-
8.28 mM in vitro. diabetic actions of Radix Paeoniae. The com-
Animal studies found that total glucosides of pound 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-D-glucopyranose
peony may protect liver function and modulate isolated from the P. lactiflora roots was found to
serum lipid for the fatty liver rats caused by be an inhibitor of protein tyrosine phosphatase
insulin resistance, and its action mechanism may 1B, with an IC50 value of 4.8 μM and with anti-
be concerned with enhancing insulin sensitivity diabetic activity (Baumgartner et al. 2010).
and antioxidative ability, decreasing serum lipid Further, the compound was shown to act as an
Paeonia lactiflora 569

insulin sensitizer in human hepatoma cells and Paeonia lactiflora. Oral administration of
(HCC-1.2) at a concentration of 10 μM. Peony nifedipine (15 mg/kg/day), diltiazem (30 mg/kg/
root extract lacking the insulin mimetic com- day) and Paeonia lactiflora (5 g/kg/day) to
pound, 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose rabbits caused 60.8, 45.2 and 74.2 % reduction in
(PGG), and termed the non-PGG fraction (NPF), the area of atherosclerosis in the aorta, respec-
consisting of tannin polymers, suppressed tively (Zhang 1991). The levels of plasma lipid
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) peroxides and thromboxane TXB2 and the con-
gene expression in the presence of an insulin tents of cholesterol, phospholipid and calcium in
receptor antagonist (HNMPA-AM(3)), suggesting the intima–media of the aorta in the treated
the action of this fraction was independent of the groups were significantly lower than those in the
insulin receptor (Juan et al. 2011). NPF also cholesterol group, but the level of plasma 6-keto-
prevented Dex-stimulated GR nuclear loca- PGF1 alpha in the treated groups was signifi-
lization and transactivation and inhibited cantly higher. It was concluded that the inhibition
8-bromo-cAMP-stimulated element-binding pro- of plasma lipid peroxide production and regula-
tein (CREB) serine phosphorylation and DNA tion of thromboxane A2 (TXA2) and prostacyclin
binding in H4IIE cells. The results suggested that (PGI2) balance may be one of the main mecha-
the potent suppressive activity on PEPCK gene nisms of the antiatherogenic effects of calcium
transcription observed with Radix Paeoniae antagonists and Paeonia lactiflora.
Rubra extract could be attributed to at least two Paeoniflorin isolated from the methanol
distinct components, namely, PGG and NPF. extract of Paeonia lactiflora exhibited a signifi-
Hence, NPF antagonized both signalling path- cantly lowering effect of total cholesterol, LDL
ways that induce PEPCK gene transcription. and triglyceride levels in the experimentally
induced hyperlipidaemic rats compared to the
control group at the dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg,
Cardiovascular Protective/ p.o. once a day for 4 weeks (Yang et al. 2004).
Antihyperlipidaemic/ Studies using the mammalian one-hybrid and
Atheroprotective Activities transient transfection reporter assays showed that
paeoniflorin transactivated GAL4, rat cholesterol
Oral administration of cholesterol-fed rabbits 7 α-hydroxylase, phospholipid transfer protein
with nifedipine (15 mg/kg/day) and Paeonia and ATP-binding cassette A1 gene promoters in
lactiflora (0.5 g/kg per day) with 2 % cholesterol dose-dependent manner (Lin 2013). The results
diet for 15 weeks caused 60.75 and 74.24 % showed that paeoniflorin acted as a liver X recep-
reduction in the lesion area of the aorta, respec- tor agonist.
tively (Zhang and Yan 1990). The levels of Paeonol, from P. lactiflora, concentration-
plasma lipid peroxide, thromboxane B2, choles- dependently inhibited the production of intercel-
terol, phospholipid and calcium of the intima– lular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in tumour
media of the aorta in the treated groups were necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-activated
significantly lower than those in the control human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)
group, but the level of 6-keto-PGF1 alpha (a stable (Nizamutdinova et al. 2007). They found that the
hydrolysis product of prostacyclin (PG12)) in the inhibitory effect of paeonol on ICAM-1 pro-
treated groups was significantly higher. It was duction might be mediated by inhibiting the
demonstrated that calcium metabolism played an TNF-alpha-induced phosphorylation of p38 and
important role in thromboxane, prostaglandin extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)
and plasma lipid peroxide synthesis. It was con- and nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) p65
cluded that the inhibition of lipid peroxide pro- signalling pathways, which were involved in
duction and the regulation of TXA2 (thromboxane TNF-alpha-induced ICAM-1 production. Thus,
A2)–PGI2 balance may be one of the mecha- paeonol may be beneficial in the treatment of car-
nisms of antiatherogenesis of calcium antagonists diovascular disorders such as atherosclerosis.
570 Paeoniaceae

Studies demonstrated that administration of cells by preventing cobalt chloride-induced

10 mg/kg of paeoniflorin or paeonol, active com- hypoxia-induced factor-1α (HIF-1α) accumula-
pounds of P. albiflora, 1 h prior to myocardial tion and downregulating the expressions of p53
ischaemia and reperfusion (I/R)-induced injury and Bcl-2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa interacting
in Sprague–Dawley rats significantly reduced protein 3 (BNIP3) (Ji et al. 2012). Hypoxia had
infract size and improved haemodynamic para- been reported to have a profound impact on
meters (Nizamutdinova et al. 2008). Further, endothelial cell properties during cardiovascular
both PF and PN decreased the caspase-3 and disease processes and to be involved in the initia-
Bax expressions but up-regulated Bcl-2 in the tion and development of atherosclerotic lesion.
left ventricles. The results showed that both
paeoniflorin and paeonol reduced myocardial
damage in rat through protection from apoptosis, Steroid Hormone Inhibitory Activity
suggesting that P. albiflora might be useful in
treating myocardial infarction. NADPH-linked 3 alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydro-
Compared to controls, total peony glucoside genase reduces ketosteroids and therefore plays
(TPG) significantly lowered the serum level of an important role in the metabolism of steroid
total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low- hormones. Palbinone, isolated from the roots,
density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), apoli- showed a strong inhibitory activity on the reduced
poprotein ApoB, tumour necrosis factor-alpha form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phos-
(TNF-alpha), IL-6 and C-reactive protein (CRP); phate (NADPH)-linked 3 alpha-hydroxysteroid
increased the ratios of high-density lipoprotein dehydrogenase (3 alpha-HSD) of rat liver cytosol
cholesterol (HDL-C)/LDL-C and ApoA1/ApoB; (Kadota et al. 1992, 1993).
decreased the intima–media thickness of abdomi-
nal aortal wall; and improved the morphological
change of the aorta of rats with atherosclerosis Anti-allergic Activity
induced by excessive administration of vitamin D
and cholesterol (Li et al. 2011a). The attenuation The compound 1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-paeoni-
of atherosclerotic disease in rats by TPG was suffrone isolated from the roots was found to
associated with its lowering of blood lipids and inhibit histamine release from rat peritoneal exu-
its inhibition of the expression of inflammatory date cells induced by antigen–antibody reaction
cytokines. The results of animal studies sug- (Murakami et al. 1996). P. lactiflora roots, pae-
gested that total peony glycosides (TPG) sig- oniflorin and paeonol, isolated from the roots,
nificantly ameliorate isoprenaline-induced potently inhibited passive cutaneous anaphylaxis
myocardial ischaemia in rats, and their action (PCA) reaction induced by IgE–antigen complex
might be through reducing oxidative stress in and scratching behaviours induced by compound
ischaemic myocardium. Compared with model 48/80 in mice (Lee et al. 2008a). Paeoniflorin
rats, TPG treatment, TPG therapy and the posi- exhibited the most potent inhibition against
tive control treatment exhibited significantly scratching behaviours and the acetic acid-induced
reduced activities of glutamic oxaloacetic trans- writhing syndrome in mice. Paeonol most
aminase (GOT), creatine kinase (CK), lactate potently inhibited PCA reaction and mast cell
dehydrogenase (LDH) and antioxidant enzyme degranulation.
superoxide dismutase (SOD) and lower levels of
malondialdehyde (MDA) (Long et al. 2012).
Also the protective effect of TPG treatment was Anti-inflammatory Activity
even better than that of propranolol.
In vitro studies indicated that paeoniflorin In Vitro Studies
elicited effective protection against cobalt chlo- Of the four compounds examined, namely,
ride hypoxia-induced apoptosis of endothelial 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (PGG) from
Paeonia lactiflora 571

peony root, (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), Inhibitory effect on dendritic cell maturation had
gallic acid and gallacetophenone, PGG was been reported to alter immune-mediated inflam-
found to be the most potent in inhibiting both matory reaction in vivo. The results demonstrated
iNOS (IC50 approximately 18 μg/mL) and COX-2 that TPG inhibited dendritic cell maturation
activity (prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) IC50 approxi- and function by selectively blocking TLR4/5
mately 8 μg/mL and prostaglandin D2 (PGD2), activation in vivo, which in turn led to reduced
IC50 approximately 12 μg/mL), respectively, in immune-mediated inflammation in vivo, indi-
LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells (Lee et al. 2003). cating therapeutic target of TPG for inflammatory
Their results suggested that PGG might be a and autoimmune disease treatment.
candidate for developing anti-inflammatory and The results of in vitro studies indicated that a
cancer chemopreventive agents. In vitro studies chronic inflammatory process in collagen-induced
in human nasal mucosal fibroblasts showed that arthritis induced up-regulation of G-protein-
peony root extract significantly decreased the coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) in fibroblast-
secretion of monocyte chemotactic proteins like synoviocytes, and paeoniflorin could
MCP-1 and MCP-3 potent chemokines mediat- reverse this change, which might be one of the
ing allergic nasal inflammation (Leem et al. important mechanisms for paeoniflorin regu-
2004). Total glucosides of peony exhibited lating G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCRs)
inhibitory effect on hyperfunctional synoviocytes signalling and suppressing the proliferation of
from rats with collagen-induced arthritis, and its fibroblast-like synoviocytes in collagen-induced
mechanism of action may be related to its sup- arthritis (Chen et al. 2012a). Paeoniflorin signifi-
pression of inhibition of abnormal excessive pro- cantly ameliorated the immune complex-induced
liferation and overproduction of IL-1, TNF-alpha inflammatory vascular damage, leucocyte infil-
and PGE2 in the synoviocytes (Zhu et al. 2006). trates and adhesion molecule expression in a
The ethyl acetate fraction of peony root meth- mouse model of cutaneous Arthus reaction and
anol extract showed strong nitric oxide (NO) pro- cultured human dermal microvascular endothe-
duction inhibitory effect in lipopolysaccharide lial cells (HDMECs) (Chen et al. 2013a). Further,
(LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cell (Im and Lee paeoniflorin markedly blocked tumour necrosis
2012). However, in NO scavenging ability, the factor-α (TNF-α)-induced E-selectin and inter-
chloroform fraction was higher than the other cellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expres-
fractions and the extract. In the lactate dehydro- sion in HDMECs at both mRNA and protein
genase (LDH) assay against RAW 264.7 cell, the levels and also suppressed TNF-α-induced adhe-
extract and fractions exhibited normal LDH sion of polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMNs) to
release level as nontoxic result without the ethyl HDMECs. The data suggested that paeoniflorin,
acetate fraction of 100 μg/mL. Total peony as an anti-inflammatory agent, could down-
glucosides (TPG) inhibited lipopolysaccharide- regulate adhesion molecule expression and
induced NF-kappaB activation in rat peritoneal may be a candidate medicine for the treatment
macrophages through arresting IKBalpha protein of immune complex-induced inflammatory
degradation, NF-kappaB p65 protein nuclear response. Paeoniflorin, the main active ingredient
translocation and DNA-binding activity of of Paeonia lactiflora, attenuated lipopolysaccha-
NF-kappaB complex (Chen et al. 2008). ride (LPS)-induced permeability of endothelial
Ear inflammation of ovalbumin-immunized cells (Xu et al. 2013). Paeoniflorin (10, 30 and
mice was inhibited by TPG (total peony gluco- 100 μM) inhibited dextran extravasation and leu-
sides) (150 mg/kg, i.p. × 11 days); the antigen cocyte migration through human umbilical vein
presenting capacity of dendritic cells derived endothelial cells (HUVECs) induced by LPS in a
from TPG-treated mice was arrested and concentration-dependent manner. Further, pae-
ovalbumin-specific T-cell proliferation inhibited oniflorin suppressed phosphorylations of PI3K/
(Zhou et al. 2012). Further, the maturation of Akt, PKC and cofilin, as well as F-actin reorgani-
dendritic cells was decreased by TPG treatment. zation, in HUVECs induced by LPS.
572 Paeoniaceae

Animal Studies the weight of immune organs of complete

Paeoniflorin from peony root exhibited anti- Freund’s adjuvant-induced adjuvant arthritic rats
inflammatory effect significantly inhibiting the rat (Zheng et al. 2007). Paeoniflorin significantly
paw oedema induced by carrageenan and showing reduced the elevated synoviocyte proliferation
a tendency to inhibit dextran- or α-chymotrypsin- and the elevated levels of IL-1, PGE2, IL-6,
induced oedema and exudation of dye into the VEGF and GM-CSF in synovial homogenates of
abdominal cavity of the mouse (Takagi and adjuvant arthritic rats. The results suggested
Harada 1969b). It also prevented stress ulcer in that paeoniflorin suppressed adjuvant arthritis at
the rat. The paeoniflorin and liquorice component least partly by inhibiting abnormal proliferation
FM100 exhibited synergistic inhibitory effect on of synoviocytes and the production of IL-1,
gastric and anti-inflammatory effect by intraperi- prostaglandin E(2) (PGE2), IL-6, VEGF and
toneal administration. GM-CSF by synoviocytes and reducing Gi and
Studies found that total peony glucosides COX-2 expression in synovium. Separate studies
(TPG) exerted a suppressive effect on joint by Xu et al. (2007) showed that total glucosides
destruction in rat with collagen-induced arthritis of peony (TGP) significantly inhibited the pro-
(Zhu et al. 2005). The therapeutic effect of TPG gression of complete Freund’s adjuvant arthritis
could be associated with its ability to ameliorate in male Sprague–Dawley rats, and the inhibitory
the secretion and metabolism of synoviocytes effects might be associated with its ability to
and to inhibit the abnormal proliferation and pro- mediate the level of cyclic adenosine mono-
duction of vascular epidermal growth factor, phosphate (cAMP) and inhibit the production of
basic fibroblast growth factor, matrix metallopro- IL-1, TNF-alpha, IL-6 and PGE(2) from acti-
teinase 1 (MMP-1) and MMP-3 by fibroblast-like vated synoviocytes. Another study showed that
synoviocytes. Zheng and Wei (2005) found that TGP significantly inhibited the proliferation of
the administration of total glucosides of peony synoviocytes; decreased the production of IL-1,
(TGP) (50 and 100 mg/kg, i.g. days 14–21) in tumour necrosis factor-alpha and prostaglandin
adjuvant arthritic rats significantly decreased the E(2); and elevated the levels of cAMP (Chang
production of IL-1, PGE2 and TNF-alpha by et al. 2009, 2011). Also, TGP could up-regulate
macrophage-like synoviocytes (MLS). Further, the expression of E-prostanoids (2) and (4).
the increased phosphorylation of mitogen- The results indicated that TGP might exert its
activated protein kinases, cell proliferation and anti-inflammatory effects through inhibiting the
matrix metalloproteinase expression in fibroblast- production of proinflammatory mediators in
like synoviocytes stimulated by supernatants synoviocytes of collagen-induced arthritic
of MLS in AA rats could also be inhibited by Sprague–Dawley rats, which might be associated
TGP. The results suggested that TGP exhibited with its ability to regulate cAMP-dependent
anti-inflammatory effects by modulating the EP(2)/EP(4)-mediated pathway. Similar results
proinflammatory mediator production from were found for paeoniflorin (Chang et al. 2011).
macrophage-like synoviocytes and phosphory- Paeoniflorin inhibited function of synoviocytes
lation of mitogen-activated protein kinases pretreated by rIL-1α and regulated EP4 receptor
from fibroblast-like synoviocytes. Results of expression. Bai-shao (peony root) extract at low
another animal study suggested that the inhibi- concentration significantly inhibited cAMP-
tory effect of total peony glucosides (TPG) on phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity, exerted dose-
anti-inflammation may be related to decreasing the dependent restraint on neutrophil respiratory
expression of NF-κB/p65 protein and suppressing burst, but at high concentration promoted elas-
the production of TNF-α and IL-1β in type II tase release and suppressed local inflammation
collagen-induced arthritic rats (Liu et al. 2010). in an animal model (Jiang et al. 2011). The
In another study, intragastric administration of Bai-shao extract was found to have five compo-
paeoniflorin (10, 20 mg/kg/day, 14–20 days) nents identified as gallic acid, paeoniflorin
inhibited the inflammatory response and restored sulphonate, albiflorin, paeoniflorin and benzoic
Paeonia lactiflora 573

acid, among which gallic acid had the largest scription and protein levels. Additionally, PF
inhibition on cAMP-PDE activity. inhibited the phosphorylations of p38 MAP
The extract prepared from the roots of Paeonia kinase (p38) and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase
lactiflora and Astragalus membranaceus (PAE) (JNK) but not extracellular signal-regulated
demonstrated higher hepatoprotective activity kinase (ERK) and prevented the activation of
than the single herbs used individually (Sun et al. nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) in the lung tis-
2007). The results suggested that PAE signifi- sues. Results from animal studies showed that
cantly inhibited the progression of hepatic fibro- paeoniflorin had an anti-inflammatory ability
sis induced by CCl4 in male Sprague–Dawley against TNF-α-induced chemokine (including
rats, and the inhibitory effect of PAE on hepatic CCL2, CCL5, CCL20, CXCL8, CXCL16 and
fibrosis was suggested to be associated with its CX3CL1) production and leucocyte migration,
ability to scavenge free radicals, to decrease the which may be at least partly related to the inhibi-
level of TGF-beta1 and to inhibit collagen syn- tion of nuclear factor-κB and ERK pathway
thesis and proliferation in hepatic stellate cells. (Chen et al. 2011a). Paeoniflorin may be a candi-
In further studies, Sun et al. (2008) found that date medicine for the treatment of inflammatory
after administration of P. lactiflora and Astragalus skin diseases.
membranaceus (60, 120 and 240 mg/kg, intra-
gastrically) daily for 10 days, the degree of liver Preclinical/Clinical Studies
damage in bacillus Calmette–Guérin and lipo- In a clinical study of 61 rheumatoid arthritic
polysaccharide (BCG/LPS)-induced liver injury, patients, combined treatment of methotrexate
as well as the elevation of serum transaminase and total peony glucosides (TPG) was found to
activities and level of nitric oxide in live injured be more clinically efficacious and suitable
mice, was significantly reduced. The protective because of its quick action, few side effects and
effect of P. lactiflora and A. membranaceus on high compliance (Du and Dong 2005). In a
BCG/LPS-induced liver-injured mice may be random-controlled trial of 80 patients with rheu-
associated with the antioxidant properties, ability matoid arthritis, combined application of total
to reduce nitric oxide production and suppression peony glucosides (TPG) and leflunomide was
of Kupffer cell activity and proinflammatory found to be superior to using leflunomide alone
mediator and cytokine production. Qi-Shao- in treating rheumatoid arthritis, owing to its
Shuang-Gan, a combination of Astragalus mem- quicker initiating action and less adverse
branaceus saponins with Paeonia lactiflora reaction (Zhao and Liu 2006). Similar results
glycosides, was found to ameliorate polymicro- were obtained in a study of 260 patients with
bial sepsis induced by cecal ligation and puncture rheumatoid arthritis, wherein total peony gluco-
in mice by inhibiting systemic inflammatory side (TPG) combined with methotrexate treat-
response and up-regulating protein C pathway ment exerted a favourable effect (Wang and
(Gao et al. 2011). Synergistic effects between the Xing 2007). A clinical study of 67 patients with
two herbs were observed. ankylosing spondylitis showed that total peony
Studies showed that paeoniflorin (50, 100 mg/ glucosides (TPG) and sulfasalazine exerted a
kg) from peony roots could alleviate lipopoly- favourable effect on ankylosing spondylitis with
saccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury in less and milder adverse reaction (Wang et al.
mice, as evidenced by reduced pulmonary 2007). Changes of clinical efficacy-related indi-
oedema, improved histological changes and ces were observed including lumbar pain index,
attenuated inflammatory cell accumulation in morning stiffness time, peripheral joint pain
the interstitium and alveolar space as well as index, thoracic expansion, Schober test, Bath AS
microvascular permeability (Zhou et al. 2011b). Disease Activity Index (BASDAI), Bath AS
It also markedly downregulated the expressions Functional Index (BASFI), the levels of erythro-
of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β cyte sedimentation and C-reactive protein and
and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α at both tran- x-ray of sacroiliac joint.
574 Paeoniaceae

Preclinical studies showed that water/ethanol therapeutic effects on rats with collagen-induced
extract of Radix Paeoniae known as total glyco- arthritis (Li et al. 2012). Paeoniflorin decreased
sides of peony (TGP)/paeoniflorin was able to arthritis score; relieved ankle and paw swelling;
diminish pain, joint swelling, synovial hypertro- improved spleen histopathology in CIA rats;
phy and the severity of bone erosion and cartilage decreased the levels of IgA, IgM, IgG and
degradation in experimental arthritis (Zhang and anti-CII antibody; and significantly decreased
Dai 2012). TGP/paeoniflorin was found to sup- the expressions of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signal-
press inflammatory process by reducing the pro- ling mediated by BAFF/BAFF-R in antibody
duction of prostaglandin E2, leukotriene B4, nitric production.
oxide, reactive oxygen species, proinflammatory
cytokines and chemokines. TGP/paeoniflorin
was also found to inhibit the proliferation of lym- Autoimmune Protective Activity
phocytes and fibroblast-like synoviocytes, the
formation of new blood vessels and the produc- Clinical studies found that long-term total peony
tion of matrix metalloproteinases. Clinical data glucoside (TPG) treatment of patients with
showed TGP to be effective in ameliorating the systemic lupus erythematosus had marked thera-
symptoms and signs of rheumatoid arthritis with- peutic efficacy (Zhang et al. 2011). TPG could
out significant adverse effects. reduce the average daily dose of prednisone and
the total cyclophosphamide dose, lowering the
recurrent cases and episodes of infection, espe-
Immunomodulatory Activity cially for the medication of more than 5 years. No
adverse reaction correlated to TPG.
Wu et al. (2007) demonstrated that administra- In a 2-year retrospective study conducted on
tion of paeoniflorin (50, 100 mg/kg, days 17–24) 27 patients with nonsystemic involved Sjögren
significantly diminished the secondary hind syndrome (an autoimmune disease), treatment
paw swelling and arthritis scores in adjuvant with total peony glucosides (TPG) was found to
arthritic (AA) rats, reversed the decrease of anti- be equally efficacious as that of hydroxychloro-
inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-4 and quine sulphate but with higher safety, and the
transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-beta1) effect initiating time was about 6–12 months
and further decreased the lowered prolifera- (Zhang et al. 2007). TPG demonstrated similar
tion of mesenteric lymph node lymphocytes. In effectiveness as hydroxychloroquine in delaying
vitro, paeoniflorin restored the earlier increased the onset of Sjögren syndrome-like disease in
level of cAMP of mesenteric lymph node lym- nonobese diabetic mice (Li et al. 2013). Saliva
phocytes (MLN) at the concentrations of 12.5, flow rate (SFR), ratio of regulatory T cells and
62.5 and 312.5 mg/L. Concurrently, paeoniflo- histological changes in submandibular gland
rin increased protein expressions of beta-2-AR index were significantly higher, and the level of
and GRK2 and decreased that of beta-arrestin 1, anti-SSA/anti-SSB antibodies and lymphocytic
2 of MLN lymphocytes in AA rats. The results foci were significantly lower compared to the
suggested that paeoniflorin might induce the normal saline group.
Th1 cell immune tolerance, which then shift
to Th2, Th3 cells mediated activities producing
the anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory Vasodilatory/Muscle Relaxation
effects. Activity
The polysaccharide peonan PA isolated from
roots exhibited remarkable reticuloendothelial Paeoniflorin exhibited hypotensive effect on the
system-potentiating activity in a carbon clear- guinea pig, an effect suggested to be associated to
ance test and considerable anti-complementary peripheral vasodilation (Takagi and Harada
activity (Tomoda et al. 1994). Paeoniflorin had 1969c). Paeoniflorin produced vasodilation of
Paeonia lactiflora 575

coronary vessel and hind limb of the dog. treatment in vivo (Lee et al. 2005). The extract
Relaxation and inhibition of movement and tonus and both its active constituents exhibited a
of smooth muscle organs such as rat stomach or significant free radical scavenging effect against
rat uterus were also found. Paeoniflorin was 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazine (DPPH) radical
found to decompose into desbenzoylpaeoniflorin generation and had an inhibitory effect on lipid
and benzoic acid, but both compounds scarcely peroxidation, as measured by the level of malo-
showed such pharmacological effects. Peony ndialdehyde (MDA) formation, and had no pro-
root extract (Radix Paeoniae) was found to relax oxidant effect (Lee et al. 2005). They strongly
prostaglandin F2a-precontracted aortic ring inhibited the hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA
preparations of isolated rat aorta that contained damage from NIH/3T3 fibroblasts. Therefore,
endothelium but not aorta without endothelium peony root extract containing gallic acid and
(Goto et al. 1996). Paeoniflorin and paeonol, the methyl gallate may be a useful antigenotoxic
main active components of Radix Paeoniae, antioxidant by scavenging free radicals, inhi-
lacked a vasodilator effect, but its gallotannin biting lipid peroxidation and protecting against
components pentagalloylglucose, hexagalloyl- oxidative DNA damage without exhibiting any
glucose, heptagalloylglucose and octagalloylglu- pro-oxidant effect.
cose relaxed aortic rings with endothelium, but
failed to relax aortic rings without endothelium.
Administration of P. lactiflora root extract to rats Neuroprotective Activity
increased the endothelium-dependent relaxation,
and the activities of superoxide dismutase of In Vitro Studies
erythrocytes significantly compared with the In vitro studies showed that paeoniflorin, a glyco-
high-cholesterol diet group (Goto et al. 1999). side from peony root, could block L-type Ca2+
Hypercholesterolaemia induced an increase of channels in rat glioma hybrid NG108-15 neuro-
endothelial superoxide anion and endothelial nal cells in a mechanism unlinked to the binding
dysfunction. Radix Paeoniae was suggested to of adenosine receptors (Tsai et al. 2005). The
have a protective effect on endothelial cells and effects of paeoniflorin on ion currents may partly,
their function. if not entirely, contribute to the underlying
Paeonia lactiflora ethanol extract induced mechanisms through which it affected neuronal
relaxation of the phenylephrine-precontracted or neuroendocrine function. Peony root extract
aortic rings in a concentration-dependent manner showed a clear inhibitory effect on the iberiotoxin-
(Jin et al. 2012). The data suggested that the extract sensitive calcium-activated potassium current
relaxed vascular smooth muscle via endothelium- which also exerted distinct inhibitory effects on
dependent and Akt (protein kinase B)- and spontaneous bursting activity and conductance
SOCE–eNOS–cGMP (store-operated Ca2+ calcium-activated potassium (BKCa) current in
entry–endothelial nitric oxide synthase–cyclic the cerebral cortical neurons of the EL mouse, a
guanosine monophosphate)-mediated pathways hereditary epilepsy animal model (Sugaya et al.
through activation of both K(Ca) and K(ATP) 2006). The results revealed the protective effect
channels and inhibition of L-type Ca2+ channels. against neuronal damage and indicated peony
root extract to be a promising herbal drug for
inhibition of convulsions.
Antigenotoxic Activity P. lactiflora extract 10–100 μg/mL prevented
H2O2-induced reduction in PC12 cell survival
Oral administration of 50 % peony ethanol root and also suppressed apoptosis of H2O2-stressed
extract and its active constituents, gallic acid and PC12 neuronal cells (Lee et al. 2008b). The neu-
methyl gallate, potently inhibited the formation roprotective effect of the extract was attributed to
of micronucleated reticulocytes in the mouse its antioxidant property. Total phenolic content
peripheral blood induced by a potassium bromate of PLE was 89.65 mg of gallic acid equivalent
576 Paeoniaceae

per gram of PLE. IC50 values for reducing power, autophagy in models of neuron injury and also
hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity and established a relationship between autophagy–
1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical lysosome pathway and acid-sensing ion channels.
scavenging activity were 297.57, 3.33 and The neuroprotective mechanisms of paeoni-
32.74 μg, respectively. The results suggested that florin were listed by Zhu et al. (2010) as follows:
P. lactiflora extract could be a potential candidate activating adenosine A1 receptor, ameliorating
as an antioxidant against neuronal diseases. the function of cholinergic nerve, regulating ion
Among seven compounds isolated from the channel homeostasis, retarding oxidative stress
roots, paeonilactone-C and benzoylpaeoniflorin and apoptosis of the neurocytes, promoting nerve
significantly protected primary cultures of rat growth, having an influence on astrocytes and
cortical cells against H2O2-induced neurotoxicity being able to penetrate though the blood–brain
(Kim et al. 2009). Total peony glucoside (TPG) barrier. In vitro studies showed that paeoniflorin
treatment at increasing doses (1–10 mg/L) pro- and albiflorin, major constituents of peony
tected PC12 cells against corticosterone-induced roots, exhibited protective effects against
neurotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner (Mao glutamate-induced toxicity damage of PC12
et al. 2009c). The cytoprotection afforded by neuronal cells (Wang et al. 2013a). They
TGP treatment was associated with the inhibition ameliorated glutamate-induced reduction of cell
of caspase-3 activity and the up-regulation of viability, nuclear and mitochondrial apoptotic
bcl-2/Bax mRNA ratio. The anti-apoptotic effect alteration, reactive oxygen species accumulation
of TGP was mediated by the suppression of the and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)/Bax ratio. The
mitochondrial pathway leading to apoptosis. two isomers also enhanced phosphorylation of
Results of in vitro studies suggested that AKT and its downstream element glycogen
paeonol downregulated H2O2-induced NF-κB synthase kinase-3β paeoniflorin. Further, paeoni-
activity, as well as NF-κB-associated amyloid florin displayed remarkable effects in preventing
precursor protein expression in human neuro- intracellular Ca2+ overload and suppressing
blastoma SH-SY5Y cells (Su et al. 2010b). overexpression of calcium/calmodulin protein
Additionally, the gene expression profile accom- kinase II.
panying the suppression of NF-κB by paeonol Aqueous extract of P. lactiflora and its active
was identified. compound paeoniflorin significantly suppressed
Amiloride (100 μM), positive control drug, aggregation of intranuclear and cytoplasmic mis-
and paeoniflorin (50 μM) both protected murine folded polyQ proteins in 293 ATXN3/Q75-GFP
neuronal PC12 cells against methyl-4- neuronal cells (Chang et al. 2013). P. lactiflora
phenylpyridinium (MPP+)- or acid-induced and paeoniflorin up-regulated HSF1 and HSP70
injury as assessed by MTT assay, lactate dehy- chaperones in the same cell models. The results
drogenase release and apoptosis rate (Cao et al. suggested that P. lactiflora and paeoniflorin could
2010). The concentrations of cytosolic-free Ca2+ have potential in the treatment of spinocerebellar
augmented after exposure to MPP+ or acidosis ataxia type 3 and other polyQ diseases. In organ-
were reduced. The mechanisms of neuroprotec- otypic hippocampal slice cultures, paeoniflorin
tive effects of amiloride and paeoniflorin were significantly blocked lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-
found to be closely associated with the up-regula- induced hippocampal cell death and productions
tion of LC3-II protein, which was specifically of nitric oxide (NO) and interleukin (IL)-1β
associated with autophagic vacuole membranes. (Nam et al. 2013). Paeoniflorin also inhibited
Also, amiloride and paeoniflorin suppressed the LPS-stimulated productions of NO, tumour
the MPP+- or acid-induced overexpression of necrosis factor-α and IL-1β from primary microg-
LAMP2a which was associated with the activity lial cells. The results suggested that paeoniflorin
of the chaperone-mediated autophagy pathway. possessed neuroprotective activity by reducing
The results suggested that paeoniflorin modulated the production of proinflammatory factors from
Paeonia lactiflora 577

activated microglial cells. The results of in vitro cerebral ischaemia induced by middle cerebral
studies in PC12 cells exposed to methyl-4- artery occlusion (MCAO) at the chronic stage in
phenylpyridine ion (MPP+), a neurotoxin, rats (Xiao et al. 2005). Transient MCAO also
showed that pretreatment with paeoniflorin induced impairments in tongue protrusion and
significantly improved cell viability (Wang performance in the water maze. Treatment with
et al. 2013b) The neuroprotective effects of pae- paeoniflorin was able to reverse or alleviate these
oniflorin were related to its modulation of multi- impairments. The results suggested that paeoni-
ple anti-apoptotic and pro-apoptotic pathways, florin may be effective for treatment of stroke.
including blockade of intracellular calcium Animal studies showed that paeonol reduced
overload, prevention of mitochondrial membrane cerebral infarct and neuro-deficit in male
integrity, inhibition of pro-apoptotic molecules Sprague–Dawley rat, suggesting paeonol might
and up-regulation of anti-apoptotic proteins play a similar role in reducing cerebral infarction
associated with cell survival and proliferation. in humans (Hsieh et al. 2006). Also, paeonol
The study indicated paeoniflorin as a potential suppressed and scavenged superoxide anion and
therapeutic agent for the treatment of neurode- inhibited microglial activation and IL-1beta in
generative diseases and neural injury. ischaemia–reperfusion injured rats. Studies
All isolated resveratrol oligomers, (-)-7a,8a- found that administration of peony root extract to
cis-ε-viniferin, trans-ε-viniferin, cis-ε-viniferin, mouse prior to cobalt application prevented neu-
trans-resveratrol, vitisinol C, vitisinol E, gnetin ronal death (Kajiwara et al. 2008). Its protective
H, suffruticosol A and suffruticosol B, exhibited effect involved the up-regulation of transthyretin
significant inhibition on baculovirus-expressed and phosphoglycerate mutase in the cobalt-treated
beta-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) in a mouse cerebrum in association with up-regulation
dose-dependent manner in vitro (Choi et al. of neurogranin/RC3, a target of the transcriptional
2011). BACE1 had been found to be a key activation by thyroid hormones and retinoids.
enzyme that selectively cleaved the amyloid Tang et al. (2010) showed that both pretreat-
precursor protein (APP) to generate the toxic ment and posttreatment with paeoniflorin
amyloid-B (AB) in the brain, and inhibition of reduced cerebral infarct and neurological deficit
this key enzyme is the target for therapeutic inter- in ischaemia–reperfusion injured rats, suggest-
vention of Alzheimer’s disease. ing that paeoniflorin may have a similar effect in
humans and might be a suitable treatment for
Animal Studies stroke. Paeoniflorin reduced cerebral infarct, at
Compared with control model group, total peony least in part, involving the anti-inflammatory
glycoside (TPG) at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/ properties. Paeonia lactiflora extract and paeoni-
kg could significantly relieve brain oedema, florin significantly attenuated cerebral infarction
enhance superoxide dismutase activity and lower in ischaemia–reperfusion injured rats and the
malonaldehyde concentration in the gerbils (Ma severity of intimal hyperplasia in mice where the
et al. 2005). Pathological examination showed carotid artery was ligated (Chen et al. 2013b).
that the gerbils with TPG treatment had milder The extract and paeoniflorin reduced PDGF-
injury of the cells in the hippocampal CA1 stimulated vascular smooth muscle cell prolifer-
region. The results indicated the protective ation and migration in a dose-dependent manner.
effect of TPG against global cerebral ischaemia– Paeoniflorin significantly reduced protein levels
reperfusion injury. of Ras, MEK, p-MEK and p-ERK, but not
One day (10 mg/kg, twice, s.c.) or 7-day MMP-2 and MMP-9. In summary, Paeonia lacti-
(2.5–10 mg/kg, twice a day, s.c.) injection of pae- flora reduced cerebral ischaemia and arterial
oniflorin isolated from roots significantly reduced intimal hyperplasia which were mainly attrib-
the infarct volume and ameliorated the deficits in uted to paeoniflorin via modulation of the Ras/
neurological symptoms caused by transient MEK/ERK signalling pathway.
578 Paeoniaceae

Lung Protective Activity The results confirmed the crucial role of

cytochrome c and cardiolipin in the underlying
Radix Paeoniae Rubra exhibited a protective mechanistic action of albiflorin and suggested
effect on endotoxin-induced acute lung injury in that albiflorin enhanced mitochondrial function
rats (Zhan et al. 2006). The expression of to suppress antimycin A-induced oxidative
induced nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) was sig- damage via the preservation of cytochrome c
nificantly lower, while the expression of HO-1 and cardiolipin. All of these data indicated that
was higher than that in lipopolysaccharide albiflorin may reduce or prevent osteoblast
(LPS) group. Parameters of lung injury were degeneration in osteoporosis.
significantly lower in peony-treated rats than in Paeoniflorin decreased osteoblastic MC3T3-E1
the LPS group. cell death induced by antimycin A, an inhibitor
of mitochondrial complex III (Choi and lee
2013). Paeoniflorin restored antimycin A-induced
Antiosteoporotic Activity inactivation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)
and thioredoxin reductase, suggesting that PI3K
The monoterpene glycoside, 6′-O-β-D-gluco- and thioredoxin reductase may be involved in
pyranosylalbiflorin, isolated from the roots, sig- paeoniflorin-induced cytoprotective responses.
nificantly increased the alkaline phosphatase Further, paeoniflorin inhibited mitochondrial
activity and nodule mineralization of osteoblastic membrane potential dissipation, ATP loss, inacti-
MC3T3-E1 cells compared to those of the con- vation of complexes I and IV, cytochrome c
trol (Pham et al. 2007). The results suggested that release and cardiolipin oxidation induced by anti-
this monoterpene glycoside had a direct stimula- mycin A and prevented antimycin A-induced
tory effect on bone formation in vitro and may ROS release and nitrotyrosine increase. The
contribute to the prevention for osteoporosis. results implied that paeoniflorin protected osteo-
Studies by Tsai et al. (2008) suggested that paeonol blasts from antimycin A-induced cell death via
(2′-hydroxy-4′-methoxyacetophenone), a main improved mitochondrial function.
active compound from P. lactiflora, inhibited
osteoclastogenesis from bone marrow stromal
cells and macrophage cells via attenuation of Antityrosinase Activity
receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB
ligand (RANKL)-induced extracellular signal- Among the stilbenes isolated from the seeds, the
regulated kinases (ERK), p38 and NF-kappaB resveratrol trimer, gnetin H, exhibited the most
activation, which in turn protected bone loss from potent inhibitory activities against tyrosinase
ovariectomy. and soybean lipoxygenase (Kim et al. 2002c).
Albiflorin isolated from the root exhibited Additionally, the resveratrol dimers, trans-ε-
protective effects against antimycin A-induced viniferin and cis-ε-viniferin, exhibited significant
osteoblast toxicity in osteoblast-like MC3T3-E1 inhibitory activity against the two oxidative
cell line (Suh et al. 2013). Pretreatment with albi- enzymes. Meanwhile, three other stilbene deriva-
florin reversed the loss of cell viability, decreased tives, such as trans-resveratrol, suffruticosol A
apoptosis and lactate dehydrogenase release, and suffruticosol B, had also weak inhibition
decreased ROS/RNS levels and increased activity. The least inhibitory activity was
mitochondrial function compared to antimycin observed in trans-resveratrol-4-O-β-D-glucoside.
A-treated cultures. Additionally, albiflorin The results suggested that resveratrol dimers and
increased the mineralization reduced by antimy- trimer in the seeds of Paeonia lactiflora may be
cin A. Albiflorin reduced antimycin A-induced potentially useful therapeutic agents against
mitochondrial cytochrome c loss and cardiolipin pathological disorders such as hyperpigmenta-
peroxidation, conferring protection against ROS. tion and inflammation. The ethyl acetate fraction
Paeonia lactiflora 579

of peony root methanol extract showed higher Androgen Receptor-Binding Activity

tyrosinase activity than arbutin used as a positive
control (Im and Lee 2011). In the cytotoxicity Compounds 6′-O-galloylalbiforin (2) and penta-
measurement by MTT assay, the extract and frac- galloylglucose (3), isolated from the roots,
tions exhibited cell viabilities of 76.96–157.26 % showed strong androgen receptor-binding activity
against RAW 264.7 and B16F10 cell in concen- (IC50 values of 33.7 and 4.1 μg/mL, respectively,
tration of 10–100 μg/mL. In nontoxic concentra- while 3′-O-galloylpaeoniflorin (1), 6′-O-benzoyl-
tion range, the ethyl acetate fraction showed paeoniflorin (4) and 6′-O-galloylpaeoniflorin (5)
strong melanin production inhibitory effect in showed weak activity of 20, 31, 12 %, res-
α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH)- pectively (Washida et al. 2009a). The structure
stimulated B16F10 cell. As a result, the ethyl of paeoniflorin and albiflorin (IC50 values
acetate fraction of the methanol root extract could >120 μg/mL), having structures related to
be used as functional materials for skin whiten- compounds 1, 2, 4 and 5, showed no activity.
ing agents. In another study, the ethyl acetate In addition compounds 1–5 inhibited growth of
root fraction of P. lactiflora showed the highest an androgen-dependent LNCaP-FGC (prostate
activity among the four plant fractions, namely, cancer cell line) with IC50 values of >120, 58, 22,
Smilax china (rhizome), P. lactiflora, Polyporus 84 and 141 μg/mL, respectively. These were
umbellatus (sclerotium) and butanol fraction of indicated to be androgen activity antagonists.
Evodia officinalis (fruit), in the inhibition assay of Paeoniflorin and albiflorin had no activity with
intracellular tyrosinase activity and melanogenesis IC50 values >200 μg/mL. Two new galloylated
in B16 melanoma cell line (Son and Heo 2013). monoterpene glycosides, 4-O-galloylalbiflorin
P. lactiflora fraction also had low toxicity. and 4′-O-galloylpaeoniflorin, isolated from the
roots, showed androgen receptor-binding activity
(Washida et al. 2009b).
Antiplatelet Aggregation Activity

In vitro studies showed that Paeonia lactiflora Hepatoprotective Activity

extract prolonged the prothrombin time and par-
tial thromboplastin time, significantly inhibiting Administration of P. lactiflora to rats with acute
thrombin and reducing urokinase activity (Wang liver damage induced by D-galactosamine aug-
and Ma 1990). The extract possessed stimulatory mented plasma fibronectin levels and improved
effect on plasminogen. The inhibitory effect of reticuloendothelial system function and plasma
P. lactiflora on thrombin and effective effect on opsonic activity (Qi 1991). Aggregation of
plasminogen might be an important mechanism microaggregated albumin, collagen fragment and
of its action of promoting blood circulation and immune complexes was markedly reduced. Liver
removing blood stasis. Paeonol, paeoniflorin, immune damage and microcirculation disorder
benzoylpaeoniflorin and benzoyloxypaeoniflorin were avoided. It was concluded that P. lactiflora
were found to be the major common active root had a protective role in hepatocyte. In vitro
constituents that collectively contributed to studies showed that P. lactiflora root extract and
improving blood circulation through their inhibi- its active components, paeonol and 1,2,3,4,6-
tory effects on both platelet aggregation and penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (PGG), inhibited
blood coagulation (Koo et al. 2010). Additionally, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB-
methyl gallate, (+)-catechin, paeoniflorigenone, induced hepatic stellate cell migration and
galloylpaeoniflorin and daucosterol may also be α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen
involved in improving blood circulation by expressions in a concentration-dependent manner
inhibiting either platelet aggregation or blood (Kuo et al. 2012). The inhibitory effects were
coagulation. associated with downregulation of PDGF
580 Paeoniaceae

receptor-α, ERK, p38 and JNK activation. Both [3H]-thymidine incorporation in hepatic stellate
paeonol and PGG participated in hepatic stellate cells stimulated with platelet-derived growth
cell migration, but via differential mechanisms. factor-B subunit homodimer (PDGF-BB). Further,
Total peony glucoside (TPG) was found to PAE significantly decreased the expression of
have beneficial effects on hepatic fibrosis in rats PDGF receptor beta (PDGFR-β) and p-ERK1/2,
by inhibition of collagen synthesis and decreas- p-p38 and p-JNK. The results showed that PAE
ing oxidative stress (Wang et al. 2005). TPG exhibited antifibrotic effects in rats induced by
improved the human albumin-induced alterations porcine serum, probably via its ability to scavenge
in the liver structure, alleviated lobular necrosis free radicals, decreasing the expression of
and significantly lowered collagen content. PDGFR-β, inhibition of hematopoietic stem cell
This was evidenced by decreased serum content proliferation and mitogen-activated protein
of serum procollagen type III (PC III) and kinases activation.
laminin in TPG-treated group. TPG also reduced A 24-week, open-label, randomized, multi-
the hydroxyproline content in liver homoge- center clinical trial of 204 patients with active
nates, but had no effect on the level of alanine rheumatoid arthritis found with significantly less
aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate amino- frequent hepatotoxicity was observed in patients
transferase (AST) and the ratio of A/G. Further, with total glucosides of peony (TGP) than those
TPG significantly blocked the increase in without (Chen et al. 2013c). The proportion
malondialdehyde and NO, associated with a par- of patients whose alanine aminotransferase or
tial elevation in liver total antioxidant capacity aspartate aminotransferase levels were >1.5 to
including superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ≤2 times and >2 to ≤3 times the upper limits of
glutathione peroxidase. normal were lower in TGP group than the con-
Studies showed that paeoniflorin, from trol. The study also demonstrated the hepatopro-
peony root, could significantly protect against tective and additive role of TGP in combination
immunological liver injury induced by bacillus with methotrexate and leflunomide in the treat-
Calmette–Guérin plus lipopolysaccharide in ment of active rheumatoid arthritis.
mice by attenuating the area and extent of
necrosis and reducing the immigration of inflam-
matory cells (Liu et al. 2006). The protective Renoprotective Activity
mechanism of paeoniflorin might be partially
related to modulation of TNF-alpha, IL-6, LBP Intraperitoneal administration of peony root
(lipopolysaccharide binding protein) and CD14 decreased blood urea nitrogen (BUN) concentra-
mRNA expressions in mouse liver. tion in rat serum (Shibutani et al. 1981). The
The extract prepared from the roots of Paeonia acetone and ethyl acetate fractions also decreased
lactiflora and Astragalus membranaceus (PAE) BUN concentration. Purification of the ethyl ace-
demonstrated hepatoprotective activity against tate fraction yielded 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl
liver fibrosis induced by intraperitoneal injection glucose, (+)-catechin and gallic acid. (+)-Catechin
of porcine serum in rats (Sun et al. 2012). After a and gallic acid showed no activity, only
16-week treatment, PAE-treated rats showed 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl glucose; gallotannin
significantly reduced liver damage and symp- was active. After intraperitoneal administration
toms of liver fibrosis. Administration of PAE all the galloylglucoses from Radix Paeoniae
significantly decreased serum hyaluronic acid, caused marked decrease of blood urea nitrogen
procollagen type III levels and content of (BUN) in rat serum, and the results of the
hydroxyproline in the liver tissue of fibrotic rats. hexa-deca-galloylglucoses were higher than that
It also restored the decrease in SOD and GSH-Px reported for the 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloylglucoses
activities and inhibited the formation of lipid (Nishizawa et al. 1983a, b). Treatment of
peroxidative products during porcine serum treat- streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats with total
ment. In vitro, PAE also significantly decreased glucosides of peony (TGP) at 50, 100 and
Paeonia lactiflora 581

200 mg/kg significantly lowered 24-h urinary through blocking EMT via BMP-7 recovery and
albumin excretion rate and markedly attenuated TGF-β/Smad signalling inhibition.
glomerular volume (Wu et al. 2009). At 100 and
200 mg/kg, TGP markedly reduced indices for
tubulointerstitial injury in diabetic rats. The Antihypotensive Activity
expressions of 1α (IV) collagen, intercellular
adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, interleukin (IL)-1, Intravenous injection of paeoniflorin, purified
tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, NF-κB p65, from peony root, could reverse guanethidine-
transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 protein and induced hypotension via activation of adenosine
3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) protein were increased in A1 receptors in the brain of Wistar rats.
the kidneys of diabetic rats; the increases in these
proteins were all dose-dependently and signifi-
cantly inhibited by TGP treatment. The expres- Antihypertensive Activity
sion of nephrin protein was significantly reduced
in the kidneys from diabetic rats and markedly Treatment of 32 patients suffering decompensa-
increased by TGP treatment. The data suggested tive chronic cor pulmonale (CCP) (noninvasive
that TGP treatment ameliorated early renal injury method group, NMG) with P. lactiflora intrave-
via the inhibition of expression of ICAM-1, IL-1, nous injection significantly improved clinical
TNF-α and 3-NT in the kidneys of diabetic rats. features of blood stasis (Jia and Tang 1991).
Zhang et al. (2009b) found that total peony In ten patients with CCP and pulmonary hyper-
glucosides (TPG) could decrease urinary albumin tension (invasive method group, IMG), PAP
excretion rate in streptozotocin-induced diabetic (pulmonary artery pressure) was reduced by 0.71
rat and that its mechanism may be at least partly kPa; PaO2 (arterial oxygen tension) was aug-
correlated with up-regulation of the expression of mented significantly in NMG. The results of
nephrin in the kidney (Zhang et al. 2009b). TPG impedance cardiogram and pheopneumogram
also significantly inhibited the expressions of (such as Q-B, B-Y interval and Q-B/B-Y ratio,
TNF-alpha, NF-kappaB p65 and 3-NT protein in cardiac output), the haemorheologic parameters
the kidneys of diabetic rats. In another study, treat- (such as blood viscosity, plasma viscosity, hae-
ment of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats with matocrit and erythrocyte electrophoresis) and
total peony glucosides (TPG) significantly inhib- oxygen consumption of myocardium were
ited diabetic nephropathy progression (Wang et al. improved significantly in both NMG and IMG.
2012a). The elevated 24-h urinary albumin excre- All of these changes were statistically significant.
tion rate was markedly attenuated by treatment with There was no statistical significance about the
50, 100 and 200 mg/kg TPG. The renoprotective change of PaCO2 (arterial carbon dioxide tension),
effect of TPG was associated with its ability to SaO2 (arterial saturation of haemoglobin), blood
inhibit the JAK2/STAT3 pathway and macrophage pH and BP (blood pressure). Radix Paeoniae
proliferation in diabetic kidneys and action. Rubra administration to rats had a therapeutic
Oral administration of paeoniflorin for 7 days effect on noxious heat blood stasis syndrome
suppressed epithelial–mesenchymal transition (Xie et al. 2005). This effect could be associated
(EMT) by downregulating TGF-β1 expression with regulation of serum proteins xPr 1, 2, 3,
and maintaining bone morphogenetic protein-7 4, 9 and 16.
(BMP-7) mRNA expression and inhibited Smad In hyperlipidaemic rabbits, the level of plate-
2/3 activation in fibrotic kidneys induced by uni- let cytosolic-free calcium in the group adminis-
lateral ureteral obstruction in mice (Zeng et al. tered with P. lactiflora (276.25 nmol/L) was
2013). The data suggested that paeoniflorin significantly lower than that in the cholesterol
could effectively prevent renal interstitial fibrosis, group (390.88 nmol/L); the basal and calmodulin-
and the underlying mechanisms were, partially, stimulated activities of erythrocyte membrane
582 Paeoniaceae

Ca2+–Mg2+–ATPase in P. lactiflora group were against various ‘phenotypes’ of nociception and

higher than that in the cholesterol group (Zheng hypersensitivity via opioid receptor mediation.
et al. 1996). Zhang et al. (2008a) demonstrated that pae-
oniflorin exerted an analgesic effect on pain in
visceral hyperalgesic rats with neonatal maternal
Sedative/Analgesic/Antipyretic separation and that this effect may be mediated
Activity by kappa-opioid receptors and alpha(2)-adreno-
ceptors in the central nervous system. The results
Paeoniflorin, from peony root, exhibited sedative suggest that paeoniflorin might be potentially
effect in mice and had low acute toxicity (Takagi useful in clinical therapy for irritable bowel syn-
and Harada 1969a). Sleeping duration induced by drome as a pharmacological agent in alleviating
hexobarbital was prolonged. Writhing symptom visceral pain. Separate studies showed that pae-
induced by intraperitoneal administration of oniflorin, a chief active ingredient in peony root,
AcOH was inhibited. Loss of righting reflex was was effective in relieving colorectal distention
obtained in the rat by intraventricular administra- (CRD)-induced visceral pain in rats with visceral
tion. Weak hypothermia and weak anticonvulsive hyperalgesia induced by neonatal maternal sepa-
effect to pentylenetetrazol were found. Analgesia ration (Zhang et al. 2009a). The results suggested
was found in both writhing test and tail-pressure that paeoniflorin’s analgesic effect was possibly
test. Marked hypothermic and antipyretic effects mediated by adenosine A(1) receptor by inhibiting
and weak anticonvulsive effect to pentylenetetra- colorectal distention-evoked glutamate release
zol were found by intraperitoneal administration. and the NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor-
The combined effects of paeoniflorin with dependent ERK (extracellular signal-regulated
liquorice component FM100 were found to be protein kinase) signalling.
synergistic in almost all experiments. Compared
with saline control, systemic pre- and posttreat-
ment with paeoniflorin resulted in an apparent Antidepressant Activity
antinociception against both persistent sponta-
neous nociception and primary heat hypersensi- Peony extract demonstrated antidepressant effect
tivity in the bee venom model in rats, while for in various animal models of depression (Mao
the primary mechanical hypersensitivity, only et al. 2008a). Intragastric administration of the
pretreatment was effective (Yu et al. 2007). extract at the doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg for
Moreover, pre- and early posttreatment with pae- 7 days significantly reduced the duration of
oniflorin (5 min after bee venom (BV) injection) immobility in both forced swim test and tail sus-
could successfully suppress the occurrence and pension test. The extract at the dose of 500 mg/kg
maintenance of the mirror-image heat hypersen- was as effective as the positive control (chlori-
sitivity, whereas late posttreatment (3 h after BV) mipramine, 20 mg/kg) in these tests. However,
did not exert any significant impact. In the rotarod these treatments did not affect the number of
treadmill test, paeoniflorin administration did not crossing and rearing in the open-field test.
affect the motor coordinating performance of Treating mice with the extract at the doses of 250
rats. Furthermore, systemic paeoniflorin applica- and 500 mg/kg significantly antagonized
tion produced no significant influence upon reserpine-induced ptosis and hypothermia. The
BV-induced paw oedema and swelling. Finally, results suggested that the action of Paeonia
the paeoniflorin-produced antinociception was lactiflora may be mediated via the central mono-
likely to be mediated by endogenous opioid aminergic neurotransmitter system. Mao et al.
receptors because of its naloxone reversibility. (2008b) also found that intragastric administration
The results suggested that besides its well- of total glycosides of peony (TGP) at 80 and
established neuroprotective actions in the CNS, 160 mg/kg for 7 days in mice caused a significant
paeoniflorin was also able to produce analgesia reduction of immobility time in both forced
Paeonia lactiflora 583

swim and tail suspension tests, yet TGP did not Cognitive Impairment Ameliorative
stimulate locomotor activity in the open-field test. Activity
In addition, TGP treatment antagonized reserpine-
induced ptosis and inhibited the activities of Animal studies showed that intraperitoneal
monoamine oxidases in the mouse cerebrum. In a injections of paeoniflorin and the adenosine A1
subsequent study, daily intragastric administra- receptor antagonist 1,3-dipropyl-8-cyclopentylx-
tion of TGP (80 or 160 mg/kg/day) during the anthine (DPCPX) significantly attenuated the
6 weeks of chronic unpredictable mild stress deficit in retention performance caused by pre-
(CUMS)-induced depression significantly sup- training administration of the selective adenosine
pressed behavioural and biochemical changes A1 receptor agonist N6-cyclopentyladenosine
induced by CUMS in mice (Mao et al. 2009b). (CPA) (Tabata et al. 2001). The results suggested
The results suggested that the antidepressant-like that paeoniflorin ameliorated memory disruption
action of TPG was likely mediated by modulating mediated by adenosine A1 receptor and that
the function of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal modulation of adenosine-mediated inhibition of
axis and increasing the expression of brain-derived long-term potentiation in the hippocampus was
neurotrophic factor in brain tissues. Further, they implicated in its beneficial effect on learning and
found that the antidepressant-like activity of TGP memory impairment in rodents.
in depression induced by chronic unpredictable Studies showed that paeonol extracted from
stress was probably mediated by inhibition of peony or moutan root significantly improved the
monoamine oxidases and the attenuation of oxi- learning and memory ability in Morris water
dative stress in the mouse brain (Mao et al. maze test and step-down passive avoidance test
2009a). In another study Mao et al. (2010) found in D-galactose-treated ICR mice (Zhong et al.
that daily intragastric administration of TPG (80 2009). The effect of paeonol on improvement of
or 160 mg/kg/day) during the 5 weeks of chronic cognitive deficit was related to its ability to
unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) significantly inhibit the biochemical changes in the brains of
suppressed behavioural and biochemical changes D-galactose-treated mice. Paeonol increased
induced by CUMS (Mao et al. 2010). Treating acetylcholine and glutathione levels and restored
non-stressed animals with TPG (160 mg/kg) for superoxide dismutase and Na+, K+–adenosine
5 weeks also significantly increased brain-derived triphosphatase (Na+, K+–ATPase) activities, but
neurotrophic factor contents in the hippocampus decreased cholinesterase acetylcholine activity
and frontal cortex and nerve growth factor con- and malondialdehyde level in D-galactose-treated
tents in the frontal cortex. The results suggested mice. Furthermore, paeonol ameliorated neuronal
that the antidepressant-like action of TPG was damage in both the hippocampus and temporal
mediated, at least in part, by increasing the cortex in D-galactose-treated mice. The results
expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor suggested that paeonol possessed anti-aging effi-
and nerve growth factor in selective brain tissues. cacy and may have potential in the treatment of
Mao et al. (2012) in their mini-review reported neurodegenerative diseases.
peony extract to be active in the mouse forced
swim test and tail suspension test and to elicit
antidepressant effects in chronic unpredictable Antiulcerogenic Activity
mild stress-induced depression model in mice
and rats. The antidepressant mechanisms of Animal studies showed that paeoniflorin treat-
peony were reported to be likely mediated by ment effectively alleviated the symptoms of
the inhibition of monoamine oxidase activity, oxazolone-induced colitis in mice by attenuating
neuroprotection, modulation of the function of lesion in the colonic mucosa via regulating the
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, inhibi- expression of human β-defensin 2 (HBD-2), IL-6
tion of oxidative stress and the up-regulation of and IL-10 (Zhou et al. 2010). Intraperitoneal
neurotrophins. administration of paeoniflorin distinctly induced
584 Paeoniaceae

heat-shock protein Hsp70 in mouse stomach, and Antiviral Activity

paeoniflorin exerted a protective effect on the
HCl- and ethanol-triggered gastric mucosal Methanol root extracts of Paeonia lactiflora
injury (Asai et al. 2011). Hsp70 was also induced exerted a pivotal inhibition role in trafficking of
in the liver, heart and brain by paeoniflorin. No viral glycoprotein in virus infected baby hamster
apparent systemic side effect of paeoniflorin has kidney (BHK) cells (Boo et al. 2011). The
been observed thus far. From the results, it was methanol extract effectively inhibited syncytium
suggested that paeoniflorin and paeoniflorin- formation in a concentration-dependent manner,
containing herbal medicines might be used and it did not affect glycoprotein synthesis.
clinically as HSP inducers for the prevention and The results suggested that oxygen radical
treatment of diseases associated with protein affected the transport process of viral glycopro-
conformation and of various other pathological tein without its synthesis.
states, such as stress ulcers and irritant- or
ischaemia-induced injuries.
Wound Healing Activity

Antimicrobial Activity Studies found that aqueous peony root extract

accelerated the wound healing process in Wistar
Methanol root extracts of Paeonia lactiflora rats by decreasing the surface area of the wound
exerted antibacterial activity against Bacillus and increasing the tensile strength (Malviya and
subtilis (Boo et al. 2011). These extracts gener- Jain 2009). The histological examination of the
ated superoxide radicals in the B. subtilis lysate. granulation tissue of peony-treated group showed
Superoxide radicals were important in the increased cross-linking of collagen fibres and
antibacterial actions of the extracts. Of the con- absence of monocytes.
stituents found in peony roots, benzoic acid
and paeonol showed strong bactericidal effect
against Helicobacter pylori at pH 4, while Detoxifying Activity
methyl gallate and 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-
D-glucopyranose (PGG) were effective at pH 7 Co-administration of paeoniflorin was found to
(Ngan et al. 2012b). These constituents exhib- significantly reduce acute toxicity of aconitine
ited strong growth-inhibiting and bactericidal in rats by alterations of the pharmacokinetic
activity towards the five strains resistant to behaviour of aconitine in the animals (Fan et al.
amoxicillin (minimal inhibitory concentration 2012). Animals co-treated with paeoniflorin
(MIC) 12.5 mg/L), clarithromycin (64 mg/L), (240 mg/kg) and aconitine (1.8 mg/kg) revealed a
metronidazole (64 mg/L) or tetracycline (15 mg/L), significant decreased death rate than those that
indicating that these constituents and the received aconitine treatment alone (15 % vs. 50 %).
antibiotics do not share a common mode of action.
H. pylori urease inhibitory activity of PGG was
comparable to that of acetohydroxamic acid, Anti-pancreatitis Activity
while methyl gallate was less potent at inhibiting
urease than thiourea. These constituents showed In a randomized controlled trial on the compara-
no significant cytotoxicity. tive efficacy of red peony root and rhubarb on 96
The ethyl acetate fraction of peony root patients with severe acute pancreatitis, red peony
methanol extract showed stronger antibacte- root decoction was found to be more effective
rial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, than rhubarb (Zhang et al. 2008b). The durations
Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas of abdominal tenderness, fever and abdominal
aeruginosa than other fractions and the extract distension in peony treatment group were less
(Im and Lee 2012). than those in the rhubarb group and the time
Paeonia lactiflora 585

length for antibiotic (including antibacterial drug They proposed that sinomenine could decrease
and antifungal agent) use, nasojejunal feeding the efflux transport of paeoniflorin by
start, nasojejunal feeding, gastrointestinal P-glycoprotein, thereby enhancing the bioavail-
decompression, fasting diet, hospital stays and ability of paeoniflorin.
hospitalization costs were decreased in peony
treatment group.
Pharmacokinetic Studies

Ocular Disease Protective Activity Paeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin and benzoyl-

paeoniflorin were isolated from the roots;
Animal studies showed that paeoniflorin could paeoniflorin was converted to three metabolites
protect against optic nerve crush (Li et al. (paeonimetabolines I, II and III) by intestinal
2007a). Survival rate of ganglion cells in the left bacteria (Hattori et al. 1985). All the tested bacte-
eye after optic crush increased from 40.22 to rial strains metabolized 42–100 % of paeoniflorin
64.53 % in paeoniflorin-treated rats. In vitro within 24 h; among these Clostridium butyricum,
studies showed that paeoniflorin could protect Bacteroides fragilis, Lactobacillus fermentum
human retinal pigment epithelium ARPE-19 cells and Lactobacillus plantarum completely
from the cellular apoptosis induced by H2O2 oxi- decomposed paeoniflorin, but no metabolites
dative stress (Xie et al. 2011). Pretreatment with were detected from the culture broth of the two
paeoniflorin attenuated H2O2-induced p38MAPK Lactobacillus strains. Only Peptostreptococcus
and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) anaerobius showed potent ability to transform
phosphorylation in human RPE cells. The results paeoniflorin to paeonimetaboline I in relatively
suggested the potential of paeoniflorin in treatment high yield, though Clostridium butyricum and
of ocular diseases, such as age-related macular Bacteroides fragilis exhibited weak activity.
degeneration (AMD). In vitro studies showed that Bacteroides fragi-
lis or Lactobacillus brevis isolated from human
intestinal flora converted paeoniflorin into the
Mitochondrial Respiration 75 and 7R isomers of paeonimetaboline I as
Inhibitory Effect major metabolites, along with the 7R and 7S
isomers of paeonimetaboline II as minor
Gallotannins from P. lactiflora roots were found metabolites in the case of the former strain
to have an inhibitory effect on the respiration of (Shu et al. 1987).
rat liver mitochondria (Nishizawa et al. 1983b). Studies showed that paeoniflorin was metabo-
lized in the liver and other organs after intrave-
nous and oral administration in rats (Takeda
Drug/Drug Potentiating Activity et al. 1995). Paeoniflorin absorbed was excreted
mainly in urine; it had a low bioavailability and
Paeoniflorin, derived from peony root and sino- its metabolites may be involved in the pharmaco-
menine from Sinomenium acutum stem, have logical action of peony root. Animal studies
been, and are currently, widely used for treatment showed that paeoniflorin was transformed by
of rheumatic and arthritic diseases in China and intestinal bacteria to its metabolite paeonimetab-
Japan (Chan et al. 2006). Earlier studies demon- oline which was rapidly absorbed from the
strated that sinomenine could significantly gastrointestinal tract, and a significantly high
improve the bioavailability of paeoniflorin in rats. concentration of paeonimetaboline, rather than
In vitro studies using an everted rat gut sac model paeoniflorin, was present in the plasma after oral
showed that sinomenine significantly enhance the administration of paeoniflorin (Heikal et al. 1997).
intestinal absorption of paeoniflorin, subsequently Studies found that after oral administration to rats
improving the bioavailability of paeoniflorin. with peony root decoction, paeoniflorin was not
586 Paeoniaceae

absorbed per se, whereas its deglucosylated (Li et al. 2011b). The C(max), AUC and K(el)
metabolite aglycone paeoniflorgenin was of albiflorin and paeoniflorin were markedly
absorbable and circulated in the bloodstream increased during oral administration of peony
(Hsiu et al. 2003). Paeoniflorin was found to be root extract in comparison to that of albiflorin
hydrolyzed into paeoniflorgenin through incuba- extract. In a recent study using the rat intestinal
tion with faeces of rabbit, rat, pig or human. perfusion model, P. lactiflora extract showed
The kinetic process of paeoniflorin in plasma significant increase in permeability coefficient
showed two-compartment model after oral compared with the paeoniflorin monomer, indi-
administration of Radix Paeoniae Alba extract cating that other ingredients in the extract could
at doses of 0.2, 0.4 and 0.8 g/kg to rats (Bao improve the absorption of paeoniflorin (Chen
et al. 2010). et al. 2012b). However, due to the poor absorp-
Studies showed that sulphur fumigation had tion of paeoniflorin, this effect failed to increase
an effect on the pharmacokinetics of the main the concentration of paeoniflorin in the bile
monoterpene glucoside components in white and plasma.
peony root by improving their bioavailability and A total of 13 new absorbed constituents and
delaying their absorption in mice (Cheng et al. 90 new metabolites of dried roots of Paeonia
2010). It was found that C(max) and AUC of lactiflora decoction were detected in rats (Liang
sodium paeoniflorin sulphonate and benzoylpae- et al. 2013). Among these metabolites were 22
oniflorin sulphonate were increased, and the new metabolites of paeoniflorin, 10 new metabo-
T(max) and t(1/2) were prolonged by comparison lites of gallic acid-related compounds, 1 new
with that of paeoniflorin. Similar results were metabolite of (epi)catechin-related compounds
also observed for the pharmacokinetic para- and 2 new metabolites of other compounds. The
meters of sodium paeoniflorin sulphonate in results also indicated that (epi)catechin-related
sulphur-fumigated white peony root extract and compounds, gallic acid-related compounds and
paeoniflorin in white peony root extract. However, paeoniflorin were the main precursors of these
benzoylpaeoniflorin was not detected in plasma metabolites. Phase I reactions (dehydroxylation,
collected at certain intervals after orally adminis- decarboxylation, dehydrogenation) and phase II
tered to mice. reactions (sulphation, glucuronidation and meth-
Studies on the quantification of paeoniflorin ylation) were observed as the main metabolic
showed that ischaemia–reperfusion in rats signifi- pathways of P. lactiflora root extract.
cantly increased the plasma concentration–time
(AUC) values, decreased clearance values and
prolonged the terminal half-life of paeoniflorin Traditional Medicinal Uses
compared to normal rats (He et al. 2004).
The findings suggested that the injuries of The roots of P. suffruticosa, P. albiflora, P. lacti-
ischaemia–reperfusion could play an important flora and P. obovata are the most important
role in pharmacokinetic process of paeoniflorin. crude drugs in traditional Chinese medicine and
The pharmacokinetics of paeoniflorin in rat have been used for over 1,500 years in Chinese
plasma was found to be significantly affected medicine (Wu et al. 2010). Dry roots of Paeonia
when administered with Radix Angelicae lactiflora and dry root bark of P. suffruticosa are
Sinensis (Wu et al. 2008). After oral administra- used under the traditional names of Radix
tion of peony root and Danggui-Shaoyao-San Paeoniae and moutan cortex, respectively, tradi-
herbal extracts to rats, albiflorin reached maxi- tional medicines in Korea, China and Japan (Koo
mum concentrations of 4,637 ng/mL (0.40 h) and et al. 2010). Both Radix Paeoniae and moutan
226 ng/mL (0.35 h) and paeoniflorin reached cortex have been used as remedies for cardiovas-
maximum concentrations of 2,132 ng/mL cular diseases, for improving blood circulation
(0.40 h) and 143 ng/mL (0.45 h), respectively or for other uses. The roots of P. suffruticosa,
Paeonia lactiflora 587

P. albiflora, P. lactiflora and P. obovata have been et al. 2005; Watanabe et al. 2006). Radix Paeoniae
used as analgesic, sedative and anti-inflammatory (the roots of Paeonia lactiflora) is a crude drug
agents and as remedies for cardiovascular, that is used in Asia and Europe to improve blood
extravasated blood, stagnated blood and female flow (Goto et al. 1996). Paeonia lactiflora root
genital disease (Wu et al. 2010). has been used frequently as an antipyretic and
The root of P. lactiflora is deemed as anti-inflammatory agent in traditional medi-
alterative, analgesic, anodyne, antibacterial, cines of Korea, China and Japan (Lee et al.
anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antiseptic, anti- 2008a). Paeonia lactiflora is a common ingre-
spasmodic, astringent, carminative, diuretic, dient of Sheng-Ma-Ge-Gen-Tang (SMGGT;
emmenagogue, antidiabetic, expectorant, febri- Shoma-kakkon-to) and Ge-Gen-Tang (GGT;
fuge, hypotensive, nervine, sedative and tonic kakkon-to). Both SMGGT and GGT are different
(Yeung 1985; Duke and Ayensu 1985; Bown prescriptions of traditional Chinese medicine
1995; Chevallier 1996; Page 1997; Lee et al. with different ingredients designed for airway
2008a; Wu et al. 2010; Juan et al. 2011). Paeonia symptoms (Lin et al. 2013). Radix Paeoniae
lactiflora root is categorized into Radix Paeoniae Rubra (root of Paeonia lactiflora) has been
Alba (Bai-shao in Chinese) and Radix Paeoniae frequently employed in traditional Chinese medi-
Rubra (Chi-shao in Chinese) in the Chinese cine (TCM) as an antidiabetic therapy to enhance
pharmacopoeia and are popularly used in blood circulation and dissipate stasis (Juan et al.
traditional Chinese medicine (Yang et al. 2009). 2011). In China, Korea and Japan, a decoction of
In terms of the herbal source, the only difference the dried peony root without bark has been used
consists in the processing method and growth in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic
conditions of the two herbal roots: Bai-shao lupus erythematosus, hepatitis, dysmenorrhoea,
is the steamed and dried root of cultivated muscle cramping and spasms and fever for more
P. lactiflora, while Chi-shao is the dried root than 1,200 years (He and Dai 2011). Chinese
of wild P. lactiflora. According to traditional peony is used clinically to treat depression-like
Chinese medicine theory, Radix Paeoniae Alba is symptoms in Chinese medicine (Mao et al. 2012).
usually used for the remedy of female disorders Paeoniflorin, the active ingredient of the root,
as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent, is taken internally in the treatment of menstrual
while Radix Paeoniae Rubra is often employed to disorders, injuries, high blood pressure, premen-
remove heat from blood, eliminate blood stasis strual tension and liver disorders (Bown 1995).
and relieve pain (Yang et al. 2009). It should only be used under the supervision
P. lactiflora is known most widely as one of a qualified practitioner and should not be
of the herbs used to make ‘Four Things Soup’, prescribed for pregnant women. Paeoniflorin,
a woman’s tonic, and it is also a remedy for isolated from peony root, has been used as a
gynaecological problems and for cramp, pain herbal medicine for more than 1,200 years in
and giddiness (Chevallier 1996). The other spe- China, Korea and Japan for its anti-allergic,
cies used are Rehmannia glutinosa, Ligusticum anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects
wallichii and Angelica sinensis. The roots of (Tsuboi et al. 2004). Paeoniflorin is the principal
Paeonia lactiflora (Radix Paeoniae, shakuyaku in bioactive component of Radix Paeoniae Alba,
Japanese) are one of the most important crude which is widely used in TCM for the treatment of
drugs in Japan and China, being used in many neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s
traditional ‘Kampo’ formulas (Washida et al. disease (Cao et al. 2010).
2009b). In particular, they are frequently used in A tea made from the dried crushed petals of
‘Kampo’ formulas, such as Tokishakuyakusan, various peony species including P. lactiflora
Shimotsuto and Keishibukuryogan, for women’s has been used as a cough remedy and as a
hormone-related problems such as menopausal treatment for haemorrhoids and varicose veins
symptoms and menstrual problem (Kumagai (Page 1997).
588 Paeoniaceae

Chan K, Liu ZQ, Jiang ZH, Zhou H, Wong YF, Xu HX,

Liu L (2006) The effects of sinomenine on intestinal
Other Uses absorption of paeoniflorin by the everted rat gut sac
model. J Ethnopharmacol 103(3):425–432
Peony is widely grown as an ornamental plant Chang Y, Wei W, Zhang L, Xu HM (2009) Effects
in gardens in the temperate areas, with several and mechanisms of total glucosides of paeony on
synoviocytes activities in rat collagen-induced arthritis.
hundred selected cultivars; many of the cultivars
J Ethnopharmacol 121(1):43–48
have double flowers. Chang Y, Zhang L, Wang C, Jia XY, Wei W (2011)
Daucosterol (β-sitosterol-D-glucoside) was Paeoniflorin inhibits function of synoviocytes pre-
isolated from the roots and was found to be a treated by rIL-1α and regulates EP4 receptor expression.
J Ethnopharmacol 137(3):1275–1282
phytosterol, exhibiting both auxin and kinetin
Chang KH, Chen WL, Lee LC, Lin CH, Kung PJ,
activities (Xu 1986). Bioassays showed that Lin TH, Wu YC, Wu YR, Chen YC, Lee-Chen GJ,
daucosterol increased fresh weight of cumber Chen CM (2013) Aqueous extract of Paeonia lacti-
cotyledons, promoted elongation of wheat cole- flora and paeoniflorin as aggregation reducers
targeting chaperones in cell models of spinocerebellar
optiles and delayed destruction of chlorophyll.
ataxia 3. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med
2013:471659
Chen G, Zhang L, Yang P (2005) Rapid determination of
Comments paeoniflorin and three sugars in Radix Paeoniae Alba
by capillary electrophoresis. Anal Sci 21(3):247–251
Chen G, Deng XH, Guo LX, Liu JH (2008) Effect of total
Refer also to notes under Paeonia × suffruticosa. glucosides of paeony on nuclear factor-kappaB activa-
tion in rat peritoneal macrophages. Zhongguo Zhong
Yao Za Zhi 33(6):669–671
Chen T, Guo ZP, Jiao XY, Jia RZ, Zhang YH, Li JY,
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Ohtsuka K (2011) Protective effect of a molecular hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in human
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ethanol-triggered gastric mucosal injury. Life Sci Pharmacol 89(6):445–453
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Bao T, Yang Q, Zhang Y, Dong Y, Li Y, Zhu X (2010) Wei W (2012a) Paeoniflorin inhibits proliferation of
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of benzoic acid content in Radix Paeoniae Alba stage of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in
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 Paeonia × suffruticosa

Scientific Name Vernacular Names

Paeonia × suffruticosa Andrews Chinese: Mudan, Mudan Pi

Czech: Pivoňka Keoovitá, Pivoňka Křovitá
Danish: Almindelig Træpæon, Træpæon
Synonyms Dutch: Boompioen, Gewone Boompioen
Estonian: Põõsaspojeng
Paeonia × arborea C.C.Gmel., Paeonia × French: Pivoine En Arbre
chinensis Oken, Paeonia × fruticosa Dum. German: Baumartige Pfingstrose, Rote Baump
Cours., Paeonia × moutan Sims, Paeonia × fingstrose, Strauch-Pfingstrose, Strauchpäonie
moutan var. anneslei Sabine, Paeonia × Icelandic: Trjábóndarós
moutan var. papaveracea (Andrews) DC., Japanese: Botan, Botanpi
Paeonia × papaveracea Andrews, Paeonia × Polish: Piwonia Drzewiasta
suffruticosa f. anneslei (Sabine) Rehder, Slovašcina: Grmasta Potonika
Paeonia × suffruticosa f. maculata Hong Slovencina: Pivonka Polokrovitá
C.Zheng, Paeonia × suffruticosa var. papav- Turkish: Şakayığı
eracea (Andrews) Kern., Paeonia × suffruti- Vietnamese: Bạch Thược Cao, Mẫu Ðơn Bụi
cosa var. purpurea Andrews, Paeonia ×
suffruticosa f. rubida Hong C.Zheng, Paeonia ×
yunnanensis W.P.Fang Origin/Distribution

Tree peony is native to China, in central Anhui

Family and western Henan. It is widely cultivated in
China and elsewhere in cool climatic regimes.
Paeoniaceae

Agroecology
Common/English Names
Tree peony is robust and thrives best in partial
Mountain Peony, Moutan, Moutan Cortex, shade in an uncrowded situation. It prefers a
Moutan Peony, Tree Peony fertile yet reasonably well-drained soil, pH 6 to

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 597
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_45, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
598 Paeoniaceae

slightly alkaline. Clay, chalk and sand are all

fine, as long as they do not become too wet in
the winter.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Tree peony flowers are edible and used as tradi-

tional Chinese medicine materials (Li et al.
2009a). Since ancient times, the flowers of tree
peony have been used to prepare traditional
food such as casseroles, cakes, herbal tea and
drinks (Voon et al. 2013). The presence of sig-
Plate 1 Flowering moutan peony plant
nificant amount of crude fibre, carbohydrate,
proteins, essential amino acids, fatty acids and
essential minerals provides a strong base to use
tree peony flower buds as a potential source of
nutraceutical for the development of new func-
tional foods (Voon et al. 2013). The petals are
also reported to be parboiled and sweetened for
teatime delicacy or cooked in various dishes
(Uphof 1968; Usher 1974; Tanaka 1976; Kunkel
1984; Facciola 1990).

Botany

Moutan peony is a shrub growing to 1.5 m high

with grey-brown glabrous stems. Proximal
leaves biternate with ovate, glabrous leaflets Plate 2 Moutan flowers (double petals)
4.5–8 by 2.5–7 cm; terminal leaflets deeply
3-lobed, lobes shallowly subdivided again;
some lateral leaflets 2- or 3-lobed, others Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
entire; all lobes acute at apex (Plates 1 and 2).
Flowers solitary, terminal, single or double Flower Nutrients and Phytochemicals
(Plates 1 and 2) in cultivated plants, 10–17 cm
across. Bracts 5, long elliptic. Sepals 5, green, The proximate nutrient composition of tree peony
broadly ovate, unequal. Petals (in single flowers) flower buds was reported as follows: moisture
5–11, white, pink, red or red-purple, obovate, 5.68 %; crude protein 15.73 %; crude fibre
5–8 × 4.2–6 cm, apex irregularly incised. 13.11 %; crude fat 2.74 %; total ash 4.89 %;
Filaments pink or purple, white distally, total crude carbohydrate 57.84 %; energy
1.3 cm; anthers ellipsoid, 4 mm long. Disc 1,332.03 KJ/100 g; essential amino acid, histidine
completely enveloping carpels at anthesis, 2.45 %, isoleucine 4.36 %, leucine 6.66 %, lysine
purple-red, apex dentate or lobed. Carpels 5, 4.94 %, methionine 0.23 %, phenylalanine
rarely more, densely tomentose. Stigmas red. 4.29 %, threonine 4.38 % and valine 5.35 %;
Follicles oblong, densely brown-yellow and non-essential amino acid, alanine 6.02 %, arginine
tomentose. 6.56 %, aspartic acid 16.40 %, cysteine 0.55 %,
Paeonia × suffruticosa 599

glutamic acid 17.28 %, glycine 4.38 %, proline Other components were 3,7-dimethyl-1,6-
7.82 %, serine 4.91 % and tyrosine 3.43 %; octadien-3-ol (0.83 %), 2-(1-methylethylidene)-
sulphur-containing amino acid (methionine, cys- cyclohexanone (0.43 %), 2,7-dimethyl-2,6-
teine) 0.79 %; aromatic amino acid (phenylala- octadi-enen (0.56 %), E, 2-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-
nine, tyrosine) 7.72 %; saturated fatty acids, clohexanol (0.38 %), cis-4-tert-butylcyclohexyl
caprylic acid C8:0 36.18 %, lauric acid C12:0 acetate (0.70 %), (6E)-2,6-dimethyl-2,6-octadiene
0.19 %, tridecylic acid C13:0 0.3 %, myristic acid (0.4 %), 3,7-dimethyl-6-octenal (1.59 %), methyl-
C14:0 4.11 %, pentadecylic acid C15:0 0.19 %, 4-methyl-(E)-pentenoate (0.81 %), unknown
palmitic acid C16:0 17.02 %, stearic acid C18:0 (2.11 %), 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, mono(2-
4.00 % and arachidic acid C20:0 0.88 %; unsatu- ethylhexyl) ester (0.41 %), 1-(2-hydrooxy-6-
rated fatty acids, myristoleic acid C14:1 0.27 %, methoxyphenyl)-ethenone (2.81 %), 1,1,4,7-
cis-10-pentadecanoic acid C15:1 0.07 %, palmi- tetramethyl-1a,2,3,5,6,7,7a,7b, namicaldehyde-
toleic acid C16:1n7 4.14 %, hexadecatrienoic acid octahydro-1H-cycloprop [e]azulene (Lilial)
C16:3n4 2.63 %, oleic acid C18:1n9 3.61 %, (0.42 %), α,α-4-trimethyl-3-cyclohexen-1-ol
vaccenic acid C18:1n7 1.45 %, linoleic acid (2.34 %), 2-phenylethyl-cyclopropane-1-carbox-
C18:2n6 14.37 %, gamma-linolenic acid C18:3n6 ylate (0.81 %), 2-(4-methoxyphenoxy)ethan-1-ol
6.74 % and alpha-linolenic acid C18:3n3 5.66 %; (1.22 %), but-3-yn-2-yl 3-methylbenzoate
and minerals(mg/100 g), K 1,540.37 mg, Ca (0.19 %), p-t-butyl-α-methylhydrocin-enen-1-ol
462.46 mg, Mg 241.51 mg, P 420 mg, Na (0.31 %), 2-butyl-2-methyl-1,3-benzo-dioxole
12.75 mg, Se <0.25 mg, Cr <0.25 mg, Cu 1.73 mg, (2.76 %), 5,6,-dipropyldecane (0.91 %), 3-oxo-2-
Fe 2.29 mg, Mn 2.29 mg, Zn 4.09 mg, Al 1.86 mg, pentyl-methylester (1R-trans)-cyclopentaneacetic
B <0.10 mg, Cd <0.05 mg, Ni <0.05 mg, acid (0.40 %), (Z)-13-octadecene-L-ol (0.94 %),
Hg,0.05 mg, PB <0.5 mg and As <0.05 mg (Voon cis,cis-7,10,-hexadecadiene (0. 34 %), E,E-
et al. 2013). The presence of significant amount of 10,12-hexadecadien-1-ol acetate (10.76 %) and
crude fibre, carbohydrate, proteins, essential 2,3,6,7,8,8a-hexahydro-1,4,9,9-tetramethyl-
amino acids, fatty acids and essential minerals (1 α ,3 α ,7 α, 8a, β -)-1H-3a,7-methanoazulene
provides a strong base to use tree peony flower (0.36 %). 2-Phenylethanol (26.20 %) and
buds as a potential source of ingredient for food 2,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadi-en-1-ol (3.56 %) were
and pharmaceutical applications. the main essential oil floral compounds of Rou
Four flavonoids, apigenin-7-O-neohesperi Fu Rong cultivar of P. suffruticosa, and
doside, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, apigenin-7-O- 2-hydroxy-4,4,6,6-tetramethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-
glucoside and kaempferol-7-O-glucoside, were one (21.31 %), tetrahydro-2,2-dimethyl-5-(1-
isolated from Paeonia suffruticosa flowers (Wang methylpropenyl)furan (3.86 %), 2-butyl-2-methyl-
et al. 2005b). Twenty-six flavonoids were identi- 1,3-benzo-dioxole (2.71 %), eugenol (3.69 %)
fied in yellow flowers of tree peony; glycosides and trans-linaloloxide (5.65 %) were the key
of kaempferol, luteolin and apigenin as well as components of aromatic odour of this variety.
isosalipurposide were the main flavonoids found Other components were pentacosane (3.22 %),
(Li et al. 2009a). β-cubebene (2.36 %), tridecane (1.11 %), hep-
2-Phenylethanol (38.20 %) and 2,7-dimethyl-2, tadecane (1.36 %), heneicosane (1.35 %), trico-
6-octadi-4-ol (13.40 %) were the main essential sane (0.18 %), 9-butyl-9-butyldocosane (0.68 %),
oil floral compounds of Zhao Fen cultivar of 2-ethyl-1-hexanol (1.82 %), 5-(3,3-dimethyloxiran-
P. suffruticosa, and the key components with flo- 2-yl)-3-methylpent-1-en-3-ol (cis-linaloloxide)
ral fragrance properties were as follows: E, E-10, (2.86 %), α-farnesene, octan-2-yl-benzoate
12-hexadeca-dien-1-ol (10.76 %), 3,7-dimethyl- (2.28 %), nonadecane (0.29 %), 1,7,7-trimeth-
6-octen-1-ol (cephrol, 7.78 %) and 2-[(3S,5R,8S)- ylbicyclo-[2. 2.1]-hept-5-en-2-ol (1.17 %),
3,8-dimethyl-1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8-octahydroazulen- β-citronellol (1.95 %), 4-oxo-2-[(tetradecyloxy)-
5-yl] propan-2-ol (guaiol, 2.35 %) (Yin et al. 2012). 2,2-dimethylpropanoate] (1.71 %), 2,6,6-trimethyl,
600 Paeoniaceae

1-cyclohexene-1-ethanol (0.39 %), pinanediol Apiopaeonoside was isolated from Paeonia

(2.35 %), 5,6-dipropyldecane (1.43 %), suffruticosa root, and its structure was elucidated
2-methyl- 4-[1-methyl]-2-cyclohexan-one as paeonol-[D-apio-β-D-furanosyl] (1 → 6)-β-D-
(0.59 %), 2-octylbenzoate (0.71 %), butylated glucopyranoside (Yu et al. 1986). Five other
hydroxytoluene (0.30 %), 1-heptyl-2-methyl, compounds isolated were paeoniflorin, benzoyl-
cyclopropane (0.40 %) and β-citronellyl acetate paeoniflorin, paeonol, paeonoside and paeono-
(0.66 %). lide. Five new antioxidative glycosides named
galloyloxypaeoniflorin and suffruticosides A, B,
C and D and a new paeonol glycoside named suf-
Seed Phytochemicals fruticoside E were isolated from Chinese Moutan
Cortex, the root cortex of Paeonia suffruticosa,
Three novel resveratrol trimers (suffruticosol A, together with antioxidative galloylpaeoniflorin
suffruticosol B and suffruticosol C), together (Yoshikawa et al. 1992). Six monoterpene glyco-
with cis-resveratrol and paeoniflorin, were iso- sides, namely, mudanpiosides A–F, were isolated
lated from Paeonia suffruticosa seeds (Sarker as minor components from an ethanol extract of
et al. 1999). Three oligostilbenes, trans-suffruticosol Paeonia suffruticosa root cortex together with
D, cis-suffruticosol D and cis-gnetin H, were five known glycosides, paeoniflorin, oxypaeoni-
isolated along with the eight known stilbenes, florin, benzoylpaeoniflorin, benzoyloxypaeoni-
trans-resveratrol, trans-ε-viniferin, cis-ε-viniferin, florin and apiopaeonoside (Lin et al. 1996).
gnetin H, suffruticosol A, suffruticosol B, suffru- A new hexacyclic triterpenoid, mudanpinoic
ticosol C and cis-ampelopsin E, from Paeonia acid A, and a new gallic acid glycoside, mudano-
suffruticosa seeds (He et al. 2010a). Thirteen side B, along with nine known compounds,
compounds were isolated from P. suffruticosa benzoic acid, resacetophenone, paeoniflorigenone,
seeds and identified as follows: paeoniflorin, oxy β-sitosterol, betulinic acid, oleanolic acid, quer-
paeoniflorin, 6′-O-β-D-glucopyranosylalbiflorin, cetin, β-sitosterol-β-D-glucoside and trans-
8-debenzoylpaeoniflorin, 8-debenzoylpaeonidanin, caffeic acid stearyl ester, were isolated from the
1-O-β-D-glucopyranosylpaeonisuf-frone, 1-O-β-D- dried root cortex of Paeonia suffruticosa (Lin
ethyl-mannopyranoside, sucrose, luteolin, api- et al. 1998). Four glycosides, namely, mudanpio-
genin, benzoic acid and 1-O-β-D-(4-hydroxy side G, mudanpioside H, mudanpioside I and
benzoyl) glucose (He et al. 2010b). mudanoside A, together with three known com-
pounds, gallic acid, adenosine and p-hydroxy-
benzoic acid, were isolated from the root bark
Root Phytochemicals (Ding et al. 1999). Two monoterpenes paeonisuf-
frone and paeonisuffral were isolated from the
Seven constituents, paeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoni- ethyl acetate-soluble fraction of Moutan Cortex
florin, oxypaeoniflorin, paeonol, paeonoside, methanol extract (Yoshikawa et al. 2000). Five
apiopaeonoside and paeonolide, were found in paeonol glycosides, suffruticosides A, B, C, D
P. suffruticosa root (Yu and Xiao 1985). Higher and E, and a monoterpene glucoside, galloy-
amounts of the compounds were determined in loxypaeoniflorin, were isolated from the gly-
early and late spring or in autumn. Monoterpene cosidic fraction of Chinese Moutan Cortex
glucosides such as paeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, together with paeonolide, apiopaeonoside, gal-
benzoylpaeoniflorin and benzoyloxypaeoniflorin loylpaeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin and paeoniflorin
were found to exist mainly in moutan periderm (Matsuda et al. 2001). Paeonol, 2,5-dihydroxy-
and its adjacent tissues in the root and to a lesser 4-methoxyacetophenone, acetovanillone, pae-
extent in xylem (Tani et al. 1980b). Paeonol was onoside, paeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, apiopaeo
found to accumulate mainly in the periderm, noside and methyl 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzo-
cambium and adjacent tissues of the root and to a ate were isolated from the root cortex (Li et al.
smaller extent also in the xylem (Tani et al. 1980a). 2004). A paeoniflorin derivative identified as
Paeonia × suffruticosa 601

paeoniflorin-4-ethyl ether was isolated from the loxypaeoniflorin, paeonol, mudanoside B and
root bark as an artefact produced during extrac- 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloylglucose; Ding et al. (2009)
tion (Wang et al. 2005c). isolated kaempferol, quercetin, mudanpioside B,
Three bioactive constituents (paeonol, benzo- benzoyloxypaeoniflorin, mudanpioside H and
yloxypaeoniflorin and oxypaeoniflorin) in tra- pentagalloyl-β-(D)-glucose. Three new com-
ditional Chinese medicine, Moutan Cortex pounds, 5-hydroxy-3S-hydroxymethyl-6-methyl-
(Paeonia suffruticosa root cortex), were sepa- 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran, 8-O-benzoylpaeoniflorin
rated and determined by capillary electrophoresis and 4-O-butylpaeoniflorin (Ha et al. 2009a), and
(Chen et al. 2005). Chen et al. (2006) isolated 13 known compounds, paeonol, paeonoside,
paeoniflorin, paeonoside, sucrose, glucose and apiopaeonoside, paeonolide, paeoniflorigenone,
fructose in Moutan Cortex. The chloroform– 6-methoxypaeonigenone, paeoniflorin, benzoyl-
methanol (1:1) extract of Paeonia suffruticosa paeoniflorin, galloylpaeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin,
root bark furnished three monoterpene glyco- mudanpioside H, α-benzoylpaeoniflorin and
sides, 6-O-vanillyoxypaeoniflorin, mudanpioside β-benzoylpaeoniflorin, were isolated from
H and galloyloxypaeoniflorin (An et al. 2006). Moutan Cortex (Ha et al. 2010). Three new
α-Benzoyloxypaeoniflorin, a new antioxidant paeonidanin-type monoterpene glycosides,
monoterpene α-glycoside anomer, was isolated named suffrupaeonidanins A–C, were isolated as
from Paeonia suffruticosa root along with minor components from the root cortex of
known compounds, β-benzoyloxypaeoniflorin, Paeonia suffruticosa (Yang et al. 2010). Two
paeonolide, paeoniflorin and mudanpioside H new monoterpene diglycosides, suffruyabiosides
(Ryu et al. 2001). Thirty-eight components such A and B, and seven known compounds, pae-
as monoterpene glucosides, galloyl glucoses and oniflorin, salicylpaeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin,
acetophenones were isolated from Moutan mudanpioside, mudanpioside D, galloylpaeoni-
Cortex extract (Xu et al. 2006a). Among them, florin and mudanpioside I, were isolated from
over 30 compounds were identified, including Moutan Cortex (Furuya et al. 2012). From the
paeonol, paeoniflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, benzoyl- roots, a novel phenylesteric compound, oxo-acetic
paeoniflorin, benzoyloxypaeoniflorin, galloylpa- acid 2-ethoxy-4-(3-hydroxy-2-oxopropyl) phe-
eoniflorin, galloyloxypaeoniflorin and mudan nyl ester, was isolated (Choi et al. 2012b). Wang
piosides A, C, D, E and H. A total of 50 com- et al. (2013) isolated paeonol, the flavan-3-ols
pounds were observed in the 50 % (v/v) methanolic catechin and epicatechin-3-O-gallate, the dimeric
extracts of root cortices of P. suffruticosa, P. dela- proanthocyanidin epicatechin-(4β → 8)-catechin,
vayi and P. decomposita, including 17 monoter- a mixture of trigalloyl-glucoses and 1,2,3,4,6-
penes, 14 galloyl glucoses, 10 acetophenones, 5 penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (PGG) from Moutan
phenolic acids, 3 flavonoids and 1 triterpene (Xu Cortex.
et al. 2006b). Paeonol was the predominant The essential oil constituents of Moutan
constituent of P. suffruticosa and P. decomposita. Cortex radicis (P. suffruticosa) comprised pre-
Six compounds were isolated from P. suffruticosa dominantly paeonol (93.15–97.80 %) (Miyazawa
bark and identified as (+)-catechin, paeonidanin, et al. 1983). Other constituents included
paeoniflorigenone, 2, 5-dihydroxy-4-methoxy 4-benzoic acid (1.38–3.01 %), phenol (0.15–
acetophenone, paeonol and gallic acid (Hu et al. 1.02 %) and compounds (traces to <0.71 %) fur-
2006). A new pyrrole derivative, 2-methyl-5-(2′- fural, 3-hydroxypyridine, 2-furyl methyl ketone,
O-α-D-glucopyranosyl-1′-oxygen)-propylpyrrole, benzaldehyde, 5-methyl-2-furfural, methyl
named paesuffrioside, was isolated from the benzoate, β-phenylacetaldehyde, acetophenone,
water-soluble extract of P. suffruticosa root cor- furfuryl alcohol, 4,7,dimethylbenzofuran, methyl
tex together with 11 known compounds (Xiao salicylate, perilla alcohol, ethyl salicylate,
et al. 2008). From the roots, Wu and Gu (2009) o-hydroxyacetophenone, 2-methoxyphenol,
isolated paeoniflorin, mudanpioside H, gal- benzyl alcohol, β-phenylethyl alcohol, 2,6-di-
loylpaeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin, benzoy- tert - butyl -4-methyl phenol, 2-acetylpyrrole,
602 Paeoniaceae

o-cresol, p-cresol, m-cresol, m-tert-butylphenol, depressing blood pressure and strengthening

p-methoxyacetophenone, thymol, carvacrol and antiseptic activity. The toxicity of the core was
hydroxy-3-methoxy acetophenone. 38.5 % of the cortex.
In vitro studies found that hydroxymethyl
glutaryl-CoA synthase and phosphomevalonate
kinase in the mevalonate pathway and 3-dehy- Antioxidant Activity
droquinate dehydratase/shikimate dehydrogenase
in shikimate biosynthesis were potentially closely The methanol plant extract of Paeonia suffruti-
related to the accumulation of paeoniflorin and cosa was one of the 14 plants found to have
benzoylpaeoniflorin in Paeonia lactiflora (Bai potential as antioxidant source activity evaluated
Shao, Chi Shao) and P. suffruticosa (Dan Pi) using Fenton’s reagent/ethyl linoleate system and
(Yuan et al. 2013). Paeoniflorin and its derived for free radical scavenging activity using the
aromatic amino acids were found to be predomi- 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical
nant in the bark. generating system (Kim et al. 1997). Aqueous
The paeonol content in roasted Moutan Cortex P. suffruticosa extract exhibited high potency in
was increased about three times (454.3 μg/mg inhibiting rat erythrocyte hemolysis and lipid
ethanol extract) after roasting at 190 °C for peroxidation in rat kidney and brain homogenates
30 min compared to that of untreated one (Jeon (Liu and Ng 2000). It also demonstrated strong
et al. 2004). Roasting processing did not affect superoxide and hydroxyl radical scavenging
the DPPH radical scavenging activity of moutan activity, but exerted only a slight pro-oxidant
extracts. The contents of paeonol in Chinese effect. Paeonia suffruticosa methanol extract
moutan cultivars remained nearly constant at strongly enhanced viability against hydrogen
different root harvesting times, but the paeoniflo- peroxide-induced oxidative damage in Chinese
rin contents changed significantly during the hamster lung fibroblast (V79-4) cells and had
harvesting time (Choi et al. 2005). These showed relatively high levels of DPPH radical scaveng-
increasing tendency in May, July and September. ing activity (IC50 < 6.0 μg/mL) (Lee et al. 2003).
Total extraction rates of P. suffruticosa by ethanol The methanolic extract and the ethyl acetate-
circumfluence, distillation–decoction, CO2-SFE soluble and methanol-eluted fractions from
(supercritical fluid extraction with CO2) and Chinese Moutan Cortex were found to exhibit
traditional decoction were 12.66 %, 13.51 %, scavenging effect on DPPH radical and superoxide
7.28 % and 7.56 %, respectively, and extraction anion radical generated by the xanthine–xanthine
rates of paeonol were, respectively, 2.45 %, oxidase system (Yoshikawa et al. 2000). Two
2.26 %, 0.31 % and 1.15 % (Wang et al. 2005a). monoterpenes paeonisuffrone and paeonisuffral
Phenolic glycosides could be extracted by ethanol were isolated from the ethyl acetate-soluble frac-
circumfluence, distillation–decoction and tradi- tion. Both Moutan Cortex (root cortex of Paeonia
tional decoction, but not by CO2-SFE. Distillation– suffruticosa) and Radix Paeoniae (root of Paeonia
decoction was found to be the most optimal for lactiflora) drugs suppressed the cleavage of
proper extraction technology of P. suffruticosa. pUC18 DNA induced by phenylhydroquinone
The average recoveries of gallic acid and paeonol and scavenged the superoxide and hydroxy
from P. suffruticosa root bark methanol extract radical generated by the chemical (Okubo et al.
by reversed-phase HPLC system were 98.6 % 2000). They also inhibited the oxidative DNA
and 98.2 %, respectively (Tian et al. 2005). cleavage by tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ),
Besides the root cortex of P. suffruticosa, the one of the major metabolites of butylated
root core also possessed pharmacological proper- hydroxyanisole. Among their constituents, gal-
ties. Comparative studies by Li et al. (1997) loylpaeoniflorin and 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-
found no marked difference between the cortex D-glucose (PGG) were found to be the most potent
and core in reducing inflammation, promoting inhibitors of the DNA cleavage. These constituents
thrombocyte coagulation, inhibiting convulsion, also had oxygen radical scavenging activity.
Paeonia × suffruticosa 603

Paeonol also attenuated the DNA cleavage, (NO production) with IC50 values of 6.87–41.94 μM
while paeoniflorin and albiflorin had relatively in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7
small inhibitory effects on DNA cleavage. cells (Ding et al. 2012c) and in LPS-activated
However, catechin enhanced the phenylhydro macrophages (Ding et al. 2012a).
quinone-induced DNA cleavage. Danzhixiaoyao Wan, a common Chinese
Galloyloxypaeoniflorin, galloylpaeoniflorin herbal formulation, and some of its herbal con-
and suffruticosides A, B, C and D isolated from stituents were found to have inhibitory effect on
the root cortex showed more potent radical scav- nitric oxide (NO) production by lipopolysac-
enging and antioxidative effects than α-tocopherol charide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 macro-
(Yoshikawa et al. 1992). Monoterpene glycosides phages and antioxidant activity based on the
suffruticosides A, B, C and D; galloyloxypaeoni- oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC)
florin; and galloylpaeoniflorin from moutan root assay (Liao et al. 2007). The ORAC value of
cortex exhibited more potent radical scavenging the herbal formulation was 450 μmol TE/g. The
effects than α-tocopherol (Matsuda et al. 2001). order of antioxidant (ORAC) activity of the
Of the compounds isolated from Moutan Cortex, herbal constituents was Mentha haplocalyx
galloylpaeoniflorin and salicylpaeoniflorin exhib- (1,352 μmol TE/g), Glycyrrhiza uralensis
ited a more pronounced radical scavenging effect (1,184 μmol TE/g), Gardenia jasminoides
than α-tocopherol (positive control) in the SOD (1,129 μmol TE/g) and Paeonia suffruticosa
(superoxide dismutase) assay (Furuya et al. 2012). (465 μmol TE/g), with the contributions being
Increase in the number of phenolic hydroxyl additive rather than synergistic.
groups in the compounds produced a more effec-
tive radical scavenging effect (galloylpaeoniflo-
rin > mudanpioside E > oxypaeoniflorin). Comparing Anticancer Activity
the effect of salicylpaeoniflorin with oxypaeoni-
florin showed that o-substitution with a phenolic 1,2,3,4,6-Penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (PGG), a
hydroxyl group was more effective than p-substi- major component of P. suffruticosa root, was
tution. Moreover, mudanpioside I was more found to exhibit in vitro growth-inhibiting effect
effective than paeoniflorin (3), indicating that a on human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line,
benzoyl group connected to a C-6 of the α-glucose SK-HEP-1 cells, via G(0)/G(1) phase arrest and
by the ester linkage was more effective for radi- suppression of nuclear factor-kappa B activity
cal scavenging than a benzoyl group attached to (Oh et al. 2001). Oh et al. (2004) also reported
the C-8 monoterpene pinane-type skeleton. that gallotannin penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose
Tree peony petal extracts showed high anti- (PGG), a major constituent of Paeonia suffruti-
oxidant activity as evaluated by the DPPH•, cosa root cortex, inhibited IL-8 gene expression
ABTS•+ and OH• scavenging assays and ferric in human monocytic U937 cells stimulated
reducing/antioxidant power assay (Li et al. 2009a). with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), a tumour
There were significant correlations between anti- promoter, and U937 cells stimulated with tumour
oxidant activity and both the total polyphenol necrosis factor-alpha by a mechanism involving
content (determined by Folin–Ciocalteu method) its inhibition of NF-kappa B activation, which
and the total content of quercetin, kaempferol was dependent on IkappaBalpha degradation.
and luteolin glycosides. In an in vitro study, paeoniflorin exhibited
α-Benzoyloxypaeoniflorin, from Paeonia suf- antiproliferative activity against human lung
fruticosa root, exhibited moderately potent radical adenocarcinoma epithelial A549 cells by arresting
scavenging activity on DPPH radical (Ryu et al. cell cycle progression in the G0/G1 phase and
2001). Several compounds including monoterpene inducing apoptosis (Hung et al. 2008). It was
glycosides isolated from the n-butanol-soluble found that induction of p21/wild-type p53-
fraction of ethanol extract of Paeonia suffruticosa activated fragment 1 (WAF1) and the activity of the
exhibited strong inhibitory activity on nitric oxide Fas/Fas ligand apoptotic system may participate
604 Paeoniaceae

in the antiproliferative activity of paeoniflorin in Antimicrobial Activity

A549 cells. In another study, paeonol and crude
total glycosides (CTG) extracted from Moutan Three monoterpene glycosides, 6-O-vanillyoxy
Cortex significantly reduced DLD-1 human paeoniflorin, mudanpioside H and galloyloxy-
colon cancer cell viability in a dose- and time- paeoniflorin isolated from Paeonia suffruticosa
dependent manner (Xing et al. 2010). The induc- root bark, showed broad, but moderate, antibac-
tion of apoptosis in DLD-1 cells was characterized terial activity with minimum inhibitory concen-
by morphological changes and an increased per- tration (MIC) values in the range of 100–500 μg/
centage of hypodiploid cells. After treatment for mL against 18 pathogenic microorganisms of
48 h with paeonol (400 μg/mL) or CTG (200 μg/ concern for public health or zoonosis (An et al.
mL), the ratio of apoptotic cells reached 34.79 2006). Total glycosides of P. suffruticosa exhib-
and 48.12 %, respectively. In vitro study demon- ited antibacterial activity in vitro, with the
strated that treating human gastric cancer AGS strongest activity against Pseudomonas aerugi-
cells with the Paeonia suffruticosa root bark nosa and the weakest activity against Klebsiella
(Moutan Cortex) extract significantly inhibited pneumoniae (Du et al. 2008). Paeonol also dis-
cell proliferation and induced cytotoxicity in a played antibacterial activity, but MIC of paeonol
dose- and time-dependent manner (Choi et al. was higher than total glycosides; polysaccharides
2012a). The extract also induced apoptosis via of P. suffruticosa also had antibacterial activity
the extrinsic Fas-mediated apoptosis pathway, against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterococcus
which was concurrent with the activation of cas- faecalis. The antibacterial activity of the combi-
pases, including caspase-8 and caspase-3, and nation of paeonol and total glycosides was better
cleavage of PARP and also involved the than paeonol or total glycosides, especially on
MDM2-p53 pathway. Wang et al. (2012) found Enterococcus faecalis.
that the aqueous extract of Paeonia suffruticosa
(PS-A) exerted strong inhibitory effects on renal
carcinoma cancer cell migration, mobility and Antiviral Activity
invasion by decreasing expression of VEGF
receptor-3 (VEGFR-3), phosphorylation of FAK Paeonia suffruticosa was found to be a rich source
and activation of Rac-1 to disrupt actin filament of anti-HIV compounds (Au et al. 2001). After
polymerization. Mouse xenograft experiments removal of polyphenolic compounds, the metha-
showed that the treatment of PS-A significantly nol extract of P. suffruticosa still exerted potent
suppressed tumour growth and pulmonary metas- inhibition of HIV-1 integrase (EC50 = 15 μg/mL).
tasis. In vitro studies showed that co-pretreatment Studies showed that methanolic extract of Paeonia
with tunicamycin and paeonol significantly suffruticosa had anti-herpes simplex virus (HSV)
increased apoptosis induced by doxorubicin in activity (Hsiang et al. 2001). The methanol
hepatocellular carcinoma cells undergoing endo- extract prevented the process of virus attachment
plasmic reticulum stress by decreasing expression and penetration. Aqueous extract of P. suffruticosa
of COX-2 levels and activation of Akt and also inhibited virus attachment to cell surface.
increasing the levels of pro-apoptotic transcrip-
tion factor CHOP (Fan et al. 2013).
Of the compounds isolated from Moutan Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic
Cortex assay for cytotoxicity activity against Activities
human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial A549
cells, salicylpaeoniflorin and paeoniflorin exhibited Intragastric administration of a hot water extract
moderate cytotoxicities (viabilities, 31 % and of Radix Paeoniae to rats inhibited inflammation
52 %, respectively), while other compounds in adjuvant-induced arthritis (Cho et al. 1982)
including suffruyabiosides A and B showed very and carrageenan-induced paw oedema (Arichi
weak activities (viabilities, 63–100 %) (Furuya et al. 1979). Methanol extract of Moutan Cortex
et al. 2012). significantly inhibited phorbol myristate acetate
Paeonia × suffruticosa 605

(PMA)-induced secretions of IL-8 and macro- activities (Haraka et al. 1972). Paeonol prevented
phage chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 in a stress-induced gastric erosion in mice and inhib-
dose-dependent manner in human monocytic ited gastric juice secretion in rats. It also had a
U937 cells (Oh et al. 2003). The inhibition of weak anticholinesterase action and antihistamine
these chemokines by the extract was due to its action on the isolated mouse ileum and guinea
suppression of IL-8 and MCP-1 genes. Furthermore, pig ileum, respectively, and weak anti-oxytocic
1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose, one of action on the isolated rat uterus. Further, paeonol
major constituents isolated from moutan metha- exerted inhibitory effect on the spontaneous
nol, inhibited PMA-induced secretions of IL-8 movement of the rat uterus in situ, suggesting the
and MCP-1 by its suppression of IL-8 and MCP-1 action of paeonol was musculotropic. Paeonol
genes. Pre- and posttreatment of rats with pae- also showed a weak transient hypotensive
onol (30, 50 or 100 mg/kg, i.p.) dose-dependently effect and synchronous depression of respiration
inhibited the carrageenan-evoked thermal hyper- and heart rate.
algesia (Chou 2003). Treatment with paeonol Among compounds isolated from the root
dose-dependently inhibited tumour necrosis cortex, acetovanillone afforded the highest
factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-lbeta protection against sepsis in mice (Li et al. 2004).
formation, but enhanced IL-10 production in the It gave the highest survival rate (100 % with a
rat paw exudates both at the early (1.5 h) and late dose of 30 mg/kg versus 17 % for the control
phase (4 h) after carrageenan injection; however, experiment) and reduced alanine aminotransfer-
inhibition of IL-6 formation by paeonol was only ase level to be half of the control value in the
observed at the late phase. Paeonol also dose- mouse sepsis model induced by lipopolysaccha
dependently decreased the formation of prosta- ride/D-galactosamine.
glandin E(2) in rat paw exudates with a greater Chun et al. (2007) reported on the anti-
inhibition at the late phase and reduced the carra- inflammatory activity of the methanol extract of
geenan-induced elevated myeloperoxidase activity. Moutan Cortex in RAW264.7 cells after treat-
Their results suggested that the mechanisms by ment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and sug-
which paeonol exerted its anti-inflammatory and gested that the anti-inflammatory effects were
analgesic effects in this inflammatory model may induced through the inhibition of iNOS and
be associated with decreased production of pro- COX-2 expression by suppressing the phosphor-
inflammatory cytokines, NO and PGE(2), and ylation of IκBα and the activation of NF-κB. Pan
increased production of IL-10, an anti-inflamma- and Dai (2009) found that paeonol inhibited
tory cytokine, in carrageenan-injected rat paws. TNF-alpha-induced vascular cell adhesion mole-
Further, attenuation of the elevated iNOS and cule-1 (VCAM-1) expression in a concentration-
COX-2 protein expression as well as neutrophil dependent manner in rat aortic endothelial cells
infiltration in carrageenan-injected paws may by the attenuation of p38 and ERK1/2 signal
also be involved in the beneficial effects of transduction pathways. They concluded that pae-
paeonol. In RAW macrophage cells paeonol onol had the potential therapeutic development
regulated the production of TNF-α and IL-1β, for use in anti-inflammatory and vascular disor-
IL-6 and IL-10 via inactivation of IκBα, ERK1/2, ders. Pretreatment of rats with Moutan Cortex
JNK and p38 MAPK (Chen et al. 2013). In the prior to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration
mouse model of lipopolysaccharide-induced ameliorated symptoms of LPS-induced acute
endotoxemia, pro- and anti-inflammatory cyto- lung injury through anti-inflammatory process
kines were significantly regulated, and the sur- (Fu et al. 2012). The number of total cells and
vival rates of lipopolysaccharide-challenged neutrophils and the concentration of protein exu-
mice were enhanced by paeonol (150, 200 or dation in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF)
250 mg/kg). were significantly decreased in the Moutan
Paeonol, the main component of Moutan Cortex, Cortex-LPS group. Cytokine levels, including
was suggested to be largely responsible for its levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, macrophage-
anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antispasmodic inflammatory peptide (MIP)-2, IL-6 and IL-10,
606 Paeoniaceae

in BALF and myeloperoxidase activity in lung the metabolic abnormalities associated with
tissue were also significantly inhibited at 16 h type 2 diabetes. In an in vitro assay with RAW
after LPS administration in the Moutan Cortex- 264.7 cells, oxo- acetic acid 2-ethoxy-4-(3-
LPS group. In concentrations of 5–20 μM, penta- hydroxy-2-oxopropyl) phenyl ester isolated
O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (PGG) exerted statistically from the roots was shown to be an inhibitor of
significant inhibition of reactive oxygen species IL-1β with an IC50 value of 56 μM (Choi et al.
(ROS generation), IL-8 secretion and β2 integrin 2012b). The compound was shown to inhibit the
expression in stimulated neutrophils (Kiss et al. production of proinflammatory cytokines and
2013). The inhibition of L-selectin expression by may have potential for the treatment of rheuma-
PGG resulted in prevention in neutrophils’ toid arthritis.
endothelial attachment. The results elucidate In vitro studies found that cis-ampelopsin E,
the anti-inflammatory activity of PGG. Studies isolated from Paeonia suffruticosa seeds, dose-
showed that Moutan Cortex radicis extract dependently reduced the nitric oxide (NO) pro-
could inhibit a wide variety of activations of duction from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated
inflammation-related genes in cultured human RAW 264.7 cells (Cai and Cai 2011). By inhib-
gingival fibroblasts stimulated with lipopolysac- iting LPS-induced inhibitor kinase (IKKα/β)
charide, and this effect may be attributable to phosphorylation, cis-ampelopsin E signifi-
paeonol and paeoniflorin (Yun et al. 2013). The cantly decreased LPS-induced IκBα phosphor-
result suggested that Moutan Cortex may be ylation, prevented IκBα degradation and
employed to alleviate the inflammation of peri- subsequently reduced the translocation of tran-
odontal diseases. scription factor p65 into the nucleus; thus,
Of the 16 compounds, isolated from Moutan LPS-induced up-regulation of NF-κB tran-
Cortex evaluated on glucose metabolism in scriptional activity was efficiently inhibited. In
HepG2 cells under high glucose conditions, addition, cis-ampelopsin E inhibited LPS-
compounds paeonoside, apiopaeonoside and induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expres-
6-methoxypaeonigenone displayed highly potent sion, cPLA2 activation and prostaglandin E2
effects on the stimulation of glucose uptake and (PGE2) production. The results suggested that
glycogen synthesis in human HepG2 cells (Ha cis-ampelopsin E might exert potential anti-
et al. 2010). All three compounds phosphory- inflammatory effects via obstruction of the
lated AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase), NF-κB signalling pathway.
resulting in increased phosphorylation of GSK-3β JCICM-6, an antiarthritic herbal extract, com-
and suppression of lipogenic expression (ACC posed of Sinomenium acutum, Aconitum carmi-
and FAS) in a dose-dependent manner. The chaelii, Curcuma longa, Paeonia lactiflora and
compounds also demonstrated strong eNOS Paeonia suffruticosa medicinal herbs, was found
phosphorylation in human umbilical vein endo- to be effective in reducing experimentally
thelial cells (HUVECs). Compounds paeonol, induced inflammation and nociception using nine
paeonolide, paeoniflorigenone, 6-methoxy animal models (Zhou et al. 2006). JCICM-6
paeonigenone, paeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflo- orally administered in a range of dosages from
rin, galloylpaeoniflorin, 5-hydroxy-3S-hydroxy- 0.438 to 1.75 g/kg significantly and dose-
methyl-6-methyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran, dependently suppressed the paw oedema of rats
8-O-benzoylpaeoniflorin and 4-O-butylpaeoni induced by carrageenan or various proinflamma-
florin and mudanpioside H also exhibited con- tory mediators including histamine, serotonin,
siderable effects on hepatic glucose production, bradykinin and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) and
AMPK activation and phosphorylation of GSK-3β the ear oedema of mice induced by arachidonic
gene in HepG2 cells under high glucose condi- acid or 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate.
tions. These effects indicated that the activation JCICM-6 also significantly prolonged the reac-
of AMPK by bioactive compounds from Moutan tion time of rats to radiant heat stimulation and
Cortex had considerable potential for reversing reduced the numbers of writhing episodes of
Paeonia × suffruticosa 607

mice. The results indicated that JCICM-6 pos- in mice by 90 % at a dose of 0.5 mg/mouse 2 h
sessed significant anti-inflammatory and analge- after the i.p. injection of compound 48/80.
sic effects and could be a potential candidate for
further investigation as a new antiarthritic botani-
cal drug for humans. Wu and Gu (2009) found Anti-osteoporotic Activity
that Moutan Cortex exhibited anti-inflammatory
activity as evidenced by its decrease of IL-6 pro- The Korean herbal medicine Yukmi-jihang-tang
duction in IL-1β-stimulated synoviocytes. Its (YJ), composed of seven herbs such as Rehmannia
active constituents paeonol, paeoniflorin, glyco- glutinosa, Dioscorea japonica, Cornus officinalis,
sides and pentagalloylglucose were found to con- Smilax glabra, Paeonia suffruticosa, Alisma
tribute to its anti-inflammatory effect. plantago-aquatica var. orientale and Hominis
Animal studies showed that administration of placenta, was found to have antibone resorption
guizhi-fuling capsules (GZFLC), a traditional properties (Jin et al. 2006). The herbal medicine
Chinese medical (Kampo) formulation composed (100 μg/mL), transforming growth factor beta
of five medicinal plants, Cinnamomum cassia (TGF-β) and their combinations reduced cyclo-
(cinnamomi cortex), Paeonia lactiflora (peony oxygenase-2 (COX-2) mRNA level, prostaglandin
radix), Paeonia suffruticosa (Moutan Cortex), E2 (PGE2) biosynthesis and bone resorption
Prunus persica (persicae semen) and Poria cocos induced by IL-1beta, IL-6 tumour necrosis
(Hoelen), after focal cerebral ischaemia signifi- factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) or their combination.
cantly decreased brain infarction and water con- The herbal mixture also inhibited in vitro and in
tents in rats subjected to 2-h ischaemia followed vivo bone resorption by inhibition of phosphory-
by 24-h reperfusion (Li et al. 2007). Further lation of peptide substrates. The parathyroid
GZFLC treatment significantly downregulated hormone-induced bone resorption in mouse fetal
expressions of proinflammatory cytokines includ- long bone cultures was inhibited with an IC50 of
ing interleukin (IL)-1beta and tissue necrosis 16 μg/mL. The herbal mixture dose-dependently
factor-alpha and markedly up-regulated expres- reduced the hypercalcaemia induced in mice by
sions of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and IL-1beta and partly prevented bone loss and
IL-10R both in mRNA and protein levels. The microarchitectural changes in young ovariecto-
serum levels of these inflammatory cytokines mized rats, showing that the protective effect on
were also similarly regulated. bone was exerted via the inhibition of bone
resorption. The results indicate the herbal mixture as
a possible Src family kinase inhibitor which may
Antianaphylactic Activity be useful for the treatment of diseases associated
with elevated bone loss.
Results of studies suggested that paeonol from
moutan root cortex exhibited antianaphylactic
activity by regulating histamine and TNF-alpha Antidiabetic Activity
(Kim et al. 2004b). Paeonol significantly inhib-
ited histamine release from the rat peritoneal Moutan radicis cortex was found to have hypo-
mast cells treated with compound 48/80, a mast glycaemic effect in α-glucoamylase-suppressing
cell degranulator, and also inhibited IgE actions in 3T3-L1 adipocytes (Park et al. 2004).
production in B cells activated by anti-CD40 After 4 weeks oral administration of herb
mAb, recombinant interleukin-4 (rIL-4) and extracts, Rhus verniciflua, Agrimonia pilosa,
recombinant histamine-releasing factor (rHRF). Sophora japonica and Paeonia suffruticosa, low-
Paeonol effectively downregulated the expression ered blood glucose levels and thiobarbituric acid-
of IL-4 in the activated B cells by reverse tran- reactive substances (TBARS) in streptozotocin-
scription polymerase chain reaction. Further, induced diabetic rats (Jung et al. 2006). Sophora
paeonol effectively inhibited anaphylactic shock japonica and Paeonia suffruticosa extracts
608 Paeoniaceae

significantly reduced TBARS levels versus diabetic HepG2 cells under high glucose conditions,
controls. Moutan Cortex (root bark of Paeonia compounds paeonoside, apiopaeonoside 2,3 and
suffruticosa) showed significant in vitro antidia- 6-methoxypaeonigenone displayed highly potent
betic effects by inhibiting glucose uptake of effects on the stimulation of glucose uptake and
intestinal brush border membrane vesicles glycogen synthesis in human HepG2 cells (Ha
(BBMV) and enhancing glucose uptake into et al. 2010). All three compounds phosphorylated
human skin fibroblast cell line Hs68 and mouse AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase), resulting
adipocyte 3T3-L1 cells (Lau et al. 2007). Paeonol in increased phosphorylation of GSK-3 and sup-
was confirmed to be one of the active constituents pression of lipogenic expression (ACC and FAS)
for inhibiting BBMV glucose uptake. With neo- in a dose-dependent manner. The compounds
natal streptozotocin diabetic rats, paeonol (200 also demonstrated strong eNOS phosphorylation
and 400 mg/kg body wt.) was found to improve in human umbilical vein endothelial cells
oral glucose tolerance in vivo. (HUVECs). Compounds paeonol, paeonolide,
Triterpenes, namely, palbinone, ursolic acid, paeoniflorigenone, 6-methoxypaeonigenone,
betulinic acid, β-sitosterol, daucosterol, oleanolic paeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin, galloylpaeoni-
acid and 30-norhederagenin, isolated from florin, 5-hydroxy-3S-hydroxymethyl-6-methyl-
Moutan Cortex, remarkably stimulated AMP- 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran, 8-O-benzoylpaeoniflorin
activated protein kinase (AMPK), GSK-3beta and and 4-O-butylpaeoniflorin and mudanpioside H
acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) phosphorylation also exhibited considerable effects on hepatic
in HepG2 cells under high glucose conditions glucose production, AMPK activation and phos-
(Ha et al. 2009b). The compounds also increased phorylation of GSK-3 gene in HepG2 cells under
glucose uptake and enhanced glycogen synthesis. high glucose conditions. These effects indicated
Among these, palbinone displayed the greatest that the activation of AMPK by bioactive com-
potential antidiabetic activity through the AMPK pounds from Moutan Cortex had considerable
activation pathway. Palbinone significantly potential for reversing the metabolic abnormali-
increased the levels of phospho-AMPK, phospho- ties associated with type 2 diabetes.
ACC and phospho-GSK-3beta and stimulated
glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis in a dose-
dependent fashion. Their results suggested that Antiatherosclerotic Activity
these compounds, especially palbinone, may have
beneficial roles in glucose metabolism via the Paeonol, from P. lactiflora , concentration
AMPK pathway. Of the compounds isolated from dependently inhibited the production of intercel-
the methanol extract of Moutan Cortex, two lular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in tumour
triterpenes showed the most potent inhibitory necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-activated
activity against rat lens aldose reductase, with human umbilical vein endothelial cells
IC50 values of 11.4 and 28.8 μM, respectively; (HUVECs) (Nizamutdinova et al. 2007). They
compound 4-O-butylpaeoniflorin had an IC50 found that the inhibitory effect of paeonol on
value of 36.2 μM, and the positive control, ICAM-1 production might be mediated by
3,3-tetramethyleneglutamic acid, had an IC50 inhibiting the TNF-alpha-induced phosphoryla-
value of 31.8 μM (Ha et al. 2009a). Compound 4-O- tion of p38 and extracellular signal-regulated
butylpaeoniflorin inhibited advanced glycation kinase (ERK) and nuclear factor-kappa B
end product formation with an IC50 value of (NF-kappa B) p65 signalling pathways, which
10.8 μM, and 5-hydroxy-3S-hydroxymethyl-6- were involved in TNF-alpha-induced ICAM-1
methyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran had an IC50 value production. Thus, paeonol may be beneficial in
of 177.0 μM, whereas the positive control, amino- the treatment of cardiovascular disorders such
guanidine, had an IC50 value of 1,026.8 μM. as atherosclerosis. Paeonol, active constituent
Of the 16 compounds, isolated from Moutan of Moutan Cortex, attenuated high-fat-induced
Cortex evaluated on glucose metabolism in atherosclerosis in rabbits by its anti-inflammatory
Paeonia × suffruticosa 609

activity (Li et al. 2009b). Histological analysis that paeonol 15 and 20 mg/kg pretreatment and
showed significant improvement in atheroscle- 20 mg posttreatment reduced the cerebral infarc-
rosis plaque in the paeonol-treated rabbits. tion area; paeonol 15 and 20 mg/kg pretreatment
Further, the blood levels of TNF-alpha, IL-1beta reduced the neuro-deficit score in rats with cere-
and CRP and the translocation of NF-kappa B bral infarct (Hsieh et al. 2006). Additionally,
to the nucleus were significantly suppressed in paeonol 20 mg/kg pretreatment reduced the
paeonol groups, as was the inhibition of lipid lucigenin CL counts at 2 h period of reperfusion.
peroxidation. Paeonol suppressed and scavenged superoxide
anion and inhibited microglial activation and
IL-1beta in ischaemia–reperfusion injured rats.
Anticataract Activity In vitro studies showed that paeonol protect
against oxidative-related injury in human neuro-
Hachimi-jio-gan, a herbal medicine contain- blastoma SH-SY5Y cells by downregulating
ing 8 herbs including Moutan Cortex, exhib- H2O2-induced NF-κB activity, as well as NF-κB-
ited strong inhibitory activity on aldose associated amyloid precursor protein expression
reductase activity (Shimizu et al. 1993). (Su et al. 2010). Further, they found that paeonol
Fractionation of Hachimi-jio-gan led to the protected rats from memory loss after ischaemic
isolation of 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furfuralde- stroke by reducing levels of amyloid precursor
hyde and ellagic acid which had been reported protein (APP)- and beta-site APP cleaving
to be a strong aldose reductase inhibitor. enzyme (BACE; β-secretase)-immunoreactive
Studies showed that polysaccharides-2b from cells and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transfer-
mudan cortex extract exhibited protective ase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labelling
effect on diabetic cataract in rats induced by (TUNEL)-positive cells and via apoptosis (Su
streptozotocin and Freund’s complete adju- et al. 2012).
vant (Zhao et al. 2007). The extract signifi- Studies showed that paeonol significantly
cantly delayed the occurrence and alleviated improved the learning and memory ability in
the opacity degree of the lens. Also, treatment Morris water maze test and step-down passive
with the extract reduced the elevated malondi- avoidance test in D-galactose-treated ICR mice
aldehyde level and increased the levels of (Zhong et al. 2009). Paeonol increased acetyl-
superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase choline and glutathione levels, restored superox-
and catalase in serum and lens and promoted ide dismutase and Na+, K+-adenosine triphos
Na+–K+ -ATPase activity. phatase ((Na+, K+)ATPase) activities but
decreased cholinesterase activity and malondial-
dehyde level in D-galactose-treated mice. Also,
Neuroprotective Activity paeonol ameliorated neuronal damage in both
hippocampus and temporal cortex in D-galactose-
Studies showed that exposure of Neuro-2A cells treated mice. The results suggested that paeonol
to 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (PGG), a possessed anti-aging efficacy and may have
major component of P. suffruticosa root (10–50 μM), potential in treatment of neurodegenerative dis-
resulted in a concentration- and time-dependent eases. Chronic supplementation of paeonol com-
induction of neuronal heme oxygenase-1 mRNA bined with danshensu was found to improve
and protein expressions and heme oxygenase vascular reactivity in the cerebral basilar artery
activity (Choi et al. 2002). Also, pretreatment of of diabetic rats (Hu et al. 2012). The combina-
the neuronal cells with PGG resulted in enhanced tion of paeonol and danshensu elicited signifi-
cellular resistance to hydrogen peroxide. Results cant protective effects against diabetes-induced
suggested that PGG could protect neuronal cells vascular damage through the reduction of oxida-
from oxidative stress via the induction of heme tive stress and through intracellular Ca2+ regula-
oxygenase-1 gene expression. Studies showed tory mechanisms.
610 Paeoniaceae

Studies showed that paeonol, active compound Thus, PGG may be a promising lead compound
from P. suffruticosa root bark, ameliorated path- in the development of disease-modifying drugs
ological damage of diabetic encephalopathy to prevent and/or cure Alzheimer’s disease. In
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats via modula- another study, paeonol treatment of Alzheimer’s
tion of serum advanced glycation end products diseased Sprague-Dawley rats induced by
(AGEs), receptor for advanced glycation end intrahippocampal injection of amyloid peptide
products (RAGE) and nuclear factor-kappa B Aβ1-42 increased levels of cortical cytochrome
(NF-κB) pathways in hippocampus and cerebral oxidase and vascular actin, reduced number of
cortical neurons (Liu et al. 2013). The results lesions and apoptotic cells in the walls of the
suggested that paeonol might be a promising cerebral vascular elements and improved
candidate for the prevention and treatment of behavioural indices of learning (Zhou et al.
diabetic encephalopathy. 2011). Treatment with paeonol was found to
protect against many of the morphological,
biochemical and behavioural alterations result-
Central Nervous System Activity ing from administration of Aβ1-42 in a rat
model of AD. The results suggested that pae-
Both intraperitoneal and oral administration of onol may be a possible therapeutic measure in
paeonol to mice afforded the following results slowing down the pathogenic processes associ-
(Harada and Yamashita 1969): acute toxicity was ated with AD.
low. Sedation (decrease of spontaneous motor
activity and caffeine-induced hyperactivity) and
hypnosis (loss of righting reflex) were observed, Nephroprotective Activity
the latter in higher intraperitoneal doses.
Hexobarbital-induced anaesthesia was pro- Seven herbal plant extracts evaluated including
longed. Analgesic activity was found in both the Paeonia suffruticosa root cortex had a strong
inhibition of writhing symptom induced with recovery effect on cisplatin-induced nephro-
intraperitoneal administration of acetic acid and toxic damage in HEK 293 cells (Sohn et al.
mouse tail pain by pressing. Hypothermia and 2009b). It was found that 1 μg/mL P. suffruti-
antipyretic activity in typhoid–paratyphoid vaccine- cosa treatment showed greater than 20 % recov-
febrile mouse were found. Anticonvulsive effect ery of 14 μM cisplatin-induced 50 % loss of cell
on maximal electroshock was obtained and the proliferation (IC50) as determined by mitochon-
same effect was also obtained on pentetrazol- and drial activity MTS assay in HEK 293 cells.
nicotine-induced convulsions. Thus, it was found Further studies using the microarray analysis
that paeonol exhibited many central depressive and real-time RT-PCR revealed that DNA
effects and may be associated with some parts of repair- and cell proliferation-related genes were
the therapeutic effects of peony bark cortex in up-regulated in Paeonia root extract-treated
oriental medicine. HEK 293 cells (Sohn et al. 2009a). The mecha-
Results of studies suggested that both nism responsible was closely associated with
Paeonia suffruticosa and its active constituent the regulation of DNA repair and cell prolifera-
PGG exerted potent inhibitory effects on the tion. The results suggested that P. suffruticosa
formation of Abeta fibrils in vitro and in vivo possessed novel therapeutic potential that could
(Fujiwara et al. 2009). P. suffruticosa not only be used for the prevention or treatment of cispl-
inhibited fibril formation of both Abeta(1–40) atin-induced nephrotoxicity. Animal studies
and Abeta(1–42), but it also destabilized pre- showed that mice pretreated with paeonol 4 days
formed Abeta fibrils in a concentration-depen- before intraperitoneal administration of cispla-
dent manner and improved long-term memory tin showed marked attenuation of serum cre-
impairment in the transgenic mice and inhib- atine and blood urea nitrogen levels as well as
ited the accumulation of Abeta in the brain. reduced levels of proinflammatory cytokines
Paeonia × suffruticosa 611

and nitric oxide when compared to the control prevented liver injury as indicated by the decrease
group (Lee et al. 2013). Further, the paeonol- of serum alanine aminotransferase level (Shon
treated group showed prolonged survival and and Nam 2004). Moutan Cortex also protected
marked attenuation of renal tissue injury. The acetaminophen-induced hepatic glutathione
results demonstrated that paeonol could prevent depletion. Cytochrome P450 2E1-dependent ani-
the renal toxic effects of cisplatin. line and p-nitrophenol hydroxylase activities in
Two major compounds in P. suffruticosa, microsomal incubations were significantly inhib-
paeoniflorin and oxypaeoniflora, exhibited ited by Moutan Cortex.
protective effect on advanced glycation end Animal studies showed that administration of
product (AGE)-induced oxidative stress and Moutan Cortex radicis had a protective effect on
inflammation in mesangial cells HBZY-1 acute liver injury induced by carbon tetrachlo-
(Zhang et al. 2013). The IC50 values of paeoni- ride, D-galactosamine and α-naphthylisothio
florin and oxypaeoniflora for inhibiting cyanate (Park et al. 2011). Enhanced aminotrans-
2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic ferase, multiple and extensive areas of portal
acid) formation were 4.197 × 10−4 M and inflammation, hepatocellular necrosis and an
1.002 × 10−4 M, respectively. The pretreatment increase in inflammatory cell infiltration were all
with paeoniflorin and oxypaeoniflora signifi- attenuated by Moutan Cortex. The increase in
cantly increased advanced glycation end prod- serum total bilirubin concentration and the sig-
uct-induced glutathione peroxidase and nificant decrease in bile flow 48 h after
catalase activities. In the coculture system of α-naphthylisothiocyanate treatment, were also
HBZY-1 and macrophages, paeoniflorin and rectified by Moutan Cortex.
oxypaeoniflora could inhibit remarkably the Studies by Ha et al. (2014) found that palbi-
migration of macrophages. Additionally, none from Paeonia suffruticosa protected hepatic
paeoniflorin and oxypaeoniflora attenuated cells by up-regulation of heme oxygenase-1 via
markedly advanced glycation end product- activation of Nrf2 and may involve PI3K/Akt and
induced inflammation cytokines interleukin-6 ERK1/2 pathways.
and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 levels
in a dose-dependent manner. The results indi-
cated that paeoniflorin and oxypaeoniflora Antiplatelet Aggregating Activity
were able to attenuate advanced glycation end
product-induced oxidative damage and inflam- Extracts of the xylem of moutan root containing
mation in mesangial cells and might therefore such monoterpene glucosides such as paeoniflo-
have a beneficial effect in the treatment of dia- rin, oxypaeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin and
betic nephropathy. benzoyloxypaeoniflorin were found to possess
inhibitory effects on blood platelet aggregation,
plasminogen and plasmin activities like Moutan
Hepatoprotective Activity Cortex extracts (Tani et al. 1980b). One-week
oral administration of water extract of Moutan
Moutan Cortex extract exhibited dose-dependent Cortex (3 g/day) significantly reduced platelet
protective effect acetaminophen-induced cyto- aggregation and thromboxane B2 (TXB2) forma-
toxicity in human Chang liver cells (Shon and tion induced by collagen, epinephrine and ADP
Nam 2002). Moutan Cortex exerted dose- (Hirai et al. 1983). Paeonol, its major constituent,
dependent increases in MTT metabolism, gluta- dose-dependently inhibited ADP and collagen-
thione and ATP and DNA levels in acetamino induced platelet aggregation in vitro. Moutan
phen-treated cells and counteracted the inhibition Cortex and paeonol dose-dependently inhibited
of mitochondrial function caused by acetamino- the conversion of exogenous [14C] arachidonic
phen. Pretreatment of ICR mice with Moutan acid to [14C]heptadecatetraenoic acid and [14C]
Cortex prior to acetaminophen administration thromboxane B2 by washed human platelets,
612 Paeoniaceae

while both of them increased its conversion to pressed by P. suffruticosa pretreatment. Melanin
[14C]12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. The results biosynthesis increased upon stimulation of
suggested that a reduction in platelet aggregation CXCR3 ligands (MIG, IP-10 or I-TAC) and
by the oral administration of Moutan Cortex decreased following CXCR3 downregulation by
might be ascribed to a decrease in thromboxane shRNA knockdown. P. suffruticosa pretreatment
synthesis and that paeonol might play an impor- showed a lightening effect partly by attenuating
tant role in the antiaggregatory effect of Moutan CXCR3-mediated signalling at the transcrip-
Cortex because of its potent inhibitory effect on tional level.
platelet aggregation and thromboxane formation. The antioxidant EC50 values of eight Paeonia
Paeonol was found to regulate blood rheology suffruticosa extracts Ps-1–8 were 10.0, 9.8, 63.6,
like aspirin by its antiaggregating activity and to >100, 3.8, 85.1, 6.9 and 0.7 μg/mL for (DPPH·)
improve blood flow in rats (Li et al. 2000). Of the radical scavenging efficiency and 22.9, 11.4,
18 compounds, isolated from the dry roots of 53.1, >100, 7.5, 97.6, 43.7 and 4.2 μg/mL for
Paeonia lactiflora (Radix Paeoniae) and dry root 2,2′-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-
bark of P. suffruticosa (Moutan Cortex), paeonol, sulphonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS · (+))
paeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin and benzoy- radical scavenging capacity, respectively (Ding
loxypaeoniflorin were found to be the major et al. 2011). The high free radical scavenging
common active constituents that would collec- capacity, ion chelating ability, reducing power
tively contribute to improving blood circulation and inhibition of lipid peroxidation exhibited by
through their inhibitory effects on both platelet Ps-8 may be attributable to its abundant phenolic
aggregation and blood coagulation (Koo et al. and flavonoid content. In human skin fibroblast
2010). Additionally, methyl gallate, (+)-catechin, Hs68 and mice melanoma B16 cells treated with
paeoniflorigenone, galloylpaeoniflorin and dau- 100 μg/mL Ps-1, Ps-3, Ps-4 and Ps-6, expres-
costerol may also take part in improving blood sions of toxic activities were lower than those in
circulation by inhibiting either platelet aggrega- cells treated with arbutin and ascorbic acid. The
tion or blood coagulation. antimelanogenesis properties were also tested in
B16 cells. Extract Ps-1, and particularly extract
Ps-6, considerably inhibited cellular tyrosinase
Antityrosinase/Skin Whitening and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) oxidase
Activity activity and also reduced melanin content in B16
cells by down-expression of melanocortin-1
Six mushroom tyrosinase inhibitors isolated from receptor (MC1R), microphthalmia-associated
Paeonia suffruticosa root were identified as kaemp- transcription factor (MITF), tyrosinase and
ferol, quercetin, mudanpioside B, benzoyloxy- tyrosinase-related protein-1 (TRP-1). The results
paeoniflorin, mudanpioside H and pentagalloyl- suggested P. suffruticosa extracts had antioxi-
β-(D)-glucose with IC50 values of 0.120, 0.108, dant and antimelanogenesis activities with
0.368, 0.453, 0.324 and 0.063 mM, respectively potential applications in cosmetic materials or
(Ding et al. 2009). Paeonia suffruticosa pretreat- food additives.
ment suppressed sunburn cell formation in the trans-Caffeic acid stearyl ester (TCASE),
three-dimensional skin model and erythema from Paeonia suffruticosa roots, markedly and
formation and pigmentation in volunteers dose-dependently inhibited melanin synthesis
exposed to UVB irradiation (Kurata et al. 2010). and reduced intracellular cyclic adenosine
Up-regulation of CXCR3 and its ligands, CXCL9/ monophosphate (cAMP) levels, tyrosinase
monokine induced by interferon (IFN)-γ (MIG), activity and L-3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-alanine
CXCL10/10-kDa IFN-γ-induced protein (IP-10) (DOPA) oxidase activity in the presence of
and CXCL11/inducible T-cell α-chemoattractant α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) in
(I-TAC) after UVB irradiation was partially sup- murine melanoma B16 cells, and the inhibition
Paeonia × suffruticosa 613

efficiency of TCASE exceeds that of ascorbic Diuretic Activity

acid and arbutin (Liang et al. 2012). TCASE
reduced melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R), Paeonol at the doses of 62.5–250 mg/kg p.o. pro-
microphthalmia transcription factor (MITF), duced dose-dependent increases in urinary water,
tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related protein-2 (TRP-2) sodium and chloride and osmolality in bicarbon-
and TRP-1 mRNA and protein levels in murine ate saline-loaded rats (Kawashima et al. 1985).
melanoma B16 cells. In the cell viability assay, Urinary potassium was unchanged at the lower
TCASE did not show a cytotoxic effect at a dose doses and decreased at the highest dose. The low-
of 65 μM for 48 h in murine B16, human prema- est effective dose of paeonol in diuretic action was
lignant keratinocytic, HaCaT and human skin 62.5 mg/kg. The highest dose of paeonol pro-
fibroblast, Hs68 cells. duced the same degree of increase in urine as
hydrochlorothiazide (HTZ) (10 mg/kg), while the
increases in electrolyte excretion by HTZ were
Vasodilatory Activity significantly greater than by paeonol. The data
demonstrated that paeonol has a diuretic action.
PGG (1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose)
isolated from root bark induced a concentration-
dependent relaxation of the phenylephrine- Anti-allergic Activity
precontracted rat aorta (Kang et al. 2005). It was
found that PGG dilated vascular smooth muscle Moutan Cortex radicis treatment suppressed
and suppressed the vascular inflammatory pro- eotaxin secretion from A549 epithelial cells via
cess via endothelium-dependent nitric oxide the inhibition of NF-kappa B activation, indicat-
(NO)/cGMP signalling. Recent studies showed ing that it may have therapeutic value in treating
that paeonol from P. suffruticosa root bark asthma (Kim et al. 2007). Eotaxin is a potent
relaxed isolated rat aorta rings by 95.6 %, and eosinophil-specific chemokine that is released in
the EC50 of vasodilatation by paeonol was the respiratory epithelium after allergic stimula-
2.9 × 10−4 M (Li et al. 2010). Although paeonol tion. PentaHerbs formula (PHF) containing
exerted endothelium-independent relaxation, Moutan Cortex, and four other herbs, and its
L-NAME (NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester) herbal components, i.e. Moutan Cortex and
treatment inhibited paeonol-induced vasodilation Mentha haplocalyx, significantly attenuated his-
of endothelium intact rings, while indomethacin tamine release and prostaglandin D(2) synthesis
did not. Both L-NAME and ODQ (1H-[1,2,4] from rat peritoneal mast cells (RPMCs) activated
oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one) did not by anti-IgE and compound 48/80 (Chan et al.
affect paeonol relaxation in the rings without 2008). Also, with the exception of Moutan
endothelium. Paeonol markedly blocked vaso- Cortex, PHF and the other four component herbs
constriction induced by angiotensin II, prosta- failed to affect cytokine production in HMC-1.
glandin F2 alpha (PGF2 alpha), 5-hydroxytryp PHF was reported to be useful in the manage-
tamine, dopamine, vasopressin, endothelin-1 and ment of atopic eczema.
pre-eclampsia in pretreated aortic rings (without The ethanol Moutan Cortex extract (200 mg/
endothelium). In addition, paeonol markedly kg) significantly inhibited the passive cutaneous
elevated NO generation in cultured endothelial anaphylactic reaction in vivo and suppressed the
cells. The study also found that voltage-dependent release of histamine from rat peritoneal mast
and receptor-operated Ca2+ channel and intracel- cells induced by compound 48/80 (Hong et al.
lular Ca2+ release were all inhibited by paeonol, 2010). The anti-allergic inflammation of Moutan
thus indicating intracellular Ca2+ regulatory Cortex extract was found to be associated with its
mechanism may be responsible for the potent inhibition of the NF-kappa B/IkappaBalpha
vasodilatory effect of paeonol. signalling pathway and the phosphorylation of
614 Paeoniaceae

extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Pharmacokinetic Studies

Moutan Cortex extract also decreased the expres-
sions of TNF-alpha and IL-6 in PMA- and Paeonol showed greater permeation from artifi-
A23187-stimulated human mast HMC-1 cells. cial gastric juice into artificial plasma when it
was applied as a decoction or freeze-dried extract
of Moutan Cortex than when applied as purified
Antiobesity Activity paeonol alone in in-vitro studies using an absorp-
tion simulator (Tani et al. 1987).
Results of animal studies indicated that tree Six metabolites were isolated from human
peony could protect against obesity, especially in urine after oral administration of paeonol, and
male (SLN × C3H/He) F1 obese mice, at least their structures were elucidated as resacetophe-
partly by a decrease in food intake and index of none, resacetophenone-2-O-sulphate, 2-hydroxy-
obesity and an increase in glucose metabolism 4-methoxyacetophenone-5-O-sulphate,
(Nagasawa et al. 1991). Paeonia suffruticosa was 2-hydroxy-4-methoxyacetophenone-5-O-gluco-
one of several plants successfully identified for pyranuronoside, 2-hydroxyacetophenone-4-O-
the treatment of obesity (Vasudeva et al. 2012). glucopyranuronoside and 2,5-dihydroxy-4-meth
oxyacetophenone (Ding et al. 2012b). In addi-
tion, three more metabolites, 2,4-dihydroxyace-
Wound Healing Activity tophenone-5-O-sulphate, paeonol-2-O-gluco
pyranuronoside and paeonol-2-O-sulphate, were
Moutan Cortex extract significantly increased also identified in human urine.
cell viability of human HaCaT keratinocyte and
human primary dermal fibroblasts (pNHDF) in a
dose-dependent way (Wang et al. 2013). Its Herb–Drug Interaction Studies
proanthocyanidin-containing fractions as well as
1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (PGG)- Mu Dan Pi (Paeonia suffruticosa) was found to
containing fractions contributed substantially to have remarkable inhibiting effects on the metab-
the skin cell-stimulating effects. PGG-containing olism of CYP3A4 in metabolism-based herb–
fractions enhanced cell viability and cellular pro- drug interactions in human liver microsomes and
liferation of HaCaT keratinocytes at a concentra- in rats (Pao et al. 2012). In rats, Mu Dan Pi greatly
tion of 100 nM. increased the C(max) and AUC of midazolam
indicating herb–drug interactions.

Xerostomia Protective Activity

Acaricidal Activity
Herbal extracts from the root barks of Juncus effu-
sus and Paeonia suffruticosa were found to have Paeonia suffruticosa var. papaveracea was found
therapeutic effects on xerostomia (dry mouth), a to have 2′-hydroxy-4′-methoxyacetophenone
serious side effect caused by cis-platinum (II) (paeonol) as an insecticidal ingredient in the root
diammine dichloride (CDDP), a platinum-based (Xu et al. 2003). Paeonia root bark-derived mate-
anticancer agent (Mukudai et al. 2013). Both rials, particularly paeonol and benzoic acid,
extracts exhibited protective effect in human sali- exhibited acaricidal activity against adults of
vary gland acinar NS-SV-AC cells from the cyto- house dust mites, Dermatophagoides farinae and
toxicity and apoptosis caused by CDDP. The Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (Kim et al.
effect was dependent on the p53 pathway, protein 2004a). On the basis of 24 h LD50 values, the
kinase B/Akt 1 and mitochondrial apoptosis- acaricidal activities of paeonol (7.82 μg/cm3)
related proteins (i.e. Bcl-2 and Bax). and benzoic acid (6.58 μg/cm3) against adult
Paeonia × suffruticosa 615

D. farinae were comparable to that of benzyl uterine wet weight and thymidine kinase activity
benzoate (7.72 μg/cm3) but higher than those of by 29 % and 39 %, respectively. Treatment with
DEET (36.34 μg/cm3) and dibutyl phthalate KBG also enhanced luteinizing hormone-
(33.92 μg/cm3). Against adult D. pteronyssinus, the releasing hormone-induced increases in plasma
acaricidal activities of paeonol (7.08 μg/cm3) and LH and FSH levels 1.2- and 2.5-fold, respec-
benzyl benzoate (7.22 μg/cm3) were comparable tively, as compared with controls. The results
to that of benzyl benzoate (7.14 μg/cm3). Paeonol obtained in the study indicated that TJ-25 may
and benzoic acid were much more effective in act as a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone
closed containers than open ones, indicating that antagonist and/or as a weak antioestrogen. In a
the effect of these compounds was largely a result subsequent study of 110 premenopausal patients
of action in the vapour phase. Neither benzyl with uterine myomas, clinical symptoms of
benzoate, DEET nor dibutyl phthalate exhibited hypermenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea were
fumigant toxicity. improved in more than 90 % of the cases with
The acaricidal activities of paeonol (2′-hydroxy- shrinking of uterine myomas in roughly 60 % of
4′-methoxyacetophenone) and benzoic acid from the cases (Sakamoto et al. 1992).
tree peony exhibited acaricidal activity against Resveratrol and its oligomers from P. suffruti-
copra mite, Tyrophagus putrescentiae adults (Tak cosa seeds were found to be active as ecdysteroid
et al. 2006). Based on LD50 values in fabric-piece antagonists (ED50 values = 10 to 50 μM vs.
contact toxicity bioassays, the acaricidal activi- 5 × 10−8 M 20-hydroxyecdysone) in the Drosophila
ties of benzoic acid (4.80 μg/cm−2) and paeonol melanogaster BII bioassay (Sarker et al. 1999).
(5.29 μg/cm−2) were comparable to that of benzyl
benzoate (4.46 μg/cm−2) but more pronounced
than those of DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide) Antimutagenic Activity
(30.03 μg/cm−2) and dibutyl phthalate (25.23 μg/
cm−2). In vapour-phase toxicity bioassays, pae- Only the ether extract of Moutan Cortex (P. suf-
onol and benzoic acid were much more effective fruticosa) showed a bio-antimutagenic effect by
in closed containers than in open ones, indicating suppression of 4NQO (4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide)-
that the effects of these compounds were largely induced mutation in Escherichia coli WP2s, but
due to action in the vapour phase. Potent fumi- no decrease in 4NQO- or MNNG (N-methyl-N′-
gant toxicity was also observed. nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine)-induced mutation in
E. coli WP2 was observed upon addition of the
extract (Fukuhara and Yoshida 1987). Paeonol
Reproductive Hormonal Activity was found to be the bioactive component.

Long-term (14 days) daily oral administration of

300 mg/kg of Keishi-bukuryo-gan (KBG), a tra- Mutagenic Activity
ditional Chinese herbal remedy containing five
components including root bark of P. suffruti- Paeonia suffruticosa extract was one of several
cosa, to immature rats was found to decrease plant extracts found to be mutagenic in the micro-
plasma levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), nucleus and chromosomal aberration assays in
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and estradiol mice (Yin et al. 1991).
(E2), by 94 %, 67 % and 50 %, respectively, com-
pared to controls. Uterine wet weight and thymi-
dine kinase activity were reduced to 65 % and Traditional Medicinal Uses
64 % that of controls, respectively (Sakamoto
et al. 1988). Short-term simultaneous administra- Since ancient times, P. suffruticosa root cortex
tion of KBG (three consecutive doses, every (Moutan Cortex or ‘Mu Dan Pi’ or ‘Botanpi’) has
12 h) with E2 reduced E2-induced increases in been employed as an important crude drug in
616 Paeoniaceae

Chinese medicine; its flowers have also been and diabetes (Shimizu et al. 1993). Danzhixiaoyao
used medicinally. Moutan Cortex has been used Wan, a common Chinese herbal formulation
in prescriptions for chronic inflammatory dis- (comprising 10 herbs, 10 including P. suffruti-
ease, which is considered to produce a state of cosa), has been employed to regulate several clin-
stagnation of disordered blood, or ‘ynxie’, as ical conditions affecting women (Liao et al. 2007).
expressed in Chinese medicine (Kubo et al. 1979;
Miyazawa et al. 1983). Examples of such pre-
scriptions are ‘guizhi-fuling-wan and wen-jing- Other Uses
tang’ for chronic female genital diseases;
‘ba-wei-tang’ for diseases of the aged, e.g., dia- P. suffruticosa is popularly planted as an orna-
betes and arteriosclerosis; and dahuang-mudan- mental and also as a medicinal plant.
tang for appendicitis and carbuncles (Kubo et al. Paeonol from P. suffruticosa exhibited inhibi-
1979). Moutan Cortex has been employed as an tory effects on phytopathogens Xanthomonas ory-
analgesic, sedative, anti-inflammatory and anti- zae pv. oryzicola, Pseudomonas solanacearum,
pyretic agent and as a remedy for cardiovascular, Phyllosticta mali and Rhizoctonia solani (Wu
extravasated blood, stagnated blood and female et al. 2003). Paeonol and sodium paeonol sulpho-
genital diseases (Chang and But 1986; Yoshikawa nate had antibiotic effect on maize sheath blight.
et al. 1992; Ding et al. 1999; Xu et al. 2006b; Fu
et al. 2012), and one of the common herbs found
in antidiabetic traditional Chinese medicine Comments
formulas (Lau et al. 2007) and employed for
vitalizing blood circulation and alleviating liver Two subspecies have been recognized:
and inflammatory diseases (Ha et al. 2014). 1. P. suffruticosa subsp. suffruticosa with double
Traditionally, Chinese used flowers and roots of flowers, petals variously coloured, white,
tree peony for herbal medicine preparations as a pink, red or red-purple
remedy for women to cure irregular menstruation 2. P. suffruticosa subsp. yinpingmudan with sin-
and dysmenorrhoea (Wang et al. 2005a; Li et al. gle flowers, petals white or pale red-purple
2009b). Additionally, flower extracts have been
used as an ingredient in skincare products to
enhance skin flexibility, reduce pigment accumu- Selected References
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ment of gynaecological disorders such as hyper- from the seeds of Paeonia suffruticosa, inhibits
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in RAW 264.7 macrophages via blockade of nuclear
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 Eschscholzia californica

Scientific Name Eschscholzia granulata Greene, Eschscholzia

granulata var. minuscula Fedde, Eschscholzia
Eschscholzia californica Cham. helleriana Greene, Eschscholzia helleriana var.
tilingii Fedde, Eschscholzia inflata Greene,
Eschscholzia isostigma Greene, Eschscholzia jun-
Synonyms cea Greene, Eschscholzia lacera Greene,
Eschscholzia leptandra Greene, Eschscholzia lep-
Eschscholzia californica var. douglasii (Hook. & tomitra Greene, Eschscholzia leucosticta Greene,
Arn. ex Torr. & A. Gray) Jeps., Eschscholzia Eschscholzia marcida Greene, Eschscholzia mar-
californica var. luxurians Fedde, Eschscholzia cida var. monticola Greene, Eschscholzia mari-
californica var. maritima (Greene) Jeps., tima Greene, Eschscholzia menziesiana Greene,
Eschscholzia californica var. peninsularis Eschscholzia menziesiana var. anemophila
(Greene) Munz, Eschscholzia californica var. Greene, Eschscholzia menziesiana var. coarctata
stricta (Greene) Jeps., Eschscholzia calosperma Fedde, Eschscholzia menziesiana var. nesiaca
Greene, Eschscholzia chartacea Fedde, Fedde, Eschscholzia menziesiana var. recedens
Eschscholzia clevelandi Greene, Eschscholzia Greene, Eschscholzia microloba Greene,
cognata Greene, Eschscholzia columbiana Eschscholzia nitrophila Greene, Eschscholzia ore-
Greene, Eschscholzia compacta (Lindl.) Walp., gana Greene, Eschscholzia peninsularis Greene,
Eschscholzia confinis Greene, Eschscholzia cro- Eschscholzia physodes Greene, Eschscholzia picta
cea Benth., Eschscholzia crocea var. apiifolia Greene, Eschscholzia pseudoinflata Fedde,
Greene, Eschscholzia crocea var. longissima Eschscholzia recta Greene, Eschscholzia revoluta
Greene, Eschscholzia crocea var. sanctarum Greene, Eschscholzia revoluta var. caudatocalyx
(Greene) Fedde, Eschscholzia cucullata Greene, Fedde, Eschscholzia rigida Greene, Eschscholzia
Eschscholzia cyathifera Greene, Eschscholzia robusta Greene, Eschscholzia rosea auct.,
debilis Greene, Eschscholzia diversiloba Greene, Eschscholzia sanctarum Greene, Eschscholzia
Eschscholzia douglasii (Hook. & Arn. ex Torr. & scariosa Greene, Eschscholzia scariosa var. dicha-
A. Gray) Walp., Eschscholzia douglasii Benth. siophora Fedde, Eschscholzia setchellii Fedde,
(illeg.), Eschscholzia douglasii Hook. & Arn., Eschscholzia shastensis Greene, Eschscholzia
Eschscholzia eastwoodiae Greene, Eschscholzia straminea Greene, Eschscholzia stricta Greene,
floribunda Greene, Eschscholzia floribunda var. Eschscholzia tenuisecta Greene, Eschscholzia
gorgonica Greene, Eschscholzia floribunda var. thermophila Greene, Eschscholzia tristis Fedde,
gracillima Fedde, Eschscholzia foeniculacea Eschscholzia vernalis Greene, Eschscholzia
Greene, Eschscholzia glauca Greene, xylorrhiza Greene, Eschscholzia yainacensis

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 622
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_46, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Eschscholzia californica 623

Greene, Eschscholzia yainacensis var. modocensis

Fedde, Omonoia californica Raf. Agroecology

Californian poppy survives mild winters in its

Common/English Names native range, dying completely in colder cli-
mates. It thrives best in full sun and in sandy,
California Golden Poppy, California Poppy, well-drained, poor soil but will grow in any ordi-
California Sunlight, Cup Of Gold, Golden Poppy, nary garden soil. It is drought tolerant, self-
Gold Poppy, Golden Cup, Mexican Gold, seeding and easy to grow in gardens. It is best
Mexican Gold Poppy, Western Poppy grown as an annual.

Vernacular Names Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Chile: Dedal De Oro, Hierba Del Ferrocarril Flowers are used in teas, in salads and in stir-fries
Chinese: Hua Ling Cao with aubergine (Roberts 2000). Its leaves are edi-
Czech: Sluncovka Kalifornská ble if cooked (Yanovsky 1936; Uphof 1968;
Danish: Californisk Guldvalmue, Guld-Valmue, Usher 1974).
Kalifornisk Guldvalmue, Kalifornisk Valmue
Dutch: Knipmutsje, Slaapmutsje
Estonian: Kalifornia Läänemagun Botany
Finnish: Kaliforniantuliunikko, Tuliunikko
French: Eschscholzie De Californie, Globe Du An herbaceous annual or short-lived branched,
Soleil, Pavot De Californie, Pavot Jaune De glabrous, perennial with a prominent taproot
Californie and erect or spreading stem, 30–60. Leaves
German: Eschscholzie, Goldmohn, Kalifornischer alternate, glaucous (bluish green), 10–30 cm,
Goldmohn, Kalifornischer Kappenmohn, petiolate, lamina blade tripinnatipartite vari-
Kalifornischer Mohn, Schlafmützchen ously lobed acutely linear, acutely oblong or
Hungarian: Kakukkmák, Kaliforniai Mák obtusely spatulate- oblong, with 3 terminal
India: Videshiposta lobes (Plates 1 and 2), upper leaves progres-
Norwegian: Californiavalmue, Kaliforniavalmue sively smaller and shortly petiolate. Flowers
Polish: Eszolcja, Maczek Kalifornijski, Pozłotka, solitary, terminal on 5–15 cm pedicels
Pozłotka Kalifornijska (Plates 1 and 2). Receptacles concave, funnel-
Portuguese: Papoila-Da-Califórnia form, 3–4 mm in diam., cupular after flower-
Slovašcina: Zlati Kalifornijski Mak ing, margin undulately reflexed. Sepals 2
Spanish: Amapola Amarilla, Amapolla, Amapola fused, ovoid, 1 cm, apically shortly conical.
De California, Amapola De Los Indios, Copa Petals 4 (except double flowers), yellow to
De Oro orange (Plate 3) (white, cream or pink),
Swedish: Sömntuta deltoid-flabellate, 2.5–3 cm. Stamens 12 to
(>40); filaments filiform, basally inflated,
3 mm; anthers orange, linear, 5–6 mm. Ovary
Origin/Distribution long, narrow; styles short; stigmas 4, subu-
late-linear, unequally long. Capsule narrowly
The species is native to the United States (i.e. cylindric, 5–8 cm, dehiscent from base. Seeds
Oregon, Washington, New Mexico, Texas, many, spherical, 1–1.5 mm across, net ridged,
Arizona, California, Nevada and Utah) and bur like or pitted, tan, brown and distinctly
northern Mexico. tessellate.
624 Papaveraceae

Plate 3 Close-up of flower

and lauroscholtzine, a new name for

N-methyllaurotetanine (Manske and Shin 1965).
Eschscholtzine was shown to be the bismethyl-
enedioxy analogue of N -methylpavine
(argemonine) (Manske et al. 1965). Chemical
fragmentation of the alkaloids also afforded
compounds of the eschscholtzine series,
eschscholtzinemethine, eschscholtzinemethine
hydrochloride, dihydroeschscholtzinemethine
hydrochloride, cyclooctatriene; 2,3,8,9-bismethy
lenedioxydibenzo[a,e]cyclooctadiene, 2,3,8,9-
Plate 1 Flowers and leaves tetramethoxydibenzo[a,e]cyclooctadiene and
2,3,8,9-bismethylenedioxydibenzo[a,e]cyclooc-
tatriene, and compounds of the N-methylpavine
series: N-methylpavinemethine, N-methyl-
pavinemethine hydrochloride, dihydro-N -
methylpavinemethine hydrochloride, tetra-
methoxydibenzo[a,e]cyclooctatriene and diben-
zocyclooctadiene.
Eschscholzia californica was found to contain
the aporphine, pavine and a number of protopines
(protopine, californine or eschscholtzine, escho-
linine, eschscholtzidine and the isomers crypto-
pine and allocryptopine), protoberberine,
benzophenanthridine and simple isoquinoline
Plate 2 Close view of flower and leaves alkaloids (Prieninger 1986; Paul and Maurer
2003). The alkaloids eschscholtzine and
eschscholtzine-N-oxide were isolated from the
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties petals (Urzúa and Mendoza 1986). The main
alkaloids of Eschscholzia californica were,
Alkaloids (All Plant Parts) namely, allocryptopine, californidine, chelery-
thrine, eschscholtzine, N-methyllaurotetanine,
The following alkaloids were identified in protopine and sanguinarine (Guédon et al. 1990).
Eschscholzia californica: eschscholtzine, proto- Allocryptopine was the major constituent in
pine, allocryptopine, cryptopine, chelerythrine roots, while californidine was the main alkaloid
Eschscholzia californica 625

in all aerial organs except flowers where the and dihydromacarpine, were isolated and charac-
major compound was eschscholtzine. terized (Tanahashi and Zenk 1990). Byun et al.
Seven compounds were detected in different (1990) found that elicitation in combination with
populations of Eschscholzia californica: two-phase culture of Eschscholzia californica
O-methylcaryachine, protopine, α-allocryptopine, increased tenfold the production of benzophenan-
eschscholtzine, californidine, sanguinarine and thridine alkaloids sanguinarine, chelerythrine,
chelerythrine (Tome et al. 1999). In all samples chelirubine and macarpine. Large increases in
the major components were the pavine alkaloids sanguinarine production were observed in two-
eschscholtzine and californidine, although their phase suspension cultured Eschscholzia califor-
content varied to a large extent (from 1- to nica cells treated with elicitors prepared from
10-fold). The commercial drug contained a sig- yeast extract, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum
nificantly lower concentration of alkaloids. and Verticillium dahliae (Byun et al. 1992).
A 70 % ethanol extract of Californian poppy A significant amount of benzophenanthridine
yielded the known alkaloids californidine, alkaloids sanguinarine and chelerythrine was
escholtzine, N-methyllaurotetanine, caryachine released into the medium, reaching maximum
and O-methylcaryachine, along with a new pavine levels a few hours after yeast elicitation of suspen-
alkaloid, 6S,12S-neocaryachine-7-O-methyl ether sion cultures of Eschscholzia californica (Collinge
N-metho salt (Gafner et al. 2006). The isoquino- and Brodelius 1989). Thereafter, their levels
line alkaloids hunnemanine and norsanguinarine declined and the amount of macarpine increased.
were isolated from methanolic plant extract of Chelerythrine and sanguinarine, two benzophen-
Eschscholzia californica (Singh et al. 2009). anthridine alkaloids, have been isolated from a
Fourteen isoquinoline alkaloids including crude methanolic extract of Eschscholzia cali-
1-(3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzyl)-2-methyl-6,7- fornica cell suspension cultures (Granger et al.
methylenedioxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline 1992). Villegas et al. (2000) found cell suspension
and reticuline were isolated from the plant cultures of Eschscholzia californica produced
(Cahlíková et al. 2010). A total of 23 alkaloids of relatively large amounts of benzophenanthridine
six structural types (pavinane, protopine, benzyl- alkaloids upon elicitation into the growth
isoquinoline, benzophenanthridine, aporphine medium (up to 50 % of total alkaloids) when
and protoberberine) were identified in Argemone yeast was used as elicitor, whereas small amounts
and Eschscholzia (Cahlíková et al. 2012). of alkaloids were released into the growth
medium when sodium orthovanadate was used
as abiotic elicitor. The biosynthesis of benzo-
Alkaloids (Cell Suspension Cultures) phenanthridine alkaloids, phytoalexins of
Eschscholzia californica, in cultured cells could
Rueffer et al. (1990) partially purified the be induced by a glycoprotein preparation from
enzyme (S)-tetrahydroprotoberberine-cis - N- yeast, methyl jasmonate, artificial acidification
methyltransferase from Eschscholzia califor- with permeant acids or mild osmotic stress
nica cell suspension cultures that specifically (Färber et al. 2003). The following benzophenan-
N-methylated certain (S)-tetrahydroprotoberberine thridine alkaloids, namely, sanguinarine, cheliru-
alkaloids such as (S)-canadine and (S)-stylopine bine, macarpine, chelerythrine and chelilutine,
at the expense of S-adenosyl-L-methionine. were produced by cell cultures of Eschscholzia
From cell cultures of Eschscholzia californica, californica (Klvana et al. 2006). Production of
three benzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloids, namely, the benzophenanthridine alkaloids in Eschscholzia
10-hydroxysanguinarine, 12-hydroxycheliru- californica suspension cell cultures was opti-
bine and 10-hydroxychelerythrine, and two mized by adding 0.5 mg methyl jasmonate (MJ)
dihydrobenzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloids, and 0.02 mg salicylic acid (SA)/g fresh culture
10-hydroxydihydrosanguinarine and 12-hydroxy- weight after 7 days cultivation (Cho et al. 2007).
dihydrochelirubine, together with the known Sanguinarine reached 24 mg/g DCW by such
constituents sanguinarine, chelirubine, macar- treatment, 10 times higher than in control cell
pine, dihydrosanguinarine, dihydrochelirubine cultures. MJ and SA induced expression of
626 Papaveraceae

berberine bridge enzyme and 3′-hydroxy-(S)-N- specific set of protective enzymes and thus was
methylcoclaurine - 4 ′– O -methyltransferase, managed like an oxidative stress. Alkaloid profile
respectively. MJ and yeast had different effects of transgenic California poppy cells with
on protein expression and benzophenanthridine CjTHBO gene (DNA of tetrahydroberberine oxi-
alkaloid accumulation in E. californica suspen- dase (THBO) from cultured Coptis japonica
sion cell cultures (Cho et al. 2008). Using 7-day- cells) comprised protopine, allocryptopine, san-
old cultures, MJ induced the earlier metabolite guinarine, 10-hydroxychelerythrine, chelery-
(dihydrosanguinarine), whereas yeast promoted thrine, chelirubine, dehydrocheilanthifoline and
conversion to the subsequent metabolite (san- coptisine (Matsushima et al. 2012).
guinarine) in the benzophenanthridine alkaloid
biosynthetic pathway. Alkaloids of elicitor-
treated cell cultures of E. californica identified Alkaloid Biosynthesis
by ESI-MS/MS (electrospray ionization with
tandem mass spectrometry) and ESI-FTICR-MS Park et al. (2002) working on benzophenanthri-
electrospray ionization (ESI-Fourier transform dine alkaloid biosynthesis in transgenic cell cul-
ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer) tures of California poppy found that all
included the following: N-methylnorcoclaurine, benzylisoquinoline alkaloids shared a common
magnocurarine (N,N -dimethylcoclaurine), biosynthetic origin beginning with a lattice of
3′O-methylreticuline (codamine), reticuline, decarboxylations, ortho-hydroxylations and
magnoflorine, romneine, N-methylscoulerine deaminations that convert L-tyrosine into both
(cyclanoline), sinactine, escholidine, dopamine and 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde.
N-methyltetrahydrothalifendine, N-methylchei- Stadler et al. (1987, 1989) found that dopamine
lanthifoline, chelidonine, chelirubine, chelirubine and 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde condensed
isomer, dihydrochelirubine, allocryptopine, to form the trihydroxylated alkaloid (S)-
dihydromacarpine, macarpine, protopine, norcoclaurine, the central precursor to all benzyl-
10-hydroxydihydrosanguinarine isomer, isoquinoline alkaloids produced in plants. Stadler
N-methylcanadine, N-methylstylopine and et al. (1989) demonstrated that (S)-norcoclaurine
columbamine (Liscombe et al. 2009). was specifically incorporated into protoberber-
In root-derived cell cultures of Eschscholzia ine, aporphine and benzophenanthridine alka-
californica, the overproduction of cytotoxic ben- loids in cell suspension cultures, as well as into
zophenanthridine alkaloids could be triggered pavine and benzophenanthridine alkaloids in
by a minimum of pathogen pressure that does not whole plants. ( S )-Norcoclaurine was found
evoke hypersensitive reactions (Angelova et al. to be converted to ( S )-reticuline by a
2010). The four proteins showing the highest 6-O-methyltransferase (Morishige et al. 2000),
overexpression were identical between cells that an N-methyltransferase (Choi et al. 2001), a P450
received low- or high-elicitor treatment and hydroxylase (Pauli and Kutchan 1998) and a
overlapped with the three proteins up-regulated 4′-O-methyltransferase (Morishige et al. 2000).
by artificial pH shifts. They comprised one Studies by Pauli and Kutchan (1998) established
biosynthetic enzyme (norcoclaurine, SAM 4′ that a P450-dependent monooxygenase
O-methyl-transferase) plus a unique combination (CYP80B1) isolated from California poppy con-
of stress-protective proteins: a heat-shock protein verted (S)-N-methylcoclaurine to (S)-3′-hydroxy-
(HSP70), a peptidyl-prolyl-cis/trans isomerase N-methylcoclaurine and not by a phenolase as
(cyclophilin) and a glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate suggested by Loeffler and Zenk (1990) to be
dehydrogenase. They found that overproduction involved in the two separate reactions in the for-
of the benzophenanthridine phytoalexins required mation of reticuline, namely, the hydroxylation
the up-regulation of a rate-limiting biosynthetic of tyrosine (tyramine) to DOPA (dopamine) and
enzyme plus the coordinated expression of a the 3′-hydroxylation of N-methylcoclaurine to
Eschscholzia californica 627

3′-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine, the penultimate two genes (CYP719A9 and CYP719A11) were

intermediate to reticuline. preferentially expressed in plant leaf, where
Paul et al. (2004) found the cytochrome P450 pavine-type alkaloids accumulated, whereas the
(CYP) isoenzyme dependence of the main meta- other two showed higher expression in root than
bolic steps of the Eschscholzia californica alka- in other tissues. CYP719A5 was found to have
loids californine and protopine using rat liver cheilanthifoline synthase activity. In addition,
microsomes. Californine N-demethylation was enzyme assay analysis of recombinant
mainly catalysed by CYP3A2 and to a minor CYP719A9 suggested that it has methylene-
extent by CYP1A2 and CYP2D1, but not by dioxy bridge-forming activity towards (R,S)-
CYP2C11. CYP2D1 and CYP2C11 were shown reticuline. CYP719A9 might be involved in the
to be mainly involved in demethylenation of biosynthesis of pavine-type and/or simple ben-
both californine and protopine, while CYP1A2 zylisoquinoline-type alkaloids, possessed a
and CYP3A2 showed only minor contribution. methylenedioxy bridge in an isoquinoline ring,
Two cytochrome P450 cDNA enzymes, in E. californica leaf.
CYP719A2 and CYP719A3, involved in stylo- Four cytochrome P450s involved in the bio-
pine biosynthesis were isolated from cultured synthesis of benzylisoquinoline alkaloid san-
Eschscholzia californica cells (Ikezawa et al. guinarine from reticuline, i.e. cheilanthifoline
2007). Both CYP719A2 and CYP719A3 had synthase, stylopine synthase, N-methylstylopine
stylopine synthase activity to catalyse methyl- hydroxylase and protopine 6-hydroxylase, were
enedioxy bridge formation from cheilanthifoline isolated from Eschscholzia californica (Takemura
to stylopine, but not cheilanthifoline synthase et al. 2013). Recombinant CYP82N2v2 was pro-
activity to convert scoulerine to cheilanthifoline. duced in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and showed
CYP719A2 was found to have high substrate protopine conversion to produce dihydrosanguin-
affinity only towards (R,S)-cheilanthifoline, arine and allocryptopine conversion to produce
whereas CYP719A3 had high affinity towards dihydrochelerythrine.
three similar substrates (R,S)-cheilanthifoline, Two enzymes involved in benzophenanthridine
(S)-scoulerine and (S)-tetrahydrocolumbamine. alkaloid biosynthesis, dihydrosanguinarine-10-
An expression analysis in E. californica plant hydroxylase and 10-hydroxydihydrosanguina-
tissues showed that CYP719A2 and CYP719A3 rine-10-O-methyltransferase, were found in
exhibited expression patterns similar to those of cell-free extracts derived from Eschscholzia cali-
three stylopine biosynthetic genes (CYP80B1, fornica cell suspension cultures (De-Eknamkul
berberine bridge enzyme and S-adenosyl-L- et al. 1992). The hydroxylase was found to be a
methionine: 3′-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine microsome-associated, cytochrome P450-
4′-O-methyltransferase), whereas the specific dependent monooxygenase acting specifically at
expression of CYP719A3 in root was notable. C-10 of dihydrosanguinarine. The methyltransfer-
Treatment of E. californica seedlings with ase was found to methylate only the hydroxyl moi-
methyl jasmonate resulted in the coordinated ety at C-10 to form dihydrochelirubine. Both
induction of CYP719A2 and CYP719A3 genes. enzymes were found to be highly substrate spe-
Four kinds of cytochrome P450 CYP719A genes cific. Novel gene targets found in E. californica
from E. californica were isolated and their func- included reticuline 3′-O-methyltransferase and
tions characterized (Ikezawa et al. 2009). These cheilanthifoline O-methyltransferase. Eight
four cDNA-encoded amino acid sequences that benzophenanthridine alkaloids, sanguinarine,
were highly homologous to Coptis japonica 10-hydro-sanguinarine, chelerythrine, chelirubine,
CYP719A1 and E. californica CYP719A2 macarpine, dihydrochelerythrine, dihydrocheliru-
and CYP719A3 may be involved in isoquino- bine and dihydrosanguinarine, were identified
line alkaloid biosynthesis in E. californica. from yeast-elicited Eschscholzia californica cell
Expression analysis of these genes showed that cultures (Gathungu et al. 2012).
628 Papaveraceae

Flavonoids and Other Phytochemicals and glucose, detected may be responsible for the
increased hygroscopicity and the poor processing
A retro-carotenoid was isolated from the petals behaviour of the extracts.
of the Californian yellow poppy, Eschscholzia
californica, and determined as (all-E)-
(3S,5R,3′S)-4′,5-retro-β,β-carotene-3,5,3′-triol Anxiolytic/Sedative/Analgesic:
(Maoka et al. 2000). From the petals were iso- Neuromodulatory Activity
lated rutin (5 %), yielding on acid hydrolysis
quercetin and penta-acteylquercetin (Sando and California poppy was found to have a sedating
Bartlett 1920). The following carotenoids were effect on the central nervous system and a relax-
found in the pollen and petals: neoxanthin, ing effect on the smooth musculature of the ileum
antheraxanthin, crocetin, eschscholtzxanthin and (Vincieri et al. 1988). In animal studies, an aque-
β-cryptoxanthin (Wakelin et al. 2003). The abso- ous extract of Eschscholzia californica exhibited
lute configuration of eschscholtzxanthin was sedative and anxiolytic properties in mice
determined as all-trans (3S,3′S)-4′,5′-didehydro- challenged with a variety of behavioural tests
4,5′-retro-β,βcarotene-3,3′-diol (Andrewes et al. (Rolland et al. 1991). Doses of more than 25 mg/
1979). Other intermediate carotenoids found in kg exerted anxiolytic effects, whereas higher dos-
the petals included phytofluene, ζ-carotene, ages of up to 200 mg/kg promoted sedation. The
β-carotene and zeaxanthin, besides the end extract was found to be nontoxic with intraperito-
products such as retro-carotene-triol and neal injection. In the medicinal herb Eschscholzia
eschscholtzxanthin. californica, californine and protopine were found
Two new isoflavones, together with quercitrin, to be mainly responsible for the sedative and
were isolated from whole plants of Eschscholzia spasmolytic effects (Rey et al. 1991). Kleber
californica (Jain et al. 1996). The structures of the et al. (1995) demonstrated that an aqueous–
new isoflavones were determined as alcoholic extract of Eschscholzia californica
2′-methoxyformononetin and 7-methoxy-2′,4′- inhibited the enzymatic degradation of catechol-
dihydroxyisoflavone. The aqueous ethanol extract amines, including dopamine β-hydroxylase and
of aerial parts of Eschscholzia californica monoamine oxidase (MAO-B), as well as the
yielded six flavonol 3-O-glycosides including two synthesis of adrenaline. The extract preserved
new compounds, quercetin 3-O-[α-rhamno- high catecholamine levels thus explaining its sed-
pyranosyl-(1–4)-α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1–6)-β- ative, antidepressive and hypnotic activities. The
glucopyranoside] and isorhamnetin 3-O-[α-rhamno- herbal drug Phytonoxon N (abbreviated as PN)
pyranosyl-(1–4)-α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1–6)-β- composed of alcoholic extracts of Corydalis cava
glucopyranoside], and β-D-glycoside, α-L-rhamno (20 %) and Eschscholzia californica (80 %)
(1 → 6)- β-D-glycoside, α-L-rhamno(1 → 4)-a-l- had been prescribed for nervousness-induced
rhamno(1 → 6)- β-D-glycoside and β-D-glycoside- insomnia, agitation and/or anxiety (Schäfer et al.
a-L-rhamnoside (Beck and Haberlein 1999a, b). 1995). Both plants had been reported to be rich
The plant also contained rutin, quercetin and in isoquinoline alkaloids derived from tyrosine
isorhamnetin (Duke 1992). metabolism. Recent research showed that they
Carbohydrates and organic acids, namely, may influence neurotransmitter metabolism.
lactic acid, glycolic acid, benzoic acid, succinic Researchers found that the peroxidase-catalysed
acid, malic acid, threonic acid, citric acid and dimerization via the tyrosine residues is espe-
large amounts of glyceric acid, were separated cially inhibited by Phytonoxon N (Reimeier et al.
from the herbal dry extracts of Eschscholzia 1995). The tyrosinase-catalysed reaction yielded
californica (Schiller et al. 2002). Glyceric acid five different products A–E. Phytonoxon N stim-
together with sugars, namely, glucose, fructose ulated the formation of the minor products A, B
Eschscholzia californica 629

and E, whereas the formation of the major modulation; GABA transaminase or glutamic
products C and D was inhibited. Only products acid decarboxylase inhibition; a range of mono-
C and D exhibited properties similar to the aminergic effects; and potential cannabinoid
peroxidase-derived dimer. Product A was likely receptor modulation.
to be identical to DOPA-enkephalin. Enkephalin
had been reported to bind to opioid receptors of
the nociceptive system thus provoking analgesic Acetylcholinesterase
responses. In a later study an aqueous alcohol and Butyrylcholinesterase
extract of Eschscholzia californica was found to Inhibitory Activity
possess sedative and anxiolytic effect in mice
(Rolland et al. 2001). The plant extract did not Two benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, reticuline and
protect mice against the convulsant effects of 1-(3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzyl)-2-methyl-6,7-
pentylenetetrazol and did not cause muscle relax- methylenedioxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline,
ant effects but appeared to have an affinity for the showed promising inhibitory activity against
benzodiazepine receptor, demonstrated by con- human plasma butyrylcholinesterase (Cahlíková
current administration of flumazenil, a benzodi- et al. 2010). None of the benzylisoquinoline alka-
azepine antagonist, which suppressed the sedative loids isolated significantly inhibited both human
and anxiolytic effects of the extract. The aqueous blood acetylcholinesterases.
alcohol extract of Eschscholzia californica
induced peripheral analgesic effects in mice
but did not possess antidepressant, neuroleptic Antibacterial Activity
or antihistaminic effects. Of the known
alkaloids isolated from E. californica, Sanguinarine has been in use in the United States
N-methyllaurotetanine showed the highest inhi- and on the continent in mouthwashes and tooth-
bition of [(3)H]8-hydroxy-2-(di-N-propylamino) pastes as it had been reported to curb bacterial
tetralin ([(3)H]8-OH-DPAT) binding to 5-HT1A supragingival plaque (Grenby 1995).
receptors in vitro with an EC50 value of 155 nM
and a K(i) of 85 nM (Gafner et al. 2006).
In a double-blind, randomized, placebo- Antidiuretic Hormonal Activity
controlled trial involving a total of 264 patients
(81 % females; mean age, 44.6 years) with gen- Chelerythrine and sanguinarine, two benzophen-
eralized anxiety (DSM-III-R) of mild-to-moder- anthridine alkaloids from E. californica, exhib-
ate intensity (total Hamilton Anxiety Rating ited affinity for rat liver vasopressin V1 receptors
Scale score between 16 and 28), administration and were competitive inhibitors of
of the preparation containing fixed quantities of [3H]-vasopressin binding within the micromolar
Crataegus oxyacantha, Eschscholzia califor- range (Ki) (Granger et al. 1992). Chelerythrine
nica and magnesium (two tablets twice daily for and sanguinarine represented two non-peptidic
3 months) proved safe and more effective than molecules providing original chemical leads for
placebo in treating mild-to-moderate anxiety the design of synthetic vasopressin compounds.
disorders (Hanus et al. 2004). In a review of
plant-based medicines for anxiety disorders,
preclinical evidence of anxiolytic activity (with- Inotropic Activity
out human clinical trials) was found for many
plants including Eschscholzia californica Sanguinarine exerted a concentration-dependent
(Sarris et al. 2013). Common mechanisms of positive inotropic effect in isometrically contract-
action for the majority of botanicals reviewed ing left guinea pig atria and inhibited cardiac
primarily involve GABA, either via direct recep- Na+, K+−ATPase isolated from guinea pig myo-
tor binding or ionic channel or cell membrane cardium (Seifen et al. 1979).
630 Papaveraceae

Traditional Medicinal Uses

Selected References
Californian poppy is often prescribed both as a Andrewes AG, Engler G, Borch G, Strain HH, Liaaen-
phytotherapeutic preparation and as a pharma- Jensen S (1979) Absolute configuration of
ceutical medicine for sleep disturbances in eschscholtzxanthin. Phytochemistry 18(2):303–309
children (Vincieri et al. 1988), insomnia and Angelova S, Buchheim M, Frowitter D, Schierhorn A,
Roos W (2010) Overproduction of alkaloid phytoalex-
neuralgia (Cheney 1963). Californian poppy is a ins in California poppy cells is associated with the
bitter sedative herb that acts as a diuretic, anal- co-expression of biosynthetic and stress-protective
gesic, spasmolytic and diaphoretic (Bown 1995; enzymes. Mol Plant 3(5):927–939
Chevallier 1996). The whole plant is harvested Beck MA, Haberlein H (1999a) A new flavonol
3-O-glycoside from Eschscholtzia californica. Planta
when in flower and dried for use in tinctures and Med 65(3):296
infusions. It is taken internally in the treatment Beck MA, Haberlein H (1999b) Flavonol glycosides from
of nervous tension, anxiety, insomnia, inconti- Eschscholzia californica. Phytochemistry
nence and bed-wetting (especially in children) 50(2):329–332
Bown D (1995) Encyclopaedia of herbs and their uses.
(Bown 1995; Chevallier 1996). The watery Dorling Kindersley, London, 424 pp
sap is mildly narcotic and has been used to Byun SY, Pedersen H, Chin CK (1990) Two-phase culture
relieve toothache (Bown 1995). An extract of for the enhanced production of benzophenanthridine
the root is used as a wash on the breasts to sup- alkaloids in cell suspensions of Eschscholtzia califor-
nica. Phytochemistry 29(10):3135–3139
press the flow of milk in lactating females Byun SY, Ryu YW, Kim C, Pedersen H (1992) Elicitation
(Moerman 1998). of sanguinarine production in two-phase cultures
of Eschscholtzia californica. J Ferment Bioeng
73(5):380–385
Cahlíková L, Macáková K, Kunes J, Kurfürst M, Opletal
L, Cvacka J, Chlebek J, Blundene G (2010)
Other Uses Acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase inhibi-
tory compounds from Eschscholzia californica
The species is widely cultivated in temperate (Papaveraceae). Nat Prod Commun 5(7):1035–1038
Cahlíková L, Kucera R, Host’álková A, Klimes J, Opletal
and Mediterranean-type gardens and widely L (2012) Identification of pavinane alkaloids in the
introduced as courtyard ornamentals in China. genera Argemone and Eschscholzia by GC-MS. Nat
Californian poppy contains alkaloids, some of Prod Commun 7(10):1279–1281
which have fungicidal activity. Cheney RH (1963) Therapeutic potential of Eschscholtziae
californicae herba. Pharm Biol 3(3):413–416
Californian poppy alkaloid, hunnemanine, Chevallier A (1996) The encyclopedia of medicinal plants.
exhibited 100 % inhibition of spore germination of Dorling Kindersley, London, 336 pp
Alternaria brassicae, Helminthosporium pennisetti Cho HY, Lee-Parsons CW, Yoon SY, Rhee HS, Park JM
and Fusarium lini at 1,000 ppm, whereas norsan- (2007) Enhanced benzophenanthridine alkaloid pro-
duction and protein expression with combined elicitor
guinarine exhibited 100 % inhibition of Alternaria in Eschscholtzia californica suspension cultures.
brassicicola and Curvularia maculans at this Biotechnol Lett 29(12):2001–2005
concentration (Singh et al. 2009). Cho HY, Rhee HS, Yoon SYH, Park JM (2008)
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zophenanthridine alkaloid accumulation in
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methyl jasmonate and yeast extract. J Microbiol
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Choi KB, Morishige T, Sato F (2001) Purification and
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California poppy is the official state flower of from cultured Coptis japonica cells. Phytochemistry
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 Antirrhinum majus

Scientific Name Dutch: Grote Leeuwebek

Estonian: Suur Lõvilõug
Antirrhinum majus L. Esperanto: Antirino Granda, Antirino Maja,
Leonfaŭko Granda
Finnish: Iso Jalopeuran Kita, Leijonankita
Synonyms French: Grand Muflier, Gueule-De-Lion,
Gueule-De-Loup, Muflier, Muflier Des
Antirrhinum grandiflorum Stokes, Antirrhinum Jardins
hispanorum Bordère ex Rothm., Antirrhinum Gaelic: Srubh Lao
latifolium var. pseudomajus Rouy, Antirrhinum German : Garten-Löwenmaul, Garten-
latifolium var. purpurascens Benth., Antirrhinum Löwenmäulchen, Grosses Löwenmaul,
majus var. longipedunculatum Regel, Antirrhinum Grosses Löwenmäulchen, Löwenmaul
majus var. peloria Migout, Antirrhinum majus Italian: Bocca Di Leone, Bocca Di Leone
var. pseudomajus (Rouy) Rouy, Antirrhinum Commune
murale Salisb., Antirrhinum vulgare Bubani, Norwegian: Prydløvemunn
Orontium majus Pers., Termontis racemosa Raf. Polish: Lwia Paszcza, Wyżlin Większy, Wyżlin
Większy
Slovašcina: Odolin Veliki, Veliki Odolin,
Family Zajčki
Slovencina: Papuľka Väčšia
Plantaginaceae Spanish: Boca De Dragon, Boca De Sapo,
Conejitos, Dragón, Dragoncillo, Hierba
Becerra, Morros De Lobo, Perritos
Common/English Names Swedish: Lejongap
Turkish: Aslanağzı
Common Snapdragon, Garden Snapdragon,
Dragon Flower, Snapdragon
Origin/Distribution

Vernacular Names Garden snapdragon is indigenous to the

Mediterranean region, from Morocco and
Brazil: Boca-De-Leão Portugal north to southern France, and east to
Czech: Hledík Větší Turkey and Syria.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 633
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_47, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
634 Plantaginaceae

Agroecology

In its native range it is found in disturbed areas,

woodlands, scrublands and on hard rock outcrops.
Snapdragon thrives best in well-drained,
moist, organic-rich, slightly acid soil in full
sun. They are intolerant of subzero freezing
temperatures and overwatering.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Plate 1 Flowers, buds and leaves of garden snapdragon
Flowers have been reported to be used in a mod-
erate way in salads or crystallized (Roberts 2000;
Anonymous 2004; Stradley 2010; Rop et al.
2012). An oil that is inferior to olive oil is said to
be obtained from the seeds (Grieve 1971).

Botany

It is a herbaceous perennial chamaephyte with

erect, slender green stems, 50–90 (−150) cm high,
glabrous proximal to the inflorescence. Leaves
opposite basally and alternate distally, simple,
entire, and broadly lanceolate, 1–7 cm long by
Plate 2 Maroon snapdragon flowers
2–2.5 cm wide with subacute apex and tapering
towards the base (Plates 1, 4, 5, 6). Flowers zygo-
morphic, bisexual, produced in erect, 10–20
flowered terminal racemes, violet, red, pink,
yellow, or white, 3.5–4.5 cm long with ovate bracts
and on 2–5 mm pedicels (Plates 1–6). Each
flower has a calyx of five equal pubescent lobes;
corolla sympetalous, bilabiate, upper lip of two
dorsal broad recurved petals and lower lip com-
prises two lateral lobes and raised swollen ventral
lobe, closing the corolla throat. The five petals
are united for part of their length forming a short
corolla tube which ends in a sharp border with
the petal lobes. Androecium comprises four
didynamous stamens adnate to the corolla tube. Plate 3 Lower lip of flower separated to show the
pollens
Gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil
of two carpels, a single style, an inconspicuous
stigma and a superior, sometimes asymmetric ovoid capsule, 10–14 mm diameter, containing
ovary with two sometimes unequal locules numerous small, 0.8–1.1 mm, oblong–ovoid,
with numerous axial ovules. The fruit is an reticulate and black seeds.
Antirrhinum majus 635

Plate 6 Leaves, buds and yellow flowers

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Rop et al. (2012) reported that edible flowers of

Antirrhinum majus had a dry matter content
(%w/w) of 12.61 %, crude protein of 4.85 g/kg
and the following elements (mg/kg fresh mass
Plate 4 Leaves, buds and white flowers (FM): P 417.62 mg, K 2861.83 mg, Ca 357.20 mg,
Mg 172.02 mg, Na 87.74 mg, Fe 4.38 mg, Mn
5.73 mg, Cu 1.62 mg, Zn 8.89 mg and Mo
0.84 mg. The flowers had total antioxidant capac-
ity of 5.06 g ascorbic acid equivalents/kg FM,
total phenolic content of 3.49 g gallic acid/kg FM
and total flavonoid content of 1.78 g rutin/kg FM.
Whedale (1913), Wheldale and Bassett (1913,
1914) in their study of Mendelian factors control-
ling flower colour in Antirrhinum majus, isolated
apigenin, 5, 7, 4′-trihydroxyflavone, and luteolin,
5,7, 3′, 4′-tetrahydroxyfiavone. Crossing white
with yellow or ivory varieties produced plants
bearing red or magenta flowers. This led them to
hypothesize that an anthocyanin was formed
from a flavone by the action of some factors
contained in the white flower. They further
suggested that the anthocyanin was either an
oxidation or condensation product of a flavone or
both. Scott-Moncrieff (1930) isolated the magenta
anthocyanin pigment, antirrhinin from crimson
flowers, and elucidated the structure as
Plate 5 Leaves, bud and orange flowers 3-rhamnoglucoside of cyanidin. Subsequently
636 Plantaginaceae

Geissman and his co-workers conducted more roxybenzalcourmaranone (Seikel and Geissman
thorough investigations (Geissman et al. 1954; 1950). The pigment was designated aureusin and
Geissman and Harborne 1955a; Jorgensen and its aglucone aureusidin. In addition, a flavanone
Geissman 1955a, b; Harborne and Corner 1961; glycoside in the form of its hexaacetate was
Geissman 1962; Harborne 1963). A biogenetic shown to be a hexoside of naringenin (4′,5,
relationship was found between certain of the 7-trihydroxyflavanone). Geissman and Harborne
flavonoids present and different flower colour (1955a) showed aureusin to be the 6-glucoside
genotypes. Flower pigmentation in A. majus was of 3′,4′, 4,6-tetrahydroxybenzalacoumaranone.
found to be controlled by three colour factors Sherratt (1958) confirmed the presence of
P, M and Y (Geissman et al. 1954). The P factor cyanidin, pelargonidin, apigenin, luteolin and
controlled oxidation of the C3 fragment that joins kaempferol and aureusidin in the flowers. Further,
the two 6-carbon rings; when P was dominant, it was found that most genotypes except the
anthocyanidins and flavonols were present. recessive yy contain aureusidin and apigenin.
The M factor controlled the oxidation state of the The gene R was found necessary for the forma-
C6(B) ring in the flavones, flavonols and anthocy- tion of anthocyanin; in the presence of gene b,
anidins; thus quercetin, apigenin, luteolin and pelargonidin was formed, but in the presence of
cyanidin were formed in the presence of M while gene B cyanidin only was formed. Antirrhinum
kaempferol, apigenin and pelargonidin in its majus flowers were found to have cinnamic esters
absence. The Y factor appeared to operate at an (Harborne and Corner 1961); flavones, namely,
early stage in the synthesis, in its dominant form apigenin 7,4′-diglucuronide, luteolin 7-glucuronide,
permitting the formation of small amounts of chrysoeriol 7-glucuronide, kaempferol 3-glucoside
aurone pigment and in its recessive form permit- and kaempferol 3,7-diglucoside; and an aurone,
ting large quantities of aurone to be produced. bracteatin 6-glucoside (Harborne 1963). A. majus
Aurone pigment was produced in the flower was found to contain the following anthocyanins,
petals only; the other pigments were found in cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-rutinoside
flowers, stems and leaves. A naringenin glycoside (Gilbert 1971) and pelargonidin-3-glucoside
was found to occur in the plant. Geissman and (Gilbert 1972b). Three chalcones were found in
Harborne (1955b) showed that the albino (yy) yellow flowers of A. majus, two of which were
genotypes did not contain any detectable amounts identified as chalcononaringenin 4′-glucoside and
of flavonoid pigments but that it contained 3,4,2′,4′,6′-pentahydroxychalcone 4′-glucoside
4-hydroxycinnamic acid (p-coumaric acid) and (Gilbert 1972a).
3′:4′-dihydroxycinnamic acid (caffeic acid) as a The yellow colouration of Antirrhinum majus
number of aliphatic esters. Increased numbers of flowers was reported to be mainly conferred by
recessive factors result in decreased anthocyanin aurone flavonoids such as 6-glucosides of
production. They found that genotypes contain- aureusidin and bracteatin (Sato et al. 2001).
ing pelargonidin glycoside had a significantly Studies showed that aureusidin could be from
lower concentration of anthocyanin than geno- of 2′,4′,6′,4-tetrahydroxychalcone (THC) or
types containing cyanidin glycoside. Highest 2′,4′,6′,3,4-pentahydroxychalcone (PHC) whereas
concentration of aurone was associated with bracteatin was not produced through the
genotypes—yy—and increased numbers of 5′-hydroxylation of aureusidin but arose solely
dominant factors resulted in decreased aurone from PHC. They identified aureusidin synthase
production. Also, high anthocyanin concentra- (AmAS1) as the key enzyme that catalyzed
tion was related to low aurone concentration and, aurone biosynthesis from chalcones in A. majus
conversely, low anthocyanin concentration was (Ono et al. 2006). They also found that that
related to high aurone concentration. chalcone 4′–O-glucosyltransferase (4′CGT) was
Anthochlor pigment of yellow A. majus essential for aurone biosynthesis and yellow
flowers was isolated in the form of its heptaacetate colouration in vivo. In separate studies, Davies et al.
and shown to be a glucoside of 3′,4′,4, 6-tetrahyd (2006) reported that the petals of Antirrhinum
Antirrhinum majus 637

majus produced aurones, bright yellow flavo- which was significantly higher after the onset of
noids (Davies et al. 2006). The biosynthesis of flowering than before.
aurones was suggested to occur by the action of Normal (n-) alkanes were found to be the major
aureusidin synthase (AUS) and possibly aureusidin wax class in petals (29.0–34.3 %) from flower
7-O-glucosyltransferase (A7GT). A number of opening to senescence (12 days) (Goodwin et al.
conserved potential regulatory regions were 2003). Besides n-alkanes, snapdragon petals pos-
identified, in particular a consensus site for the sessed significant amounts of methyl branched
MYB (myoblastoma)-type transcription factors. alkanes (23.6–27.8 %) and hydroxy esters (12.0–
Further, they (Shang et al. 2011) found pigment 14.0 %). Changes in amount of methyl benzoate
stripes associated with veins (venation) to be a (the major snapdragon floral scent compound)
common flower colour pattern. The venation inside the petals followed closely with levels of
pattern was found to be determined by Venosa methyl benzoate emission, suggesting that snap-
(encoding an R2R3MYB transcription factor). dragon petal cuticle may provide little diffusive
Recent studies by Shakya et al. (2012) found resistance to volatile emissions.
altered leaf colour to be associated with increased The volatile ester methyl benzoate was found to
superoxide scavenging activity in aureusidin- be the most abundant scent compound in snap-
producing transgenic plants. Their studies dragon flowers (Dudareva et al. 2000). The com-
suggested that the nutritional qualities of leafy pound was synthesized by and emitted from
vegetables can be enhanced through the introduc- only the upper and lower lobes of petals, where
tion of aurone biosynthetic pathways. pollinators (bumblebees) come in contact with the
Deuterium-labelled studies by Breinholt flower. A novel S-adenosyl-L-methionine/benzoic
et al. (1992) found a higher incorporation of acid carboxyl methyl transferase (BAMT), the final
8-epi-iridotrial than of 8-epi-iridotrial glucoside enzyme in the biosynthesis of methyl benzoate
in the biosynthesis of the iridoid, antirrhinoside in and its corresponding cDNA were isolated and
Antirrhinum majus indicating the former to be an characterized. Snapdragon flowers were found to
intermediate in the biosynthesis of antirrhinoside. emit two monoterpene olefins, myrcene and
Further, they found that the last steps in the (E)-β-ocimene, derived from geranyl diphosphate,
biosynthesis of antirrhinoside in Antirrhinum in addition to a major phenylpropanoid floral
majus involved an initial hydroxylation of the scent component, methyl benzoate (Dudareva
6-position of 6,10-dideoxyaucubin to give linaride et al. 2003). Emission of these monoterpenes was
(10-deoxyaucubin), followed by epoxidation to regulated developmentally and followed diurnal
give 10-deoxycatalpol (5-deoxyantirrhinoside) rhythms controlled by a circadian clock. The two
and finally hydroxylation of the 5-position to give myrcene synthases and (E)-β-ocimene synthase
antirrhinoside (Damtoft et al. 1995). The content were isolated. (E)-β-ocimene synthase was
of the four iridoids, namely, antirrhinoside, antir- highly similar to snapdragon myrcene synthases
rhide, 5-glucosyl-antirrhinoside and linarioside, (92 % amino acid identity) producing predomi-
found in cultivars of Antirrhinum majus, exhibited nantly (E)-β-ocimene (97 % of total monoterpene
seasonal variations (Høgedal and Mølgaard olefin product) with small amounts of (Z)-β-
2000). The seasonal variation in total iridoid ocimene and myrcene. These newly isolated
content showed a marked bimodal distribution snapdragon monoterpene synthases, together
with high total values (around 100 mg/g dry with Arabidopsis AtTPS14 (At1g61680), defined
matter) early and late in the season and a very a new subfamily of the terpene synthase (TPS)
low content of all iridoids coinciding with the family designated the Tps-g group.
onset of flowering at the beginning of August. Two subspecies of A. majus had significantly
The relative contribution of antirrhinoside was different flora scent mainly attributable to differ-
significantly higher before flowering than after ences in benzenoids and the percentage occurrence
bud break. The relative decrease in antirrhinoside and emission rates of other volatile organic
was counteracted by an increase of antirrhide, chemicals (VOC) (Suchet et al. 2010). Twenty
638 Plantaginaceae

fatty acid derivatives, including green leaf Albach et al. 2005; Tank et al. 2006). Although
volatiles, one nitrogen containing compound the taxonomy of this genus is still unresolved
(syn-3-methyl-butyl-aldoxime), 11 monoterpenes many modern botanists have adopted the sensu
(cyclic, α-pinene, β-pinene, p-cymene, limonene, lato circumscription proposed by Thompson (1988)
γ-terpene; non-cyclic, β-myrcene, (Z)-β-ocimene, who placed 36 species in the genus. In contrast,
(E)-β-ocimene,3,4-dimethyl-2,4,6-octatriene,(E,E)- the USDA Plant Database recognises only the Old
2,6-dimethyl-1,3,5,7-octatetraene; and irregulars, World species of sect. Antirrhinum in the genus,
6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one) and five benzenoids listing only Antirrhinum majus (the only species
were detected; the other VOCs were found in both in the section naturalized in North America).
subspecies but differed in percentage occurrence
and emission rates. Three benzenoids (acetophe-
none, benzaldehyde, and methyl benzoate) were Selected References
only emitted by A. majus pseudomajus and
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benezenoids, viz. hemimelitene and mesitylene, together the “new” Plantaginaceae. Am J Bot
92(2):297–315
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Damtoft S, Jensen SR, Schacht M (1995) Last stages in
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39(3):549–551
Davies KM, Marshall GB, Bradley JM, Schwinn KE,
Traditional Medicinal Uses Bloor SJ, Winefield CS, Martin CR (2006)
Characterisation of aurone biosynthesis in Antirrhinum
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Snapdragon leaves and flowers are anti- Dudareva N, Murfitt LM, Mann CJ, Gorenstein N,
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ornamentals for mass display, borders, bedding, compounds. Macmillan, New York, 666 pp
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 Saccharum spontaneum var. edulis

Scientific Name Origin/Distribution

Saccharum spontaneum var. edulis (Hassk.) The species is indigenous to New Guinea. It is
K. Shum. cultivated in Java and Kalimantan, New Guinea,
Melanesia, New Hebrides and Fiji.

Synonyms
Agroecology
Saccharum spontaneum L. var. edulis (Hassk.)
K. Schum. & Lauterb., Saccharum × edule Duruka can tolerate a wide range of climatic and soil
Hassk. conditions. It thrives on deep- and fine-­textured soils
of lowland plains subject to brief seasonal inunda-
tion and on footslopes, drainage lines and seepage
Family areas of hilly and undulating terrain and alluvial
fans from sea level to 600 m altitude. A fertile soil
Poaceae and adequate rainfall ensure good quality yields.

Common/English Names Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Cane Inflorescence, Coastal Pitpit, Cultivated Edible unopened inflorescences, which are rel-
Sugarcane, Duruka, Fiji Asparagus, Pitpit, ished as a vegetable either raw or cooked, steamed
Vegetable Cane or roasted in various dishes. They are used in
soups or curries or added to many dishes, roasted
over fire or baked in lovo and eaten. In Fiji,
Vernacular Names Duruka is normally cooked in coconut cream
and served as a vegetable, often with fish. Fiji is
Fiji: Duruka exporting canned Duruka in brine to Australia,
Indonesia: Trubus, Tebu Telur, Tebu Bertelor New Zealand and the United States. Apart from
Papua New Guinea: Bwêy, Pit, Pitpit canning, Duruka can be vacuum-packed to extend
Vanuatu: Naviso its availability in the market.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 640
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_48, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Saccharum spontaneum var. edulis 641

Plate 1 (a, b) Duruka on sale in a local market in Papua New Guinea and Fiji

Botany

A tough perennial tillering herb that spreads by

stolons or rhizomes, growing to 1.5–4 m high.
Culms are green or yellowish green and are large
and cylindrical (2–10 m high, 2–3 cm diameter).
The upper leaves of the culm have hirsute leaf
sheaths. The leaf blade is oblong-lanceolate,
1–2 m by 2.5–6 cm and hairy on both sides. The
inflorescence is abnormally swollen and consists
of a mass of creamy, underdeveloped and aborted
floral primordial, 10–20 cm long, and remains
enclosed within leaf sheaths (Plates 1 and 2).

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Per 100 g edible portion, Pitpit was reported to con-

tain water, 90 g; energy, 168 kJ (40 kcal); protein,
4.1 g; total fat, 0.2 g; available carbohydrates, 6 g;
dietary fibre, 1.2 g; Na, 3 mg; K, 601 mg; Ca, 12 mg; Plate 2  Sheath removed showing the abnormally swollen
Fe, 0.9 mg; total vitamin A equivalent, 5μg; β-carotene inflorescence
equivalent, 30 μg; thiamin, 0.18 mg; riboflavin,
0.2 mg; niacin, 1 mg; and vitamin C, 33 mg
(Dignan et al. 1994). The nutrient composition of 0.6 g; ash, 1.4 g; dietary fibre, 3.6 g; β-carotene,
raw Duruka (per 100 g edible portion) analysed <5 μg; thiamin, 0.04 mg; riboflavin, 0.06 mg; niacin,
by Fiji National Food and Nutrition Committee was 1.3 mg; vitamin C, 14 mg; Na, 18 mg; K, 636 mg; Ca,
reported as water, 89.3 g; energy, 142 kJ (34 kcal); 4 mg; Fe, 1.1 mg; Mg, 48 mg; Zn, 1.1 mg; Cu, 0.3 mg;
protein, 4.2 g; fat, 1.0 g; sugars, 1.1 g; starch, and Mn, 0.5 mg (Mudaliar 2007).
642 Poaceae

Methanol root extract of S. spontaneum was

found to have antioxidant activity (Khalid et al. Comments
2011). It exhibited DPPH-scavenging activity of
91.23 at 1.50 mg/mL and nitric oxide inhibition Saccharum edule is morphologically similar to
activity of 90.17 %. It also exhibited thiocyanate S. robustum except that the flower spike or inflo-
reduction potential with maximum absorbance of rescence is compacted. It is believed to be derived
0.314 nm obtained at 120 mg/mL concentration from the introgression of S. robustum with
of the extract. The total phenolic content was Miscanthus floridulus.
found to be 351.25 μg/mL and the flavonoid con-
tent was 48.60 μg/mL.
Selected References
Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC Jr (1968) Flora
Traditional Medicinal Uses of Java, vol 3. Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen, 761 pp
Dignan CA, Burlingame AJM, Quigley RJ, Milligan GC
(1994) The Pacific Islands food composition tables.
The roots of S. spontaneum are a traditional herb South Pacific Commission, Noumea, 147 pp
used in the treatment of gynaecological troubles Jansen PCM (1994) Saccharum edule Hasskarl. In:
and respiratory diseases and are used as galacta- Siemonsma JS, Piluek K (eds) Plant resources of South-
East Asia, no. 8. Vegetables. Prosea, Bogor, pp 243–244
gogue and diuretic in the Ayurveda system Khalid M, Siddiqui HH, Freed S (2011) Free radical scaveng-
(Khalid et al. 2011). The roots are also used as ing and total phenolic content of Saccharum spontaneum
astringent, emollient, refrigerant, diuretic, purga- L. root extracts. Int J Res Pharm Chem 1(4):1160–1166
tive, tonic and aphrodisiac and are useful in the Mudaliar T (2007) Duruka (Saccharum edule L.) growing in
Fiji. Techn Bull no. 4. Fiji Ministry of Primary Industry,
treatment of dyspepsia, burning sensation, piles Suva, Fiji
and sexual weakness. Ochse JJ, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC (1980) Vegetables
of the Dutch Indies, 3rd edn. Ascher & Co.,
Amsterdam, 1016 pp
Parham BEV (1948) Duruka an edible flower. Agric J Fiji
Other Uses 19(1):16–17
Powell JM (1976) Ethnobotany. In: Paijmans K (ed) New
Its leaves have been used for thatching. Guinea vegetation. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 106–183
 Antigonon leptopus

Scientific Name Vernacular Names

Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arnott Chamorro: Cadena De Amor, Flores Kádena
French: Rosa-De-Montana, Antigone
India: Anantalata (Bengali), Kodi Rose (Tamil),
Synonyms Picchibatani (Telugu)
Indonesia: Bunga Air Mata Pengantin
Antigonon cinerascens M. Martens & Galeotti, Jamaica: Coralila, Coralita
Antigonon cordatum M. Martens & Galeotti, Malaysia: Honolulu Creeper, Bunga Bonet,
Antigonon platypus Hook. & Arn., Corculum Bunga Berteh
leptopum (Hook. & Arn.) Stuntz, Corculum lep- Mexico: Kadena De Amor
topus (Hook. & Arn.) Stuntz Northern Marianas Islands: Flores Ka-dena
Palauan: Dilngau
Papiamento: Beyisima
Family Philippines: Cadena-De-Amor (Tagalog), Cadena-
De-Amor (Spanish), Flores De Singapore
Polygonaceae Pohnpei: Rohsapoak
Portuguese: Amor Em Penca, Amor Entrelacado,
Amor-Agarradinho, Coralia, Coralita, Entrada
Common/English Names De Baile, Georgina, Mimo Do Ceu, Rosa De
Sao Miguelito, Rosalia
Bride’s Tears, Chain-of-Love, Chinese Love Spanish: Bellísima, Corazon Bello, Corona,
Vine, Confederate Vine, Confederate-Vine, Coral Coronilla, Kadena De Amor, Rosa De Montana
Bells, Coral Creeper, Coral Vine, Coralita, Thai: Puang Chom-Poo
Corallita, Coral Vine, Hearts on a Chain, Vietnamese: Dây Ti Gôn; Hiếu Nữ; Hoa Tigôn,
Honolulu Creeper, Love Chain, Love-Vine, Nho Hoa
Mexican Coral Vine, Mexican Creeper, Mexican-­
Creeper, Mexican Love Vine, Mountain Rose,
Mountain-Rose Coralvine, Mountain-Rose O  rigin/Distribution
Coralvine, Pink Vine, Queen’s Jewels, Queen’s
Wreath, San Miguelito Vine, Sandwich Island The species is native to Mexico, now common in
Creeper warm tropical countries globally.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 643
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_49, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
644 Polygonaceae

Agroecology

A. leptopus grows well in full sun in disturbed

areas especially limestone areas in dry to
moist lowland areas but is well adapted to dry
conditions. It occurs as a smothering vine that
invades disturbed areas and forest edges. The
plant ­prefers near-neutral to alkaline soils with
pH of 6.1–7.8, moderately fertile sandy or
light soils with moderate moisture level. It is
drought tolerant; once established it needs Plate 1  Flowers and leaves
occasional water.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Leaves and pink flowers are often eaten as

cooked vegetables in Thailand (Pongpangan and
Poobrasert 1985; Facciola 1990; Wessapan et al.
2007; Wetwitayaklung et al. 2008; Vanisree
et al. 2008; Wongwattanasathien et al. 2010) In
Thailand, the leaves and flowers are dipped in
flour, fried and served with vermicelli. The
flowers are also mixed into omelettes. Herbal Plate 2  Close view of flowers
teas are made from the leaves and blossoms.
The small tubers are edible and are valued in its
native area for the nutlike flavour. Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

The % yield of extract and the amount of total

Botany polyphenols in g/100 g calculated as gallic acid
on dried flowers and crude methanolic extract
A climbing, somewhat woody, robust vine up to basis for A. leptopus were reported as 33.04
10 m long, with cordate–ovate, hastate–ovate or (% yield), 6.35 g total polyphenols (g/100 g dried
triangular (2.5–9 cm) leaves. The leaves are flower) and 19.23 g total polyphenols (g/100 g
borne on short often winged, glabrate petioles crude extract) (Wetwitayaklung et al. 2008).
and have reticulate venation, cordate base, cili- Antioxidant capacity for A. leptopus flowers
ate margins and acute to acuminate tips (Plates 1 expressed in TEAC (trolox equivalent antioxi-
and  2). Inflorescence 4–20 cm long panicle dant capacity) = 0.19 and IC50 = 48.81  μg/50  μL.
with clusters of white or pink flowers along the There was a good linear relationship between
rachis which has a tendrilate tip (Plates 1 and antioxidant activity and flower extract concentra-
2). Flower with ovate to elliptic tepals with tions with R2 = 0.9657. Phenols, saponins, amino
entire margins and acute apex on 3–10 mm gla- acids, steroids, phytosterols, triterpenoids, sapo-
brous or pubescent pedicels. Fruit a conical and genins, tannins, xanthoprotein, carboxylic acid
3-angled achene 8–12 mm by 4–7 mm, shining, and coumarins were detected in the methanolic
loosely s­urrounded by the persistent tepals of extracts of A. leptopus flowers (Marimuthu et al.
the flower. 2012).
Antigonon leptopus 645

Phenolic acids detected in the ethanol extract of sinapic acid 26.3 μg and total phenolic acid
Antigonon leptopus flowers (mg/100 g DW): gal- 116.6 μg (Kaisoon et al. 2011). The flowers con-
lic acid 8.41 mg, protocatechuic acid 24.33 mg, tained 183.9 μg total bound phenolic acid made
p-hydroxy benzoic acid 33.04 mg, chlorogenic up of gallic acid 34.8 μg, protocatechuic acid
acid 37.60 mg, vanillic acid 3.25 mg, caffeic acid 66.2  μg, p-hydroxy benzoic acid 25.5 μg,
10.32 mg, syringic acid 17.14 mg, p-coumaric p-­coumaric acid 15.8 μg, ferulic acid 16.3 μg and
acid 5.37 mg, ferulic acid 33.36 mg and sinapic sinapic acid 25.3 μg. The flowers contained
acid 100.08 mg, total 272.879 mg (Kaisoon et al. 307.4 μg total soluble flavonoid made up of rutin
2012). Flavonoid compounds found in the lyophi- 5.7 μg, myricetin 4.50 μg, quercetin 294.1 μg and
lized hydrophilic extracts of Antigonon leptopus kaempferol 3.06 μg and bound flavonoid 130.4 μg
flowers (mg/100 g DW): rutin 21.95 mg, myricetin made up of quercetin 56.1 μg and apigenin
47.54 mg, quercetin 11.08 mg, apigenin 0.83 mg 18.2  μg. The DPPH radical scavenging activity
and kaempferol 75.86 mg, total 157.26 mg. (% inhibition) of soluble and bound phenolic
Flavonoidal compounds, viz. quercetin, rham- fraction of the flower was 89.36 % and 34.14 %,
netin, quercetin-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside and a respectively. Bound phenolics exhibited lower
new anthraquinone glycoside 1, 5-dihydroxy- antioxidant activity than soluble ones. The reduc-
­3-ethyl anthraquinone-8-O-(4-O-α-l-arabino ing potential of the soluble and bound phenolic
furanosyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside (Tiwari and fraction of the flower as evaluated by FRAP (fer-
Minocha 1980a) and quercetin-3-O-rhamnosyl ric reducing antioxidant power) assay (mmol
rhamnoside (Valsakumari and Sulochana 1992), FeSO4/100 g dry weight) was 61.97 mmol and
and two anthocyanins, viz. pelargonin and mal- 91.5 mmol, respectively.
vin (Tiwari and Minocha 1980b), were isolated In a subsequent comparative study of four
from the acidic (1 % HCl) methanolic extract of edible flowers, the phenolics (mg GAE (gallic
fresh flowers. A new anthraquinoid pigment 1, 6, acid equivalent)/g DW) of the flowers were
8-trimethoxy-3-propanoyl anthraquinone was ­determined as follows: Tagetes erecta (212.9) > 
isolated from the methanolic extract of flowers Antigonon leptopus (177.2) > Bougainvillea
(Minocha and Masood 1981). ­glabra (138.2) > Cosmos sulphureus (102.5)
Leaves were found to contain flavonoidal (Kaisoon et al. 2012). Total reducing capacity
glycosides, viz. quercetin-3-rhamnoside and
­ (FRAP) (μmol Fe2+/g DW) was ranked as
quercetine-­3-O-glucoronide (Kawasaki et al. 1986). Tagetes erecta (329.4) > Bougainvillea glabra
(307.1) > Antigonon leptopus (281.9) > Cosmos
sulphureus (99.9). The ORAC (oxygen radical
Antioxidant Activity absorbance capacity) (μmol T Eq (trolox
equivalent)/g DW) rank was Antigonon leptopus
Four edible flower extracts including A. leptopus (491.9) > Tagetes erecta (394.2) > Bougainvillea
elicited antioxidant activity in ABTS assay with glabra (276) > Cosmos sulphureus (214.8).
the trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity Cellular antioxidant activity (CAA) (μM QE
(TEAC) of 0.15–0.70 (Wessapan et al. 2007). (quercetin equivalent)/g DW) rank was Tagetes
Vanisree et al. (2008) reported that A. leptopus erecta (413, most effective)  > Bougainvillea
plant exhibited ability to scavenge reactive oxy- ­glabra (859.6)  > Cosmos sulphureus (966.1) > 
gen species and reduce oxidative stress in vitro Antigonon leptopus (967.4).
and in vivo. The soluble phenol acids (per g dry
weight) identified in Antigonon leptopus flower
extract were as follows: gallic acid 25.3 μg, pro- Anti-inflammatory
tocatechuic acid 7.2 μg, p-hydroxy benzoic acid and Antioxidant Activity
7.5  μg, vanillic acid 3.3 μg, chlorogenic acid
14.8 μg, caffeic acid 8.2 μg, syringic acid 5.7 μg, Antigonon leptopus was found to contain com-
p-coumaric acid 4.6 μg, ferulic acid 13.7 μg, pounds that displayed lipid peroxidation (LPO)
646 Polygonaceae

and cyclooxygenase enzyme (COX) inhibitory Antithrombin Activity

activities (Vanisree et al. 2008). Methanol extract
of the aerial parts of A. leptopus inhibited lipid Methylene chloride and methanol extracts of
peroxidation (LPO) by 89 % and cyclooxygenase Antigonon leptopus demonstrated antithrombin
enzymes, COX-1 and COX-2, by 50.4 % and (anticoagulant) activity of 80 % or higher in the
72.5 %, respectively, at 250 μg/mL. Purification chromogenic bioassay system (Chistokhodova
of the methanolic extract yielded n-­hentriacontane et al. 2002).
(1), ferulic acid (2), 4-hydroxycinnamic acid (3),
quercetin-3-rhamnoside (4) and kaempherol-3-­
glucoside (5) along with β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol-­  nalgesic and Anti-inflammatory
A
glucoside and d-mannitol. Compounds 3, 4 and 5 Activities
inhibited LPO by 19.5 %, 41.0 % and 60.5 %,
respectively, at 5 μg/mL. Similarly, compounds Antigonon leptopus roots were found to possess
3, 4 and 5 inhibited COX-1 enzyme by 64.7 %, significant analgesic and anti-inflammatory prop-
16.9 % and 38.5 % and COX-2 enzyme by erties (Mamidipalli et al. 2008). Methanolic
87.4 %, 88.8 % and 90.2 %, respectively, at extract inhibited paw oedema in a dose-­dependent
25 μg/mL. Compounds 3, 4 and 5 showed 50 % manner. A dose-dependent analgesic action was
inhibition (IC50) at 17.4 %, 68.9 % and 36.3 μg/ obtained against chemical (writhing test), and
mL, against COX-1 and 8.57 %, 7.86 % and thermic (hotplate test) stimuli indicating antino-
6.78 μg/mL for COX-2, respectively. ciceptive activity may involve inhibition of pain
Recent studies reported that Antigonon lepto- by peripheral and central mechanisms.
pus tea as a dried extract inhibited lipid peroxida-
tion (LPO) and cyclooxygenase, COX-1 and
COX-2 enzymes, by 78 %, 38 % and 89 %, Antidiabetic Activity
respectively, at 100 μg/mL (Mulabagal et al.
2011). Tea prepared from the aerial parts of Oral administration of toluene, ethyl acetate and
Antigonon leptopus is used as a remedy for cold butanone fractions of A. leptopus leaf methanol
and pain relief in many countries. Bioassay-­ extract at 50 and 100 mg/kg b.w. significantly
guided fractionation of the extract yielded a reduced the fasting blood glucose level in
selective COX-2 enzyme inhibitory phenolic streptozotocin-­ induced diabetic rats (Swaroopa
aldehyde, 2,3,4-trihydroxy benzaldehyde (com- Rani et al. 2010). Among these fractions, the ethyl
pound 1). Also, it showed LPO inhibitory activity acetate fraction was found to be more ­effective.
by 68.3 % at 6.25 μg/mL. Among its other The results substantiated the traditional medicinal
hydroxy benzaldehydes and their methoxy ana- use of the leaves of A. leptopus in the treatment of
logues, compound 1 gave the highest COX-2 diabetes. Sujatha et al. (2012) found that adminis-
enzyme inhibitory activity as indicated by a 50 % tration of methanol extract of A. leptopus flowers
inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) at 9.7 μg/mL. reduced blood glucose level in alloxan-induced
The analogues showed only marginal LPO activity diabetic rats. The antihyperglycaemic effect of
at 6.25 μg/mL. The hydroxy analogues 6, 7 and 9 the extract at 200 mg/kg b.w. was supported by the
showed 55, 61 and 43 % of COX-2 inhibition at reversal of changes that occurred in other param-
100 μg/mL. However, hydroxy benzaldehydes 3 eters such as body weight, serum insulin, aspartate
and 12 showed selective COX-1 inhibition, while transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT),
compounds 4 and 10 gave little or no COX-2 serum triglycerides, serum cholesterol and serum
enzyme inhibition at 100 μg/mL. At the same total proteins. They found that the hypoglycaemic
concentration, compounds 14, 21 and 22 inhib- and antidiabetic effects of the flower extract were
ited COX-1 by 83, 85 and 70 %, respectively. well comparable with glibenclamide (10 mg/kg,
Similarly, compounds 18, 19 and 23 inhibited b.w, p.o.), a reference drug used in type 2 diabetes
COX-2 by 68, 72 and 70 %, at 100 μg/mL. therapy.
Antigonon leptopus 647

Inhibitory activity of lyophilized hydrophilic Administration of methanolic extract of aerial

extracts obtained from four edible Thai flowers parts of Antigonon leptopus at doses of 200 and
against α-glucosidase enzyme was found as fol- 400 mg/kg also inhibited CCl4-induced liver
lows: Tagetes erecta (98.51 % inhibition, IC50 ­toxicity in Wistar albino rats as assessed by the
0.06  mg/mL) > Antigonon leptopus (58.24 % biochemical changes and histopathological studies
inhibition, IC50 3.26 mg/mL)  > Bougainvillea (Angothu et al. 2010).
glabra (37.30 % inhibition, IC50 5.21 mg/mL) > 
Cosmos sulphureus (32.32 % inhibition, IC50
5.62 mg/mL) (Kaisoon et al. 2012). Antimicrobial Activity

Methanol flower extracts of five edible flowers

Hypolipidaemic Activity including Antigonon leptopus exhibited antibac-
terial effect in vitro against Staphylococcus
Inhibitory activity of lyophilized hydrophilic aureus with MIC at 50–800 μg/mL (Wessapan
extracts obtained from four edible Thai flowers et al. 2007). The ethanol and chloroform extracts
against lipase activity was determined as follows: of A. leptopus flowers significantly and dose
Cosmos sulphureus (43.39 % inhibition, IC50 dependently inhibited growth of Bacillus subtilis,
4.60  mg/mL) > Tagetes erecta (41.61 % inhibition, B. pertolis and Salmonella typhi (Bolla and
IC50 4.82 mg/mL) > Bougainvillea glabra (40.05 % Bhogavalli 2010). The ethanol extract and
inhibition, IC50 5.14 mg/mL) > Antigonon lepto- chloroform extracts of Antigonon leptopus
­
pus (26.70 % inhibition, IC50 7.87 mg/mL) flowers exhibited significant inhibition against
­
(Kaisoon et al. 2012). microbial strains causing dental carries, namely,
Micrococcus albus, Staphylococcus aureus,
Proteus vulgaris and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Hepatoprotective Activity (Gupta et al. 2011). All the extracts showed
concentration-­dependent activity comparable
The methanolic extract of the roots and rhizomes with the reference drug streptomycin.
of Antigonon leptopus significantly lowered
­levels of serum glutamyl oxalacetic acid trans-
aminase (SGOT), serum glutamyl pyruvate trans- Antiproliferative Activity
aminase (SGPT), alkaline phosphatase (ALKP)
and serum bilirubin (SBLN) levels in carbon Antigonon leptopus flower extract had highest
­tetrachloride-treated rats (Rao et al 2009) sug- antiproliferative activity among the four edible
gesting its high hepatoprotective activity. Similar flowers tested against two cancer cell lines
results were obtained by Raju and Rao (2010) (Kaisoon et al. 2012). The antiproliferative
with ethyl acetate and methanolic extracts of ­activity (IC50 mg/mL) of polyphenolic extract
A. leptopus root/rhizomes that protected the liver against HC-29 (colorectal adenocarcinoma) cells
against the injury induced by CCl4 in Wistar was Tagetes erecta > (1.5) > Bougainvillea gla-
albino rats (Raju and Rao 2010). This was evident bra (1.7)  > Antigonon leptopus (2.4) > Cosmos
from significant reduction in serum enzyme, sulphureus (5.2). The antiproliferative activity
SGOT (serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase), (IC50 mg/mL) of polyphenolic extract against
SGPT (serum glutamic pyruvate transaminase), AGS (gastric adenocarcinoma) cells was
ALP (alkaline phosphatase) and total bilirubin Antigonon leptopus (0.2) > Bougainvillea glabra
(TB). Various pathological changes like centribu- (2.1) > Tagetes erecta (2.2) > Cosmos sulphureus
lar necrosis and vacuolization observed in CCl4- (44.8). Antiproliferative activity (IC50 mg/mL)
treated rats were significantly protected in groups of polyphenolic extract against Bl-13 (bladder
treated with Antigonon extract and silymarin. cancer) cells was Antigonon leptopus (0.9) > 
648 Polygonaceae

Bougainvillea glabra (2.3)  > Tagetes erecta pain (Mitchell and Ahmad 2006). In Sumatra it is
(3.0) > Cosmos sulphureus (56.5). used as a poultice and locally called ‘riang-riang’
(Burkill 1966). In the Philippines, an isolated
report stated it is used by Ifugao migrants in the
Antimutagenic Activity foothills of the Sierra Madre for wound closure
(Stuart 2013). In Nigeria, the root extract has
The dichloromethane, methanol and water extract been employed to treat asthma, liver and spleen
of Antigonon leptopus flowers were found not to disorders (Idu and Onyibe 2007).
be mutagenic for Salmonella typhimurium strains
TA 98 and TA 100 without metabolic activation
(Wongwattanasathien et al. 2010). Additionally, Other Uses
the methanol flower extract was antimutagenic
on strain TA100. The results indicated that the A. leptopus is a very good ornamental plant with
flowers were safe to be consumed. amenity value. The flower inflorescence is used for
floral arrangement. Its flowers provide a very good
source of nectar and pollen, extensively v­ isited by
Anthelmintic Activity honey bees (Apis mellifera, A. cerana, A. dorsata
and A. florea), also visited by a variety of solitary
The ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of bee species, such as carpenter bees (Xylocopa
Antigonon leptopus roots in doses (10, 20, 40 and fenestrata). It also provides a light brown-coloured
80 mg/mL) significantly paralysed earthworms honey which has a pleasant aroma and flavour.
(Pheretima posthuma) and also caused death of
worms especially at higher concentration of
80 mg/mL as compared to standard drug (Raju Comments
and Rao 2011). The methanolic extract was more
active than the ethyl acetate extract. The plant is deemed a weed in Fiji and com-
pletely smothers native plants in the wet season,
outcompeting vines and understorey plants.
Juvenoid Activity

Antigonon leptopus was one of five most active Selected References

plants exhibiting juvenoid activity against filarial
mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus with LC50 Angothu S, Lakshmi SM, Kumar AS, Reddy KY (2010)
Hepatoprotective activity of Antigonon leptopus
value of 17 ppm (Neraliya and Gaur 2004). Hook. & Arn. against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)
induced hepatotoxicity in Wistar albino rats. Int J Biol
Pharm Res 1(1):27–32
Traditional Medicinal Uses Bolla ND, Bhogavalli PK (2010) Preliminary phytochem-
ical screening and antibacterial studies of the flowers
of Antigonon leptopus. Ann Biol Res 1(4):229–233
The leaves are used in Caribbean folk medicine Burkill IH (1966) A dictionary of the economic products of
as poultices for boils and swellings. In Trinidad the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint, 2 vols. Ministry
and Tobago, Antigonon leptopus has been used in of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. vol 1
(A–H) pp 1–1240, vol 2 (I–Z) pp 1241–2444
traditional medicine for diabetes and low blood Chistokhodova N, Nguyen C, Calvino T, Kachirskaia I,
pressure and as a heart tonic (Lans 2006). Tea Cunningham G, Howard Miles D (2002) Antithrombin
from the leaves is used for hypertension, diabe- activity of medicinal plants from central Florida.
tes, flu and menstrual pains. In the West Indies, J Ethnopharmacol 81(2):277–280
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible
hot tea prepared from the aerial parts of A. lepto- plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp
pus is used traditionally for the prevention and Gupta AVN, Rama Rao B, Jyothirmai J, Bhogavalli PK
treatment of cough, sore throat and flu-related (2011) Studies on anti-microbial activity of flower
Antigonon leptopus 649

extracts of Antigonon leptopus against common dental Pongpangan S, Poobrasert S (1985) Edible and poisonous
pathogens. Ann Biol Res 2(2):99–103 plants in Thai forests. Science Society of Thailand,
Huxley AJ, Griffiths M, Levy M (eds) (1992) The new RHS Science Teachers Section, Bangkok, 206 pp
dictionary of gardening (4 vols). Macmillan, New York Raju NJ, Rao BG (2010) Investigation of hepatoprotective
Idu M, Onyibe HI (2007) Medicinal plants of Edo State, activity of roots and rhizomes of Antigonon leptopus
Nigeria. Res J Med Plant 1(2):32–41 Hook against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotox-
Kaisoon O, Siriamornpun S, Weerapreeyakul N, Meeso N icity in rats. Res J Pharm Biol Chem Sci 1(3):
(2011) Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities 600–607
of edible flowers from Thailand. J Funct Food 2:88–99 Raju NJ, Rao BG (2011) Anthelmintic activities of
Kaisoon O, Konczak I, Siriamornpun S (2012) Potential Antigonon leptopus Hook and Mussaenda erythro-
health enhancing properties of edible flowers from phylla Lam. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci 3(1):68–69
Thailand. Food Res Int 46(2):563–571 Rao BG, Nath MS, Raju NJ (2009) Hepatoprotective
Kawasaki M, Kanomata T, Yoshitama K (1986) Flavonoids activity of roots and rhizomes of Antigonon leptopus
in the leaves of twenty eight polygonaceous plants. J Hook. Int J Chem Sci 7(1):273–276
Plant Res 99(1):63–74 Stuart GU (2013) Philippine alternative medicine. Manual
Lans CA (2006) Ethnomedicines used in Trinidad and of some Philippine medicinal plants. http://www.
Tobago for urinary problems and diabetes mellitus. stuartxchange.org/OtherHerbals.html
J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2:45–55 Sujatha S, Swaroopa Rani V, Ravikumar B (2012)
Li A, Bao B, Grabovskaya-Borodina AE, Hong SP, Antidiabetic effect of flower extract of Antigonon
McNeill J, Mosyakin SL, Ohba H, Park CW (2003) ­leptopus Hook & Arn in alloxan-induced diabetic rats.
Polygonaceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY (eds) Indian J Pharm Educ Res 46(1):12–19
Ulmaceae through Basellaceae, vol 5, Flora of China. Swaroopa Rani V, Sujatha S, Krishna Mohan G, Ravi
Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Kumar B (2010) Antidiabetic effect of Antigonon
Beijing/St. Louis ­leptopus Hook & Arn. leaf on streptozotocin- induced
Mamidipalli WC, Nimmagadda VR, Bobbala RK, diabetic rats. Pharmacologyonline 2:922–931
Gottumukkala KM (2008) Preliminary studies of anal- The Plant List (2013) Antigonon leptopus Hook & Arn.
gesic and anti-inflammatory properties of Antigonon http://www.theplantlist.org/
leptopus Hook. et Arn. roots in experimental models. Tiwari KP, Minocha PK (1980a) Chemical constituents
J Health Sci 54(3):281–286 from the flowers of Antigonon leptopus. Indian J Chem
Marimuthu J, Aparna JS, Jeeva S, Sukumaran S, Anantham 19B:431–432
B (2012) Preliminary phytochemical ­studies on the Tiwari KP, Minocha PK (1980b) Study of anthocyanins
methanolic flower extracts of some selected medicinal from flowers of Antigonon leptopus. Vijnana Parishad
plants from India. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed Anusandhan Patrika 23(4):305–307
2012:S79–S82 Valsakumari MK, Sulochana N (1992) Phytochemical
Minocha PK, Masood M (1981) 1, 6, 8-trimethoxy-3-­ investigations on the flowers of Antigonon leptopus
propanoyl anthraquinone, a new pigment from the Hook & Arn. J Inst Chem (India) 64(1):38
flowers of Antigonon Leptopus Hook Arn. Indian J Vanisree M, Alexander-Lindo RL, DeWitt DL, Nair MG
Chem 20B:251–252 (2008) Functional food components of Antigonon
Mitchell SA, Ahmad MH (2006) A review of medicinal ­leptopus tea. Food Chem 106(2):487–492
plant research at the University of the West Indies, Wessapan C, Charoenteeraboon J, WetwitayaklungP LC,
Jamaica. West Indian Med J 55(2):243–253 Phaechamud T (2007) Antimicrobial activity of
Mulabagal V, Alexander-Lindo RL, Dewitt DL, Nair MG some edible flowers in Thailand. Planta Med 73(9):
(2011) Health-beneficial phenolic aldehyde in 886–887
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Pabrol D (2003) Antigonon leptopus. Bee World 84(3): (2010) Antimutagenicity of some flowers grown in
130–131 Thailand. Food Chem Toxicol 48(4):1045–1051
 Primula × polyantha

Scientific Name Origin/Distribution

Primula × polyantha Mill. (Pro. Sp.) Polyanthus (Primula × polyantha) is a popular

horticultural hybrid of Primula polyanthus and is
a horticultural hybrid probably derived from
Synonyms cowslip (P. veris) and the common primrose
(Primula vulgaris) (Scott-Moncrieff 1930) or a
Primula veris × vulgaris, Primula × variabilis complex hybrid of primrose (Primula vulgaris),
non Bast. Goupil cowslip (P. veris) and oxlip (P. elatior) (Mabberley
1997). All the parents are native to temperate
Europe and Asia. However, the true oxslip is a
Family much rarer plant.

Primulaceae
Agroecology

Common/English Names Primroses including polyanthus are cool climate

plants. They grow best in areas with daytime
Elatior Hybrid Primroses, False Oxlip, Florist temperatures below 26 °C and night temperatures
Primrose Polyanthus, Polyanthus Primrose, of 10–15 °C although tolerant of subzero tem-
Polyanthus Primula peratures. They appreciate full sun in spring but
prefer partial shade as the temperature warms up.
They thrive in humus-rich slightly acidic soil of
Vernacular Names pH 6–6.5 that is well drained. They require regu-
lar but light watering.
Dutch: Sleutelblom
French: primevère multiflore, primevère des
jardins Edible Plant Parts and Uses
German: die Polyanthus-Hybride, gartenprimel
Irish: Baisleach Bréige The flowers and leaves of primroses, cowslips
Swedish: Trädgårdsviva and polyanthus are edible (Macnicol 1967;
Welsh: Briallen Groesryw, Briallu Croesryw, Grieve 1971; Facciola 1990; Anonymous 2012).
Briallu Tal Ffug Fresh polyanthus blossoms can be sprinkled onto

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 650
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_50, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Primula × polyantha 651

salad, used as garnish or used in conserves, cus- cluster of 2.5–5 cm flowers in a wide array of
tards tarts or confections; flowers can be crystal- colours magenta, yellow, white, crimson, orange,
lized and used as decorations, making them ideal pink and brick-red. The flowers are hermaphrodite
for special cakes and desserts, for example, on
Mothering Sunday or at Easter (Anonymous
2012). Flowers can also be used to make a tea and
a wine. Leaves of primrose and cowslip can be
used to prepare tea. Primrose leaves are added to
salad, eaten as potherb or mixed with other herbs
as stuffing for meat and poultry. Leaves of cow-
slip are also eaten in salad.

Botany

A herbaceous, low-growing, clumping perennial,

7–15 cm (−20 cm) high, with a basal stemless or
Plate 2  Thrum-eyed yellow flowers
shortly stemmed rosette of green leaves. Leaves
are linear or obovate (tongue-shaped), 8–15 cm
long by 3–6 cm wide with an irregularly crenate
margin, textured and crinkled surface (Plates 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9). Short flower stalks arise
from the centre of the rosette, each bearing a

Plate 3  Pink thrum-eyed Primula flowers

Plate 4  Primula ‘Crescendo Golden’ (thrum-eyed yellow

Plate 1  Primula flowers and leaves flowers)
652 Primulaceae

Plate 5  Primula ‘Crescendo Pink and Rose Shades’

(thrum-eyed flowers)
Plate 8  Primula yellow pin-eyed flowers

Plate 6 Primula ‘Crescendo Bright Red’ (thrum-eyed

flowers)

Plate 9  Primula white, pin-eyed flowers

but heterostylous; individual plants bear either

‘pin’ flowers (longuistylous flower: with the
capita of the style prominent and short stamens)
or ‘thrum’ flowers (brevistylous flower: with
short style and the stamens prominent) (Plates 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9). Fertilization can only
take place between pin and thrum flowers. Calyx
of five sepals, joined halfway, usually slightly
inflated, generally pale green. Corolla of five
lobes, prominently notched and tubular at the
base. Stamens five. Ovary superior forming a
Plate 7 Primula ‘Crescendo Blue Shades’ (pin-eyed capsule after fertilization which opens by valves
flowers) to release the small black seeds.
Primula × polyantha 653

that in the yellow petals; the former accumulated

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties predominantly lutein and β-carotene. Carotenoids
in the yellow petals were present in the esterified
The magenta and dark red flowers of P. polyanthus form, while those in the pale green petals were in
were found to contain an anthocyanin pigment the free form. The mature petals of the yellow-­
named primulin, which consisted of 3-mono- flowered P. × polyantha and P. helodoxa contained
glucosidylmalvidin chloride together with high levels of carotenoids (>270 μg/g FW), while
traces of a lower methylated compound (Scott- those of the pale green-flowered P. × polyantha
Moncrieff 1930). contained only small amounts (<7 μg/g FW). The
The anthocyanin rosinidin was found in petals of the yellow-flowered P. × polyantha and
P. rosea and P. polyanthus (Harborne 1958). P. helodoxa showed similar carotenoid profiles,
The structure of quercetin 3-glucosyl(1→2)gen- predominantly accumulating (9Z)-violaxanthin.
tiobioside, isolated from the violet blue flowers The levels of (all-E)-violaxanthin, lutein and
of Primula polyantha, was determined to be antheraxanthin were also high.
quercetin 3-O-(β-d-glucopyranosyl(1→2)-O-β-
d-­glucopyranosyl (1→6))-β-d-glucopyranoside
(Saito et al. 1990). Traditional Medicinal Uses
Volemitol (d-glycero-d-manno-heptitol,
α-sedoheptitol), an unusual seven-carbon sugar Polyanthus has not been reported to have tradi-
alcohol was the major nonstructural carbohydrate tional medicinal uses unlike its parents P. vulgaris
in leaves of horticultural hybrid polyanthus (common primrose) and P. veris (cowslip).
(Primula × polyantha) at all stages of develop- Both parent plants have a very long history of
ment, with concentrations of up to 50 mg/g fresh medicinal use and have been particularly
weight in source leaves (about 25 % of the dry employed in treating conditions involving
weight), followed by sedoheptulose (d-altro-­2- spasms, cramps, paralysis and rheumatic pains,
heptulose, 36 mg/g fresh weight) and sucrose but primrose is considered to be less effective
(4 mg/g fresh weight) (Haefliger et al. 1999). than the related cowslip (Bown 1995). Both spe-
Volemitol was found to be a prominent phloem-­ cies contain saponins, which have an expectorant
mobile carbohydrate. It accounted for about 24 % effect, and salicylates which are the main ingredi-
(mol/mol) of the phloem sap carbohydrates, sur- ent of aspirin and have anodyne, anti-­
passed only by sucrose (63 %). They found a inflammatory and febrifuge effects (Bown 1995).
novel NADPH-dependent ketose reductase called The roots of flowering primrose herb are ano-
sedoheptulose reductase to be responsible for the dyne, antispasmodic, astringent, emetic, sedative
biosynthesis of volemitol. Sedoheptulose reduc- and vermifuge, and an infusion is used as remedy
tase was shown to have a pH optimum between for nervous headaches (Grieve 1971). An oint-
7.0 and 8.0, a very high substrate specificity, and ment made from the plant has been used for treat-
displayed saturable concentration dependence ing skin wounds (Phillips and Foy 1992). The
for both sedoheptulose (apparent Km = 21  mm) yellow corolla of cowslip flower is antispasmodic
and NADPH (apparent Km = 0.4  mm). Their results and sedative (Grieve1971) and has been pre-
suggested volemitol to be important in certain scribed for treating overactivity and sleepless-
Primula species as a photosynthetic product, ness, especially in children (Chevallier 1996).
phloem translocate and storage carbohydrate. They are potentially valuable in the treatment of
The carotenoid composition in the yellow pet- asthma and other allergic conditions. Cowslip
als of Primula × polyantha and P. helodoxa was roots contain 5–10 % triterpenoid saponins which
(9Z)-violaxanthin, (all-E)-violaxanthin, lutein are strongly expectorant, stimulating a more liq-
and antheraxanthin (Yamamizo et al. 2011). The uid mucous and so easing the clearance of phlegm
carotenoid composition in the pale green petals (Chevallier 1996); the root is also mildly diuretic
of P. × polyantha was completely different from and antirheumatic and slows the clotting of blood
654 Primulaceae

(Launert 1981; Chevallier 1996). It is used in the Gender R (1963) The polyanthus. The Garden Book Club,
London
treatment of chronic coughs (especially those
Grieve M (1971) A modern herbal, 2 vols. Penguin/Dover,
associated with chronic bronchitis and catarrhal New York, 919 pp
congestion), flu and other febrile conditions Haefliger B, Kindhauser E, Keller F (1999) Metabolism
(Launert 1981). of d-glycero-d-manno-heptitol, volemitol, in
Polyanthus. Discovery of a novel ketose reductase.
Plant Physiol 119(1):191–198
Harborne JB (1958) Spectral methods of characterizing
Other Uses anthocyanins. Biochem J 70(1):22–28
Huxley AJ, Griffiths M, Levy M (eds) (1992) The new
RHS dictionary of gardening (4 vols). Macmillan,
It is a popular garden ornamental suitable for
New York
beds, containers and shady rock gardens. They Launert E (1981) Edible and medicinal plants. Hamlyn,
combine well with spring-flowering bulbs. London
Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium (1976) Hortus third. A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium,
Comments Cornell University, Ithaca; Wiley, New York, 1312 pp
Mabberley DJ (1997) The plant-book, 2nd edn. Cambridge
According to The Plant List (2013), Primula University Press, Cambridge, 858 pp
MacNicol M (1967) Flower cookery. Fleet Press,
polyantha Miller is an unresolved name.
New York
Phillips R, Foy N (1992) Herbs. Pan Macmillan Limited,
London, 192 pp
Saito N, Yoda K, Haruyama H, Kuwano H, Honda T
Selected References (1990) Structure determination of a violet-blue flower
flavonoid quercetin 3 glucosyl-1-2-gentiobioside from
Anonymous (2012) Edible flowers guide. http://www. Primula polyantha. Heterocycles (Tokyo) 30(2):
thompson-morgan.com/edible-flowers 759–764
Bown D (1995) Encyclopaedia of herbs and their uses. Scott-Moncrieff R (1930) Natural anthocyanin pigments:
Dorling Kindersley, London, 424 pp the magenta flower pigment of Primula polyanthus.
Brummitt RK, Meikle RD (1993) The correct Latin names Biochem J 24(3):767–778
for the primrose and the oxlip, Primula vulgaris The Plant List (2013) Primula polyantha Miller http://
Hudson and P. elatior Hill. Watsonia 19:183 www.theplantlist.org/
Chevallier A (1996) The encyclopedia of medicinal plants. Yamamizo C, Hirashima M, Kishimoto S, Ohmiya A
Dorling Kindersley, London, 336 pp (2011) Carotenoid composition in the yellow and pale
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible green petals of Primula species. Bull Natl Inst Flor Sci
plants. Kampong Publ., Vista, 677 pp 11:67–72
 Banksia grandis

Scientific Name Agroecology

Banksia grandis Willd. The plant is adapted to a Mediterranean climate.

In its native range, it occurs in sand on the coastal
plain, in woodland and in heath. It is also com-
Synonyms mon in laterite soil in the Jarrah forest of the
Darling Plateau near Perth. Bull Banksia grows
Sirmuellera grandis (Willd.) Kuntze in well-drained, sandy soils and in full sun to par-
tial shade; it is drought tolerant and moderately
frost resistant to −4 °C.
Family

Proteaceae Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The flower spikes can be used to make a drink of

Common/English Names honey-sweet mead known as mangite or mungitch
(SERCUL undated). The nectar can also be sucked
Bull Banksia, Giant Banksia, Mangite directly from the flowers. Grubs which burrow
into the flower spikes can be gathered and eaten.

Vernacular Names
Botany
Australia: Bulgalla, Poolgarla (‘Aborigines’)
Bull Banksia is a small- to medium-sized tree,
grows to 4–10 m high sometimes to 15 m. It is
Origin/Distribution also found in the form of a stunted, spreading
shrub, near the south coast, and whenever it
The species is indigenous to south-west Western occurs among granite rocks. Its trunks are short,
Australia. stout and often crooked and bark rough and grey.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 655
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_51, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
656 Proteaceae

arginine increased and dominated amino‐N.

Plants grown with nitrate had a greater concentra-
tion of proline relative to plants with ammonium.
In Banksia the concentration of amides was great-
est and arginine least with a nitrate N‐source,
whereas in Hakea amides were least and arginine
greatest with nitrate N‐source. The concentration
of sugars was greater in Banksia than Hakea and
in both species at greater N‐supply. Ammonium
N-application had a greater impact on leaf total
nitrogen, amino acid and soluble sugar levels than
nitrate N-application at the same dose of applica-
Plate 1 Pale yellow cylindrical flower spikes and dis-
tinctive foliage tion (8 mM). Total nitrogen content (mg/g) in the
leaves was 16.9 mg/g, total amino acids 63.2 μM/g
and total soluble sugars 143.4 μM/g with ammo-
nium N-application. In contrast, total nitrogen
content in the leaves was 9.6 mg/g, total amino
acids 39.3 μm/g and total soluble sugars 79.2 μM/g
with nitrate N-application.
Banksia grandis grown on Fe-phosphate or
Al-phosphate formed ‘proteoid’ or ‘cluster’ roots
exuded significant amounts of carboxylates
(Lambers et al. 2002). Tri- and dicarboxylates
(citrate, 60 %; malate, 25 %; trans-aconitate, 14 %)
were the major carboxylates in root exudates when
Plate 2 Close-up of cylindrical flower spikes and phosphorus was supplied as Al-phosphate. The
triangular-lobed leaves same tri- and dicarboxylates were also exuded
when P was supplied as Fe-phosphate (31, 14 and
The leaves are most distinctive; very large, 45 cm 12 %, respectively). In addition, these plants
long by 10 cm wide, and consist of a series of exuded monocarboxylates (lactate, 30 %; acetate,
triangular lobes that go right back to the promi- 12 %). Cluster roots of Banksia grandis, Banksia
nent midrib (Plates 1 and 2). The lobes are glossy prionotes, Banksia occidentalis exuded malate,
green above with a soft white tomentum under- malonate, lactate, acetate, maleate, citrate, fuma-
neath. The cylindrical flower spikes are very large rate and cis- and trans-aconitate (Roelofs et al.
to 40 cm long by 8–10 cm across, pale yellow, 2001). The relative contributions of each of these
made up of hundreds of flowers densely packed carboxylates differed between species. Malate,
in a spiral woody axis (Plates 1 and 2). Flowering malonate, lactate, citrate and trans-aconitate, how-
occurs from spring through to midsummer. The ever, were invariably present in large proportions of
flowers are followed by very large fruiting cones. total carboxylate exudation.
Bull Banksia has not been reported to have
medicinal value.
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

The amino acid pool of Banksia grandis and Other Uses

Hakea prostrata foliage were dominated by seven
amino acids (aspartic acid, glutamic acid, aspara- The old fruiting cones are used by wood turners
gine, glutamine, serine, proline and arginine) for vases, or cut and varnished to be used in deco-
(Warren and Adams 2000). Of these, asparagine rative woodwork. When alight, the dried flower
and glutamine dominated at low N‐supply, cones smoulder like a torch and are used by
whereas at high N‐supply, the concentration of local Nyungar natives to transport fire from one
Banksia grandis 657

campsite to the next. The Nyungar people also IBIS (2013) Banksia grandis Willd. IBIS database. Centre
for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Govern-
kept the lighted cones under their cloaks to keep
ment. http://www.anbg.gov.au/cgi-bin/apni?taxon_
themselves warm in cold weather. id=53696
Lambers H, Juniper D, Cawthray GR, Veneklaas EJ,
Martinez-Ferri E (2002) The pattern of carboxylate
exudation in Banksia grandis (Proteaceae) is affected
Comments by the form of phosphate added to the soil. Plant Soil
238(1):111–112
Propagation from seed is reliable without pre- Powell RT (1990) Leaf and branch: trees and tall shrubs of
treatment, and cuttings may be successful but may Perth. Department of Conservation and Land
Management, Perth
be slow to strike with a success rate maybe well
Roelofs RFR, Rengel Z, Cawthray GR, Dixon KW,
below 100 %. Its seeds take 22–42 days to germi- Lambers H (2001) Exudation of carboxylates in
nate. This species develops a lignotuber and can Australian Proteaceae: chemical composition. Plant
regenerate by vegetative means from the lignotu- Cell Environ 24:891–904
South East Regional Centre for Urban Landcare
ber if the upper parts of the plant are destroyed by
(SERCUL) (undated) Bush tucker plants for your
fire. It can also regenerate from seed. garden. Perth, WA. http://www.sercul.org.au/docs/
Bush%20Tucker%20Brochure.pdf
Taylor A, Hopper S (1988) The Banksia atlas, vol 8,
Australian flora and fauna series. Australian
Selected References Government Publishing Service, Canberra
Warren CR, Adams MA (2000) Capillary electrophore-
George AS (1999) Banksia. In: Wilson A (ed) Proteaceae sis for the determination of major amino acids and
3: Hakea to Dryandra, vol 17B, Flora of Australia. sugars in foliage: application to the nitrogen nutri-
CSIRO Publishing/Australian Biological Resources tion of sclerophyllous species. J Exp Bot 51(347):
Study, Melbourne, pp 175–251 1147–1157
 Banksia integrifolia

Scientific Name Origin/Distribution

Banksia integrifolia L. f. The species is indigenous to East and Southeast

Australia, occurring in a coastal strip from
Central Queensland through New South Wales to
Synonyms Victoria (Doran and Turnbull 1997; Boland et al.
1992). There was an isolated population on Long
Banksia asplenifolia Salisb., Banksia glauca Island, Tasmania, in 1999, and an 1876 record
Cav., Banksia integrifolia var. dentata Meisn., allegedly from King Island (George 1999).
Banksia integrifolia var. major R.Br. ex Meisn.,
Banksia integrifolia var. minor R.Br. ex Meisn.,
Banksia oleifolia Cav. [Illeg.], Banksia reticulata Agroecology
H. Wendl. ex Hoffmanns., Banksia spicata
Gaertn., Hakea pubescens Schult. & Schult.f., Banksia integrifolia spans a broader geographical,
Isostylis integrifolia Britten, Sirmuellera integri- climatic, latitudinal, altitudinal and ecological
folia Kuntze range than any other Banksia species (George
1981; Thiele and Ladiges 1994). The latitudinal
range is 20–40°S and the altitudinal range is from
Family sea level to 1,700 m. It occurs in a broad range
of habitats, from coastal dunes to mountains.
Proteaceae It grows near coastal cliffs and headlands, along-
side river estuaries and even on stabilized sand
dunes. The temperature range for this area is
Common/English Names around 0–30 °C, in warm subhumid and humid
climatic zones with almost no frosts (Taylor and
Coast Banksia, Coastal Banksia, Honeysuckle, Hopper 1988; Boland et al. 1992). B. integrifolia
Honeysuckle Oak, White Banksia, White is found up to 200 km inland, with B. integrifolia
Bottlebrush, White Honeysuckle subsp. monticola occurring in the Blue Mountains
at altitudes up to 1,500 m with 65 frosts a year.
Mean annual rainfall is 850–1,200 mm with a
Vernacular Names strong summer maximum in northern areas and a
spring maximum in Victoria. This species is
Australia: Birrna (‘Gunai Aborigines’), War Rak found on a wide variety of soil types, but best
(‘Wurundjeri Abrogines’) development is on acidic or neutral, well-drained,

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 658
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_52, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Banksia integrifolia 659

poor quality sandy soils derived from sandstone is 22–25 mm long, consists of a tubular perianth
or loamy soils and alluvia derived from granite made up of four united tepals and one long curved
and basalt. It grows as a component of eucalypt or straight style. Fruit cone consists of a woody
open forest, woodland, low woodland, shrub-land axis embedded with numerous small follicles
and sometimes in mixed rainforest communities. (8–15 mm long) opening when mature (Plate 2),
each follicle containing 1–2 feathery black seeds,
6–10–20 mm long.
Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Indigenous Australians obtained nectar from Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

B. integrifolia by stroking the flower spikes then
licking their hands or by sucking the flower spikes No nutritive or medicinal properties have been
or by steeping flower spikes in a coolamon over- published.
night to obtain a sweet drink (Anonymous 2006). Early settlers used Coast Banksia nectar as
syrup for sore throats and colds (Anonymous 2006).

Botany
Other Uses
A perennial tree that can grow to 6–25 m tall and
3 m wide but may attain height of 35 m in sheltered A hardy and versatile garden plant, B. integrifolia
position. It has a single stout trunk, often twisted is widely planted in gardens, parks and
and gnarled, with the rough tessellated or fissured, streetscapes and has been used for bush revegeta-
grey bark and striate branchlets which are pubes- tion, for stabilization of dunes and as windbreaks.
cent when young. Leaves are dark green with a Its hardiness has prompted research into its suit-
white tomentose underside (Plate 1), growing in ability for use as a rootstock in the cut flower
whorls of 3–5 on 4–10 mm long petioles. Leaves trade. Its reddish timber is sometimes used for
are narrow-obovate to narrow-elliptic, 4–20 cm cabinet panelling, specialty furniture, ornamental
long and 6–35 mm wide, apex obtuse or acute, turnery and bullock yokes, and its natural bends
base cuneate to attenuate, margins shallowly were once sought after for making boat knees
dentate when young becoming entire. Flowers (Sedgley 1996; Cribb and Cribb 1981). It also
occur in cylindrical spikes, 10–12 cm high by provides a useful, quality fuelwood. More
5 cm wide, consisting of several hundred flowers recently, it has been used in the art of bonsai
densely packed in a spiral around the main axis (Bowie 2002). Its flowers produce nectar for
(Plate 1). Flowers are greenish or pinkish in bud honey production, pollen has value for apiculture
and yellow when mature. Each individual flower or foliage and fruits have potential for floriculture.

Plate 1 Flowering spikes and leaves Plate 2 Dried cone with many open follicles
660 Proteaceae

Indigenous Australians also used the flower

Selected References
spikes as hairbrushes, and bushmen would
impregnate barren ‘cones’ with fat to make a Anonymous (2006) Aboriginal resources trail teachers’ kit
slow-burning candle (Sedgley 1996). (PDF). Royal Botanical Gardens, Education Section,
Melbourne
Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N,
Hyland BPM, Johnson RD, Kleinig DA, McDonald
Comments MW, Turner JD (1992) Forest trees of Australia.
CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood
Three subspecies have been recognized (Thiel Bowie G (2002) The Banksia as Bonsai: B. integrifo-
and Ladiges 1994): lia. ASGAP Aust Plants Bonsai Stud Gr Newsl
3:4–6
• Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia which Cribb AB, Cribb JW (1981) Useful wild plants in
extends from Southern Queensland to Victoria, Australia. Collins, Sydney
occurring near coastal cliffs and headlands, Doran JC, Turnbull JW (eds) (1997) Australian trees and
river estuaries and sand dunes shrubs: species for land rehabilitation and farm
planting in the tropics, vol 24, ACIAR monograph.
• Banksia integrifolia subsp. compar is endemic Australian Centre for International Agricultural
to similar sites along the coast of central Research, Canberra
Queensland as far north as Proserpine; the two George AS (1981) The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae).
subspecies are distinguishable by their leaves, Nuytsia 3(3):239–473
George AS (1999) Banksia. In: Wilson A (ed) Proteaceae
which are larger and glossy with wavy margins 3: Hakea to Dryandra, vol 17B, Flora of Australia.
on B. integrifolia subsp. compar CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, pp 175–251
• Banksia integrifolia subsp. monicolia com- Sedgley M (1996) Banksia, family Proteaceae. In:
monly known as White Mountain Banksia, a Johnson KA, Burchett M (eds) Native Australian
plants: horticulture and uses. University of New South
montane species, occurring at higher altitudes Wales Press, Sydney, pp 18–35
in the ranges of central to northern New South Taylor A, Hopper S (1988) The Banksia atlas, vol 8,
Wales. It is similar in form to B. integrifolia Australian flora and fauna series. Australian
subsp. integrifolia but differs in having longer, Government Publishing Service, Canberra
Thiele K, Ladiges P (1994) The Banksia integrifolia
narrower leaves and follicles that are more L.f. species complex (Proteaceae). Aust Syst Bot
deeply embedded in the old flower spike 4:393–408
 Telopea speciosissima

Scientific Name distribution in the Central Coast region (Crisp

and Weston 1995).
Telopea speciosissima (Sm.) R.Br.

Agroecology
Synonyms
Telopea speciosissima usually occurs as an
Embothrium speciosissimum, Smith; Embothrium understory shrub in open forest on sandy soils in
spathulatum, Cav.; Embothrium speciosissimum areas with moderately high rainfall, receiving
Salisb. (nom. illeg.); Hylogyna speciosa (Salisb.) mean annual rainfall of 1,200 mm (Crisp and
Salisb. ex Knight (nom. illeg., nom.rej.) Weston 1995; Nixon 1997). Although they grow
naturally on deep sandy soils, the species has
been found adaptable to other deep, well-drained
Family soils, especially where natural slopes assist
drainage. Despite their natural occurrence in
Proteaceae woodland, waratahs flowers are best in full sun,
although they tolerate the dappled shade of
Eucalypts dry sclerophyll forests and sandstone
Common/English Names soils (Wrigley and Fagg 1991). Waratah is a
pyrogenic-flowering species, relying on postfire
New South Wales waratah, Warath, Native Tulip flowering followed by production and dispersal of
nondormant seeds to exploit favourable growing
conditions in the altered environment following a
Vernacular Names fire (Denham and Auld 2002).
Waratahs are usually grown as field crops in a
Australia: Mooloone (Dharawal Aborigines), relatively open environment, with windbreaks
Mewah (Aborigines) for protection in some commercial plantations
(Tranter 1998). However, information describing
the optimal light requirements for waratah flower
Origin/Distribution initiation and flower quality is contradictory.
Worrall (1997) suggested that waratahs ‘grow
Waratah is endemic to New South Wales in and flower best in the full sun’, with shaded
Australia from the Watagan Mountains south- plants displaying less vigour, producing fewer
ward to Ulladulla, with a relatively widespread inflorescences and flowering 2–4 weeks later

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 661
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_53, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
662 Proteaceae

than those in full sun. Martyn et al. (2007a) found

that shading (50 % shade cloth) significantly
reduced bract browning in potted and commer-
cially grown waratahs of cultivars ‘Fire and
Brimstone’, ‘Olympic Flame’ and ‘Wirrimbirra
White’. Shade cloth (50 %) significantly reduced
the light intensity experienced by waratah plants
throughout the day, as well as reduced the daily
maximum temperature and minimum relative
humidity. They found that bract browning in
waratah was not a localized calcium-deficiency
disorder (Martyn et al. 2007b). The inconsistent Plate 1 Waratah flower and leaves
response of waratahs to calcium applied as a
spray or to the potting media, and the lack of
reduction in bract browning, suggested that fac- mature and split open, revealing the stigma, style
tors other than calcium nutrition have a greater and anther. Perianth (4) coherent in a split tube
impact on the development and control of bract after anthesis. Anther 4, sessile, lacking a fila-
browning. ment and lies next to the stigma at the end of the
style. Each of these sessile anthers, in the bud, is
in close contact with the rather conical-shaped
Edible Plant Parts and Uses pollen presenter, which is placed laterally
towards the end of the style. Ovary superior,
Waratah flowers produce copious amounts of unicarpellate containing numerous ovules at the
nectar that can be sipped directly or used to make base of the style atop the gynophore and crescent-
a sweet beverage (Cribb and Cribb 1987; Low shaped nectary lies at the base of the gynophore.
1989; Facciola 1990). Follicle woody, brown and woody, 8–13 cm
long, splayed nearly flat after dehiscence reveal-
ing numerous winged seeds.
Botany

A large woody, multi-stemmed, stout shrub, Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

growing to 3–4 m high with a spread of 2 m.
Several stems arise from a distinctive woody No medicinal uses have been reported and no
base known as a lignotuber; the stems are nutritive properties have been published for
sparsely branched. Leaves alternate, large waratah.
12–25 cm long, oblanceolate to narrowly
obovate, dark green, irregularly and coarsely
toothed, with 1–3 teeth below middle of either Other Uses
margin, glabrous or rarely moderately ferrugi-
nous hairy beneath (Plate 1). Conflorescence Waratahs are commercially grown for its unusual,
terminal, capitate, ovoid or subglobular flower decorative and attractive three-dimensional
heads, 5–10 cm in diameter containing up to blooms which are popularly used as cut flowers.
250 individual flowers, with red to pink ovate– The blooms are borne on strong, 0.3–1 m long
lanceolate involucres bracts, the inner ones being stalks and a vase life of more than 13 days
5–8 cm long (Plate 1). Flowers strongly incurved (Offord 1996). The plants are also popularly
in bud, red, crimson, scarlet or pink, rarely white planted as ornamental and landscape features in
or yellow; floral orientation diagonal. Flower gardens and parks. The stems are also used in
head retains a compact shape—before they basket making (Cribb and Cribb 1982).
Telopea speciosissima 663

Low T (1989) Bush Tucker – Australia’s Wild Food

Harvest. Angus & Robertson, 233 pp
Comments Martyn AJ, Gollnow B, McConchie R, Offord CA (2007a)
Characterisation of bract browning and the effect of
Waratahs are particularly popular in New South shade on browning in waratah (Telopea spp., Proteaceae)
Wales, where it is the state floral emblem. cultivars ‘Fire and Brimstone’, ‘Olympic Flame’ and
‘Wirrimbirra White’. Sci Hort 112(4):427–433
Martyn AJ, Thomas CR, O’Neill ME, Offord CA,
McConchie R (2007b) Bract browning in waratahs
Selected References (Telopea spp.) is not a localised calcium deficiency
disorder. Sci Hort 112(4):434–438
Cribb AB, Cribb JW (1982) Useful wild plants in Nixon P (1997) The Waratah, 2nd edn. Kangaroo Press,
Australia. Fontana Collins, Sydney, 269 pp East Roseville/Sydney
Cribb AB, Cribb JW (1987) Wild food in Australia, 2nd Offord CA (1996) Waratahs. In: Burchett M, Johnston K
edn. Fontana Collins, Sydney, 240 pp (eds) Horticulture of Australian plants. UNSW Press,
Crisp MD, Weston PH (1995) Telopea. In: McCarthy P Sydney, pp 67–81
(ed) Flora of Australia: Volume 16: Eleagnaceae, Tranter D (1998) Protea, leucodendron and waratah. In:
Proteaceae 1. CSIRO Publishing/Australian Hyde K (ed) The new rural industries – a handbook for
Biological Resources Study, Melbourne, pp 386–390 farmers and investors. Rural Industries Research &
Denham AJ, Auld TD (2002) Flowering, seed dispersal, Development Corp, Canberra, pp 540–546
seed predation and seedling recruitment in two Worrall R (1997) Growing waratahs commercially. Agnote
pyrogenic flowering resprouters. Aust J Bot DPI-193, 2nd edn. NSW Department of Primary
50(5):545–557 Industries (then NSW Agriculture) Sydney, Australia
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible Wrigley J, Fagg M (1991) Banksias, Waratahs and
plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp Grevilleas. Angus & Robertson, Sydney, pp 538–541
 Aquilegia caerulea

Scientific Name Common/English Names

Aquilegia caerulea E. James Colorado Blue Columbine, Columbine, Rocky

Mountain Columbine

Synonyms
Vernacular Names
Aquilegia advena Regel, Aquilegia caerulea var.
albiflora A. Gray [Illeg.], Aquilegia caerulea Czech: Orlíček modrý
subsp. albiflora (A. Gray) A. Gray ex Payson, Danish: Colorado-Akeleje
Aquilegia caerulea var. alpina A. Nelson, Estonian: Sinine kurekell
Aquilegia caerulea subsp. alpina (A. Nelson) German: Garten-Akelei, Rocky-Mountains-Akelei
Payson, Aquilegia caerulea var. daileyae Eastw., Icelandic: Indíánavatnberi
Aquilegia caerulea subsp. daileyae (Eastw.) Norwegian: Praktakeleie
Payson, Aquilegia caerulea f. glandulosa Polish: Orlik niebieski
Cockerell, Aquilegia caerulea var. leptocera Spanish: Colombina del Colorado azul
(Nutt.) A. Nelson, Aquilegia caerulea var. mac- Swedish: Coloradoakleja
rantha Hook. ex Brühl, Aquilegia caerulea var.
macrantha (Hook. & Arn.) Rapaics, Aquilegia
caerulea var. ochroleuca Hook., Aquilegia caer- Origin/Distribution
ulea f. pallidiflora Cockerell, Aquilegia caerulea
subsp. pinetorum (Tidestr.) Payson, Aquilegia Rocky Mountain columbine occurs in the southern
caerulea var. pinetorum (Tidestr.) Payson ex and central Rocky Mountains of North America
Kearney & Peebles, Aquilegia canadensis subsp. at high elevations from Montana south to New
caerulea (E. James) Brühl, Aquilegia formosa Mexico.
var. macrantha (Hook. & Arn.) Brühl, Aquilegia
macrantha Hook. & Arn., Aquilegia oreophila
Rydb., Aquilegia piersoniana L.O. Williams, Agroecology
Aquilegia pinetorum Tidestr.
Aquilegia caerulea is a cold-hardy, temperate
perennial herbaceous species, occupying a vari-
Family ety of montane and subalpine habitats at eleva-
tions of 2,100–3,700 m. It is adapted to silt, sand,
Ranunculaceae loam, clay loam, silt loam, sandy loam, loamy

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 664
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_54, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Aquilegia caerulea 665

sand, silty clay loam and sandy clay loam soils. It

prefers medium fertility, slightly acid (pH of 5.5–
6.2), well-drained, moist soil in a sunny position.
It also tolerates dappled shade. It is intolerant of
heavy clays or waterlogged condition and is
drought intolerant.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Aquilegia caerulea flowers are edible (Schofield

2003; Deane 2007–2012a, b). The nectar-heavy
flowers are eaten as a snack or tossed into salads.
Plate 1 Aquilegia caerulea Crimson Star
They also make a good jelly.

Botany

A herbaceous, bushy clumping perennial,

20–80 cm high with slender stems. Leaves alter-
nate, basal leaves 2–3 x-ternately compound,
9–37 cm, leaflets green adaxially, to 13–42(−61)
mm, not viscid, notched and/or lobed with 2 or 3
segments on glabrous to pilose petiolules.
Flowers large, upward-facing, bicoloured, erect;
sepals 5, petaloid, perpendicular to floral axis,
white, blue or pink, elliptic-ovate to lanceolate–
ovate, 26–51 × 8–23 mm, apex obtuse to acute or
acuminate; petals 5, with backward-extending,
straight and slender blue, white or pink nectar-
producing spurs, straight or parallel or divergent,
28–72 mm, slender, evenly tapered from base,
petal blades white with basal pink or blue blotches,
oblong or spatulate, 13–28 × 5–14 mm; stamens
numerous, 13–24 mm with white filaments
and yellow anthers (Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8).
Follicles 20–30 mm; beak 8–12 mm.
Aquilegia caerulea exhibited considerable Plate 2 Flowers and leaves
geographic variation in flower colour and in
size of different floral organs, reflecting
adaptation to different pollinators in differ- Mexico; A. caerulea var. ochroleuca with
ent parts of its range (Miller 1981 ). Three white flowers and spurs of 4.0–5.0 cm,
major varieties were recognized on the basis occurring in central and northern Utah, Idaho
of differences in flower colour and length of and Western Wyoming; and A. caerulea var.
the floral spurs: A. caerulea var. caerule a pinetorum with pale blue or white flowers
with blue flowers and spurs of 4.0–5.0 cm, and spurs of 5.0–7.0 cm, in southern Utah
common in Colorado and northern New and northern Arizona. Earlier, based on
666 Ranunculaceae

Plate 5 Close-up of flowers

Plate 3 Close-up of flower

Plate 6 Aquilegia caerulea with white flowers

Plate 4 Aquilegia caerulea Songbird hybrid

flower colour and spur length, Munz ( 1946 )

recognized five varieties.

Plate 7 Aquilegia caerulea with pink flowers

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Bylka (2001) found that flowers of Aquilegia and also kaempferol 3,7,4′-O-triglucoside, kaemp-
including A. caerulea contained kaempferol ferol 3-O-glucoside, kaempferol 7-O-glucoside
3,7-O-diglucoside as the predominant flavonoid and kaempferol 7,4′-O-diglucoside.
Aquilegia caerulea 667

Other Uses

The plant is widely planted as ornamental in

borders, cottage gardens, open shade gardens,
native plant gardens or naturalized areas.

Comments

Most authors have spelled the epithet ‘caerulea’;

‘coerulea’ is the original spelling. Columbine (as
Aquilegia caerulea) is the state flower of Colorado.

Selected References
Bylka W (2001) Comparative studies and quantitative
determination of flavonoid compounds in the flowers
of some species of the Aquilegia L. genus. Acta Pol
Pharm 58(6):469–471
Deane G (2007–2012a) Edible wild flowers. http://www.
eattheweeds.com/edible-wild-flowers/
Plate 8 Aquilegia caerulea with pale yellow flowers Deane G (2007–2012b) Edible flowers: Part eighteen. http://
www.eattheweeds.com/edible-flowers-part-eighteen/
Miller RB (1981) Hawkmoths and the geographic patterns
The content of 4′-methoxyapigenin of floral variation in Aquilegia caerulea. Evolution
6-C-glucoside (isocytisoside) was the main 35:763–774
Moerman DE (2009) Native American ethnobotany.
component determined in the methanol extracts
Timber Press, Portland, (First published 1998). 927 pp
of leaves and stem of Aquilegia species including Munz PA (1946) The cultivated and wild columbines.
A. caerulea (Bylka 2001). The flavonoid fraction Gentes Herb 7:1–150
comprised also isocytisoside 7-O-glucoside, Payson EB (1918) The North American species of
Aquilegia. Contr US Natl Herb 20:133–157
isooreintin, orientin, apigenin, apigenin
Schofield JJ (2003) Discovering wild plants: Alaska,
7-O-glucoside, apigenin 7-O-rutinoside and Western Canada and the Northwest, 1st edn. Alaska
isovitexin 3′O-glucoside. Northwest Books, Anchorage, 353 pp
The Gosiute tribe used the plant for heart The Plant List (2013) Aquilegia caerulea. http://www.
theplantlist.org/
pain, chewed the seeds of Aquilegia caerulea or
Whittemore AT (1997) Aquilegia Linnaeus In: Flora of
used an infusion made from the roots to treat North America Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+.
abdominal pains or as a panacea (Moerman Flora of North America North of Mexico. 16+ vols.
2009). New York/Oxford, vol 3, pp 249–258
 Rosa × hybrida

Scientific Name Czech: Růže

Danish: Rose
Rosa × hybrida (see origin) Dutch: Roos, Roze
Estonian: Roos, Roosa, Roosipõõsas
Esperanto: Rozo
Synonyms Finnish: Ruusut
French: Rose, Rosier
None German: Rose, Tea Rose
Hungarian: Rózsa, Rózsaszín
India: Gulab (Hindi), Gulab (Manipuri), Gulap
Family (Marathi), Jappa, Jawaa (Sanskrit), Roja (Tamil)
Indonesian: Bunga Mawar
Rosaceae Italian: Rosa
Japanese: Bara
Korean: Jangmi
Common/English Names Lithuanian: Rožinė, Rožė
Malaysian: Bunga Ros, Bunga Mawar
Rose, Common Rose, English, Hybrid Tea Rose, Maltese: Roża, Sġajra, Warda
Floribunda Rose, Hybrid Musk Rose, Hybrid Norwegian: Rosa, Rose, Roseslekta
Perpetual Rose (see plates) Polish: Róża, Różowy
Portuguese: Rosa
Romanian: Trandafir, Trandafiriu
Vernacular Names Russian: Роза
Slovenian: Vrtnica
Arabic: Zaira Spanish: Rosa, Rosado
Bosnian: Ruža Swedish: Ros
Brazil: Roseira Thai: Kuh̄Lāb
Breton: Roz Turkish: Gül
Catalan: Rosa Vietnamese: Hoa Hồng
Chinese: Xiang Shui Yue Ji Welsh: Brail, Breila, Breilylwyn, Rhôs, Rhoswydd,
Croatian: Ruža Rhosyn

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 668
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_55, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Rosa × hybrida 669

Origin/Distribution Agroecology

The species Rosa × hybrida is an artificial Garden rose grows and flowers well in cool
category that encompasses modern roses and is subtropical to temperate climatic regimes.
not an accepted species in the botanical sense but Temperature and light have been found to be the
a complex artificial species category that is used primary factors influencing rose crop growth and
to described non-species roses and modern rose development and flowering. Light intensity
cultivars (Gudin 2000, 2003). Rosa hybrida is a affects mainly the photosynthetic rate (Pasian and
heterozygous tetraploid species that arose from Lieth 1989), while temperature affects both
complex interspecific crosses involving only ten photosynthesis of leaves and development of
wild species among the >100 belonging to the shoots (Moe and Kristofferson 1969; Moe 1972,
genus Rosa. According to Wylie (1954) modern 1988; Zieslin et al. 1987; Lieth and Pasian 1990).
cultivated roses were developed through crosses Low temperatures <15 °C produce malformed
among only eight diploid species which are all flowers, blind shoots and poor flower colour
classified into septet A. Hurst (1925, 1928) (Moe 1988), and frost is detrimental. High tem-
considered the basic rose chromosome number peratures above 25 °C produce smaller flowers,
‘septet’ (n = 7) as a unit and classified diploid more leafy growth and paler flower colour (Moe
rose species into five categories, septet A to E, 1988; Moe and Kristofferson 1969). At 18 °C,
and the double septets in differential diploid 3–3.5 times more flowers per plant were har-
species as AA, BB, CC, DD and EE based on vested, compared with a constant temperature of
morphological, physiological and ecological 12 °C, due to lower blind shoot formation at this
characteristics; mitotic and meiotic chromosome high temperature (Moe 1988). With fluctuating
configurations; and genetical tests. The polyploid day and night temperatures, an average tempera-
species of Rosa, so far known, are triploid, tetra- ture of 18 °C produced approximately the same
ploid, pentaploid, hexaploid or octaploid in their yield as a constant temperature of 18 °C. Night
septets of chromosomes. Modern roses that pos- temperatures in the range of 14–18 °C were
sess the recurrent flowering character originated found to be optimal (Moe 1972; Zieslin et al.
from early hybrids developed from crossing of 1987). Rose grows and flowers best under full
R. chinensis Jacq. and R. chinensis gigantean sun. Low light intensities exacerbated blind
Coll. (section Indicae) cultivars with the recessive shoots (Moe 1988; Moe and Kristofferson 1969).
gene for ‘recurrent flowering’ introduced into Day extension lighting with incandescent lamps
Europe around 1800 AD with cultivars of short (low R:FR ratio) inhibited lateral bud growth and
flowering season, including R. damascena induced blind shoot formation, while lighting
Mill. (section Gallicanae) and R. moschata with fluorescent lamps (high R:FR ratio) had the
Herrm. and R. multiflora Thunb. (section Synstylae) opposite effect, indicating blind shoot formation
(Yokoya et al. 2000). Modern roses are grouped to be controlled by the phytochrome. Blom and
into horticultural classes that include polyanthas Tsujita (2003) found optimal production achieved
(2n = 2x), hybrid teas (2n = 3x,4x), floribundas with a light sum of 12–15 mol/m2/day plants
(2n = 3x,4x) and miniatures (2n = 2x,3x,4x), the grown undercover required supplemental lighting.
genomic origins of which have been partially Roses grow best under full sun, in well-
obscured by intercrossing. Hybrid teas and drained, fertile loamy soils rich in organic matter.
floribundas (derived from hybrid teas) make up Roses are quite drought and salinity tolerant.
the largest and most popular classes of modern Roses require a deep, twice weekly watering; a
roses (Phillips and Rix 1988; Cairns 2003; feeding with an organic fertilizer two or three
Zlesak 2006). times a year; and a good mulch of compost during
670 Rosaceae

the winter. Pruning is essential in midwinter and

deadheading should never be neglected to ensure
masses of blooms.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

All roses are edible (Barash 1993; Lauderdale

and Evans 1999; Roberts 2000; Newman and
O’Connor 2009; Rop et al. 2012) with the flavour
being more pronounced in the darker varieties.
The petals can garnish ice cream and desserts or Plate 1 Hybrid tea ‘Lincoln’
scattered in desserts or salads. Petals can be used
in herbal teas, syrups, jellies, perfumed butters,
sweet spreads and sauces or crystallized. Frozen
petals in ice cubes can be floated in punches.
According to Wilson (2013) all rose petals are
edible, but the bitter white base has to be removed
first; the perfumed petals are often added to sum-
mer cocktails, floating decoratively on the sur-
face of your drink, but they also make a great
garnish for light desserts. The darker the petal,
the richer the flavour. Crushed rose petals and
rose powder are used for flavouring cakes, jellies,
jams, wines and sweetmeats. Alcoholic extracts
or aqueous distillates (‘rose water’, obtained as a Plate 2 Hybrid tea ‘Iceberg’
by-product when distilling oil of rose petals) are
also used in the kitchen. Rose hips are used for
tisanes, jams, jellies, syrups, rose hip soup, bev-
erages, pies, breads, wines and marmalades.
They can also be eaten raw, like a berry, if care is
used to avoid the hairs inside the fruit. Rose hips
can be used to make ‘palinka’, a traditional
Hungarian alcoholic beverage. Some recipes
listed by Roberts (2000) include rose hip syrup,
rose petal cream jelly and rose punch. Rose petal
syrup and rose petal tea (Plate 11).
The reddish brown, tender shoots of any roses
including the old roses are eaten raw or steamed
in lablab and eaten with rice in Indonesia (Ochse Plate 3 Hybrid tea ‘Double Delight’
and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1980).

Stem and branches are robust, glabrous with

Botany curved thorns. Leaves imparipinnate with leafy
stipules adnate to the 5–10 cm long petioles;
R. × hybrida—thorny semi-evergreen to evergreen leaflets 5–9, elliptic, ovate, or oblong-ovate,
shrubs up to 1.5 m high or higher when grown 2–7 × 1.5–3 cm, leathery, light to dark-green, both
as standards (Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). surfaces glabrous, apex acute or acuminate, base
Rosa × hybrida 671

Plate 4 Floribunda bush ‘Gold Bunny’

Plate 6 Floribunda rose ‘Bonica’

Plate 7 Dublin Bay climbing rose

imbricate, semi-double or double, obovate, base

cuneate, apex emarginate white, red, pink, yellow,
orange, purple, fragrant (Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7 and 8); ovary inferior; styles free, exserted,
nearly equaling stamens. Stamens numerous
radiating with concolorous anther. Hip—an
aggregate fruit of several fruitlets, oblate, orangey
red to red when ripe, comprising outer fleshy
Plate 5 Floribunda rose cv. Cathedral City
hypanthium containing numerous seeds embedded
in a mass of stiff hairs (Plates 9 and 10).
cuneate or sub-obtuse, margin appressed-serrate
(Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). Flowers solitary,
or 2 or 3 and fasciculate, very fragrant, 3–12 cm Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
across; pedicel 2–3 cm on long stem; bracts 1–3
linear with attenuate tips; hypanthium oblate Flower Nutrients and Phytochemicals
containing several inferior carpels; sepals 5
abaxially glabrous, adaxially densely villous, Rop et al. (2012) reported that edible flowers of
margin entire, apex long acuminate, after anthesis Rosa odorata had a dry matter content (%w/w)
reflexed, deciduous; petals numerous (20–50), of 10.09 %, crude protein of 2.66 g/kg, and the
672 Rosaceae

Plate 11 Rose petal tea

following elements (mg/kg fresh mass (FM)):

P 225.17 mg, K 1,969.11 mg, Ca 275.15 mg,
Mg 141.83 mg, Na 76.61 mg, Fe 3.55 mg, Mn
3.44 mg, Cu 2.28 mg, Zn 4.55 mg and Mo 0.64 mg.
The flowers had total antioxidant capacity of
6.85 g ascorbic acid equivalents/kg FM, total
phenolic content of 5.02 g gallic acid/kg FM and
Plate 8 Multiflora climbing rose ‘Cottage pink’
total flavonoid content of 2.04 g rutin/kg FM.
In a survey of pigments found in the flowers
and fruits of old and modern varieties of roses,
Eugster et al. (1991) reported that yellow colours
were produced by carotenoids, the reds by antho-
cyanins and the modern oranges by a mixture of
the two. They found the old yellow roses, which
arose from crosses with Chinese varieties, mainly
contained carotenoids from early stages in the
biosynthesis, while in the modern yellow roses,
which were descended from Central Asian
foetida types, hydroxylations, epoxidations and
epoxide transformations readily occurred. They
Plate 9 R. hybrida rose hip presented a carotenoid degradation sequence
as follows: C40 → C13 + C27 → C13 + C14. The C13
compounds were reported to be odoriferous
substances that contributed to the scent of roses
and that copigmentation with flavonol glycosides
was crucial for stabilization of the anthocyanin
chromophores. Many roses, including the ‘apoth-
ecary’s rose’, which was once used medicinally,
were found to contain large amounts of strongly
astringent ellagitannins, monosaccharide esters
of gallic acid.
In a survey of flower flavonoids in 120 taxa
from 10 sections of subgenus Rosa, 19 flavonols
Plate 10 X-section of rose hip and six anthocyanins were detected as follows: six
Rosa × hybrida 673

kaempferol glycosides 3-glucoside (in 99 % taxa), Rosa hybrida was reported to lack violet to
3-rutinoside (63 %), 3-sophoroside (60 %), 3-rham- blue flower varieties due to the absence of
noside (70 %), 7-glucoside (94 %) and 4′-gluco- delphinidin-based anthocyanins, usually the major
side (4 %); six quercetin glycosides 3-glucoside constituents of violet and blue flowers, because
(91 %), 3-glucuronide (62 %), 3-rutinoside roses do not possess flavonoid 3′,5′-hydoxylase
(63 %), 3-sophoroside (69 %), 7-glucoside (F3′5′H), a key enzyme for delphinidin biosyn-
(90 %) and 4′-glucoside (4 %); seven unidenti- thesis (Katsumoto et al. 2007). The downregulation
fied flavonols; two cyanidin glycosides 3,5-diglu- of the endogenous dihydroflavonol 4-reductase
coside (68 %) and 3-glucoside (16 %); two (DFR) gene and overexpression of the Iris ×
peonidin glycosides 3,5-diglucoside (41 %) and hollandica DFR gene in addition to the viola
3-glucoside (4 %); and two unidentified antho- F3′5′H gene in a rose cultivar successfully gener-
cyanins (Mikanagi et al. 1995). Rosa plants con- ated blue-hued rose flowers by accumulating del-
tained large amounts of kaempferol and quercetin phinidin. Thus these transgenic Rosa × hybrida
3-sophorosides and anthocyanins in their petals, petals accumulated delphinidin 3-glucoside as
but they did not contain 4′-glucosides. well as delphinidin 3,5-diglucoside. Changes in
Anthocyanins—3-glucosides and 3,5-digluco- petal colour from yellow to red in Rosa × hybrid
sides of cyanidin, pelargonidin and peonidin, ‘Charleston’ were due to accumulation of cyanidin
3-rutinosides and 3-ρ-coumaroylglucoside-5- 3-glucoside after flower opening (Hennayake
glucosides of cyanidin and peonidin and cyanidin et al. 2006b). These results indicated that rose
3-sophoroside—were isolated from the flowers petals should have a pathway leading to anthocy-
of 44 taxa of 3 sections (Cinnamomeae (=Rosa) anidin 3-glucoside in addition to the pathway
26, Chinenses 8 and Gallicanae 10) and eight catalysed by A53GT. Mature petals of ‘Charleston’
modern garden roses in the genus Rosa (Mikanagi and ‘Ehigasa’ were found to accumulate cyanidin
et al. 2000). Four anthocyanins—cyanidin 3-glucoside and cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside
3-rutinoside, peonidin 3-rutinoside, peonidin (Hennayake et al. 2006a). Culture cells derived
3-ρ-coumaroylglucoside-5-glucoside and cyani- from rose leaves treated with UVB radiation and
din 3-sophoroside—were found in Rosa flowers. media stress produced cyanidin 3-glucoside
Anthocyanin had been reported to be the prin- (Hennayake et al. 2006b). Earlier, Helsper et al.
cipal pigment in rose flowers, conferring intense (2003) found that supplemental UVA radiation
red to blue cyanic colours on petals and helping induced small increases in levels of chlorophylls
to attract pollinators, and its biosynthesis involved a and b, the carotenoids antheraxanthin and lutein
glycosylation steps mediated by a single enzyme and β-carotene and high increases in the flavonols
glucosyltransferase (Ogata et al. 2005). Rosa quercetin and kaempferol in the leaves but not
hybrida petals were found to contain anthocyanidin petals of Rosa hybrida cv. Honesty. UVA induced
5,3-glucosyltransferase (A53GT) that catalysed increases in concentrations of these antioxidant
5-glucosylation of anthocyanidins and then species and did not lead to significant increases in
3-glucosylation to accumulate anthocyanidin 3,5- antioxidant capacity of tissues, but light absorp-
diglucoside, the dominant anthocyanin in Rosa tion at 355 nm of leaf extracts was significantly
hybrid petals. Fukuchi-Mizutani et al. (2011) increased upon UVA exposure. Their results sug-
reported rose petals to contain 3-glucosylated gested that the major protection towards UVA
anthocyanidins and flavonols, and they isolated exposure, in particular in rose leaves, would origi-
three flavonoid 3-glucosyltransferase (UF3GT) nate from absorption of irradiation and not from
homologue genes (RhUF3GT1, RhUF3GT2 and scavenging reactive oxygen species.
RhUF3GT3) from Rosa × hybrida. Their findings Two novel pigments were found to coexist
suggested that RhUF3GT2 catalysed flavonol with anthocyanins in the mauve rose Rosa
3-glucosylation in rose petals and that it also hybrida ‘M’me. Violet’ (Fukui et al. 2000). The
contributed to accumulation of anthocyanidin major blue pigment, rosacyanin A, and the minor
3-glucoside in the petals. red one, rosacyanin B, possessed molecular
674 Rosaceae

formula of C56H37O31 and C22H11O9, respectively. The content of major anthocyanins in rose
Rosacyanin B had structure where the C-1-position petals, cyanidin-3,5-di-glucoside, pelargonidin-
of gallic acid was bound to the C-4-position of 3,5-di-glucoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside, pelargo-
cyanidin by C–C bond formation (Fukui et al. nidin-3-glucoside and peonidin-3-glucoside, was
2000, 2002). Rosacyanin A had a structure where drastically reduced after Regalis® (prohexadione-
the 3-position of flavylium in rosacyanin B was calcium) application in both orange-red cultivar
linked by an ether bond to the hexahydroxy- ‘KORcrisett’ and a dark-red cultivar ‘KORikis’
diphenoyl part of tellimagrandin II (Fukui et al. (Schmitzer et al. 2012). Also, the content of
2000). Another two novel blue pigments, rosacy- quercetin and kaempferol compounds generally
anins A1 and A2, were isolated from the petals of decreased to the point of detection; however,
Rosa hybrida cv. ‘M’me. Violet’ with molecular newly formed eriodictyol was identified in the
formulas of C56H37O31 and C63H41O35, respectively petals of the treated ‘KORikis’ flowers 15 days
(Fukui et al. 2006). The structures of rosacyanins after application and in the petals of ‘KORcrisett’
A1 and A2 consisted of a common chromophore flowers 9 and 15 days after application. A signifi-
containing cyanidin with a galloyl group link cant visual change in red petal coloration was
between positions 4 and 5 of the hydroxyl group observed and recorded as a decline of the colour
of the flavylium nucleus and tellimagrandins. parameter a* after the application of Regalis® on
Total anthocyanin in the 60 mg/g dry wt day 9 and particularly on day 15. Similarly, light-
consisting of various mixtures of cyanidin ness (L*) increased and chroma (C) decreased in
3,5-diglucoside and pelargonidin 3,5-diglucoside both analysed cultivars as expected in paler pet-
was observed, while only pure cyanidin als. Foliar application of ProCa thus altered
3,5-diglucoside was found to accumulate in visual properties of red roseflowers, which had
amounts above 60 mg/g dry wt petals of more been directly correlated to the content of antho-
than 100 cyanic cultivars of Rosa × hybrida cyanins, and also induced the formation of
(Biolley et al. 1994b). Only a small amount of the 3-deoxyflavonoids, normally not present in roses
related 3-monoglucosides was detected, and under natural conditions.
peonidin 3,5-diglucoside was rarely present. The β-D-glucosides of geraniol, nerol and
Cultivars producing almost exclusively kaempferol, citronellol were isolated hybrid tea rose ‘Lady
as well as those dominated by quercetin, exhib- Seton’ flowers (Francis and Allcock 1969).
ited chemotypes based mainly on 3-glucosides, Accumulation of both free monoterpenes and
4′-glucosides and 3-rhamnosides. Native glyco- monoterpene β-D-glucosides occurred when the
sides of cyanidin, pelargonidin, quercetin and flower opened. Both forms were present at
kaempferol were precisely quantified in four maximum levels of 100–200 μg/g wet weight
modern rose varieties (Rosa × hybrida) (Biolley monoterpene although the maximum levels of
et al. 1994a). Mutations strongly enhanced flavo- monoterpene β-D-glucosides occurred at an earlier
nol glycoside (quercetin or kaempferol), as well as stage of flower maturity than do those of the free
anthocyanin concentrations. The increase of the monoterpenes. Volatile components emitted in the
total flavonol concentrations, without changes in headspace of rose flowers included monoter-
the balance between kaempferol and quercetin, penols geraniol, nerol and citronellol; oxidized
also led to new distributions between the differ- monoterpenols E-citral, Z-citral and methylgera-
ent flavonol glycosides. Anthocyanins found nylate; sesquiterpenes and dihydro-β-ionone
in the red petals of Korean edible rose (Rosa trans-caryophyllene, β-cubebene and dihydro-
hybrida cv. Noblered) were characterized as β-ionone; and aliphatic and aromatic compounds
cyanidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside and pelargonidin 2-phenylethanol, 2-phenylethyl acetate, 3,5-
3,5-di-O-glucoside (Lee et al. 2011b). Cyanidin dimethoxytoluene and hexyl acetate (Helsper
3,5-di-O-glucoside was the predominant constit- et al. 1998). A total of 41 compounds comprising
uent (375 mg/100 g), representing about 85 % of alcohols, aldehydes, alkanes, monoterpenes,
the total content. sesquiterpenes, esters, ethers and ketones were
Rosa × hybrida 675

identified in the floral fragrances of Rosa hybrida its substrate geraniol, which was suppressed
(Kim et al. 2000). Citral, n-nonane, n-butyl under continuous light conditions.
acetate, n-decane, β-phenylethyl acetate and The methoxylated phenolic derivative
hexadecanol were major components. It was also 3,5-dimethoxytoluene (orcinol dimethyl ether)
found that floral fragrance of Rosa hybrida was found to be one of the most prominent com-
contained 2-ethyl hexanol, hexadecanol, cis-3- pounds in the floral volatiles of many rose (Rosa
hexen-1-ol, pentadecanol, tetradecanol, benzalde- hybrida) varieties (Lavid et al. 2002). Cell-free
hyde, hexadecane, tetradecane, benzyl acetate, extracts derived from developing rose petals
methyl benzoate, methyl salicylate, cineole, displayed O-methyltransferase (OMT) activities
2-cyclohexen-1-one and isophorone which were towards several phenolic substrates, including
not reported earlier. Floral fragrances differed 3,5-dihydroxytoluene (orcinol), 3-methoxy,5-
between rose species and sample to sample hydroxytoluene (orcinol monomethyl ether),
within a single species. The cultivar ‘Cardinal’ 1-methoxy, 2-hydroxybenzene (guaiacol) and
contained sesquiterpene caryophyllene, hexadec- eugenol. The activity was most prominent in rose
anol, hexanol and nonane as the major components. cv. Golden Gate, a variety known to produce
Citral and β-myrcene were abundantly present in relatively high levels of orcinol dimethyl ether,
‘Silva’ species cv.; and ‘Sandra’ cultivar con- as compared with rose cv. Fragrant Cloud, an
tained significantly higher amounts of β-myrcene, otherwise scented variety but which emitted
limonene and caryophyllene. Small amounts almost no orcinol dimethyl ether. The authors
of geranyl acetate, neryl acetate and undecanone found enzymes, designated orcinol OMTs
were found in ‘Cardinal’ and ‘Silva’. Pentadecanol (OOMT1 and OOMT2), were closely related to
was found only in ‘Cardinal’, whereas methyl other plant methyltransferases whose substrates
eugenol and β-citronellol were observed only in range from isoflavones to phenylpropenes. The
‘Silva’. Also, endocrine disruptors such as peak in the levels of OOMT1 and OOMT2 tran-
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was detected. scripts in the flowers coincided with peak OMT
The aroma of roses (Rosa hybrida) was found activity and with the emission of orcinol dimethyl
due to more than 400 volatile compounds ether. In separate studies Scalliet et al. (2002)
including terpenes, esters and phenolic derivatives found two methylated phenolic derivatives, 3,5-
(Shalit et al. 2003). 2-Phenylethyl acetate, cis-3- dimethoxytoluene and 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene,
hexenyl acetate, geranyl acetate and citronellyl to be major scent components in Chinese
acetate were identified as the main volatile esters rose species and in many modern varieties.
emitted by the flowers of the scented rose var. They showed that cell-free extracts of rose petals
‘Fragrant Cloud’. They found a cDNA (RhAAT1) orcinol O-methyltransferases catalysed the bio-
gene encoding a protein with acetyl-coenzyme synthesis of 3,5-dimethoxytoluene (DMT) and
A/geraniol acetyltransferase enzymatic activity 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene from un-methylated
was expressed exclusively in floral tissue with precursors. The phenolic methyl ether 3,5-
maximum transcript levels occurring at stage 4 of dimethoxytoluene (DMT) was reported to be a
flower development, where scent emission was at major scent compound of many modern rose
its peak. Earlier studies by Helsper et al. (1998) varieties, and its fragrance afforded the character-
had shown diurnal oscillation of scent emission in istic ‘tea scent’ that gave their name to tea and
rose flowers with a peak during the day. A similar hybrid tea roses (Scalliet et al. 2006, 2008).
daily fluctuation was found in the endogenous The last steps of the biosynthetic pathways lead-
level of geranyl acetate and in the expression of ing to DMT involved two methylation reactions
its biosynthetic gene, alcohol acetyl transferase catalysed by the highly similar orcinol
(RhAAT) in Rosa hybrida cv. Fragrant Cloud O-methyltransferases (OOMTs) 1 and 2. OOMTs
(Hendel-Rahmanim et al. 2007). Geranyl acetate were shown to be localized specifically in the
production was found to be limited by the level of petal, predominantly in the adaxial epidermal
676 Rosaceae

cells, making petals the major source of scent in and alcohols (7.98–11.73 % in essential oils of
Rosa × hybrida. They found that in heavily SDE and 3.39–17.35 % in SPME headspace)
scented cultivars, the spectrum and amount of were dominant in Mi-hyang’s volatiles. In SDE
volatiles emitted by the flower broadly correlated extracts, 3,5-dimethyoxy toluene (10.93 %),
with the spectrum and contents of volatiles con- tricosane (9.90 %), β-ionone (9.15 %), eicosane
tained within the petal, throughout petal develop- (6.70 %), dihydro-β-ionone (6.39 %), dihydro-
ment (Bergougnoux et al. 2007). Analysis of rose β-ionol (6.94 %) and trans-2-hexenal (6.04 %)
cultivars that lacked a detectable scent indicated on DB-5MS column and 2,7-dihydroxy-4-m
that the absence of fragrance was due to a reduc- ethylcyclohepta-2,4,6-trien-1-on (6.22 %), hene-
tion in both the biosynthesis and emission of icosane (5.33 %), β-ionone (4.43 %) and dihydro-
scent volatiles. The upper epidermal layer of β-ionol (2.29 %) on Innowax column were the
cells and the epicuticular wax surface of Lady major compounds, quantitatively. In the SPME
Seton rose petals were found to be sites of bio- headspace 3,5-dimethyoxytoluene (9.66 %),
synthesis and accumulation, respectively, of β-ionone (3.18 %) and 2,4-diisocyanto-1-methyl-
terpinyl fatty acyl esters (Dunphy 2006). These 1-benzene (2.59 %) on DB-5MS column and
esters represented 14–64 % of the total monoter- 1,2-butanediol (13.78 %), 3,5-dimethyoxy tolu-
penes present in the petals. The lipophilic nature ene (5.31 %) and diphenyl methanone (1.56 %)
of these non-volatile esters of the monoterpene on Innowax column were the major compounds.
alcohols contrasted with that of the lipophilic Several compounds with rose odour and other
volatile parent alcohols themselves and with the floral notes detected included dihydro-β-ionone
hydrophilic, non-volatile, glucoside derivative of (woody), β-ionone (fruity), linalool (1.42 %)
the other principal petal fragrant compounds, the (floral), α-terpineol (0.34 %) (sweety), trans-2-
phenylpropanoids, β-phenyl ethanol and benzyl hexenal (leafy), geranyl acetate (0.20 %) (rose
alcohol. These latter compounds were also lavender), benzyl alcohol (0.68 %) (burning
synthesized and are resident in the petal. note), methyl eugenol (0.79 %), eugenol (0.84)
Volatile components emitted in the headspace of (clove-like), dihydro-β-ionol (6.94 %) (woody
rose flowers were geraniol, nerol, citronellol, E-citral, flowery), hexanal (0.55 %) (fruity), nerolidol
Z-citral, methylgeranylate, trans-caryophyllene, (0.44 %) (rose-like), 2,4-hexadienal (0.01 %)
β-cubebene, dihydro-β-ionone, 2-phenylethanol, (fresh floral), benzaldehyde (0.03 %) (bitter
2-phenylethyl acetate, 3,5-dimethoxytoluene and almond), theaspirane (4.06 %) (sweet fruity),
hexyl acetate (Helsper et al. 1998). When exposed to β-caryophyllene (0.19 %) (clove-like), nonanal
a 12 h photoperiod, these components showed (0.06 %) (citrus-like), furfural (0.52 %) (pene-
maximum emission during the light period and a trating), 2-pentenal (0.2 %) (green), cis-3-hexenol
rhythmicity which differed for the individual (1.05 %) (green), 1-penten-3-ol (0.04 %) (mild
compounds. Rhythmicity in emission was not green) and linalool oxide (0.06 %) (sweety
observed when flowers were kept in darkness wood). Other minor compounds found in small
before flower bud opening, but started immediately amounts were ethyl alcohol, 2-penten-1-ol,
upon exposure to a 12 h photoperiod. A total of 1-hexenol, 1,3-butanediol, phenyl ethyl
46 compounds were identified in Korean Rosa alcohol, 2,6-bis[1,1-dimethylethyl]-4-methyl
hybrida cv. Mi-hyang (Cho et al. 2006). The phenol, geranyl linalool isomer, (E,E)-2,4-
identified compounds comprised 17 alcohols, heptadienal, dihydro-2[3H]-furanone, benzeneac-
14 carbonyls, 7 aliphatic hydrocarbons, 2 terpene etaldehyde, 2,7-dihydroxy-4-ethylcyclohepta-2,
hydrocarbons, 4 benzenes, 1 ester and 1 miscel- 3,6-trien-1-one, heptadecane, nonadecane, hene-
laneous compound. Quantitatively, carbonyls icosane, docosane, tetracosane, methyl-benzene
(12.96–21.79 % in essential oils of SDE (steam (toluene), 2,4-disiocyanto-1-methyl-benzene and
distillation and solvent extraction) and 2.89–8.44 % 1,3,5-trimethoxy benzene. Rose oil was found to
in SPME (solid phase micro extraction) headspace) contain nine compounds identified as myrcene,
Rosa × hybrida 677

benzyl alcohol, 2-phenethyl alcohol, citronellol, activity, total phenols and gallic acid contents
geraniol, citronellyl acetate, eugenol, geranyl were found in the cultivars San Francisco,
acetate and methyl eugenol (Umezu et al. 2002). Katharina Zeimet and Mercedes and in the
Headspace solid phase microextraction com- essential-oil-bearing rose Rosa damascena.
bined to capillary gas chromatography (HS–PME– The correlation coefficients between antioxidant
GC) was applied for the determination of changes activity, the contents of total phenols and of gallic
in the volatile profile of rose petals (Rosa acid in various rose cultivars, on the other hand,
hybrida, cvs. David Austin) following processing were 0.79 and 0.81, respectively. Four essential
(heat treatment and addition as an ingredient to a oils including rose oil inhibited hexanal oxida-
food product, e.g. yoghurt) (Bianchi et al. 2007). tion by over 95 % after 40 days at 500 μg/ml in
Polydimethylsiloxane–divinylbenzene (PDMS– the aldehyde/carboxylic assay and exhibited DPPH
DVB) fibre at the sampling temperature of scavenging abilities from 39 % for angelica seed
60 °C was the most suitable to sample the rose oil to 90 % for jasmine oil at 200 μg/ml (Wei and
alcohols phenyl ethanol, citronellol, nerol, geraniol Shibamoto 2007). Rose oil also inhibited (46 %)
and eugenol. malonaldehyde formation from squalene. The main
compound of rose oil showing high antioxidant
activity was citronellol (34.2 %). Cyanidin
Leaf Phytochemicals 3,5-di-O-glucoside, isolated from Rosa hybrida
cv. Noblered petals, exhibited good scavenging
Phenolic and flavonoid compounds detected in activity against DPPH radical with IC50 value of
aqueous 80 % methanol leaf extract of rose 55.2 μg/ml (Lee et al. 2011b).
(R. hybrida) included unknown phenolic acid,
3- O -caffeoylquinic acid (neochlorogenic
acid), 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic Anticancer Activity
acid), quercetin-3-O-gentiobioside, quercetin
diglycoside, quercetin derivative, quercetin pen- Pelargonidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside, isolated from
toside, quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), Rosa hybrida cv. Noblered petals, showed potent
quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), quercetin-3-O- anticancer effects against LNCap (human
glucoside (isoquercitrin), quercetin-3-O-arbinoside prostate cell line), ACHN (human renal cell line)
(avicularin), quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (quercitrin), and MOLT-4 F (human leukaemia cell line)
kaempferol-3-O-pentoside and kaempferol-3-O- cell cultures, with IC50 values of 6.43, 18.3 and
rhamnoside (afzelin) (Shetty et al. 2011). 6.78 μg/ml, respectively (Lee et al. 2011b). Anti-
allergic activities were only moderate.

Antioxidant Activity
Anti-inflammatory Activity
Rose petal teas from different cultivars exhibited
scavenging capacity towards 2,2′-azino-bis- Oral administration (200 mg/kg) of Piper cubeba
(3-ethylbenzothiazoline)-6-sulfonate cation (fruit), Physalis angulata (flower) and Rosa
radical (ABTS+) ranging between 712.7 and hybrida (flower) extracts exhibited inhibitory
1,770.7 μM trolox equivalents (TE) per gram of effects against acute and subacute inflammation
dry petals, as compared with 1,227.6 μM TE/g as determined by carrageenan-induced paw
dry weight in green tea (Vinokur et al. 2006). The oedema and arachidonic acid-induced ear oedema
range of total phenols content in rose teas was (Choi and Hwang 2003). Also, administration
50.7–119.5 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g (200 mg/kg, p.o.) of the plant extracts for 1 week
dry matter, as compared with 62.1 mg GAE/g dry significantly inhibited type IV allergic reaction
weight in green tea. The rose teas were rich in in mice induced by formaldehyde. Lee et al.
free gallic acid. The highest values of antioxidant (2011a) found the hexane fraction obtained from
678 Rosaceae

white Rosa hybrida flowers possessed excellent corticosterone and reduced the increases in the
anti-inflammatory potency by reducing inflam- number of c-Fos-positive cells in hypothalamic
matory repertoires, such as inducible nitric oxide paraventricular nucleus (Fukada et al. 2012).
synthase, interleukin-1β and cyclooxygenase-2 Inhalation of rose essential oil significantly inhib-
in RAW264.7 cells when stimulated with lipo- ited the following effects of chronic stress: (1) the
polysaccharide (LPS), a proinflammatory mediator. elevation of transepidermal water loss (TEWL);
The fraction effectively inhibited LPS-mediated an index of the disruption of skin-barrier function,
nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 subunit translocation in both rats and humans; and (2) the increase in
into the nucleus and extracellular signal-regulated the salivary concentration of cortisol in humans.
kinase (ERK)1/2 phosphorylation, suggesting that The results suggested that in rats and humans,
rose hexane fraction anti-inflammatory activity chronic stress-induced disruption of the skin
may be based on inhibition of the NF-κB and barrier could be limited or prevented by rose
MAPK pathways. essential oil inhalation, possibly through its
inhibitory effect on the hypothalamic–pituitary–
adrenocortical axis.
Analgesic Activity

Rosa hybrida showed an analgesic effect against Skin Permeation Enhancement

hotplate-induced thermal stimulation at a dose of Activity
200 mg/kg (Choi and Hwang 2003).
The percutaneous permeation of monoterpenes
and phenylpropanoids applied in pure native rose
Anxiolytic Activity oil was much higher than in their neat form sug-
gesting synergistic interaction between essential
Of the 9 compounds found in rose oil, geraniol oil components (Schmitt et al. 2010). For substances
and eugenol decreased the response rate during applied in rose oil, a clear relationship between
the safe period of the Geller and Vogel conflict their lipophilic character, chemical structure and
tests in ICR mice, but did not affect the response skin permeation could be confirmed. Regarding
rate during the alarm period (Umezu et al. 2002). the permeation values the substances were
In contrast, 2-phenethyl alcohol and citronellol, ranked in the following order: monoterpene hydro-
like rose oil, produced an increasing effect on the carbons < monoterpene alcohols < monoterpene
response rate during the alarm period in the ketones < phenylpropanoids. In contrast, for neat
Geller conflict test. Further, both chemicals single substances there were no relationships
increased the number of electric shocks mice between their lipophilic characters, structures
received in the Vogel conflict test in a manner and skin permeation.
similar to that of rose oil. Given that 2-phenethyl
alcohol and citronellol produced the same anti-
conflict effects in both tests as rose oil, the authors Traditional Medicinal Uses
concluded that they were the pharmacologically
active constituents of antianxiety-like effect of Rose petal tea has a calming, tranquillizing effect
rose oil. (Roberts 2000). The Arab physician Avicenna
prescribed rose water for skin ailments, and rose
water mixed with honey was used as a cough
Adaptogenic Activity syrup. Rose water may be splashed on the outside
of the eyes in cases of conjunctivitis. It has an
Studies showed that in rats subjected to acute antiseptic and soothing quality and can be used
restraint stress, rose essential oil inhalation even on sensitive skins. Rose hips can be used
significantly inhibited the increase in plasma in cough mixtures. Its high vitamin C content,
Rosa × hybrida 679

as well as fruit acids, and betacarotene, pectin and

tannin content boost the body’s immune system Selected References
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 Rosa × rugosa

Scientific Name Esperanto: Tordrozo

Finnish: Aekaeruusu, Jaapanin Ruusu,
Rosa × rugosa Thunb. Kurttulehtiruusu, Kurtturuusu
French: Rosier Du Japon, Rosier Rugueux
Gaelic: Rós Rúsacach, Rós Rúscach
Synonyms German: Hecjenrose, Japanische Apfelrose,
Kamtschatkarose, Kartoffel-Rose, Runzelrose
Rosa ferox Lawrance, Rosa pubescens Baker Hungarian: Japán Rózsa, Ráncoslevelű Rózsa
Icelandic: Garđarós, Ígul-Rós, Skráp-Rós
Japanese: Hamanasu, Hamanashi
Family Korean: Hae-Dang-Hwa
Latvian: Rievainā Roze
Rosaceae Lithuanian: Raukšlėtalapis Erškėtis
Norwegian: Rukkerose, Rynkeros, Rynkerose
Polish: Róża Pomarszczona
Common/English Names Russian: Morshchinistaya Rosa, Roza
Kamčatskaja
Beach Plum, Beach Rose, Beach Tomato, Slovašcina: Japonski Šipek
Japanese Rose, Ramanas Ros, Rugosa Rose, Slovencina: Ruža Vráskavá
Saltspray Rose, Turkestan Rose, Sea Tomato, Swedish: Vresros
Wrinkled Rose Turkish: Türkistan Gülü
Welsh: Rhosyn Japan

Vernacular Names
Origin/Distribution
Chinese: Mei Gui, Mei Gui Hua
Czech: Růže Svraskalá, Růže Svrasklá This rose species is native to colder climes of
Danish: Hyben, Hybenrose, Rynket Rose north-eastern Asia that include North-eastern
Dutch: Bottelroos, Rimpelroos China, Japan, Korea and south-eastern Siberia
Estonian: Kurdlehine Kibuvits and the subarctic zone of Kamchatka and Okhotsk.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 682
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_56, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Rosa × rugosa 683

It has been cultivated in both Japan and China

for thousands of years. It has been introduced to
numerous areas of Europe, North America,
Australia and elsewhere.

Agroecology

R. rugosa is a cold climate species. It grows on

sandy or gravely beaches as well as in sandy dune
grassland communities in its native range. It can
form dense thickets. It is tolerant of poor soil Plate 1 Rosa rugosa Roseraie De L’hay flowers and
conditions and to high-salt conditions of seasides leaves
and road edges.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Fragrant Rosa rugosa flowers are edible raw or

cooked and are used in jellies and preserves
(Facciola 1990). Its petals are used for produc-
tion of teas, jams, wines and juices (Nowak et al.
2013). In northern China, R. rugosa cv. Plena is
widely grown for essential oil and the flowers are
also used medicinally and as food (Wu et al.
1985). Flower petals are gathered in the morning, Plate 2 Rosa rugosa Frau Dagmar Hastrup flowers and
mixed with sugar and used in pastry; fruits are leaves
used fresh or dried (Hu 2005).
The fruit is also edible raw or cooked (Hedrick
1972; Elias and Dykeman 2009). R. rugosa is
the standard rose for edible hip production.
A pleasant-tasting fruity-flavoured tea is made
from the fruit; it is rich in vitamin C (Lust 1974).
The seed is a good source of vitamin E; it can be
ground into a powder and mixed with flour or
added to other foods as a supplement (Facciola
1990). Young tender shoots are cooked and used
as a potherb (Facciola 1990). A tea is also made
from the leaves (Duke and Ayensu 1985).
Plate 3 Rosa rugosa Ann Endt flowers and leaves

Botany
compound (Plate 1, 2 and 3), borne on 5–13 cm
An erect, deciduous, suckering shrub, 1–1.5 m petioles with adnate stipule and with 5(−7)–9
tall with robust stem and tomentose branchlets elliptic or elliptic–obovate leaflets, 1.5–4.5 cm
covered with numerous short, straight prickles, long by 1–2.5 cm wide, abaxially tomentose,
3–10 mm long, mixed with glandular bristles reticulate, adaxially glabrous, shiny, rugose due
(Plates 3 and 4). Leaves are imparipinnately to concave veins, base rounded or broadly cuneate,
684 Rosaceae

leaves and petals), catechin derivatives (roots),

flavonoids (leaves), 2-phenoxychromones (leaves),
monoterpenes (floral parts, leaves), sesquiterpenes
(leaves, especially from glandular trichomes) and
triterpenes (leaves and roots) (Hashidoko 1996).
Olech et al. (2012) found the flower, leaf and
root ethanolic extracts of R. rugosa to have the
highest phenolic content, ranging from 12.75 to
13.9 mg/ml. Appreciable amounts were found in
hip tincture (11.88 mg/mL), whereas the lowest
content was in nut (seed) ethanolic extract
Plate 4 Prickly stem of R. rugosa scabrosa (2.88 mg/mL). Teas contained lower amounts
per millilitre ranging from 0.14 to 1.52 mg of
phenols for nut and flower tea, respectively.
The highest concentrations of flavonoids were
found in flower and leaf tinctures (1.14 and
1.25 mg/mL, respectively). The root ethanolic
extract also contained considerable amounts
(0.82 mg/mL), and the content of flavonoids in
hip tincture amounted to 0.39 mg/mL. The lowest
quantity was found in the nut extracts (0.12 mg/
mL). For the o-dihydroxyphenols content, the
highest amounts were present in the root, leaf and
flower tinctures (4.07, 2.61 and 2.15 mg/mL,
respectively). The lowest content was found in
Plate 5 R. rugosa fruits tea made from the nuts (seeds)—0.02 mg/mL.
The amount of tannins in the plant parts ranged
apex acute or rounded–obtuse, margin acutely from 0.001 to 0.225 mg/mL; the content found in
serrate. Flowers fragrant, solitary, or several and root tea was high compared to the other teas.
fasciculate, axillary, 4–6.5 cm cross borne on They also reported that the content of β-carotene
5–25 mm pedicels with ovate, tomentose bracts. ranged from 0 to 9.6 μg/mL and there was also
Hypanthium subglobose and glabrous. Sepals 5, large variation among tea and tincture galenic
ovate–lanceolate, often leaflike, pubescent. Petals preparations. The best sources of carotenoids
5, double or semi-double; purple-red, dark pink were hip extracts (240 and 275 μg per serving for
or white; obovate; base cuneate; apex emarginate tincture and tea, respectively) and flower tincture
(Plates 1, 2 and 3). Styles free, slightly exserted, with 131.75 μg per serving.
much shorter than stamens. Hip red, depressed–
globose, 2–2.5 cm across, smooth, with persistent,
erect sepals (Plate 5). Fruit Nutrients and Phytochemicals

The proximate nutrient composition per 100 g

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties edible portion of wild rose hip had been reported
by USDA (2013) as follows: water 58.66 g,
Plant Phytochemicals energy 162 kcal (679 kJ), protein 1.60 g, total
lipid 0.34 g, ash 1.18 g, carbohydrate 38.22 g,
The secondary metabolites of Rosa rugosa could total dietary fibre 24.1 g, total sugars 2.58 g,
be grouped according to structural classes and sucrose 0.07 g, glucose 1.34 g, fructose 1.16 g,
include hydrolysable tannins (contained in the Fe 1.06 mg, Mg 69 mg, P 61 mg, K 429 mg, Na 4 mg,
Rosa × rugosa 685

Zn 0.25 mg, Cu 0.113 mg, Mn 1.020 mg, vitamin clearly showed two groups, one constituted by
C 426 mg, thiamine 0.016 mg, riboflavin R. rugosa from the Cinnamomea section and
0.166 mg, niacin 1.3 mg, pantothenic acid the other constituted by the remaining taxa from
0.8 mg, vitamin B-6 0.076 mg, total choline the Caninae section. The chemical composition
12 mg, total folate 3 μg, betaine 2.9 mg, vitamin of R. rugosa hip (pseudofruit) essential oil
A RAE 217 μg, vitamin A 4,345 IU, β-carotene comprised 3-methyl-3-hexen-2-ol (0.8 %), cis-
2,350 μg, α-carotene 31 μg, β-cryptoxanthin 3-hexenal (27.50 %), 5-methyl-3- hexanone and
483 μg, lycopene 6,800 μg, lutein + zeaxanthin 2-heptanone(0.52 %), styrene (0.35 %), 5-meth-
2,001 μg, vitamin E (α-tocopherol) 5.84 mg, ylhexanal (2.32 %), 4,4′-dimethyl-hexanal
β-tocopherol 0.05 mg, γ-tocopherol 1.34 mg, (0.25 %) hydrocarbon (0.65 %), methyl caproate
δ-tocopherol 0.14 mg and vitamin K (phylloqui- (0.17 %), benzaldehyde and α-pinene (0.31 %),
none) 25.9 μg. 2-heptenol (0.61 %), β-methoxy-2- furanethanol
Nine carotenoids were determined in the fruits (0.39 %), n-amyl propionate or isoamyl propio-
of two Rosa species (Rosa canina and Rosa nate and 1,5-octadiene derivative (0.19 %),
rugosa) and of chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa): 2-hexenoic acid methyl ester (0.12 %), 6-methyl-
three carotenes (lycopene, ζ-carotene, β-carotene) 5-hepten-2-one (14.49 %), β-pinene (0.30 %),
and six xanthophylls (neoxanthin, trans-violaxan- 2,4-heptadienal and 2-pentylfuran (0.14 %),
thin, cis-violaxan-thin, 5,6-epoxylutein, lutein, octanal (0.29 %), β-myrcene (0.07 %), 2-carene
β-cryptoxanthin) (Razungles et al. 1989). Rosa (tr), benzene acetaldehyde (0.685), salicylalde-
hips contained the highest concentrations of hyde (0.87 %), p-cymene (0.92 %), 2,2′-bifuran
total carotenoids, which were mainly comprised (0.50 %), 1,8-cineole (tr), limonene (0.15 %),
of lycopene and β-carotene. Conversely, total 2-octenal (isomer) and methylbenzaldehyde
xanthophylls were low. (0.55 %), 2-octenal (isomer) and β-E-ocimene
Eleven major phenolic acids (gallic, protocat- (0.24 %), butyric acid isopentyl ester (0.10 %),
echuic, gentisic, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, γ-terpinene (0.05 %), 2,2′-methylenedifuran
caffeic, syringic, p-coumaric, ferulic, p-hydroxy- (0.42 %), terpinolene and guaiacol (0.05 %),
phenylacetic, salicylic) were quantitatively inves- nonanal (2.51 %), linalool (0.95 %), perylene
tigated in the fruit of 14 Rosa species (Nowak (0.05 %), caprylic acid methyl ester (0.05 %),
2006). The amount of individual compounds 7-methyl-3-octen-2-one (0.31 %), n-amyl isoval-
ranged from 0.2 to 303.2 mg/g of dry material. erate and acetic acid benzyl ester and trans-2-
Conjugated forms of phenolic acids were predom- undecenal (0.25 %), safranol (0.40 %), methyl
inant in the fruits and were hydrolyzed mainly to salicylate (0.31 %), eucarvone (tr), bicyclo-
gallic acid (93–303 mg/g in dry plant material). [3.3.1]-nonan-2-one and decanal (0.64 %),
The total amount of phenolic acid after hydrolyses β-cyclocitral (0.17 %), unknown (1.16 %), neral
was from 186.4 mg/g (R. inodora) to 466 mg/g and benzyl methyl ketone (0.92 %), geraniol
(R. rugosa) of dry weight of plant material. All (0.67 %), geranial (1.01 %), α-E-acaridial
volatile hip oil samples of nine Rosa species (0.75 %), vitispirane (isomer) (5.845), undeca-
were dominated by the following components: nal and phenylacetic acid propyl ester or
vitispirane (isomer) (1.8–17.38 %), α-E-acaridial butanoic acid phenylmethyl ester (0.27 %),
(0–13.55 %), hexadecanoic acid (2.45–14.26 %), (E,E)-2,4-decadienal (0.76 %), edulan (0.22 %),
β-ionone (0.11–10.97 %), dodecanoic acid methyl caproate (0.22 %), α-damascenone
(0.62–11.98 %), 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (0.17 %), decanoic acid (1.99 %), asterica-
(0–14.49 %), myristic acid (0.52–4.05 %), 3(15)-6-diene (0.51 %), unknown (0.55 %),
linoleic acid (0–21.95 %) and docosane (C22) trans-geranyl-acetone (1.96 %), 2,3-dehydro-4-
(0–13.29 %) (Nowak 2005). There appeared to oxo-β-ionol (0.14 %), α-cadinene (0.14 %),
be a correlation between the essential oil patterns β-ionone (0,80 %), α-farnesene (0.23 %), cis-ψ-
and the classification within Rosa L. Cluster ionone (9.16 %) and lauric acid methyl ester
analysis of the composition of main components (0.45 %).
686 Rosaceae

Grabowska and Janeczko (2012) reported on 7-glucoside (94 %) and 4′-glucoside (4 %); six
the fatty acid (FA) composition of the monoga- quercetin glycosides, 3-glucoside (91 %),
lactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) fraction obtained 3-glucuronide (62 %), 3-rutinoside (63 %),
from R. canina and R. rugosa pericarps and 3-sophoroside (69 %), 7-glucoside (90 %) and
seeds. The fatty acid composition of MGDG 4′-glucoside (4 %); and seven unidentified flavo-
found in pericarps was similar for both rose nols and two cyanidin glycosides, 3,5-diglucoside
species. They found unsaturated fatty acids to be (68 %) and 3-glucoside (16 %); two peonidin
dominant in the pericarps of both species glycosides, 3,5-diglucoside (41 %) and
(93.745–94.856 %). The major unsaturated FA of 3-glucoside (4 %); and two unidentified
MGDG from the pericarps of Rosa canina and anthocyanins (Mikanagi et al. 1995). The major
Rosa rugosa were those with chain length of 18C flavonoids in R. rugosa petals were kaempferol
(93.886 % and 92.795 %, respectively), while the 3-sophoroside, quercetin 3-sophoroside,
content of unsaturated FA with chain length of 16 kaempferol 7-glucoside, quercetin 3-glucoside
and 17C was less than 1 %. The dominant FA of and anthocyanins cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside,
MGDG from the pericarps of both species was peonidin 3,5-diglucoside and peonidin 3-gluco-
linolenic acid (18:3 n-3), and the percentage of side (Mikanagi et al. 1994). These flavonols
the compound was 74.486 % of MGDG FA were present in the petals of all intersectional
from R. canina and 86.057 % of MGDG FA from hybrids with sect. Synstylae and sect.
R. rugosa. They also found high amounts of 18:2 Pimpinellifoliae. Eleven compounds including
n-6 fatty acid. In contrast to MGDG from the kaempferol and quercetin flavonoids and a
pericarps, the content of the saturated FA of phenylethylglycoside were found in the alcohol
MGDG from the seeds of both species was 6–8 extract of R. rugosa flowers: kaempferol, quer-
times higher (25.856–40.554 %). The saturated cetin, juglanin, avicularin, astragalin, hyperoside,
FA composition of MGDG found in the seeds kaempferol-3-O-(2″-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl)-β-
consisted of the following FA: 12:0, 14:0, 16:0, D-glucopyranoside, quercetin-3-O-(2″-O-β-D-
18:0 and 24:0. In the MGDG composition from glucopyranosyl)-β- D - galactopyranoside,
the seeds of both species, we have also observed 2-phenylethyl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, protocat-
high amounts of unsaturated FA. The dominant echuic acid and gallic acid (Xiao et al. 2006).
unsaturated FA was linolenic acid, and its per- Mikanagi et al. (2000) found the following
centage was 27.545 % in the seeds of R. canina anthocyanins in the flowers of R. rugosa and
and 37.510 % in R. rugosa seeds. They also its variety and cultivars: R. rugosa: cyani-
found high amounts of 18:2 n-6 and 18:1 n-9 FA. din 3,5-diglucoside, cyanidin 3-sophoroside,
The content of 18:1 n-9 was much higher in the cyanidin 3 rutinoside, cyanidin 3-glucoside, cis-
seeds than in the pericarps. and trans-cyanidin 3-p-coumaroylglucoside-5-
glucoside, peonidin 3,5-diglucoside, peonidin
3-rutinoside, peonidin 3-glucoside, cis- and
Flower Phytochemicals trans-peonidin 3-p-coumaroylglucoside-5-glu-
coside, peonidin 3,5-diglucoside. R. rugosa var.
Thirty components were identified in R. rugosa plena: as with R. rugosa but not cyanidin
cv. Plena, violet-red-flowered essential oil; the 3-rutinoside. R. rugosa cv. Roseraie del’Hay: as
major compounds were β-citronellol, geraniol, with R. rugosa but not cyanidin 3-sophoroside
geraniol acetate, citronellyl acetate, methyl euge- and cyanidin 3-glucoside. R. rugosa cv.
nol and linalool (Wu et al. 1985). In a survey of Maikwai: as with R. rugosa but not cyanidin
flower flavonoids in 120 taxa from 10 sections of 3-rutinoside. R. rugosa cv. Salmon Pink: cyani-
subgenus Rosa, 19 flavonols and six anthocya- din 3,5-diglucoside, cyanidin 3-sophoroside,
nins were detected: six kaempferol glycosides, cyanidin 3 rutinoside, cyanidin 3-glucoside,
3-glucoside (in 99 % taxa), 3-rutinoside (63 %), peonidin 3-rutinoside, peonidin 3-glucoside.
3-sophoroside (60 %), 3-rhamnoside (70 %), R. rugosa cv. Scabrosa: cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside,
Rosa × rugosa 687

cyanidin 3-sophoroside, cis- and trans-cyanidin Compounds typical of the androecium were
3-p-coumaroylglucoside-5-glucoside, peonidin present as significant components (though in
3-rutinoside, cis- and trans-peonidin 3-p- small amounts) of the whole-flower fragrance,
coumaroylglucoside-5-glucoside. R. rugosa where they may well function as signals to
cv. Scarlett: as with cv. Scabrosa except for pollen-seeking insects. Some of the components
trans-peonidin 3-p-coumaroylglucoside-5- included citronellol, 2-phenylethanol, citronellyl
glucoside. Flowers of R. rugosa was found to acetate, E,E-α-farnesene, eugenol, geranial,
contain cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside (Wang et al. geraniol, geranyl acetate, geranyl acetone,
2009); avivularin, juglanin, astragalin, quercetin, heptan-2-ol, methyl eugenol, neral, nerol, neryl
ellagic acid and gallic acid (Zhong et al. 2009); acetate, phenylethyl acetate, phenyl methanol
and kaempferol and quercetin flavonoids (Xiao and sulcatone.
et al. 2006). Forty-three constituents of fragrance volatiles
The petals of R. rugosa were found to contain from fresh R. rugosa flowers were separated
abundant hydrolysable tannins, which have gal- and 26 components identified (Li et al. 1988).
loyl, hexahydroxydiphenoyl (HHDP) and valon- The major components were phenyl ethanol
eoyl groups attached to a glucose core (Hashidoko (18.31 %), β-citronellol (35.44 %), citronellyl
1996). The following hydrolyzable tannins were acetate (11.33 %), geraniol (17.21 %) and geranyl
isolated from the petals of R. rugosa flowers: acetate (7.38 %). Other minor components
rugosins A, B and C (Okuda et al. 1982; Hatano included 1-hexanol, myrcene, γ-terpinene, sabi-
et al. 1990b); rugosins D, E, F and G (Hatano nene hydrate, thymol, cis-rose oxide, trans-rose
et al. 1990a); tellimagrandin I together with oxide, linalool, 3-cyclohexene-1-methanol α,α,4-
eugeniin and casuarictin (Tamura et al. 2010); trimethyl-, nerol, 2-undecanone, geranial, geranyl
five hydrolyzable tannins, tellimagrandin I (10.4– formate, tridecane,2,5-dimethyl-, aromadendrene,
41.6 mg/g), tellimagrandin II (1.5–35.3 mg/g), eugenol, caryophyllene and 2-tridecanone.
rugosin A (<10 mg/g), rugosin D (8.2–48.1 mg/g) Up to 33 volatile floral compounds were
and casuarictin (<10 mg); and related compounds identified from the 23 Chinese Rosa rugosa
gallic acid, ellagic acid, 1,2,3-tri-O-galloyl-b- germplasms, including nine alcohols, five esters,
D-glucose, strictinin, isostrictinin and 3-O-galloyl- three alkanes, ten terpenes, three aldehydes,
4,6-O-HHDP-D-glucose were isolated from the two ketones and one ether (Feng et al. 2010).
dried petals (Ochir et al. 2010). Total phenolic, The main floral components identified were
flavonoid, phenolic acid, tannin, carotenoid and 2-phenylethanol, β-citronellol, ethanol and
polysaccharide contents in R. rugosa petals were n-hexane. The cultivars ‘Xizi’, ‘Miaofengshan’,
determined; five phenolic acids and six flavonoids ‘Xiangciguo’ and ‘Tangbai’ contained the
previously not reported in the plant material were highest amounts of 2-phenylethanol
identified (Nowak et al. 2013). (84.66 μg/g), β-citronellol (70.98 μg/g), ethanol
Each flower part of R. rugosa showed a (83.87 μg/g) and n-hexane (18.23 μg/g), respec-
distinctive volatile fragrance profile (Dobson tively. Other minor components detected
et al. 1990). Petal volatiles, dominated by terpe- included 3-methylpentane, 3-methylcyclopen-
noid and benzenoid alcohols, contributed most to tene, 2-heptanone, methylcyclopentane, isopentyl
the whole-flower fragrance. Sepal odours con- alcohol, cis-3-hexen-1-ol, n-hexanol, 5-methyl-
tained mainly sesquiterpenes, together with several 2-hexanol, α-pinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene,
compounds found in the petals. The major vola- 4-hexen-1-ol acetate, n-hexyl acetate, benzyl
tiles in the androecium were more diverse and alcohol, D-limonene, 3-carene, ocimene,
were generally different from those in the peri- trans-β-ocimene, 2-ethylidene-6-methyl-3,5-
anth. Empty anthers shared a high proportion of heptadienal, trans-rose oxide, β-citronellal,
their volatile profile with pollen. Pollen odour β-phenylethyl acetate, α-citral, cis-geraniol,
appeared to be self-contained, showing only minor 2-undecanone, citronellol acetate, nerol acetate,
adsorption of volatiles from sepals and petals. aromadendrene and α-farnesene.
688 Rosaceae

Forty-two volatile aroma compounds were rugosa var. plena growing in China (Ueyama
identified in petals of R. rugosa cultivars et al. 1990). This rose essential oil was high in
‘Ritausma’, ‘Sniedze’, ‘Zaiga’, ‘Liga’, ‘Frau citronellol (60.0 %), geraniol (8.6 %), nerol
Dagmar Hastrup’, R. rugosa and R. rugosa (2.8 %), citronellyl acetate (2.7 %), E, E-farnesol
‘Plena’(Sparinska and Rostoks 2012). The (2.4 %) and tridecan-2-one (2.3 %), accounting
volatiles found in the largest amounts were for 78.8 % of oil.
phenylethyl alcohol (28.6–79.9 % depending Bee pollen polysaccharides from Rosa rugosa
on cultivar), β-citronellol (10–57.2 % depending were purified and fractionated to neutral
on cultivar), but the amount of benzyl alcohol (WRPP-N) and acidic polysaccharides (WRPP-
was only 0.9–2.6 % and the composition of 1, WRPP-2) (Wang et al. 2013). WRPP-N was
compounds varied among cultivars. Other sig- mainly composed of glucose, mannose, arabi-
nificant compounds were nerol (up to 39 % of the nose and galactose, indicating the existence of
total amount of volatiles, but absent in ‘Ritausma’ glucan, arabinogalactan and mannoglucan.
and ‘Liga’), geraniol (up to 8 %, not found in WRPP-1 mainly consisted of rhamnose (3.0 %),
‘Ritausma’) and methyl eugenol (up to 10 %, galacturonic acid (12.4 %), galactose (24.7 %)
not found in ‘Ritausma’). Other minor vola- and arabinose (53.9 %) and contained a large pro-
tiles found included undecane,5,7dimethyl; portion of arabinogalactans. WRPP-2 consisted
α-phellandrene; dodecane,2,6,11trimethyl; dec- of rhamnose (7.8 %), galacturonic acid (23.0 %),
ane,2,3,5,8 tetramethyl; heptadecane,2,6,10,15 galactose (15 %) and arabinose (48.7 %), while
tetramethyl; acetic acid hexylester; 2-heptanol; WRPP-2 contained more galacturonic acid com-
3-hexen-1-ol, acetate; pentafluoro-propionic pared to WRPP-1. WRPP-1 and WRPP-2 were
acid, hexyl ester; 1-hexanol; rose oxide; 3-hexen- composed by type I rhamnogalacturonan, homo-
1-ol; 2-hexen-1-ol; furan, 3-(4-methyl-3-pen- galacturonan and arabinogalactan fragments,
thyl); acetic acid; copaene; 2-octen-3-ol-3,7 while WRPP-2 contained more homogalacturonan
dimethyl; 2-octen-3-ol-3,7 dimethyl acetate, and type I rhamnogalacturonan.
α-cubenene; α-farnesene; 2-tridecanone; 9-non-
adecene; methyl eugenol and eugenol.
Fifty-two constituents were separated from Leaf Phytochemicals
the essential oil of fresh R. rugosa flowers and
35 identified (Li et al. 1988). Major components An antimicrobial sesquiterpene isolated from
were phenyl ethanol (34.23 %), β-citronellol diffusates of damaged R. rugosa leaves was found
(29.96 %) and geraniol (12.96 %). Minor to be a novel carotane with an α,β-unsaturated
components were citronellyl acetate; methyl aldehyde group, an endo-peroxide bridge and an
eugenol; eugenol; tricosane; cis-rose oxide; allyl alcohol partial structure (Hashidoko et al.
trans-rose oxide; linalool; 3-cyclohexene- 1989b). A sesquiterpene, (7R,10R)-carota-1,4-
1-methanol, α,α,4-trimethyl-; nerol; 2-undeca- dienaldehyde, was identified in Rosa rugosa
none; geranial; geranyl formate; tridecane; leaves (Hashidoko et al. 1990). The new com-
2,5-dimethyl-; benzyl alcohol; aromadendrene; pound was markedly unstable under air exposure
caryophyllene; 2-tridecanone; nerolidol; farne- to give several oxidized derivatives, in which
sol; nootkatone; 9-undecen-2-one; calamine; rugosal A was found as the main product due to
elemol; heneicosane; docosane; tricosane; tetra- the 1,4-diene structure. The corresponding
cosane; pentacosane; 1,2-benzene; dicarboxylic carboxylic acid, carota-1,4-dienoic acid, was
acid; diisobutyl ester; benzene 1,2,3-trimethoxyl- found in the leaves. The corresponding carbox-
E-(2-propenyl)-2(SH)-napthalenone,4,4α5,6,7; ylic acid was found in intact leaves of R. rugosa,
8-hexahydro-4,4α-dimethyl-6(1-methylethenyl)-; but the compound was non-fungitoxic. Rugosal
and 1H-3α,7-methanoazulen-6-ol, octahydro- A, an antifungal sesquiterpene, was found to
3,6,8,8-tetramethyl-. A total of 108 compounds have a carotane skeleton oxidized at C-14 to an
were identified in the volatile flower oil of Rosa aldehyde group (Hashidoko et al. 1989a).
Rosa × rugosa 689

Bisaborosaol A, a novel sesquiterpene belonging from compound 3 in tissues. In the autoxidation

to the bisabolane class, was isolated from Rosa of (7R,10R)-carota-1,4-dien-14-al (1), a precursor
rugosa leaves (Hashidoko et al. 1991g). of an antifungal compound rugosal A (2) in
Bisaborosaol A and its corresponding carboxylic Rosa rugosa leaves, an intermediate possessing
acid may be biogenetically related to the carot- a 1,5-endoperox-2-hydroperoxy system (4) was
enoids which constitute the major sesquiter- isolated as a major product (Hashidoko et al.
penes of R. rugosa leaves. Five novel bisabolane 1991e). The structures of compound (4) and other
sesquiterpenes possessing a tetrahydrofuran by-products including rugosal A and rugosic acid
ring or a hydroperoxy group were isolated from A were determined.
Rosa rugosa leaves (Hashidoko et al. 1991c). Two long chain alkyl esters of cinnamic
These highly oxidized sesquiterpenes were acid, 4′-hydroxy-cis-cinnamic acid docosyl
structurally related to bisaborosaol A, the major ester and 4′-hydroxy-2,3-dihydrocinnamic acid
bisabolanoid of the plant. pentacosyl ester, in association with known
In the investigation of minor sesquiterpe- 4′-hydroxy-cis-cinnamic acid hexacosyl ester
noids in Rosa rugosa leaves, 11 novel sesquiter- and octacosyl ester, were isolated from Rosa
penes comprising eight carotane aldehydes rugosa leaves (Hashidoko et al. 1992a). Eight
(daucenaldehyde, epoxydaucenaldehyde A, novel sesquiterpenes rugosal D, epirugosal D,
epoxydaucenaldehyde B, isodaucenaldehyde, secocarotanal, isodaucenol, rosacorenol, bisab-
hydroxycarotaldehyde, dehydrodaucenaldehyde, orosaol F, bisaborosaol E1 and bisaborosaol E2
hydroxyisodaucenaldehyde and isotrienecatoanal were isolated from leaves of Rosa rugosa and
epoxide), two carotane acids (dehydrodaucenoic their structures elucidated (Hashidoko et al.
acid and isodaucenoic acid) and an acoranoid, 1993). The glandular trichome exudate of R.
rosacoranone, were isolated and their structures rugosa leaves was thus found to contain several
elucidated (Hashidoko et al. 1991d). The present minor carotane, secocarotane, bisabolane and
study showed R. rugosa to be a major source of acorane sesquiterpenes. In investigations of the
C-14-oxygenated carotenoids. Two phenoxychro- less polar fraction of the glandular trichome
mones, 6-demethoxy-4′-O-methylcapillarisin and exudate, some sesquiterpene hydrocarbons
6-demethoxycapillarisin, were identified in Rosa were found and three major sesquiterpene
rugosa leaves (Hashidoko et al. 1991b). Apigenin hydrocarbons (acora-3(4),7(15)-diene, carota-
was also found in the leaves. Four carotenoids 4(5),11(12)-diene (isodaucene) and carota-
rugosic acid D, rugosic acid C, rugosic acid B and 1,4-diene) and two minor ones (daucene
rugosic acid A methyl ester were isolated as and acora-3(4),7(8)-diene) were identified
metabolites of rugosic acid A in R. rugosa leaves (Hashidoko et al. 1992c). 4-epi-a-bisabol,
(Hashidoko et al. 1991f). Carota-1, 4-dienalde- 7-nor-a-bisabol and 10-hydroxyisodaucene were
hyde (3) increased in the leaves during the bud- isolated from the glandular trichome exudate
ding and flowering stages of R. rugosa, but together with linalool, nerol and carota-1,4-
drastically decreased after flowering (Hashidoko dien-14-ol as major constituents and some
et al. 1991a). Rugosal A (1) followed after com- unknowns (Hashidoko and Tahara 1995).
pound 3 increased and was at a high level over In the course of an investigation of the leaf
flowering and ripening stages, and their concen- fragrance of Rosa rugosa, three sesquiterpene
trations were sufficient to suppress many fungi. alcohols (4-epi-α-bisabolol [(4R:8S)-bisabola-1(7),
Rugosic acid A (2) accumulated through leaf 12(13)-dien-8-ol], norbisabolol [7-norbisabola-
maturation and diminished in coloured or falling 1(2),12(13)-dien-8-ol] and 10-hydroxyiso-
leaves. Further, leaf detaching or injury caused a daucene [carota-4(5),11(12)-dien-10-ol]) and two
rapid oxidation of 3 into 2 via 1. Compound 1 sesquiterpene peroxides (1,5-epidioxy-4-hydro-
which was actively released from the tissues when peroxycarot-2-ene and 1,5-epidioxy-2-hydroxycarot-
the leaves were mechanically damaged and 3-ene) were isolated from the glandular trichome
soaked in water appeared to originate mostly exudates of the leaves (Hashidoko et al. 1994).
690 Rosaceae

5-Hydroxycarota-1,3-dien-14-oic acid ethyl with odd numbers of carbons (C2S, C27, C29, C31
ester, regarded as an artefact, was also isolated and C33), n-alk(en)yl alcohols with even numbers
and its structure elucidated. The glandular tri- of carbons (C22, C24, C26 and C2S) and steroids
chome exudate of Rosa rugosa leaves was found (β-stigmasterol and an ursen-3-ol). The leaves of
to be mainly composed of two major carotane several Rosa rugosa hybrids (hybrid rugosas),
sesquiterpenes, rugosal A and rugosic acid A, Martin Frobisher and Vanguard, were found to
and carota-1, 4-dienaldehyde was also present accumulate a large amount of (+)-4-epi-alphabis-
(Hashidoko et al. 1992b). The occurrence of abolol (1) as a single constituent (Hashidoko et al.
rugosal A in the exudate suggested a possible 2000). Although glandular trichomes of Martin
defensive role of the glandular trichome against Frobisher on the leaves were dense, this R. rugosa
pest organisms, as it exhibited antifeedant activity hybrid produced none of the carota-1,4dienaldehyde
against tobacco cutworm larvae. The glandular (2) and bisaborosaol A (3) that were both found as
trichomes were found to be a potential source of representative sesquiterpenes of the carotane and
enzymes associated with the biosynthesis and/or bisabolane classes, respectively, in a glandular
bioconversion of sesquiterpenes of R. rugosa trichome exudate of wild-type R. rugosa.
(Hashidoko and Urashima 1995). Rosa rugosa Compound 1 was also apparent as a nearly single
leaves were found to exude a large amount of constituent detectable by GC in the leaf constitu-
syrup-like droplets (10–20 mg/g fresh leaves) ents of Vanguard which possessed sparse glandular
from multicellular tips of the leaf glandular trichomes on the leaf. Martin Frobisher and
trichomes in which carotane and bisabolane Vanguard had likely lost their capability to form
sesquiterpenoids are contained as predominant carotane-type sesquiterpenes and had also lost their
constituents (Hashidoko et al. 1992b). In these activity to oxygenate the C-7 allyl methyl carbon of
exudates, carotane sesquiterpenes were found to compound 1 to convert 3. The presence of (+)-4-epi-
mainly accumulate as epidioxy derivatives alphabisabolol-accumulating R. rugosa hybrids
(rugosal A and rugosic acid A), the oxidized was significant when considering the sesquiterpene
form of carota-l,4- dienaldehyde (Hashidoko biogenesis of Rosa rugosa.
et al. 1990), while the bisabolane-class sesquiter-
pene, bisaborosaol A, was another major constit-
uent (Hashidoko 1996). Root Phytochemicals
Wild-type Rosa rugosa, its varieties and
hybrids were found to contain bisaborosaol A (1) (+)-Catechin was isolated from the ethyl acetate-
and carota-1,4-dienaldehyde (2) as the major soluble fraction of the methanol extract of the
representative sesquiterpenes of the bisabolane underground part (Young et al. 1987a). From the
and carotane classes, respectively, in the leaves underground parts of Rosa rugosa, triterpenoid
(Hashidoko et al. 2001). The concentrations of glycosides, euscaphic acid (2α, 3α, 19α-trihydroxy-
bisaborosaol A and carota-1,4-dienaldehyde urs-12-en-28-oic acid), kaji-ichigoside F1
were positively correlated with the density of the (28-β-D-glucopyranosyl euscaphic acid), tormen-
glandular trichomes. Furthermore, an approxi- tic acid (2α, 3β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic
mately regular correlation was observed between acid), rosamultin (28-β-D-glucopyranosyl tor-
the concentrations of 1 and 2 in most of the mentic acid ), arjunic acid (2α, 3μ, 19α-trihydroxy
sesquiterpene-producing hybrid rugosas, regard- olean-12-en-28-oic acid) and arjunetin (28-β-D-
less of their productivity. They found the following glucopyranosyl arjunic acid), were isolated
leaf volatile components: acora-3(4),7(15)-diene; (Young et al. 1987b). 19α-hydroxyursane-
carota-1,4-diene; isodaucene; daucenal; rosacore- type triterpenoids, namely, (kaji-ichigoside
none; 4-epi-a-bisabolol; carota-1,4-dienaldehyde; F1(euscaphic acid 28-O-glucoside)), euscaphic
carota-1,4-dien-14-ol; isodaucenal; bisaborosaol acid and tormentic acid were isolated from the
B 1; bisaborosaol B2; bisaborosaol A; and roots of Rosa rugosa (Jung et al. 2005; An et al.
(+)-phytol. Other compounds were n-alkanes 2011; Kim et al. 2012).
Rosa × rugosa 691

Antioxidant Activity Cu2+/H2O2, to target proteins at lower concen-

trations (>1 μg/mL). The DNA fragmentation
In a study of antioxidative activity of 12 medicinal and the cell-level assays suggested that the hex-
plants, Cho et al. (2003b) found that compounds ane fraction may play a crucial role in inhibiting
with the strongest activities were 3,4-dihydroxyl- peroxynitrite and H2O2 attack. The findings sug-
benzoic acid, quercetin, the quercetin glycosides gested the hexane fraction to have promise for
quercetin-3-O-β-D-galactoside, quercetin-3-O-α- use as a novel pharmaceutical antioxidant. It was
L-rhamnoside, quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucoside and found that the activities of Cu, Zn-SOD (super-
quercetin-3-O-rutinose, catechin, gallic acid, oxide dismutase) and catalase in mouse erythro-
methyl gallate and rosamultin isolated from cytes were markedly increased after incubation
Zanthoxylum piperitum, Houttuynia cordata, for 3 h with Rosa rugosa flower fractions con-
Rosa rugosa and Cedrela sinensis. The quercetin taining two antioxidant components (polysac-
glycosides exhibited stronger activity than quer- charopeptide complex P(1-a) and condensed
cetin, suggesting that glycosylation increased the tannin P(1-b)) at the concentration of 500 μg/mL
antioxidative activity of quercetin. Among the (Jiang et al. 2009). Similar changes were also
Rosaceae, Rosa rugosa and Rosa davurica observed in the erythrocyte gene expression of
showed strong DPPH radical scavenging activity SOD and catalase. These results showed P(1-a)
(Cho et al. 2003a). Fractions of flower extracts and P(1-b) to be effective antioxidants that could
containing hydrolysable tannins were found to increase the activity and the gene expression of
have antioxidant activity (Lee et al. 2004). All its SOD and catalase in mouse erythrocytes.
partitioned fractions including crude extract In all R. rugosa cultivars, ‘Ritausma’, ‘Sniedze’,
showed potent scavenging effect against DPPH ‘Zaiga’, ‘Liga’, ‘Frau Dagmar Hastrup’, and
radical, peroxynitrite and lipid peroxidation. ‘Plena’, DPPH scavenging activities were rather
n-Butanol fraction, in particular, was found to be high compared with widely used herbs (Sparinska
the most effective in DPPH radical scavenging and Rostoks 2012). The free radical DPPH scav-
ability as well as inhibition against lipid peroxi- enging activity of rose petal extracts at fully open
dation. The 15 % aqueous methanol fraction also stage ranged from 80 to 91 %. The lowest scav-
showed a strong potency which was slightly enging activity of only 80 % was exhibited by
lower than n-butanol fraction. A gallic acid rugosa hybrid ‘Frau Dagmar Hastrup’. R. rugosa
derivative isolated from the aqueous extract of had the strongest scavenging activity—91 %.
R. rugosa flowers was found to exhibit high Rugosa hybrid ‘Sniedze’ had approximately the
antioxidative potency (Ng et al. 2004). Two same scavenging capacity. Other hybrids also
polysaccharide–peptide complex components scavenged nearly 90 % of DPPH. The cultivar
showed less potent antioxidant activity. ‘Sniedze’ scavenged ~90 % of free radicals,
Studies by Park et al. (2009) found that the which was the best result for rugosa hybrids. Leaf
hexane fraction of white Rosa rugosa flowers, extracts had less scavenging activity, although all
which contained a significant amount of poly- hybrids had activity of more than 80 %.
phenols and volatile components, had excellent Animal studies showed that the activities of
antioxidant potency and could scavenge free catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase
radicals of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (GPx) in 9-month-old senescence-accelerated
hydrate (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3- mice (SAM mice) treated with R. rugosa flower
ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS). extract showed a marked increase in whole blood
The hexane fraction inhibited lipid peroxidation and liver (Ng et al. 2005). At the same time, the
to almost the same degree as a chemical antioxi- gene expression level of CAT and GPx was
dant. In the nitric oxide (NO) assay, the hexane upregulated in the liver, while malondialdehyde
fraction effectively scavenged free radicals at content in liver and brain decreased. Male SAM
all dose ranges. The hexane fraction effec- mice were more sensitive than female SAM mice.
tively prevented oxidative damage, induced by The mean and the longest life span of SAM mice
692 Rosaceae

were longer after treatment with the rose flower the ethyl acetate extract led to the isolation of kaji-
extract. Another in-vivo studies showed that rats ichigoside F1 (euscaphic acid 28-O-glucoside, 1)
fed with a standard diet enriched with 6 % dried and rosamultin (tormentic acid 28-O-glucoside,
Rosa rugosa fruit powder for 3 months had sig- 2). The hydrolyzed fraction when subjected to
nificantly lower liver peroxide, protein oxida- silica gel column and octadecylsilane column
tion, glutathione levels and plasma alanine chromatography afforded euscaphic acid (3) and
transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase tormentic acid (4). The potencies were observed
(AST) activities compared with the rats in the in the following order: 4 > 3 > 2 > 1. These results
CCl4-treated control group (Altiner and Kiliçgün suggested 19alpha-hydroxyursane-type triterpe-
2008). These findings suggested Rosa rugosa to noids to be responsible for the anti-inflammatory/
possess antioxidant activity. Olech and Nowak antinociceptive action of R. rugosa roots. Among
(2012) found that in order to obtain extracts from the tested 19α-hydroxyursane-type triterpenoids
Rosa rugosa petals with the highest antioxidant (kaji-ichigoside F(1), rosamultin, euscaphic acid,
activity and phenolic content, the use of mixture tormentic acid (TA)), TA was found to most
of polar organic solvents (acetone, in particular) potently inhibit the production of nitric oxide
with water was recommended. R. rugosa petals (NO) in RAW 264.7 cells (An et al. 2011). TA
exhibited antiradical properties with IC50 dose dependently decreased the productions of
value of 1.33–0.08 mg/mg DPPH• (Nowak NO, prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) and tumour
et al. 2013). necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) induced by LPS in
All the extracts of R. rugosa plant parts dem- RAW 264.7 cells. Further, TA significantly sup-
onstrated high free radical (DPPH) scavenging pressed the LPS-induced expressions of inducible
activity (Olech et al. 2012). R. rugosa flower nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2
extracts were the most potent radical scavengers. (COX-2) and TNF-α at the mRNA and protein
Leaves and roots had almost equal effects, levels. TA also inhibited the LPS-stimulated
neutralizing all free radicals within 15 min, while degradation and phosphorylation of inhibitor of
the slowest for DPPH inhibition were the prepa- kappa B-α (IκB-α). Taken together, the results
rations obtained from nuts (seeds) and hip tinc- suggested that the anti-inflammatory activity of
tures. Both types of galenic preparations (tea and TA was associated with the downregulation of
tinctures) obtained from roots, leaves and flowers iNOS, COX-2 and TNF-α through the negative
showed the highest antiradical activity. Hips and regulation of the NF-κB pathway in RAW 264.7
nuts had lower activities. The antiradical poten- cells. Further studies by Kim et al. (2012) showed
tial of teas increased in the order nuts < hips < flow- that euscaphic acid (19α-hydroxyursane-type trit-
ers < roots < leaves, whereas the activity of erpenoids, EA) isolated from roots of Rosa
tinctures increased as follows: hips < nuts < flow- rugosa inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-
ers < leaves < roots. They found that free radical induced inflammatory responses by interference
scavenging effects of root and leaf (IC50 0.19– with the clustering of TNF receptor-associated
0.22) preparations were comparable to those of factor 6 (TRAF6) with interleukin receptor-associ-
trolox (IC50 0.185). ated kinase 1 (IRAK1) and transforming growth
factor-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) resulting in
blocking the activation of IKK (inhibitor kB
Anti-inflammatory Activity kinase) and MAPKs (mitogen-activated protein
kinases) signal transduction to downregulate
Both methanol and ethyl acetate extracts of NF-κB activations in RAW 264.7 macrophages.
R. rugosa roots showed anti-inflammatory/ EA concentration dependently reduced the pro-
antinociceptive action in acetic acid-induced duction of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2
writhing and hot plate testing and in a carrageenan- (PGE2), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and
induced paw oedema model in mice and rats interleukin-1β (IL-1β) induced by LPS in RAW
(Jung et al. 2005). Repeated chromatography of 264.7 macrophages.
Rosa × rugosa 693

Anticancer Activity root, leaf, nut (seed), hip and flower extracts
were evaluated against ovarian (TOV-112D), cer-
Screening of 43 small fruit juices revealed that vical (HeLa), breast (T47D) and lung cancer
Actinidia polygama Maxim., Rosa rugosa (A549) cell lines using the BrdU test (Olech et al.
Thunb., Vaccinium smallii A. Gray and Sorbus 2012). The root and hip tea decoction and nut
sambucifolia Roem. strongly inhibited the prolif- tincture at 100 μg/mL had high antitumor effects
eration of all cancer cell lines examined, and on human lung and ovary cancer cell lines.
these juices were substantially less cytotoxic Tinctures and decoctions prepared from flowers
towards normal human cell lines (Yoshizawa and leaves showed a considerable antitumour
et al. 2000b). These fruit juices were found to effect on A549 and TOV-112D lines (85–95 % of
strongly induce differentiation of HL-60 leukemic dead cells), yet the damaging effect on normal
cells to monocyte/macrophage characteristics in fibroblast cell lines was also significant (80–
a concentration-dependent manner (Yoshizawa 90 %). A significant viability decrease in cervical
et al. 2000a). (HeLa) and breast cancer (T47D) lines was
Gallic acid from Rosa rugosa was found to observed after exposure to root decoction (50 %
be a histone acetyltransferase (HAT) inhibitor and 75 % for HeLa and T47D, respectively). The
with global specificity for the majority of HAT significant cytotoxic influence (50 % of dead
enzymes, but with no activity towards epigenetic cells) was observed after incubation of the cervi-
enzymes including sirtuin (silent mating type cal cell line (HeLa) with flower decoction and
information regulation 2 homologue) 1 breast cancer line (T47D) with nut decoction.
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae), histone deacetylase A 25 % viability decrease in T47D line after
and histone methyltransferase (Choi et al. 2009). incubation with flower decoction and HeLa line
Gallic acid uncompetitively inhibited p300/CBP- with nut decoction was noticed. Tea obtained
dependent HAT activities. It inhibited p300- from leaves and hips did not exhibit any signifi-
induced p65 acetylation, both in vitro and in vivo, cant anticancer activity. The data obtained dem-
increased the level of cytosolic IkappaBalpha, onstrated considerable impact of polyphenols on
prevented lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced p65 the anticancer activity of extracts (ethanolic, in
translocation to the nucleus and suppressed LPS- particular). R. rugosa petals exhibited cytotoxic
induced nuclear factor-kappa B activation in effect against cervical (HeLa) and breast cancer
A549 lung cancer cells. Gallic acid treatment (T47D) cell lines (Nowak et al. 2013). All Rosa
inhibited the acetylation of p65 and the LPS- rugosa bee pollen polysaccharides fractions had
induced serum levels of interleukin-6 in vivo and significant antiproliferative activity in HT-29
generally inhibited inflammatory responses and HCT116 human colon carcinoma cell line;
caused by other stimuli, including LPS, IFN- the neutral and acidic fractions were shown to
gamma and interleukin-1beta, and further down- have significant synergistic effects which
regulated the expression of nuclear factor-kappa accounted for the antitumour activity of bee
B-regulated antiapoptotic genes. Rosa rugosa pollen polysaccharides from Rosa rugosa in
methanol stem extract inhibited both p300 and vitro (Wang et al. 2013).
CBP (60–70 % at 100 μg/mL) activity, indicating
it to be a potent HAT inhibitor (Lee et al. 2008).
The extract decreased transcription of androgen Antiviral Activity
receptor (AR)-regulated genes and also reduced
histone H3 and AR acetylation in the promoters Rosa rugosa root extract exhibited potent anti-
of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) activity at
beta-2-microglobulin (B2M). Further treatment a concentration of 100 μg/mL (Park et al. 2005a).
with the extract reduced the growth of LNCaP, a Rosamultin isolated from the root inhibited
human prostate cancer cell line. Two galenic HIV-1 protease by 53 % at a concentration of
preparations (teas and tinctures) of R. rugosa 100 μM.
694 Rosaceae

Among 18 medicinal herbs screened at a con- dietary fibre. R. rugosa petals exhibited notable
centration of 500 μg/mL, the aqueous extract of antimicrobial activity against eight bacterial
dried R. rugosa flowers showed the strongest (i.e. Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus
inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus luteus,
type 1 reverse transcriptase (HIV-1 RT) in vitro Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
(Fu et al. 2006; Ng et al. 2006). Two components, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis) and
P1-a (Mw150 kDa) and P1-b (Mw 8 kDa), were two yeast strains (Candida albicans, Candida
isolated from the ethanol precipitate of the aque- parapsilosis) (Nowak et al. 2014).
ous extract of R. rugosa flowers. They inhibited Of two galenic preparations of R. rugosa
the activity of HIV-1 RT with an IC50 of 158 nM root, leaf, hip and flower extracts, tinctures were
and 148.16 μg/mL (18.5 μM), respectively. found to be more active than tea decoctions
Further structural analyses revealed that P1-a against eight reference bacterial strains (viz.,
was a polysaccharide–peptide complex, and P1-b Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus
was a polymer of a condensed tannin consisting aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus luteus,
of acteoside and acteoside derivatives. Both P(1-a) Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
and P(1-b) possessed antioxidant activity, with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus mirabilis)
the activity of P(1-b) higher than that of P(1-a). with MIC ranging from 0.08 to 2.5 mg/mL and
Tellimagrandin I together with eugeniin and 0.31 to 1.25 mg/mL, respectively (Olech et al.
casuarictin isolated from the methanol flower 2012). The best antibacterial properties were
extract were found to be potent hepatitis C virus found in samples from leaves, followed by flowers
invasion inhibitors (Tamura et al. 2010). and roots, whereas nut and pseudofruit samples
exhibited lower antibacterial activity. Rosa
rugosa extract was one of several plant extracts
Antimicrobial and Probiotic Activities that had been previously shown to have growth
inhibitory activity against a multidrug-resistant
Growth of intestinal bifidobacteria and lactoba- clinical strain of Acinetobacter baumannii, and
cilli was not affected by the addition of Rosa the active component was identified to be ellagic
rugosa petal in plate cultivation, but the growth acid (Miyasaki et al. 2013).
of pathogenic bacteria Bacteroides vulgatus,
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and
Bacillus cereus was completely inhibited by the Antidiabetic Activity
addition of 0.1, 0.5, 0.1 and 0.05 % (w/v) of the
petal, respectively (Kamijo et al 2008). In liquid Streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats showed less
cultivation, the addition of the petal (0.5 %) body weight gain and heavier kidney and liver
stimulated the growth of Bifidobacterium breve weights than normal rats, while the oral adminis-
and slightly inhibited the growth of Lactobacillus tration of Rosa rugosa at a dose of 100 or 200 mg/
salivarius, but the growth of E. coli, S. aureus, kg body weight/day for 20 days attenuated the
B. cereus and Salmonella sp. was inhibited by physiological changes induced by diabetes
nearly 50 %. Hydrolyzable tannins isolated (Cho et al. 2004). Additionally, R. rugosa dose
from R. rugosa, rugosin D and tellimagrandin II dependently reduced the overproduction of
showed antibacterial activities against E. coli, radicals associated with diabetes. Rosa rugosa
S. aureus, B. cereus and Salmonella sp., but little significantly and dose dependently reduced thio-
or no effect against Bifidobacterium breve and barbituric acid-reactive substance levels in serum,
L. salivarius. R. rugosa petal showed selective hepatic and renal mitochondria, implying that
antibacterial activities against intestinal and Rosa rugosa would alleviate the oxidative stress
pathogenic bacteria, and the selectivity resembled associated with diabetes by inhibiting lipid
that of prebiotics such as oligosaccharides and peroxidation. Oral administrations of the Rosa
Rosa × rugosa 695

rugosa root extract significantly decreased serum acetate-soluble fraction could be one of the active
glucose, total cholesterol, triglyceride, AST and principles from this plant.
ALT levels while increased serum insulin and
HDL-C in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats
(Kim and Kin 2010). The hypoglycaemic effect Antihypertensive Activity
of the Rosa rugosa root extract was more
effective than normal rat group. Rosa rugosa Two different preparations of powdered R. rugosa
(méiguīhuā) extract was one of the several tradi- flower extracts, viz. water and ethanol–ethyl
tional Chinese medicinal (TCM) herbs permit- acetate preparations, exhibited high angiotensin I
ted to be used as food ingredients that showed converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory action (Xie
hypoglycaemic activity (Feng et al. 2013). The and Zhang 2012). The latter extract with higher
extract exhibited inhibitory activities against activity was evaluated in spontaneously hyper-
both α-amylase and α-glucosidase in vitro. Rosa tensive rats by oral administration for antihyper-
rugosa flowers used as herbal medicine possess tensive effect. In acute experiment, the decrease
many activities. A fraction extracted by the ethyl in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and the increase
acetate fraction of R. rugosa flowers exhibited in heart rate (HR) were observed at 2 h after
strong inhibitory activity in vitro against protein administration at high (40 g/kg) and low (20 g/kg)
tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) suggesting its dose; such reductions in SBP were maintained
potential for treating diabetes (Gu et al. 2013). for 12 h. In multiple oral administration chronic
Seventy-five compounds including tannins were experiment, an SBP reduction of 17.5 mmHg was
found in the fraction. observed after 6 days of administration at low
dose, and such reductions were maintained for
the next 8 days. The results demonstrated the
Antiobesity/Antihyperlipidaemic/ antihypertensive effect of Rosa rugosa flowers,
Antihypercholesteromic Activity which was attributed to inhibition of angiotensin
I converting enzyme.
Park et al. (2005a) demonstrated that the metha-
nolic extract and its ethyl acetate fraction inhib-
ited the weight increase of the rat body, abdominal Anti-allergic Activity
fat pad and hyperlipidemia at 200 mg/kg dose
induced by high-fat diet for 6 weeks. Further, the Rosa rugosa petal extract and butanol and hexane
triterpenoids, euscaphic acid and tormentic acid, fractions effectively reduced systemic anaphylactic
isolated from R. rugosa roots, were active at reactions and anti-dinitrophenyl (DNP) IgE-
30 mg/kg in the same assay. Earlier, the results of mediated passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in mice,
animal studies suggested an existence of compo- with the greatest inhibition observed for the hexane
nent in the methanol extract of Rosa rugosa roots fraction (Jeon et al. 2009). Additionally, a signifi-
which may ameliorate the accumulation of triac- cant reduction of scratching behaviour by mice after
ylglycerol in rat liver when the rats were fed the histamine injection suggested this fraction’s poten-
extract at the 1 % level for 4 weeks (Lee et al. tial anti-allergic effect. At the cell level, the hexane
1991). However the extract did not significantly fraction markedly inhibited beta-hexosaminidase
affect the levels of serum and liver total release from RBL-2H3 mast cells and suppressed
cholesterol. the expressions of mRNA interferon-gamma and
An ethyl acetate-soluble fraction of methanol interleukin-4 cytokines produced by T helper cells
extract from the underground parts of Rosa (type 1 and 2). The results strongly suggested that
rugosa significantly lowered serum cholesterol the hexane fraction may have an effect on atopic
level in rats (Young et al. 1987a, b). The dermatitis, as these two cell types play central roles
scientists found that (+)-catechin from the ethyl in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis.
696 Rosaceae

Hepatoprotective Activity and ADP did not cause phosphoinositide break-

down in [3H]myo-inositol-labelled rabbit plate-
The methanol extract of R. rugosa root reduced lets. In fura-2/AM-load platelets, both rugosin E
the activities of aminopyrine N-demethylase and and ADP induced increase in intracellular cal-
aniline hydroxylase, which had been increased cium concentration, and these responses were
by bromobenzene, but rosamultin did not affect inhibited by ATP and PGE1. All these data
the activities of the two enzymes (Park et al. suggested that rugosin E may be an ADP receptor
2004). Both the methanol extract and rosamultin agonist in rabbit platelets.
restored the activity of epoxide hydrolase, which
had also been decreased by bromobenzene.
Hepatic glutathione concentrations were lowered Allergy Problem
and hepatic lipid peroxides were increased in rats
intoxicated with bromobenzene. The hepatic Demir et al. (2002) reported that villagers in the
lipid peroxidation induced by bromobenzene lake region, Turkey, reported asthma/allergy
was prevented with the methanol extract and symptoms outside the rose season (17.6 %), during
rosamultin. However, the decrease in glutathione the rose season (6.2 %) and both during the rose
was not altered by the methanol extract of season and outside the rose season (whole year)
R. rugosa. The results suggested that the extract (17.6 %). Atopy and specific IgE against Rosa
of R. rugosa and its compound, rosamultin, may rugosa were detected in 12 (19 %) and 8 (19.5 %)
protect against bromobenzene-induced hepato- of the 41 villagers tested. Villagers who had symp-
toxicity through, at least in part, enhanced activity toms the whole year reported more frequently
of epoxide hydrolase. Also antioxidant properties wheezing than those who reported symptoms only
may contribute to the protection of R. rugosa outside the rose season (41.2 % vs. 11.1 %).
against bromobenzene-induced hepatotoxicity.
Pretreatment with (+)-catechin isolated from
R. rugosa roots gave no effects on the activities of Traditional Medicinal Uses
aminopyrine N-demethylase and aniline hydroxy-
lase, enzymes forming toxic bromobenzene epox- Rosa rugosa flowers (petals or buds) have been
ide intermediates and glutathione S-transferase, used for medicinal and food purposes for hun-
an enzyme that removes toxic epoxides in rats dreds of years in China, Korea and Japan (Hur
treated with bromobenzene (Hur et al. 2007). et al 2007; Lee et al 2008; Xie and Zhang 2012).
They have been used in traditional Chinese medi-
cine (TCM) to effectively help in expansion of
Platelet-Aggregating Activity blood vessels and improvement of microcircula-
tion, for treatment of haematemesis (vomiting of
Among the nine ellagitannins, rugosin E, isolated blood), haemoptysis (coughing of blood from
from Rosa rugosa, was the most potent platelet- respiratory tract), hypermenorrhoea (heavy men-
aggregating agent with an EC50 of 1.5 μM in rab- struation), apoplexy (bleeding within internal
bit platelets and 3.2 μM in human platelets (Teng organs), diarrhoea, stomach ache, vaginal dis-
et al. 1997). The aggregations caused by rugosin charge, dysentery, mastitis and swellings (Zhu
E and ADP were inhibited by EGTA, PGE1, 1989; Lu 2005).
mepacrine, sodium nitroprusside and neomycin,
but not by indomethacin, verapamil, TMB-8,
BN52021 and GR32191B. Both rugosin E and Other Uses
ADP did not induce platelet aggregation in ADP
(1 mM)-desensitized platelets. In contrast to R. rugosa is a widely planted medicinal plant in
ADP, rugosin E did not decrease cAMP forma- China, Korea and Japan and also ornamental
tion in washed rabbit platelets. Both rugosin E plant in its native range and elsewhere.
Rosa × rugosa 697

Feng S, Song L, Liu Y, Lai F, Zuo G, He G, Chen M,

Huang D (2013) Hypoglycemic activities of
Comments commonly-used traditional Chinese herbs. Am J Chin
Med 41(4):849–864
R. rugosa can outcompete native flora, thereby Fu M, Ng TB, Jiang Y, Pi ZF, Liu ZK, Li L, Liu F
threatening biological diversity. It has been (2006) Compounds from rose (Rosa rugosa) flowers
with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse
deemed a noxious weed in the United States.
transcriptase inhibitory activity. J Pharm Pharmacol
58(9):1275–1280
Grabowska K, Janeczko Z (2012) Fatty acid composition
Selected References of the monogalactosyldiacylglycerol fraction obtained
from Rosa sp. and Litozin®. Chem Nat Compd
48(3):462–464
Altiner D, Kiliçgün H (2008) The antioxidant effect
Gu C, Robertson KR (2003) Rosa Linnaeus. In: Wu
of Rosa rugosa. Drug Metabol Drug Interact
ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY (eds) Pittosporaceae
23(3–4):323–327
through Connaraceae, vol 9, Flora of China.
An HJ, Kim IT, Park HJ, Kim HM, Choi JH, Lee KT
Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press,
(2011) Tormentic acid, a triterpenoid saponin, isolated
Beijing/St. Louis
from Rosa rugosa, inhibited LPS-induced iNOS,
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COX-2, and TNF-α expression through inactivation of
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 Galium odoratum

Scientific Name Danish: Bukar, Bukkar, Grønne Kranse, Mysike.

Skovmærke
Galium odoratum (L.) Scop. Dutch: Lievevrouwbedstro, Onze-Lieve-Vrouw-
bedstro
Estonian: Lõhnav Madar
Synonyms Esperanto: Asperulo, Asperulo Odora, Galio
Odora, Virgulino-Fojno
Asperula eugeniae K. Richt., Asperula matrisylva Finnish: Tuoksumaratti, Tuoksumatara
Gilib. (inval.), Asperula odora Salisb. (illeg.), French: Asperule Odorante, Beille Étoile, Gaillet
Asperula odorata L., Asterophyllum asperula Odorant, Hépatique Étoilee, Muguet Des Bois,
Schimp. & Spenn., Asterophyllum sylvaticum Petit Muguet, Petit Muguet Des Bois, Reine
Schimp. & Spenn., Chlorostemma odoratum (L.) Des Bois
Fourr., Galium matrisylva F.H. Wigg. (illeg.) Gaelic: Lus Moileas
German: Echter Waldmeister, Duftlabkraut,
Gliedkraut, Herzfreund, Leberkraut, Maiblume,
Family Maichrut, Maikraut, Maitee, Mösch, Teekraut,
Waldmeister, Waldermisterkraut, Waldmutter­
Rubiaceae kraut, Waldtee, Wohlriechendes Labkraut
Hungarian: Szagos Müge
Icelandic: Anganmaðra, Ilmmaðra
Common/English Names Italian: Asperula, Caglio Odoroso, Galium,
Stellina Odorosa
Catchweed Bedstraw, Hay Plant, Herb Walter, Japanese: Kurumaba-Sou
Kiss-Me-Quick, Master of the Forest, Master Of Norwegian: Amur, Musk, Mysk, Møske, Myske
The Woods, Smooth Bedstraw, Star Grass, Sweet Polish: Marzanka Wonna, Marzanna, Przytulia
Grass, Sweet Woodruff, Sweet-Scented Bedstraw, Wild Wonna
Baby’s Breath, Wood Rove, Woodruff, Wuderove Portuguese: Aspérula-Odorífera
Russian: Jasmennik Duschistji
Slovašcina: Dišeča Lakota, Lakota Dišeča
Vernacular Names Slovencina: Lipkavec Marinkový
Spanish: Asperula, asperilla de los bisques, Asperilla
Albanian: Ngjitės Erėmirė Olorosa, asperillo, bregandia, hierba de la opilada,
Brazil: Aspérula Odorífera (Portuguese) Hepática Estrellada, reina de los bisques, rubia
Czech: Mařinka Vonná, Svízel Vonný menor, Rubilla, ruina de los bosques

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 700
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_57, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Galium odoratum 701

Swedish: Myska, Myskmadra

Welsh: Briwydden Bêr Botany

An herbaceous perennial, 20–50 cm high with

Origin/Distribution ascending to erect, branched, 4-angled stems.
The leaves are simple, oblanceolate, glabrous above,
The native range of G. odoratum is reported to be 2–5 cm long, with prominent midrib, lime green
in north and Central Europe southern to the and borne in whorls of 6–9 (Plate 1). Flowers
mountains of Italy and of the Balkan Peninsula, small, 4–7 mm across, produced short pedicels
northern Africa and north western Asia (W Siberia). in cymes, funnel-shaped, white with 4–6 mm long,
4-lobed, the lobes about equal to the tube (Plates 1
and 2). Fruits – small nutlets, 2–4 mm long with
Agroecology numerous, short, hooked bristles.

A cool climate, subtemperate to temperate spe-

cies. In its native range, it is found in woodland,
beech forest and shady areas on moist calcareous
or rich basic soils. It thrives in partial shade and
will tolerate full shade.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Galium odoratum is a culinary herb, whose

leaves and flowers are used as food and as fla-
vouring for various foods and used for tea
(Hedrick 1972; Launert 1981; Facciola 1990;
Bown 1995; Elias and Dykeman 2009; Deane
2007–2012). The sweet-scented flowers are eaten
or used as a garnish. A fragrant and delicious,
herbal tea is made from the green-dried leaves
and flowers. The leaves can be eaten raw or
cooked and for garnishing. Fruit salads are also
flavoured with woodruff leaves. Fresh or dried
leaves of woodruff are used as flavouring agents
in non-alcoholic, cooling drinks and alcoholic Plate 1  Flowers and leaves (LM Landry)
beverages. The leaves are soaked in white wine to
make ‘Maitrank’, an aromatic tonic drink that is
made in Alsace, France. May wine, also called
Maiwein and Maibowle, and Korn Schnapps
(vodka) are popular German alcoholic beverages
that are flavoured with sweet woodruff. Korn
Schnapps is a popular party drink among young
people. Berliner Weisse beers and brandy are
also flavoured with woodruff essential oil.
Woodruff-flavoured sherbet powder too is
­popular. The herb is also used to flavour jams,
jellies, ice creams and a Georgian soft drink
called Tarhun. Plate 2  Close-up of flowers (LM Landry)
702 Rubiaceae

0.23 and 1.19 % (at plants from natural habitats)

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties and 0.54 and 1.25 % (at cultivated plants).
A total of 224 volatiles were identified as
G. odoratum plant was found to contain L-ascorbic woodruff constituents and 7,11,15-trimethyl-­ 2-
acid (Wierzchowska-Renke 1969), citric, malic, hexadecanone was identified for the first time in
rubichloric and tannic acids (Grieve 1971), couma- nature (Wörner and Schreier 1991). The major
rins and flavonoids (Kovac-Besović and Durić compounds were coumarin (>1,000 μg/kg); com-
2003); coumarin (0.4–1 %), asperuloside (0.05– pounds with contents of 100–1,000 μg/kg
0.3 %), monotropein (0.04 %), tannins, iridoids, included (Z)-3-hexen-l-ol; linalool; borneol;
anthraquinones, flavonoids and traces of nicotinic benzyl alcohol; 2-phenylethanol, thymol;
acid (Kahkeshani et al. 2013). Two methyl caf- 8-­hydroxylinalool; α-thujone; menthone;
feoylquinates of chlorogenic acids, namely, methyl camphor; benzaldehyde; carvone; β-ionone;
3-caffeoylquinate and methyl 5-­ caffeoylquinate, 2-­hexadecanone; methyl dihydrocoumarate; pen-
were found in maté tea and woodruff (Galium odo- tacosane, dihydroactinidiolide; hexanacid; and
ratum) (Jaiswal and Kuhnert 2011). The following anethole; and compounds with contents of
iridoids were found in G. odoratum: geniposidic 10–100  μg/kg included 2-butanol; 2-methyl-­ 3-
acid, monotropein, 10-deacetylasperulosidic acid, buten-2-ol; 2-methyl-1-propanol; 3-penten-2-ol;
scandoside, asperulosidic acid, deacetylasperulo- 1-pentenol; (Z)-2- penten-2-ol; 1-hexanol; (Z)-2-
side and asperuloside (Mitova et al. 2002). hexen-­l-ol; (E)-sabinenhydrate; (E)-linalooloxide,
The herb was found to contain 21 free (.07 %) furanoid; 1-octanol; 4-terpinen-l-­ol; neomenthol;
and 19 bound (0.96 %) amino acids, 9 of which menthol; 1,2-butandiol; isoborneol; α-terpineol;
were essential (valine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, (E)-linalooloxide, pyranoid; 1-dodecanol; phenol;
arginine, histidine, methionine, threonine, phe- 1-tetradecanol; carvacrol;3-methoxybenzylalco-
nylalanine) (Yurchenko et al. 2013). Aspartic and hol; farnesol; 4-hydroxyacetophenone; β-thujone;
glutamic acids, proline, leucine, alanine, serine, (E,Z)-2-4-­ heptadienal; 2-decanone; (E,Z)-3,5-
glycine, and arginine dominated in the herb. octadien-2-­one; pulegone; 2-methylacetophenone;
Asperuloside is found in seed, seedling, shoot, l-phenylpropan-l-one; 5,6,-epoxy-fl-ionone;
leaves and fruit (Trim 1952). Monotropein was 4-methoxybenzaldehyde; hexadecanal; 2-­methyl-
isolated from the plant (Sticher 1971). On aver- ­butyl-2-butenoate; bornyl acetate; dihydroterpin-
age, fresh woodruff contained 1 % coumarin ylacetate; linalylbutanoate; α-terpinylpropanoate;
DW; the highest amount occurred in the leaves, methyl hexadecanoate; tethyl hexadecanoate;
less in the stalks and blossoms, while roots con- α-thujene; camphene; butylcyclohexane; Δ3-
tained no coumarin (Laub and Olszowski 1982). carene; fenchane; aromadendrene; γ-pentalactone;
The roots of Galium spp. and Asperula odorata γ-nonala­ctone; 2,3-dimethyl-2-nonen-4-olide;
contained anthraquinone pigments and one or more acetic acid, pentanoic acid, heptanoic acid, octa-
ofthefollowingnaphthaleniccompounds:4-methoxy- noic acid, nonanoic acid, benzoic acid; suberin
1-naphthol, 1-naphthyl isopentyl ether, 1-naph- acid, pentadecanoic acid; dihydrocoumaric acid
thyl isopentenyl ether and 2,2-dimethylnaphtho and hexadecanoic acid.
[1,2-b]pyran and its 3,4-dihydro-derivative Ninety-six compounds representing 89.1 % of
(Burnett and Thomson 1968). The young leaves the essential oil G. odoratum aerial parts were
contained the glycoside melilotoside; upon dam- characterized (Baser et al. 2004). The major
age or withering, coumarin (or 2H-1-benzopyran- components were thymol (30.6 %), isothymol
2-one) was liberated by enzymatic cleavage. (22.8 %) and isothyml butyrate (5.5 %).
Wardziak and Osińska (2007) examined the
developmental and chemical differentiation of
three woodruff populations under natural and Antioxidant Activity
cultivated conditions and found that flavonoids
and phenolic acids contents depended on the In 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) assay,
origin and development stage of a plant reaching both methanolic and aqueous plant extracts
Galium odoratum 703

displayed significant antioxidant activity with IC50 topical application to wounds and cuts and also
values of 148 μg/ml and 83 μg/ml, respectively administered internally in the treatment of digestive
(Kahkeshani et al. 2013). and liver ailments (Grieve 1971). In traditional
medicine, woodruff is used as a tonic, antispas-
modic, cardiac, diaphoretic, diuretic, sedative
Wound Healing Activity and anti-inflammatory agent (Lust 1974; Launert
1981; Huxley et al. 1992; Bown 1995; Chevallier
Studies found statistically significant improve- 1996). An infusion of the herb is used in the treat-
ment in second degree burn wound contraction of ment of insomnia and nervous tension, varicose
rats treated with topical application of methanolic veins, biliary obstruction, hepatitis and jaundice.
and aqueous extracts of Galium odoratum after A homeopathic remedy of the herb is employed
14 days in comparison to control (Kahkeshani in the treatment of uterus inflammation (Bown
et al. 2013). The healed wounds in extract-treated 1995). The essential oil of woodruff is used as a
animals contained less inflammatory cells and carminative and mild expectorant and its leaves
had better re-epithelialization. Wound contraction and dried plant are widely used as insect repellent
and histology parameters were relatively better in and moth deterrent. The dried plant contains cou-
aqueous extract (90.68 % and 97.18 % for aque- marins and these act to prevent the clotting of
ous extracts of 15 % and 30 % in comparison to blood—though in excessive doses it can cause
79.29 % and 91.94 % for methanolic extracts of internal bleeding, dizziness and symptoms of
15 % and 30 %, respectively). poisoning (Chevallier 1996).

Antiviral Activity Other Uses

Asperula odorata contained an antiviral anthra- Woodruff makes an excellent ground-cover plant
quinone derivative that showed inhibitory effect for growing on woodland edges or in the cool
against thymidine kinase of herpes simplex shade of shrubs (Thomas 1990). It is an ideal car-
virus1 (HSV-1) (Rivola and Guicciardi 1994). peting plant for bulbs to grow through. Woodruff
is used as a strewing herb and is an ingredient of
potpourri and hung in bunches to freshen up
Antimicrobial Activity rooms with its fragrance (Bown 1995). The stems
and leaves yield soft-tan and grey-green dyes and
Coumarins (1,2-Benzopyrone) found in sweet the roots a red dye (Grae 1974).
woodruff had been shown to inhibit a range of
fungi and bacteria and it is believed that these
cyclic compounds behave as natural pesticidal Comments
defence molecules for plants and they represent a
starting point for the exploration of new deriva- Woodruff is easily propagated by crown division,
tive compounds possessing a range of improved separation of the rooted stems or digging up of its
antifungal activity (Brooker et al. 2007, 2008). shallow subterranean stolons.

Traditional Medicinal Uses Selected References

The plant is not official but is widely used in folk Baser KHC, Ozek T, Kirimer N, Deliorman D, Ergun F
medicine as a diuretic, sudorific, sedative and (2004) Composition of the essential oils of Galium
aparine L. and Gallium odoratum (L.) Scop. from
wound-healing agent (Yurchenko et al. 2013). Turkey. J Essent Oil Res 16:305–307
Sweet woodruff was widely used in herbal Bown D (1995) Encyclopaedia of herbs and their uses.
medicine during the Middle Ages, as an external Dorling Kindersley, London, 424 pp
704 Rubiaceae

Brooker NL, Kuzimichev Y, Laas J, Pavlis R (2007) Laub E, Olszowski W (1982) Über den Cumaringehalt in
Evaluation of coumarin derivatives as anti-fungal Waldmeister und seine DC-Bestimmung. Z Lebensm
agents against soil-borne fungal pathogens. Commun Unters Forsch 175:179–181 (in German) [Content of
Agric Appl Biol Sci 72(4):785–793 coumarin in woodruff and its TLC determination]
Brooker N, Windorski J, Bluml E (2008) Halogenated Launert E (1981) Edible and medicinal plants. Hamlyn,
coumarin derivatives as novel seed protectants. London
Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci 73(2):81–89 Lust JB (1974) The herb book. Bantam Books, New York,
Burnett AR, Thomson RH (1968) Naturally occurring p 174
quinones. Part XIII. Anthraquinones and related naph- Mitova MI, Anchev ME, Handjieva NV, Popov SS (2002)
thalenic compounds in Galium spp. and in Asperula Iridoid patterns in Galium L. and some phylogenetic
odorata. J Chem Soc C Organic 1968:854–857 considerations. Zeitschr Naturforsch C 57(3–4):
Chevallier A (1996) The encyclopedia of medicinal plants. 226–234
Dorling Kindersley, London, 336 pp Rivola G, Guicciardi A (1994) New antiviral anthraqui-
Deane G (2007–2012) Edible flowers: Part ten. http:// none from Asperula odorata L. Eur J Pharm Sci
www.eattheweeds.com/edible-flowers-part-ten/ 2:P128
Elias T, Dykeman P (2009) A edible wild plants: a North Sticher O (1971) Isolation of monotropein from Asperula
American field guide to over 200 natural foods. odorata L. (Rubiaceae). Pharm Acta Helv 46:121–128
Sterling Publishing Co, New York, 288 pp (in German)
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible The Plant List (2013) Galium odoratum (L.) Scop. http://
plants. Kampong Publ., Vista, 677 pp www.theplantlist.org/
Grae I (1974) Nature’s colors – dyes from plants. Thomas GS (1990) Plants for ground cover, Rev edn.
MacMillan, New York Timber Press, Portland, 283 pp
Grieve M (1971) A modern herbal, 2 Vols. Penguin/Dover Trim AR (1952) The accumulation and utilization of
Publications, New York, 919 pp asperuloside in the Rubiaceae. Biochem J 50(3):
Hedrick UP (1972) Sturtevant’s edible plants of the world. 319–326
Dover Publications, New York, 686 pp Wardziak O, Osińska E (2007) Comparative study on the
Huxley AJ, Griffiths M, Levy M (eds) (1992) The new developmental and chemical diversity of sweet wood-
RHS dictionary of gardening (4 Vols). Macmillan, ruff (Galium odoratum). Herba Pol 53(3):355–359
New York Wierzchowska-Renke K (1969) Study of the content of
Jaiswal R, Kuhnert N (2011) How to identify and dis- L-ascorbic acid in the herb Asperulae odoratae L.
criminate between the methyl quinates of chlorogenic depending on the stage of its development in the
acids by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spec- period of vegetation. Acta Pol Pharm 26(2):181–185
trometry. J Mass Spectrom 46(3):269–281 (in Polish)
Kahkeshani N, Farahanikia B, Mahdaviani P, Abdolghaffari Wörner M, Schreier P (1991) Über die Aromastoff-­
A, Hassanzadeh G, Abdollahi M, Khanavi M (2013) Zusammensetzung von Waldmeister (Galium odora-
Antioxidant and burn healing potential of Galium tum L. Scop.). Zeitschr Lebensm Unt Forsch
odoratum extracts. Res Pharm Sci 8(3):197–203 193(4):317–320 (The composition of volatiles from
Kovac-Besović EE, Durić K (2003) Thin layer chromato­ woodruff Galium odoratum L. Scop.)
graphy-­application in qualitative analysis on presence Yurchenko NS, Il TV, Kovaleva AM (2013) Amino acid
of coumarins and flavonoids in plant material. Bosn J composition of Asperula odorata herb. Chem Nat
Basic Med Sci 3(3):19–26 Comp 49(2):401–402
 Gardenia jasminoides

Scientific Name var. longisepala (Masam.) Metcalf, Gardenia

jasminoides f. maruba (Siebold ex Blume) Nakai
Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis ex Ishii, Gardenia jasminoides var. maruba
(Siebold ex Blume) Nakai, Gardenia jasminoides
f. oblanceolata (Nakai) Nakai, Gardenia jasmin-
Synonyms oides f. ovalifolia (Sims) H. Hara, Gardenia jas-
minoides var. ovalifolia (Sims) Nakai, Gardenia
Gardenia angusta (L.) Merr., Gardenia angusti- jasminoides var. plena (Voigt) M.R. Almeida,
folia Lodd., Gardenia angustifolia var. kosyunen- Gardenia jasminoides var. radicans (Thunb.)
sis (Sasaki) Masam., Gardenia augusta Merr. Makino, Gardenia jasminoides f. simpliciflora
(Illeg.), Gardenia augusta var. grandiflora (Makino) Makino, Gardenia jasminoides f. var-
(Lour.) Sasaki., Gardenia augusta var. kosyunen- iegata (Carrière) Nakai, Gardenia jasminoides
sis Sasaki, Gardenia augusta var. longisepala var. variegata (Carrière) Makino, Gardenia lon-
Masam., Gardenia augusta var. ovalifolia (Sims) gisepala (Masam.) Masam., Gardenia maruba
Sasaki, Gardenia florida L. (Illeg.), Gardenia Siebold ex Blume, Gardenia pictorum Hassk.,
florida var. fortuniana Lindl., Gardenia florida Gardenia radicans Thunb., Gardenia radicans
var. grandiflora (Lour.) Franch. & Sav., Gardenia var. simpliciflora (Makino) Nakai, Genipa florida
florida var. maruba (Siebold ex Blume) Matsum., (L.) Baill., Genipa grandiflora (Lour.) Baill.,
Gardenia florida f. oblanceolata Nakai, Gardenia Genipa radicans (Thunb.) Baill., Jasminum
florida var. ovalifolia Sims, Gardenia florida var. capense Mill., Varneria augusta L. (Inval.),
plena Voigt, Gardenia florida var. radicans Warneria augusta L. (Inval.)
(Thunb.) Matsum., Gardenia florida f. simplici-
flora Makino, Gardenia grandiflora Lour.,
Gardenia grandiflora Siebold ex Zucc. (Illeg.), Family
Gardenia jasminoides f. albomarginata H. Hara,
Gardenia jasminoides f. albovariegata H. Hara, Rubiaceae
Gardenia jasminoides f. aureovariegata Nakai,
Gardenia jasminoides var. fortuniana (Lindl.) H.
Hara, Gardenia jasminoides f. grandiflora (Lour.) Common/English Names
Makino, Gardenia jasminoides var. grandiflora
(Lour.) Nakai, Gardenia jasminoides f. longicarpa Cape Jasmine, Cape Jessamine, Common
Z.M. Xie & M. Okada, Gardenia jasminoides Gardenia, Garden Gardenia, Gardenia, Jasmin

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 705
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_58, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
706 Rubiaceae

Vernacular Names Agroecology

Brazil: Gardênia (Portuguese) Cape Jasmine is originally a species from subtem-

Chinese: Chin Tzu, Shān Zhī Zǐ, Shiu Heng Chi, perate climates. In tropical areas it grows well, at
Shui Heng Zhi, Zhi Zi altitudes of 400–1,200 m. Gardenia grows best
Cook Islands: Tiare Taina (Maori) in a mild, humid climate in partial to full sun. It
Czech: Gardénie Jasmínovitá prefers well-drained, fertile, friable soil with a pH
Danish: Almindelig Gardenia of 5–7 and high organic matter. The plant is salt
Estonian: Jasmiingardeenia intolerant and somewhat drought tolerant.
French: Gardenia
German: Gardenie, Kap Gardenie, Kap Jasmin,
Jasminglanz Edible Plant Parts and Uses
India: Gandharaj (Bengali), Gandhraj (Hindi),
Suvasane Malle (Kannada), Kaboklei An edible yellow dye is obtained from the fruit
(Manipuri), Gandroya (Marathi), Gulchand and is used for colouring food in China, Japan
(Urdu) and Korea. In China, the yellow dye is used for
Indonesia: Chepiring, Cheplokpiring, colouring bean curd in Guangzhou. In Japan, the
Kacapiring, Pechiring (Javanese), Kacapiring dye is used to colour boiled beans, fish eggs, hot
(Sundanese) cakes, sweets, liquor, noodles, candies, ices and
Italian: Gardenia imitation crab (Sangat-Roemantyo and Wirdateti
Japanese: Kuchinashi, San Shi Shi 1992). In Korea, Gardenia yellow dye is used in
Korean: Chi Ja Na Mu making yellow mung bean jelly called ‘hwangpo-
Laos: Inthavaa, Ph’ud muk’ (Wikipedia 2013). ‘Hwangpomuk’ is a
Malaysia: Buah Patah, Buah Batek, Buah Kuning noted staple food of Namwon and also Jeonju
(Fruit), Bunga Cina, Bunga Susu, Kaca Piring (both cities in the North Jeolla Province, Korea),
(Flower) where it is a common ingredient of Jeonju-style
Philippines: Garden Gardenia, Rosal (Tagalog) bibimbap in the Jeolla cuisine. The jelly is com-
Pohnpei: Ioseph Sarawi monly served in small chunks seasoned with vin-
Polish: Gardenia Jasminowata egar, soy sauce and other condiments; this side
Portuguese: Jasmin-Do-Cabo dish is called hwangpomuk-muchim.
Russian: Gardenia The mild sweet Gardenia blossoms are edible
Spanish: Gardenia (Tanaka 1976; Facciola 1990) and used dried or
Swedish: Gardenia fresh to impart fragrance to jasmine tea in the Far
Thai: Phut, Phut Chin, Phut Son, Phut Yai, Phut- East (Sangat-Roemantyo and Wirdateti 1992;
Tharaksaa, Khet-Thawaa Roberts 2000; Deane 2007–2012). This tea is
Vietnamese: Dành Dành reported beneficial to people with hepatitis. Fresh
Gardenia flowers can be tucked into a tin of tea to
scent the tea. Blossoms tucked into rice, oats or
Origin/Distribution sago will impart the same mild sweet fragrance.
Gardenia flowers can be added to sugar, drinks,
Gardenia is native to southern China, Japan, fruit salads, cakes, desserts and syrups (Roberts
Ryukyu Islands and Taiwan. It is widely culti- 2000). Some recipes include Gardenia milk
vated in the tropics and subtropics. shake, Gardenia chocolate mousse and Gardenia
Gardenia jasminoides 707

and litchi fruit salad. Gardenia flowers are also Ornamental cultivars have double flowers
eaten raw as delicacy, pickled or preserved in with petaloid or poorly developed stamens and
honey, and they are called mi-ts’ai. sterile ovary.

Botany Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

A smooth, unarmed, perennial, evergreen, woody Flower Phytochemicals

shrub, 1–2 m high. The leaves are opposite, elliptic–
ovate, 3–10 cm long, acuminate or obtuse and Cycloartane triterpenoids gardenic acid and
cuneate at the base, glossy green, smooth and short gardenolic acid B were isolated from the
petioled, 0.2–0.5 cm long. Stipules large, tubular flowers (Xu et al. 1987). (R)-Linalyl 6-O-α-L-
and obliquely opened on one side (Plates 1 and 2). arabinopyranosyl-β-D-glucopyranoside and bor-
Flowers large and very fragrant, white turning nyl 6-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-β-D-glucopyranoside
yellowish and solitary at the end of branchlets, were isolated as aroma precursors of linalool and
pedicels 3–6 mm long with tubular stipule-like borneol from Gardenia jasminoides flower buds
bracts, hypanthia turbinate, 6-ridged, 10–12 mm (Watanabe et al. 1994).
long, sepals 6, obtuse and persistent, corolla
salverform, tube 30 mm long, limbs 30–60 mm
across deeply 6-lobed, lobes contorted in bud,
extended at anthesis, stamens 6, exserted, anthers
linear, ovary inferior, disc annular, style slender,
stigma clavate (Plates 1 and 2). Fruit berrylike,
ellipsoid to ovoid, 10–20 mm long by 10–15 mm,
crowned by persistent calyx (Plate 3), orange
when ripe with juicy placentae and with numerous
discoid seeds with tuberculate testa.

Plate 2 Fully opened flower and leaves

Plate 1 Flower, bud and leaves Plate 3 Developing fruits with persistent calyx
708 Rubiaceae

The major constituents of the essential oil Chinese crude drug, Shanzhi-I, three new iridoid
obtained from G. jasminoides flower were benzyl glucosides, gardenoside, shanzhiside and methyl
acetate, hydroxycitronellal and eugenol (Wang deacetylasperulosidate, were isolated along with
1979). Fifty-four components were character- the known geniposide and genipin gentiobioside
ized, representing 100 % of the total components (Inouye et al. 1974c) and 5β-hydroxygeniposide
detected on Gardenia flower essential oil (Obuzor (Inouye et al. 1974b). From the fruit of Gardenia
and Nwaokolo 2010). Gardenia flower oil was jasminoides forma grandiflora, two glucosides,
composed mainly of sesquiterpenes 49.01 % and 10-acetylgeniposide and picrocrocinic acid were
monoterpene 44.33 %. The major constituents of isolated (Takeda et al. 1976). Enzymatic
sesquiterpenes were identified as α-farnesene β-glucosidase hydrolysis of gardenoside yielded
(28.41 %) and small amounts of guaiol (5.89 %), its aglucone gardenogenins A and B, while acid
(Z)-3-hexenyl tiglate (5.47 %), bulnesol (5.03 %) treatment of gardenoside gave scandoside methyl
and cis-3-hexenyl benzoate (4.21 %). In the case ester, deacetylasperulosidic acid methyl ester
of monoterpene, linalool (22.05 %) was the major and 10-dehydrogeniposide (Ishiguro et al. 1983).
constituent and trans-β-ocimene (10.59 %) and Two lipoxygenase inhibitors, 3, 4-dicaffeoyl-5-
α-terpineol (9.03 %) with methyl tiglate (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaroyl)quinic acid
(2.66 %) as the minor component, while (Nishizawa and Fujimoto 1986) and 3-0-caffeoyl-
tetracosane (5.64 %) was the only alkane. 4-0-sinapoyl quinic acid (Nishizawa et al. 1987),
Sesquiterpenes that occur in small amounts were isolated from the fruits. The fruit was found
were germacrene D (0.03 %), germacrene B to contain iridoids (Ragasa et al. 2007) and iri-
(0.08 %), β-caryophyllene (0.05 %) and calarene doid glucosides, gardoside (8,10-dehydrologanic
(0.14 %) with some monoterpenes such as nerol acid) and scandoside methyl ester (Inouye et al.
(0.4 %), α-thujene (0.03 %), cis-3-hexenol 1974a). In the first stage of G. jasminoides forma
(0.22 %), myrcene (0.02 %), allo-ocimene grandiflora fruit development, i.e. 1–6 weeks
(0.03 %), α-pinene (0.02 %) and β-pinene after flowering, fruit weight and the geniposide
(0.02 %). Compounds that occurred in traces content were found to increase rapidly, and no
included benzaldehyde, 1-octen-3-ol, cymene, crocin was detected. In the second stage,
α-phellandrene, camphene, terpinolene, sabinene, 8–23 weeks postflowering, the geniposide con-
limonene, benzyl alcohol, γ-terpinene, citral, tent per fresh weight of fruit barely changed,
neral, geranial, isoartemesia, 1,8-cineole, borneol, whereas crocin accumulation began and increased
citronellal, terpinene-4-ol, citronellol, linalyl linearly with time until full ripeness (Umetani
acetate, borneol acetate, neryl acetate, et al. 1980).
β-bisabolene, cyperene, α-gurjunene, α-copaene, Nine new monoterpenoids, gardenamide A,
β-selinene, α-bergamotene, α-selinene, 6α-butoxygeniposide, 6β-butoxygeniposide, 60-
α-bisabolene, τ-muurolene and viridiflorol. O-p-cis-coumaroylgenipin gentiobioside and
jasminosides A–E, were isolated from the fruit
(Machida et al. 1998). Four new terpenoids,
Fruit Phytochemicals gardenate A, 2-hydroxyethyl gardenamide A,
(1R,7R,8S,10R)-7,8,11-trihydroxy-guai-4-en-3-
Two iridoid glycosides, geniposide and genipin- one 8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and jasminoside F,
1-β-D-gentiobioside, were isolated from G. jas- were isolated from the fruit (Machida et al. 2000).
minoides fruits (Endo and Taguchi 1973). Earlier A new iridoid, gardaloside, and a new safranal-
gardenoside and geniposide (Inouye et al. 1969), type monoterpene, jasminoside G, together with
genipin-1-β-D-gentiobioside (Endo and Taguchi known compounds geniposide, 6α-hydroxy-
1970) and shanzhiside and deacetylasperulosidic geniposide, ixoroside and shanzhiside, were iso-
acid methyl ester were isolated (Inouye et al. lated from the fruit (Chang et al. 2005). A new
1970). From the fruits of Gardenia jasminoides vanillic acid 4-O-β-D-(6′-sinapoyl)glucopyrano-
forma grandiflora, which had been employed as a side and five new quinic acid derivatives, methyl
Gardenia jasminoides 709

5-O-caffeoyl-3-O-sinapoylquinate, ethyl 5-O- sinapoyljasminoside L and jasminosides M–P,

caffeoyl-3-O-sinapoylquinate,methyl5-O-caffeoyl- together with three known analogues, jasmino-
4-O-sinapoylquinate, ethyl 5-O-caffeoyl-4-O- side C, jasminol E and sacranoside B, were
sinapoylquinate and methyl 3,5-di-O-caffeoyl-4- isolated from the fruit (Yu et al. 2010b). Twelve
O -(3-hydroxy-3-methyl)glutaroylquinate, compounds were isolated from Gardenia
together with three known quinic acid deriva- fruit ethanol extract and identified as garde-
tives, two flavonoids, two iridoids and two phe- nianan A, a lignan; syringaresinol; pinoresinol;
nolic compounds, were isolated from the fruit syringaresinol-4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; larici-
(Kim et al. 2006). A new iridoid glycoside, 6′-O- resinol; alangilignoside D; lyoniresinol;
sinapoylgeniposide (Zhou et al. 2007b), and lyoniresinol-9-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; balano-
two new monoterpenes named gardenone and phonin; glycosmisic acid; ficusal; and ceplignan
gardendiol were isolated from the fruits (Zhao (Yu et al. 2010a). A new lignan glucoside,
et al. 1994). (+)-(7S,8R,8′R)-lyoniresinol 9-O-β-D-(6″-O-
Nine compounds, imperatorin; isoimperatorin; trans-sinapoyl)glucopyranoside, and a new iri-
crocetin; 5-hydroxy-7,3′,4′,5′-tetrainethoxyflavone; doid glucoside, 10-O-trans-sinapoylgeniposide,
2-methyl-3,5-dihydroxychromone; Sudan III; together with eight known compounds, were
geniposide; crocin; and crocin-3, were isolated isolated from the fruits (Yu et al. 2012). A new
and identified from G. jasminoides fruit (Chen iridoid glycoside, 10-O-(4″-O-methylsuccinoyl)
et al. 2007). Five new pyronane-type monocyclic geniposide, and two new pyronane glycosides,
monoterpenoids, jasminodiol, jasminoside H, jasminosides Q and R, along with nine known
6′-O-sinapoyljasminoside A, 6′-O-sinapoyl- iridoid glycosides and two known pyronane
jasminoside C and jasminoside I, together glycosides were isolated from a methanol extract
with four known analogues, jasminoside B, of dried Gardenia fruit extract (Akihisa et al.
crocusatin C, epijasminoside A and jasminoside 2012). Thirteen compounds were isolated and
A, were isolated from the fruit (Chen et al. identified from the active antiviral fraction from
2008a). Seven new iridoid glucosides, 6″-O- Gardenia fruit: shanzhiside, gardenoside, geni-
trans-sinapoylgenipin gentiobioside, 6″-O-trans- poside, geniposidic acid, chlorogenic acid,
p-coumaroylgenipin gentiobioside, 6″-O-trans- 10-0-acetyl geniposide, shanzhiside methyl ester,
cinnamoylgenipin gentiobioside, 6′-O-trans- scandoside methyl ester or deacetylasperulosidic
p-coumaroylgeniposide, 6′-O-trans-p-couma- methyl ester, 6″-O-E-caffeoyl deacetylasperulo-
roylgeniposidic acid, 10-O-succinoylgeniposide sidic methyl ester, 6″-O-sinapoyl gardoside,
and 6′-O-acetylgeniposide; two new monoterpe- 3-O-caffeoyl-5-O-sinapoyl quinic acid or 3-O-
noids, 11-(6-O-trans-sinapoylglucopyranosyl) caffeoyl-4-O-sinapoyl quinic acid, 3,4-di-O-
gardendiol and 10-(6-O-trans-sinapoylgluco- caffeoyl quinic acid or 3,5-di-O-caffeoyl quinic
pyranosyl) gardendiol; and three known ones, acid and 6″-O-sinapoyl geniposide (Yang et al.
6′-O-trans-sinapoylgeniposide, geniposide and 2012a). Two new guaiane-type sesquiterpenoid
10-O-acetylgeniposide, were isolated from the glucosides were isolated from Gardenia fruit,
fruit (Yu et al. 2009). The iridoid glycosides, and their structures elucidated as (1R,7R,10S)-
genipin 1-O-β-D-isomaltoside and genipin 11-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-4-guaien-3-one and
1,10-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, together with (1R,7R,10S)-7-hydroxy-11-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-
six known iridoid glycosides, genipin 1-O-β-D- 4-guaien-3-one (Yu et al. 2011).
gentiobioside, geniposide, scandoside methyl Three new iridoids, gardenal-I, gardenal-II
ester (5), deacetylasperulosidic acid methyl ester, and gardenal-III, together with nine known
6-O-methyldeacetylasperulosidic acid methyl iridoid glycosides, geniposide, 6-β-hydroxy
ester and gardenoside, were isolated from an geniposide, 6-α-hydroxy geniposide, 6-α-
ethanol fruit extract (Chen et al. 2009). Eight new methoxy geniposide, feretoside, genipin-1-β-
monoterpenoids, jasminoside J, jasminoside K, gentiobioside, shanzhiside, lamalbidic acid and
6′-O-trans-sinapoyljasminoside B, 6′-O-trans- picrocrocinic acid, were isolated from Gardenia
710 Rubiaceae

ethanol fruit extract (Rao et al. 2013). Three new two epimeric isomers. A glycoprotein (GJE
iridoid glycosides, 6″-O-trans-feruloylgenipin glycoprotein) with a molecular weight of 27 kDa
gentiobioside, 2′-O-trans-p-coumaroylgardoside was isolated from G. jasminoides fruit (Lee
and 2′-O-trans-feruloylgardoside (3), were iso- et al. 2006b). It comprised a carbohydrate com-
lated from the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides var. ponent (57.65 %) and a protein component
radicans (Qin et al. 2013). Three new iridoid (42.35 %). Six kinds of fatty acids were found in
glycosides, 6″-O-trans-caffeoylgenipin gentiobi- the Gardenia fruit oil; the major constituents
oside, genipin 1-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl (1 → 6)- were linoleic acid 43.47 %, palmitic acid 22.72 %
β-D-glucopyranoside and genipin 1-O-α-D- and stearic acid 9.98 % (Gan et al. 2009).
xylopyranosyl (1 → 6)-β-D-glucopyranoside, and Hong and Yang (2013) isolated crocin, croce-
three new monocyclic monoterpenoids, jasmino- tin, gentiobiosyl glucosyl crocetin and mono-
side R, jasminoside S and jasminoside T, together gentiobiosyl crocetin from the fruit. Three iridoid
with nine known iridoid glycosides and three glucosides, 6″-O-trans-feruloylgenipin gentiobi-
crocetin glycosides, were isolated from G. jasmi- oside, 2′-O-trans-caffeoylgardoside, jasmigeni-
noides fruit (Peng et al. 2013). poside A, and one new bis-iridoid glucoside,
The following carotenoids were isolated and jasmigeniposide B, along with six known ana-
identified from the fruit: crocetin, crocin (croce- logues were isolated from G. jasminoides fruit
tin di(β-gentiobiosyl) ester), crocetin mono(β- (Li et al. 2013). Two new glycosides, 2-methyl-
gentiobiosyl) ester and 13Z-crocin (Pfister et al. L - erythritol-4- O -(6- O-trans -sinapoyl)-β- D -
1996). Crocin, an apocarotenoid glycosyl ester, glucopyranoside and 2-methyl-L-erythritol-1-O-
was found to accumulate in fruits of Gardenia ( 6-O - trans -sinapoyl)-β- D -glucopyranoside,
jasminoides (Pfister et al. 1996; Nagatoshi et al. along with two known triterpenoids, four quinic
2012) and used as a food colouring and nutraceu- acid derivatives and one flavonoid were isolated
tical owing to its pharmacological benefits. The from G. jasminoides fruit (Yang et al. 2013).
first step specific to crocin biosynthesis had been
reported to be the position-specific cleavage of
zeaxanthin to yield crocetin dialdehyde (Pfander Leaf Phytochemicals
and Schurtenberger 1982), and then crocetin
dialdehyde was oxidized to crocetin. Two gluco- Gardenoside and geniposide were found in leaves
syltransferases UGT75L6 and UGT94E5 that (Inouye et al. 1974c). Two new iridoid glyco-
sequentially mediate the final glucosylation steps sides, 7β,8β-epoxy-8α-dihydrogeniposide and
in crocin biosynthesis in G. jasminoides were 8-epiapodantheroside, were isolated, together
identified and functionally characterized by with six known iridoids galioside, gardenoside,
Nagatoshi et al. (2012). deacetylasperulosidic acid methyl ester, scando-
Colourless geniposide isolated from Gardenia side methyl ester, geniposide and ixoroside and
fruits when hydrolyzed with β-glucosidase three artefact iridoids 8-O-methylmonotropein
yielded genipin that was transformed to blue methyl ester, 6-O-methyldeacetylasperulosidic
pigments by reaction with amino acids (glycine, acid methyl ester and 6-O-methylscandoside
lysine or phenylalanine) (Fujikawa et al. 1987; methyl ester, from the leaves (Machida et al.
Paik et al. 2001). Gardenia blue pigments were 2003). Cerbinal, a pseudoazulene iridoid, was
very stable with regard to pH, temperature and isolated from the benzene leaf extract (Ohashi
light conditions and may have potential for use as et al. 1986).
value-added colourants for foods (Paik et al.
2001). Park et al. (2002) obtained Gardenia blue
dye through the reaction of methylamine with Plant Phytochemicals
genipin, the aglycone of geniposide isolated from
G. jasminoides fruits. Water-soluble intermedi- Six iridoid glycosides including geniposide, gar-
ates of blue pigments were found to compose of denoside, shanzhiside, scandoside methyl ester,
Gardenia jasminoides 711

deacetylasperulosidic acid methyl ester and compounds (gardeniside A–C), 11α,12α-epoxy-

genipin-1-β-D-gentiobioside were isolated and 3β-[(O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-6′-O-methyl
purified from G. jasminoides at high purities of ester)oxy]olean-28,13-olide; siaresinolic acid
over 99 % with approximately 96 % recoveries 3- O - β - D -glucuronopyranoside- 6′- O -methly
using reversed-phase two-dimensional prepara- ester; and 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-6′-O-
tive high-performance liquid chromatography methly ester-siaresinolic acid-28-O-β-D-gluco-
(Zhou et al. 2007a). pyranoside, with seven known compounds
Ten compounds were isolated from Gardenia oleanolic acid 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-6′-
jasminoides and identified as jasminoside A; O-methly ester, oleanolic acid 3-O-β-D-glucuro-
epijasminoside A; 6-O-methylscandoside methyl pyranoside, hederagenin 3-O-β-D-glucuronopy-
ester (3); 6-O-methyldeacetylasperulosidic acid ranoside-6′-O-methyl ester, chikusetsusaponin
methyl ester; gardenoside; phenylmethanol; IVa methyl ester, chikusetsusaponin, chikusetsu-
4-hydroxy-phenylmethol-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl- saponin IVa butyl ester and siaresinolic acid
(1 → 6)-β-D-glucopyranoside; 3,4-dihydroxy- 28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl ester were isolated
phenylmethol-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-6)-β-D- from the root (Wang et al. 2012).
glucopyranoside; 3-hydroxy4-methoxyphenyl- Numerous studies had shown that Gardenia
methol- O -β- D -glucopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-β- D - jasminoides fruit and its main constituents cro-
glucopyranoside; and 3-hydroxy-4- cins and iridoid glycosides possessed antioxida-
methoxyphenylmethol-O-β-D-glucopyranoside tion, anti-inflammatory, antiatherosclerosis, anti-
(Zhang et al. 2013b). Ten compounds were iso- ischaemic brain injuries, antiplatelet aggregation,
lated from Gardenia jasminoides and elucidated antihyperglycaemia, antihyperlipidaemia and
as syringic acid (1), syringaldehyde (2), vanillic antihypertension activities (Liu et al. 2013).
acid (3), 3-hydroxy-vanillic acid (4), 3,4,5-trime- Many of these activities are elaborated below.
thoxy-phenol (5), 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy-
phenol (6), 4-methoxy-benzaldehyde (7),
7-hydroxy-5-methoxy-chromone (8), crocin-1 Antioxidant Activity
(9) and crocin-2 (10) (Zuo et al. 2013).
Crocin, from G. jasminoides fruit, with purity of
>99.6 % exhibited antioxidative activity at con-
Cell Suspension Culture, Stem centrations up to 40 ppm (Pham et al. 2000). At
and Root Phytochemicals 20 ppm the antioxidative activity of crocin was
comparable to that of butylated hydroxyanisole
From iridoid-producing cell suspension cultures (BHA). The antioxidant property of crocin as
obtained by selection of callus tissues derived evaluated by the thiocyanate method was better
from G. jasminoides f. grandiflora seedlings, than with the thiobarbituric acid method. Another
tarennoside was isolated along with gardenoside, research showed three major crocins from
geniposide and geniposidic acid (Ueda et al. Gardenia that were observed to possess antioxi-
1981). Oleanolic acid acetate, D-mannitol and dant activity when tested by four in vitro antioxi-
stigmasterol were isolated and identified from dant models (Chen et al. 2008b). However, in
the stem and root (Wang et al. 1986). Ten com- anti-haemolysis, DPPH radical scavenging and
pounds were isolated from 70 % ethanol–water lipid peroxidation assays, Gardenia resin fraction
extract of G. jasminoides roots and identified as exhibited significantly stronger antioxidant activ-
betulinic acid, oleanolic acid, oleanolic acid ity than crocins, and no correlation between total
3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-6′-O-methyl ester, crocin contents and antioxidative function was
hederagenin 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-6′- revealed, which implied that ingredients other
O-methyl ester, chikusetsusaponin IVa, stigmas- than crocins in Gardenia gave markedly strong
terol, β-sitosterol, daucosterol, vanillic acid antioxidant activity. A comparison of results
and syringic acid (Cao et al. 2011). Three new indicated that sugars attached to the crocetin
712 Rubiaceae

moiety seemed to be beneficial for the antioxidant inhibitory activity (Kim et al. 2006). In vitro
activity of these water-soluble pigments. studies showed that ZG extracted from Gardenia
Five new quinic acid derivatives, methyl extract improved Hep-2 cell membrane fluidity,
5-O-caffeoyl-3-O-sinapoylquinate, ethyl 5-O- and prevented parainfluenza virus type 1 (PIV-1)
caffeoyl-3-O-sinapoylquinate, methyl 5-O- infection by protecting the cell membrane (Guo
caffeoyl-4-O-sinapoylquinate, ethyl 5-O-caffeoyl- et al. 2007).
4-O-sinapoylquinate and methyl 3,5-di-O-caffeoyl- The pneumonia induced by influenza virus in
4-O-(3-hydroxy-3-methyl)glutaroylquinate iso- mice was inhibited significantly by Gardenia
lated from the fruits, showed potent DPPH extract reflected by the decrease in mortality rate
radical scavenging, superoxide anion scavenging and increase in life elongation rate (Wang et al.
and lipid peroxidation inhibition activities (Kim 2006). Also the NO content in serum decreased
et al. 2006). GJE glycoprotein from Gardenia significantly, and the cytopathic effect induced
fruit exhibited dose-dependent scavenging activi- by six kinds of viruses was inhibited significantly.
ties for DPPH, lipid peroxyl, superoxide anion Oral administration of a fraction from Gardenia
and hydroxyl radicals in cell-free systems (Lee fruit extract exhibited antiviral activity against
et al. 2006b). GJE glycoprotein from Gardenia influenza virus strain A/FM/1/47-MA infection
fruit exhibited dose-dependent blocking activi- in rats (Yang et al. 2012a). Thirteen compounds
ties against glucose/glucose oxidase (G/GO)- were isolated and identified from the active
induced or hypoxanthine/xanthine oxidase antiviral fraction: shanzhiside, gardenoside,
(HX/XO)-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in geniposide, geniposidic acid, chlorogenic acid,
NIH/3T3 cells. 100 μg/ml GJE glycoprotein had 10-0-acetyl geniposide, shanzhiside methyl ester,
an inhibitory effect on PKCα translocation and scandoside methyl ester or deacetylasperulosidic
the DNA binding activity of (NF-κB). The results methyl ester, 6″-O-E-caffeoyl deacetylasperulo-
suggested GJE glycoprotein to be a natural anti- sidic methyl ester, 6″-O-sinapoyl gardoside,
oxidant and one of the modulators of apoptotic 3-O-caffeoyl-5-O-sinapoyl quinic acid or 3-O-
signal pathways in NIH/3T3 cells. caffeoyl-4-O-sinapoyl quinic acid, 3,4-di-O-
An iridoid glycoside and a crocetin glycoside caffeoyl quinic acid or 3,5-di-O-caffeoyl quinic
exhibited strong inhibitory activity on NO pro- acid and 6″-O-sinapoyl geniposide.
duction in lipopolysaccharide-activated macro- An iridoid glycoside from Gardenia fruit
phages with IC50 values of 11.14 μM and showed moderate antiviral activity against H1N1
5.99 μM, respectively (Peng et al. 2013). with 50 % effective concentration (EC50) value of
104.36 μM and selective index (SI) value greater
than 4.79 (Li et al. 2013).
Antiviral Activity

G. jasminoides was one of 27 of the 44 medicinal Anticancer Activity

herbs that showed potent or moderate antiviral
activities against respiratory syncytial virus with Two lipoxygenase inhibitors 3, 4-dicaffeoyl-5-
50 % inhibition concentration (IC50) values rang- (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaroyl)quinic acid
ing from 6.3 to 52.1 μg/ml and with selectivity (Nishizawa and Fujimoto 1986) and 3-0-
index (SI) ranging from 2.0 to 32.1 (Ma et al. caffeoyl-4-0-sinapoyl quinic acid (Nishizawa
2002). Five new quinic acid derivatives, methyl et al. 1987) were isolated from the fruits. Animal
5-O-caffeoyl-3-O-sinapoylquinate, ethyl 5-O- studies suggested that inhibitors of lipoxygenase
caffeoyl-3-O-sinapoylquinate, methyl 5-O- may have benefits as preventive agents of lung
caffeoyl-4-O-sinapoylquinate, ethyl 5-O-caffeoyl- tumorigenesis (Rioux and Castonguay 1998). In
4-O-sinapoylquinate and methyl 3,5-di-O-caf- vitro studies showed that pretreating C3H10T1/2
feoyl-4-O-(3-hydroxy-3-methyl)glutaroylquinate cells with crocetin inhibited benzo[a]pyrene
isolated from the fruits, showed HIV-integrase [B(a)P]-induced genotoxicity and neoplastic
Gardenia jasminoides 713

transformation by increasing activity of GSH found that the apoptotic effect of penta-acetyl
S-transferase and decreasing the formation of geniposide, arresting C6 glioma cells at the G0/G1
B(a)P-DNA adduct (Chang et al. 1996). phase, was exerted by inducing the expression
Pretreatment of CD-1 mice with crocetin, a major of cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk) inhibitor p21
component of G. jasminoides fruit, suppressed protein that, in turn, repressed the activity of
12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)- cyclin D1/cdk 4 and the phosphorylation of
induced mouse skin carcinogenesis (Hsu et al. retinoblastoma.
1999). TPA-induced epidermal hyperplasia and The n-butanol fraction of Gardenia ethanol
TPA-induced expressions of c-Jun, c-Fos and fruit extract showed antiangiogenic activity in
c-Myc in mouse epidermis were reduced by the chick chorioallantoic membrane assay (Park
crocetin probably via its antioxidant property. In et al. 2003). Koo et al. (2004a) also found
vitro studies showed that crocetin (5–20 μg/mL) Gardenia ethanol fruit to have potent antiangio-
and quercetin (10–40 μg/mL) exhibited selective genic activity in the chick embryo chorioallan-
cytotoxicity, causing intense damage only on the toic membrane assay; the extract yielded an
malignant human rhabdomyosarcoma cells, active antiangiogenic compound, which was
whereas mild toxic effects were observed with determined to be an iridoid glucoside, genipo-
cisplatin (60–180 μg/mL), a positive control side. Geniposide showed antiangiogenic activity
drug, also on normal (Vero) cells (Jagadeeswarana in a dose-dependent manner. It also exhibited an
et al. 2000). inhibitory effect in the range of 25–100 μM on
Penta-acetyl geniposide from the fruit was the growth of the transformed NIH3T3 cell line.
found to play more potent roles than geniposide Studies by Lim et al. (2010) found that the
in the chemoprevention of cancer (Peng et al. dichloromethane fraction from Gardenia fruit
2005a). It decreased DNA damage and extract induced apoptotic cell death by DNA
hepatocarcinogenesis induced by aflatoxin B1 topoisomerase 1 inhibition in KB oral cancer
(AFB1) by activating the phase II enzymes gluta- cells. Treatment with Gardenia extract dichloro-
thione S-transferase (GST) and GSH peroxidase methane fraction also led to the partial increase of
(GSH-Px). It reduced the growth and develop- caspase-3, caspase-8 and caspase-9 activities and
ment of inoculated C6 glioma cells especially in the cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase.
pretreated rats, exerting its actions on apoptosis The following compounds isolated from the roots
and growth arrest, and caused DNA fragmenta- showed cytotoxic activities against HeLa, A549,
tion of glioma cells. It was not harmful to the MCF-7 and A354-S2 cancer cell lines: 11α,12α-
liver, heart and kidney. Penta-acetyl geniposide epoxy-3β-[(O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-6′- O -
was found to induce JNK activation and c-Jun methly ester)oxy]olean-28,13-olide; oleanolic
phosphorylation, thus stimulating the expression acid 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-6′-O-methly
of FasL and Fas and apoptosis through the activa- ester; oleanolic acid 3-O-β-D-glucuropyranoside;
tion of JNK/Jun/FasL/Fas/caspase-8/caspase-3, a hederagenin 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-6′-
mitochondria-independent pathway (Peng et al. O-methly ester; chikusetsusaponin IVa methyl
2005b). The JNK pathway was suggested to be ester; and chikusetsusaponin IVa butyl ester
the downstream signal of PKCδ. Thus, penta- (Wang et al. 2012). Genipin, a constituent of
acetyl geniposide mediated cell death via G. jasminoides, significantly induced apoptosis
activation of PKCδ/JNK/FasL cascade signal- in human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells by
ling. Further they demonstrated that penta-acetyl the downregulation of Bcl-2, up-regulation of
geniposide induced apoptosis in C6 glioma Bax, proteolytic activation of caspase-3 and
cells by modulating the activation of neutral activation of JNK and p38 MAPK (Kim et al.
sphingomyelinase-induced p75 nerve growth 2012). Further, genipin significantly inhibited
factor receptor and protein kinase Cδ pathway in invasive and migratory phenotypes of MDA-
upstream signals. Further Chang et al. (2004) MB-231 cells.
714 Rubiaceae

Anti-inflammatory Activity LPS-induced alveolar wall changes, alveolar

haemorrhage and neutrophil infiltration in the lung
G. jasminoides alcohol extract, two fractions and tissue, with evidence of reduced myeloperoxidase
geniposide exhibited anti-inflammatory effects (MPO) activity. In a more recent animal study,
and were comparatively effective in treating soft rats with ankle strain injury treated with genipo-
tissue injuries in animals (Yao et al. 1991). side (100 mg/mL) isolated from the fruit showed
Gardenia fruit ethanol extract and its constitu- 21–34 % reduction in swelling ratio compared
ents, genipin and geniposide, exhibited acute with the vehicle-treated control rats from the
anti-inflammatory activities in carrageenan- second to the fifth day (Chen et al. 2009).
induced rat paw oedema (Koo et al. 2006). In a Crocin, crocetin, gentiobiosyl glucosyl croce-
dose-dependent manner, Gardenia extract also tin and mono-gentiobiosyl crocetin isolated from
inhibited vascular permeability induced by acetic the fruit reduced NO production in a dose-
acid. Both genipin and geniposide inhibited pro- dependent manner in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7
duction of exudate and nitric oxide (NO) in the cells with IC50 values of 58.9 μM (1), 29.9 μM
rat air pouch oedema model. However, genipin (2), 31.1 μM (3) and 37.6 μM (4), respectively
possessed stronger anti-inflammatory activity (Hong and Yang 2013). They also suppressed the
than geniposide. Gardenia fruit extract caused a protein and mRNA expressions of iNOS and
dose-dependent inhibition of acetic acid-induced COX-2 in LPS-activated macrophage. The DPPH
abdominal writhing in mice. In an earlier study, radical scavenging activities were increased, and
genipin exhibited significant topical anti- NO productions in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7
inflammatory effect shown as an inhibition of cells were decreased dose-dependently by roast
croton oil-induced ear oedema in mice (Koo et al. processing. The results suggested that antioxi-
2004b). Genipin concentration dependently (50– dant and anti-NO production activities of
300 μM) inhibited NO production and iNOS Gardenia were increased by roast processing,
expression upon stimulation by lipopolysaccha- and increased anti-inflammatory activities of
ride/interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) in RAW Gj by processing were due to the increase of
264.7, a murine macrophage cell line. Genipin crocetin, the aglycone that had greater activity
markedly blocked lipopolysaccharide-evoked than crocin. Compared with the ova-induced
degradation of inhibitor-kappaB-beta (IkappaB- hallmarks of asthma, intraperitoneal geniposide
beta), indicating that it exhibited inhibitory effect treatment prevented eosinophilic pulmonary
on NO production through the inhibition of infiltration; attenuated the increases in interleu-
nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation. kin (IL)-4, IL-5 and IL-13; and reduced eotaxin
Genipin showed concentration-dependent inhibi- and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1)
tion on lipid peroxidation induced by Fe++/ascor- expression in ova-sensitized and ova-challenged
bate in rat brain homogenate. It was also shown BALB/c mice (Deng et al. 2013). Also, genipo-
to contain potent antiangiogenic activity in a side significantly ameliorated the ova-driven
dose-dependent manner, in a chick embryo cho- airway hyper-responsiveness, mucus hypersecre-
rioallantoic membrane assay. Geniposide, a tion and allergen-specific IgE level, which are the
major component of Gardenia fruit, exhibited cardinal pathophysiological symptoms in allergic
protective effects against lipopolysaccharide airway diseases. In addition, the efficacy of
(LPS)-induced acute lung injury in mice by miti- geniposide was comparable to that of dexametha-
gating inflammatory responses which may sone, a currently available antiasthmatic drug.
involve suppression of nuclear factor-kappa B Collectively, their findings revealed that the
(NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase development of immunoregulatory strategies
(MAPK) signalling pathway activation (Yang based on geniposide may be considered as an
et al. 2012b). Geniposide substantially inhibited effective adjuvant therapy for allergic asthma.
Gardenia jasminoides 715

Hypoglycaemic Activity Anti-pancreatitis Activity

Of four iridoidal glycosides isolated from Studies showed that G. jasminoides extract
Gardenia jasminoides leaves, deacetylasperulo- increased pancreatic blood flow that was signifi-
sidic acid methyl ester (DE), scandoside methyl cantly decreased at the early stage of acute
ester (SC), geniposide (GE) and gardenoside necrotizing hemorrhagic pancreatitis in rats (Jia
(GA), only DE displayed hypoglycaemic activity et al. 1993). Extracts of Chinese herbs including
in test mice (Miura et al. 1996). DE lowered the G. jasminoides used in traditional Chinese
blood glucose level in normal mice. However, medicine could inhibit pancreatic enzymes and
SC, GE and GA did not affect the blood glucose improve microcirculation as well as immunoreg-
level in normal mice, indicating the absolute ulation by blocking the pathological progress of
configuration of 6-position hydroxy based (OH) severe acute pancreatitis (Zhang et al. 2007). An
to be essential for the biological activity. animal study found that G. jasminoides treatment
Studies showed that genipin inhibited uncou- significantly decreased the severity of cerulean-
pling protein 2 (UCP2)-mediated proton leak in induced acute pancreatitis and pancreatitis-
isolated mouse mitochondria and acutely reversed associated lung injury (Jung et al. 2008).
obesity-induced and high glucose-induced beta Gardenia treatment attenuated the severity of
cell dysfunction in isolated pancreatic islets and acute pancreatitis compared with saline-treated
thus may improve type 2 diabetes in mice (Zhang mice, as shown by reduction in pancreatic
et al. 2006). oedema, neutrophil infiltration, serum amylase
In vitro studies by Ma et al. (2013) demon- and lipase levels, serum cytokine levels and
strated that genipin stimulated glucose uptake in mRNA expression of multiple inflammatory
a time- and dose-dependent manner in C2C12 mediators. Studies showed that the combination
myotubes. The results suggested that genipin of Sandostatin and G. jasminoides had a protec-
activated insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1, tive effect on pancreatic mitochondria injury in
PI3-K and downstream signalling pathway and severe acute pancreatitis rats (Wang et al. 2011).
increased concentrations of calcium, resulting in
glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation and
glucose uptake increase in C2C12 myotubes. Antiatherosclerotic Activity
Administration of genipin, a compound from
G. jasminoides fruit, to aging rats ameliorated In an in vitro study of cultured cell line of vascular
systemic and hepatic insulin resistance; allevi- smooth muscle cell from murine aorta, Gardenia
ated hyperinsulinaemia, hyperglyceridaemia and fruit hot aqueous extract stimulated the prolifera-
hepatic steatosis; and relieved hepatic oxidative tion of endothelial cells but not of A10 cells and
stress and mitochondrial dysfunction (Guan significantly increased the accumulation of basic
et al. 2013). In addition, genipin not only fibroblast growth factor (Kaji et al. 1991). They
improved insulin sensitivity by promoting postulated that a selective stimulation of endothe-
insulin-stimulated glucose consumption and lial cell proliferation by increasing the produc-
glycogen synthesis and inhibited cellular ROS tion of basic fibroblast growth factor was
overproduction and alleviated the reduction appropriate for prevention of arteriosclerosis and
of levels of MMP and ATP but also reversed thrombosis; thus, Gardenia extract may contain a
oxidative stress-associated JNK hyperactivation beneficial component as a useful drug. Earlier,
and reduced Akt phosphorylation in palmitate- they demonstrated that a low molecular mass
treated L02 hepatocytes. The authors concluded component of Gardenia fruit hot aqueous extract
that genipin ameliorated age-related insulin stimulated endothelial cell proliferation and an
resistance through inhibiting hepatic oxidative increased protein synthesis was an essential
stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. component of this response (Kaji et al. 1990).
716 Rubiaceae

Gardenia fruit extract may contain a useful aniline hydroxylation activity. The treatments
compound to stimulate the proliferation of endo- also decreased the intensity of a P4503A-
thelial cells. In vitro studies showed that G. jas- immunorelated protein. The findings demon-
minoides ethanol extract was able to inhibit strated that geniposide from G. jasminoides had
TNF-alpha-induced NF-kappa B activation, the ability to inhibit a P4503A monooxygenase
adhesion molecule expression and monocyte- and increase glutathione content in rat liver. In
endothelial interaction in primary cultured human vitro studies showed that geniposide had a poten-
umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), sug- tial for detoxification by inducing GST (glutathi-
gesting an anti-inflammatory role of Gardenia one S-transferase) by increasing the transcription
extract, which may be useful in preventing of GSTM1 and GSTM2 in primary cultured rat
vascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis (Hwang hepatocytes (Kuo et al. 2004). G. jasminoides
et al. 2010). extract significantly inhibited paw oedema in
collagen-induced rheumatoid arthritic rats and
significantly decreased the levels of serum
Hepatoprotective Activity interleukin (IL)-1 β and tumour necrosis factor
(TNF)-α at high dose or medium dose (Zhu
Chang et al. (1985) reported that the hepatotoxic et al. 2005).
activity of oc-naphthylisothiocyanate, in increas- Lee et al. (2006c) found that G. jasminoides
ing serum bilirubin, glutamic pyruvic transami- glycoprotein inhibited glucose/glucose oxidase-
nase and glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase induced toxicity and intracellular reactive oxygen
activities in rats, was significantly reduced by species production in glucose/glucose oxidase-
geniposide administered orally. Histopathological treated murine embryonic liver (BNL CL.2)
observations of the liver gave good agreement cells. Further, Gardenia glycoprotein exhibited
with the serological data. However, geniposide an antioxidant effect against the lipid peroxida-
appeared unable to reduce the toxic effect of tion process in the Fe2+/ascorbic acid system. In
a large dosage of CCl4 or D-galactosamine. CCl4 (1.0 ml/kg)-treated mice, pretreatment with
Pretreatment with crocetin (10, 20 μM), from Gardenia glycoprotein (80 mg/kg) obstructed
Gardenia fruit, suppressed hepatotoxicity in rat lactate dehydrogenase release and the formation
primary hepatocytes (Tseng et al. 1995). Crocetin of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances.
decreased formation of malondialdehyde (MDA) Additionally, in these mice Gardenia glycopro-
as an index of lipid peroxidation induced by ROS tein resulted in increased nitric oxide production
(reactive oxygen species). The addition of croce- and the activation of antioxidant enzymes,
tin decreased genotoxicity evaluated with accompanied by the inhibition of the cytotoxic-
unscheduled DNA synthesis by the xanthine– related signals hepatic cytochrome C, nuclear
xanthine oxidase (X/XO) and paraquat systems. factor-kappa B and activator protein-1. In both
Crocetin also inhibited the formation of superox- Triton WR-1339 (400 mg/kg) and corn oil (1.0 g/
ide anion in the X/XO system and bleached kg)-treated mice, pretreatment with Gardenia
the free radical 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl glycoprotein (80 mg/kg) lowered the levels of
(DPPH). Oral treatment of geniposide and plasma lipoproteins (triglyceride, total choles-
G. jasminoides fruit crude extract of rats for terol and low-density lipoprotein).
4 days decreased serum urea nitrogen level but In vivo studies showed that intraperitoneal
increased liver to body weight ratio, total hepatic injection of geniposidic acid, a constituent of
glutathione content and hepatic cytosolic G. jasminoides, exhibited cytoprotective activity
glutathione S-transferase activity (Kang et al. against D-galactosamine (GalN)/lipopolysaccha-
1997). The treatments decreased P-450 content, ride (LPS)-induced fulminant hepatic failure in
benzo[a]pyrene hydroxylation, 7-ethoxycoumarin mice (Kim et al. 2013). The survival rate of the
O-deethylation and erythromycin N-demethyla- geniposidic acid-treated mice was significantly
tion activities in liver microsomes without affecting higher than the control. The results suggested that
Gardenia jasminoides 717

geniposidic acid alleviated GalN/LPS-induced of 25–100 mg/kg (Sheng et al. 2006). Results of
liver injury by enhancing antioxidative defence the modified fat-loading method indicated that
system and reducing apoptotic signalling crocin inhibited the absorption of fat and choles-
pathways. terol and this inhibition is closely related to the
Geniposide, an important constituent of hydrolysis of fat. Crocin increased the faecal
G. jasminoides, had exhibited bright prospects in excretion of fat and cholesterol in rats, but had
prevention and therapy of hepatic injury (Wang no influence on the elimination of bile acids.
et al. 2013b). A systematic analysis of the thera- The findings suggested that crocin exhibited its
peutic effects of geniposide using biochemistry, hypolipidaemic effect by inhibiting pancreatic
metabolomics and proteomics was conducted to lipase, leading to the malabsorption of fat and
elucidate the working mechanisms of this com- cholesterol.
pound. Geniposide significantly intensified the Chinese herbal extract (Salvia miltiorrhiza
therapeutic efficacy as indicated by modern bio- and Gardenia jasminoides) treatment of rats
chemical analysis. Metabolomics results indi- with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)
cated 9 ions in the positive mode as differentiating and metabolic syndrome induced by a high-fat
metabolites which were associated with perturba- diet (HFD), significantly reduced serum triglycer-
tions in primary bile acid biosynthesis, butanoate ides and nonesterified fatty acids, enhanced insu-
metabolism, citrate cycle (TCA cycle), alanine, lin sensitivity and ameliorated the elevated serum
aspartate and glutamate metabolism. Notably, hepatic enzymes compared with HFD-saline rats
geniposide possessed potential pharmacological (Tan et al. 2013). HFD rats were obese, hyperin-
effect by regulating multiple perturbed pathways sulinaemic and hyperlipidaemic and have
back to normal state. To elucidate the benefits of increased hepatic enzymes with the histological
geniposide based on the proteomics approaches, images of NAFLD. Herbal extract treatment
six identified differential proteins appeared to be also attenuated hepatic triglycerides by 18.5 %,
involved in antioxidation and signal transduction, normalized macrovesicular steatosis in HFD
energy production, immunity, metabolism and rats and significantly reduced TNF-α and IL-6 in
chaperoning. These proteins were closely related adipose tissue.
in the protein–protein interaction network and
the modulation of multiple vital physiological
pathways. Neuroprotective Activity

Geniposide, isolated from Gardenia jasminoides,

Antihyperlipidaemic Activity protected neuronal cells from damage in oxygen
and glucose deprivation-exposed hippocampal
Research showed that Gardenia fruit and its slice culture (Lee et al. 2006a). Geniposide
component crocin exhibited hypolipidaemic showed a greater protective effect on the granule
activity that may be due to the inhibition of cell layer than on the pyramidal cell layer. The
pancreatic lipase and crocin, and its metabolite, results suggested that geniposide may be a thera-
crocetin, could ameliorate hyperlipidaemia (Lee peutic agent for ischaemia in patients. In vitro
et al. 2005). Crocin and crocetin also showed studies showed that G. jasminoides extract could
hypolipidaemic activity in hyperlipidaemic mice reduce cytotoxicity of amyloid beta peptide
induced by high-cholesterol, high-fat or high- (Abeta) in PC12 cells, possibly by reducing
carbohydrate diets for 5 weeks. In diet-induced Abeta-induced oxidative stress (Choi et al. 2007).
hyperlipidaemic rats, a 10-day treatment with Research demonstrated that genipin extracted
crocin significantly reduced serum triglyceride, from Gardenia jasminoides can be fixed in gela-
total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) tine and that the genipin-fixed gelatin could be an
cholesterol and very low-density lipoprotein acceptable extracellular matrix for nerve regen-
(VLDL) cholesterol level in the daily dose range eration (Liu et al. 2004).
718 Rubiaceae

Anti-amnesic Activity platelet aggregation induced by thrombin/collagen

with 45.1 %/19.3 % and 52.8 %/26.2 % aggrega-
The n-butanol fraction of Gardenia fruit extract tion rate. Geniposide (10–40 mg/kg) and genipin
showed the strongest acetylcholinesterase (5–20 mg/kg) inhibited venous thrombosis
(AChE) inhibition (43.4 % at a final dose of induced by tight ligation of the inferior vena
0.03 mg/mL) and also exhibited outstanding cava; their ED50 values were 18.4 and 8.6 mg/kg,
efficacy (65.9 % at a dose of 250 mg/kg) respectively.
in an experimental amnesic mouse model of
Alzheimer’s disease (Nam and Lee 2013).
Activity-guided fractionation of the total extracts Hypotensive Activity
resulted in the isolation of two glycosides, geni-
poside and crocin, from the n-butanol fraction The crude Gardenia seed extract was found to
and genipin and crocetin from the ethyl acetate have hypotensive activity (Koo and Li 1977). The
fraction. Geniposide showed a 22.8 % AChE hypotensive action was attributable to a reflex
inhibitory activity and a potent ameliorating phenomenon, involving both the parasympathetic
effect on scopolamine-induced memory impair- and the sympathetic vasomotor centres, and had
ment in amnesic mice of 93.4 % as compared to minimal cardiac depressant effect. It was demon-
the control group. strated that the hypotensive and bradycardiac
properties of Gardenia extract were entirely
abolished in tropinized and vagotomized rats, but
Antiplatelet/Antithrombotic Activity only partially attenuated in carotid sinus dener-
vated rats, and that low cervical spinal transection
Geniposide and its metabolite genipin showed an in rats did not inhibit the hypotensive responses.
antithrombotic effect in vivo due to the suppres-
sion of platelet aggregation by inhibition of
phospholipase A (2) activity (Suzuki et al. 2001). Anti-hypopigmentation Activity
In an in vivo model, geniposide and genipin
significantly prolonged the time required for Geniposide was also reported to enhance mela-
thrombotic occlusion induced by photochemical nogenesis by stem cell factor/c-kit signalling in
reaction in the mouse femoral artery. In an in which the expression of c-kit receptor was
vitro study, both geniposide and genipin inhibited augmented in norepinephrine-exposed normal
collagen-induced, but did not inhibit arachidonate- human epidermal melanocyte (Lan et al. 2008b).
induced, mouse platelet aggregation. Further, geniposide was found to abrogate the
Studies by Zhang et al. (2013a) indicated that norepinephrine-induced hypopigmentation by
G. jasminoides aqueous extract and geniposide the activation of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor
demonstrated remarkable antithrombotic activi- (GLP-1R)-dependent c-kit receptor signalling in
ties and supported their therapeutic uses for which c-kit expression was enhanced in normal
thrombotic diseases. Gardenia extract (67, 133 human epidermal melanocyte (Lan et al. 2008a).
and 266 mg/kg) and aspirin (50 mg/kg), respec-
tively, decreased the length of tail thrombus with
an average thrombus inhibition rate of 21.9, 55.7, Antityrosinase Activity
65.8 and 57.6 % at 48 h after carrageenan injection
and improved thrombosis induced by arteriove- The pyronane monoterpenoid jasminodiol iso-
nous shunt (silk thread) with 36.3, 45.5, 86.4 and lated from the fruit exhibited tyrosinase inhibi-
63.7 % inhibition rate of thrombus, respectively, tory activity (IC50 2.2 mM) ( Chen et al. 2008a).
and the ED50 of Gardenia extract was 160.8 mg/kg. Three monoterpene glycosides from Gardenia
Additionally, Gardenia extract (67 mg/kg) and fruit, namely, 6-O-p-coumaroylgeniposide,
geniposide (20 mg/kg) significantly inhibited 10-O-(4″- O-methylsuccinoyl)geniposide and
Gardenia jasminoides 719

6′-O-sinapoyljasminoside, exhibited inhibitory which were due to bile acid-independent fraction

effects on melanogenesis in B16 melanoma cells (Takeda et al. 1981). The main metabolite
induced with α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone detected from the bile after administration
with 21.6–41.0 and 37.5–47.7 % reduction of with genipin was genipin-1-O-glucuronic acid
melanin content at 30 and 50 μM, respectively, (GGA). The periodical pattern of GGA level in
with almost no toxicity to the cells (83.7–106.1 % the bile was in agreement with that of genipin-
of cell viability at 50 μM) (Akihisa et al. 2012). induced choleretic action, and quantitatively the
cation and anion gap produced was nearly com-
pensated by biliary concentration of GGA.
Choleretic Activity In vivo studies showed that geniposide, a main
iridoid glucoside of Gardenia fruit, was trans-
Aqueous and alcohol extracts of Gardenia fruit formed to genipin, a genuine choleretic, in rats
increased bile secretion in rabbits (Miwa 1953a); (Aburada et al. 1978). Genipin and its glucuro-
the alcoholic fruit extract inhibited the appear- nide conjugate were detected at 44 μM and
ance of blood bilirubin when injected into the 100 μM in the portal vein and bile, respectively,
aural vein of rabbits whose common bile duct after intra-duodenal administration of 2 g/kg
had been ligated (Miwa 1953b), and the same geniposide in Wistar rats. Akao et al. (1994)
alcoholic extract suppressed the bilirubin in reported that after oral administration, genipo-
peripheral lymph of rabbits (Miwa 1953c). The side was metabolized by β-D-glucosidases of the
active principles of Gardenia fruit extract were enterobacterium, Eubacterium sp. A-44, into the
found to be crocin and crocetin (Miwa 1954). aglycone genipin and subsequently to the agly-
Intravenous injection of crocin or crocetin at a cone of geniposidic acid by esterases. Thus,
dose of 0.1 g/kg into rabbits increased bile secre- when geniposide was orally administered,
tion; both compounds suppressed the appearance genipin appeared to be effectively produced in
of blood bilirubin in common bile-duct-ligated the intestine and then absorbed by the liver to act
rabbit, and the amount of bilirubin in peripheral as a genuine choleretic. Zhu et al. (1998) found
lymph (popliteal lymph) in common bile-duct- that at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg, geniposide
ligated rabbit was suppressed by injection of could significantly increase the biliary secretion
crocin and crocetin. after intra-duodenal administration, while crocins
Studies showed that erythritol clearance was showed no effect. Further, geniposide markedly
increased with the increase in bile flow by admin- decreased the content of cholesterol and elevated
istration of genipin (Aburada et al. 1978). Genipin HCO_3-bicarbonate concentration in bile, but
showed a significant choleretic action, the con- without effect on the level of bilirubin, bile
centration of biliary bile acid was decreased acid and Ca2+. The results showed geniposide
inversely. Genipin did not affect the concentra- was the main choleretic principle in Gardenia
tion of sodium, potassium, chloride or bicarbon- jasminoides.
ate in the bile collected during the initial stage, in Studies showed that the bile secretion in rats
which bile flow was increased, after administra- was markedly increased by administration of
tion. It was concluded from the results that genipin, the aglycone of geniposide, but hardly
genipin-induced choleretic action proceeded by increased by administration of the extract of
a mechanism wherein water was driven along Gardenia fruits (Chang et al. 1985). Animal stud-
osmotic gradient which originated in the trans- ies showed that intravenous administration of 50
port of bile acid-independent fraction from hepa- and 100 mg/kg of genipin (GP), gardenogenins
tocytes into canaliculi, mainly through active Na+ (GAR-G), deacetylasperulosidic acid methyl
transport. In further studies they found that ester genins (DAM-G) and scandoside methyl
genipin and patrinoside decreased biliary con- ester genin (SSM-G) exhibited the bile acid-
centrations of bile acids, Na+, Cl− and HCO3−, independent choleretic actions (Miyagoshi et al.
corresponding to their rapid choleretic actions 1988). DAM-G exhibited the strongest choleretic
720 Rubiaceae

activity, while choleretic action of SSM-G was (Ragasa et al. 2007). Antimicrobial tests of
milder but longer lasting than those of GAR-G iridoid 1 indicated that it was moderately active
and DAM-G. against Candida albicans and slightly active
against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aerugi-
nosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Trichophyton
Immunomodulatory Activity mentagrophytes, but inactive against Bacillus
subtilis and Aspergillus niger. Gardenia jasmin-
Geniposide (3), 6α-hydroxygeniposide (5), oides methanol extracts showed the highest level
ixoroside (7) and shanzhiside (8) isolated from of antifungal activity against Pleurotus ostreatus,
the fruit showed significant inhibition of interleu- a wood-rotting fungus, compared to five other
kin (IL)-2 secretion by phorbol myristate acetate methanol plant extracts (Lelono et al. 2009). Two
and anti-CD28 monoclonal antibody costimu- antifungal compounds genipin and geniposide
lated activation of human peripheral blood T were isolated from n-butanol and ethyl acetate
cells (Chang et al. 2005). solubles in the methanol extracts of Gardenia
jasminoides leaves and stems. Both compounds
exhibited potent inhibitory effects on two plant
Aflatoxin B1 Cytotoxicity pathogenic fungi, Fusarium oxysporum and
Inhibitory Activity Corynespora cassiicola.

Pretreatment with crocetin-inhibited aflatoxin B1

activated cytotoxicity and DNA adduct formation Anti-retinal Ischaemic Activity
in murine C3H10T1/2 fibroblast cells (Wang
et al. 1991). The protective effect of crocetin on Crocetin exhibited protective effects against the
the aflatoxin B1 cytotoxicity in C3H10T1/2 cells retinal ischaemia induced by 5 h unilateral liga-
was postulated to be due to the cellular defence tion of both the pterygopalatine artery and the
mechanisms that elevated the cytosol glutathione external carotid artery in anaesthetized mice
and the activities of GSH S-transferase (GST) through its inhibition of oxidative stress (Ishizuka
and GSH peroxidase (GSH-Px). et al. 2013). Crocetin prevented the ischaemia–
reperfusion (I/R)-induced reductions in a- and
b-wave amplitudes seen at 5 days after I/R and
Antimicrobial Activity decreased the numbers of TUNEL-positive cells
and 8-OHdG-positive cells and the phosphoryla-
Enzymatic β-glucosidase hydrolysis of galioside tion levels of p38, JNK, NF-κB and c-Jun present
yielded an aglucone which showed activity in the retina after I/R.
against Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella
pneumoniae, but the aglucone of gardenoside
was inactive (Ishiguro et al. 1983). Cerbinal, a Gastroprotective Activity
pseudoazulene iridoid, isolated from leaf, exhib-
ited potent antifungal activity against Bipolaris In an in vivo study on continuous perfusion of rat
sorokiniana, Helminthosporium, Pyricularia, stomach, genipin, from Gardenia fruit, inhibited
Colletotrichum lagenarium and Puccinia spe- only the gastric acid secretion induced by carba-
cies; it caused 100 % inhibition of germination of chol, but not by tetragastrin, or histamine
spores of Puccinia species on oat, wheat, Welsh (Aburada et al. 1978). In isolated organs, genipin
onion and white clover (Ohashi et al. 1986). The showed a weak competitive anti-acetylcholine
dichloromethane extract of the air-dried flowers action on the intestinal contraction. The results
of Gardenia jasminoides provided a new iridoid suggested that the anticholinergic action at least
natural product and a diastereomeric mixture partly contributed to the genipin-induced inhibi-
of two new iridoids (2a and 2b) in a 2:1 ratio tory effect on gastric functions. G. jasminoides
Gardenia jasminoides 721

extract, and its constituents ursolic acid and found to have application for the fixation of
genipin, showed the acid-neutralizing capacities, collagenous tissues (Mi et al. 2007). It was found
the antioxidant activities and the inhibitory that the fixation indices and denaturation tem-
effects on the growth of Helicobacter pylori in peratures of test samples fixed at neutral or basic
rats (Lee et al. 2009). Further, Gardenia extract pH (pH 7.4 or pH 8.5) were significantly greater
and ursolic acid had cytotoxic activity against than at acidic pH (pH 4.0). The results may be
AGS and SUN638 gastric cancer cells. The used to elucidate the cross-linking mechanism
results suggested that Gardenia extract, genipin and to optimize the fixation process for developing
and ursolic acid may be useful for the treatment bioprostheses fixed by aglycone geniposidic acid.
and/or protection of gastritis. Genipin, the aglycone of geniposide, a major
constituent of G. jasminoides fruit, is used to pre-
pare blue colourants in food industry and also a
Sleep-Promoting Activity cross-linking reagent for biological tissue fixa-
tion (Hou et al. 2008). Genipin possessed signifi-
In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover cant advantages as a natural cross-linking agent
clinical trial of 21 healthy adult men with a mild over chemical cross-linking agents such as glu-
sleep complaint, administration of crocetin, com- taraldehyde, formaldehyde, etc., used in the drug
pound from G. jasminoides, reduced the number delivery systems as they caused very serious
of wakening episodes compared to placebo cytotoxic reactions (Manickam et al. 2013).
(Kuratsune et al. 2010). Subjective data from Genipin being less toxic, biocompatible and
St. Mary’s Hospital Sleep Questionnaire showed offering very stable cross-linked products pos-
that crocetin tended to improve the quality of sessed unique potential to be utilized in control-
sleep compared to sleep before its intake. ling drug delivery from various formulations.
Additionally, no side effects from crocetin intake Besides it had been widely used as a traditional
were observed. Chinese medicine for a long time.

Antifertility Activity Pharmacokinetic Studies

The ethyl acetate flower extract of G. jasminoides Hou et al. (2008) found that after oral administra-
exhibited significant effects on terminating early tion of genipin or Gardenia fruit decoction to
pregnancy in rats (Xu et al. 1987). Several com- rats, genipin sulphate was a major metabolite in
pounds were isolated among which 2 cycloartane the bloodstream, whereas the parent forms of
triterpenoids, namely, gardenic acid and gardeno- genipin and geniposide were not detected.
lic acid B, were found to be the active compo- Importantly, oral administration of 200 mg/kg of
nents. The results supported the use of genipin resulted in a mortality of 78 % (7/9) in rats.
G. jasminoides flowers in Chinese folk medicine After per oral administration of geniposide,
for birth control. Xiao and Wang (1991) reported the peak concentration of geniposide in rat
gardenic acid and gardenolic acid A (from plasma occurred at 1 h, and plasma geniposide
Gardenia jasminoides) to be early pregnancy- was eliminated nearly completely within 12 h
terminating agent, for fertility regulation in (Wang et al. 2013a). The absolute oral bioavail-
females. ability (%F) of geniposide was calculated as
9.67 %. After per oral administration of genipo-
side, the AUC0 → 4 h values in tissues were in the
Cross-Linking Activity order of kidney > spleen > liver > heart > lung >
brain. After oral administration of G. jasminoides
Aglycone geniposidic acid, from Gardenia fruit, fruit crude extract and Zhi-zi-chi decoction,
a naturally occurring cross-linking agent, was >88.0 % of geniposidic acid was recovered from
722 Rubiaceae

the rat plasma (Long et al. 2013). After oral The acute toxicity study indicated geniposide
administration of Zhi-zi-chi decoction (contain- at a dose of 574 mg/kg or more could cause
ing Gardenia fruit, bitter orange and soybean) hepatic toxicity in rats, and the hepatotoxicity
and G. jasminoides extract, six iridoid glycosides often appeared at 24–48 h after the oral adminis-
geniposide, geniposidic acid, scandoside methyl tration (Ding et al. 2013). The hepatotoxicity was
ester, gardenoside, deacetylasperulosidic acid associated with oxidative stress with decrease of
methyl ester and genipin-1-β-gentiobioside were total superoxide dismutase activity and increase
extracted from rat plasma samples (Qu et al. of malondialdehyde concentration in rat livers.
2013). Subchronic toxicity study showed geniposide did
not cause hepatotoxicity at the doses of 24.3 and
72.9 mg/kg orally for 90 days in rats. Thus, acute
Hepatotoxicity Activity hepatotoxicity of geniposide at high doses was
likely to be linked to oxidative stress, while geni-
G. jasminoides fruit extract showed no hepato- poside at normal dose of 24.3 mg/kg or less did
toxic effects in rats as detected by measurement not cause hepatotoxicity even in the repeated
of alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransfer- dosing study.
ase and lactate dehydrogenase activities in serum
and liver (Kong et al. 1977). However in another
study, oral administration of Gardenia yellow Genotoxicity Activity
colour at doses of 800 mg/kg up to 5,000 mg/kg
to rats caused diarrhoea and increases in serum Gardenia yellow and its components crocetin,
alanine aminotransferase and aspartate amino- gentiobiose (a component of crocin), geniposide
transferase activities in a dose-dependent manner and genipin were found not to be mutagenic in
(Yamano et al. 1988). The toxicity induced by the the Salmonella reverse mutation assay (Ozaki
colourant was stronger by oral administration et al. 2002). Gardenia yellow and genipin caused
than by intraperitoneal administration. The con- damage of DNA in the Rec-assay. Gardenia
tent of geniposide, an iridoid compound, was yellow induced a significant dose-dependent
estimated to be 28 % of the colourant, and this increase of sister chromatid exchange frequency,
iridoid accounted for almost all the hepatotoxic while only genipin induced sister chromatid
activity of the colourant. It was also shown that exchange significantly among the components of
hepatotoxic effects of intraperitoneal administra- Gardenia yellow. The results indicated that
tion of genipin at a dose of 80 mg/kg body weight genipin possessed genotoxicity.
were comparable with those of oral administra-
tion of geniposide at a dose of 320 mg/kg
(Yamano et al. 1990). Buthionine sulphoximine Contraindications
pretreatment enhanced the toxicity of geniposide,
while cysteine pretreatment completely sup- A 59-year-old woman who had been admitted to
pressed it, suggesting hepatic non-protein sulph- the hospital every 2 months for over the past year
hydryls were important in modulating the because of severe right abdominal pain was given
toxicity. In an earlier study, crocin did not affect a diagnosis of idiopathic mesenteric phleboscle-
hepatic function when given orally to rats in a rosis (Nomura et al. 2012). Subsequently, it was
daily dose of 50 mg/kg for 8 days, and a lower found that she had been a long-term user of a
dosage of 10 mg kg for 40 days also did not, but Chinese herbal product containing Gardeniae
a high dose of 100 mg/kg for 2 weeks induced fructus for allergic rhinitis. After discontinuing
both hepatic damage and black pigmentation the product, the patient was free of abdominal
(Lin and Wang 1986). However, the induced pain for a year. However, fibrous thickening and
black pigmentation and the acute hepatic damage oedematous mucosa with bronze colouring per-
were completely reversible. sisted. In an aetiological study of 25 patients,
Gardenia jasminoides 723

Hiramatsu et al. (2012) found that long-term use In Vietnam, Gardenia fruit is a common drug
of geniposide in herbal medicines appeared to be used in folk medicine; it is employed for treating
associated with mesenteric phlebosclerosis. Only jaundice, insomnia with restlessness, eye inflam-
one ingredient, sansisi, was common to the herbal mation, tinnitus, dysuria, bloody stools, epistaxis
medicines of all 25 patients. This crude drug and haemoptysis and useful for relief of sprains
called geniposide is a major constituent of the and bruises (Le and Nguyen 1999). Poultice
Gardenia fruits. of pounded leaves is used for conjunctivitis.
In Vietnam, a decoction of G. jasminoides,
Adenosma glutinosum and Plumeria acutifolia
Traditional Medicinal Uses bark is administered for viral hepatitis. For
jaundice and febrile diseases with restlessness, a
Cape Jasmine has been used for centuries as a tradi- decoction of G. jasminoides, Phellodendron
tional oriental herbal remedy (Burkill 1966; amurense and Glycyrrhiza uralensis is adminis-
Quisumbing 1978; Le and Nguyen 1999; Herbal tered orally. For haemoptysis and haematemesis,
Medicine Research Center 2002). The leaves and a salty decoction of Gardenia fruit (torrefied),
fruit possess analgesic, antibacterial, antifebrile, Sophora japonica (torrefied) and Pueraria
demulcent, cholagogic and diuretic properties. thomsonii is given orally. For burning sensation
They are used in treating fever, inflammation of the in the head, ophthalmia, tinnitus and epistaxis, a
eyes, tinnitus, jaundice, epistaxis, sore throat, viral decoction of Gardenia fruit (torrefied) and Cassia
hepatitis, febrile diseases, ophthalmia, haemoptysis, tora (torrefied) is taken orally. For haemoptysis
bloody stools, dysuria, burns, boils and impetigo. and epistaxis, Gardenia fruit and Imperata cylin-
Gardenia fruit is used in folkloric traditional drical decoction is used. For sprains and bruises,
medicine as antiphlogistic, diuretic, laxative and poultice of pounded fruit is applied topically. For
choleretic and for treatment of hepatic and inflam- burns, carbonized Gardenia fruit is powdered,
matory diseases and for haemostatic purposes in mixed with egg albumin and made into a paste
the treatment of trauma by external application for external application. Charred, powdered fruit
(Ozaki et al. 2002; Tang and Eisenbrand 1992). is blown into nostrils for epistaxis.
In China the medicinal uses of the smaller fruit In Malaysia, the leaves are used in poultices
are various, such as for fevers, fluxes, dropsies, and applied to swollen breasts and used for head-
lung diseases, jaundice and, externally, vulneraries ache (Burkill 1966). The leaves and roots are
(Quisumbing 1978; Herbal Medicine Research used internally; the leaves are crushed with sugar
Center 2002). The larger fruit is more particu- to cure fever and the roots for fever with delir-
larly used externally, the pulp being applied to ium. A lotion for cooling the heads of children is
swellings and to injuries and to such ailments as prepared by boiling Cape Jasmine and Acacia
wine-nose, dog bite, slight burns and scalds. In myriophylla. The fruit is emetic, stimulant and
China, an infusion of the flowers is used as an diuretic and is considered a cooling remedy. They
emollient and as an antiophthalmic. A poultice of are used for jaundice, for kidney and lung
pounded fresh leaves is effective for wounds, complaints.
phlegmon and acute conjunctivitis. In China it is
used as a bitter, febrifuge, stimulant, diuretic,
emetic and a styptic. Wee and Hsuan (1990) Other Uses
reported that the fruits are used as a remedy for
vomiting of blood, bleeding, jaundice, acute gon- Also planted as windbreak, hedge and ornamental.
orrhoea, sores, boils, abscesses and inflammation; Gardenia flowers are used for cut flowers and in
the seeds are used also for jaundice, rheumatism making wreaths, bouquets, etc. It is a favourite in
and twisted muscles; and flowers and roots are the United States for corsages, being second only
used to regulate blood flow, to control bleeding to Cattleya orchid. An essential oil extracted from
and to increase menstrual flow. the flowers is used in perfumery and cosmetic
724 Rubiaceae

preparations. Gardenia fruits also have been used Chang WC, Lin YL, Lee MJ, Shiow SJ, Wang CJ (1996)
Inhibitory effect of crocetin on benzo(a)pyrene geno-
as a yellow dye for staining foods and fabrics.
toxicity and neoplastic transformation in C3H10T1/2
The yellow dye from the fruit is used for textiles cells. Anticancer Res 16(6B):3603–3608
in Thailand. The yellow colour components Chang YC, Chou FP, Huang HP, Hsu JD, Wang CJ (2004)
of Gardenia fruits contained carotenoids and Inhibition of cell cycle progression by penta-acetyl
geniposide in rat C6 glioma cells. Toxicol Appl
related compounds (Tang and Eisenbrand 1992).
Pharmacol 198(1):11–20
Colourless components of Gardenia fruits can Chang WL, Wang HY, Shi LS, Lai JH, Lin HC
also produce blue colourants by a simple modifi- (2005) Immunosuppressive iridoids from the fruits
cation of an enzyme reaction followed by the of Gardenia jasminoides. J Nat Prod 68(11):
1683–1685
treatment of primary amines (Park et al. 2002).
Chen L, Ma L, Park NH, Shi WY (2001) Cariogenic acti-
The fragrant flowers are used in perfumery; nomyces identified with a b-glucosidase-dependent
detached flowers are often floated in small con- green color reaction to Gardenia jasminoides extract.
tainers of water to impart some sweet fragrance J Clin Microbiol 39(8):3009–3012
Chen H, Xiao YQ, Li L, Zhang C (2007) Studies on
to rooms.
chemical constituents in fruit of Gardenia jasminoides.
Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 32(11):1041–1043
(In Chinese)
Comments Chen QC, Youn U, Min BS, Bae K (2008a) Pyronane
monoterpenoids from the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides.
J Nat Prod 71(6):995–999
Gardenia can be propagated by soft wood cutting Chen Y, Zhang H, Tian X, Zhao C, Cai L, Liu Y, Jia L,
in spring and hard wood cuttings in summer or Yin HX, Chen C (2008b) Antioxidant potential of
from seeds. crocins and ethanol extracts of Gardenia jasminoides
Ellis and Crocus sativus L.: a relationship investiga-
tion between antioxidant activity and crocin contents.
Food Chem 109(3):484–492
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and its choleretic effect in rats. J Pharmacobiodyn Kim HK, Lim ST, Jun WJ, Kim EK, Shin DH (2007)
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(In Chinese) Zhou TT, Zhao WQ, Fan GR, Chai YF, Wu YT (2007a)
Yu Y, Xie ZL, Gao H, Ma WW, Dai Y, Wang Y, Zhong Y, Isolation and purification of iridoid glycosides from
Yao XS (2009) Bioactive iridoid glucosides from the Gardenia jasminoides Ellis by isocratic reversed-
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 Ixora chinensis

Scientific Name Vernacular Names

Ixora chinensis Lam. Chinese: Long Chuan Hua

Indonesia: Kembang Soka, Siantan
Japanese: Santanka
Synonyms Kampuchea: Kam Rontea
Malaysia: Jarum-Jarum Merah, Kayu tentulang,
Bemsetia paniculata Raf., Gaertnera hongkon- Pechah Priok, Pial Ayam Hutan, Siantan
gensis Seem., Ixora blanda Ker Gawl., Ixora Hutan, Siantan jantan
colei Gentil, Ixora crocata Lindl., Ixora dixiana Philippines: Santan (Bikol), Santan, Santan-­Pula,
Gentil, Ixora dubia Schult., Ixora flammea Santan Tsina (Tagalog)
Salisb., Ixora incarnata Roxb. ex Sm., Ixora kro- Swedish: Kinesisk Eldboll
neana (Miq.) Bremek., Ixora pallida Reinw. ex Thailand: Kem
Miq., Ixora rosea Wall., Ixora speciosa Willd., Vietnamese: Trang Đỏ
Ixora stricta Roxb., Ixora stricta var. incarnata
Benth., Ixora stricta var. mekongensis Pierre ex
Pit., Pavetta arborea Blanco, Pavetta chinensis
(Lam.) Roem. & Schult., Pavetta kroneana Miq., Origin/Distribution
Pavetta stricta (Roxb.) Blume, Sykesia hongkon-
gensis (Seem.) Kuntze, Tsiangia hongkongensis The species is native to Southeast China (Fujian,
(Seem.) But, H.H. Hsue & P.T. Li. Guangdong, Guangxi) and Indo-China. It has
been introduced and cultivated in Thailand,
Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and else-
Family where in the tropics.

Rubiaceae

Agroecology
Common/English Names
The species is found in thickets and sparse for-
Chinese Ixora, Jungle Flame, Needle Flower, ests from 200 to 800 m altitude in its native
Prince of Orange, West Indian Jasmine range.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 730
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_59, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Ixora chinensis 731

Edible Plant Parts and Uses Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Flowers are consumed in Thailand, used in salad The soluble phenol acids (per g dry weight)
and stir-fried (Wongwattanasathien et al. 2010; identified in Ixora chinensis flower extract were
Kaisoon et al. 2011). gallic acid 66.3 μg, protocatechuic acid 13.1 μg,
p-hydroxy benzoic acid 26.2 μg, vanillic acid
15.6 μg, chlorogenic acid 54.0 μg, caffeic acid
Botany 11.41 μg, syringic acid 6.0 μg, p-coumaric acid
7.5  μg, ferulic acid 19.56 μg, sinapic acid
A perennial shrub, 0.7–2 m high with many stems 31.4  μg and total phenolic acids 25.1 μg
and glabrous branches. Leaves opposite, some- (Kaisoon et al. 2011). The flowers contained
times apparently in whorls of 4 due to reduced 381.4 μg total bound phenolic acids made up of
stem internodes, sessile or shortly petiolate to gallic acid 29.8 μg, protocatechuic acid 39.1 μg,
5 mm, glabrous, leathery, oblong–oblanceolate, p-hydroxy benzoic acid 58.7 μg, syringic acid
obovate, obovate–oblong (Plate 1), elliptic– 57.2 μg, p-coumaric acid 104.1 μg, ferulic acid
oblong, 6–15 × 3–6 cm, base acute to rounded, 26.9  μg and sinapic acid 64.8 μg. The flowers
apex obtuse to subacute, margin entire, dull
green, lateral veins 7–9 pairs; stipules deltoid and
persistent. Inflorescence terminal, compact-­
cymose to compact-corymbiform, many flowered
(Plate 2), subsessile to pedunculate, subtend by 2
small leaf-like deltoid bracts. Flowers bisexual,
4-merous; calyx tube 1.5 mm long, lobes
4-­dentate; corolla lobes circular–obovate, broadly
obtuse to rounded at apex, 6 mm across, orange-­
red or white, tube 25–35 mm; staminal filaments
shorter than corolla tube, anthers reflexed; style
filiform, red, with 2 exserted stigma 3–4 mm
long, ovary 2-celled (Plate 3). Drupe reddish
black, subglobose and shallowly didymous,
6–7 × 6–7  mm, glabrous. Plate 2  Compact corymbose orange-red flower head
(S. Wee)

Plate 1  Large oblong–obovate opposite subsessile leaves Plate 3  Flowers with 4 obtuse-tipped obovate petals
(S. Wee) (S. Wee)
732 Rubiaceae

contained 251 μg total soluble flavonoid made Anticancer Activity

up of rutin 139 μg, myricetin 5.18 μg, quercetin
102.4  μg, apigenin 0.64 μg and kaempferol Flower decoctions of I. chinensis and I. coccinea
3.77 μg and bound flavonoid 59.6 μg made up completely inhibited formation of skin, liver and
of rutin 28.5 μg, myricetin 3 μg, quercetin colon tumour initiated by dimethylbenzanthracene
13.6 μg and apigenin 14.5 μg. The DPPH radi- and promoted by croton oil in mice (Serrame and
cal scavenging activities (% inhibition) of solu- Lim-Sylianco 1995).
ble and bound phenolic fraction of the flower
were 62.52 % and 33.67 %, respectively. Bound
phenolics exhibited lower antioxidant activity Traditional Medicinal Uses
than soluble ones. The reducing potential of the
soluble and bound phenolic fraction of the In Malaysia, the Malays use a root decoction
flower as evaluated by FRAP (ferric reducing after childbirth and for urinary problem (Burkill
antioxidant power) assay (mmol FeSO4/100 g 1966). In the Philippines, an infusion of the fresh
dry weight) was 14.45 mmol and 15.8 mmol, flowers is said to be a remedy against incipient
respectively. tuberculosis and haemorrhage (Quisumbing
Two iridoid glucosides, ixoroside and ixo- 1978). An infusion of leaves or flowers is used
side (7,8-dehydroforsythide) along with known against headache. In Indonesia, a decoction of the
geniposidic acid were isolated from leaves and roots is used against bronchial disorders; a decoc-
twigs of Ixora chinensis (Takeda et al. 1975). A tion of the flowers is prescribed in amenorrhoea
fatty acid found in the seed oil of Ixora chinen- and hypertension (Wijayakusuma et al. 1992). In
sis was shown to be cis, cis, cis, trans- Vietnam, roots, stems, leaves and flowers are
8,10,12,14-­octadecatetraenoic acid, named used for irregular menses, high blood pressure,
ixoric acid (Huang 1990; Huang and Lu 1999). tuberculosis, haemoptysis, rheumatism and acne
Another known naturally occurring unusual (Perry 1980). In Taiwan, the leaves are used for
fatty acid, crepenynic acid (octadec-cis-9-en-12- liver clearance, to improve blood circulation, to
ynoic acid), also occurred in the seed oil. Both lower high blood pressure and to calm uterus
acids were major components and comprised up movement (Chiu and Chang 1995).
to ca 70 % of the total fatty acids derived from
the seed oil.
Other Uses

Antimutagenic Activity Ixora chinensis is widely cultivated as an orna-

mental plant and hedges and also used in bonsai.
The dichloromethane of I. chinensis flowers
inhibited the mutagenicity of the reaction product
of 1-aminopyrene nitrite model in the absence of Comments
metabolic activation on both Salmonella
typhimurium strains TA 98 and TA 100, while the The plant is readily propagated by using seeds or
methanol flower extract exerted similar effect on stem cuttings.
TA 98 (Wongwattanasathien et al. 2010). The
water flower extract exhibited antimutagenic
activity on both tester strains. On the basis of Selected References
such information, it was concluded that these
flowers were safe to be consumed and partially Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC Jr (1965) Flora
satisfied the first step in using the extracts for any of Java (spermatophytes only), vol 2. Wolters-­
Noordhoff, Groningen, 641 pp
purpose in food product development.
Ixora chinensis 733

Burkill IH (1966) A dictionary of the economic products of Quisumbing E (1978) Medicinal plants of the Philippines.
the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint, 2 vols. Ministry Katha Publishing Co., Quezon City, 1262 pp
of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur, vol 1 Serrame E, Lim-Sylianco CY (1995) Anti-tumour pro-
(A–H) pp 1–1240, vol 2 (I–Z) pp 1241–2444 moting activity of decoctions and expressed juices
Chen T, Taylor CM (2011) Ixora Linnaeus. In: Wu ZY, from Philippine medicinal plants. Philipp J Sci
Raven PH, Hong DY (eds) Cucurbitaceae through 124(3):275–281
Valerianaceae, with Annonaceae and Berberidaceae, Takeda Y, Nishimura H, Inouye H (1975) Two new iridoid
vol 19, Flora of China. Science Press/Missouri glucosides from Ixora chinensis. Phytochemistry
Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis, pp 177–179 14(12):2647–2650
Chiu N, Chang K (1995) The illustrated medicinal plants The Plant List (2013) Ixora chinensis Lam. http://www.
in Taiwan, vol 1. SMC Publ. Inc., Taipei (In Chinese) theplantlist.org/
Fosberg FR, Sachet HH (1989) Thee cultivated Ixoras Wijayakusuma HMH, Wirian SW, Yaputra T, Dalimartha S,
(Rubiaceae). Baileya 23(2):74–85 Wibowo B (1992) Tanaman berkhasiat obat di
Huang MQ (1990) A C18 conjugated tetraenoic acid from Indonesia. (Plant yielding medicine in Indonesia),
Ixora chinensis seed oil. Phytochemistry 29(4): vol 1. Pustaka Kartini, Jarkata, 122 pp
1317–1319 Wong KM (1989) Ixora Linn. In: Ng FSP (ed) Tree flora
Huang MQ, Lu YJ (1999) The variation of fatty acid of Malaya, vol 4. Longman Malaysia, Petaling Jaya,
composition in Ixora chinensis seeds at various Selangor, pp 356–364
stages of development and maturation. Acta Botanica Wongwattanasathien O, Kangsadalampai K, Tongyonk L
Yunnanica 21:249–252 (2010) Antimutagenicity of some flowers grown in
Kaisoon O, Siriamornpun S, Weerapreeyakul N, Meeso N Thailand. Food Chem Toxicol 48(4):1045–1051
(2011) Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities Ysrael MC, van Valkenburg JLCH (1999) Ixora L. In: de
of edible flowers from Thailand. J Funct Food 2:88–99 Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ
Perry LM (1980) Medicinal plants of East and Southeast (eds) Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 12(1):
Asia. Attributed properties and uses. MIT Press, Medicinal and poisonous plants 1. Prosea Foundation,
Cambridge, MA/London, 620 pp Bogor, pp 311–313
 Ixora coccinea

Scientific Name German: Ixore, Scharlachrote Iora;

India: Rangan, Rangana, Rookmini (Bengali),
Ixora coccinea L. Rajana, Ranjan, Rugmini (Hindi), Gudda
Daasala, Guddedasal, Gudde Dosal,
Gurugudu, Holedaasala, Kaepala, Kapala
Synonyms Hoo, Kempu Kaepala, Kempugundu Hoo,
Kempukepala, Kempulagida, Kepala,
Pavetta coccinea (L.) Blume Keppulagida, Kepula, Kepuladai, Kevala,
Kevala Gida, Kisagaara Hoo, Kisgara, Kiskar,
Kiskara, Kissara, Kissargida, Kisu Kaare,
Family Kisukaare, Kisukare, Kusumaale, Maale Gida,
Maale Hoo, Maalehoo Gida (Kannada),
Rubiaceae Patkali, Podkali (Konkani), Cekki, Cetti,
Chekki, Chethi, Chetti, Kattutechi, Schetti,
Shekki, Shetti, Tecci, Techi, Tetti, Thechhi,
Common/English Names Thechi, Thetti (Malayalam), Bakali, Bakora,
Padkali, Pankul, Pendgul, Pendkul, Pentgul,
Burning Love, Flame of the Woods, Ixora, Jungle Pitkuli (Marathi), Bondhuko, Romoniphulo,
Flame, Jungle Geranium, Passionate Love, Ruktuka (Oriya), Bandhujivaka, Bandhuka,
Scarlet Ixora, Scarlet Jungle Flame, Sacred Ixora, Bandhujivaka Parali, Binduka, Ishwara,
Shiva’s Flame, West Indian Jasmine Parali, Paranti, Patali, Raktaka, Raktala
(Sanskrit), Attimankicacceti, Attimankicam,
Cetarakacceti, Cetarakam, Cetaram, Cetti-­
Vernacular Names Cetti, Cheddi, Cinturacceti, Cinturam,
Citaram, Cuvetaki, Cuvetakicceti, Erinakai,
Brazil: Iroxa (Portuguese) Koranpoo, Koran, Koranpu, Kullai, Mayilai,
Burmese: Pan Sayeik, Poan~Na. Rait, Ponna Sedaram, Setti, Sinduram, Tecci, Telli, Vedcci,
Yeik, Pone-Na-Yeik, Pundarik Vedji, Vellaivetci, Vellaivetcippucceti,
Chinese: Long Chuan Hua Velvetci, Verchi, Vetchi, Vetci, Vitchie, Vitci
Czech: Ixora Šarlatová (Tamil), Bandhuca, Bandhujeevakamu,
Danish: Ildkugle, Ixora Bandhujeevamu, Bandhujivakamu,
Dutch: Faja Lobi, Faya Lobi Bandhujivamu, Bandhukamu, Koranam,
Estonian: Punane Iksoora Korani, Mankana, Manmadhabana,
French: Ixora Ecarlate Manmadibanum, Manmathabanamu, Nuru

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 734
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_60, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Ixora coccinea 735

Varahalu, Raama Bhanamu, Rama Banamu Ripe fruits are edible, eaten by local ethnic
(Telugu) communities ­
­ especially children in Kerala
Indonesia: Kembang Santen Merah, Soka Merah, (Nazarudeen 2010).
Soka Bereum (Sundanese)
Kampuchea: Kam Ron Tea
Malaysia: Pechah Periuk, Todong Periuk Botany
Paluan: Kerdeu Ra Ngebard
Panama: Cache De Tore, Jazmin De Coral A small, dense, multibranched, glabrous ever-
(Spanish); green shrub to 2 m high, rounded in form. Leaves
Philippines: Tangpupo (Bisaya), Santan, Santan-­ sessile, opposite, decussate, simple, leathery,
Pula (Tagalog) glossy green, ovate to obovate with cordate or
Portuguese: Amor Ardent, Flor De Coral, Ixora, obtuse bases, apiculate tips, 3.5–8 cm long by
Ixora Coral, Cruz De Malta, Ixora Coral, Ixora 2.5–3.5 cm wide, margin entire, with interpetio-
Vermelha, Siderodendro lar, deltoid stipules (Plates 1, 2). Flowers borne in
Spanish: Amor Ardiente, Bola De Coral, Coral, dense terminal, dichasial cymose heads, cymules
Corallilo, Cruz De Malta, Equisósea, Ixora, 3-flowered, occasionally 2–5 flowered (Plates 1–4).
Jazmin Del Diablo, Santa Rita Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic, tetramerous,
Sri Lanka: Rathmal (Sinhalese), Vedchi (Tamil) epigynous. Calyx aposepalous, the sepals 4, ovate,
Swedish: Eldboll reddish. Corolla sympetalous, 3–4.5 cm long,
Thailand: Khem Baan, Khem Nuu (Bangkok), 4-lobed, tubular-rotate, the lobes 4, lanceolate to
Khem Farang (Central)
Vietnam: Mẫu Đơn, Cây Đơn Đỏ, Trang Son

Origin/Distribution

The species is a native of India and Sri Lanka. It

has been introduced pantropically where it is
being cultivated as an ornamental plant.

Agroecology

Ixora grows well in warm humid climates. Ixora Plate 1  Flowers and leaves
thrives best in light-texture, well-drained, fertile,
acid soils with pH 5.0–5.5 and rich in organic
matter (Staples and Herbst 2005). It does best in
full sun but tolerates partial shading. Ixora is
mildly tolerant of salt sprays but is intolerant of
highly alkaline soils becoming chlorotic.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The flowers are edible and used as condiment

and for flavouring in India, Sri Lanka and
Thailand (Burkill 1966; Altschul 1973; Facciola
1990; Wongwattanasathien et al. 2010). Plate 2  Inflorescence head and opposite, decussate leaves
736 Rubiaceae

reducing sugars 10.15 %, nonreducing sugars

6.05 %, total sugars 16.2 %, fibre 0.9 %, vitamin
C trace, energy 66.01 Kcal, mineral matter
0.25 %, Fe trace, Na 9.88 mg/100 g and K
197.69 mg/100 g (Nazarudeen 2010).

Flower Phytochemicals

Two cycloartenol esters (1a and 1b), lupeol

fatty ester, lupeol, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid
Plate 3  Close up of inflorescence head and sitosterol were isolated from I. coccinea
flowers (Ragasa et al. 2004). Latha et al. 2001)
reported the flowers to contain rutin, ­lecocyanadin
­glycoside, cyanadin-3-rutinoside and d­ elphinidin
monoglycoside. The presence of biochin A,
myricetin, quercetin, rutin, daidzein, for-
mononetin and ursolic acid 1.45 % were
detected in Ixora coccinea methanolic flower
extract (Sumathy et al. 2011). Twenty-four
other compounds were also found: quinic acid
37.25 %, glycerine 17.58 %, mome inositol
10.17 %, xanthosine 9.40 %, (1R,3R,4R,5R)
quinic acid 6.87 %, 4H-pyran-4-one, 2,3
Plate 4  Close up of individual flowers
dihydro 3.75 %, 5,5dimethyl1 oxa-5-silacyclo-
nonan 2.47 %, 9.12-octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)
(2-phe) 2.42 %, hydroxymethylfurfural 2.18 %,
ovate, pointed, reddish, pink or yellow. cymel 1.47 %, 1,3-propanedial, 2-hydroxymethyl
Androecium polyandrous, stamens 4, exserted. 1.34 %, benzenecarboxylic acid 0.78 %, glyc-
Ovary 2-­ loculed, syncarpous, style filiform, erose 0.67 %, 2-cyclopenten-1-one, 2hydroxy
stigma bifid, ellipsoid, exserted. Fruit a globose 0.57 %, furfuryl alcohol 0.04 %, heptadecane
berry, reddish-black, 0.5 cm across, with persis- 0.36 %, 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid (2-phe)
tent calyx. 0.34 %, dimethyl, tetra butoxysilanol 0.33 %,
propargyl alcohol 0.29 %, 2,4 dihydroxy-2,5
dimethyl ­ furfural 0.28 %, 2,4 dihydroxy-2,5
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties dimethyl ­furfural 0.25 % and ­furfural 0.23 %. A
natural terpenoid, ixoroid, with the structure
Phytochemical studies indicated Ixora coccinea 21,23-epoxy-tirucall-­7-en-3β-ol, was isolated
plant to contain important phytochemicals such from Ixora coccinea flower along with the
as lupeol, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, stearic known constituents stigmast-5-en-3-O-β- d -
acid, oleic acid, linoleic acids and sitosterol glucoside, 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid and
(Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2009). d -mannitol (Versiani et al. 2012).
Fifty-four components were identified in the
essential oil of Ixora coccinea flower (Obuzor
Fruit Nutrients and Nwakanma 2011). The oil comprised mainly
of triterpenes 62.60 %, monoterpenes 31.73 %,
Nutritive value of the ripe fruit was reported as sesquiterpenes 3.35 % and an ester 2.29 %. The
moisture 82.29 %, protein 0.28 %, fat 0.01 %, major constituents of triterpenes were ursolic
Ixora coccinea 737

acid (27.34 %), oleanolic (20.16 %) and lupeol Kartha and Menon 1943). The bioassay guided
(15.10 %). Geranyl acetate (8.74 %) was the fractionation of the saponifiable fraction of the
major monoterpenes, followed by linalyl acetate petroleum ether extract of Ixora coccinea root
(6.79 %), neryl acetate (6.49 %), α-terpineol was found to contain both saturated and unsaturated
acetate (4.91 %) and borneol acetate (4.77 %); fatty acids (Padmaja et al. 1993).
ethyl cinnamate (2.29 %) is an ester; while the Pharmacological studies suggested the plant
sesquiterpenes were cyperene (2.72 %), to possess antioxidative, antibacterial, gastropro-
α-copaene (0.63 %) and α-cyperone (0.002 %). tective, hepatoprotective, antidiarrhoeal, antino-
Other monoterpenes were α-pinene (0.012 %) ciceptive, antimutagenic, antineoplastic and
and β-pinene (0.013 %). Other compounds chemopreventive effects, thus lending scientific
present in trace amounts included benzalde-
­ support to the plant’s ethnomedicinal uses (Baliga
hyde, 1-octen-3-ol, cymene, α-phellandrene, and Kurian 2012).
α-terpinene, citronellol, ascaridole, germacrene
B, germacrene D, α-bisabolene, β-bisabolene,
α-gurjunene, α-bergamotene, humulene, trans- Antioxidant Activity
β-ocimene, camphene, terpinolene, sabinene,
limonene, benzyl alcohol, cis-ocimene, myr- The methanol flower extract of I. coccinea showed
cene, allo-ocimene, pinene-2-ol, α-thujene, significant activities in the DPPH free radical
2,6,dimethyl-5-heptanal, γ-terpene, citral, neral, scavenging assay, reducing power and total anti-
geranial, isoartemisia, 1,8-cineole, borneol, cit- oxidant capacity using phosphomolybdenum
ronellal, nerol, a-­terpineol, terpin-4-ol and lin- assays compared to the standard antioxidant in a
alool (0.007 %). dose-dependent manner (Saha et al. 2008). The
high antioxidative property in scavenging reactive
oxygen species (ROS) may be attributed to the
high amount of hydrophilic phenolics. In DPPH
Leaf Phytochemicals radical scavenging assay, the IC50 value of the
extract was found to be 100.53 μg/mL while
Lupeol was isolated from the petroleum ether ascorbic acid had the IC50 value 58.92 μg/mL.
fraction of ethanol leaf (Zachariah et al. 1994). Antioxidant evaluation of isolated compounds
The ethyl acetate fraction of the methanol extract from the leaves revealed that ixoratannin A-2 and
of Ixora coccinea leaves afforded an A-type cinnamtannin B-1 were the most active com-
trimeric proanthocyanidin epicatechin-(2β → O →  pounds in DPPH, inhibition of lipid peroxidation
­
7, 4β → 8)-epicatechin-(5 → O → 2β, 6  → 4β)- and nitric oxide radical-scavenging assays
epicatechin named ixoratannin A-2 along with (Idowu et al. 2010). Among the methanol extracts
seven known compounds, epicatechin, ­procyanidin of various aerial parts of I. coccinea, the flower
A2, cinnamtannin B-1 and four flavon-­3-ol rham- extract exhibited the best antioxidant property,
nosides, viz. kaempferol-7-O-α-l-­rhamnnoside, presenting much lower IC50 value (6.6 mg/mL for
kaempferol-3-O-α-l-­rhamnoside, quercetin-3-O- 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay)
α-l-rhamnopyranoside and kaempferol-3,7-O-α- (Torey et al. 2010). In addition, the highest phe-
l-dirhamnoside (Idowu et al. 2010). nolic content (polyphenols) was found in the
flower extract (210.55 μg GAE/mg extract).
Furthermore, I. coccinea extracts scavenged the
superoxide radical generated by the xanthine/
Root Phytochemicals xanthine oxidase system. The xanthine oxidase
inhibition activity was in the order of allopuri-
The root bark of Ixora coccinea was found to con- nol > leaf > flower > stem with the percentage of
tain a liquid acid, identified as Δ9–11-­octadecadinoic inhibition ranged from 39.7 to 77.3 % for the
acid, myristic acid and mannitol (Sukumaran plant parts investigated.
738 Rubiaceae

Hypolipidaemic Activity Antinociceptive/Analgesic/

Anxiolytic Activities
Ethanol leaf extract of I. coccinea showed signifi-
cant hypolipidaemic effect in Wistar albino Studies showed that the aqueous leaf extract of I.
rats fed with atherogenic diet by lowering the coccinea possessed appreciable dose-dependent
serum levels of biochemical parameters such as antinociceptive activity when evaluated in hot
significant reduction in the level of serum choles- plate and formalin test but not in tail flick test)
terol, triglyceride, LDL, VLDL and HDL level (Ratnasooriya et al. 2005a). The antinociceptive
which was similar to the standard drug Atorvastatin action was mediated centrally at the supraspinal
(Neelima et al. 2011) The ethanol leaf extract exhib- level mainly via dopaminergic mechanism, and
ited significant atherogenic index and percentage they postulated that the antioxidant activity of the
protection against hyperlipidaemia. Preliminary extract from its quaternary base alkaloid and fla-
phytochemical analysis revealed the presence vonoid constituents could have played an auxil-
of phytoconstituents such as alkaloids, tannins, iary role in inducing antinociception.
flavonoids, carbohydrates, protein and amino The ethanol (50 %) extract of Ixora coccinea
acids and reducing sugars. aerial parts potentiated barbiturate activity and
caused semen coagulation (Padmaja et al. 1993).

Antimutagenic Activity
Cardioprotective Activity
The crude alcoholic extract and the ethyl acetate
fraction of I. coccinea exhibited antimutagenic Pretreatment of albino Wistar rats with methanol
activity when tested using the Rec-Assay and the leaf extract of Ixora coccinea followed with the
Micronucleus Test (Panlilio et al. 1992). simultaneous treatment with doxorubicin signifi-
Fractions obtained from the ethyl acetate extract cantly reduced the ST segment elevation and also
were found to be antimutagenic against a known maintained the blood pressure close to normal
carcinogen, 4-nitroquinoline, in two Bacillus (Momin et al. 2012). The extract significantly
subtilis strains. After purification the antimuta- reduced the elevated level of biomarkers like cre-
genic fraction was identified as ursolic acid. The atine kinase – MB (CK – MB), lactate dehydro-
activity of ursolic acid was confirmed by the genase (LDH), serum glutamic oxaloacetic
Rec-Assay. transaminase (SGOT) and glutamate pyruvate
The dichloromethane, methanol and water transaminase (SGPT), near to normal, and also
extract of Ixora coccinea flowers were devoid of increased dose-dependently the tissue antioxi-
mutagenic activity on Salmonella typhimurium dant markers, viz. catalase (CAT) and superoxide
strains TA 98 and TA 100 without metabolic acti- dismutase, (SOD) and decreased the level of
vation (Wongwattanasathien et al. 2010). malondialdehyde (MDA) in cardiac tissue. The
However, treating the extract with sodium nitrite histopathology of heart also further confirmed
in acid solution reversed the effects and they the cardioprotection provided by the methanolic
became mutagenic. All the three extracts were leaf extract of Ixora coccinea.
effective in inhibiting the mutagenic effects of
sodium nitrite-treated 1-aminopyrene on
Salmonella typhimurium strains TA 98. The opti- Antimicrobial Activity
mal effect was observed with the dichlorometh-
ane followed by methanol and aqueous extract, The 50 % ethanolic extract of Ixora coccinea was
suggesting that the nonpolar compounds present found to have antimicrobial activity with effec-
in the extract were responsible for the observed tive inhibitory concentration of 125 μg/mL for
antimutagenic effects. both bacteria and fungi tested (Latha et al. 1995).
Ixora coccinea 739

Ether and methanol leaf extracts of Ixora coc- enzymes, namely, catalase, glutathione peroxi-
cinea dry leaves were found to have antimicro- dase and glutathione reductase, was observed in
bial activity; the ether extract was more active the extract-treated group. Thus, the gain in tensile
than the methanol extract (Annapurna et al. strength may be attributed not only to the better
2003). All tested compounds isolated from the cross-linking but also to the antioxidant proper-
leaves, namely, ixoratannin A-2, epicatechin, ties of the extract. The ethanolic root extract of I.
procyanidinA2,cinnamtanninB-1,kaempferol-7-­O- coccinea showed significant wound-­ healing
α-l-rhamnnoside, kaempferol-3-O-α-l-­rhamnoside, activity when compared to standard ointment
quercetin-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside and Nitrofurazone with respect to normal control
kaempferol-3,7-O-α-l-dirhamnoside, inhibited the Wistar albino rat group (Selvaraj et al. 2011)
growth of Bacillus subtilis, while only e­ picatechin based on enhancement of tensile strength on inci-
and quercetin-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside inhibited sion wound model and in terms of wound con-
the growth of Escherichia coli (Idowu et al. 2010). traction for excision wound model.
Among six extracts (ethanol, aqueous,
petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform and ethyl
­
­acetate) of I. coccinea roots, the ethanolic extract Anticancer Activity
showed highly significant antibacterial activ-
ity  Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus pumilus, After injecting Dalton’s lymphoma cells with an
Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella ayurvedic oil preparation containing flowers of
typhi and Pseudomonas aeruginosa when com- Ixora coccinea and Cortus sativum, tumour
pared to standard (Selvaraj et al. 2011). The aque- development was arrested (Panikar et al. 1986).
ous extract showed moderate significant inhibition Flower decoctions of I. chinensis and I. coccinea
against all bacterial strains when ­compared to stan- completely inhibited formation of skin, liver and
dard. All the extracts elicited negligible activity colon tumour initiated by ­dimethylbenzanthracene
against the fungi Candida albicans and Aspergillus and promoted by croton oil in mice (Serrame and
niger. The methanol and aqueous extracts of four Lim-Sylianco 1995).
flower types exhibited considerable antibacterial Intraperitoneal administration of 200 mg/kg
activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus of the active fraction of I. coccinea flower
aureus, Bacillus subtilis and Klebsiella pneu- increased the life span of Dalton’s lymphoma
moniae (Pulipat et al. 2012). The methanol extracts (ascitic and solid tumours) and Ehrlich ascites
of red and pink flower types exhibited high activity carcinoma tumour-bearing mice by 113 and
while the orange flower methanol extract exhibited 68 %, respectively (Latha and Panikkar 1998).
moderate activity and the white flower methanol The fraction showed less activity against solid
extract showed low activity. The aqueous extracts tumours as compared to ascitic tumours. The
were less inhibitory than the methanol extracts. same active fraction showed 50 % cytotoxicity
to Dalton’s lymphoma (ascitic) and Ehrlich
ascites carcinoma and Sarcoma-180 (S-180)
Wound-Healing Activity cells in vitro at concentrations of 18, 60 and
25  μg/mL, respectively. It was toxic to trans-
The alcoholic flower extract of Ixora coccinea formed lymphocytes from leukaemic patients,
was found to have wound-healing activity in dead acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) and
space wounds created in rats (Nayak et al. 2003). chronic myelogenous leukaemia (CML) and
Increases in the tensile strength of the wound and K-562 suspension cell cultures but not to nor-
in the level of lysyl oxidase, the crucial enzyme mal cells. The active fraction inhibited tritiated
for collagen maturation, were observed indicating thymidine incorporation in cellular DNA. The
a definite prohealing action. Moreover a highly active fraction was found to contain triterpe-
significant increase in the levels of antioxidant noid, ursolic acid.
740 Rubiaceae

Two derivatized peptides, designated as ixora- extract also possessed significant, dose-dependent
peptide I (1) and ixorapeptide II (2), in addition in vitro antioxidant activity (IC50 value = 8.0  μg/
to 28 other known compounds, were isolated mL), membrane stabilizing activity (IC50
from the methanol extract of Ixora coccinea (Lee value = 6.4 ng/mL) and lipid peroxidation activity
et al. 2010). Compound 1 exhibited selective (36.7 % at 250 μg/mL). Thirty-day oral treatment
potency against Hep3B liver cancer cell line with of rats with 1,500 mg/kg did not show any adverse
an IC50 value of 3.36 μg/mL, and compound 2 did signs of toxicity or behavioural changes. The
not show notable cytotoxicity towards cancer cell results suggested the anti-inflammatory activity
lines but could inhibit superoxide anion genera- of I. coccinea to be mediated via inhibition of NO
tion and elastase release with IC50 values of 0.21 production, phagocytic cell infiltration, antihista-
and 0.27 μg/mL, respectively. mine effect, scavenging of free radicals, ­membrane
stabilizing activity and lipid peroxidation.
Lupeol, isolated from the leaves, exhibited
Anti-inflammatory Activity ­anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-­induced
paw oedema in albino rats and antimitotic activity
The saponifiable fraction of the petroleum ether in a preliminary cytotoxic study using the Allium
extract of Ixora coccinea root was found to have test of Levan (Zachariah et al. 1994).
anti-inflammatory activity in carrageen-induced In a randomized controlled clinical trial of 20
paw oedema in albino rats (Padmaja et al. 1993). patients with typical chronic gingivitis, Ixora
The bioassay guided fractionation of the saponifi- coccinea leaf (Ponna yeik) and chlorhexidine
able fraction was carried out, and the active frac- mouthwashes showed significant effectiveness in
tion was found to contain both saturated and plague score, bleeding on probing and severity of
unsaturated fatty acids. Oral administration of gingivitis when compared to before treatment.
aqueous leaf extract of Ixora coccinea (500, Staining effects were observed in patients who
1,000, and 1,500 mg/kg) to rats significantly used chlorhexidine but not in patients who used
impaired both early and late phases of the inflam- Ponna yeik mouthwash. There were no signifi-
matory response in the carrageenan-induced paw cant differences between two groups in all scores
oedema (Ratnasooriya et al. 2005b). In the cotton except staining score after 4 weeks of treatment.
pellet granuloma test, it significantly suppressed The authors concluded that Ponna yeik mouth-
granuloma formation (only highest dose tested). wash revealed anti-inflammation and antiplague
Collectively, these data indicted promising anti-­ activity without staining.
inflammatory activity against both acute and
chronic inflammation. The extract showed strong
antihistamine and antioxidant activities that could Antiasmathic Activity
account for its anti-inflammatory potential. In
addition, inhibition of prostaglandins and brady- The hydroalcoholic leaf extract of I. coccinea
kinins may play a role. Methanolic I. coccinea extract at doses of 1,000 and 1,500 mg/kg sup-
leaf extract exhibited dose-dependent anti-­ pressed eosinophilia and significantly inhibited
inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced rat airway hyperreactivity in rat with ovalbumin-­
paw oedema model (Handunnetti et al. 2009). induced asthma (Missebukpo et al. 2011). Based
Oral administration of the extract to rats at a dose on lung histopathological study using hematoxy-
of 1,500 mg/kg significantly inhibited peritoneal lin and eosin, I. coccinea reduced inflammatory
phagocytic cell infiltration (45.9 %), impaired cell infiltration and repaired epithelial cells
nitric oxide (NO) production in peritoneal cells ­damaged. Further, the extract at the same doses
(40.8 %) and showed antihistamine activity significantly decreased the diameter of the blue
(54.9 %). In vitro treatment of rat peritoneal cells spot (16 and 55 %, respectively) compared with
with the extract inhibited NO production the controls and inhibited the skin reactions
­dose-­dependently (82.2 % at 400 μg/mL). The induced by histamine (23.55 and 53.36 %,
Ixora coccinea 741

respectively). The findings suggested I. coccinea lowering of the activity of the serum enzymes
to have antiasthmatic properties supporting its and enhanced hepatic GSH (reduced glutathione)
use in folk medicine to treat asthma. status (Shyamal et al. 2010). Pathological exami-
nation of the liver tissues supported the biochem-
ical findings.
Chemoprotective/Hepatoprotective
Activity
Antiplatelet Aggregation Activity
The active fractions from Ixora coccinea flowers
were found to have chemoprotective activity. Kaempferol and luteolin isolated from Ixora
The flower fraction prevented a decrease in body ­coccinea showed inhibition with IC50 values of
weight, haemoglobin levels and leucocyte counts 3.55 and 2.56 μg/mL, respectively, on platelet
of mice treated with cyclophosphamide (Latha ­aggregation induced by collagen (Lee et al. 2010).
and Panikkar 1999) and cisplatin (Latha and
Panikkar 2001). Decreased serum glutamate
pyruvate transaminase (SGPT) and serum alka- Antidiarrhoeal Activity
line phosphatase levels in the Ixora coccinea-­
treated groups indicated protection against The aqueous flower extract of I. coccinea showed
hepatic toxicity. The fraction significantly significant inhibitory activity against castor oil-­
­prolonged the life span of cisplatin-treated mice induced diarrhoea and castor oil-induced entero-
and maintained their blood urea nitrogen levels in pooling in albino Wistar rats at the dose of
the near normal range, indicating its chemopro- 400 mg/kg (Maniyar et al. 2010). There was also
tective effects. The n-hexane extract of Ixora coc- significant reduction in gastrointestinal motility
cinea flowers showed significant hepatoprotective in the charcoal meal test. Results obtained sub-
effect against paracetamol overdose-induced stantiated the antidiarrhoeal effect of the aqueous
hepatotoxicity in rats, as evidenced by reduction extract and its use by traditional practitioners in
of elevated levels of serum marker enzymes and the treatment of diarrhoea.
liver lipid peroxide levels (Latha et al. 2003).
Paracetamol-induced alterations in liver histol-
ogy were markedly decreased by I. coccinea Gastroprotective Activity
treatment. The active fraction from Ixora coc-
cinea flowers prevented the decrease in haemo- The methanol leaf extract at doses of 100 and
globin levels and leucocyte counts of Dalton’s 200 mg/kg was found to have protective effect in
lymphoma tumour-bearing mice, treated with pyloric ligation (45.86 and 75 %)-induced ulcer
cyclophosphamide (Latha et al. 2004). It also sig- model and significantly reduced free and total
nificantly increased the life span of tumour-­ acidity in albino rats (Arunachalam et al. 2012)
bearing mice, treated with cyclophosphamide. In gastric ulcer induced by the hypothermic
Serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase (SGPT) restraint stress, both doses significantly inhibited
and serum alkaline phosphatase (SAKP) levels of gastric ulcer development. Triterpenoids, flavo-
tumour-bearing mice treated with cyclophospha- noids, glycosides, tannins, saponins and reduc-
mide were decreased significantly by combina- ing sugars were detected in the methanol leaf
tion therapy with I. coccinea fraction indicating extract.
protection against hepatic toxicity.
Oral pretreatment of the rats with the plant
ethanolic extract significantly protected against Anthelmintic Activity
toxin-induced liver damage, determined 72 h
after the aflatoxin B1 (challenge (1.5 mg/kg, The chloroform root extract of I coccinea eli­
intraperitoneally) as evidenced by a significant cited higher show anthelmintic activity against
742 Rubiaceae

Pheretima posthuma than petroleum ether ethyl

acetate and methanol extracts (Surana et al. 2011). Other Uses

In warm climates, Ixora with flowers in various

Traditional Medicinal Uses shades of red, pink, orange, yellow or white is
popularly and widely planted as an ornamental
The flowers, leaves, stem and roots are used to for hedges and screens, foundation plantings and
treat various ailments in the Indian traditional mass plantings in flowering beds or grown as a
system of medicine, the Ayurveda, and also in specimen shrub or small tree, in a container in the
various folk medicines (Baliga and Kurian 2012) patio or poolside and in pots around the outside
and in southeast Asia (Burkill 1966; Stuart of houses. Dwarf or miniature varieties are also
2012). Decoction of leaves have been used for popular. Ixora flowers are also cut and used for
wounds and skin ulcers. Poulticed fresh leaves flower arrangements.
and stems have been employed for sprains,
eczema, boils and contusions. The bark has been
employed for bloodshot eyes. Diluted root tinc- Comments
ture have been employed for mouthwash and
gargle for sore throat. Root decoction have been Ixora is readily propagated from vigorous grow-
administered as a sedative in the treatment of ing tip cuttings.
nausea, hiccups and loss of appetite, to stimulate
gastric secretion, to act as cholagogue, to control
dysenteric diarrhoea and to clarify urine.
Moistened powdered roots is applied externally
Selected References
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In Sri Lanka traditional medicine, a decoction plants. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA,
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SV, Raghavan KV (2003) Antimicrobial activity of
flowers and bark are employed on reddened eyes Ixora coccinea leaves. Fitoterapia 74(3):291–293
and eruptions in children; a root decoction is pre- Arunachalam G, Subramanian N, Pazhani GP, Karunanithi
scribed for dysentery, loss of appetite, fever and M, Ravichandran V (2012) Phytochemical and anti-­
gonorrhoea and as a sedative for hiccups and nau- ulcer investigations of the fresh leaf extract of Ixora
coccinea Linn (Rubiaceae) in albino rat model. Int J
sea, and the leaves are used for dermatological Pharm Life Sci 3(3):1563–1567
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 Ixora javanica

Scientific Name Indonesia : Soka, Kembang Soka, Ki Sika

( Sundanese )
Ixora javanica (Blume) DC Malaysia: Jejarum, Siantan
Thai: Khem (Nakhon Si Thammarat), Khem
Thong, Khem Saet, Khem Daeng
Synonyms (Peninsular), Pue-Cho-Pu-Yo, Ya-Rang
(Malay-Narathiwat)
Ixora amara Steud., Ixora amoena Wall. ex G.
Don, Ixora cyathosperma Wall., (nom. nud.),
Ixora javanica var. multinervia Corner, Ixora Origin/Distribution
javanica var. paucinervia Corner, Ixora javanica
var. retinervia Corner, Ixora mutabilis Reinw. ex The species is indigenous to Thailand, Peninsular
Miq., Ixora stricta var. amoena (Wall. ex G. Don) Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo (throughout the
Ridl., Ixora stricta var. blumeana Kurz, Ixora island) and Celebes (Slik 2006).
stricta var. javanica (Blume) Kuntze, Ixora stricta
var. pubistyla S. Moore, Pavetta javanica Blume
Agroecology

Family In its native range, the species occurs in undis-

turbed mixed dipterocarp forests, in secondary
Rubiaceae forests, on hillsides and ridges and on alluvial
sites and along rivers and streams. It is found in
elevations up to 700 m. It thrives in full sun or
Common/English Names light shade and prefers warm and humid
conditions.
Coral Ixora, Glossy Ixora Javanese Ixora, Jungle
Flame, Jungle Geranium, Red Ixora
Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Vernacular Names The flowers are used as vegetable in Borneo

(Slik 2006) and in vegetable soups in Thailand
Borneo: Boyu Bukit, Bunga Jarung (King 2007).

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 745
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_61, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
746 Rubiaceae

Botany Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

A shrub 1–3 m high or treelet to 11 m high and Anticancer Activity

with dbh of 26 cm. Leaves, opposite, simple,
elliptical, oblong or oblong–ovate, 7.5–17 cm by The antitumour fraction from Ixora javanica flow-
2.5–7 cm, herbaceous, base acute, apex acumi- ers exhibited broad activity against transplantable
nate, glabrous, penni-veined (9–10 pairs lateral solid tumours in mice by inhibiting the growth of
veins), shortly petiolate (Plate 1), stipules 4 mm tumours and arresting the growth of already formed
long, strongly pointed. Inflorescence, peduncle tumours but showed lesser activity against ascites
1–4 cm long, short-hairy, loose panicle of tumours (Nair and Panikkar 1990). It exhibited
4-merous, bisexual, non-fragrant flower of 50 % cytotoxicity to Dalton’s lymphoma (DLA)
12 mm diameter. Flower with short calyx tube, and Ehrlich Ascites tumour cells in vitro at concen-
ovate lobes, corolla tube 2.5–3.5 cm long, lobes trations of 12 μg and 65 μg, respectively, with no
ovate, obtuse or rounded, 6–8 mm long, orange- activity against normal lymphocytes but preferen-
red sometimes pink or yellow (Plates 1, 2 and 3), tial activity for lymphocytes derived from leukae-
anthers pale orange, style 5 mm long slightly mia patients and K 562 suspension cell culture. The
exserted. Fruit 10 mm across, reddish-purple. purified fractions contained ferulic acid, pyro-
catacheuic acid and caffeic acid. In in-vivo studies,
topical application of I. javanica flower extract
(100 mg/kg body weight) inhibited the growth and
delayed the onset of papilloma formation in mice
initiated with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene
(DMBA) and promoted using croton oil (Nair et al.
1991). The extract at the same dose, when adminis-
tered orally, inhibited the growth of subcutaneously
injected 20-methylcholanthrene (MCA)-induced
soft tissue fibrosarcomas significantly. Oral admin-
istration of 200 mg/kg of the extract inhibited the
growth of intraperitoneally transplanted sar-
coma-180 and Ehrlich ascites carcinoma tumours
Plate 1 Leaves and young flower panicle
besides showing an increase in the life span of the

Plate 2 Flowers with obtuse-tipped ovate corolla lobes Plate 3 Loose panicle of yellow flowers
Ixora javanica 747

treated mice. Toxicity studies showed that the Bremekamp CEB (1937) The Malaysian species of the
blood urea nitrogen levels were elevated after treat- genus Ixora (Rub.). Bull Jard Bot Buitenzorg
3(14):197–367
ment. Furthermore, tritiated thymidine incorpora- Chamchumroon V (2006) A checklist of the genus
tion studies indicated that the mechanism of action Ixora L. (Rubiaceae) in Thailand. Thail For Bull (Bot)
of the factor was at the site of DNA synthesis. The 34:4–24
compounds responsible for antitumour growth Chuakul W, Saralamp P, Boonpleng A (2002)
Medicinal plants used in the Loengnoktha District,
were identified as ferulic acid (4-hydroxy-3-me- Yasothorn Province, Thailand. Thail J Phytopharm
thoxycinnamic acid) and its structural isomer, 9(2):24–46
3-hydroxy-4-methoxycinnamic acid. Corner EJH (1941) Notes on the systematy and distribu-
tion of Malayan phanerogams. IV. Ixora. Gard Bull Str
Settlem 11:177–235
Craib WG (1932) Flore Siamensis Enumeratio, vol 2 Part
Traditional Medicinal Uses 1. Caprifoliaceae & Rubiaceae (in part). The Bangkok
Times Press, Ltd, Bangkok, pp 5–234
The roots are boiled and consumed to treat tubercu- Govaerts R, Ruhsam M, Andersson L, Robbrecht E,
Bridson D, Davis A, Schanzer I, Sonké B (2012)
losis in Thailand (Craib 1932; Chuakul et al. 2002) World checklist of Rubiaceae. The Board of Trustees
of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the
Internet. http://www.kew.org/wcsp/. Accessed 18
Other Uses Nov 2012
King A (2007) Edible flowers. STG Subtrop Gard Mag
11:82–83
This Ixora species is widely planted as ornamen- Nair SC, Panikkar KR (1990) Antitumour principles from
tal plants or hedging plants in tropical and sub- Ixora javanica. Cancer Lett 49(2):121–126
tropical areas. Nair SC, Panikkar B, Akamanchi KG, Panikkar KR
(1991) Inhibitory effects of Ixora javanica extract on
skin chemical carcinogenesis in mice and its antitu-
mour activity. Cancer Lett 60(3):253–258
Comments Slik JWF (2006) Trees of Sungai Wain. Nationaal
Herbarium Nederland. http://www.nationaalherbar-
ium.nl/sungaiwain/
This species is readily propagated from vigorous The Plant List (2013) Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. http://
growing shoot tip cuttings. www.theplantlist.org/
Wong KM (1989) Ixora Linn. In: Ng FSP (ed) Tree flora
of Malaya, vol 4. Longman Malaysia, Petaling Jaya,
pp 356–364
Selected References Ysrael MC, van Valkenburg JLCH (1999) Ixora L. In: de
Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ
Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC Jr (1965) Flora (eds) Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 12(1):
of Java (Spermatophytes only), vol 2. Wolters- medicinal and poisonous plants 1. Prosea Foundation,
Noordhoff, Groningen, 641 pp Bogor, pp 311–313
 Boronia megastigma

Scientific Name Agroecology

Boronia megastigma Nees ex Bartlett In its native Mediterranean climatic range, it

is found in wet or seasonally wet sites, on poor
acid soils in often semi-shaded situations.
Synonyms B. megastigma requires cool, moist and well-
drained, lime free soil, doing best in dappled
Boronia megastigma var. aurea auct., Boronia shade with a good layer of mulch. The plant is
tristis Turcz. sensitive to warm westerly winds in summer, and
it is recommended that it be grown on the east side
of a wall or behind a wind break of trees or shrubs.
Family

Rutaceae Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Fragrant boronia flowers provide a source of essen-

Common/English Names tial oil with an aroma of cinnamon and tobacco, sold
as boronia absolute used in food manufacture to
Brown Boronia, Scented Boronia, Sweet create black currant flavour and to enrich other fruit
Boronia flavours in beverages, ice creams, candy and baked
products (Morton 1976; Facciola 1990). Boronia
absolute is extracted from B. megastigma blossoms
Vernacular Names primarily for use as a food additive (Plummer et al.
1999). The absolute is used primarily in food flavour-
Estonian: Pruun boroonia ing to impart a unique richness to many fruit essences
German: Boronia, Boronie (Davies and Menary 1984; Weyerstahl et al. 1994).

Origin/Distribution Botany

B. megastigma is native to south-western B. megastigma is a small, dense shrub usually

Western Australia occurring from Perth to 1 m (−3 m) high. Leaves compound, opposite in
Albany. whorls along the thin stem, 3–5 leaflets, small,

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 748
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_62, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Boronia megastigma 749

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Both concrete and absolute are extracted from

open B. megastigma flowers (Guenther 1974;
Davies and Menary 1984; Weyerstahl et al.
1994). At room temperatures concrete is an
orange/brown waxy solid and from it absolute,
an orange/yellow viscous liquid, is obtained.
The concrete is produced by non-chlorinated
solvent extraction from the open flowers while
Plate 1 Flowers and leaves traditional alcohol extraction of the concrete
produces the absolute (Anonymous undated).
Both have an intensely rich, potent, floral
aroma. Boronia extract (concrete and absolute)
comprised a complex mixture of >160 com-
pounds including monoterpenes; cinnamates;
norisoprenoids including ionones; related epox-
ides and dihydro compounds; acetates of decyl,
dodecyl and tetradecyl alcohols; and methyl
jasmonate isomers and triterpenes, tiglamides,
(Z)-heptadec-8-ene, 8-hydroxylinalyl esters
and 3-hydroxymegastigm-7-en-9-one (Guenther
1974; Davies and Menary 1984; Weyerstahl et al.
1994, 1995; MacTavish and Menary 1997a).
Beta-ionone was found to be the major volatile
(12–30 % of total volatiles). The composition of
the petroleum ether extract used in commerce
had been reported to include β-ionone and related
Plate 2 Close view of flowers epoxides and dihydro compounds; α-pinene,
β-pinene and limonene; fatty acid methyl and
ethyl esters; acetates of decyl- and tetra-decyl
alcohols; dihydroactinidiolide; isomers of methyl
thick, aromatic linear, to 1.5 cm, apex obtuse. jasmonate and wax hydrocarbons from heneico-
Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic, solitary, axil- sane to tritriacontane (Davies and Menary 1984).
lary, fragrant, pendent, cup-shaped, 8–10 mm in They found four major volatile β-ionone, dodecyl
diameter with lysigenous glands in sepals, petals, acetate, (Z)-heptadec-8-ene and an unidentified
receptacle, ovary and nectar (Plates 1 and 2). compound ‘sesquicineol’ that contributed to the
Calyx with 4 basally connate sepals. Corolla typical boronia fragrance. The monoterpenes
comprises 4 connate petals, outer surface of α-pinene, β-pinene and limonene were also found
petals usually red-brown or purple glands, inner in some clones but did not provide a favourable
surface bright yellow. Stamens 8 in 2 whorls, 4 effect on the aroma. Ghisalberti (1998) identified
small yellow petaline anthers (fertile) and 4 the chemical structure of ‘sesquicineol’ but found
large red-brown sepaline anthers (sterile). it only in one clone and also found (Z)-heptadec-
Carpels fused only at apex each containing 2 8-ene not to have a major role in the aroma.
ovules, style solitary with a large, brown, four-lobed Weyerstahl et al. (1995) found more than 160
stigma. Nectar disk situated between stamens and constituents in a commercial boronia absolute
the ovary. of B. megastigma. The main constituents were
750 Rutaceae

β-ionone, (Z)-heptadec-8-ene, 8-hydroxylinalyl 39.5 %, α-pinene 30.4 %, caryophyllene 10.5 %,

esters (such as 8-hydroxylinalyl isobutyrate, bicyclogermacrene 3.5 %, β-pinene 2.7 %, (Z)-
8-hydroxylinalyl 3-methyl butyrate, n-heptadec-8-ene 2.3 %, humulene 1.5 %,
8-hydroxylinalyl decanoate, 8-hydroxylinalyl unknown 1.5 %, unknown 1.2 %, limonene
dodecanoate, 8-hydroxylinalyl heptanoate, 1.1 %, n-pentadecane 0.9 %, myrcene 0.9 %,
8-hydroxylinalyl isovalerate, 8-hydroxylinalyl camphene 0.8 %, hotrienol 0.5 %, n-undecane
nonanoate, 8-hydroxylinalyl propionate, 0.5 %, cyclic β-ionone 0.5 %, cis-β-ocimene
8-hydroxylinalyl tiglate, 8-hydroxylinalyl 0.4 % dodecyl acetate 0.3 % (McTavish et al.
tridecanoate, 8-hydroxylinalyl valerate), 2000). Head space volatile emitted from various
methyl (Z,E)-4-(geranyloxy)cinnamates, methyl floral organs of as percent of whole flowers
( Z,E )-4-(5-hydroxygeranyloxy)cinnamates, comprised 11.2 % from calyx/nectar, 26.7 %
3-hydroxymegastigm-7-en-9-ones such as from petals, 10.5 % stigma, 14 % from sepaline
(E)-3-hydroxymegastigm-7-en-9-one, (Z)-3- anthers and 37.6 % from petaline anthers.
hydroxymegastigm-7-en-9-one and N-[2-(4- Dodecanol was found in the headspace of petals,
prenyloxyphenyl)ethyl]tiglamide. Some low-volatile sepaline and petaline anthers; (Z)-methyl jasmo-
constituents of the absolute of Boronia mega- nate in petals, stigma and sepaline anthers; (Z)-
stigma from Tasmania were isolated and charac- methyl epi-jasmonate in sepaline anthers; and
terized (Weyerstahl et al. 1994). Besides n-heptadecane in petals, sepaline and petaline
(E)-β-ionone and many of its derivatives (such as anthers.
cyclic β-ionone; (Z)-retro-α-ionone; 7,8-dihydro- Essential oil of freshly open flowers was found
β-ionone; 3-hydroxy-β-ionone; 4-hydroxy-β- to contain the following compounds (mean and
ionone; 5,6-epoxy-β-ionone; 4-oxo-β-ionone), range in μg/g fw): α-pinene 52 μg (0–138 μg),
the isomeric 3-hydroxymegastigm-7-en-9-ones β-pinene 56 μg (0–109 μg), limonene 37 μg
(namely, (E)-3-hydroxymegastigm-7-en-9-one; (8–88ug), β-ionone 408 μg (115–1,092 μg) and
(Z)-3-hydroxymegastigm-7-en-9-one; (E)-9- dodecyl acetate 284 μg (112–631 μg) (Bussell
hydroxymegastigm-7-en-3-one) and megastigm- et al. 1995). Essential oil of mature fruit was
7-en-3,9-dione were isolated. Additionally, the found to contain the following compounds (mean
p-coumaric acid (E, Z) derivatives, alkyl esters of and range in μg/g fw): α-pinene 418 μg (142–
8-hydroxylinalool and N-[2-(4-prenyloxyphenyl) 877 μg), β-pinene 165 μg (39–240 μg), limonene
ethyl]tiglamide were identified. 1,769 μg (16,996–26,691 ug), β-ionone 14 μg
Chemical composition of the concrete was (0–58 μg) and dodecyl acetate 5 μg (0–24 μg).
reported to contain α-pinene, camphene, sabi- Lysigenous glands were found to be the main
nene, β-pinene, δ-3-carene, limonene, volatile oil secreting organs and are found in all
β-phellandrene, α-terpinene, ethyl octanoate, plant tissues except the stigma and androecium
unknown cis-3-hexenyl ester, 2,6-dimethyl 1-2-7 (Bussell et al. 1995). These glands were the prin-
octadiene 1,6, diol, caryophyllene, dihydro cipal sources of monoterpenes α-pinene, β-pinene
β-ionone, dihydro β-ionol, dodecanol, β-ionone, and limonene. Stigma, staminodes and stamens
bicyclogermacrene, sesquicineol, spathulenol, were found to be the primary sites of accumula-
dodecyl acetate, methyl jasmonate isomer, tion of dodecanol, dodecyl acetate, β-ionone and
methyl isojasmonate, heptadec-8-ene and methyl heptadecene. The receptacle, nectar and ovary
hydroxyl cinnamate (Anonymous undated). were the main sites for α-pinene, β-pinene and
Twenty-three volatiles were found in the limonene. All the mentioned volatile compound
head space of buds and flowers; fully opened were found in the petals and maturing fruit.
flowers emitted the most complex mixture of The concentrations of floral extract and vola-
volatiles and in the greatest quantity, with a tiles in the extract (% by fresh weight) increased
rapid decline in senescent flowers (McTavish as buds mature, the extract concentration being
et al. 2000). Volatiles identified in the headspace highest in large buds and open flowers and the
of opened boronia flower comprised β-ionone concentration of volatile compounds being highest
Boronia megastigma 751

in open flowers (MacTavish and Menary 1997a). Leaf and flower nitrogen, number of nodes and
Yields of flower material and floral extract per flower and oil yields as well as the percent volatiles
plant and the concentration of total volatiles and β-ionone oil content were positively correlated
including β-ionone reach maximum levels when with increased rates of nitrogen application
70 % of flowers have reached anthesis. The petals (Roberts and Menary 1994). Ammonium nitrate
comprised 50 % of the weight of boronia flowers and calcium nitrate fertilizers gave the highest
and the stigma 20 %; however, 70 % of the vola- yields for both boronia clones.
tiles in the extract from the whole flower were Plummer et al. (1999) found considerable
contributed by the stigma, and only 20 % were variation existed in the contents of β-ionone,
present in the petals (MacTavish and Menary dodecyl acetate, α-pinene, β-pinene and limo-
1997b). Proportionately more β-ionone and nene in the flower essential oil extract in
dodecyl acetate were emitted from the stigma and B. megastigma population. Natural shading was
anthers than were contained in the extract, com- associated with lower levels of monoterpenes
pared with other volatiles. The calyx, contributed but other oils were unaffected. Young plants con-
51 % of total volatiles emitted into the headspace tained less pinenes than older plants and older
from the whole flower, stigma (16 %), “functional plants contained the most dodecyl acetate.
anther” (15 %) “non-functional anther” (14 %) Vigorous plants produced more pinenes. Red
and petals (3 %). Increases in all floral volatile flowers contained the least β-ionone and dodecyl
components were greater as a result of posthar- acetate.
vest incubation of harvested boronia flowers at Five C-27 apocarotenoids were detected in
12 °C for 48 h compared with 30 °C for 12 h acetone boronia flower extracts: hydroxy-apo-
(Mactavish and Menary 1999b). The volatile por- 10′-carotenoic acid, methyl hydroxy-apo-10′-
tion of the extract increased by between 25 and carotenoate, apo-10′-carotenoic acid,
117 %, and the concentration of β-ionone apo-10′-carotenal and methyl apo-10′-
increased by between 45 and 181 %. The maxi- carotenoate (Cooper et al. 2003) The results
mum concentration of total volatiles observed further supported speculation that the C-13 nor-
was 0.47 % dw and of β-ionone 0.165 % dw. Four isoprenoids found in boronia were derived from
genetically distinct clones of brown boronia had C-40 carotenoids. Possible parent molecules of
similar concentrations of floral extract when β-ionone, an important component of boronia
harvested at between 50 and 80 % opened flowers extract, were identified. The C-40 carotenoids
(1.5–2.0 % dw) (Mactavish and Menary 1999a). β-carotene, zeaxanthin, lutein, and neoxanthin
The concentrations of total volatiles and β-ionone were identified in boronia flowers while two
were reduced in pilot scale extractions compared other carotenoids palmitic acid ester of
with small-scale extractions. Inter-and intra- 3-hydroxy-10′-apocaroten-10′-oic acid and
sample variability was high; there were no sig- 9,15,9′-tri-cis-ζ-carotene were also found
nificant trends in the concentration of total (Cooper et al. 2009). Significant increases in
volatiles or β-ionone in any clone. β-carotene and apocarotenoids that could be
MacTavish and Menary (1998) found that derived from cleavage in the 9,10-position,
boronia floral extract yield (% of fresh flower including β-ionone and various C-27 apocarot-
weight) could be increased by 90 % by rolling enoids, were observed at the time of flower
(squashing) frozen flowers prior to extraction. opening. An increase in lutein, which was
With this process the extraction of volatile com- derived through an alternative biosynthetic
pounds increased by 48 %, particularly β-ionone pathway, was not observed during flower open-
which increased by 23 % per gram of flower mate- ing, thus indicating the possibility that the
rial extracted. Selective extraction of β-ionone was β-carotene pathway was activated during flower
optimized when low volumes of solvent were used opening in boronia.
(4 L of solvent per kg of flowers), producing The methanolic extract of marc from Boronia
extracts with enhanced organoleptic qualities. megastigma was found to contain both glycosides
752 Rutaceae

and malonyl glycosides of methyl cucurbates, Cytochrome P540 Induction Activity

C13 norisoprenoids including megastigmanes,
and monoterpene alcohols (Cooper et al. 2011). In vivo studies showed that subcutaneous
The following compounds were isolated and administration of β-ionone induced liver micro-
identified, (1R,4R,5R)-3,3,5-trimethyl-4-[(1E)-3- somal levels of several cytochrome P450s: P450
oxobut-1-en-1-yl]cyclohexyl β-D-glucopyranoside 2B1 and 2B2, P450 1A1/2, P450 2C6 and
(3-hydroxy-5,6-dihydro-β-ionone-β-D- NADPH-P450 reductase by the accumulation of
glucopyranoside); 3,7-dimethylocta-1,5-diene- their corresponding mRNAs (Jeong et al. 1995,
3,7-diol-3-O–β-D-glucopyranoside; and a methyl 1998). The induction of cytochrome P450 2B1
{(1R)-3-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)- 2-[(2Z)-pent- and P450 1A1/2 and 2C by β-ionone was much
2-en-1-yl]cyclopentyl}acetate stereoisomer (a greater in male rats than in female rats.
methyl cucurbate-β-D-glucopyranoside), and
provided evidence for 3,7-dimethylocta-1,5-
diene- 3,7-diol-3- O -(60- O -malonyl)-β- D - Anticancer Activity
glucopyranoside in boronia flowers.
Human colon cancer HCT116 cell line treated
with subtoxic concentrations of β-ionone under-
Leaf/Plant Phytochemicals went dose-dependent cell growth suppression
with G1-S-phase growth arrest and significant
Compound identified in the head space of boronia induction of apoptosis (Janakiram et al. 2008).
leaf/stem included: α-pinene, camphene, myrcene, Beta-Ionone up-regulated expression of retinoid
β-pinene, limonene, β-phellandrene, δ-3-carene, X receptor-alpha mRNA dose-dependently in
caryophyllene, bicyclogermacrene, sesquieuca- HCT116 cells. Administration of dietary 0.1 %
lyptol, sabinene, unknown, bicycloelemene, and 0.2 % β-ionone significantly suppressed total
α-copaene, α-cubebene, β-elemene, cyperene, colonic aberrant crypt foci formation up to
β-sesquiphellandrene, humulene, sesquicineole 34–38 %, respectively, when compared with con-
and δ-cadinene (Menary and MacTavish 2000). trol group. Furthermore, rats fed β-ionone showed
Results of studies suggested that cytokinins >55 % inhibition of foci containing four or more
may influence the rate of boronia flower develop- aberrant crypts. Results from in vitro and in vivo
ment by altering the mobilisation of carbohy- bioassay clearly suggested that β-ionone could be
drates (Day et al. (1995). Within days of further developed for prevention and treatment of
transferring boronia plants to cool (17/9 ºC day/ colon cancer. Results of studies by Dong et al.
night) conditions, a transient increase in zeatin (2013) showed that human gastric adenocarci-
riboside and dihydrozeatin riboside concentra- noma cancer (SGC-7901) cell growth and DNA
tions occurred in root and stem tissue and starch synthesis were inhibited and the cell cycle was
levels increased throughout the plant. A transient arrested at the G0/G1 phase in a dose-dependent
decrease in the starch concentration occurred manner in cells treated with β-ionone (25, 50,
during weeks 1–4 which correlated with early 100, and 200 μmol/L) for 24 h. β-ionone signifi-
flower differentiation. Between weeks 10 and cantly decreased the extracellular signal-regulated
12 in cool conditions, cytokinin concentrations kinase protein expression and significantly
increased, carbohydrate concentrations increased the levels of p38 and Jun-amino-
decreased, flower buds became committed to terminal kinase protein expression. β-Ionone also
develop through to anthesis and a period of rapid inhibited cell cycle-related proteins of Cdk4,
bud expansion ensued. Cyclin B1, D1 and increased p27 protein expres-
Beta-ionone, a major volatile component of sion in SGC-7901 cells. The results suggested
B. megastigma flower had been reported to that SGC-7901 cell cycle arrest observed may be
have anticancer and cytochrome P540 induction regulated through a MAPK pathway by transcrip-
activities. tional down-regulation of cell cycle proteins.
Boronia megastigma 753

Liu et al. (2008) demonstrated that dietary TIMP-2 and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1
beta-ionone suppressed 7, 12-dimethylbenz[a] and expression of nm23-H1 protein. In vivo
anthracene (DMBA)-initiated mammary cancer studies showed that β-ionone effectively amelio-
in rats. With increasing dietary beta-ionone, the rated benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P]-induced lung car-
proportions of adenocarcinomas and benign cinogenesis in rats (Asokkumar et al. 2012).
masses, proliferating cell nuclear antigen β-ionone significantly inhibited tumour prolifer-
(PCNA), cyclin D1 and Bcl-2 expression were ation, attenuated lipid peroxidation and restored
decreased, and apoptosis, Bax expression and all cancer marker enzymes and antioxidants lev-
nuclear fragmentation were increased. In further els to near normal levels.
studies, Liu et al. (2010) observed a significant
decrease in lipid peroxidation in the mammary
tumour-induced rats treated with dietary Other Uses
β-ionone, whereas the plasma activities of anti-
oxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase, The plant is grown commercially for the produc-
glutathione reductase, superoxide dismutase and tion of essential oils for perfumes and cut flowers;
the nonenzymatic antioxidant glutathione were it is also grown as a garden ornamental.
increased in the β-ionone treated rats when
compared to control. The levels of catalase and
lactate dehydrogenase were markedly decreased Comments
in the β-ionone treated groups compared to the
positive control group. These results suggested Like many Boronias, B. megastigma can be
that dietary β-ionone had biologically relevant quite difficult to grow from seeds as they exhibit
antioxidant activity and played a chemopreven- dormancy, being covered in a thick coating which
tive role against DMBA-induced mammary gland prevents germination in all but ideal conditions in
tumours. the wild. However, the plant can be successfully
Data of in vitro studies suggested that grown from cuttings.
β-ionone inhibited cell proliferation, caused cell
cycle arrest at the G1-S phase and induced apop-
tosis in a concentration-dependent manner in
Selected References
human osteosarcoma U2os cells via a p53-depen- Anonymous (undated) Tasmanian Boronia. Essential Oils
dent mitochondrial pathway (Zhu et al. 2010). of Tasmania Pty Ltd. http://www.eotasmania.com.au/
Further, beta-ionone up-regulated Bax protein files/documents/EOT%20Boronia.pdf
and downregulated Bcl2 protein which led to Asokkumar S, Naveenkumar C, Raghunandhakumar S,
Kamaraj S, Anandakumar P, Jagan S, Devaki T (2012)
Bax translocation and cytochrome C release,
Antiproliferative and antioxidant potential of beta-
subsequently activated caspase-3, thus resulting ionone against benzo(a)pyrene-induced lung carcino-
in apoptosis. In vitro studies by Huang et al. genesis in Swiss albino mice. Mol Cell Biochem
(2012) showed that β-Ionone effectively inhib- 363(1–2):335–345
Bussell BM, Considine JA, Spadek ZE (1995) Flower and
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matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-9 and
Cooper CM, Davies NW, Menary RC (2009) Changes in
urokinase-type plasminogen activator activities some carotenoids and apocarotenoids during flower
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phorylated form of FAK, Rho, Rac1 and Cdc42.
Glycosidic conjugates of C13 norisoprenoids, mono-
It up-regulated protein expression of the tissue terpenoids, and cucurbates in Boronia megastigma
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Davies NW, Menary RC (1984) Volatile constituents of from Boronia megastigma (Nees). Ann Bot
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Day JS, Loveys BR, Aspinall D (1995) Cytokinin and MacTavish HS, Menary RC (1997b) Volatiles in different
carbohydrate changes during flowering of Boronia floral organs, and effect of floral characteristics on
megastigma. Aust J Plant Physiol 22(1):57–65 yield of extract from Boronia megastigma (Nees). Ann
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 Petunia hybrida

Scientific Name Russian: Petúnija

Spanish: Petunia
Petunia hybrida Vilm. Turkish: Petunya
Welsh: Petwnia, Petwniâu

Synonyms
Origin/Distribution
Petunia violacea var. hybrida Hook.
Scientist believed that the genus Petunia origi-
nated from South America.
Family The first Garden Petunia (Petunia × hybrida
Vilm.) was reported to be an interspecific hybrid
Solanaceae of P. axillaris (Lam.) Britton, Sterns & Poggenb.
(=P. nyctaginiflora Juss.) (the large white or
night-scented petunia) and P. integrifolia (Hook.)
Common/English Names Schinz & Thell. (=P. violacea Lindl.) (the violet-
flowered petunia) (Paxton 1836). Since then,
Common Petunia, Garden Petunia, Petunia Petunia inflata R. E. Fr. and Petunia parodii
Steere [= P. axillaris subsp. parodii (Steere)
Cabrera] have also been proposed as the likely
Vernacular Names parents of modern Garden Petunias (Sink 1984).

Chinese: Aiqianniu, Bidongqie

Dutch: Petunia Agroecology
Esperanto: Petunio
Finnish: Petunia Garden Petunia will grow in temperature regimes of
French: Pétunia 4–32 °C. Petunia prefers full sun and will become
German: Garten-Petunie, Petunia, Petunien spindly when grown in shade. Petunias have been
Italian: Petunia reported to require at least 5–6 h of sunlight
Japanese: Pechunia for optimum flowering. Flower pigmentation
Lithuanian: Petunija (colour intensity) is enhanced within its moderate
Polish: Petunia Ogrodowa to lower temperature range. Petunias grow in most
Portuguese: Petúnia soil types but prefer well-drained, moist, light soil
Romanian: Petunia of medium fertility in the pH range of 6–7.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 755
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_63, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
756 Solanaceae

benzyl benzoate, benzoyl-CoA, methyl benzoate,

Edible Plant Parts and Uses methyl salicylate, phenylethyl alcohol, phenylethyl
benzoate and salicylic acid. ODORANT1 (ODO1),
Petunia flowers are edible (Coyle 1999 ; a transcription factor from MYB transcription
Deane 2007–2012; Rogala and Pothour 2013)
The mild-tasting flowers are used in salads or
as a garnish.

Botany

Ascending or decumbent, annual herbs, 30–60 cm

tall, with soft, glandular hairs. Leaves alter-
nate, shortly petiolate or subsessile; ovate,
3–8 × 1.5–4.5 cm, base cuneate, margin entire,
apex acute (Plates 1, 3 and 6). Flowers solitary in
axils of leaves or leaf-like bracts on pedicel
(3–5 cm) longer than the subtending leaves; calyx
deeply 5-parted, 1–1.8 cm by 3.5 mm; corolla Plate 1 Purple single-petal Grandiflora Petunia
funnelform with 5 rounded, spreading lobes
5–7 cm, white, red, yellow, pink, purple, or varie-
gated (Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) sometimes
fragrant; stamens 5–1 short (staminode), 2 medium
and 2 long; style slightly exceeding stamens.
Capsules conical, 2-valved, 8–12 mm long,
dehiscent. Seeds many subglobose, 0.5 mm across.

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Flower Phytochemicals

Phenylpropanoids and benzenoids were found to

make up the primary volatile constituents of Plate 2 Light-red single-petal Grandiflora Petunia
petunia flora volatile emission and to have origi-
nated from the aromatic amino acid phenylala-
nine (Boatright et al. 2004). These compounds were
identified as benzaldehyde, phenylacetaldehyde,
methyl benzoate, phenylethyl alcohol, benzyl
alcohol, isoeugenol and benzyl benzoate, with
methyl benzoate being the most abundant volatile
in the group (Verdonk et al. 2003; Boatright et al.
2004). Other volatiles identified include phenyl-
ethyl benzoate, vanillin, two sesquiterpenes
(germacrene D and cadina-3,9-diene), two aliphatic
aldehydes (decanal and dodecanal) and two fatty
acid derivatives (3-hexenal and 2-hexanal).
Schuurink et al. (2006) found the following in
petunia flowers: benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, Plate 3 Yellow single-petal Grandiflora Petunia
Petunia hybrida 757

petunia (Petunia hybrida) led to decreased levels

of emitted volatile phenylpropanoids (Verdonk
et al. 2005). Spitzer-Rimon et al. (2010) reported
a novel R2R3-MYB-like regulatory factor of
phenylpropanoid volatile biosynthesis, Emission
of Benzenoids II (EOBII) in petunia flowers.
Suppression of EOBII expression led to significant
reduction in the levels of volatiles accumulating
in and emitted by flowers, such as benzaldehyde,
phenylethyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate and isoeu-
genol. Petunia and snapdragon both synthesize
methyl benzoate from benzoic acid and
S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM); however, they
Plate 4 Hot-pink single-petal Grandiflora Petunia
used different mechanisms to downregulate its
production after pollination (Negre et al. 2003).
Petunia floral volatile emission following per-
ception of exogenous or endogenous (postpolli-
nation) ethylene included benzaldehyde, benzyl
alcohol, phenylacetaldehyde, methyl benzoate,
2-phenylethanol, isoeugenol and benzyl benzoate
(Dexter et al. 2007b). Production of these com-
pounds was primarily localized to the petunia
corolla and more specifically the petal limb
(Underwood et al. 2005). Also, it was found that
benzoic acid/salicylic acid carboxyl methyltrans-
ferase (PhBSMT1 and 2) genes were responsible
for the synthesis of methyl benzoate in petunia.
Plate 5 Maroon-white variegated fringed single-petal Benzenoid and phenylpropanoid volatiles were
Grandiflora Petunia found to be synthesized predominantly in the
corolla limb, and emission was highly regulated,
with a circadian rhythm, during corolla develop-
ment, pollination and senescence (Clark et al. 2009).
Petunia × hybrida cv. ‘Mitchell Diploid’ flowers
emitted high levels of multiple floral volatile
benzenoid/phenylpropanoid (FVBP) compounds
from anthesis to senescence in a concerted
manner (Colquhoun et al. 2010). Seven genes
PhBSMT1, PhBSMT2, PhBPBT, PhPAAS,
PhIGS1, PhCFAT and PhODO1 were found to be
responsible for the production of emitted FVBPs.
Three Petunia hybrida cultivars with solid
deep-blue flowers that accumulated malvidin in
corollas with high tissue pH were found to emit
Plate 6 Crimson-white variegated fringed double-petal abundant isoeugenol as the principal floral
Grandiflora Petunia
fragrance (Nakamura et al. 2006). Several other
cultivars that emitted considerable amounts of
factor family, had been characterized as a regulator methyl benzoate and/or benzyl benzoate from
of scent production in Petunia hybrida flowers the flower were also identified from the flowers
(Verdonk et al. 2005). Suppression of ODO1 in of 40 commercial Petunia hybrida cultivars.
758 Solanaceae

Petunia flower petals had been reported to emit towards anthocyanidins, anthocyanidin
large amounts of isoeugenol, which had been 3-glucosides, anthocyanidin 3-rutinosides, caffeic
shown to be synthesized by isoeugenol synthase acid or p-coumaric acid was detected. During
(PhIGS1) from an ester of coniferyl alcohol con- petunia flower bud development, the increase in
firmed to be coniferyl acetate (Dexter et al. 2007a). anthocyanin content coincided with an increase in
Three major anthocyanins in red petunias activity of three biosynthetic enzymes: chalcone
were determined to be cyanidin 3-sophoroside, isomerase, uridine diphosphoglucose: flavonoid
cyanidin 3-glucoside and peonidin 3-glucoside 3-O-glucosyltransferase and S-adenosyl-L-
(Ando et al. 2000). The presence of five methionine: anthocyanidin 3-(p-coumaroyl)-
anthocyanidins, namely, cyanidin, peonidin, delph- rutinoside-5-glucoside 3′,5′-O-methyltransferase
inidin, petunidin and malvidin, was confirmed in (Jonsson et al. 1984). In mature flowers, glucos-
195 commercial petunias with floral colours other yltransferase and methyltransferase, both involved
than white and yellow (Ando et al. 2004). in later steps of biosynthesis, were mainly found
Pelargonidin was not detected, and delphinidin (93–100 %) in the epidermal layers, whereas
was not a major component. The petunias were chalcone isomerase was evenly distributed
classified into three phenotype groups accumulat- between the epidermal and mesophyll tissue.
ing cyanidin, peonidin or malvidin (plus petuni- Anthocyanins were found to accumulate in the
din) as the major anthocyanidin. A fourth epidermal layers of the flower. White flowers of
phenotype was segregated in the progeny obtained the Petunia hybrida line W43q were found to
by self-pollinating an F1 hybrid of the malvidin accumulate glucosides of 4-coumaric acid and
group; this accumulated delphinidin 3-glucoside caffeic acid and were able to synthesize antho-
in a markedly crumpled corolla limb (delphinidin cyanins from exogenously supplied naringenin
group). Such inferior floral traits, associated with (Mol et al. 1983). In white sectors of flowers with
the accumulation of delphinidin 3-glucoside, a colour pattern, virtually no chalcone synthase
were thought to be the driving force that removed (CHS) enzyme activity could be demonstrated.
the delphinidin group from commercial petunias. The enzymes chalcone isomerase (CHI), UDPG:
Different light qualities, far-red, red, blue and flavonoid-3-0-glucosyltransferase (3GT) and SAM:
dark, were found to influence the accumulation, anthocyanin methyltransferase (OMT) were pre-
and the turnover of the 3-monoglucosides of sent, although at a more or less reduced level.
delphinidin, petunidin and malvidin was studied Two novel diacylated anthocyanins, malvidin
in isolated petals of the delphinidin genotype of 3- O -(6- O -(4- O -(4- O -(6- O -caffeoyl-β- D -
Petunia hybrida (Steiner 1972b). In the intensity glucopyranosyl)-p-coumaroyl)-α-l-rhamnosyl)-
range tested, in white light there was an increase β-D-glucopyranoside)-5-O-β-D-glucopyranoside
in the accumulation of 3-monoglucosides of (major pigment) and the malvidin 3-O-(6-O-
delphinidin, petunidin and malvidin with higher (4-O-(4-O-(6-O-caffeoyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl)-
illumination in petals of delphinidin genotype caffeoyl)-α-l-rhamnosyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside)-
of Petunia hybrida; in red light no intensity 5-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (minor pigment), and
dependency was observed; in far-red and in two known monoacylated anthocyanins were
blue with higher intensities, the accumulation of isolated from violet petals of Petunia hybrida
delphinidin-3-monoglucoside was specifically cv. Surfinia Violet Mini (Fukui et al. 1998). Two
lowered, whereas the accumulation of petunidin- acylated anthocyanins were isolated from the
and malvidin-3-monoglucoside remained about petals of petunia (Petunia hybrida Surfinia
the same (Steiner 1972a). Cornu et al. (1974) blue), and they were elucidated as malvidin
found pelargonidin in the flowers of a mutant of 3-O-[6-O-(4-O-E-caffeoyl-a-rhamnopyranosyl)-
P. hybrida. In P. hybrida flower bud, the anthocy- β-glucopyranoside]-5- O -β- glucopyranoside
anidin 3(p-coumaroyl)rutinosido-5-glucoside and malvidin 3- O-[6- O-(4- O- Z - p-coumaroyl-
was methylated by O-methyltransferase using a-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranoside]-5-O-β-
S-adenosyl-L-methionine as methyl donor glucopyranoside (Slimestad et al. 1999). Two novel
(Jonsson et al. 1982). No methylating activity diacylated anthocyanins malvidin 3-O-(6-O-(4-O-
Petunia hybrida 759

(4- O -(6- O -feruloyl-β- D -glucopyranosyl)- E-p - in a white flower of Petunia hybrida (Kho 1978).
coumaroyl)-α-rhamnosyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside)- In case of a 4′-methoxy substituted dihydro-
5-β-D-glucopyranoside and malvidin 3-O-(6-O- flavonol, a 4′-hydroxyanthocyanin was obtained,
(4-O-(4-O-(6-O-E-p-coumaroyl-β-D- suggesting demethylation of this compound.
glucopyranosyl)-E-p-coumaroyl)-α-rhamnosyl)-β- The conversion of synthetic (±)-trans-2,
D-glucopyranoside)-5-β-D-glucopyranoside and 3-dihydroflavonols into anthocyanins proceeded
two known anthocyanins 3-caffeoylglucosyl-p- almost as well as with natural compounds. In
coumaroylrutinoside-5-glucosides of malvidin and Petunia hybrida, 6′-hydroxychalcones were
petunidin were isolated from violet flowers of found to be intermediates in the synthesis of
Petunia hybrida cv. Festival (Gonzalez et al. 2001). flavonoids (Davies et al. 1998). Flavonoids
Carotenoids were found to be responsible for including several different 6′-deoxychalcones
the increased colour intensity and overall yellow accumulated in the petals of chalcone reductase
hue of the flowers of three yellow petunia (CHR) transgenics. The major flavonoids in CHR
cultivars, ‘Summer Sun’, ‘Bright Yellow’ and transgenic petals were butein 3-O-glucoside,
‘California Girl’ (Nielsen and Bloor 1997). Early quercetin 3-O-sophoroside, butein 4-O-glucoside
pigmentation was attributed to a combination of and glucoside of 2′,3′,4′,4-tetrahydroxychalcone,
chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments, while while control petal contained primarily quercetin
mature petal coloration was due to further 3-O-sophoroside. The major flavonoids in
production of carotenoids and xanthophylls in CHR transgenic pollens were quercetin 3-O
‘Summer Sun’ and ‘California Girl’. In ‘Bright (2″-O-glucosyl) galactoside, isoliquiritigenin,
Yellow’, the yellow coloration was attributed to kaempferol 3-O(2″-O-glucosyl)galactoside and
the persistence of high carotenoid levels found in dihydroquercetin, and the flavonoids in control
immature flower buds as the flower matured. pollen were quercetin 3-O(2″- O-glucosyl
Fourteen different flavonol glucosides were galactoside, kaempferol 3-O(2″-O-glucosyl)
identified in flowers from 17 different Petunia galactoside, dihydroquercetin, naringenin and
hybrida cultivars and several Petunia species naringenin chalcone. Chalcone and flavonol
including the 3-glucoside, 3,7-diglucoside, levels were highest in young buds and lowest in
3-caffeoylsophoroside and 3-caffeoylsophoryl-7- open flowers. Major flavonoids in the leaves
glucoside of quercetin and those of kaempferol were quercetin-based flavonols, and no chal-
(Griesbach and Asen 1990). Petunia flowers cones were found. The flavanone 3β-hydroxylase
were found to contain acylated anthocyanins that catalysed the Fe2+/oxoglutarate-dependent
3-p-coumaroyl-rutinoside-5-glucosides and of hydroxylation of (2S)-flavanones to (2R,3R)-
3-rutinoside-5-glucosides acylated with caffeic dihydroflavonols in the biosynthesis of flavo-
acid (Griesbach et al. 1991). The red-flowered noids, catechins and anthocyanidins was
petunia parent (RHS45A) contained cyanidin-3- partially purified from Petunia hybrida and
glucoside (57.8 %), cyanidin-3-rutinoside and proposed to be active as a dimer of roughly
pelargonidin-3-glucoside (8 %), while the violet- 75 kDa in size (Lukačin et al. 2000). Two flavonoid
flowered (RH S89C) parent contained glucosyltransferases, UDP- glucose:flavonoid
malvidin-3-caffeoylrutinoside (55 %), malvidin- 3- O -glucosyltransferase (3-GT) and UDP-
3-coumarylrutinoside (22.3 %) and petunidin- glucose:anthocyanin 5-O-glucosyltransferase
3-caffeoylrutinoside (22.7 %) (Griesbach 1996). (5-GT), were found to be responsible for the
Endress (1974) established the existence of glucosylation of anthocyani(di)ns to produce
glucosidized 3,4,2′,4′,6′-penta-hydroxy-chalcone stable molecules in the anthocyanin biosynthetic
in the biosynthetic pathway of flavonoids in petals pathway in P. hybrida (Yamazaki et al. 2002).
of Petunia hybrida at the stage of intensive and 4,2′,4′,6′-Tetrahydroxychalcone was found in
linear anthocyanin accumulation. A 3′,4′-dihy- Petunia hybrida pollen (De Vlaming and Kho
droxy or a 3′,4′,5′-trihydroxy substitution pattern 1976). Pollen extracts from Petunia hybrida were
of dihydroflavonols was required for their found to contain phytic acid (Jackson et al. 1982).
conversion into the corresponding anthocyanins The amount of phytic acid was found to increase
760 Solanaceae

in the anthers of young flower buds of Petunia Aerial Part/Leaf/Stem/Cell

hybrida, as the flower developed until anther Suspension Phytochemicals
dehydration, when there was a more rapid
increase in phytic acid content (Helsper et al. Non-transgenic petunia plants produced flowers
1984). Mature pollen contained 2 % phytic acid that contained ≈50 ng anthocyanin/100 mg
content by weight of which 90 % was water solu- tissue dry weight, and anthocyanin distribution
ble, while free myo-inositol was a relatively low was 63 % cyanidin, 28 % delphinidin and 9 %
0.06 % by weight. Phytic acid degradation was pelargonidin (Griesbach 1993). In contrast, the
initiated soon after pollen germination began, transgenic plants expressing the A1 gene of Zea
and its degradation products, myo-inositol and mays produced flowers that contained ≈500 ng
inorganic phosphate, were rapidly mobilized for anthocyanin/100 mg tissue dry weight, with 34 %
phospholipid and pectin biosynthesis. Utilization as cyanidin, 12 % as delphinidin and 54 % as
of labelled myo-[2-3H]inositol for phospholipid pelargonidin. The increase in anthocyanin
biosynthesis was about five times that for pectin production in the transgenic plants resulted in
synthesis during the first few hours of pollen a corresponding molar decrease in flavonol
germination. The label in the phospholipid was accumulation.
identified as the myo-inositol moiety of phospha- All enzymes of galactose metabolism, namely,
tidylinositol, while the pectin material comprised galactokinase, hexose-1-phosphate uridyltrans-
mainly labelled arabinose, with smaller amounts ferase, UDP-glucose 4-epimerase and galactose-
of label in galacturonic acid, glucose and xylose. 1-phosphate uridyltransferase, were found in
Labelling germinating pollen with [32P]ortho- Petunia hybrida (Dressler et al. 1982). Six new
phosphate gave label in phosphatidic acid, ergostane glycosides, designated as petunioside
phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylethanolamine A, petunioside B, 24-epipetunioside B, petunio-
and phosphatidylcholine of the phospholipids. side C, 24-epipetunioside C and petunioside D,
Phosphatidylinositol contained 30 % of this label were isolated from the methanolic extract of
initially, a proportion which declined to 10 % the fresh aerial parts of Petunia hybrida
over longer periods of pollen germination. (Shingu et al. 1994). Seven steroids, 30-hydroxy
Petunia pollen was found to contain (−)-jasmonic petuniasterone A (C-30 epimeric mixture);
acid and a jasmonate, N-[(−)-jasmonoyl]- 1α-acetoxy-1,2- dihydropetuniasterone A
tyramine (Miersch et al. 1998). Petunia hybrida (designated petuniasterone E); (22R,24S)-7α,24-
pollen and stigma were found to contain virE dihydroxy-22,25-oxidoergosta-1,4-dien-3-one
locus inducing compounds, which were released (petuniasterone F); C-24 epimers of (22R)-
in high concentrations only by pollen (Zerback 7α,22,24,25-tetrahydroxyergosta-1,4-dien-3-one
et al. 1989). In pollen extracts these compounds (petuniasterones G1 and G2); and C-24
were identified as the flavonol glycosides epimers of (22R)-1-α-acetoxy-7α,22,24,25-
kaempferol 3-glucosylgalactoside and quercetin tetrahydroxyergost-4-en-3-one (petuniasterones
3-glucosylgalactoside. The expression of the H1 and H2), were isolated from Petunia hybrida
virE locus is also induced by other flavonoid leaves and stem (Elliger et al. 1988).
compounds as rutin, myricetin 3-galactoside, Trichomes of petunia leaves were found to
narcissin and apigenin 7-glucoside. A histidine produce a complex mixture of glucose and
domain arabinogalactan protein, PhPRP1, purified sucrose esters with insecticidal properties (Kays
from Petunia hybrida pistils was shown to be et al. 1994). Fourteen different acids from C2 to
orthologous to TTS-1 and TTS-2 from Nicotiana C8 were found esterifed to the sugar (sucrose,
tabacum and NaTTS from Nicotiana alata glucose) molecules, namely, acetyl (C2), propionyl,
(Twomey et al. 2013). malonyl (C3), iso-butyryl, n-butyryl (C4), 2-methyl
Petunia floral nectar was shown to contain five butyryl, 3-methyl butyryl, valeryl (C5), 4-methyl
proteins (RNase genes), namely, S1 RNase, Sx valeryl, hexanoyl (C6), 5-methyl hexanoyl,
RNase, peroxidase, endochitinase and a putative 4-methyl hexanoyl heptanoyl (C7), 6-methyl
fructokinase (Hillwig et al. 2011). heptanol and octanoyl (C8).
Petunia hybrida 761

Three sucrose ester types 2,3,4-O-tri-acyl-α- Both guaiacyl- and syringyl-type lignins were
D -glucopyranosyl-1- O -malonyl-4- O -acyl-6- O - found in the xylem of the fully grown plants.
acetyl-β- D-fructofuranoside; 2,3,4-O -tri-acyl- Increase of the pH in continuous cultures of
α-D-glucopyranosyl-4-O-acyl-6-O-acetyl-β-D- Petunia hybrida cells also led to production of
fructofuranoside; and 2,3,4,6-O-tetra-acyl-α-D- lignin-like material.
glucopyranosyl-β-D-fructofuranoside were
isolated and identified from the leaf surface lipids of
Petunia hybrida (Ohya et al. 1996). They con- Antibacterial Activity
tained both unbranched and branched fatty acids
(from C2 to C8). Further, one of these sucrose Petunia leaf methanolic extract exhibited
esters contained malonic acids. Three acylated higher in vitro inhibition against both human and
flavonol glycosides, kaempferol-3-O-(2-O-feruloyl- plant pathogenic bacteria including Escherichia
β-D-glucosyl(1 → 2)6-O-malonylglucoside),quercetin- coli , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Bacillus sub-
3- O -(2- O -caffeoyl-β- D - glucosyl (1 → 2)6- O - tilis , Salmonella spp., Streptococcus spp. and
malonylglucoside) and quercetin-3-O-(2-O- Staphylococcus aureus compared to other leaf
feruloyl-β-D-glucosyl(1 → 2)glucoside) were extracts (petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl ace-
found in the leaves of Petunia hybrida ‘Mitchell’ tate, ethanol and aqueous) (Thenmozhi and
(Bloor et al. 1998). A transgenic Mitchell line Sivaraj 2011). For all the different solvents, leaf
expressing the maize leaf colour (Lc) cDNA had extracts only showed highest activity against the
enhanced levels of anthocyanins, particularly in test bacteria compare to the callus extract.
their leaves. These anthocyanins were deter-
mined to be the same acylated petunidin glyco-
sides as those which produce a slight red Other Uses
colouration in the tube of the flowers of Petunia
Mitchell. Treatment of P. hybrida leaves with Petunias are versatile annual ornamentals. They
derivatives of the naturally occurring acylating can be used for colour masses, borders, containers,
species caffeic acid resulted in a general increase hanging baskets or as a seasonal groundcover.
in flavonol derivatives, especially caffeoylated Sugar esters from the leaves of Petunia ×
quercetin-3-O-diglucoside (QDG) and kaemp- hybrida cultivars were found effective against
ferol-3-O-diglucoside (KDG) (Cunningham and sweet potato whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Kays et al.
Edwards 2008). Similarly, methyl ferulate 1994). Treatment concentrations of 1 and 0.5 mg/ml
increased the content of feruloylated KDG 40-fold. petunia sugar esters gave excellent whitely control
Treatment with methyl coumarate resulted in on sweet potato leaves. Petunia sugar esters gave
the appearance of a coumaroylated derivative significantly lower whitefly egg and adult counts
of quercetin-3-O-glucuronyl-glucoside (QGGA). on summer squash, Cucurbita pepo, compared
When the feeding studies were repeated with the to control.
equivalent phenylpropanoid isosubstituted with
fluorine groups, a semi-synthetic 4-fluorocinnamoyl
ester of QGGA was observed. Comments
In Petunia hybrida cv. Violet 30 cell suspen-
sions, phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), the The P. hybrida varieties can be categorized into
first enzyme of the phenylpropanoid pathway four main groups (Engebreston and Williamson
(PPP), could be induced by various treatments, 2004; Brown 2009):
e.g. biotic elicitors (sterilized microorganisms, (a) Grandiflora—large flowered (10–13 cm
nigeran) or abiotic elicitors (orthovanadate, pH shift) diameter), consisting of both single and dou-
(Hagendoorn et al. 1990). Orthovanadate activated ble flowering forms, with ruffled or fringed
the branch of the PPP, leading to production of petals, trailing habit (Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
lignin-like material such as a guaiacyl-type lignin. and 6)
762 Solanaceae

(b) Multiflora—smaller flowers (6–8 cm diameter) Deane G (2007–2012) Edible flowers: Part twelve. http://
www.eattheweeds.com/edible-flowers-part-twelve/
and bushier, consisting of both single and
Dexter RJ, Qualley A, Kish CM, Choong JM, Koeduka T,
double flowering forms, with ruffled or Nagegowda DA, Dudareva N, Pichersky E, Clark D
fringed petals (2007a) Characterization of a petunia acetyltransfer-
(c) Milliflora—compact, miniature plants with a ase involved in the biosynthesis of the floral volatile
isoeugenol. Plant J 49:265–275
large number of small flowers (2.5–5 cm)
Dexter RJ, Underwood BA, Clark DG (2007b) Ethylene-
(d) Hedgiflora or wave—spreading, low-growing regulated floral volatile synthesis in Petunia × hybrida.
ground cover up to 10 cm high with large In: Ramina A, Chang C, Giovannoni J, Klee H, Perata
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Dressler K, Biedlingmaier S, Grossberger H, Kemmner J,
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 Camellia japonica

Scientific Name Crantz; Camellia tuckiana auct.; Camellia

wabiske (Makino) Kitam.
Camellia japonica L.

Family
Synonyms
Theaceae
Camellia bonnardii Berl. ex Lem.; Camellia
florida Salisb.; Camellia hayaoi Yanagita ex
Kusaka; Camellia hozanensis (Hayata) Hayata; Common/English Names
Camellia japonica var. concava Makino;
Camellia japonica var. hexapetala Makino; Camellia, Common Camellia, Japanese Camellia
Camellia japonica var. hortensis (Makino)
Makino; Camellia japonica subsp. hortensis
(Makino) Masam. & Yanagita; Camellia japon- Vernacular Names
ica var. hozanensis (Hayata) Yamam.; Camellia
japonica f. ilicifolia Makino; Camellia japonica Brazil: Camellia, Rosa-Do-Japão
f. lancifolia H.Hara; Camellia japonica f. leu- Chinese: Shan Cha, Yuan Bian Zhong
cantha Makino ex H.Hara; Camellia japonica f. Czech: Kamélie Japonská
lilifolia Makino; Camellia japonica var. longifo- Danish: Ægte Kamelia, Kamelia
lia Nakai; Camellia japonica var. macrocarpa Estonian: Jaapani Kameelia
Masam.; Camellia japonica f. macrocarpa French: Camélia, Camélia Du Japon, Rose Du
(Masam.) Tuyama; Camellia japonica var. Japon
nakaii (Hayata) Yamam.; Camellia japonica f. German: Kamelie, Japanische Kamelie
otome Makino; Camellia japonica f. parviflora Japanese: Tsubaki, Housan Tsubaki, Yama
Makino; Camellia japonica f. polypetala Tsubaki, Yabu Tsubaki
Makino; Camellia japonica f. trifida Makino; Korean: Dong-Baek-Na-Mu, Tteul-Dong-Baeng-
Camellia kaempferia Reboul; Camellia mutabi- Na-Mu
lis Paxton; Camellia nakaii (Hayata) Hayata; Polish: Kamelia Japonska
Camellia planipetala Lem.; Camellia tsubaki Portuguese: Camélia

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 764
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_64, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Camellia japonica 765

Russian: Kameliia Iaponskaia

Spanish: Camelia
Swedish: Tebuske, Kamelia

Origin/Distribution

The species is native to East Asia—China

(Shandung), Taiwan, Japan (except Hokkaido)
and South Korea.

Agroecology

It is a cool climate crop that occurs in forests and

garden in full sun or partial shade from near sea
level 300–1,100 m elevation in temperate areas of
East Asia.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

An edible oil known as ‘tsubaki oil’ is obtained

from the seed (Usher 1974; Tanaka 1976;
Facciola 1990; Lee et al. 2011). Dried flowers are Plate 1 Camellia japonica ‘First Prom’ plant habit
used as a vegetable cooked or mixed with gelati-
nous rice to make a Japanese food called ‘mochi’
(Tanaka 1976; Facciola 1990) or used as a flower
tea (Lee et al. 2011; Way et al. 2009). The leaves
serve as a substitute for tea and tobacco (Stuart
1979; Kunkel 1984; Facciola 1990).

Botany

An evergreen, branched, glabrous perennial

shrub or small tree, 1.5–9 m high (Plate 1).
Leaves alternate, coriaceous, glabrous, glossy
green, lower surface glandular, borne on short
Plate 2 C. japonica ‘First Prom’ white flower
10 mm long glabrous petioles. Lamina oblong-
elliptic, elliptic, broadly ovate, 5–12 cm by
2.5–7 cm; margin serrulate; apex acuminate or deciduous, globose, ovate, subglobose; sepals, 9–13,
obtusely pointed; base broadly cuneate to cune- globose, ovate, 2–20 mm long; petals 5–7
ate, with 6–9 pairs of lateral veins (Plates 1, 2, 3, obovate, broadly obovate, retuse, round, 30–45 mm
4 and 5). Bracteoles and sepals greyish white long, white, pink, red, variegated or variously
velutinous. Flowers solitary in 2–5 flowered coloured (Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6); stamens
subterminal clusters. Flower bracteoles 9–13, 25–35 mm long, basal half of outer filaments
766 Theaceae

Plate 3 C. japonica Madam Louis van Houte flowers Plate 6 Pink-white-flowered cultivar
and leaves

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Flower Phytochemicals

White camellia flowers were found to contain

leuco-anthocyanin (Endo 1958a, b). Red and var-
iegated also contain leuco-anthocyanin yielding
cyanidin, as well as a glycoside of cyanidin. The
major anthocyanin of red flowers of C. japonica
was determined to be cyanidin 3-O-β-D-(6-O-p-
coumaroylglucoside) (Saito et al. 1987). This
Plate 4 C. japonica Madam Louis van Houte (pink flower) pigment and cyanidin 3-glucoside are widely dis-
tributed in the flowers of Camellia japonica and
many Camellia cultivars. The following acylated
anthocyanins were detected in C. japonica flow-
ers: cyanidin 3-O-β-glucopyranoside, cyanidin
3-O-β-galactopyranoside, cyanidin 3-O-(6-O-
(E)-p-coumaroyl)-β-glucopyranoside, cyanidin
3-O-(6-O-(E)- p-coumaroyl)-β-galactopyranoside,
cyanidin 3-O-(6-O-(E)-caffeoyl)-β-glucopyranoside,
cyanidin 3-O-(6-O-(E)-caffeoyl)-β-galactopyra-
noside and cyanidin 3-p-coumaroylglucoside
(Li et al. 2009). In a recent study of chemical
taxonomy of red-flowered wild Camellia species
based on floral anthocyanins, C. japonica com-
Plate 5 Red flower cultivar
prising 3-O-β-glucosides of cyanidin was placed
in subcluster B (Li et al. 2013).
Cellulose and a β-1,3-glucan (callose) were
connate, not forming a tube; style, trifid; ovary detected in the pollen tube wall of C. japonica
ovate and 3-locular. Fruit globose capsule, (Nakamura and Suzuki 1983). Two triterpenoids
3–4 cm diameter with 1–3 seed per locule. Seed from Camellia japonica flowers were identified
subglobose to globose, brown. as 3β,18β-dihydroxy-28-norolean-12-en-16-one
Camellia japonica 767

and 18β-hydroxy-28-norolean-12-ene-3,16-dione sanchakasaponins E–H, were isolated from the

(Itokawa et al. 1981). Camelliin B, a dimeric flower buds, together with four known triterpene
hydrolyzable tannin, was isolated from C. japon- oligoglycosides: yuchasaponin A, sasanquasapo-
ica flower buds (Yoshida et al. 1989). Two new nin I, sasanquasaponin II and ternstroemiaside C
dimeric hydrolyzable ellagitannins, camelliins (Nakamura et al. 2012).
A and B, were isolated from flower buds of
Camellia japonica (Yoshida et al. 1990). No
purine alkaloids (caffeine, theobromine) were Fruit Phytochemicals
detectable in flower buds of C. japonica and
C. sasanqua (Fujimori and Ashihara 1990). The From C. japonica fruit, camelliagenins A, B and
flower of Camellia sasanqua yielded tannins, C were isolated and their structures elucidated as
gemin D, pedunculagin and camelliins A and B, 3β, 16α, 22α, 28-tetrahydroxy-(I), 23-oxo-3β,
which were identical with those of C. japonica. 16α, 22α, 28-tetrahydroxy-(II) and 3β, 16α, 22α,
From the methanol flower extract, 28-nor-ole- 23,28-pentahydroxy-olean-12-one (III), respec-
anane-type triterpene oligoglycosides; camellio- tively (Itokawa et al. 1967, 1969). A dimeric
sides A, B and C; and an oleanane-type triterpene hydrolyzable tannin, named camelliatannin H;
oligoglycoside, camellioside D, were isolated camelliins A and B; camelliatannins A and F;
together with five known compounds: (−)-epicat- pedunculagin; (−)-epicatechin; 2,3-(S)-hexa-
echin, oleanolic acid, benzyl B-D-glucopyranoside, hydroxydiphenoyl-D-glucose; 1,6-di-O-galloyl-
methyl gallate and (+)-catechin (Yoshikawa B-D-glucose; gallic acid 3-O-B-D-(6′-O-
et al. 2007). The following compounds were iso- galloyl)-glucopyranoside; and casuariin (Li
lated from the hot aqueous flower bud extract: et al. 1994); camelliatannins D, B and C, cornu-
p-hydroxybenzaldehyde; vanillin; dehydroxy- siin B, (−)-epicatechin, tri-O-methyl gallate,
synapyl alcohol; 7S,7′S,8R,8′R-icariol A2; and dimethyl hexamethoxydiphenate and trimethyl
(−)-epicatechin (Cho et al. 2009). Nine phenolic octa-O-methyl-valonate (Hatano et al. 1995a);
compounds were identified in the hot water extract and camelliatannin H were isolated from the fruit
of C. japonica flowers: 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic (Park et al. 2002).
acid (1), 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2),
4-hydroxybenzoic acid (3), 2,3-digalloyl-O-α-D-
glucopyranoside (4), 2,3-digalloyl-O-β-D-gluco- Seed Phytochemicals
pyranoside (5), quercetin 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside
(6), quercetin 3-O-α-D-glucopyranoside (7), kaemp- Acylated polyhydroxyolean-12-ene triterpene
ferol 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside (8) and kaemp- oligoglycosides, camelliasaponins A1, A2, B1, B2,
ferol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (9) (Lee et al. 2011). C1 and C2, were isolated from Camellia japonica
Camellia ethanol flower extract contained querce- seeds (Yoshikawa et al. 1994, 1996). Acylated
tin, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, quercitrin and kaemp- polyhydroxyolean-12-ene triterpene oligoglyco-
ferol, all antioxidant compounds (Piao et al. 2011). sides, camelliasaponins A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2,
From the 1-butanol-soluble fraction, of the were isolated from Camellia japonica seeds
flower buds, a new 28-nor-oleanane-type and (Yoshikawa et al. 1996).
three new oleanane-type triterpene saponins, Twenty-seven triterpene alcohols were isolated
sanchakasaponins A–D, were isolated together from the nonsaponifiable lipids of camellia
with four known triterpene saponins: primula- and sasanqua oils from Camellia japonica and
genin A 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1 → 2)-[α-L- C. sasanqua seeds: tirucalla-5,7,24-trien-3
rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 2)-β-D-galactopyranosyl β-ol (1), lemmaphylla-7,21-dien-3 β-ol (2),
(1 → 3)]-β-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid, sasan- isoeuphol (3), isotirucallol (4), (24R)-24,25-
quasaponin II, sasanquasaponin IV and maeteno- epoxybutyrospermol (5), (24S)-24,25-epoxy-
side B (Fujimoto et al. 2012). Four acylated butyrospermol (6), isoaglaiol (7), aglaiol (8),
oleanane-type triterpene oligoglycosides, butyrospermol (9), euphol (10), tirucalla-7,24-
768 Theaceae

dienol (11), tirucallol (12), dammaradienol (13), nusiin B, (−)-epicatechin, tri-O-methyl gallate,
24-methylenedammarenol (14), cycloartenol dimethyl hexamethoxydiphenate and trimethyl
(15), 24-methylene cycloartenol (16), 24-methyl- octa-O-methyl-valonate (Hatano et al. 1995a); a
lanosta-8-24(241)-dienol (17), 24-methylla- novel flavonol glycoside named camellianoside;
nosta-9(11), 24(241)-dienol (18), bacchara-12,21- and three known flavonol glycosides rutin, hype-
dienol (19), β-amyrin (20), δ-amyrin (21), roside and isoquercitrin were isolated from the
germanicol (22), α-amyrin (23), taraxerol (24), leaves of Camellia japonica. The structure of
lupeol (25), 17-epilupeol (26) and ψ-tarasterol camellianoside was established as quercetin-
(27) (Akihisa et al. 1997). Seven triterpenoids 3-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-O-α-L-
were isolated from seed oil of C. japonica: r h a m n o py r a n o s y l - ( 1 → 6 ) - O - β - D - g l u c o -
(20S)-3β-hydroxy-25,26,27-trisnordammaran- pyranoside (Onodera et al. 2006). A novel
24,20-olide (1; 3-epicabraleahydroxylactone) benzoyl glucoside 4-hydroxy-2-methoxyphenol
(1), 3-epicabraleadiol (2), ocotillol II (3), ocoti- 1- O -β- D -(6″- O-p - hydroxylbenzoyl)-gluco-
llol I (4), dammarenediol II (5), (20R)-taraxastane- pyranoside (camelliadiphenoside), and 13 known
3β,20-diol (6) and lupane-3β,20-diol (7) (Akihisa phenolic compounds namely (E)-coniferyl alcohol;
et al. 2004). The fatty acid profile of cold-pressed (−)-epicatechin; 4-hydroxyphenol 1-O-β-D-(6-O-
C. japonica seed oil comprised 75.75 % oleic p-hydroxybenzoyl) glucopyranoside; naringenin
acid, 6.0 % linoleic acid, 0.17 % linolenic acid 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; quercetin 3-O-β-L-
and 18.67 % saturated fatty acids (Salinero et al. rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 6)-β-D-glucopyranoside;
2012). Levels of C18 unsaturated fatty acids found kaempferol 3-O-β-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 6)-β-D-
in camellia oil were similar to those reported for glucopyranoside; (+)-catechin (8), 1,6-di-O-p-
olive oils. C. japonica seed oil was found to be hydroxybenzoyl-β-D-glucopyranoside; phloretin
mainly composed of neutral lipids (88.2 %), and 2″-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; quercetin 3-O-β-D-
the oleic acid (86.3 %) was found to be a major glucopyranoside; quercetin 3-O-β-D-galacto-
fatty acid of neutral lipids (Noh and Yoon 2012). pyranoside;kaempferol3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside;
In the glycolipids and phospholipids, oleic acid and kaempferol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside were
was also found to be a major fatty acid at 62.5 % isolated from the leaves (Cho et al. 2008).
and 54.2 %, respectively. Oleic acid was distrib- An ellagic acid glucoside named okicamellia-
uted abundantly in all sn-1, -2 and -3 positions. side was isolated from the leaves, and its structure
It was found that the oleic acid was present more elucidated as 3,4-dioxoloellagic acid 4′-O-β-D-
at sn-2 (93.6 %) and sn-3 positions (94.7 %) than glucopyranoside (Onodera et al. 2010). Quercetin
at sn-1 position (66.0 %). 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside, quercetin 3-O-β-D-
glucopyranoside, kaempferol 3-O-β-D-galacto-
pyranoside and kaempferol 3-O-β-D-
Leaf Phytochemicals glucopyranoside were found in the leaves (Lee
et al. 2011). Three aglycone flavonoids (querce-
Camellidin II with the structure 3β,18 tin, kaempferol and apigenin), glycosylated flavo-
β-dihydroxy-28-norolean-12-en-16-one 3-O β-D- noids (rutin and quercetin) and six fatty acid esters
glucopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-β-D-galactopyranosyl- (methyl tridecanoate, methyl tetradecanoate,
(1 → 3)-[β- D - galactopyranosyl-(1 → 2)]-β- D - methyl pentadecanoate, methyl hexadecanoate,
glucuronopyranoside was isolated together with methyl heptadecanoate and methyl octadecanoate)
camellidin III, identified as its methyl ester, and were isolated from the leaves (Azuma et al. 2011).
three known compounds, quinic acid, 3β,20-
dihydroxylupane and 3,3′,4-tri-O-methylellagic
acid from the leaves (Numata et al. 1987). Stem Phytochemicals
Complex tannins camelliatannins F and G (Li
et al. 1994); camelliatannins C and E (Hatano Four new 28-nor-oleanane-type triterpene
et al. 1995b); camelliatannins D, B and C, cor- oligoglycosides, camellenodiol 3-O-β-D-
Camellia japonica 769

galactopyranosyl(1 → 2)[β- D -xylopyranosyl 2,3-digalloyl- O -α- D - glucopyranoside = 2,3-

(1 → 2)-β- D - galactopyranosyl(1 → 3)]-β- D - digalloyl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (4.7 μM) >
glucuronopyranoside, camellenodiol 3-O-4″- gallic acid (9.8 μM) > quercetin 3-O-β-D-galacto-
O-acetyl-β-D-galactopyranosyl(1 → 2)[β-D-xylo- pyranoside = quercetin 3-O-α-D-glucopyranoside
pyranosyl(1 → 2)-β-D-galactopyranosyl (8.2 μM) > α-tocopherol (24.7 μM) > ascorbic
(1 → 3)]-β-D-glucuronopyranoside, camelleno- acid (25.1 μM) > 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid
diol 3-O-(β-D-galactopyranosyl(1 → 2)[β-D-xylopy- (35.6 μM) > 4-hydroxybenzoic acid = kaempferol
ranosyl(1 → 2)-β-D-galactopyranosyl 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside = kaempferol 3-O-β-
(1 → 3)]-6′-methoxy-β-D-glucuronopyranoside and D-glucopyranoside (>250 μM) (Lee et al. 2011).
maragenin II 3-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl(1 → 2)[β-D- The DPPH scavenging activity of red pigment
xylopyranosyl(1 → 2)-β- D - galactopyranosyl extract from C. japonica was comparable to
(1 → 3)]-6′-methoxy-β-D-glucuronopyranoside, that of standard butylated hydroxyanisole
along with two known compounds, were isolated (BHA) with IC50 values of 4.55 and 4.17 μg/
from Camellia japonica stem bark (Nguyen et al. mL, respectively (Zhang et al. 2011). The pig-
2010b). From the ethyl acetate fraction of ments showed higher hydroxyl radical scaveng-
Camellia japonica stem bark, three new triterpe- ing activities than that of mannitol at the same
noids, 3β-O-acetyl-16β-hydroxy-12-oxoolean, concentration. Following activity-oriented sep-
3β-O-acetyl-16beta-hydroxy-11-oxoolean-12- aration, (−)-epicatechin was isolated as an
ene and 3β-O-acetyl-16β-hydroxyolean-12-ene active principle, which exhibited excellent
along with known compounds, 3α-hydroxy- DPPH free radical scavenging activities with
1-oxofriedelan, friedelin, 3β-friedelanol, cano- IC50 5.08 μg/mL
phyllol, 3-oxofriedelan-1(2)-ene, β-amyrin, C. japonica flower ethanol extract exhibited
camellenodiol and camelledionol were isolated DPPH radical and intracellular reactive oxygen
(Nguyen et al. 2010a). species (ROS) scavenging activity in human
HaCaT keratinocytes (Piao et al. 2011).
Additionally, Camellia extract scavenged super-
Antioxidant Activity oxide anion generated by xanthine/xanthine
oxidase and hydroxyl radical generated by
The DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical Fenton’s reaction (FeSO4 + H2O2) in a cell-free
scavenging activities of compounds isolated from system. Further, Camellia extract increased the
the hot water extracts of Camellia japonica protein expressions and activity of cellular anti-
flower buds determined as 50 % scavenging oxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase,
concentration were found to decrease in the catalase and glutathione peroxidase.
order of (−)-epicatechin (20 μM) > α-tocopherol The antioxidant activities of C. japonica
(29 μM) > 7S,7′S,8R,8′R-icariol A2 (67 μM) > leaf glycosides camellianoside (EC50 25.8 μM),
dehydroxysynapyl alcohol (72 μM) > p-hydroxy- glycosides rutin (EC50 23 μM), hyperoside
benzaldehyde = vanillin (> 250 μM) (Cho et al. (EC50 33.1 μM) and isoquercitrin (EC50 27.9 μM)
2009). The DPPH radical scavenging activities of evaluated by the DPPH radical scavenging
compound isolated from the hot water extracts of reaction was higher than those of L-cysteine
Camellia japonica flower buds determined as (EC50 131.9 μM) and L-ascorbic acid (EC50
50 % scavenging concentration decreased in the 50.7 μM) used as the reference antioxidants
order of (−)-epicatechin (20 μM) > α-tocopherol (Onodera et al. 2006). Aqueous leaf extract of
(29 μM) > 7S,7′S,8R,8′R-icariol A2 (67 μM) > C. japonica exhibited DPPH radical scavenging
dehydroxysynapyl alcohol (72 μM) > p-hydroxy- and ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP)
benzaldehyde = vanillin (>250 μM) (Cho et al. activities in a dose-dependent manner (Jeong
2009). DPPH radical scavenging activity (SC50) et al. 2010). In neuronal cell viability assay using
of the compounds isolated from C. japonica 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol- 2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-
flowers in decreasing order was as follows: tetrazoliumbromide (MTT), the aqueous extract
770 Theaceae

showed protective effect against H2O2-induced marked host-mediated antitumour activity

neurotoxicity, and lactate dehydrogenase release (Yoshida et al. 1989). C. japonica leaf extract
into medium was also inhibited by the leaf exhibited antiproliferative activity against human
extract. The cell viability of camellia leaf extract leukemic cell line in vitro (Kim et al. 2003).
was higher than vitamin C (200 μM) at a Intraperitoneal injection of camelliin B before
concentration of 250–1,000 μg/mL. Phenolics of intraperitoneal inoculation of sarcoma 180 cells
camellia leaf extract amounted to 21.75 mg/g, prolonged the life span of sarcoma 180 tumour-
and major phenolic compounds were quercetin bearing mice.
(120.20 mg/100 g) and kaempferol (88.13 mg/ Miura et al. (2007) found that camellia oil, olive
100 g). The data suggested that the camellia leaf oil and cottonseed oil, and their distillate fractions,
extract including the above phenolics may be inhibited connexin 26 (Cx26) mediated gap junc-
useful as natural antioxidant substances and may tion intercellular communications in mposue mela-
reduce the risk of neurodegenerative disease such noma BL6 cells. They also showed that daily
as Alzheimer’s disease. intraperitoneal injection of camellia oil and its dis-
The methanol extract of young leaf, mature tillate fractions more potently inhibited spontane-
leaf, flower bud, flower, bark and seed of camellia ous lung metastasis of BL6 cells than oleamide.
were found to have antioxidant activity (Lee et al. These oils are being used as foods and were deemed
2005). Total phenolics were the highest in young quite safe and could be used as supplements to pro-
leaf (74.62 mg), followed by flower buds tect patients from lung metastasis of melanoma.
(65.02 mg) and flowers (62.42 mg) but lower The triterpenoid 3β-O-acetyl-16β-hydroxyo-
than 20.95 mg per 100 g of dry weight in other lean-12-ene from the stem bark showed cytotox-
parts of Camellia japonica. icity against LLC and HL-60 cancer cell lines
with IC50 values of 25.2 and 21.7 μM, respec-
tively (Nguyen et al. 2010a). Tea flowers from six
Antiviral Activity different species of Camellia japonica, Camellia
tenuifolia, Camellia oleifera, 2 savoury Camellias
Of the extracts tested, strong inhibitory effects and Camellia sinensis exhibited activity against
on human immunodeficiency virus HIV type 1 human breast cancer MCF-7 cells with the extract
protease were observed in the acetone extracts from C. sinensis being the most active (Way
of the pericarp and leaves of Camellia japon- et al. 2009). C. sinensis contained a variety of
ica (Park et al. 2002). Camelliatannin H from catechins, while only (+)-catechin and (−)-epi-
the pericarp of C. japonica showed a potent catechin were detected in other tea flowers.
inhibitory activity on HIV-1 PR with IC50 of
0.9 μM.
Three compounds from the seed oil, dam- Antimicrobial Activity
marenediol II (5), (20R)-taraxastane-3β,20-
diol (6) and lupane-3β,20-diol, showed potent Camellidin II, isolated from the leaves, was
inhibitory effects against Epstein–Barr virus reported as an antifungal saponin (Numata et al.
early antigen induction by TPA (12-O- 1987). Ethanol extract of defatted Camellia
tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate) in Raji cells japonica seeds showed antimicrobial activities
with IC50 values of 277–420 mol ratio/32 pmol not only against several microorganisms tested,
TPA (Akihisa et al. 2004). but also against lactic acid bacteria (Kang et al.
1998). Minimum inhibitory concentrations
(MIC) for yeasts were as low as 1 mg/mL. The
Anticancer Activity water extract exhibited antimicrobial activities
for the yeasts tested. The strongest activity for
Camelliin B, a dimeric hydrolyzable tannin the tested yeasts was found in the butanol frac-
isolated from C. japonica flower buds, exhibited tion of the ethanol extract and for bacteria the
Camellia japonica 771

chloroform fraction. Hansenula anomala treated Anti-allergic Activity

with ethanol extract exhibited morphological
changes, including the irregularly contracted The leaf extract of Camellia japonica exhibited
cell surface and expanded ellipsoidal shape. In the most potent effect on degranulation in
another study, the acidic fraction of the metha- antigen-stimulated rodent and human mast cells
nol petal extract of C. japonica was found to be of 100 Korean plants screened (Lee et al. 2008).
inhibitory in vitro to food-borne pathogens: The leaf extract reversibly inhibited degranula-
Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, tion in a dose-dependent manner, with IC50
Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus values of ∼50 μg/mL for the mast cells, and it
aureus (Kim et al. 2001). An aqueous extract also suppressed the expression and secretion of
from the petals had an inhibitory effect on TNF-α (tumour necrosis factor-alpha) and IL-4
growth of all pathogens at 37 °C in microbio- (interleukin-4) in rat basophilic leukaemia-2H3
logical media by increasing the lag phase. mast cells. The leaf extract also significantly
Aqueous extract at a concentration of 100 mg/ inhibited mast cell-mediated PCA (cutaneous
mL was bacteriostatic against all the food- anaphylaxis) in an animal model. The leaf extract
borne pathogens in the milk stored at 25 °C for inhibited activating phosphorylation of tyrosine
up to 4 days. Methanol extract, water fraction Y371 on Syk kinase. In the in vitro kinase assay,
and butanol fraction of C. japonica showed the leaf extract directly inhibited Lyn kinase, the
antimicrobial effects in vitro against food- major Src-family kinase in mast cells, and sup-
borne pathogens Escherichia coli, Salmonella pressed Akt and MAP kinases critical for the
typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus and production of various proinflammatory cyto-
Listeria monocytogenes (Hahn 2005). The meth- kines in mast cells. Quercetin-3-β-D-glucoside
anol extract exhibited strong antimicrobial effect and eugenol were identified as the major active
against S. aureus and L. monocytogenes and the components. The results strongly suggested that
water, butanol and ethyl acetate fractions against the anti-allergic activity of the leaf extract was
S. aureus. No effects were observed in n-hexane mediated through inhibiting degranulation and
and chloroform fractions against all tested allergic cytokine secretion by inhibition of Src-
microorganisms. family kinase in mast cells and may be useful for
the treatment of mast cell-related immediate and
delayed allergic diseases.
Oral administration of leaf extracts from
Melanogenesis Inhibition Activity C. japonica at 1,000 mg/kg for 10 days signifi-
cantly reduced the vascular permeability of
Triterpene saponins sanchakasaponin B and conjunctivas in male S.D. rats which were stimu-
sasanquasaponin II isolated from the flower buds lated with anti-ovalbumin (OVA) serum and
showed significant inhibitory effects on challenged with OVA/Evans blue mixture (Kuba
melanogenesis in theophylline-stimulated B16 et al. 2008). In the second model, male BALB/c
melanoma 4A5 cells without cytotoxic effects mice were stimulated with a Japanese cedar
(Fujimoto et al. 2012). The effects were stronger pollen extract and challenged by nasal instillation
than the reference compound arbutin. Triterpene of the antigen. The sneezing frequency during the
saponins sasanquasaponin I and sasanquasaponin 10 min immediately after the challenge tended to
II isolated from the flower buds substantially decrease by intraperitoneal administration of
inhibited melanogenesis in theophylline-stimulated 0.2 mg/kg of okicamelliaside, a highly potent
B16 melanoma 4A5 cells without cytotoxic anti-degranulation ellagic acid glucoside from
effects, while sanchakasaponins E and F and C. japonica leaves, for 24 days. These results
yuchasaponin A also inhibited melanogenesis suggest that C. japonica leaf extracts and okica-
but had cytotoxic effect at 3 μm (Nakamura melliasid prepared from them could be useful to
et al. 2012) (Nakamura et al. 2012). alleviate the symptoms of an immediate-type
772 Theaceae

allergy. In further studies, the IC50 values for triterpenes for TPA-induced inflammation (1 μg/
degranulation of rat basophilic leukaemia cells ear) was 0.2–0.9 mg/ear (Akihisa et al. 1997).
(RBL-2H3) were 14 nM for okicamelliaside and Camellia japonica oil inhibited LPS-induced
3 μM for its aglycone, indicating that the two production of NO, PGE(2) and TNF-α in
compounds were approximately 2–3 orders of RAW264.7 cells (Kim et al. 2012). In addition,
magnitude more potent than the anti-allergic expression of COX-2 and iNOS genes and LPS-
drugs ketotifen fumarate, DSCG and tranilast induced activation of AP-1 and NF-κB promoters
(0.17, 3 and >0.3 mM, respectively) (Kuba- were significantly reduced. These results indi-
Miyara et al. 2012). Antigen-induced calcium ion cated that C. japonica oil exerted anti-inflamma-
(Ca2+) elevation in the principle signalling path- tory effects by downregulating the expression of
way, phosphorylation of Syk (Tyr525/526) and iNOS and COX-2 genes through inhibition of
PLCγ-1 (Tyr783 and Ser1248) were significantly NF-κB and AP-1 signalling.
inhibited by okicamelliaside and aglycone at 28-nor-oleanane-type triterpene saponins
all concentrations tested. In DNA microarray- from Camellia japonica stem bark showed inhib-
screening test, okicamelliaside inhibited expres- itory effects on NO production in RAW264.7
sion of proinflammatory cytokines [interleukin macrophages (Nguyen et al. 2010b).
(IL)-4 and IL-13], cytokine-producing signalling
factors and prostaglandin-endoperoxidase 2,
indicating that okicamelliaside broadly inhibited Hypotriglyceridemic Activity
allergic inflammation. During passive cutaneous
anaphylaxis in mice, okicamelliaside signifi- Fermented mixed tea made with third-crop
cantly inhibited vascular hyperpermeability by green tea leaves and camellia leaves was found
two administration routes: a single intraperito- to contain theasinensins and theaflavins (Tamaru
neal injection at 10 mg/kg and per os at 5 mg/kg et al. 2013). Rats fed with mixed tea extract
for 7 days. These results suggested the potential (1 %) exerted significantly lower body weight
for okicamelliaside to alleviate symptoms of and adipose tissue weight compared to animals
immediate-type allergy. Okicamelliaside, iso- fed with third-crop green tea or camellia tea
lated from the leaves, was 12,000 times more extract alone for 4 weeks. Serum and hepatic
potent than the antihistaminic drug, ketotifen triglyceride were significantly and dose-depend-
fumarate, in inhibiting the degranulation of ently decreased by the mixed tea. This decrease
RBL-2H3 cells (Onodera et al. 2010). was associated with lowered lipogenic enzyme
activities in the liver. Additionally, an oral
administration of 4 or 8 % of the mixed tea
Anti-inflammatory Activity extract followed by fat emulsion suppressed the
increment of serum triglyceride level. The results
The triterpene alcohols isolated from the seed suggested that the mixed tea had hypotriglyceri-
oil (isoeuphol, isotirucallol, a mixture of demic action, partially via delaying triglyceride
(24R)-24,25-epoxybutyrospermoland(24S)-24,25- absorption in the small intestine and repressing
epoxybutyrospermol and a mixture of isoaglaiol hepatic lipogenic enzymes.
and aglaiol) and eight known triterpene alcohols
(butyrospermol; euphol; tirucallol; 24-
methylenedammarenol; 24-methyllanosta-9(11), Platelet Aggregation
24(241)-dienol; bacchara-12,21-dienol; δ-amyrin and Gastroprotective Activities
and germanicol) exhibited anti-inflammatory
activity when evaluated in ear inflammation in The principal oligoglycosides, camelliosides A
mice induced by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13- and B, from the flower buds (10–100 μg/mL)
acetate (TPA). The 50 % inhibitory dose of these showed platelet aggregation activity in addition
Camellia japonica 773

to the gastroprotective effects on ethanol- or (Yoshikawa et al. 1994, 1996). Desacyl-

indomethacin-induced gastric mucosal lesions camelliasaponins B and C lacked such activity.
in rats (Yoshikawa et al. 2007). Their gastropro-
tective effects were equivalent or stronger than
reference compounds omeprazole in the etha- Anti-aging Activity
nol-induced gastric lesion model and cimetidine
in the indomethacin-induced gastric lesion Camellia oil had been proven to have its place
model. in all emulsions used in the cosmetology and
dermopharmacy fields (Sabetay 1972). Uses
include day or night creams, anti-wrinkle com-
pounds, lipstick, hair creams, make-up, anti-sun
Antiosteoporotic Activity preparations, rouge and make-up remover prod-
ucts. Studies showed that Camellia japonica
Camelliatannin D isolated from the leaf and fruit leaf extract was one of four plant extracts that
was found to be an inhibitor of bone resorption completely inhibited the expression of collage-
(Hatano et al. 1995a). It inhibited Ca release from nase MMP-1 (matrix metalloproteinase-1) in
mouse calvaria. human fibroblast cells and may have potential
It inhibited Ca concentration induced by for use as natural active ingredient for anti-
PTHrp with IC50 value of 2.4 × 107 M, while phe- aging cosmetics (Kim et al. 2007). Further stud-
nols of low molecular weight such as liquitrin ies on the anti-aging effect of C. japonica oil
showed weak inhibition (IC50 value 2.5 × 105 M). were reported by Jung et al. (2007). They found
Ethanol extract of Camellia japonica seeds that camellia oil stimulated human COL1A2
(0.51 g/kg) was found to markedly enhance promoter in a concentration-dependent manner
weight/length (G/L), bone density of femur, and human type I procollagen synthesis while
serum calcium and alkaline phosphatase level, inhibiting matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1
with the decreasing of anti-tartaric acid tartrate- activity. In a human skin primary irritation test
resistant acid phosphatase level in osteoporotic on 30 volunteers, camellia oil was found to
rats induced by retinoic acid (Tang et al. 2008). A reduce trans-epidermal water loss and did not
significant increase of morphological scleroto- induce any adverse reactions. They concluded
mal cells and a significant decrease of osteoclasts that C. japonica oil may be considered as pos-
were observed. The anti-osteoporosis ranking of sible wrinkle-reducing candidate for topical
the various Camellia extracts was ethanol seed application.
extract of Camellia japonica > ethanol leaf extract
of C. oleifera > aqueous leaf extract of C. oleif-
era > aqueous seed extracts of C. oleifera > posi- Traditional Medicinal Uses
tive control drug > aqueous seed extract of C.
japonica. The flowers are astringent, anti-haemorrhagic,
haemostatic, salve and tonic in folkloric tradi-
tional medicine (Stuart 1979; Duke and Ayensu
1985). When mixed with sesame oil, they are
Ethanol Absorption Inhibitory used in the treatment of burns and scalds. The
Activity flower has been prescribed in Chinese traditional
preparations for the treatment of haematemesis
Camelliasaponins B1, B2, C1 and C2, isolated (vomiting of blood) and oketsu syndrome (blood
from the seeds, were found to exhibit inhibitory stagnation), and the seed is used as stomachic
activity on ethanol absorption after a single and anti-inflammatory in Japanese folk medicine
oral administration at the dose of 100 mg/kg (Yoshikawa et al. 1996; Lee et al. 2011). Camellia
774 Theaceae

japonica oil has been used traditionally in East

Asia to nourish and soothe the skin as well as Selected References
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of bleeding instances (Kim et al. 2012). Akihisa T, Yasukawa K, Kimura Y, Takase S, Yamanouchi S,
Tamura T (1997) Triterpene alcohols from camellia
and sasanqua oils and their anti-inflammatory effects.
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Koike K, Nikaido T, Nishino H (2004)
3-epicabraleahydroxylactone and other triterpenoids
Camellia is cultivated as an oil crop and orna-
from camellia oil and their inhibitory effects on
mental. Seeds contain an oleic-rich, nondrying Epstein-Barr virus activation. Chem Pharm Bull
oil, which is used as watchmaker oil, hair oil and (Tokyo) 52(1):153–156
vegetable oil and in cosmetics and also used Azuma CM, Santos FCSD, Lago JHG (2011) Flavonoids
and fatty acids of Camellia japonica leaves extract.
medicinally. In the past it was used as an antirust
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agent for swords. Cho JY, Ji SH, Moon JH, Lee KH, Jung KH, Park KH
Extraction of the fruit hulls also yields useful (2008) A novel benzoyl glucoside and phenolic com-
compounds such as saponin, tannin and pento- pounds from the leaves of Camellia japonica. Food
Sci Biotechnol 17:1060–1065
san. Saponin is used as an emulsifying agent in
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pesticides, for foam-forming fire extinguishers (2009) Phenolic compounds from the flower buds of
and in detergents (Shanan and Ying 1982). Camellia japonica. Food Sci Biotechnol 18:766–770
Camellia tea oil residues have been used for Chung KH (2010) Transesterification of Camellia
japonica and Vernicia fordii seed oils on alkali
effective control of the following pests: rice blast,
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 Tropaeolum majus

Scientific Name Bulgarian: Latinka

Catalan: Bequera, Caputxina, Llaguera, Morrissà,
Tropaeolum majus L. Morritort D’indies
Chinese: Han He Hua, Han Jin Lian, Han Jin
Lian, Han Lian Hua, He Ye Lian, Jin Si Lian
Synonyms Croatian: Dragoljub
Czech: Lichooeoišnice Větší, Lichorerisnice
Cardamindum majus (L.) Moench, Tropaeolum Vetsi, Lichořeřišnice Větší
elatum Salisb., Tropaeolum hybridum L., Danish: Baerkarse, Blomsterkarse, Kapuciner
Tropaeolum quinquelobium Bergius, Tropaeolum Karse, Kapucinerkarse, Landloeber, Nasturtie
repandifolium Stokes, Tropaeolum schillingii Dutch: Capucienerkers, Oostindische Kers
Vilmorin Esperanto: Granda Tropeolo, Tropeolo
Estonian: Suur Mungalill
Finnish: Intiankrassi, Kapusinikrassi, Koeyn-
Family noeskrassi, Koristekrassi, Köynnöskrassi,
Kukkakrassi, Pensaskrassi
Tropaeolaceae French: Capucine, Capucine Grande, Capucine
du Pérou, Capucine Grimpante, Cresson
D’Inde, Cresson D’inde, Cresson Du Mexique,
Common/English Names Cresson Du Pérou, Grande Capucine
German: Gelbes Vögerl, Große Kapuzinerkresse,
Climbing Nasturtium, Common Nasturtium, Grosse Kapuzinerkresse, Indische Kresse,
Empress of India, Garden Nasturtium, Indian Kapuzinerkresse, Kapuzinerli, Salatblume,
Cress, Monks Cress, Nasturtium Spanische Kresse
Hawaiian: Pohe Haole
Hebrew: Kova Ha-Nazir
Vernacular Names Hungarian: Kapucinusvirág, Kerti Súka, Kerti
Sarkantyúka, Nagy Sarkantyúka, Sarkantyúka,
Arabic: Abû Khangar, Abu Khanjar, Nabatu Sarkantyúvirág
Al-Kabbusin, Tartûr El Bâshâ Icelandic: Skjaldflétta, Skjaldflétta
Aymara: Alpinku, Tajsawi India: Bilrai (Bengali)
Brazil: Chaguinha, Capuchinha, Capuchinha- Italian: Cappuccina, Cappucina, Cappucina
De-Flores-Grandes (Portuguese) Maggiore, Crescione Indiano, Fior, Nasturzio,
Breton: Kabusinenn Nasturzio Commune, Nasturzio D’India,

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 777
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_65, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
778 Tropaeolaceae

Nasturzio Del Perù, Nasturzio Del Perù,

Nasturzio Indiano, Tropeolo Agroecology
Japanese: Nasutachumu
Korean: Na-Seu-Teo-Cyum, Na-Seu-Teo-Ti-Um, Nasturtium is a temperate or cool climate species.
Nasuteochyum, Nasuteotium Nasturtiums are suitable for all but the coldest cli-
Latvian: Krese mate zones. Plants need full sun and good drainage
Lithuaian: Mažoji Nasturtė and will grow on poor soil and dry conditions.
Maltese: Kapuċinella
Mexico: Mastuerzo
Norwegian: Blomkarse, Blomsterkarse Edible Plant Parts and Uses
Persian: Gul Ladene, Ladan, Ladn
Peru: Mastuerzo Nasturtium flowers, bud and leaves have a pep-
Polish: Nasturcja, Nasturcja Wieksza pery flavour similar to watercress and can be eaten
Portuguese: Agrião-Do-México, Agrião-Grande- raw (Morton 1976; Small 1997; Friedman et al.
Do-Peru, Agrião-Maior-Da-India, Capuchinha- 2005, 2007). Nasturtium flower is one of the most
Grande, Capuchinha(s), Capuchinho, Chaga popular and best-known edible flowers with
Seca, Chagas, Chagas-De-Cristo, Chagas-De- attractive blossoms that have a sweet, peppery
São-Francisco, Chagueira, Cingo Chagas, Flor- spicy flavour similar to watercress (Hedrick 1972;
De-Chagas, Mastruço-Do-Perú, Nastúrcio, Tanaka 1976; Facciola 1990; Larkcom 1980;
Nastúrio Garland 1993; Burnie and Fenton-Smith 1996;
Quechuan: Tajsa, Tijsaw Lauderdale and Evans 1999; Roberts 2000; Rop
Russian: Indejskij Kress, Kapucin-Kress, et al. 2012; Newman and O’Connor 2009; Deane
Kaputsin-Kress, Nasturciâ, Nasturtsiya, 2007–2012). Buds and flowers can be added to
Nasturtsiya Bol’Shaya, Nasturtsiya salads, sandwich spread, vegetable dishes and
Kul’Turnaya butter and can be used to flavour vinegar or stuffed
Sri Lanka: Kakutupala (Sinhalese) or crystallized. Flowers combine well with cream
Slovašcinan: Kapucinka, Kapucinček; Velika cheese or butter in canapés or in a cheese and
Kapucinka tomato sandwich. The buds can be used as caper
Slovencina: Kapucínka Väčšia substitute. The blossoms make a nutritious addi-
Spanish: Cachipillo, Capuchina, Espuela De tion to salads and can be an attractive, decorative
Galán, Flor De La Sangre, Llagas De Cristo, garnish to steak and casseroles. They have been
Marañuela, Mastuerzo, Mastuerzo De Indias, reported to have ten times the vitamin C of lettuce
Nasturcia, Nastuerzo, Pajarilla, Pelón, Taco (Duke and Ayensu 1985). According to Wilson
De Reina (2013), nasturtiums are one of the most popular
Swedish: Buskkrasse, Indiankrasse, Slingerkrasse, and flexible edible blooms; they are bright and
Trädgårdskrasse colourful and bursting with a sweet, floral flavour.
Turkish: Frenk Teresi, Hind Teresi, Latin Çiç, He recommends to use them as a garnish or to
Lâtin Çiçeği stuff whole flowers. No less than 76 % of consum-
Vietnamese: Cây Sen Cạn, Ðịa Liên ers awarded nasturtium, borage and viola flowers
an acceptable rating based on visual appeal and
desire (Kelley et al. 2001). The leaves are also
Origin/Distribution eaten cooked or used as garnish in salads. Leaves
and young leafy shoots as well as pickled fruits
The species originated in South America in the and flower buds can be used for seasoning. The
Andes from Peru, Bolivia north to Colombia. It seeds are also edible and can be used as a caper
was introduced into Europe in the sixteenth cen- substitute or can be ground in a pepper mill, and
tury and elsewhere subsequently. use as you would black pepper. Some recipes with
Tropaeolum majus 779

nasturtium flowers reported include nasturtium sinuate and slightly undulating, with nine main
salad vinegar, nasturtium cheese dip and grilled radiating nerves, lower surface pilose. The showy,
aubergine salad with egg and nasturtium flowers orange, red, yellow or creamy-white flowers
(Roberts 2000). The flowers of T. majus are are trumpet shaped, 2.5–6 cm long with a nectar-
excellent functional food sources of lutein and filled spur at the base and mildly fragrant borne
also zeaxanthin, and the leaves are good sources of
both lutein and the provitamin A β-carotene (Niizu
and Rodriguez-Amaya 2005). Increasing evidence
suggests the role of lutein and zeaxanthin in reduc-
ing the risk of cataract and macular degeneration.

Botany

A sprawling or climbing, succulent annual or

short-lived perennial herb growing up to 30 cm
tall with trailing stem growing to 1 m long. The
bluish-green orbicular, peltate leaves, 5–15 cm
across, are carried on long fleshy petiole10–30 cm
Plate 2 Orange-flowered nasturtium
long attached to the centre of the leaf lower sur-
face (Plates 1, 2, 3 and 4). Leaf margin entire,

Plate 3 Red-flowered nasturtium

Plate 1 Yellow-flowered nasturtium Plate 4 Close view of nasturtium flower and leaves
780 Tropaeolaceae

on 6–14 cm long pedicel. Torus cup-shaped Chromoplasts of unfolding petals showed

(Plates 1, 2, 3 and 4). Flower with 5 oblong- differently oriented bundles of tubules with vari-
lanceolate sepals, straight or curved spur 2.5–3.5 cm, able diameters (mean 17 nm) intermingled with
5 petals with rounded apex but sometimes shortly numerous isodiametric bodies of ca. 50 nm diam-
pointed or even toothed, 8 distinct and unequal eter (Falk 1976). Chromoplasts of unfolding pet-
stamens, 3-loculed ovary and a linear, 3-lobed als of Tropaeolum majus contained large amounts
stigma. Fruit oblate, 2 cm across, separating of filaments (tubules) and uneven-shaped, isodia-
into three 1-seeded mericarps at maturity. Seed metric to elongated bodies (Winkenbach et al.
1–1.5 cm long. 1976). These structural elements were the major
sites of the chromoplast pigments. Fractions of
these elements contained 15–33 % protein, large
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties amounts of carotenoids and their esters, glyco-
and phospholipids, as well as minor amounts of
Rop et al. (2012) reported that edible flowers of tocopherols. The polypeptide pattern was very
Tropaeolum majus had a dry matter content (%w/w) similar in all three fractions. One main polypep-
of 11.27 % and crude protein of 4.74 g/kg and tide, with an MW of about 30,000, accounted
the following elements (mg/kg fresh mass (FM)): for up to 80 % of the protein of each fraction.
P 481.31 mg, K 2,453.39 mg, Ca 337.23 mg, Tubulous chromoplasts were isolated in pure
Mg 149.38 mg, Na 88.52 mg, Fe 6.47 mg, Mn form from Tropaeolum majus petals (Liedvogel
5.85 mg, Cu 1.17 mg, Zn 9.07 mg and Mo 0.29 mg. et al. 1978). Whole chromoplasts as well as sub-
The flowers had total antioxidant capacity of 5.12 g structures have been tested for their activities.
ascorbic acid equivalents/kg FM, total phenolic The following activities of whole chromoplasts
content of 3.31 g gallic acid/kg FM and total flavo- as well as substructures in lipid synthesis
noid content of 1.35 g rutin/kg FM. Tropaeolum were found: fatty acid synthesis from acetate,
majus flower was found to contain 7.9 % DM, 34.4 glycosyl transfer reactions from UDP-galactose
total mg/100 g FW flavonoids made up of 32.8 mg and UDP-glucose to galactolipids and sterols,
quercetin and 1.6 mg kaempferol (Yang et al. 2008). acyltransferase reactions from palmitoyl-CoA
Eight carotenoids were identified in and a very active acyl-CoA hydrolase. Fatty acid
T. majus flowers: violaxanthin (5,6,5′, 6′-diepoxy- synthesis was restricted to whole chromoplasts.
5,6,5′, 6′tetrahydro-β,β-carotene-3,3′-diol), Glycosyl- and acyltransferases were essentially
antheraxanthin (5,6-epoxy-5,6-didehydro-β,β- confined to envelope membranes, whereas acyl-
carotene-3,3′diol), lutein (β,ε-carotene-3,3′-diol), CoA hydrolase was found in all fractions. The
zeaxanthin (β,β-carotene-3,3′-diol), zeinoxanthin lipid bodies consisted mainly of galactolipids
(β,ε-carotene-3-ol), β-cryptoxanthin (ββ-caroten- and carotenoid esters in a 1:1 ratio, together with
3-ol), α-carotene (β,ε-carotene) and β-carotene small amounts of protein.
(β,β-carotene) (Niizu and Rodriguez-Amaya The volatile oil obtained from hydrodistilla-
2005). The flowers were found to be excellent tion of the aerial parts (leaves and flowers)
food sources of lutein and the leaves good sources contained 136 μg/g lutein, 69 μg/g β-carotene,
of both lutein and the provitamin A β-carotene. 74 μg/g violaxanthin, 24 μg/g hetero-
The yellow and brownish-orange flowers of transglycosylation and 48 μg/g neoxanthin
T. majus were found to have 450 μg/g and 350 μg/g (Butnariu and Bostan 2011). Antheraxanthin,
lutein, respectively. Violaxanthin, antheraxan- zeaxanthin, zeinoxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin,
thin, zeaxanthin, zeinoxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, α-carotene and β-carotene were detected in
α-carotene and β-carotene were also detected at small concentrations. Saponins were present on
very low levels. The leaves had 136 μg/g lutein, average of 2.153 % comprising ester saponins,
69 μg/g β-carotene, 74 μg/g violaxanthin and bisdesmosides and monodesmosides of hedera-
48 μg/g neoxanthin. Lutein was partly esterified genol. Fatty acids, such as palmitic, oleic, stearic,
in the flowers and unesterified in the leaves. linoleic, linolenic and docosahexanoic acid were
Tropaeolum majus 781

present in a concentration of 9.5 %, sterols 6.6 % Stumpf 1980). Incubation with(14)C-labelled

and sterol esters 8.4 %. Flavonoids, tannins and precursors such as [1-(14)C]acetate produced pri-
the antibiotic tromalyte were also detected. marily cis-11-[1-(14)C]eicosenoate and cis-13-
The petals and seeds were found to contain [1,3-(14)C]docosenoate in the triacylglycerol
large proportions of (Z)-11-eicosenoic (gondoic) fraction, and the odd-carbon [U-(14)C]oleate also
and (Z)-13-docosenoic (erucic) acids, fatty acids of formed from [(14)C] acetate was in the polar lipid
the triglycerides and polar lipids (Radwan 1976). fraction. Under suitable conditions, nasturtium
In the lipids of the other floral organs as well as seed could also produce [(14)C]stearate, [(14)C]
in those of vegetative organs, only traces of these eicosenoate and [(14)C]docosenoate from [1-(14)
fatty acids were detected. (Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic C]acetate. Seeds were reported to accumulate
(linoleic) and (Z)-9,12,15-octadecatrienoic (linole- large amounts of non-fucosylated xyloglucan as a
nic) acids, which occurred only in traces in lipids of seed storage polymer (Jensen et al. 2012).
the seeds, were major constituent fatty acids of lip- Studies found that the leaves were the primary
ids in floral and vegetative organs as well as those site of benzylglucosinolate synthesis (Lykkesfeldt
of callus cultures. and Moller 1993). The content increased from
Tropaeolum majus oil was found to contain the 5 mg of benzylglucosinolate in the fresh seed to
highest levels of erucic acid of known seed oils between 200 and 400 mg in the adult plant. The
(75–80 %) (Carlson and Kleiman 1993) with a high amounts of benzylglucosinolate accumulat-
significant portion of the acid being attached to ing in other tissues (e.g. developing seeds) reflected
the 2-position of the glycerol. Trierucin (50 %) transport of benzylglucosinolate from the leaves.
was also a major component. Oil contents of Du and Halkier (1996) isolated an in vitro enzyme
seeds of 11 commercial varieties ranged from 6 to system that actively converted phenylalanine to
11 % and erucic acid levels from 62 to 80 %. phenylacetaldoxime in the biosynthesis of gluco-
Composition of the deffated meals consisted of tropaeolin in T. majus seedlings. Low biosynthetic
moisture (9.40–13.95 %), crude protein (21.7– activity was enhanced by the combined treatment
30.8 %), crude fibre (9.4–12.9 %), ash (5.17– of seedlings with light and 50 μM jasmonic acid
7.25 %), nitrogen free extract (40.9–49.8 %), dissolved in 50 % ethanol.
non-protein nitrogen (0.5–1.1 %) and oil (5.9– Young, developing Tropaeolum majus fruits
10.5 %). Within T. majus, the varieties could be were reported to accumulate large deposits of
grouped into essentially three sets by oleic acid non-fucosylated xyloglucan in periplasmic
content (<2, 4–8 and 17.5 %) or by erucic acid spaces of cotyledon cells (Desveaux et al. 1998).
content (<68, 68–74 and >76 %). Eicosenoic Mature nasturtium seeds were found to contain
acid levels were least variable of the three major cell wall polysaccharide xyloglucan (amyloid),
monoenes (mean = 14.9 %). NCAUR 64477 had protein and lipid as storage substances (Hoth
relatively high oleic acid (17.5 %) content at the et al. 1986). The following glycosidases were
expense of erucic acid (62.3 %), whereas NCAUR identified in T. majus seeds: a thioglucosidase,
47180 had the highest eicosenoic acid content a β-glucosidase, a fructofuranosidase and an
(21.1 %) at the expense of erucic acid (68.1 %). enzyme causing partial hydrolysis of amylopec-
The fatty oil from T. majus seeds contained a good tin and glycogen (Snowden and Gaines 1969).
amount of keto fatty acid (38.2 %) (9-keto- Hydrolytic activity also indicated the presence of
octadec-cis-12-enoic acid) and palmitic (20.8 %), an α-1,1-glucosidase and possibly the presence
stearic (13.5 %), oleic (19.2 %), linoleic (6.7 %) of a β-galactosidase. The transitory occurrence of
and linolenic (1.6 %) acids (Daulatabad, and starch during the process of seed development
Jamkhandi 2000). The storage triacylglycerols of was also confirmed. A β-D-glucosidase was puri-
nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus) seeds were found fied from the cotyledons of germinated nastur-
to compose mainly of cis-13-docosenoatic acid tium seeds (Crombie et al. 1998). The purified
(erucic acid) 66–78 % and 17–25 % cis-11- protein (Mr 76, 000; a glycoprotein; apparent pH
eicosenoic acid (gondoic acid) (Pollard and optimum 4.5; temperature optimum 30 °C)
782 Tropaeolaceae

catalyzed the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl-β-D- The compound responsible for the fruity/red
glucopyranoside, cello-oligosaccharides, fruit and sulphury odour noted in T. majus was
β-linked glucose disaccharides and certain xylo- identified as O,S-diethyl thiocarbonate (Breme
glucan oligosaccharides. An alpha-D-xylosidase et al. 2009). They identified 44 odorant com-
involved in the mobilization of xyloglucan was pounds in Indian cress among which two mole-
isolated and characterized from the cotyledons of cules, (E)-hex-2-enal (fruity) and diethyl trisulfide
germinated nasturtium fruit (Crombie et al. (alliaceous, sulphury, cabbage), had the highest
2002). It was active against several alpha-(1 → 4) odour impact (Breme et al. 2010).
and alpha-(1 → 6)-linked substrates, the former A xanthoxin-like inhibitor was found in
being hydrolyzed faster. Polypeptide assemblies T. majus plant growing under direct sunlight
cross-linked by S-S bonds (molecular mass (Alaniz and Sivori 1979). Indole-3-acetic acid
>200 kDa) and single polypeptides folded with (IAA), indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and phenyl-
internal S-S cross-links (<41 kDa) were found acetic acid (PAA) were identified as endogenous
in particulate membranes and soluble extracts compounds with auxin activity in Tropaeolum
of developing cotyledons of nasturtium seed majus (Ludwig-Müller and Cohen 2002). PAA
(Tropaeolum majus) (Faik et al. 2000). These occurred at concentrations about 10- to 100-fold
polypeptides were found to facilitate the channel- lower than IAA, whereas IBA occurred in the
ling of uridine diphosphate (UDP)-activated sug- same concentration range as IAA. Free IAA was
ars from the cytoplasm through Golgi vesicle highest in roots followed by young leaves. IBA
membranes to lumenal sites, where they could was also highest in the roots, and relatively high
be used as substrates for glycosyltransferases concentrations were found in young leaves and
to synthesize products such as xyloglucan. flowers. The presence of a nitrilase gene family
Besides xyloglucan endotransglycosylase/hydro- and nitrilase activity in extracts from T. majus
lase (XTH/XET) activity, involving the transfer suggested that PAA might be synthesized by the
of xyloglucanosyl residues from xyloglucan to nitrilase pathway using benzylglucosinolate as
xyloglucan-derived oligosaccharides, a glycosyl precursor.
transfer from xyloglucan to sulforhodamine- Irrespective of the incubation temperature, the
labelled cello-oligosaccharides and laminarioli- lipids in cultures of T. majus contained as predomi-
gosaccharides was detected in nasturtium extract nant classes steryl glycosides, esterified steryl gly-
(Mohand and Farkas 2006). Five forms of xylo- cosides, sterols, steryl esters and fatty acids and, as
glucan endotransglycosylase/hydrolase (XTH) minor constituents, various proportions of triacylg-
differing in their isoelectric points were detected lycerols, phospholipids and several unidentified
in crude extracts from germinating nasturtium fractions (Radwan et al. 1978). Erucic acid, the
seeds (Stratilová et al. 2010). All five forms major constituent fatty acid of the seed lipids,
behaved as typical endotransglycosylases since occurred only in trace amounts in the lipids of callus
they exhibited only transglycosylating (XET) cultures. In contrast, linoleic and linolenic acids,
activity and no xyloglucan-hydrolyzing (XEH) which occurred only in traces in the seed lipids,
activity and were glycoproteins with identical were the major constituent fatty acids in the lipids of
molecular mass, and deglycosylation led to a callus cultures derived from nasturtium seedlings.
decrease in molecular mass from approximately The levels of constituent polyunsaturated fatty
29–26.5 kDa. The major enzyme form desig- acids in the diacylglycerophosphorylethanolamines
nated as TmXET(6.3) exhibited broad substrate and the diacylglycerophosphorylcholines increased
specificity by transferring xyloglucan or hydroxy- with time, whereas in the triacylglycerols, only lino-
ethylcellulose fragments not only to oligoxylo- lenic acid was slightly increased. Nasturtium hairy
glucosides and cello-oligosaccharides but also root cultures were found to produce higher content
to oligosaccharides derived from β-(1,4)- of glucotropaeolin and had higher myrosinase
D - glucuronoxylan , β-(1,6)- D -glucan, mixed- activity than in callus, cell suspensions and leaves
linkage β-(1,3; 1,4)-D-glucan and at a relatively of intact plant (Wielanek and Urbanek 1999).
low rate also to β-(1,3)-gluco-oligosaccharides. Glucotropaeolin production by hairy roots was
Tropaeolum majus 783

stimulated markedly by cysteine and less by hydrolysis, resulted in the production of

phenylalanine and methyl jasmonate. Myrosinase benzyl-isothiocyanate (BITC). BITC showed
activity was stimulated by methyl jasmonate. promising cytotoxicity in the low micromo-
lar range (0.86–9.4 μM) against four human ovar-
ian carcinoma cell lines (SKOV-3, 41-M, CHl,
Antioxidant Activity CHlcisR), a human lung tumour (H-69), a murine
leukaemia (L-1210) and a murine plasmacytoma
Antioxidant activity of yellow and orange nastur- (PC6/sens). The L1210 cells were most sensitive
tium flowers of the climbing mix cultivar was (Pintão et al. 1995).
similar and lower than that in red flowers
Friedman et al. 2005). Storage of lowers at
2–5oC did not alter the antioxidant activity. The Diuretic Activity
petals of orange Nasturtium flowers were found
to contain 72 mg/100 g FW of anthocyanin, Tropaeolum majus also has natriuretic and
and pelargonidin 3-sophoroside represented diuretic activity (Gasparotto et al. 2009). The oral
91 % of the total anthocyanin content (Garzón administration of 300 mg/kg of hydroethanolic
and Wrolstad 2009). The ascorbic acid content extract of Tropaeolum majus increased signifi-
was 71.5 mg/100 g, and the total phenolic content cantly the urinary and Na+ excretion. Prolonged
as determined by the Folin–Ciocalteau method administration of the extract (300 mg/kg) signifi-
was 406 mg GAE/100 g FW. The radical scav- cantly increased diuresis and the urinary excre-
enging activities against ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis tion of Na+, with no signs of toxicity, and the
3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) and mechanism could involve the prostaglandin sys-
DPPH (2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radicals tem. Beside the plant extract, its main compound
were 458 and 91.87 μm trolox eq/g FW, respec- isoquercitrin also exhibited pronounced diuretic
tively. The excellent free radical scavenging effects (Gasparotto et al. 2011a). An active frac-
activities along with high phenolic and ascor- tion from the hydroethanolic extract (TMLR)
bic acid content of Nasturtium flowers suggest (25–100 mg/kg) and isoquercitrin (5–10 mg/kg)
that they could be a good source of natural pig- orally administered to spontaneously hyperten-
ments and antioxidants for applications in func- sive rats dose-dependently increased urinary
tional foods. excretion rate. No evidence of renal toxicity or
other adverse effects in these animals were
observed even after prolonged treatment with
Antimicrobial Activity TMLR or isoquercitrin. The results supported the
ethnomedicinal use of T. majus as diuretic. They
Leaves of Tropaeolum majus were found to contain found that the mechanisms by which isoquerci-
high amounts of the glucosinolate glucotropaeolin trin and extracts of Tropaeolum majus increased
(Kleinwächter et al. 2008). When Tropaeolum diuresis in spontaneously hypertensive rats were
leaves are consumed, glucotropaeolin is hydro- mainly related to angiotensin converting enzyme
lyzed to yield mustard oils, which are absorbed in (ACE), increased bioavailability of bradykinin,
the intestine and excreted in the urine, exhibiting prostaglandin 12 (PGI2) and nitric oxide, besides
their antimicrobial activity. The findings supported an inhibitory effect on Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase
their use in traditional medicine to treat infections (Gasparotto et al. 2012).
of the urinary tract.

Hypotensive Activity
Anticancer Activity
Oral administration of hydroethanolic extract
Tropaeolum majus produce significant amounts (HETM) and semi-purified fraction (TMLR)
of benzyl glucosinolate which, through enzymatic obtained from T. majus significantly reduced, in a
784 Tropaeolaceae

dose-dependent manner, the mean arterial pressure (Butnariu and Bostan 2011). It elicited 85 %
(MAP) in both normotensive and SHR spontane- inhibition of skin irritation induced by sodium
ously hypertensive rats (SHR) (Gasparotto et al. lauryl sulphate. The integrity of the hydric layer
2011b). Additionally, the intravenous administra- of the skin was significantly improved 30 min
tion of isoquercitrin, but not kaempferol, decreased after the application of the oil.
MAP in rats. The oral administration of the
HETM, TMLR or isoquercitrin reduced angioten-
sin converting enzyme (ACE) activity in serum Antimicrobial Activity
samples at 90 min after administration. Also, the
intravenous administration of ISQ caused a sig- T. majus volatile oil, methanol, ethanol and hexanol
nificant reduction in the hypertensive response to extracts of the aerial plant parts all exhibited good
angiotensin I, but not angiotensin II in normoten- in vitro antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas
sive rats. The results suggested that the hypoten- aeruginosa, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia
sive effects caused by the HETM, as well as by its coli, Salmonella sp. Staphylococcus aureus,
TMLR, may be associated with the high levels of Bacillus subtilis and Candida albicans (Butnariu
the flavonoid isoquercitrin found in this plant. In and Bostan 2011).
addition, isoquercitrin-induced hypotension in rats
was found to be dependent on the inhibition of
angiotensin II generation by ACE. Toxicological Studies

No significant alterations in the animal’s body

Antithrombin Activity weight gain, relative organs weight, serum bio-
chemical analysis and haematological or histopath-
Methylene chloride and methanol extracts of the ological analyses of liver, kidneys and spleen were
six plants Hedychium gardnerianum, Tropaeolum observed in male and female Wistar rats which
majus, Gunnera tinctoria, Hedera helix, Festuca were administered with three doses of hydroetha-
juhata and Laurus azorica elicited antithrombin nolic extract of T. majus (HETM) (75, 375 and
activity of 78 % or higher in the chromogenic 750 mg/kg) for 28 days (Gomes et al. 2012). The
bioassay system (De Medeiros et al. 2000). results demonstrated the absence of subchronic
toxicity due to oral treatment with HETM for 28
days in Wistar rats. The hydroethanolic extract of
Hepatoprotective Activity T. majus did not elicit any (anti)oestrogenic or
(anti)androgenic activities in pregnant Wistar rats
Koriem et al. (2010) found that pretreatment with nor altered uterine contractility at the end of preg-
either T. majus methyl alcohol extract or vitamin E nancy (Lourenço et al. 2012)
provided protection against blood and liver toxicity
induced by diethyl maleate in rats; these results
were confirmed by histopathological examinations. Pharmacokinetic Studies
T. majus methyl alcohol extract or vitamin E prior to
diethyl maleate injection shift blood and liver toxic- Feed supplementation with T. majus had no effect
ity induced by diethyl maleate towards normal val- on growth performance of piglets (Bloem et al.
ues and preserved hepatic lobular architecture. 2008). T. majus was supplemented at an upper
dosage of 1 g/kg with the feed, equaling 48.7 mg/
kg glucotropaeolin, which resulted in a benzyl-
Anti-inflammatory Activity isothiocyanate concentration in the urine of up to
16 μmol/L, which ought to be high enough to
The volatile oil extracted by hydrodistillation control a broad range of bacteria. Up to 7.3 % of
from T. majus aerial parts prevented (oedema) the glucotropaeolin taken up by the animals was
inflammation in mice especially after 24 and 48 h excreted as bioactive benzyl-isothiocyanate.
Tropaeolum majus 785

After consumption of nasturtium, containing wounds and the gall bladder, as diuretic, as
1,000 μM glucotropaeolin, the primary source of aphrodisiac and as remedy against chronic dis-
benzyl-isothiocyanate (BITC), quantifiable lev- eases such as obstructive pulmonary disease, cys-
els of BITC-cysteinylglycine, BITC-cysteine and titis, pyelitis and infections of kidneys and bladder
BITC-N-acetyl-L-cysteine were found in human (Madaus 1938; Muller 1979; Weiss 1980; Winter
urine samples (Platz et al. 2013). Maximum lev- 1955). The leaves are reported to possess antibac-
els in urine were determined 4 h after the inges- terial, antifungal, antiseptic, aperient, depurative,
tion of nasturtium. With regard to the human diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, purgative,
plasma samples, all metabolites were determined aphrodisiac, vulnerary, rejuvenative, antineoplas-
including individual distributions. tic, demulcent, laxative and stimulant activities.

Allergy Problem Other Uses

Several cases of contact dermatitis (Maurice Garden nasturtium is a popular ornamental gar-
1997; Derrick and Darley 1997; Perez-Crespo den plant; many hybrids and horticultural culti-
et al. 2009) and bullous contact dermatitis (Wetzig vars have been developed. Garden nasturtiums
et al. 2000). Diamond et al. (1990) suggested that are also widely considered as useful companion
nasturtium should be added to list of plants capa- plants as they repel many insect pests and attract
ble of causing allergic contact dermatitis as it con- beneficial predatory insects, they are also useful
tained mustard oil. as trap crop against black fly aphids. The seeds
yield a high percentage of a drying oil that can be
used in making paints, varnish, etc.
Traditional Medicinal Uses

Nasturtium (T. majus) is a herbal plant that meets Comments

the German ‘Commission E’ standards of herbal
medicines in 1978 (Blumenthal et al. 1998 ). Nasturtium is regarded as an invasive species in
T. majus has a very broad range of action. The several countries.
plant is antiseptic, diuretic, antiscorbutic and
expectorant and therefore good for head colds
(Lust 1974; Chiej 1984; Bown 1995). The plant Selected References
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Lauderdale C, Evans E (1999) Edible flowers. NC State eicosenoic acid and (Z)-13-docosenoic acid in
University Horticulture Information leaflets 1/99 HIL- Tropaeolum majus. Phytochemistry 15(11):1727–1729
8513. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/hil/hil-8513.html Radwan SS, Grosse-Oetringhaus S, Mangold HK (1978)
Liedvogel B, Kleinig H, Thompson JA, Falk H (1978) lipids in plant tissue cultures. VI. Effect of tempera-
Chromoplasts of Tropaeolum majus L.: lipid syn- ture on the lipids of Brassica napus and Tropaeolum
thesis in whole organelles and subfractions. Planta majus cultures. Chem Phys Lipid 22:177–184
141(3):303–309 Roberts MJ (2000) Edible & medicinal flowers. New
Liu Q, Zhou L (2008) Tropaeolaceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven Africa Publishers, Claremont, 160 pp
PH, Hong DY (eds) Oxalidaceae through Aceraceae, Rop O, Mlcek J, Jurikova T, Neugebauerova J, Vabkova
vol 11, Flora of China. Science Press/Missouri J (2012) Edible flowers—a new promising source of
Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis mineral elements in human nutrition. Molecules
Lourenço EL, Muller JC, Boareto AC, Gomes C, Lourenço 17:6672–6683
AC, Minatovicz B, Crestani S, Gasparotto A Jr, Martino- Small E (1997) Culinary herbs (NRC-CNRC monograph).
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quantification of three active auxins in different tissues endotransglycosylases (XETs) from germinating nas-
of Tropaeolum majus. Physiol Plant 115(2):320–329 turtium (Tropaeolum majus) seeds: isolation and char-
Lust JB (1974) The herb book. Bantam Books, New York, acterization of the major form. Plant Physiol Biochem
174 pp 48(4):207–215
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lutein. J Food Sci 70:S605–S609 Clin Nutr 17(S1):275–279
 Typha orientalis

Scientific Name Indonesia: Asiwung Raja Matri, Embet, Heikre,

Walini, Wawalingian
Typha orientalis C. Presl Japanese: Ko-Gama
Korean: Bu-Deul
Malaysia: Lembang
Synonyms Philippines: Balangot
New Zealand: Raupō (Maori)
Typha angustifolia subsp. muelleri (Rohrb.) Vietnamese: Bồn Bồn; Bồn Bồn Lá Rộng, Hương
Graebn., Typha japonica Miq., Typha latifolia Bồn Lá Rộng, Cỏ Nến Lá Rộng
var. orientalis (C.Presl) Rohrb., Typha muelleri
Rohrb., Typha orientalis var. brunnea Skvortsov,
Typha shuttleworthii Lehm. [Illeg.], Typha shut- Origin/Distribution
tleworthii subsp. orientalis (C.Presl) Graebn.
The species is native to Eastern and Southeastern
Asia (i.e. eastern Russia, Korea, Mongolia China,
Family Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Myanmar and
Papua New Guinea), Australia and New Zealand
Typhaceae (Sun and Simpson 2010).

Common/English Names Agroecology

Asian Bulrush, Broad Leaf Cumbungi, Broad- T. orientalis is a wetland plant that grows in fresh
Leaf Cumbungi, Broad-Leaf Cumbungi, Broad- or brackish waters on the edges of ponds, lakes,
Leaved Cumbungi, Bull Rush, Bull-Rush, channels, swamps and slow-flowing rivers and
Bullrush, Bulrush, Cat-Tail, Cumbungi, Japanese streams.
Cattail Lesser Reed Mace, Oriental Bulrush,
Oriental Cattail, Raupo, Raupo Bulrush
Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Vernacular Names Young flowering spikes before the pollen is shed

can be eaten either raw or cooked; they are best
Chinese: Dong Fang Xiang Pu served with butter like corn on the cob, the hard
Czech: Orobinec Východní central core being discarded (Cribb and Cribb

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 788
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_66, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Typha orientalis 789

1987). The young flowering, green stalk is eaten

raw or cooked (Tanaka 1976; Low 1991). Pollens
released from the stamens can be collected, eaten
raw or cooked or baked into cakes, and the
protein-rich pollens can be mixed with milk or
flour and fried into crumbly pancakes or made
into bread and porridge (Launert 1981; Cribb and
Cribb 1987; Brooker et al. 1989; Crowe 1990;
Low 1991). The young new shoot that arises from
the spongy underground stem can be cut and
cooked, they taste like asparagus but older parts
of the stem are fibrous (Tanaka 1976; Cribb and
Cribb 1987; Crowe 1990; Low 1989, 1991).
The starchy rhizomes can be cooked and eaten
(Tanaka 1976; Brooker et al. 1989; Low 1989,
1991; Facciola 1990). The rhizomes can be
boiled and eaten like potatoes or macerated and
then boiled to yield sweet syrup. They can also be
dried, ground into a powder and then used as a
thickener in soups, porridges and broths, or added
to cereal flours. Rich in protein, this flour is used
to make biscuits, bread, cakes etc.

Botany Plate 1 Flowering spike and foliage

A vigorous, emergent monoecious aquatic

perennial to 2 m high with submerged under-
ground rhizome of 20 mm diameter and stout Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
cylindrical stems to 20 mm diameter. Leaves
stiff, flat, strap-like linear up to 2 m long and Typha orientalis root extract was found to have
20–30 mm wide (Plate 1), upper leaves with high contents of polysaccharides, protein and
sheath of the 2–4 uppermost leaves usually dis- amino acid (Tang et al. 2010). Typha orientalis
tinctly auriculate. Flowers are arranged into a was found to have xyloglucan oligosaccharides
dense cylindrical chestnut to brown spike on tall in its cell walls (Hsieh and Harris 2009). The
erect stems above the foliage (Plate 1). Male xyloglucan oligosaccharides found were 1.4 %
flower spike is less than 2 cm above the female XXG, 49.1 % XXXG, 0.7 % XLXG, 10.6 %
flower spike that is 7–30 cm in length and XXLG, 0.7 % XLLG and 37.5 % XXFG where
15–20 mm in width. Male flowers: stamens 3, the letters G, X, S, L and F referred to the follow-
rarely 2 or 4; anthers about 3 mm; pollens shed ing structures: G = unsubstituted β-D-Glcp;
as single grains. Female flowers without bracte- X = α-D-Xylp-(1 → 6)-β-D-Glcp; S and L = X with
oles; ovary fusiform to lanceolate; stalk 2.5 mm, α-L-Araf-(1 → 2)- and β-D-Galp-(1 → 2)-attached,
slender; styles 1.2–2 mm; stigmas spatulate, respectively, and F = L with α-L-Fucp-(1 → 2)
0.5–0.8 mm. Fruit small, one seeded, elliptic fol- attached.
licle surrounded by silky hairs. Spikes can con- The best growth of Typha orientalis occurred
tain up to 200, 000 follicles. in plants at 25 °C water temperature supplied
790 Typhaceae

with 70 mg N/L and 20 mg P/L (Cary and Weerts (Zhang et al. 2008). The prepared Mn-modified
1984). Biomass production at 16 and 20 °C was activated carbons were found to be promising
about 33 and 66 %, respectively, of that at 24 °C. adsorbents for the removal of Neutral Red from
Production at 30 °C was about 25 % less than wastewater.
that at 25 °C. On a dry weight basis, leaves
accumulated up to 3.56 % N, 0.50 % P, 5.78 %
K, 1.26 % Ca, 0.34 % Mg and 0.59 % Na, Comments
according to nitrogen and phosphorus treat-
ment. Rhizomes and roots, generally, had lower The length and diameter of the female inflores-
concentrations of N, K, Ca and Mg but higher cence, and gap between the inflorescences could
concentrations of P and Na. Roots, in particu- be used to identify the two Australian species of
lar, had higher Na concentrations (up to 1.36 % Typha (T. domingensis and T. orientalis) (Finlayson
of dry weight). et al. 1985). The presence or absence of an auricu-
lated leaf sheath was also found to be a useful
character, while leaf shape was not.
Immunosuppressive Activity Broad-leaved cumbungi (Typha orientalis) is
regarded as an environmental weed in south-
The ethanol extract of Pollen Typhae (T. latifolia, western Australia.
T. angustifolia, T. orientalis) consisting of a mix-
ture of flavonoids, steroids and volatile oils
exhibited immune-suppressive activity in mice
Selected References
(Qin and Sun 2005). The pollen extract signifi-
cantly suppressed concanavalin A (Con-A)-induced Biosecurity Queensland (2007) Factsheet: invasive plants and
and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced spleno- animals: Cumbungi, Bullrush or Cat’s Tail, Typha species.
cyte proliferation in vitro, in a concentration- State of Queensland, Department of Primary Industries
dependent manner. In OVA-immunized mice, the and Fisheries, Brisbane, QLD. http://www.dpi.qld.
gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/
extract EEPT significantly suppressed Con A-, IPA-Cumbungi-PP43.pdf. Accessed Apr 2012
LPS- and OVA-induced splenocyte proliferation Brooker SG, Cambie RC, Cooper RC (1989) Economic
in a dose-dependent manner. It also significantly native plants of New Zealand. Econ Bot 43(1):79–106
reduced the OVA-specific total IgG, IgG1 and Cary PR, Weerts PGJ (1984) Growth and nutrient composition
of Typha orientalis as affected by water temperature
IgG2b levels in the OVA-immunized mice. The and nitrogen and phosphorus supply. Aquat Bot 19(1–2):
results suggested that the pollen extract could 105–118
suppress the cellular and humoral response in Cribb AB, Cribb JW (1987) Wild food in Australia, 2nd
mice and could have potential to be developed as edn. Fontana Collins, Sydney, 240 pp
Crowe A (1990) Native edible plants of New Zealand.
immunosuppressant.
Hodder & Stoughton, Auckland, 184 pp
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible
plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp
Other Uses Finlayson M, Forrester RI, Mitchell DS, Chick AJ (1985)
Identification of native Typha species in Australia.
Aust J Bot 33(1):101–107
The leaves were used for roofs and walls and Hsieh YSY, Harris PJ (2009) Xyloglucans of monocotyle-
occasionally for canoe sails (Metcalf 1998). The dons have diverse structures. Mol Plant 2(5):943–965
stem and leaf fibres were used as a string and to Launert E (1981) Edible and medicinal plants. Hamlyn,
weave baskets. Activated carbon was prepared London
Low T (1989) Bush tucker – Australia’s wild food harvest.
from an inexpensive and renewable carbon
Angus & Robertson, North Ryde, 233 pp
source, Typha orientalis, by H3PO4 activation and Low T (1991) Wild food plants of Australia. Angus &
then impregnated with different manganese salts Robertson, North Ryde, 240 pp
Typha orientalis 791

Metcalf L (1998) The cultivation of New Zealand native Tanaka T (1976) Tanaka’s cyclopaedia of edible plants of
grasses. Random House, Auckland, p 48 the world. Keigaku Publishing, Tokyo, 924 pp
Qin F, Sun HX (2005) Immunosuppressive activity of Tang L, Yang Q, Qiu JP, Li XD (2010) Influence of root
Pollen Typhae ethanol extract on the immune exudates from Phragmites australis & Typha orientalis
responses in mice. J Ethnopharmacol 102(3):424–429 Presl. J Harbin Univ Comm (Nat Sci Ed) 26(4):425–429
Stuart RGA (1979) Chinese materia medica: vegetable The Plant List (2013) Typha orientalis C. Presl. http://
kingdom. Southern Materials Centre Inc., Taipei www.theplantlist.org/
Sun K, Simpson DA (2010) Typhaceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven Zhang J, Shi QQ, Zhang CL, Xu JT, Zhai B, Zhang B
PH, Hong DY (eds) Flora of China, vol 23, Acoraceae (2008) Adsorption of neutral red onto Mn-impregnated
through Cyperaceae. Science Press/Missouri Botanical activated carbons prepared from Typha orientalis.
Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis Bioresour Technol 99(8):8974–8980
 Viola hederacea

Scientific Name Origin/Distribution

Viola hederacea Labill A native of Australia, found in north-east

Queensland, Central Queensland, New South
Wales, South Australia and Tasmania.
Synonyms

Erpetion hederaceum (Labill.) G. Don, Viola Agroecology

hederacea Labill. forma A, Viola hederacea
Labill. forma B, Viola hederacea Labill. forma C, In its native range, it occurs in an altitudinal
Viola hederacea Labill. forma D, Viola hedera- range from 70 to 1,160 m and grows in moist
cea Labill. forma E, Viola hederacea Labill. shady places in Eucalypt forest, Syncarpia for-
forma F, Viola hederacea Labill. forma G est and closed Eucalypt woodland. Viola hed-
eracea grows in soils ranging from a pH of 6.5
(slightly acidic ranges from 6.1 to 6.5) to 8
Family (slightly alkaline ranges from 7.6 to 8). It is
adapted to chalk, clay loam, loam, loamy sand,
Violaceae sandy clay, sandy clay loam and sandy loam soils.

Common/English Names Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Curtis’violet, Ivy-Leaf Violet, Ivy-leaved, Native Flowers are edible (King 2007). The flowers
Violet, Violet are eaten as bush food (Haslam 2011) and can
be used in salad or as a garnish desserts
(Schaeffer and Fletcher 2012). Flowers are
Vernacular Names coated with beaten egg white and dusted with
icing sugar—great for cakes or with ice cream
None recorded for children.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 792
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_67, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Viola hederacea 793

Bracteoles two near middle of scape. Sepals

Botany 4–5 mm long with basal appendages. Corolla
7–11 mm long, concolorous, white with pale
A perennial, pubescent, prostrate herb with short violet centres, anterior petals obovate, lateral
erect stem, 40–60 mm high, rooting at leaf petals twisted and bearded. Top of anthers
nodes. Leaves in a basal rosette; petiole up to forming a hood-like structure. Style 2 mm long.
60 mm; lamina variable in outline, reniform to Ovary 1.5–2 mm, green with purplish spots near
suborbicular with deeply cordate base (Plate 1), the tip. Fruit 3-valved, ovoid capsule, 9 by 4 mm.
14–23 by 9–11 mm, dull-greyish-green, sparsely Seeds ovoid and brown, 1–1.5 mm.
pubescent on upper surface, margin crenate to
obscurely serrated; stipules reddish-brown.
Solitary flower on scape to 10 cm, pubescent, Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
curved downwards before flowering; flowers
rather pale and spent-looking (Plates 1 and 2). Viola hederacea was found to contain at least 57
novel cyclotides including one cyclotide
expressed only in underground parts, named
cyclotide Viola hederacea root cyclotide or 1V hr
(Trabi and Craik 2004). Plant cyclotides are a
family of 28–37 amino acid miniproteins charac-
terized by their head-to-tail cyclized peptide
backbone and six conserved cysteine residues
arranged in a cystine knot motif. This knotted
disulfide arrangement, together with the cyclic
peptide backbone, renders the cyclotides
extremely stable against enzymatic digest as well
as thermal degradation, making them interesting
targets for both pharmaceutical and agrochemical
Plate 1 Flowers and leaves applications. They proposed that cyclotides con-
stituted a new family of plant defense peptides
with more diverse biological function than the
well-known plant defensins. In Viola hederacea,
the relative peptide levels of some cyclotides
remained almost constant throughout the year,
while other cyclotides were present only at cer-
tain times of the year (Trabi et al. 2004).

Other Uses

Native violet is excellent ground cover for shaded

moist areas forming a dense mat. It is useful in
ferneries, as a ground cover in cottage gardens, in
wood land margins, in banks and slopes, in con-
tainers, in flower border and beds, under shrub
Plate 2 Close view of flower and in hanging baskets.
794 Violaceae

King A (2007) Edible flowers. STG Subtrop Garden Mag

Comments 11:82–83
Schaeffer K, Fletcher W (2012) Edible plants. Plants of
Tasmania Nursery & Gardens. http://www.potn.com.
Native violet is readily propagated by seeds or au/edible_plants.html
divisions, cutting through the plant and planting The Plant List (2013) Viola hederacea. http://www.
out the divisions. theplantlist.org/
Trabi M, Craik DJ (2004) Tissue-specific expression of
head-to-tail cyclized miniproteins in Violaceae and
structure determination of the root cyclotide Viola
Selected References hederacea root cyclotide 1. Plant Cell 16(8):
2204–2216
Harden GJ (2000) Flora of New South Wales, vol 1, revised Trabi M, Svangård E, Herrmann A, Göransson U,
edition. NSW University Press, Kensington, 678 pp Claeson P, Craik DJ, Bohlin L (2004) Variations in
Haslam S (2011) Noosa’s native plants, 3rd edn. Noosa cyclotide expression in Viola species. J Nat Prod
Integrated Catchment Association, Noosa, 392 pp 67(5):806–810
 Viola odorata

Scientific Name Chinese: Hu Chin Tsao, Xiang Jin Cai

Czech: Violka Vonná
Viola odorata L. Danish: Marts-Viol, Viol
Dutch: Maarts Viooltje
Estonian: Lõhnav Kannike
Synonyms Esperanto: Violo Heĝa
Finnish: Tuoksuorvokki
Viola odora Neck, Viola odorata f. odorata, Viola French: Violette, Violette De Mars, Violette
wiedemannii Boiss Odorante
Gaelic: Sailchuach Chumhra
German: Duft-Veilchen, Echtes Veilchen,
Family Märzveilchen, Veilchen, Wohlriechendes
Veilchen
Violaceae Hungarian: Illatos Ibolya
Icelandic: Ilmfjóla
India: Bag-Banosa, Banafsa, Banafsha,
Common/English Names Banafshah, Banaphsa (Hindi), Bagabanosa
(Marathi), Banafsha, Banapsa, Nilapuspa,
Apple Leaf, Bairnworth, Banworth, Blue Violet, Vanaphsa, Vanspika (Sanskrit), Curiyakan Ti,
Common Blue Violet, Common Violet, Devon Orital-T-Tamarai, Ratna Purus, Ratnapurucu,
Violet, English Violet, Florist’s Violet, Garden Vayilethe, Vayilettu (Tamil), Abroo, Banafsha,
Violet, Ordinary Violet, Parma Violet, Purple Banafshah, Gul Banafsha, Gul Banafshah,
Violet, Russian Violet, Sweet Blue Violet, Sweet Gul-E-Banafsha (Urdu)
Dog-Violet, Sweet-Scented Violet, Sweet Violet, Indonesia: Antanan (Javanese)
Violet Italian: Mammola, Roseviole, Viola Mammola,
Viola Zopa, Violetta
Japanese: Nioi-Sumire
Vernacular Names Norwegian: Marsfiol
Persian: Baanfshah, Banafsha, Banafshah, Gule
Albanian: Manushaqja Banafsha, Kookash
Arabic: Asarun, Banafasaj, Banafsag, Banafsaj, Philippines: Bayoleta (Cebu Bisaya), Violeta
Banafshaj, Banafshaj Banafsaj, Behussej, (Tagalog)
Benephig, Farfeera Polish: Fiolek, Fiołek Wonny
Brazil: Viola, Violeta (Portuguese) Russian: Fialka, Fialka Duschistaja

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 795
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_68, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
796 Violaceae

Slovascina: Dišeča Vijolica, Vijolica Dišeča grance and can be used in salads, desserts, but-
Slovencina: Fialka Voňavá ter and vinegar. They can be added to drinks or
Spanish: Viola, Violeta can be used as a decorative addition to a green
Swedish: Äkta fiol, Äkta viol, Doftviol, Luktviol salad or to garnish a pâté or dessert. Flowers are
Thai: Waiolet also used fresh to flavour and colour confection-
Turkish: Dört Mevsim Menekşe ery. They can be crystallized and used on cakes,
Vietnamese: Hoa Tím Thơm cookies or creamy desserts or eaten as sweet
Welsh: Fioled Bêr treats. Flower infusion with added sugar is used
to flavour cream puddings, sorbets, syrup, cakes
or ices. Young leaves have a mild flavour and
Origin/Distribution are used in salads and soups and as flavouring in
puddings. A leaf extract is used to flavour
The species is indigenous to Europe, North sweets, baked goods and ice cream. A soothing
Africa and Western Asia. The plant is grown else- tea can be made from the leaves and flowers. In
where in the temperate and sub-temperate areas, Italy it is grown as a culinary herb for flavour-
often escaped and naturalized. They are now nat- ing. Sweet violet stunning petals make a won-
uralized throughout North America and Australia. derful garnish for drinks, desserts and salads
The plant has been grown for erosion control in (Wilson 2013). They add a subtle, sweet and
the mountains of Java and as medicinal herb in perfumed flavour. In the recent Chelsea Flower
India and Cuba. Show, top chef Marcus Wareing used sweet
violet flowers to garnish his gin and tonic gran-
ita, an unusual take on the famous English tipple
Agroecology (Wilson 2013).

Sweet violet grows in the cool climate and dis-

likes the hot tropics, hot dry summers and hot dry
winds. In its native range, sweet violet can be Botany
found near the edges of forests or in clearings,
hedge-banks; it is also a common weed in shaded A hardy, prostrate, perennial herb growing to
lawns or elsewhere in gardens. It tolerates full 15 cm tall, stems short and erect, spreading by
sun in winter and where summers are mild and sparsely hairy stolons. The leaves are dark
dappled or partial shade in other seasons and situ- green, cauline and borne on long, slender peti-
ations. It does best in moist, free-draining, deep oles up to 12 cm long. Lamina more or less cir-
soil rich in organic matter, preferably from com- cular to broad-ovate, 2–7 cm long, deeply
posted fallen leaves. cordate at base; margins finely crenate; gla-
brous to somewhat pubescent (Plates 1, 2 and
3). Stipules are entire stipules ovate to lanceo-
Edible Plant Parts and Uses late, glandular, ciliate, 10–13 mm long. Flowers
solitary and axillary; scapes 6–12 cm long,
Young leaves, flower buds and flowers are edi- axillary; bracteoles near middle. Sepals 5–6 mm
ble raw or cooked (Macnicol 1967; Harrington long; petals 5, white to violet, the lower petal
1974; Morton 1976; Facciola 1990; Garland 1.2–1.6 cm long including the 3–4-mm long
1993; Burnie and Fenton-Smith 1996; Barash pouched spur, the lower 3 not bearded, the lat-
1997; Lauderdale and Evans 1999; Newman eral pair usually bearded; sepals 5, lanceolate;
and O’Connor 2009; Mlcek and Rop 2011; style heads hooked (Plates 1, 2 and 3). Fruit
Anonymous 2012). The flowers have a sweet small, smooth capsule with cream-coloured,
mild, lettuce-like flavour with a delicate fra- tiny seeds.
Viola odorata 797

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Flower Phytochemicals

V. odorata flowers contained C 47.26 %, O 42.39 %,

Mg 0.9 %, Al 0.45 %, Si 1.37 %, Cl 0.64 %,
K 5.06 %, Ca 1.53 % and Fe 0.39 % (Bibi et al.
2006). From the flowers, 3,4-dimethylheptane
was isolated (Beierbeck and Saunders 1980).
Flowers of Viola odorata contained 4.0 % antho-
cyanins, 1.1 % flavonoids, 0.4 % outside, 18.0 %
mucilage and 8.5 % ash (Lamaison et al. 1991).
Essential oil of V. odorata was found to contain
Plate 1 Flowers and leaves ionine, saponins, glycoside, methyl salicylate,
mucilage, vitamins A and C and alkaloids
(Keville 1991).
The following flavonol glycosides were iden-
tified in V. odorata flowers (Karioti et al. 2011):
quercetin-3- O -α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-
[α-rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 6)]-β-glucopyranoside-
7-O-α-rhamnopyranoside; kaempferol 3-O-α-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[α-rhamnopyranosyl
(1 → 6)]-β-glucopyranoside-7- O -α-rhamno-
pyranoside; violanin [delphinidin-3-(4″-p-
coumaroyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside]; quercetin-3-
O -α-rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 2)-[α-rhamno-
pyranosyl-(1 → 6)]-β-glucopyranoside; cyanidin-
3-(coumaroyl)-methylpentosyl-exosyl-5-exo-
Plate 2 Close-up of flower side; kaempferol-3-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 2)
[α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 6)]-β-glucopyranoside;
quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin); quercetin-
3-O-glucopyranoside; kaempferol-3-O-rutino-
side (nikotiflorin); kaempferol-3-O-glucopyrano-
side; kaempferol-7- O -glucopyranoside; and
apigenin-7-O-glucopyranoside.
V. odorata flower essential oil was found to
contain 63 different compounds amounting to
83.05 % of total oil (Hammami et al. 2011). The
oil contained high percentages of monoterpenes
and sesquiterpenes. The dominant components
were 1-phenyl butanone (22.43 %), linalool
(7.33 % %), benzyl alcohol (5.65 %), α-cadinol
(4.91), globulol (4.32 %) and viridiflorol (3.51 %).
Pulegone (3.33 %), epi-α-cadinol (3.05 %), ter-
pinen-4-ol (2.31 %), germacrene A (1.99 %), ben-
Plate 3 Pinkish-purple flowers zyl benzoate (1.67 %), 1,10-di-epi-cubenol
798 Violaceae

(1.44 %) and p-methyl anisole (1.09 %) were (Z)-3-hexenal with a powerful grassy odour and
found to be minor components of the oil. Other (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienol with a powerful cucumber-
minor components (<1 %) included furfural like odour. The fragrance of V. odorata flowers
(0.18 %), α-thujene (0.12 %) α-pinene (tr), sabi- was attributed to ionone compounds such as
nene (0.13 %), myrcene (0.15 %), α-terpinene β-ionone and (E)-4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1-
(0.14 %), β-phellandrene (0.37 %), δ-3-carene cyclohexenyl)but-3-en-2-one which originated
(0.15 %), Z-β-ocimene (0.52 %), γ-terpinene from enzymatic degradation of carotenoids
(0.15 %), acetophenone (0.15 %), Z-sabinene (Meusinger 2012). From several ionone isomers,
hydrate (tr), Z-linalool oxide (furanoid) (0.16 %), the three double-bond position isomers α-ionone,
methyl benzoate (0.14 %), 1,3,8-p-menthatriene β-ionone and γ-ionone with two stereoisomeric γ
(0.43 %), 1,3,8-O-menthatriene (0.55 %), Z-p- isomers with different olfactory properties
menth-2-en-1-ol (0.65 %), 1-terpineol (0.8 %), existed. The odour of (R)-(−)-γ-ionone was
ethyl benzoate (tr), geranil (0.57 %), δ-elemene described as weak green, fruity and pineapple-
(0.22 %), α-cubebene (tr), isoledene (0.37 %), like with metallic aspects, quite different from
α-copaene (0.22 %), β-bourbonen (0.26 %), the typical ionone odour, whereas the odour of
β-cubebene (0.24 %), α-gurjunene (0.225), (S)-(+)-γ-ionone was described as very pleasant,
Z-caryophyllene (0.84 %), β-duprezianene floral, green and woody with a very natural violet
(0.14 %), α-guaiene (0.17 %), γ-elemene tonality. However, β-ionone was a more signifi-
(0.26 %), aromadendrene (0.66 %), α-humulene cant contributor. In conjunction with the ring
(0.15 %), allo-aromadendrene (0.45 %), ger- structure and the equivalent (geminal) methyl
macrene D (0.42 %), β-selinene (0.24 %), bicy- groups, only two isomers were possible:
clogermacrene (0.6 %), E-β-guaiene (0.53 %), (2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-enyl)butanone and
γ-cadinene (0.12 %), β-sesquiphellandrene (2,3,3-trimethylcyclohex-enyl)butanone. Viola
(0.17 %), germacrene B (0.34 %), germacrene odorata is used as a source for the perfume indus-
D-4-ol (0.12 %), spathulenol (0.47 %),10-epi-γ- try; however, 1 t of fresh flowers yields only
eudesmol (0.27 %), eremoligenol (tr), Z-methyl 28–43 g of violet essential oil.
epijasmonate (0.1 %) and Z-α-bisabolene epoxide Hydroalcoholic solution could extract more
(0.54 %). Wahba and El Gait (1994) identified the melatonin from Tanacetum parthenium,
following compounds in the flower essential oil: Tripleurospermum disciforme and V. odorata
linalool, terpineol, benzyl acetate, methyl salicy- flowers than hot water (Ansari et al. 2010). The
late, eugenol, pentadecanoic acid ethyl ester, pen- presence of melatonin in these plant tissues may
taoxahexadecan-1-ol, tetraoxahexadecan-1-ol, provide some explanation for the anecdotal evi-
octadecadienal, octadecatrienoic acid ethyl ester, dence of their physiological effects in humans
pentaoxanonadecan-1-ol and hexadecanoic acid. with regards to their efficacy in the treatment of
Besides volatiles, the flowers also contained an neurological and antioxidant deficiency-related
emetic compound called violin and several flavo- disorders for their melatonin content.
noids such as viola-quercetin and rutin (Schmelzer
and Horsten 2001).
The unique, fine, sweet fragrance of the violet Leaf Phytochemicals
flowers was reported to be dominated by ionones:
α-ionone, β-ionone and β-dihydroionone (Brunke V. odorata leaves contained C 48.86 %, O
et al. 1996). Also, hydroquinone dimethyl ether 44.60 %, Mg 0.51 %, Al 0.0 %, Si 0.49 %, Cl
or 1,4-dimethoxybenzene was another major 0.48 %, K 3.96 %, Ca 1.10 % and Fe 0 % (Bibi
constituent, with a powerful sweet herbal anisic et al. 2006).
odour, acting as synergist to the ionones (at least More than 100 compounds were separated, of
as perceived by human beings). Among the trace which 23 compounds have been identified in the
components, a number of secondary metabolites violet leaf volatiles, representing 95 % of the
of linoleic and linolenic acids were detected, e.g. total (Cu et al. 1992). Some of the components
Viola odorata 799

included 1-dodecanol; pentadeca-5,10-dien-1-ol; found only in the roots and aluminium and iron
pentadec-5-en-1-ol; 3-pentadecenal; 2,5-hepta- were absent in the leaves.
dien-1-ol; 2,4-dimethyldodecane; 1-octadecene; 2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-4-piperidinone was isolated
1-eicosene; and octadeca-9,12-dienoic acid, plus from V. odorata (Rodrigues et al. 2007). V. odorata
the terpene friedelin was also detected. Twenty- was found to contain cyclotides, mini-proteins of
five compounds were identified in the leaf essen- 28–37 amino acid residues having the unusual
tial oil representing 92.77 % of the oil with feature of a head-to-tail cyclic backbone sur-
butyl-2-ethylhexylphthalate (30.10 %) and rounding a cystine knot of three disulfide bonds
5,6,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,4,7a-trimethyl-2(4H)- (Craik et al. 1999; Ireland et al. 2006a, b; Ireland
benzofuranone (12.03 %) being the two major et al. 2008). Craik et al. (1999) found cycloviola-
components (Akhbari et al. 2012). (Z)-3-hexenal cins O 1,3,4,6,7,8,9,10,11 in V. odorata and
with a powerful grassy odour and (E,Z)-2,6- established that structure of cycloviolacin O1
nonadienol with a powerful cucumber-like odour consisted of a distorted triple-stranded beta-sheet
were also the prominent compounds in violet leaf and a cystine knot arrangement of the disulfide
oil imparting a sparklingly intense ‘green’ odour bonds. The structure was similar to kalata B1 and
being much appreciated in fine perfumery circulin. Three cyclotides, varv A, varv F and
(Brunke et al. 1996). This steam-volatile leaf cycloviolacin 02, were isolated from V. odorata
oil was reported to consist of 30–50 % of (Lindholm et al. 2002). Two polypeptide
2,6-nonadien-1-al (the violet leaf aldehyde), 2,6- cyclotides named vodo M and vodo N, both of 29
nonadien-1-ol, n-hexanol, n-hexenol, n-heptenol, amino acids, were isolated from Viola odorata
n-octenol, traces of eugenol, as well as several (Svangård et al. 2003). It was confirmed that
acids (Schmelzer and Horsten 2001). vodo M (cyclo-SWPVCTRNGAPICGESCFT-
GKCYTVQCSC) and vodo N (cyclo-SWPV-
C Y R N G L P V C G E T C T L G K C Y TAG C S C )
Stem and Root Phytochemicals formed a head-to-tail cyclic backbone and that
six cysteine residues were involved in three disul-
The roots and rhizomes were reported to contain phide bonds The cyclotide, cycloviolacin O2,
saponins, which were active as an emetic and was isolated from Viola odorata plant (Göransson
expectorant, and also salicylic acid, methyl sali- et al. 2004). It exhibited potent effects against
cylic ester and gaultherin, a glycoside of methyl fouling barnacles (Balanus improvisus), with
salicylic acid (Schmelzer and Horsten 2001). In complete inhibition of settlement at a concentra-
addition they contained an essential oil closely tion of 0.25 μM. The effect of cycloviolacin O2
resembling that of the flowers and an alkaloid, against barnacles was reversible and nontoxic in
odoratine, with a marked hypotensive activity. the bioassay employed. V. odorata was found to
The stems contained C 43.92 %, O 47.13 %, Mg have a linear cyclotide violacin A (Ireland et al.
0.76 %, Al 0.55 %, Si 1.91 %, Cl 0.58 %, K 2006b). Cyclotides cycloviolacin O2, cycloviola-
2.32 %, Ca 2.20 % and Fe 0.62 % (Bibi et al. cin O3, cycloviolacin O8, cycloviolacin O13,
2006). The roots contained C 43.49 %, O cycloviolacin O14, cycloviolacin O15 and cyclo-
45.96 %, Na 0.28 %, Mg 0.78 %, Al 0.89 %, Si violacin O16 were extracted from Viola odorata
3.02 %, Cl 0.47 %, K 2.10 %, Ca 2.16 % and Fe (Colgrave et al. 2008). Thirteen new cyclotide
0.85 % (Bibi et al. 2006). sequences were found from the plant V. odorata,
practically doubling the number of cyclotides to
30 characterized from this species (Ireland et al.
Plant Phytochemicals 2006a). The 30 cyclotides found included
cycloviolacin 0 1–25, Varv A, Kalata B1, Vodo
Elemental analysis showed the presence of C, O, M, vodo N and violacin A (a linear cyclotide
Na, Mg, Al, Si, Cl, K, Ca and Fe in different parts derivative) . Cycloviolacin 012 was also named varv
of Viola odorata (Bibi et al. 2006). Sodium was E. Prototypic cyclotides, including the Möbius
800 Violaceae

kalata B1 and the bracelet cycloviolacin O2 anthracene (DMBA)-induced skin cancer in mice
(cyO2), were isolated from V. odorata (Pränting (Perwaiz and Sultana 1998).
et al. 2010). Three cyclotides, varv A, varv F and cyclovio-
The cyclotide content was determined to be lacin O2, isolated from Viola arvensis and Viola
23.5–14,200 μg/g (dry weight) in the plants odorata, exhibited strong cytotoxic activities,
Oldenlandia affinis and Viola odorata (Ovesen which varied in a dose-dependent manner against
et al. 2011). The highest content of cyclotide was a panel of 10 human tumour cell lines, namely,
found in wild Danish V. odorata, presenting four sensitive parental cell lines [CCRF-CEM
the highest content of cyclotide in a plant reported (T-cell leukaemia), NCI-H69 (small cell lung
hitherto. Candied violets contained 0.00– cancer), RPMI-8226/s (myeloma) and U-937GTB
8.66 μg/g (dry weight), while no cyclotides were (histiocytic lymphoma)], five drug-resistant sub-
detected in commercial violet tea. From the lines [CCRF-CEM/VM-1(T-cell leukaemia),
petroleum ether extract of the plant, stigmas- NCI-H69AR (small cell lung cancer), RPMI-
terol, β-sitosterol and lupeol were isolated 8226/Dox40 (myeloma), RPMI-8226/LR-5
(Mittal 2013). (myeloma) and U-937VCR(histiocytic lym-
Cyclotides, a large family of cyclic peptides, phoma)] and one cell line with primary resistance
had been reported to have broad range of bio- [ACHN (renal adenocarcinoma)] (Lindholm
logical activities, including defence against et al. 2002). Cycloviolacin O2 was the most
insect pests and pathogens (Jennings et al. 2001, potent in all cell lines (IC50 0.1–0.3 μM), fol-
2005), and cytotoxic, uterotonic (Gran 1973), lowed by varv A (IC50 2.7–6.35 μM) and varv F
insecticidal, anti-HIV, antimicrobial, antineuro- (IC50 2.6–7.4 μM). Herrmann et al. (2006)
tensive, cytotoxic and haemolytic activities showed that the single glutamic acid of cyclotide
(Ireland et al. 2006a, b; Huang et al. 2009; cycloviolacin O2 played a key role for the cyto-
Henriques et al. 2011). toxicity: methylation of this residue produced a
48-fold decrease in potency. Further the activity
was dependent on an intact disulfide network and
Antioxidant Activity that the short sequences between the six cysteine
residues, namely, the backbone loops, were
Water extracts of V. odorata flowers were shown devoid of cytotoxic activity.
to possess concentration-dependent free radical Studies showed cyclotides to have specific
scavenging activity when evaluated by the membrane-disrupting activity (Svangård et al.
DPPH assay (Stojković et al. 2011). Leaf 2007). Disruption of cell membranes played a
extract of V. odorata exhibited antioxidant crucial role in the cytotoxic effect of the cyclotide
activity in vitro (Ebrahimzadeh et al. 2010). In cycloviolacin O2, isolated from Viola odorata.
the DPPH radical scavenging assay, its IC50 Cell viability and morphology studies on the
value was 245.1 μg/mL. In the Fe2+ chelating human lymphoma cell line U-937 GTB showed
ability, its IC50 value was 188 μg/mL. The that cells exposed to 1 displayed disintegrated
extract showed weak nitric oxide scavenging cell membranes within 5 min. Functional studies
activity and exhibited very low and moderate on calcein-loaded HeLa cells and on liposomes
concentration-dependent antioxidant activity in showed rapid concentration-dependent release of
ferric thiocyanate methods. The IC50 for scav- their respective internal contents. Studies by
enging of H2O2 was 640 μg/mL. Huang et al. (2009) confirmed kalata B1 to be a
membrane-active and pore-forming peptide,
characteristics that explained its lytic ability
Anticancer Activity towards membrane mimetics and electrophysio-
logical properties. Cycloviolacin O2 (CyO2),
The acetone extract of V. odorata exhibited che- from Viola odorata, had been found to have anti-
mopreventive effects against 7,12-dimethylbenz(a) tumour effects in the breast cancer line, MCF-7,
Viola odorata 801

and caused cell death by membrane permeabili- inhibited the growth of Salmonella enterica
zation but did not produce significant membrane serovar Typhimurium LT2 and Escherichia coli,
disruption in primary human brain endothelial while the other peptides were less active
cells, which suggested cyclotide specificity (Pränting et al. 2010). In time-kill assays, cyO2
towards induced pore formation in highly prolif- also had bactericidal activity against the Gram-
erating tumour cells (Gerlach et al. 2010). negative species Klebsiella pneumoniae and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In contrast, none of
the cyclotides had high activity against
Antimicrobial Activity Staphylococcus aureus. Chemical masking of
the charged Glu and Lys residues in cyO2
Aqueous plant extracts of Anethum graveolens, caused a near total loss of activity against
Elettaria cardamomum, Foeniculum vulgare, Salmonella, while masking Arg caused a less
Trachyspermum ammi and Viola odorata were pronounced activity reduction. Cyclotides from
found to be better/equally effective compared to Iranian V. odorata were found to have potent
standard antibiotics against reference strains of antimicrobial activity against human patho-
human pathogenic bacteria Escherichia coli, genic bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and plant
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aerugi- pathogenic bacteria (Zarrabi et al. 2013).
nosa, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella typhimurium, V. odorata plant extracts and fractions
Shigella flexneri and Staphylococcus aureus showed in vitro activity against extended spec-
(Arora and Kaur 2007). V. odorata was the most trum beta lactamase (ESBL)-producing
effective antibacterial with minimum inhibitory Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae
concentration values ranging from 1 to 2 %. (Ziad et al. 2012). The ethyl acetate and aque-
Studies found significant synergistic inhibitory ous fractions showed inhibitory and bactericidal
effect of a combination of two aqueous extracts effects on Escherichia coli. Only ethyl acetate
of violet, Viola odorata, and the rue, Ruta grave- fraction exerted inhibitory and bactericidal
olens, at concentrations of 0.15625, 0.3125 and effects on Klebsiella pneumoniae. The concen-
10–20 mg/cm3 on the growth of Trichomonas trations at which most of the strains were inhib-
vaginalis cultured in (CM161) medium (Al-Heali ited were 5 μg/μL for ethyl acetate fraction and
and Rahemo 2006). Trichomonas vaginalis is the 80 μg/μL for the aqueous fractions. The lowest
most common curable sexually transmitted infec- MIC was recorded for the ethyl acetate fraction
tion. Trichomoniasis is an important health prob- with Escherichia coli at 2.5 μg/μL. The MIC90
lem in developing countries. Complete inhibition was determined with ethyl acetate fraction at
was seen with a concentration of 10 mg/cm3 for 10 μg/μL for Escherichia coli and at 5.5 μg/μL
48 h. During the 96 h period, 81 % inhibition was for Klebsiella pneumoniae. Crude extract, petro-
achieved at a concentration of 0.3125 mg/cm3 leum ether and dichloromethane fractions did
and 75 % at a concentration of 0.15625 mg/cm3. not show any inhibitory effect within the tested
Significant synergism was achieved at a concen- concentrations. Although the aqueous fraction
tration of 20 mg/cm3, and a suggestive synergism showed antibacterial activities with Escherichia
was achieved at 10 mg/cm3. V. odorata flower coli, it did not exhibit any activity on Klebsiella
essential oil showed strong antifungal activity pneumoniae.
against the fungal phytopathogen Botrytis cine-
rea (Hammami et al. 2011). When the oils at
doses of 25, 12.5 and 6.25 μl/mL concentrations Antipyretic Activity
were applied to tomatoes seven days before
pathogen inoculation, it completely prevented The hexane-soluble extract of V. odorata exhib-
fruit decay in storage. ited prominent antipyretic effects against subcu-
Cycloviolacin O2 (cyO2) was the most taneous yeast-induced pyresis in rabbits (Khattak
active cyclotide in V. odorata and efficiently et al. 1985). No obvious toxic effects were noted
802 Violaceae

for the plant extracts up to doses of 1.6 g/kg. Antiviral Activity

The effect could be related to the salicylic acid
content of the plant. Cyclotides have anti-HIV activity (Gustafson
et al. 2004; Ireland et al. 2008). Henriques et al.
(2011) reported that the anti-HIV activity of the
Analgesic Activity cyclotide kalata B1 could be attributed to its abil-
ity to target and disrupt the membranes of HIV
The aqueous and methanolic extract of V. odorata particles; raft-like membranes are very rich in
aerial parts at a dose level of 400 mg/kg, p.o. phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipids. Ireland
showed a significant analgesic effect in the et al. (2008) showed that Möbius cyclotides (e.g.
peripheral and central models of pain (tail immer- kalata B1) had comparable inhibitory activity
sion and hot plate method), while n-hexane and against HIV infection to bracelet cyclotides (cycl-
butanolic extracts did not show any significant oviolacin O2) and that they were generally less
effect (Antil et al. 2011). cytotoxic to the target cells.

Antihyperlipidemic Activity Anti-inflammatory Activity

Viola odorata leaf extract caused a reduction in Water-soluble polysaccharides extracted from
total cholesterol and triglyceride levels in tyloxa- Viola odorata were found to possess anti-inflam-
pol- induced dyslipidemia (Siddiqi et al. 2012). matory activity, which was manifested by sup-
In high-fat diet-induced dyslipidemia model, the pression of the exudation and proliferation stages
plant extract caused a significant decrease in total of inflammation and by a change in the capillary
cholesterol, LDL-C and atherogenic index and permeability (Drozdova and Bubenchikov 2005).
prevented the increase in average body weights,
while it increased HDL-C.
Haemolytic Activity

Antihypertensive activity The haemolytic activity of the various cyclotides

cycloviolacins O2, 024, 013, 02, 014 and 015; varv
Viola odorata leaf extract induced a dose- A; and kalata B1 did not vary considerably (Ireland
dependent (0.1–1.0 mg/kg) decrease in mean et al. 2006a). At a concentration of 25 μM, a more
arterial blood pressure in anaesthetized rats than 6-fold difference existed between the most
(Siddiqi et al. 2012). In isolated guinea pig haemolytic cyclotide, cycloviolacin O24 (∼75 %
atria, the extract inhibited force and rate of haemolysis), and the least haemolytic cyclotide,
spontaneous atrial contractions. On the base- cycloviolacin O14 (∼11 % haemolysis).
line of rat thoracic aortae (endothelium-
intact and denuded), the leaf extract caused
phentolamine-sensitive vasoconstriction. When Diuretic Activity
tested on phenylephrine and K+-induced vaso-
constriction, the extract exerted a concentra- An infusion of the leaves was found to have
tion-dependent relaxation and also caused a diuretic activity when administered to rabbits by
rightward shift of Ca 2+ concentration-response gastric intubation at a dose of 2 g/animal (Rebuelta
curves as well as suppression of phenylephrine et al. 1983). The aqueous extract of Viola odorata
control peaks in Ca2+-free medium, similar to aerial parts (200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) showed sig-
that caused by verapamil. nificant diuretic activity in rats (Vishal et al. 2009).
Viola odorata 803

Laxative Activity cin O14, cycloviolacin O15 and cycloviolacin

O16 extracted from Viola odorata showed up to
Butanolic and aqueous extracts of Viola odorata 18-fold greater anthelmintic potency than the
aerial parts (200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) showed prototypic cyclotide kalata B1 in Haemonchus
good laxative effect in rats (Vishal et al. 2009). contortus and Trichostrongylus colubriformis
larval development assays (Colgrave et al. 2008).
Cycloviolacin O2 and cycloviolacin O14 were
Pulmnoprotective Activity significantly more potent than kalata B1 in adult
H. contortus motility assays. The lysine and glu-
Viola odorata aqueous extract given prophylacti- tamic acid residues of cycloviolacin O2, the most
cally was partially effective in preventing formalin- potent anthelmintic cyclotide, were chemically
induced lung damage in rats and was comparable modified to investigate the role of these charged
to that of hydrocortisone (Koochek et al. 2003). residues in modulating the biological activity.
The single glutamic acid residue, which was con-
served across all known cyclotides, was shown to
Mosquito Repellency Activity be essential for activity, with a sixfold decrease in
potency of cycloviolacin O2 following methyla-
The essential oil of V. odorata was induced with tion. The three lysine residues present in cyclo-
a maximum protection time of 8 h and a100% violacin O2 were acetylated to effectively mask
repellency on human skin against the yellow the positive charge, resulting in an 18-fold
fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti; the malaria vec- decrease in anthelmintic activity.
tor, Anopheles stephensi; and the filariasis and
encephalitis vector, Culex quinquefasciatus
(Amer and Mehlhorn 2006). Toxicity Studies

The acute toxicity of all four extracts, i.e. n-hexane,

Molluscicidal Activity butanol, methanol and aqueous extracts of
V. odorata aerial parts, was orally evaluated in rats
Crude cyclotide extracts from both Oldenlandia and was found to be higher than 2,000 mg/kg
affinis and Viola odorata plants showed mollusci- (Vishal et al. 2009).
cidal activity against golden apple snails (Pomacea
canaliculata) comparable to the synthetic mollus-
cicide metaldehyde (Plan et al. 2008). Individual Traditional Medicinal Uses
cyclotides from each extract demonstrated a range
of molluscicidal activities. The cyclotides cyclo- Sweet violet has been used since ancient times in
violacin O1, kalata B1 and kalata B2 were more traditional folk medicine especially in the treat-
toxic to golden apple snails than metaldehyde, ment of cancer and whooping cough (Grieve
while kalata B7 and kalata B8 did not cause sig- 1971; Duke and Ayensu 1985). The whole plant
nificant mortality. The toxicity of the cyclotide is regarded anti-inflammatory, diaphoretic,
kalata B2 on a nontarget species, the Nile tilapia diuretic, emollient, antiphlogistic expectorant,
(Oreochromis niloticus), was three times lower antitussive and laxative (Grieve 1971; Chiej
than the common piscicide rotenone. 1984; Lust 1974; Uphof 1968). Tea made from
the entire plant is used to treat digestive disor-
ders. It is administered internally for the remedy
Anthelmintic Activity of chronic bronchitis, upper respiratory catarrh,
whooping coughs, asthma, pertussis and cancer
Cyclotides cycloviolacin O2, cycloviolacin O3, of the breast, lungs or digestive tract and exter-
cycloviolacin O8, cycloviolacin O13, cycloviola- nally to treat mouth and throat infections (Bown
804 Violaceae

1995). The plant has been used as diaphoretic potent expectorant than other parts of the plant;
and febrifuge and for infantile disorder and lung they also contain the alkaloid violin which at
troubles (Ahmad et al. 2009). higher doses is strongly emetic and purgative
The fresh whole plant is used in a homeo- (Grieve 1971; Phillips and Foy 1992; Chevallier
pathic remedy (Grieve 1971). The plant contains 1996). In large doses, rhizome and seeds are
salicylic acid and is effective in the treatment of poisonous.
headaches, migraine and insomnia and is used as
a sedative (Phillips and Foy 1992). The plant is
also used for impetigo, rheumatism and ulcers. Other Uses
Flowers are listed in many pharmacopoeias
around the world for their expectorant and Sweet violets are often grown as an ornamental
diuretic properties. Syrup made from the flowers plant and as a ground cover and are effective in
is a well-known medicine for cough, colds, erosion and weed control. An essential oil dis-
asthma and hoarseness. The flowers are demul- tilled from the flowers and leaves is used in per-
cent and emollient and used in the therapy of bil- fumery; 1 t of fresh flowers yields only 28–43 g
iousness and lung troubles; petals are prepared in of violet essential oil. The fragrant flowers are
syrup and administered for infantile disorders also used to flavour breath fresheners. A pigment
(Chopra et al. 1986). Celtic women used to mix extracted from the flowers is used as a litmus test
violet and goat’s milk to make a beauty lotion for acids and alkalis.
(Grieve 1971). Violet petals can be made into a The observation that kalata B2 inhibited the
cough syrup, and a tea will relieve bronchitis and growth and development of Helicoverpa armi-
dry mouth. Flowers are also used as a gargle for gera larvae suggested a role for the cyclotides
sore throats. An essential oil from the flowers is in plant defense (Jennings et al. 2005). Barbeta
used in aromatherapy in the treatment of bron- et al. (2008) reported that ingestion of the
chial complaints, exhaustion and skin complaints cyclotide kalata B1 severely retarded the
(Bown 1995). The seeds are diuretic and purga- growth of Helicoverpa armigera larvae. They
tive and have been used in the treatment of uri- confirmed that kalata B1 induced disruption of
nary complaints and for gravel (Grieve 1971). the microvilli, blebbing, swelling and ulti-
Violet leaves are also considered good rem- mately rupture of the cells of the Helicoverpa
edy traditionally in bronchitis, mucus, coughs, gut epithelium.
asthma and cancer of the breast, stomach, lungs
and digestive tract (Bown 1995). Crushed aerial
plant parts are used for rheumatism and applied Comments
to ulcers, sores, swelling and cuts (Schmelzer
and Horsten 2001). Leaves are emollient and Propagation of Viola odorata is by division, cut-
used internally and externally for cancer. An tings from well-developed runners or seeds.
infusion of the leaves relieves congestion and
sore throat, makes a hot compress and, in larger
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 Viola tricolor

Scientific Name Live-in-idleness, Love-in-idleness, Love-lies-

bleeding, Loving Idol, Meet-me-in-the-entry,
Viola tricolor L. Miniature Pansy, Pansy, Pink-eyed-john, Pink-o-
the-eye, Stepmother, Three-colour Violet,
Three-coloured violet, Three-faces-under-a-hood,
Synonyms Trinitaria, Trinity Violet, Wild Pansy

Jacea tricolor (L.) Opiz, Mnemion agreste Fourr.,

Mnemion alpestre Fourr., Mnemion contemptum Vernacular Names
Fourr., Mnemion elegans Spach, Mnemion graci-
lescens Fourr., Mnemion nemausense Fourr., Albanian: Menekshe
Mnemion sagotii Fourr., Mnemion segetale Brazil: Amor Perfeito, Amor Perfeito Bravo,
Fourr., Mnemion sudeticum Fourr., Mnemion Violeta-tricolor (Portuguese)
tenellum Webb, Mnemion tricolor Spach, Chinese: San Se Jin
Mnemion variatum Fourr., Viola tricolor var. Czech: Maceška trojbarevná, Maceška trojbarevná
hortensis DC. pravá, Violka trojbarevná
Danish: Almindelig stedmoderblomst, Almindelig
Stedmorsblomst, Stedmoderblomst, Vild sted-
Family moder, Vild stedmoderblomst
Dutch: Driekleurig Viooltje
Violaceae Estonian: Aaskannike
Esperanto: Penseo, Trikoloreto, Violo trikolora
Faroe Islands: stjúkmóðurblóma, trílitt blákolla
Common/English Names Finnish: Äidinsilmä, Keto-orvokki
French: Fleur De La Trinité, Pensée, Pensée
Banewort, Banwort, Bird’s Eye, Bouncing Bet, Sauvage, Pensée tricolore, Violette Tricolore
Bullweed, Call-me-to-you, Cat’s Face, Cuddle German: Acker-Stiefmütterchen, Acker-Veilchen,
Me, Cull Me, European Wild Pansy, Field Ackerstiefmütterchen, Ackerveilchen, Dreifaltig-
Pansy, Garden Pansy, Flower-o-luce, keitskraut, Feld-Stiefmütterchen, Freisamkraut,
Godfathers And Godmothers, Heart’s Ease, Gewöhnliches Stiefmütterchen, Stiefmütterchen,
Heartease, Hens-and-roosters, Herb Constancy, Stiefmütterchenkraut, Wildes Stiefmütterchen
Jack-jump-up-and-kiss-me, Johnny Jumpup, Hungarian: Háromszínű árvácska
Johnny-jump-up, Jump-up, Kiss-her-in-the- Icelandic: Þrenningarfjóla, Þrilit fjóla
buttery, Kit-run-about, Kit-run-in-the-fields, Italian: Viola, Viola Del Pensiero

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 808
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_69, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Viola tricolor 809

Japanese: Sanshiki-Sumire The attractive small flowers are added to salads

Norwegian: Dag og natt, Kattaue, Natt og dag, or used as a garnish and to embellish desserts—
Sjukmorblom, Skjereblom, Stedmorsblomst, frosted cakes, sorbets and iced drinks. They also
Stemorsblom, Stemorsblomst, Stømorblom, can be crystallized, eaten as a sweet treat and
Styggmorblom used on cakes, cookies or creamy desserts. Some
Polish: Bratek, Fiołek trójbarwny common recipe names include crystallized vio-
Portuguese: Amor Perfeito lets, triple violet salads, violet-lavender sorbet
Romanian: trei fraţi pătaţi and wild spring flower salad. The leaves are tasty
Russian: Anjutiny Glazki when cooked like spinach, and a tea can be made
Slovašcina: Divja vijolica, Sorta, Vijolica divja from the leaves. Studies by Kelley et al. (2003)
Slovencina: Fialka trojfarebná found that edible flowers of Viola tricolor ‘Helen
Spanish: Flor de la Trinidad, Pensamiento, Mount’ stored in polyethylene bags at 0 and
Pensamiento salvaje Trinitaria 2.5 °C for 2 weeks still retained the highest
Swedish: Natt och dag, Styvmorsviol, Trefal- quality and were marketable.
dighetsblomster
Thai: dtôn paen see
Turkish: Hercai Meneks, Şifalı Menekşe Botany
Vietnamese: Hoa tím ba màu; Hoa tím tam sắc; Hoa
bướm; Hoa bươm bướm; Tư tường; Hoa păng xê Annual or biennial herb with decumbent, angular
stems, often with short retrorse hairs and fibrous
roots. Leaves broad-ovate to narrow-elliptic,
Origin/Distribution 10–35 mm long, 5–15 mm wide, margins
obtusely toothed to crenate; petiole 10–20 mm
The plant is indigenous to Europe and West Asia long; stipules to 4 cm long, deeply lobed (Plates 1,
eastwards to Western Siberia and India. It has 2 and 3). Scapes 3–8 cm long axillary, bracteoles
been introduced into North America, Australia just below the flower. Sepals 5 broadly lanceo-
and other subtropical and temperate countries. late, ciliate with prominent basal appendages,
6–10 mm long. Petals 5 broadly lanceolate, with
earlike lobes at the base, 5–10 mm long, the
Agroecology lower shortly spurred, variable coloured, white,
violet, yellow, creamy-white with yellow-orange
Heartease is a cool climate natural woodland base, sometimes with violet around the edges
plant that grows in temperate to sub- temperate (Plates 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). Capsules, smooth, egg
areas. They are tough and adaptable and occur shaped, 5–8 mm long; seeds light brown.
commonly in pastures and in disturbed moist
sites. They are easily grown in full sun or shade,
but a position in semi-shade is best, with moist,
well-drained, humus-rich soils. Depending on the
growth form, propagation is from seed, by divi-
sion, or from basal cuttings.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Young tender leaves, flower buds and flowers are

eaten raw or cooked (Tanaka 1976; Launert 1981;
Facciola 1990; Barash 1993; Mackin 1993;
Lauderdale and Evans 1999; Anonymous 2012). Plate 1 Heartease flowers and leaves
810 Violaceae

Plate 5 White-purple variegated flowers

Plate 2 Deep purple flowers and leaves

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Plant Phytochemicals

Violaxathin, auroxanthin and flavoxanthin were

isolated from the flowers (Karrer and Rutschmann
1944). A cis-isomer of violaxanthin 15-cis-
(=central-mono-cis)-violaxanthin and natural
violaxanthin (5,6,5′,6′-diepoxy-5,6,5′,6′-tetrahydro-
β,β-caroten-3,3′-diol) were found in the flowers
(Molnár and Szabolcs 1980). Fatty acid esters of
violaxanthin and the minor xanthophylls were
found in the petals of Viola tricolor (Hansmann
and Kleinig 1982). β-hydroxy acids (12:0, 14:0,
Plate 3 Yellow flowers and leaves 16:0) were found to be involved in the esterifica-
tion in addition to the usual acids (12:0, 14:0,
16:0, 18:0). Saito et al. (1983) reported the antho-
cyanins violanin, platyconin and violanin chlo-
ride in V. tricolor flowers. Platyconin was found
to be delphinidin 3-rutinoside-5-glucoside with
two mols of glucosylcaffeic acid attached to the
glucose moiety of rutinose in a branched-chain
arrangement. Radics et al. (1983) confirmed the
geometrical configuration of central-mono-
cis-violaxanthin in V. tricolor. From blossoms of
Viola tricolor, four new naturally occurring geomet-
rical isomers of violaxanthin (5,6,5′,6′-diepoxy-
5,6,5′,6′-tetrahydro-β,β-carotene-3,3′-diol) were
isolated (Molnár et al. 1985). The new pigments
were shown to be the 9,9′-, 9,13′-, 9,15- and
9,13-di-cis violaxanthins.
The aerial parts of V. tricolor were found to
Plate 4 Purple-yellow bicoloured flowers contain saponins (5.98 %), mucilages (14.20 %)
Viola tricolor 811

and total carotenoids (18.46 mg/100 g); 8 carot- varv F, varv H, vitri A and cycloviolacin O2], was
enoids: violaxanthin (352 μg/100 g), antheraxan- isolated from Viola tricolor (Tang et al. 2010).
thin (711 μg/100 g), lutein (1575 μg/100 g), The cyclotides could be classified into two
zeaxanthin (1488 μg/100 g), α-cryptoxanthin subfamilies: vitri B, C, D, E, varv Hm, He, H, A,
(66 μg/100 g), β-carotene 5,6-epoxide D, E and F belonging to the Möbius subfamily
(133 μg/100 g), β-carotene (1678 μg/100 g) and and vitri A, F and cO2 belonging to the bracelet
9Z-β-carotene (312 μg/100 g) (Toiu et al. 2009a). subfamily.
The main flavonoid compounds of heartease The following phenolic acids were extracted
were identified as rutin (3-O-rhamnogluco- from the herbage of both species harvested
sylquercetin), violanthin (6-C-rhamnosyl-8- during flowering local species Viola tricolor
C-glucosylapigenin), vicenin-2 (6-C-glucosyl- and Viola arvensis: caffeic, protocatechuic,
8-C-glucosylapigenin), orientin (8-C-glucosyl- genistic, p-hydroxybenzoic, 4-hydroxyphenyl-
apigenin) and isoorientin (6-C-glucosylapigenin) acetic, p-coumaric (trans and cis forms), vanillic
(Vukics et al. 2008a). The two main flavonoid and salicylic acids (Komorowski et al. 1983).
components in V. tricolor were violanthin Bioactive compounds reported in V. tricolor
(6-C-glucosyl-8-C-rhamnosyl apigenin) and included rutin, quercetin, luteolin, luteolin-7-
rutin (3-O-rutinosyl quercetin) (Vukics et al. glycoside, scoparin, saponarin, saponaretin, vio-
2008a, d). Heartsease herb contained 420 μg/g lantin, orientin and isoorientin, vicenin-2, vitexin,
rutin. Four flavonol O-glycosides, nine flavone- violeoxanthin, lutein, luteinepoxide and neoxan-
C-glycosides and three flavone C, O-glycosides thin; triterpene saponins based on uriolic acid
were characterized in heartsease methanol extract and containing galactose and galacturonic acid as
(Vukics et al. 2008c). All of these glycoconjugates the sugar component; phenolcarboxylic acids and
were found to be the derivatives of six aglycones: the derivatives thereof: trans-coumaric acid, cis-
apigenin, chrysoeriol, isorhamnetin, kaempferol, coumaric acid, gentisic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic
luteolin and quercetin. acid, 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, trans-caffeic acid,
The expression of cyclotides, macrocyclic protocatechuic acid, vanillic acid, salicylic acid
plant peptides, in six violets, Viola cotyledon, and derivatives; polysaccharides based on glu-
V. biflora, V. arvensis, V. tricolor, V. riviniana and cose, galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, xylose and
V. odorata, was found to express notably complex uronic acid; vitamins E and C; and triacylglyc-
mixtures, with single species containing ></50 erol (Hansel et al. 1996).
cyclotides (Göransson et al. 2003). Cyclotides, V. tricolor was found to have polyphenolic
small lipophilic proteins having a head-to-tail compounds such as flavonoids, polyphenol
cyclic backbone, with six cysteine residues carboxylic acids, anthocyanins and proanthocya-
being involved in three disulfide bonds (Ireland nins (Toiu et al. 2007b, 2008a). The aerial parts
et al. 2008), found in Viola tricolor included cyclo- of V. tricolor were found to have 112.23–
GESCVWIPCITSAIGCSCKSKVCYRNGIPC 112.27 mg/100 g of salicylic acid (Toiu et al.
(vitri A), cyclo-GETCVGGTCNTPGCSCSWPV- 2008a). The flavonoids were the major polyphe-
CTRNGLPVC (varv A) and cyclo-GETCV- nolic compounds in all the 10 % tinctures of air-
GGTCNTPGCSCSWPVCTRNGLPIC (varv E) dried flowering aerial parts from three Viola
(Svangård et al. 2004). The cyclotide violapep- species, the richest species being V. tricolor
tide I isolated from V. tricolor was found to have (Toiu et al. 2008b). V. tricolor was found to contain
haemolytic activity (Schoepke et al. 1993). flavonoids (2.108 %), polyphenol carboxylic acids
Cyclotides cycloviolacin O2, kalata B1 and vary (0.921 %) and salicylic acid (91.83 × 10–3 %) and
peptide A were isolated from V. tricolor (Xu et al. trace amounts of caffeic acid derivatives. Various
2008). A suite of 14 cyclotides, comprising seven flavonol aglycones, flavon-glycosides, flavonol-
novel cyclotides [vitri B, vitri C, vitri D, vitri E, glycosides and flavonol-diglycosides were
vitri F, varv Hm and varv He], together with detected in herbs of Solidago canadensis
seven known cyclotides [varv A, varv D, varv E, chemovarieties, in leaves of Filipendula ulmaria
812 Violaceae

and in the herb of Viola tricolor species (Papp were palmitic acid (21.62 %), phytol (7.27 %),
et al. 2004). hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (4.06 %), n-tricosane
Essential oil of fresh and dried V. tricolor herb (3.05 %), n-nonanal (1.99 %), myristic acid
was found to comprise sesquiterpenes (59.27 %, (1.72 %), n-pentacosane (1.56 %), methyl salicy-
4.79 %), aliphatics (29.81 %, 42.21 %), shikimic late (1.22 %) and β-ionone (1.00 %). Aliphatics
acid derivatives (8.05 %, 11.20 %) and monoter- were the major components (42.21 %), followed
penes (0.30 %, 2.23 %), respectively (Toiu et al. by shikimic acid derivatives (11.20 %), sesquiter-
2009b). Components of the essential oil of penes (4.79 %) and monoterpenes (2.32 %).
fresh and dried V. tricolor were respectively as Plastoglobules were isolated in pure form
follows: limonene (0.12 %, nd (not detected)), from petals of the heartease, V. tricolor
2-pentyl-furan (nd, 0.71 %), eucalyptol (tr (Hansmann and Sitte 1982). Triacylglycerols
(traces), nd), α-methyl-benzene ethanol (0.15 %, (57 %) as well as carotenoids such as violaxan-
nd), n-nonanal (0.33 %,1.99 %), 2-methyl benzyl thin and their esters (23 %) were the main con-
alcohol (5.64 %, nd), menthone (nd, 0.43 %), stituents. Polar lipids, proteins, alkanes, phytyl
neo-menthol (nd, 0.38 %), methyl salicylate esters, plastid quinones and steryl esters were
(1.47 %, 1.22 %), β-cyclocitral (tr, 0.51 %), also detected in smaller amounts. The mean
thymol (tr, nd), geranyl acetone (nd, 0.98 %), diameter of chromoplast globules was 280 nm
trans-β-farnesene (4.01 %, nd), β-ionone (0.13 %, (corresponding to a volume of 11.7 × 106 nm3)
1.0 %), β-bisabolene (tr, nd), lauric acid (nd, and their buoyant density 0.93 g/cm−3. The plas-
0.47 %), spathulenol (0.76 %, nd), caryophyllene toglobules were devoid of a surrounding unit
(0.18 %, nd), bisabolol oxide B (2.28 %, nd), membrane.
bisabolol oxide (43.25 %, nd), bisabolol oxide A
(7.78 %, nd), myristic acid (0.30 %, 1.72 %),
hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (1 %, 4.06 %), benzyl Antioxidant Activity
salicylate (0.63 %, nd), farnesyl acetone C
(nd, 0.73 %), palmitic acid (12.57 %, 21.62 %), Studies in Britain also confirmed the antioxidant
phytol (6.46 %, 7.27 %), linoleic acid (1.50 %, activities of Viola tricolor (Mantle et al. 2000).
0.29 %), n-tricosane (2.37 %,3.05 %) and Heartease herb was found to be a promising
n-pentacosane (4.51 %, 1.56 %). source of natural antioxidants (Vukics et al.
Thirty-five compounds representing 97.76 % 2008b). A significant correlation was found
of the total essential oil were obtained from fresh between the flavonoid content and antioxidant
aerial parts of V. tricolor, as follows: 8 sesquiter- activity as determined by the trolox equivalent
penes, 17 aliphatics, 6 shikimic acid derivatives antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay. The flavo-
and 4 monoterpenes. Sesquiterpenes were the noid content of heartease was 0.50 g rutin/100 g
major component (59.27 %), followed by ali- sample, anthocyanin content 0.02 g cyanidin-3-
phatics (29.81 %), shikimic acid derivatives glucoside per 100 g sample and antioxidant activ-
(8.05 %) and monoterpenes (0.30 %) (Anca et al. ity IC50 value of 4.17 × 10−5 g/mL. The antioxidant
2009). The main components found were bisabo- capacity of different flavonoid fractions of
lone oxide (43.25 %), palmitic acid (12.57 %), heartease was determined using both Trolox
bisabolol oxide A (7.78 %), phytol (6.46 %), equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) and
2-methyl benzyl alcohol (5.64 %), n-pentacosane 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in vitro
(4.51 %), trans-β-farnesene (4.01 %), n-tricosane antioxidant assays (Vukics et al. 2008a). The
(2.37 %) and bisabolol oxide B (2.28 %). In the highest electron-donor capacity was found for
essential oil obtained from dried aerial parts the major flavonoid component (rutin), whereas
of 24 compounds representing 60.53 % of the one minor component-rich flavonoid fraction
total oil were identified as follows: 14 aliphatics, exhibited the highest hydrogen-donor activity.
4 shikimic acid derivatives, 2 sesquiterpenes and Alcoholic extract obtained from Viola tricolor
4 monoterpenes. The main components found showed the highest concentration on flavonoid
Viola tricolor 813

compounds among three medicinal plants tested U251, MDA-MB-231, A549, DU145 and BEL-
(Durdun et al. 2009). The Fe2+ chelating abilities 7402 (Tang et al. 2010). Three cyclotides, vitri A,
of its alcoholic extract was the highest at 63.35 %. vitri F and cycloviolacin O2, and all bracelet
Fe3+ reducing capacity was higher for ethanolic cyclotides were the most cytotoxic with IC50
extract of Viola tricolor (1.3 mM FeSO4 values of 2.74–17.05 μg/mL against all tested
equivalent/g of dry plant). Mo(VI) reducing cancer cell lines. The IC50 values of the Möbius
power of the extract was found to be 159.32 μg cyclotides against U 251 vary from 37/18 to
ascorbic acid/g and lipid peroxidation of the 74.39 μg/mL. The cytotoxic activity of the
alcoholic fraction was 68.91 %. cyclotides did not correlate well with their hae-
Gonçalves et al. (2012) demonstrated the anti- molytic activity (human type O red blood cells),
oxidant capacity of V. tricolor fractions by 1, indicating that different interactions, most likely
1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging with membranes, were involved for cytotoxic and
method and thiobarbituric acid-reactive species haemolytic activities.
(TBARS) assay. IC50 DPPH values ranged from
13.40 to 14.18 mg/mL in flowers and 32.84–
284.87 μg/mL for the leaves/roots. The fractions Antimicrobial Activity
showed inhibition against TBARS, following
order ethyl acetate fractions > butanolic frac- The infusion, decoction and ethanol extract of
tions > dichloromethane fractions. In the flower V. tricolor herb were found to be most effective
fractions the phenolic content varied from 12.84 against the tested microorganisms: Staphylococcus
to 0.23 mg/g and 7.49–0.63 mg/g for leaves/ aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Bacillus
roots. HPLC results indicated a very high content cereus, Enterococcus faecalis and Candida albi-
of rutin (177.46 mg/g) in this species. V. tricolor cans (Witkowska-Banaszczak et al. 2005).
flower extract with IC50 of 16 μg/mL was found
to have better antioxidant capacity than the
standard ascorbic acid (IC50 of 16.57 μg/mL) Anti-inflammatory Activity
(Piana et al. 2013b). This was attributed to the
presence of amounts of polyphenols (109.32 mg Viola tricolor (aerial parts) extract (50 mg
of Gallic acid equivalent/g of extract), flavonoids tincture/100 g b.w.) significantly reduced
and condensed tannins. polymorphonuclear leucocytes and monocytes
percentages and the activation of circulating
phagocytes in male Wistar rats (Toiu et al. 2007a).
Anticancer Activity There was a slight decrease of nitric oxide syn-
thesis. This was attributed to its high antioxidant
The methanol extract of V. tricolor exhibited property. The study concluded that Viola tricolor
>90 % inhibition of mouse leukaemia cells extract had anti-inflammatory effect on bone
L1210 in vitro (Goun et al. 2002). Among the marrow acute phase response.
small lipophilic proteins isolated from V. tricolor, Viola tricolor gel was found to have an antino-
cytotoxic compounds showing the lowest IC50 ciceptive and anti-inflammatory effect in the
values against two human cancer cell lines, ultraviolet-B-induced burn (Piana et al. 2013a).
U-937 GTB (lymphoma) and RPMI-8226/s This was reflected by changes in threshold in
(myeloma), were three cyclotides: vitri A the static and dynamic mechanical allodynia
(IC50 = 0.6 μM and IC50 = 1 μM, respectively), (Imax = 100 and 49 %, respectively), paw
varv A (IC50 = 6 μM and IC50 = 3 μM, respec- oedema (Imax = 61 %) and myeloperoxidase
tively) and varv E (IC50 = 4 μM in both cell lines) activity (Imax = 89 %) models. Such effects may
(Svangård et al. 2004). Several of the cyclotides be attributed, in part, to rutin, salicylic and chlo-
isolated from V. tricolor exhibited cytotoxic rogenic acids and others compounds found in
activities against five human cancer cell lines: this species.
814 Violaceae

Immunosuppressive Activity Photoprotective Activity

An aqueous Viola tricolor herbal extract inhib- Among the ethyl acetate extracts of 16 medicinal
ited proliferation of activated lymphocytes by plants tested, extracts of leaves of Dracocephalum
reducing IL-2 cytokine secretion without affect- moldavica and flowering tops of Viola tricolor
ing IL-2 receptor expression (Hellinger et al. had the highest sun protection factors (SPFs), i.e.
2014). Similarly, effector functions were affected 24.79 and 25.69, respectively (Khazaeli and
as indicated by the reduction of IFN-γ and TNF-α Mehrabani 2008). Both plants contained high
production; degranulation capacity of activated amounts of phenolic compounds and flavonoids
lymphocytes remained unaffected. Cyclotides which could be the cause for their high SPF.
were identified as the bioactive components V. tricolor was reported to contain flavonoids,
including violanthin, rutin, violaquercitrin and
salicylates. Both salicylates and rutin contained in
Antidermatitic Activity the plant had been reported to be anti-inflammatory
agents. Due to the high concentration of rutin in
A double-blind, vehicle-controlled, randomized, the flowers, V. tricolor may be used to prevent
half-side comparison study of 88 patients with UV-induced oxygen free radical generation
mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis, treatment with (Khazaeli and Mehrabani 2008). V. tricolor is an
an ointment containing Mahonia aquifolium, especially valued remedy for treating skin diseases.
Viola tricolor and Centella asiatica reduced the Used both internally and topically, it is good for
primary and secondary endpoints slightly more eczema, psoriasis and acne.
than the base cream which was used as vehicle;
however, the differences were not statistically
significant (Klövekorn et al. 2007). However, a Diuretic Activity
subanalysis indicated that the cream might be
effective under conditions of cold and dry weather. A tincture of V. tricolor aerial parts showed a
moderate diuretic activity (diuretic index 1.103,
saluretic index of Na+ 1.181 and saluretic index
Haemolytic Activity of K+ 1.365) (Toiu et al. 2009a).

A protein designed as violapeptide I was reported

to be responsible for the haemolytic property of Pediculicidal Activity
V. tricolor (Schoepke et al. 1993). Haemolytic
activity of 9 cyclotides from V. tricolor was mea- Viola tricolor was one of four Ukrainian medicinal
sured on human type O blood cells (Tang et al. plants that exhibited significant pediculicidal
2010). The HD50 values calculated were 8.91 μm properties (Iryna and Tarasyuk 2009). The rate
for vitri A, 225.90 μm for vitri B, 11.53 μm for of lice Pediculus humanus death amounted to
vitri C, 4.29 μm for vitri D, 27.06 μm for vitri E, 84.00–100 % when test insects were plunged into
10.00 um for vitri F, 6.96 μm for varv E, 33.04 μm the ethanol extract. Pediculicidal effect of the
for varv F and 7.52 μm for varv H. Vitri B showed ethanol extract persisted up to a year.
the least haemolysis and vitri D was the most potent.

Contraindications
Antithrombin Activity
A case of haemolysis in a 9-month-old infant with
V. tricolor plant extract exhibited 90 % or higher a history of glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase
activity in the inhibition of thrombin (Goun (G6PD) deficiency was reported in Tehran, Iran,
et al. 2002). which was caused by ingestion of boiled watery
Viola tricolor 815

extract of Viola tricolor (Behmanesh and Abdollahi used as a symbol of Athens. It is a popular and
2002). After 24 h of routine interventions, the attractive ornamental plant in gardens and pots.
infant recovered his health.

Comments
Traditional Medicinal Uses
Studies found that violets of the section Melanium
Heartease is regarded as anodyne, antiasthmatic, (zinc violets, Viola lutea ssp. calaminaria and
anti-inflammatory, cardiac, demulcent, depura- V. lutea ssp. westfalica; heartsease or wild pansy,
tive, diaphoretic, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, Viola tricolor; and mountain pansy, Viola lutea)
laxative and vulnerary (Uphof 1968; Grieve are heavy-metal excluders and not accumulators
1971; Lust 1974; Chiej 1984; Launert 1981; Toiu (Hermann et al. 2013). When these violets were
et al. 2009b; Hellinger et al. 2014; Piana et al. grown in low-metal soils, higher concentrations
2013a), and the root is emetic (Chiej 1984). of the heavy metals were found in the roots and
Heartsease has been used for a long time in herbal shoots than in the soil, whereas the opposite was
folk medicine as treatments for epilepsy, asthma, seen in samples from high-metal soils. Under all
skin diseases like eczema and cutaneous erup- field conditions examined, the roots of all of
tions; respiratory problems such as bronchitis, these species were colonized by arbuscular
asthma and whooping cough and cold; rheuma- mycorrhizal fungi.
tism, cystitis, bed-wetting and difficulty in pass-
ing urine (Grieve 1971; Launert 1981; Chevallier
1996; Rimkiene et al. 2003; Toiu et al. 2009b). Selected References
Viola tricolor has been reported to have expecto-
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Anonymous (2012) Edible flowers guide. http://www.
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Expression of Viola cyclotides by liquid chromatogra-
phy–mass spectrometry and tandem mass spectrome-
The flowers yield yellow, green and blue-green
try sequencing of intercysteine loops after introduction
dyes. The leaves can be substituted for litmus in of charges and cleavage sites by aminoethylation. Anal
testing for acids and alkalis. Viola tricolor was Biochem 318(1):107–117
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 Viola × wittrockiana

Scientific Name tricolor, V. lutea, V. altaica and others. Most, if

not all, of the parent species are native to Europe
Viola × wittrockiana Gams and Asia Minor.

Synonyms Agroecology

Viola × hortensis auct. Garden Pansy is a cool climate hybrid species.

They are hardy biennial grown as annual. They
are generally very cold hardy plants surviving
Family freezing even during their blooming period.
They can survive light freezes and short periods
Violaceae of snow cover; in areas with prolonged snow
cover, they survive best with a covering of
dry winter mulch. They grow best in sunny or
Common/English Names partially sunny positions in free-draining,
moist, humus-rich, acidic, sandy loams, loams
Garden Pansy, Ladies’ Delight, Pansy, Violas, or clayey loams. Pansies are not very heat
Wittrock’s Violet tolerant; they are best used as a cool season
planting; warm temperatures inhibit blooming,
and hot humid and wet conditions cause rot
Vernacular Names and death.

Japanese: Panji
Portuguese: Amor-Perfeito (Brazil) Edible Plant Parts and Uses
Spanish: Pensamiento
Swedish: Pensé The flowers are edible (MacNicol 1967;
Larkcom 1980; Facciola 1990; Lauderdale and
Evans 1999; Newman and O’Connor 2009; Rop
Origin/Distribution et al. 2012). The attractive flowers are added to
salads or used as a garnish and to embellish
Garden pansy, known only in cultivation, is a desserts—frosted cakes, sorbets and iced drinks.
complex hybrid resulting from extensive hybrid- They also can be crystallized and eaten as a
izing and selecting involving the species of Viola sweet treat.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 818
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_70, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Viola × wittrockiana 819

filaments connate that in a ring around the

Botany ovary and a 3-carpellate compound pistil with a
superior ovary.
Pansies are hardy, small, compact herbaceous
plants growing to 10–20 cm high with a spread of
10 cm. The leaves are deep green, alternate, ovate
to lanceolate–oblong, simple, margins obtusely
toothed to crenate, finely hairy on 10–20 mm
long petiole (Plates 1, 2 and 3). Scapes are axil-
lary, flowers showy and attractive, bisexual, sub-
rotund in outline, 2.5–4.5 cm across. Sepals 5 and
petals 5—the two top petals overlapping slightly,
two side petals and a single bottom petal with a
slight indentation, as well as beards where the
three lower petals join the centre of the flower.
Petals come in a myriad of rainbow pastel colours
and hues from yellow, white, blue, pink, purple,
orange, lavender, rust, bronze or black, in mono- Plate 3 Garden pansy—yellow-brown flowers
tone or multi-toned and with blotches of other
dark colours (Plates 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). Stamens 5

Plate 4 Garden pansy—yellow with dark radiating lines

Plate 1 Garden pansy—yellow flowers and leaves

Plate 2 Garden pansy—pink-maroon flowers Plate 5 Garden pansy—yellow-brown flowers

820 Violaceae

and was accompanied by a second peptide

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties (mass 3096 D).

Rop et al. (2012) reported that edible flowers of

Viola × wittrockiana had a dry matter content Antioxidant Activity
(%w/w) of 10.01 %, crude protein of 6.70 g/kg
and the following elements (mg/kg fresh mass Pansy flowers had total antioxidant capacity of
(FM)): P 514.62 mg, K 3964.84 mg, Ca 486.44 mg, 6.65 g ascorbic acid equivalents/kg FM, total
Mg 190.05 mg, Na 131.97 mg, Fe 7.29 mg, phenolic content of 5.11 g gallic acid/kg FM and
Mn 7.93 mg, Cu 1.95 mg, Zn 11.52 mg and total flavonoid content of 1.99 g rutin/kg FM
Mo 0.84 mg. (Rop et al. 2012).
Garden pansy being a complex hybrid derived Garden pansy (V. × wittrockiana) especially
from Viola tricolor × V. lutea × V. altaica would the flower was found to be a promising source
have similar cyclotides, flavonoids and carot- of natural antioxidants (Vukics et al. 2008).
enoids and other compounds common to its A significant correlation was found between
parents and share similar biological activities. the flavonoid content and antioxidant activity
Four anthocyanins identified in pansy (Viola × as determined by the trolox equivalent antioxi-
wittrockiana) were Dp3RG (delphinidin dant capacity (TEAC) assay. The flavonoid
3-rhamnosylglucoside) (tulipanin), Cy3RG = content of violet pansy flower was 1.21 g
cyanidin-3-O-(6″-O-α-rhamnopyranoside-β-D- rutin/100 g sample, anthocyanin content 1.52 g
glucopyranoside), Dp3pCRG5G = delphinidin-3- cyanidin-3-glucoside per 100 g sample and
(p-coumaroylrutinoside)-5-glucoside (nasunin) antioxidant activity IC50 value of 1.57 × 10−5 g/mL;
and Cy3pCRG5G = cyanidin-3-(p-coumaroyl)- the flavonoid content of violet-white pansy
rutinoside-5-glucoside (Hase et al. 2005). One of flowers was 2.58 g rutin/100 g sample, antho-
the flavonols was identified as quercetin-3-O- cyanin content 0.19 g cyanidin-3-glucoside per
rutinoside (rutin). Yellow and white lines did not 100 g sample and antioxidant activity IC50
contain anthocyanin. Nasunin, rutin and five fla- value of 8.59 × 10−5 g/mL; the flavonoid content
vonols were detected in bluish-coloured flowers. of white pansy flowers was 2.01 g rutin/100 g
Another anthocyanin cyanidin-3-(p-coumaroyl)- sample, anthocyanin content 0.09 g cyanidin-
rutinoside-5-glucoside was detected in reddish- 3-glucoside per 100 g sample and antioxidant
purple line. Pansy petals had been reported to activity IC 50 value of 6.35 × 10 −5 g/mL; and
contain carotenoids and flavonoids (flavonols and the flavonoid content of yellow pansy flowers
anthocyanins) (Gamsjaeger et al. 2011). Using was 2.93 g rutin/100 g sample, anthocyanin
Fourier Transform Raman spectroscopy, the dis- content 0.31 g cyanidin-3-glucoside per 100 g
tribution of carotenoids, anthocyanins and flavo- sample and antioxidant activity IC50 value of
nols from the outer layer of the petals could be 6.98 × 10−5 g/mL.
discriminated, and their relative concentration
could approximately be determined. Viola ×
wittrockiana petals primarily contain a complex Other Uses
mixture of xanthophylls from which violaxanthin
was isolated from the yellow variety. Pansies make good container or above-ground
The most complex cyclotide pattern was planter and as border or edge plants. They are
found in the roots of Viola wittrockiana, the hum- also used as cut flowers. The flowers yield yellow,
ble garden pansy (Trabi and Craik 2004). Of green and blue-green dyes.
Viola species screened in their study, V. wittrocki-
ana produced the largest cyclotide with a mass of
3481 D. The most hydrophobic cyclotides was Comments
also found in V. wittrockiana, specifically in the
root; the main component had a mass of 3126D The pansy is the flower of Osaka, Japan.
Viola × wittrockiana 821

and Canada. Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium/Cornell

Selected References University/Wiley, New York, 1312 pp
MacNicol M (1967) Flower cookery. Fleet Press,
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible New York
plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp Newman SE, O’Connor AS (2009) Edible flowers.
Gamsjaeger S, Baranska M, Schulz H, Heiselmayer P, Colorado State University Extension. Fact sheet
Musso M (2011) Discrimination of carotenoid and no. 7.237. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/garden/
flavonoid content in petals of pansy cultivars (Viola × 07237.pdf
wittrockiana) by FT-Raman spectroscopy. J Raman Phillips R, Rix M (1998) Salad plants for your garden.
Spectrosc 42:1240–1247 Pan, London, 96 pp
Grae I (1974) Nature’s colors—dyes from plants. Rop O, Mlcek J, Jurikova T, Neugebauerova J, Vabkova J
MacMillan Publishing Co., New York (2012) Edible flowers—a new promising source of
Hase N, Matsuura S, Yamaguchi M (2005) HPLC evalua- mineral elements in human nutrition. Molecules
tion of anthocyanins and flavonols in relation to the 17:6672–6683
flower color of pansy (Viola × wittrockiana Gams). Trabi M, Craik DJ (2004) Tissue-specific expression
Hortic Res 4(2):125–129 of head-to-tail cyclized miniproteins in Violaceae
Larkcom J (1980) Salads all the year round. Littlehampton and structure determination of the root cyclotide
Book Services Ltd., London, 192 pp Viola hederacea root cyclotide1. Plant Cell
Lauderdale C, Evans E (1999) Edible flowers. NC State 16(8):2204–2216
University Horticulture Information leaflets 1/99 HIL- Vukics V, Kery A, Guttman A (2008) Analysis of polar anti-
8513. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/hil/hil-8513.html oxidants in Heartsease (Viola tricolor L.) and Garden
Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium (1976) Hortus third. A pansy (Viola × wittrockiana Gams.). J Chromatogr Sci
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States 46(9):823–827
 Hemerocallis fulva

Scientific Name Estonian: Ruuge Päevaliilia

Finnish: Punakeltainen Päivänlilja, Rusopäivänlilja
Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L. French: Hémérocalle Fauve
German: Bahnwärter-Taglilie, Braunrote Taglilie,
Gelbrote Taglilie, Rotgelbe Taglilie
Synonyms India: Swarnlili
Italian: Giglio Di San Giuseppe
Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus var. fulva L.; Japanese: Akino-Wasuregusa, Hama-Kanzō,
Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus var. fulvus L. Oni-Kanzo, Yabu-Kanzo
Korean: Heutowanchuri, Khnwonchuri,
Nomnamul, Wangwonchuli, Wonch’uri
Family Norwegian: Brun Daglilje
Polish: Liliowiec Rdzawy
Xanthorrhoeaceae, also placed in Russian: Krasodnev Buro-Želtyj, Krasodnev Ryžij
Hemerocallidaceae and Liliaceae Slovašcina: Maslenica Rumenorjava,
Rumenorjava Maslenica
Slovencina: Ľaliovka Žltá
Common/English Names Swedish: Branddaglilja, Brunröd Daglilja
Thai: DtôN-Jam-Chàai
Coastal Day Lily, Common Yellow Day Lily, Vietnamese: Hoa Hiên; Huyên Thảo; Hoàng
Ditch Daylily, Fulvous Daylily, Orange Daylily, Hoa; Kim Trâm Thái; Lộc Thông
Tawny Daylily, Tiger Daylily

Origin/Distribution
Vernacular Names
The species is native to East Asia—China
Chinese: Xuan Cao, Chang Ban Xuan Cao, (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou,
Chang Guan Xuan Cao, Chang Lu Xuan Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi,
Cao Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Taiwan,
Czech: Denivka Forrestova, Denivka Plavá Xizang, Yunnan, Zhejiang). It is cultivated in
Danish: Brun Daglilje, Rødgul Daglije, Rødgul China, Taiwan, Korea, India, Vietnam and Japan
Daglilje and, as an ornamental, in many temperate and
Dutch: Bruine Daglelie subtropical countries.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 822
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_71, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Hemerocallis fulva 823

Agroecology

It is a cool climate species. In its native area, it

occurs naturally in forests, thickets, grasslands
and stream-sides from 300 to 2,500 m elevations.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The dried flowers are used as spice and root

tubers, young leaves and young shoots and flower
buds are eaten as vegetable (Read 1946; Polunin
1969; Harrington 1974; Stuart 1979; Facciola
1990; Erhardt 1992; Roberts 2000; Woodward
2000; Hu 2005; Tanaka and Nguyen 2007;
Newman and O’Connor 2009). The thick petals
can be eaten raw. The flowers can also be dried
and used as a thickener in soups or as relish. Tuber
especially the young tubers are eaten cooked.

Botany

A herbaceous perennial, deciduous in winter, Plate 1 Clumpy of orange day lilies

40–120 cm high, with fleshy globose-ellipsoid,
swollen, tuberous part near tip and stolons
(Plate 1). Leaves are linear, 50–90 cm long and
1–2.8 cm broad. Flowers borne in a helicoidal,
usually 2–5-flowered cyme with linear scale-like
bracts, pedicel short, 5 mm long (Plates 1–2),
Flowers unscented, opening in morning and closing
in evening of same day. Perianth single, occasionally
double, orange to reddish orange; tube 2–4 cm;
segments spreading, with a purple or reddish
orange patch towards the tube and pale central
line, 5–12 × 1–3 cm; margin sometimes crinkly
undulate, inner segments wider than outer ones.
Plate 2 Close-up of flower and buds
Filaments dark orange colour with purplish-black
anthers. Capsule ellipsoid, 3-valved, 2–2.5 cm by ash 0.9 % and carbohydrate 60 % (rich in sugars)
1.2–1.5 cm dehisces at maturity to release the seeds. (Read 1946).
From the methanol and aqueous methanol
extracts of lyophilized edible Hemerocallis
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties cv. Stella de Oro flowers, kaempferol, quercetin
and isorhamnetin 3-O-glycosides (1–9);
Flower Phytochemicals phenethyl β-D-glucopyranoside (10); orcinol
β-D-glucopyranoside (11); phloretin 2′-O-β-D-
The flowers were reported to have the following glucopyranoside (12); phloretin 2′-O-β-D-
nutrient composition: protein 9.3 %, fat 25 %, xylopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-β-D-glucopyranoside (13);
824 Xanthorrhoeaceae

a new naphthalene glycoside, stelladerol (14); samples. Also, air-drying resulted in a higher
and an amino acid (longitubanine A) (15) were loss of carotenoids than freeze-drying.
isolated (Cichewicz and Nair 2002). Three poly- Konar and Stanley (1969) reported a peak in
phenols, n-butyl 4-trans-O-caffeoylquinate (1), cellulase activity in the pistil just prior to anthesis,
kaempferol 3-O-{α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 6) followed by a 62 % diminution in the enzyme
[α-l - rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 2)]}-β- D - galacto- activity at the time of anthesis. Cellulase activity,
pyranoside (2) and chrysoeriol 7-O-[β-D- per mg protein, was about twice as high in the
glucuronopyranosyl(1 → 2)(2-O-trans-feruloyl)- upper (stigma) portion as in the middle and lower
β-D-glucuronopyranoside (3), together with four one-third of the pistil tissues. No pectinase activity
caffeoylquinic acid derivatives (4–7); eight was detected in the pistil at all stages of develop-
known flavones (8–15); one naphthalene glyco- ment. Extractable pectinase occurred at a maximum
side, stelladerol (16); one tryptophan derivative level in the very young ovary and decreased rap-
(17); adenosine (18); and guanosine (19) were idly as the ovary developed. Cellulase remained
isolated from the bioactive fractions of the at a moderate level of activity throughout the
aqueous ethanol extract of H. fulva flowers development of the ovary, except for an increase
(Lin et al. 2011). of about 50 % at pollination. Soluble cellulase
Various forms of Hemerocallis fulva differed and pectinase were found in mature pollen.
in their relative anthocyanin:carotenoid ratios Dynamin, a protein with molecular weight
and the type of anthocyanin present (Griesbch 100 kD, was isolated from the pollens; it was
and Batdorf 1995). Hemerocallis fulva fm. fulva found to have GTPase activity (Wu et al. 2002).
contained a single anthocyanin (cyanidin-3- Tubulins of high purity (93.7 %) were prepared
rutinoside) and two carotenoids (zeaxanthin and from H. fulva pollen grains Liao et al. 2006). The
lutein). Hemerocallis fulva fm. rosea contained a molecular weight of α-tubulin and β-tubulin
single anthocyanin (cyanidin-3-rutinoside) and from daylily pollen was about 56 and 58 kD.
traces of carotenoids. Hemerocallis fulva fm. Circular dichroism spectrum analysis showed
disticha contained a single anthocyanin that the percentage of α-helix, β-sheet and ran-
(delphinidin-3-rutinoside) and two carotenoids dom coil of daylily tubulin is 27.24 %, 24.48 %
(zeaxanthin and lutein). and 48.28 %, respectively, indicating a typical
Twenty-one pigments were found in the flow- feature of globulin. Motor dynamin-like protein
ers of daylily (Hemerocallis disticha), of which with molecular weight of 100 kD was purified
14 carotenoids were identified, including neo- and identified from daylily (Hemerocallis fulva)
xanthin, violaxanthin, violeoxanthin, lutein- pollens (Liao et al. 2007). It contained trypto-
5,6-epoxide, lutein, zeaxanthin, phan and tyrosine residues.
β-cryptoxanthin, all- trans -β-carotene and
their cis isomers (Tai and Chen 2000). Prior
to hot-air-drying (50 °C) or freeze-drying, some Leaf Phytochemicals
of the daylily flowers were subjected to soaking
in a sodium sulphite solution (1 %) for 4 h. Aqueous methanol extracts of fresh
Under either the hot-air- or the freeze-drying Hemerocallis fulva leaves afforded 1′,2′,3′,4′-
treatment, the amounts of most carotenoids tetrahydro-5′-deoxy-pinnatanine, pinnatanine,
were higher in the soaked daylily flowers than roseoside, phlomuroside, lariciresinol, adenosine,
in those that were not soaked. With hot-air-dry- quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucoside, quercetin 3,7-O-
ing, the amount of cis carotenoids showed a β-D-diglucopyranoside, quercetin 3-O-α-L-
higher yield in soaked samples than in non- rhamnopyransol-(1 → 6)-β-D-glucopyranosol-7-
soaked samples. However, with freeze-drying, O-β-D-glucopyranoside, isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-
only a minor change of each carotenoid was 6′-acetylglucopyranoside and isorhamnetin-3-O-
observed for both soaked and nonsoaked β-D-6′-acetylgalactopyranoside (Zhang et al. 2004).
Hemerocallis fulva 825

Two novel amino acid amides connected with 1-(3-hydroxymethyl-2,5-dihydro-2-furyl) and

the fructopyranose, kwansonine A (1) and hydro-1,5-dioxa-8a-aza-asym-indacen-7-
kwansonine B (2), together with three known hydroxy-8-one.
amino acid amides, (longitubanine A, longit- Two steroidal saponins, hemeroside A and
ubanine B and pinnatanine) from the methanol B, were isolated from the aerial part of
leaf extract of Hemerocallis fulva var. sempervi- Hemerocallis fulva var. kwanso, and their struc-
rens (Ogawa and Konishi 2009). The structures tures were established as 24S-hydroxy-
of 1 and 2 were determined as N(2)-(1-β-D- neotokorogenin 1-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl
fructopyranosyl)-N(5)-(2′,5′-dihydro-2′-furyl- 24-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (1) and isorho-
3′-hydroxymethyl)-γ-hydroxyglutamine and deasapogenin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-
N(2)-(1-β-D-fructopyranosyl)-N(5)-(2- [β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 2)]-β-D-glucopyranosyl-
hydroxymethylbutadienyl)-γ-hydroxyglutamine. (1 → 4)-β-D-galactopyranoside (Konishi et al.
2001). Chlorogenic acids, namely, three caf-
feoylquinic acids (3-CQA 3-O-caffeoylquinic
Aerial Plant Parts Phytochemicals acid (I), 4-CQA 4-O-caffeoylquinic acid (III)
and 5-CQA 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (II)),
A 2,5-dimethoxytetrahydrofuran, fulvanol, has three p-coumaroylquinic acids (3-pCoQA
been extracted from Hemerocallis fulva var. 3-O-p-coumaroylquinic (IV), 4-pCoQA 4-O-
kwanso along with fulvanines, 2,5-dihydrofuryl- p -coumaroylquinic (VI) and 5- p CoQA5- O -
γ-lactams (Konishi et al. 1966). The structure of p-coumaroylquinic (V)) and two feruloylquinic
fulvanol was established as 3-hydroxymethyl- acids (3-FQA 3-O-feruloylquinic acid (VII) and
2,5-dimethoxy- 3,4-dihydroxytetrahydrofuran. 4-FQA4-O- feruloylquinic acid (IX)) were identified
The structure of fulvanol was closely related a methanolic extract of freeze-dried Hemerocallis
to the branched-chain tetrofuranose apiose, (Chinese daylily) (Clifford et al. 2006).
occurring in the form of UDP-glycoside or as
other cell components. The chloroform extract of
H. fulva afforded chrysophanol, methyl rhein, Root Phytochemicals
1,8-dihydroxy-3-methoxy-anthraquinone and
rhein (Sarg et al. 1990). The unsaponifiable Two anthraquinones, 7-hydroxy-1,2,8-trimethoxy-
fraction yielded a long chain hydrocarbon, a long 3-methylanthraquinone and 7,8-dihydroxy-1,2-
chain ester, a long chain alcohol and β-sitosterol. dimethoxy-3-methylanthraquinone, were isolated
The aqueous fraction yielded choline. from Hemerocallis fulva roots (Huang et al. 2003).
Three novel 2,5-dihydrofuryl-γ-lactam deriva- The chloroform extract of Hemerocallis fulva
tives, fulvanine A, B and C, were extracted dried roots afforded a novel diterpene named hem-
from H. fulva var. kwanso, along with another erocallal A, a naturally occurring diterpene with a
compound (Inoue et al. 1990). Their respective trans-bicyclo[5.1.0]octane system (Yang et al.
structures were established as 1-(3-hydro- 2003). The butanol extract afforded a new glyco-
xymethyl-2,5-dihydrofuryl)-azacyclopenta-3,5- side named hemerocalloside. Seven new anthra-
dihydroxy-2-one, 1-(3-methyl-2,5-dihydrofuryl) quinones, kwanzoquinones A, B, C, D, E, F and G;
-azacyclopenta-3,5-dihydroxy-2-one and 1-(3- two known anthraquinones, 2-hydroxychrysopha-
methyl-2,5-dihydrofuryl)-azacyclopenta- nol and rhein; one new naphthalene glycoside,
3-hydroxy-5-methoxy-2-one. Another two 5-hydroxydianellin; one known naphthalene
2,5-dihydrofuryl-γ-lactam derivatives, fulvanine glycoside, dianellin; one known flavone,
D and E, were isolated from Hemerocallis 6-methylluteolin; and α-tocopherol were isolated
fulva L. var. kwanso along with fulcanine A, B from Hemerocallis fulva ‘Kwanzo’ roots
and C (Inoue et al. 1994). The structures of (Cichewicz et al. 2002, 2004). From the n-butanol
fulvanine D and E were established as fraction of the ethanol root extract of H. fulva,
826 Xanthorrhoeaceae

9 glycosides were isolated and identified as significantly higher than the others. The total
sweroside, laganin, picraquassioside C, puerarin, flavonoid contents of F1DF, F2DF, F3DF and
3′-methoxypuerarin, 7-hydroxylnaphthalide- D3DF were 20.83, 29.67, 31.65 and 22.30 mg
O-β-D-glucopyranoside, orcinol-3-O-β- QE/100 g db, respectively, with the F1DF level
glucopyranoside, HN saponin F and as the lowest. The reducing power showed that
hederagenin-3-O-β D-glucopyranosyl-(1–3)-α-L- both the fresh and dried flowers were very weak.
arabinopyranoside-28- O -β- D -glucopyranosyl The amounts of most flavonoids in the flowers
ester (Yang et al. 2008). from Hualien were greater than those from
Taidon.
Stelladerol isolated from the flowers was found
Antioxidant Activity to possess strong antioxidant properties, inhibit-
ing lipid oxidation by 94.6 % at 10 μM in an in
Both water and ethanol extracts from hot-air- vitro assay (Cichewicz and Nair 2002). Several of
dried and freeze-dried daylily flowers exhibited the flavonol 3-O-glycoside isolates also demon-
strong antioxidant activity, in terms of total anti- strated modest antioxidant activities at 10 μM.
oxidant activity, reducing capacity, superoxide None of the isolates inhibited cyclooxygenase
anion scavenging activity and chelating activity activity at 100 μM. Compounds roseoside, phlo-
(Que et al. 2007). Freeze-dried flowers had the muroside, lariciresinol and quercetin 3-O-β-D-
strongest antioxidant activity with the highest glucoside, quercetin 3,7-O-β-D-diglucopyranoside,
content of phenolic compounds. Rutin, (+)-catechin quercetin 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyransol-(1 → 6)-β-D-
and gallic acid were identified in daylily flowers glucopyranosol-7-O - β- D -glucopyranoside,
and highly correlated with the antioxidant activi- isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-6′-acetylglucopyranoside
ties. Animal experiment also indicated that that and isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-6′-acetylgalactopyranoside
freeze-dried flowers significantly reduced lipid isolated from the leaves were found to possess
peroxidation and enhanced the activity of anti- strong antioxidant properties, inhibiting lipid
oxidant enzyme in blood and liver of mice. In the oxidation by 86.4, 72.7, 90.1, 79.7, 82.4, 89.3,
macrophage model system, the water extracts 82.2 and 93.2 %, respectively, at 50 μg/mL
from fresh daylily flower, sponge gourd, pea (Zhang et al. 2004). Caffeoylquinic acid
sprout and eggplant exhibited over 80 % inhibi- derivatives isolated from the flowers were
tion on NO (nitric oxide) generation stimulated by found to be the major components with potent
lipopolysaccharide (Bor et al. 2006). The extract free radical scavenging activity in HepG2 cells
from fresh daylily flower that expressed the (Lin et al. 2011).
strongest inhibition on NO production was
attributed to the ability to reduce the inducible
nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) induction. In addition, Antiobesity Activity
the water extracts from fresh daylily flower,
sponge gourd, pea sprout and eggplant also Studies found H. fulva plant extract to be a novel
showed over 40 % inhibitory effect on DNA lipolysis-promoting material that sensitized the
damage induced by sodium nitroprusside in lipolytic response of isolated adipocytes from rat
RAW 264.7 macrophage. subcutaneous fat to catecholamine and suggested
Studies showed that the growth area, flower age that H. fulva could amplify the intracellular sig-
and processing method all significantly influenced nalling pathway related to PKA (phosphokinase A)
the functional components and antioxidant or modify the other mechanism-regulating lipase
activities of H. fulva grown in mountainous areas activity (Mori et al. 2009). The results suggested
of Taiwan (Liu et al. 2010). The total phenols and that H. fulva material could contribute to
anthocyanins of the methanol flower extracts of improvement of adipose mobility in obesity-
F1DF samples were 2.64 mg GAE/100 g dried related disorder or in subcutaneous adiposity and
basis (db) and 0.102 μmol/100 g db, which were to suppression of body fat accumulation.
Hemerocallis fulva 827

Anticancer Activity within 15 s at 3.1 μg/mL (Cichewicz et al. 2002).

However, upon removal of the compound, 20 %
Extracts of Hemerocallis fulva plant parts caused of the immobilized cercariae recovered after
marked dose-dependent growth inhibition of 24 h. In contrast, kwanzoquinone E immobilized
human colon carcinoma cell lines, with IC50 val- cercariae within 12–14 min at 25 μg/mL.
ues in the range of 10–80 μg/ml (Kaneshiro et al. Following removal of the compound, all cercar-
2005). With the HCT116 cell line, the extracts of iae died within 24 h. The adult worms were also
Hemerocallis fulva induced G1 cell cycle arrest immobilized within 16 h by both compounds at
after 48 h of treatment. 50 μg/mL. None of the compounds had an effect
Kwanzoquinones A–C and E, kwanzoquinone on the schistosomula stage.
A and B monoacetates (1a and 2a),
2-hydroxychrysophanol and rhein, isolated from
the roots, inhibited the proliferation of human Antimicrobial Activity
breast, CNS, colon and lung cancer cells with
GI50 values between 1.8 and 21.1 μg/mL H. fulva plant extracts as well as some isolated
(Cichewicz et al. 2004). However, upon exposure compounds showed antimicrobial activity against
of the cancer cells to the GI50 concentrations of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and
the bioactive anthraquinones, most of the cancer Candida albicans (Sarg et al. 1990). Hemerocallis
cell lines exhibited higher than anticipated levels fulva ‘Stella Deora’ leaf extract was found to be
of cell viability. Co-incubation of the anthraqui- most effective in inhibiting in vitro growth of
nones with vitamins C and E increased the viabil- bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia
ity of breast cancer cells. In contrast, vitamins C coli, Bacillus subtilis and Saccharomyces cerevi-
and E potentiated the cytotoxic effects of the siae yeast (Li et al. 2009).
anthraquinones against the colon cancer cells.
None of the anthraquinones inhibited the activity
of topoisomerase. Traditional Medicinal Uses

The results of herbal textural research showed

Sleep-Promoting Activity that the original plants of the Chinese drug
Xuancaogen in ancient times were Hemerocallis
Studies showed that mice fed freeze-dried flow- fulva, H. fulva var. kwanso, H. citrina, H. lilio-
ers of the Akinowasuregusa (Hemerocallis fulva asphodelus and H. minor (Zhang 1993). The
var. sempervirens) had significant sleep- erroneous scientific names of Beihuanghuacai
promoting effect compared with control mice and Shexiangcao in contemporary literature
(Uezu 1998). The slow wave sleep and paradoxi- were corrected. Daylilies have been recorded to
cal sleep of the Hemerocallis-treated mice exhibit antidepressant affects, and it was
increased during the dark period. The ascribed as ‘forget one’s sorrow plant’ in Japan
Hemerocallis feeding did not cause a change in and China (Tobinaga 1999). The plant has
sleep time during the light period. As a result, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative properties (Stuart
there was no significant change in the sleep-time 1979; Erhardt 1992). The flowers are anodyne,
percentage over a 24-h period. antiemetic, antispasmodic, depurative, febrifuge
and sedative (Duke and Ayensu 1985). A flower
extract is used as blood purifier and as an ano-
Antiparasitic Activity dyne for women in childbirth in China (Chopra
et al. 1986). A tea made from boiled rhizomes is
Compound 2-hydroxychrysophanol isolated used as a diuretic (Duke and Ayensu 1985;
from the roots immobilized all cercariae of Erhardt 1992); the rhizome has a folk history of
human pathogenic trematode Schistosoma mansoni use in the treatment of cancer (Duke and Ayensu
828 Xanthorrhoeaceae

1985). The juice from the rhizome is used as an Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC (1986) Glossary of Indian
medicinal plants (Including the supplement). Council
antidote in cases of arsenic poisoning (Erhardt
Scientific Industrial Research, New Delhi, 330 pp
1992). In Korea, the rhizome is used to treat Cichewicz RH, Nair MG (2002) Isolation and character-
oppilation, jaundice, constipation and pneumo- ization of stelladerol, a new antioxidant naphthalene
nia (NPRI-SNU 1998) and has antimicrobial, glycoside, and other antioxidant glycosides from
edible daylily (Hemerocallis) flowers. J Agric Food
tuberculostatic and anthelmintic activity against
Chem 50(1):87–91
parasitic worms that cause filariasis (NPRI- Cichewicz RH, Lim K-C, McKerrow JH, Nair MG (2002)
SNU 1998). Kwanzoquinones A-G and other constituents of
Hemerocallis fulva ‘Kwanzo’ roots and their activity
against the human pathogenic trematode Schistosoma
mansoni. Tetrahedron 58(42):8597–8606
Other Uses Cichewicz RH, Zhang Y, Seeram NP, Nair MG (2004)
Inhibition of human tumor cell proliferation by
The plant is widely grown as an ornamental plant novel anthraquinones from daylilies. Life Sci
74(14):1791–1799
and is used in soil erosion control.
Clifford MN, Wu WG, Kuhnert N (2006) The chlorogenic
acids of Hemerocallis. Food Chem 95(4):574–578
Duke JA, Ayensu ES (1985) Medicinal plants of China.
Comments Reference Publications, Inc, Algonac, 705 pp
Erhardt W (1992) Hemerocallis. Day Lilies, Batsford,
160 pp
Four varieties of H. fulva are recognized in China Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible
(Chen and Noguchi 2000): plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp
(a) var. kwanso with double perianth and petal- Griesbch RJ, Batdorf L (1995) Flower pigments within
Hemerocallis fulva L. fm. fulva, fm. rosea, and fm.
oid stamens
disticha. Hortscience 30(2):353–354
(b) var. aurantiaca evergreen plant with single Harrington HD (1974) Edible native plants of the rocky
perianth and normal stamens mountains. University New Mexico Press, Albuquerque,
(c) var. fulva deciduous plant, single perianth, 392 pp
Hu SY (2005) Food plants of China. The Chinese
with rather short, stout perianth tube, 2–3 cm;
University Press, Hong Kong, 844 pp
inner segments 2–3.5 cm wide; stamens Huang YL, Chow FH, Shieh BJ, Ou JC, Chen CC (2003)
normal Two new anthraquinones from Hemerocallis fulva.
(d) var. angustifolia plant deciduous, single peri- Chin Pharm J (Taipei) 55(1):83–86
Huxley AJ, Griffiths M, Levy M (eds) (1992) The new RHS
anth, tube long >4 cm, slender; inner seg-
dictionary of gardening, 4 vols. MacMillan, New York
ments 1–2.5 cm wide, stamens normal. Inoue T, Iwagoe K, Konishi T, Kiyosawa S, Fujiwara Y
(1990) Novel 2,5-dihydrofuryl-γ-lactam derivatives
from Hemerocallis fulva L, var. kwanzo Regel. Chem
Pharm Bull 38(11):3187–3189
Selected References Inoue T, Konishi T, Kiyosawa S, Fujiwara Y (1994)
2,5-dihydrofuryl-gamma-lactam derivatives from
Baik MC, Hoang HD, Hammer K (1986) A check-list of Hemerocallis fulva L. var. kwanso Regel. II. Chem
the Korean cultivated plants. Die Kulturpflanze Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 42:154–155
34(1):69–144 Kaneshiro T, Suzui M, Takamatsu R, Murakami A,
Bor JY, Chen HY, Yen GC (2006) Evaluation of antioxi- Ohigashi H, Fujino T, Yoshimi N (2005) Growth
dant activity and inhibitory effect on nitric oxide pro- inhibitory activities of crude extracts obtained from
duction of some common vegetables. J Agric Food herbal plants in the Ryukyu Islands on several human
Chem 54:1680–1686 colon carcinoma cell lines. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev
Burkill IH (1966) A dictionary of the economic products 6(3):353–358
of the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint. 2 vols. Konar RN, Stanley RG (1969) Wall-softening enzymes in
Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala the gynoecium and pollen of Hemerocallis fulva.
Lumpur, Malaysia, vol 1 (A–H), pp 1–1240, vol 2 Planta 84(4):304–310
(I–Z), pp 1241–2444 Konishi T, Inoue T, Kiyosawa S, Fujiwara Y (1966) A
Chen SC, Noguchi J (2000) Hemerocallis Linnaeus. In: 2,5-dimethoxytetrahydrofuran from Hemerocallis
Wu ZY, Raven PH (eds) Flora of China, vol 24, fulva var. kwanso. Phytochemistry 42(1):135–137
Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae. Science Press/ Konishi T, Fujiwara Y, Konoshima T, Kiyosawa S, Nishi
Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis M, Miyahara K (2001) Steroidal saponins from
Hemerocallis fulva 829

Hemerocallis fulva var. kwanso. Chem Pharm Bull of phenolic compounds. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 16(Suppl
(Tokyo) 49(3):318–320 1):196–203
Li T, Wang F, Tian ZG, Liu Y (2009) Bacteriostasis of Read BE (ed) (1946) Famine foods listed in the Chiu
volatile compounds from six perennial root flower huang pen ts’ao [of Ting Wang Chou]: giving their
plants. Acta Hort Sinica 36(12):1816–1820 identity, nutritional values and notes on their prepara-
Liao JJ, Wu YJ, Yan LF (2006) Biochemical characteriza- tion. Henry Lester Institute of Medical Research,
tion of the pollen tubulin from day lily (Hemerocallis Shanghai, p 93 pp
fulva, Liliaceae). Acta Bot Yun 28:425–428 Roberts MJ (2000) Edible & medicinal flowers. New
Liao JJ, Wu YJ, Yan LF (2007) Biophysical and pharma- Africa Publishers, Durban, 160 pp
cological characterization of a dynamin-like protein Sarg TM, Salem SA, Farrag NN, Abdel-Aal MM, Ateya
from day-lily (Hemerocallis fulva, Liliaceae) pollens. AM (1990) Phytochemical and antimicrobial investi-
Acta Bot Yun 29:247–258 gation of Hemerocallis fulva L. grown in Egypt. Pharm
Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium (1976) Hortus third. A Biol 28(2):153–156
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United Stuart RGA (1979) Chinese materia medica: vegetable
States and Canada. Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium, kingdom. Southern Materials Centre Inc, Taipei
Cornell University. Wiley, 1312 pp Tai CY, Chen BH (2000) Analysis and stability of carot-
Lin YL, Lu CK, Huang YJ, Chen HJ (2011) Antioxidative enoids in the flowers of daylily (Hemerocallis disti-
caffeoylquinic acids and flavonoids from cha) as affected by various treatments. J Agric Food
Hemerocallis fulva flowers. J Agric Food Chem Chem 48(12):962–5968
59(16):8789–8795 Tanaka T (1976) Tanaka’s cyclopaedia of edible plants of
Liu LY, Chang LY, Chou SS, Hsiao YL, Chien YW (2010) the world. Keigaku Publishing, Tokyo, 924 pp
Studies on the antioxidant components and activities Tanaka Y, Nguyen VK (2007) Edible wild plants of
of the methanol extracts of commercially grown Vietnam: the bountiful garden. Orchid Press, Bangkok,
Hemerocallis fulva L. (daylily) in Taiwan. J Food 175 pp
Biochem 34:90–104 Tobinaga S (1999) From my ethnopharmacochemical
Mori S, Takizawa M, Satou M, Sakasai M, Kusuoku H, studies. Yakugaku Zasshi 119(3):185–198
Nojiri H, Yoshizuka N, Hotta M, Kitahara T, Hase T, Uezu E (1998) Effects of Hemerocallis on sleep in mice.
Takema Y, Saito M, Yada T (2009) Enhancement of Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 52(2):136–137
lipolytic responsiveness of adipocytes by novel plant Woodward P (2000) Asian herbs and vegetables. Hylan
extract in rat. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) House Publishing, Victoria, 146 pp
234(12):1445–1449 Wu YJ, Cao QH, Yan LF, Liu GQ (2002) Isolation and
Natural Products Research Institute, Seoul National characterization of dynamin from pollen of
University (NPRI-SNU) (1998) Medicinal plants in Hemerocallis fulva. Acta Bot Sin 44(6):657–660
the Republic of Korea. WHO Regional Publications, Yang ZD, Chen H, Yc L (2003) A new glycoside and a
Western Pacific series no 21, 316 pp novel-type diterpene from Hemerocallis fulva (L.)
Newman SE, O’Connor AS (2009) Edible flowers. Colorado L. Helv Chim Acta 86(10):3305–3309
State University Extension. Fact sheet no. 7.237. http:// Yang ZD, Li T, Li YC (2008) Chemical constituents in
www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/garden/07237.pdf root of Hemerocallis fulva. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za
Ogawa Y, Konishi T (2009) N-glycosides of amino acid Zhi 33(3):269–272 (in Chinese)
amides from Hemerocallis fulva var. sempervirens. Zhang TJ (1993) Herbal textural analysis on the Chinese
Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 57(10):1110–1112 drug xuancaogen. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi
Polunin O (1969) Flowers of Europe – a field guide. 18(9):515–517, 573 (in Chinese)
Oxford University Press, New York, 864 pp Zhang Y, Cichewicz RH, Nair MG (2004) Lipid peroxida-
Que F, Mao L, Zheng X (2007) In vitro and vivo antioxi- tion inhibitory compounds from daylily (Hemerocallis
dant activities of daylily flowers and the involvement fulva) leaves. Life Sci 75(6):753–763
 Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus

Scientific Name Vernacular Names

Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus L. Chinese: Kum Chan, (Cantonese), Jīnzhēn, Jin-

Zhen Cai, Chin-Chen-T’sai, Huang-Hua-Cai,
Huang-Hua T’sai, Bei Huang Hua Cai
Synonyms Czech: Denivka Žlutá
Danish: Gul Daglilje
Cameraria lilioasphodelus (L.) Boehm. Dutch: Gele Daglelie
Hemerocallis flava (L.) L., Hemerocallis flava Estonian: Kollane Päevaliilia
var. aurantiaca A.I. Baranov & Skvortsov, Finnish: Keltapäivänlilja
Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus f. aurantiaca French: Lis Asphodèle, Lis Jaune, Hémérocalle
(A.I. Baranov & Skvortsov) Kitag., Hemerocallis Jaune
lilioasphodelus var. flava L. (nom. illeg.), German: Gelbe Taglilie
Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus var. major Hungarian: Sárgaliliom
hort., Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus var. nana L, Italian: Giglio Dorato
Hemerocallis lutea Gaertn. Japanese: Ezo Ki-Suge, Kanzou
Korean: Kohleep-Wonch’uri
Norway: Gul Daglilje
Family Russian: Krasodnev Želtyj
Swedish: Gul Daglilja, Klargul Daglilja
Xanthorrhoeaceae, also placed in Vietnamese: Hoa Hiên Nhỏ
Hemerocallidaceae, Liliaceae

Origin/Distribution
Common/English Names
The species is native to Russia (Siberia),
Golden Needles, Lemon Daylily, Lemon Lily, Mongolia, China (Gansu, Hebei, Heilongjiang,
Yellow Daylily Henan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Shaanxi,

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 830
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_72, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus 831

Shandong, Shanxi), Korea, Japan and Europe; it Asia, the flowers are harvested just before they
is introduced and now naturalized in North open and are boiled or steamed and then dried as
America and elsewhere. Cultivated in China, a traditional food (spice or condiment) called
Japan, Taiwan, India and Vietnam for its flowers Kum Cham in Cantonese or Jīnzhēn, in pinyin,
used as vegetable and condiment. meaning ‘golden needles’. Dried flowers give

Agroecology

Its natural habitat is found in forests, thickets,

meadows, grasslands and slopes along valleys
from 100 to 2,000 m altitude. Yellow daylily
prefers full sun and rich, well-drained soil with a
pH of 6–7.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

All parts of the lemon lily are edible: root tubers, Plate 2 Close-view of flower and buds
young leaves, young shoots, flower buds and
flowers are eaten as vegetable. Flower buds and
flowers (Plates 1, 2, 3 and 4) are eaten raw or
cooked (Tanaka 1976; Gessert 1983; Facciola
1990; Erhardt 1992; Roberts 2000; Hu 2005;
Tanaka and Nguyen 2007; Tanaka 1976; Gessert
1983; Facciola 1990; Erhardt 1992; Roberts
2000; Hu 2005; Tanaka and Nguyen 2007). They
are mildly sweet and are used for crowning a
frosted cake or used as a dramatic garnish, or the
succulent petals can be added to spring salads.
Flowers and buds are dipped in batter of milk,
flour and eggs and seasoned and browned like Plate 3 Harvested lemon lily buds
fritter in oil or butter. In China and Southeast

Plate 4 Fleshy harvested lemon lily buds sold in a Thai

Plate 1 Clumps of lemon lily local market
832 Xanthorrhoeaceae

flavour to soups, stir-fries and noodle dishes. p-coumaroylquinic (IV), 4-pCoQA 4-O-
The fresh flower buds are available in local p-coumaroylquinic (VI) and 5-pCoQA5-O-
markets in Asia and the dried stuff sold in p-coumaroylquinic (V)) and two feruloylquinic
Asian food market stores in America, Europe acids (3-FQA 3-O-feruloylquinic acid (VII)
and Australia. Two popular Chinese dishes are and 4-FQA4-O- feruloylquinic acid (IX) were
‘Mu xu rou’ (Daylily Egg-shred pork) and a identified in a methanolic extract of freeze-
vegetarian dish called Luo-Han zhai (Buddha dried Hemerocallis (Chinese daylily) (Clifford
Disciples’ delight). Young leaves and young et al. 2006).
shoots about 6–8 cm high can be used as substitute
for asparagus and cooked like asparagus or celery.
The swollen roots are bland and sweetish and Neuropharmacological Activity
eaten cooked or roasted. When cooked, the small
roots taste somewhat like sweet corn or salsify. Studies showed that the water extract of daylily
as active in reducing motility in rats and that this
effect may be related the decrease in the concen-
Botany tration of norepinephrine in the cortex and the
concentration of dopamine and serotonin in
A small herb, 70–100 cm tall, deciduous in brainstem (Hsieh et al. 1996).
winter, with roots slightly fleshy sometimes with
a swollen, tuberous part. Leaves linear,
20–70 × 0.3–1.2 cm, apex acuminate, dark green. Traditional Medicinal Uses
Scape closely branched distally, 8–12 flowered,
solid; main axis distinct; sterile lanceolate bracts Dried flowers are significant as remedy in folk
present. Flowers showy, strongly sweet fragrant, medicine for the circulatory system and diseases
yellow perianth tube shortly funnelform, 1.5– of the brain, the blood vessels and the skin, arthri-
2.5 cm; tepals uniformly pale to bright lemon tis, rheumatism and various pains (Duke and
yellow or orangey-yellow, 5–7 cm by 1.3–1.6 cm, Ayensu 1985; Chopra et al. 1986). The flowers
inner tepals slightly wider than the outer ones, have cooling and tranquilizing properties, are
margins smooth (Plates 1 and 2); filaments diuretic and antipyretic and said to improve appe-
5–5.5 cm; anthers 2–3 mm, yellow; ovary tite. In Vietnam, they are used to treat nosebleed-
5–6 mm; style white to yellow, 7–8 cm; pedicel ing (Tanaka and Nguyen 2007). Root decoction
2–4 mm. Capsules ellipsoid, 2.5 by 1.2 cm. Seeds is used to treat haematuria, nosebleeding, hepati-
black, round or angular, 3–5 mm, shiny. tis otitis and mastitis. The juice of the roots has
been reported to be an effective antidote in cases
of arsenic poisoning. The root also has a folk his-
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties tory of use in the treatment of cancer—extracts
from the roots have shown antitumour activity.
Fifty-one components were identified in the essen- A tea made from the boiled roots is used as a
tial oil of Hemerocallis flava daylily, constituting diuretic and possess anti-swelling property.
approximately 92 % of the oil; the main constitu-
ents of the essential oil were 3-furanmethanol
(47.9 %) and 2-furancarboxaldehyde (10.4 %) Other Uses
(Lin et al. 2003).
Chlorogenic acids, namely, three caffeoylquinic The tough dried foliage is plaited into cord and
acids (3-CQA 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid (I), used for making footwear. Plants form a spread-
4-CQA 4-O-caffeoylquinic acid (III) and ing clump and are suitable for ground cover
5-CQA 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (II)), three when spaced about 45 cm apart each way. There
p-coumaroylquinic acids (3-pCoQA 3-O- are many cultivars of considerable interest as
Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus 833

ornamentals. In the lower Yellow River Region Erhardt W (1992) Hemerocallis. Day Lilies, Batsford, 160 pp
Facciola S (1990) Cornucopia. A source book of edible
in China, many yellow or orangey varieties are
plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, 677 pp
grown as cash crop. Gessert KR (1983) The beautiful food garden: encyclope-
dia of attractive food plants. Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York, 264 pp
Govaerts R (2012) Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus in World
Comments checklist of selected plant families. The Board of
Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published
In some books, Kum cham has been erroneously on the internet. Accessed July 2012
identified as Hemerocallis fulva, the red or tawny Hsieh MT, Ho YF, Peng WH, Wu CR, Chen CF (1996)
Effects of Hemerocallis flava on motor activity and the
daylily, the flowers of which are orange with red
concentration of central monoamines and its metabo-
tone near the centre. Also according to Prof Hu, lites in rats. J Ethnopharmacol 52(2):71–76
the flower buds of H. fulva are rarely used as food Hu SY (2005) Food plants of China. The Chinese
in China and the young leaves are eaten by some University Press, Hong Kong, 844 pp
Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium (1976) Hortus Third.
people living on the hillsides in China.
A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium,
Cornell University. Wiley, 1312 pp
Selected References Lin P, Cai JB, Li J, Sang WQ, Su QD (2003) Constituents
of the essential oil of Hemerocallis flava day lily.
Chen SC, Noguchi J (2000) Hemerocallis Linnaeus. In: Flavor Fragr J 18(6):539–541
Wu ZY, Raven PH (eds) Flora of China, vol 24, Roberts MJ (2000) Edible & medicinal flowers. New Africa
Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae. Science Press/ Publishers, Durban, 160 pp
Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis Tanaka T (1976) Tanaka’s cyclopaedia of edible plants of
Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC (1986) Glossary of Indian the world. Keigaku Publishing, Tokyo, 924 pp
medicinal plants (Including the supplement). Council The Plant List (2013) Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus L. http://
Scientific Industrial Research, New Delhi, 330 pp www.theplantlist.org/
Clifford MN, Wu WG, Kuhnert N (2006) The chlorogenic Tanaka Y, Nguyen VK (2007) Edible wild plants of Vietnam:
acids of Hemerocallis. Food Chem 95(4):574–578 the bountiful garden. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 175 pp
Duke JA, Ayensu ES (1985) Medicinal plants of China. Thomas GS (1990) Plants for ground cover, Rev. Ed.
Reference Publications, Inc, Algonac, 705 pp Timber Press, Portland, 283 pp
 Etlingera elatior

Scientific Name Common/English Names

Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M. Smith Ginger Bud, Ginger Flower, Ginger Flower Buds,
Indonesian Tall Ginger, Javanese Aromatic Ginger,
Philippine Waxflower, Pink Ginger Bud, Porcelain
Synonyms Ginger, Red Ginger Lily, Torch Ginger, Torch Lily,
Torch Nicola Flower Buds, Wild Ginger
Alpinia acrostachya Steud., Alpinia diracodes
Loes. nom. illeg., Alpinia elatior Jack, Alpinia
magnifica Roscoe, Alpinia javanica (Blume) D. Vernacular Names
Dietr., nom. illeg., Alpinia speciosa (Blume) D.
Dietr., Amomum magnificum (Roscoe) Benth. & Brazil: Rosa-De-Porcelana
Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks., Amomum tridentatum Chinese: Huo Ju Jiang, Xiang Bao Jiang, Xiang
(Kuntze) K.Schum., Bojeria magnifica (Roscoe) Hua Ya Jiang
Raf., Cardamomum magnificum (Roscoe) French: Gingembre Aromatique, Gingembre
Kuntze, Cardamomum speciosum (Blume) Aromatique De Java, Gingembre Aromatique
Kuntze, Cardamomum tridentatum Kuntze, Des Malais
Diracodes javanica Blume, Elettaria speciosa German: Malayischer Fackelingwer
Blume, Etlingera elatior var. alba Todam & Hawaiian: ‘Awapuhi-Ko’oko’o
C.K.Lim, Etlingera elatior var. pileng Ongsakul Indonesian: Bunga Combrang, Bunga Kantan,
& C.K. Lim, Geanthus speciosus Reinw. ex Bunga Siantan, Combrang, Kantan,
Blume, nom. nud., Hornstedtia imperialis Kecumbrang, Kecombrang, (Javanese), Honje,
(Lindl.) Ridl., Nicolaia elatior (Jack) Horaninow, Honje Benar, Hnonje Berem (Fruit Blood
Nicolaia imperialis Horan., Nicolaia intermedia Red), Honje Bodas (Fruit Yellowish-White),
Valeton, Nicolaia magnifica (Roscoe) K.Schum. Honje Laka (Fruit Dark Carmine Red), Honje
ex Valeton, Nicolaia speciosa (Blume) Horan., Leweng, Honje Jangkring, Combrang,
Phaeomeria imperialis Lindl., nom. inval., Rombeh (Sudanese), Ptikala (Maluku)
Phaeomeria magnifica (Roscoe) K. Schum., Malaysia: Bunga Kantan, Kantam, Tepus
Phaeomeria speciosa (Blume) Koord. Kampong (Peninsular), Tuhau, Tikaloh,
Kechala (Iban), Ubad Udat (Kelabit)
Marquesas: Opuhi, Eka, Pua Vao
Family Spanish: Antorcha, Boca De Dragón
Tahitian: ‘Awapuhi, Opuhi
Zingiberaceae Thai: Kaa Laa

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 834
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_73, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Etlingera elatior 835

Etlingera elatior are edible but sour and are

Origin/Distribution reputed for their antihypertensive activity. They
are also processed into candies or manisan. The
The species is native to Southeast Asia— ripe seeds are also eaten raw. In North Sumatra,
Indonesia, Malaysia and South Thailand; it is the flower buds are used for a dish called arsik
widely cultivated pantropically and naturalized in ikan mas (Andaliman peppercorn spiced carps).
Southeast Asia. In North Sumatra, another common Karo dish
with the flower bud is asam cekala (asam mean-
ing ‘sour’), and the ripe seed pods, which are
Agroecology packed with small black seeds, are an essential
ingredient of the Karo version of sayur asam
In its native range, it occurs in open areas, at which is cooked with fresh fish.
margins of primary and secondary forest at low
elevations, and is not found in montane forest areas.
It is also cultivated as an ornamental garden plant. Botany
It thrives in partial shade, in fertile, well-drained,
moist soil rich in humus. It will grow on acid soils. A coarse tall, perennial herb with closely grouped
pseudostems reaching 3–4 m high (Plates 1, 2
and 4). Ligule is bilobed and glabrous; petiole
Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Flower petal, and receptacle, hearts of young

leafy pseudostems, flower buds, fruit (Plates 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10 and 11), seed and rhizome are used as
condiments, eaten raw as salad, cooked in various
ways or pickled (Burkill 1966; Tanaka 1976;
Facciola 1990; Ochse and Bakhuizen van den
Brink 1980; Noweg et al 2003; Wetwitayaklung
et al. 2008; Chan et al. 2011b). Flower petals and
half-ripe fruiting shoots are widely used in cur-
ries, particularly in Penang laksa, nasi ulam, nasi
kerabu, rojak or cooked in mixed vegetables.
They are also eaten fresh as ulam. Less commonly
the heart of young vegetative shoots is used for Plate 1 Plant habit of red torch ginger
flavouring dishes or eaten raw as ulam with rice.
The Sudanese used the heart of the young shoots
called humbut or boros as lalap; the large inflores-
cence is used for sayor or ange (in Sundanese),
especially in sayur lodeh (vegetable dish with red
shallots, garlic, chilli, pepper, pounded shrimps,
tamarind, salt, sugar), raw or cooked for lalap
(dish of raw vegetables with spicy sauce) or urab
(steamed vegetable side dish). The Javanese also
used the flowers for making pejak where the inflo-
rescence is first roasted, mixed with santan (coco-
nut milk), lombok (chilli), trasi (pounded dried
shrimps) and kencur. Half-ripe fruits are also used
in cooking, either added to sayor or as pejak
with dengdeng (dried beef). The mature fruits of Plate 2 Red torch ginger inflorescences
836 Zingiberaceae

Plate 3 Close up of red torch ginger inflorescences

3–4 cm; leaf blade lanceolate, glabrous, 80 cm

long by × 18 wide. Inflorescence is borne on a
robust, long (0.8–15 m) peduncle (scape) raised
well above ground and is surrounded by red,
tapering, glabrous involucral bracts, 2–3 × ca.
1 cm; floral bracts are similar to involucral bracts
but pinkish and smaller (Plates 1, 4, 5 and 6). The
bracteoles are tubular, 2 cm, deeply split on 1
side. Calyx is 3–4 cm, with 3-toothed apex.
Corolla is pink to red, sometimes white (Plates 2, Plate 4 Habit Pink torch ginger
3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). Labellum is deep red with a
yellow margin. Filament is short, flat, whitish and
pubescent; anther is long and red. Fruiting head
(infructescene) is greenish, yellowish orangey or
reddish, ellipsoid (Plates 9 and 10) sometimes
subglobose, about 2.5 cm across containing many
small black seeds.

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Nutrient and Phytochemical

in the Flowers

Flowers of Etlingera elatior were reported to

contain the following per 100 g edible portion:
water 91 g, protein 1.3 g, fat 1.0 g, carbohydrates
4.4 g, fibre 1.2 g, K 541 mg, P 30 mg, Ca 32 mg,
Mg 27 mg, Fe 4 mg, Mn 6 mg, Zn 0.1 mg and
Cu 0.1 mg (Ibrahim and Setyowati 1999). The
edible hearts of young vegetative shoot com-
prised 20–325 % of the total weight of unpeeled
young shoots. A recent study by Wijekoon et al.
(2011b) reported the following proximate Plate 5 Half-opened pink torch ginger flowering head
Etlingera elatior 837

Plate 8 Opened and unopened torch ginger inflores-

cences on sale in a local market

Plate 6 Fully opened torch ginger inflorescence

Plate 9 Infructescence of pink torch ginger

including Ca 775.3 mg, K 1,689 mg, P 286 mg,

Mg 327.1 mg, S 167 mg, Mn 8.3 mg, Zn 2.8 mg,
Na 4.5 mg, Fe 2.4 mg, B 2.6 mg, Fl 1.4 mg, Cu
0.6 mg, Se <0.1 mg, Co <0.1 mg, Cr <0.1 mg and
Mo <0.1 mg; total saturated fatty acids 57.8 %,
total unsaturated fatty acids 42.2 %, myristic
acid (C14:0) 47.6 %, palmitic acid (C16:0)
9.0 % and stearic acid (C18:0) 1.2 %; palmitoleic
acid (C16:1n7) 16.4 %, hexadecadienoic acid
(C16:2n4) 1.1 %, hexadecatrienoic acid (C16:3n4)
Plate 7 Unopened torch ginger inflorescences on sale in 0.1 %, hexadecatetraenoic acid (C16:4n3) 0.4 %,
a local market oleic acid (C18:1n9) 5.2 %, cis-vaccenic acid
(C18:2n7) 0.8 %, linoleic acid (C18:2n6 14.5) %,
nutrient composition of torch ginger inflorescence octadecatrienic acid (C18:3n4) 1.1 %, α-parinaric
(g/100 g dry weight basis): crude protein 12.6 g, acid (C18:4n3) 3.2 %, cis-11-eicosenoic acid/
crude lipid 18.2 g, crude fibre 17.6 g, ash 15.5 g, gondoic acid (C20:1n9) 0.1 %, eicosatetraenoic
nitrogen-free extract 36.3 g and energy value acid (C20:4n3) 0.2 %, cetoleic acid (C22:1n11)
1,322.3 kJ/100 g; elements (mg/100 g dry weight) 0.7 %, docosapentaenoic acid/cupanodoic acid
838 Zingiberaceae

phytic acid 2,851 mg, Cd <0.1 ppm, Pb <0.1 ppm,

Ni <0.1 ppm, As <0.01 pm and Hg <0.01 ppm.
Proximate nutrient composition (g/100 g DW)
of Etlingera elatior was reported as: moisture
(94.9 g/100FW), energy 225 kcal, carbohydrate
36.4 g, protein 16.2 g, fat 1.6 g, fibre 19.8 g, ash
17.6 g, macroelements (mg/g) (Na 5.2 mg, K
39.0 mg, Mg 2.91 mg, Ca 11.5 mg) and microele-
ments (Fe 3.6 mg/100 g, Zn 183.9 μg/g, Cu
107.7 μg/g, ascorbic acid 272.2 μg/g, γ-tocopherol
11.5 μg/g, α-tocopherol 12.3 μg/g, thiamin
3.2 μg/g and riboflavin 4.4 μg/g) (Ng et al. 2012).
Ethanol and acetone extract of the flowers
were determined to have 1,928 mg and 244 mg
GAE (gallic acid equivalent)/100 g fresh plant of
total phenol content (TPC), 324.8 and 17.6 mg
QE (quercetin equivalent)/100 g fresh plant of
total flavonoid content (TFC), and 0 and 1.05 mg
of CGE (cyanidin- 3-glucoside)/100 g fresh
plant of total anthocyanin content, respectively
(Mai et al. 2009). Of all the solvents employed,
namely, methanol, acetone and distilled water,
50 % acetone extract showed highest amount of
total phenols (687.0 mg GAE/100 g) and total
Plate 10 Infructescence of red torch ginger flavonoids (1,431 mg QE/100 g), while 50 %
methanol extract showed maximum (5.9 mg
cynidin-3-glucoside equivalent/100 g) recovery
for anthocyanins from E. elatior inflorescence
(Wijekoon et al. 2011a). Tannin extractability
was found to be highest with 100 % methanol
(467.8 mg CE/100 g). The results obtained sug-
gested the use of bunga kantan inflorescence as a
potential source of natural antioxidants for food
and nutraceutical applications.
Among the 49 compounds identified in the
young flower shoots, the major chemical classes
Plate 11 Hearts of young pseudostems peeled above and were the aliphatic alcohols (42.1 %) and alde-
unpeeled below hydes (21.4 %), while terpenoid compounds
constituted 18.2 % of the oil (Wong et al.
(C22:5n3) 0.4 %; and amino acids (mg/100 mg) 1993). Monoterpenes hydrocarbons were the
including histidine 2.3 mg, isoleucine 4.2 mg, major type of compounds present in the essential
leucine 7.2 mg, lysine 7.9 mg, methionine oils of the flowers of E. elatior with 47.20 %
0.8 mg, phenylalanine 4.1 mg, threonine 4.4 mg, followed by oxygenated monoterpene derivatives
valine 5.0 mg, alanine 5.1 mg, arginine 6.2 mg, 30.83 % (Faridahanim et al. 2007). The dominant
aspartic acid 9.4 mg, cysteine 4.7 mg, glutamic constituents were cyclododecane (40.32 %),
acid 10.1 mg, glycine 4.2 mg, proline 3.0 mg, 1,1-dodecanediol diacetate (24.38 %) and
serine 4.8 mg and tyrosine 2.5 mg. Antinutrients α-pinene (6.30 %). Other constituents included
(mg/100 g dry weight) included saponin 3,496 mg, caryophyllene (4.45 %), (E)-2-hexenal (4.37 %),
Etlingera elatior 839

(Z)-hexadecene (3.72 %), decanal (3.62 %), commercial source and may have great potential
β-pinene (0.10 %), D-limonene (0.33 %), to be developed into functional food and other
9-octadecenal (0.45 %0, α-caryophyllene health products (Chan et al. 2009b, 2011a).
(0.27 %, (Z)-β-farnesene (0.30 %), Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons dominated the
1,13-tetradecadiene (0.72 %), 1-heptadecene essential oils of the leaves of E. elatior with
(0.04 %), dodecanoic acid tetradecyl ester 45.06 %, followed by monoterpene hydrocarbon
(0.44 %), elaidic acid (0.43 %), 2,3,dihydroxy- 29.75 % (Faridahanim et al. 2007). Major com-
propyl octadec-9-enoate (glyceryl) palmitoleate) ponents were (E)-β-farnesene (27.90 %),
(0.04 %),oleic acid (0.25 %) and glyceryl mono- β-pinene (19.17 %) and caryophyllene (15.36 %).
oleate (0.05 %). The major volatile components Other components included α-thujene, α-pinene
identified in the oils of inflorescence and inflores- (6 %), camphene (0.11 %), sabinene (0.13 %),
cence axis of E. elatior were dodecanol (42.5 %, β-myrcene (2.49 %), α-terpinolene (0.06 %),
34.6 %), dodecanal (14.5 %, 21.5 %) and 1,3,8-p-menthatriene (0.04 %), α-terpinene
α-pinene (22.2 %, 6.3 %), respectively (Zoghbi (0.15 %), cyclododecane (1.57 %), eucalyptol
and Andrade 2005). (3.85 %), 2-ethyl fenchone (0.27 %, camphor
(0.12 %), borneol (4.24 %), dihydrocavreol
(0.55 %), α-terpineol (1.84 %), 1,1,dodecanediol
Leaf Phytochemicals diacetate (1.45 %), β-elemene (0.34 %),
α-caryophyllene (1.46 %), trans-nerolidol
Ethanol and acetone extract of the leaves were (0.68 %) and octadac-9-enoic acid (0.16 %).
determined to have 3,064 and 902 mg GAE (gal- Abdelmageed et al. (2011) found 73 compounds
lic acid equivalent)/100 g fresh plant of total phe- in the leaf essential oil of E. elatior. The most
nol content (TPC); 320.4 and 13.9 mg QE abundant components included β-pinene
(quercetin equivalent)/100 g fresh plant of total (24.92 %), 1-dodecene (24.31 %), bicyclo[3.1.1]
flavonoid content (TFC), respectively (Mai et al. hept-2-ene,2,6,6-trimethyl (11.59 %), dodecanal
2009). Flavonoids of kaempferol 3-glucuronide, (8.15 %), acetic acid (3.49 %), trans-(Z)-α-
quercetin 3-glucuronide, quercetin 3-glucoside bisabolene epoxide (2.56 %), β-farnesene
and quercetin 3-rhamnoside had been reported (2.49 %), 1,6,10,-dodecatriene, 7,11-dimethyl-3-
in the leaves (Williams and Harborne 1977). meth-ylene (2.41 %), 1,3-propanediol, 2-dodecyl
Three caffeoylquinic acids including chlorogenic (2.27 %), α-caryophyllene (1.99 %), 3-bromo-7-
acid (CGA) and three flavonoids quercetin, methyl-1-adamantanecarboxylic acid (1.38 %)
isoquercetin and catechin were isolated from and 2-pentadeyn-1-ol (1.22 %).
the leaves (Chan 2009). Caffeoylquinic acids
(CQA), namely, 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid and
5-O-caffeoylquinic acid methyl ester, including Phytochemicals in Stem and Rhizomes
chlorogenic acid CGA (5-O-caffeoylquinic acid),
were isolated from the leaves (Chan et al. 2009b). Ethanol and acetone extract of the stems were
The content of CQA of E. elatior, Etlingera ful- determined to have 556 and 228 mg GAE (gallic
gens and Etlingera rubrostriata leaves was sig- acid equivalent)/100 g fresh plant of total phenol
nificantly higher than that of the leaves of Ipomoea content (TPC), 37.9 and 16 mg QE (quercetin
batatas and comparable to the flowers of Lonicera equivalent)/100 g fresh plant of total flavonoid
japonica. Also they reported that leaves of content (TFC), respectively (Mai et al. 2009).
Etlingera species were rich in total phenols and Ethanol and acetone extract of the rhizomes were
CQA and non-cytotoxic to normal human liver and determined to have 642 and 393 mg GAE (gallic
African green monkey kidney cells. Chlorogenic acid equivalent)/100 g fresh plant of total phenol
acid found only in the leaves of E. elatior and content (TPC); 0 and 23.7 mg QE (quercetin
E. fulgens was significantly higher in content equivalent)/100 g fresh plant of total flavonoid
than that of the flowers of L. japonica and the content (TFC), respectively (Mai et al. 2009).
840 Zingiberaceae

Oxygenated monoterpene derivatives were the compared to C. pubescens with 205.65 g RE/Kg
major type of compounds in the essential oils of (Abdelmageed et al. 2011). Total phenolic content
the stems and rhizomes of E. elatior with 53.99 % of E. elatior was 3341.2 g GAE/Kg.
and 47.28 %, respectively (Faridahanim et al. The percent yield of extract and the amount of
2007). The rhizome contained 34.45 % cyclodo- total polyphenols in g/100 g calculated as gallic
decane, 24.38 % 1,1,dodecanediol diacetate and acid on dried flowers, and crude methanolic
minor constituents 2,3,dihydroxypropyl octadec- extract bases for E. elatior were reported as 18.68
9-enoate (glyceryl) palmitoleate) (0.45 %),oleic (% yield), 0.37 g total polyphenols (g/100 g dried
acid (0.52 %) and glyceryl monooleate (0.12 %). flower) and 2.00 g total polyphenols (g/100 g
Dominant components in the essential oil of the crude extract) (Wetwitayaklung et al. 2008).
stem were 1,1,dodecanediol diacetate (34.26 %), Antioxidant capacity for E. elatior flowers
(E)-5-dodecene (26.92 %), decanal 16.53 % and expressed in TEAC (trolox equivalent antioxi-
caryophyllene 6.60 %. dant capacity) = 0.04 and IC50 = 279.32 μg/50 μl.
From the rhizomes, 1,7-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)- There was a good linear relationship between
2,4,6-heptatrienone; demethoxycurcumin; antioxidant activity and flower extract concentra-
1,7-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1,4,6-heptatrien- 3- tions with R2 = 0.9709.
one; 16-hydroxylabda-8(17),11,13-trien-15,16- Of the 26 ginger species screened, leaves of
olide; stigmast-4-en-3-one; stigmast-4-ene-3, Etlingera species had the highest total phenol
6-dione; stigmast-4-en-6β-ol-3-one; 5α,8α- content and ascorbic acid equivalent antioxidant
epidioxyergosta-6,22-dien-3β-ol; tetracosanoic capacity (AEAC) (Chan et al. 2008). For total
acid; and a mixture of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol phenol content (mg GAE/100 g) ranking was
were isolated (Habsah et al. 2005a). in the order of E. elatior (2390) > Etlingera
rubrostriata (2250) > Etlingera littoralis (2150) >
Etlingera fulgens (1280) > E. maingayi (1110).
Antioxidant Activity In terms of AEAC (mg ascorbic acid/100 g),
ranking sequence was E. rubrostriata (2290) >
Etlingera elatior also possesses antioxidant E. elatior (2280) > E. littoralis (1990) > E. main-
activities. Three diarylheptanoids, 1,7-bis(4- gayi (963) > E. fulgens (845). In an earlier study
hydroxyphenyl)-2,4,6-heptatrienone, deme- of five Etlingera species, highest total phenolic
thoxycurcumin and 1,7-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)- content (TPC), ascorbic acid equivalent antioxi-
1,4,6-heptatrien-3-one, isolated from the rhi- dant capacity (AEAC) and ferric reducing anti-
zomes were found to inhibit lipid peroxidation in oxidant power (FRAP) were found in leaves of
a more potent manner than alpha-tocopherol Etlingera elatior and E. rubrostriata (Chan et al.
(Habsah et al. 2005a). The total antioxidant activ- 2007). Leaves of E. maingayi, with the lowest
ity of E. elatior extract was 89.23 % as evaluated TPC, AEAC and FRAP, had the highest ferrous
by β-carotene/linoleic acid system (Ng et al. ion chelating (FIC) ability and β-carotene bleach-
2012). The effective concentration, EC50, value ing (BCB) activity. Ranking of TPC and AOA
of the E. elatior extract in DPPH scavenging (antioxidant activity) of different plant parts of
activity was 1.80 mg extract/ml, and EC50 value E. elatior was in the order leaves > inflorescences >
of the ferrous ion chelating activity was 2.26 mg rhizomes. Leaves of highland populations of
extract/ml. Total phenolic content of the extract Etlingera species displayed higher values of TPC
was 4.1 mg GAE/g FW and total flavonoid and AEAC than those of lowland counterparts.
1.4 mg RE/g FW. Leaves of Etlingera species exhibited antibacte-
The whole plant of E. elatior had lower DPPH rial activity against Gram-positive of Bacillus
scavenging activity (995 ug/ml) than that of the cereus, Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus
leaves of Cinnamomum pubescens (77.2 ug/ml) aureus but not Gram-negative bacteria. In another
although E. elatior had a higher total flavonoid study with five Zingiberaceae species, freeze-
content of 244.83 g RE (rutin equivalent)/Kg drying resulted in significant gains in TPC,
Etlingera elatior 841

AEAC and FRAP for Alpinia zerumbet and The ethyl acetate extract of the rhizome showed
Etlingera elatior leaves (Chan et al. 2009a). After a very significant cytotoxic activity against
1 week storage, AOP of freeze-dried E. elatior CEM-SS (human T lymphoblastoid) and MCF-7
leaves remained significantly higher than those of breast cancer cell lines (4 mg/ml and 6.25 mg/ml,
fresh control leaves. Freeze-dried tea of A. zerum- respectively) as determined through MTT assay.
bet was superior to the commercial tea for all The other extracts, including the hexane, CHCl3
antioxidant activities studied. and methanol extracts, also showed significant
Treatment of rats with E. elatior pre- or post- cytotoxicity against both MCF-7 and CEM-SS
treatment after lead acetate exposure decreased cell lines. In an earlier study, demethoxycur-
lipid hydroperoxides and protein carbonyl con- cumin from Curcuma zedoaria exhibited cyto-
tents and significantly increased total antioxi- toxicity effect against ovarian cancer OVCAR-3
dants and antioxidant enzymes (Nagaraja et al. cells (Syu et al. 1998).
2010b). Treatments with E. elatior extract also Ethanol extract of E. elatior flower shoots
reduced lead-induced histopathological damage exhibited cytotoxic activity against glandular cer-
in bone marrow. The results suggested E. elatior vix cancer cells with curative dose CD50 values in
to have a powerful antioxidant effect and could the range of 10–30 μg/ml (Mackeen et al. 1997).
protect lead acetate-induced bone marrow oxida- Among the acetone extracts of E. elatior leaves,
tive damage in rats. Supplementation of rats rhizomes, stems and flowers, the leaf extract was
exposed to lead acetate in the drinking water with the most potent against human colorectal cancer
E. elatior ethanol flower extract for 14 days cells (HT29) with IC50 value of 170 μg/ml (Mai
reduced serum lipid hydroperoxides and protein et al. 2009). Cell death was mediated via apopto-
carbonyl contents and significantly increased sis. The extract did not inhibit proliferation of
total antioxidants and antioxidant enzyme levels Chinese hamster ovary cells up to 250 μg/ml.
(Tan et al. 2011). The results suggested that
flower extract of Etlingera elatior had powerful
antioxidant effect against lead-induced oxidative Tyrosinase Inhibition Activity
stress and the extract may be a useful therapeutic
agent against lead toxicity. Of five Etlingera spp., tyrosinase inhibition activ-
ity was strongest in leaves of E. elatior (55.2 %),
which was significantly higher than that of the
Anticancer Activity positive control of Hibiscus tiliaceus (43.9 %)
(Chan et al. 2008). Inhibition activities of leaves
The flower shoot extract showed also promising of E. fulgens (49.3 %) and E. maingayi (42.6 %)
antitumour-promoting activity (Murakami et al. were comparable. Activities of leaves of
2000). CHCl3 and MeOH extracts of E. elatior E. rubrostriata (29.5 %) and E. littoralis (22.0 %)
possessed high antitumour-promoting activity, were significantly lower.
with 92.18 and 85.9 % inhibition rate, respec-
tively (Habsah et al. 2005b). Both hexane and
ethyl acetate were cytotoxic against Raji cell at Hepatoprotective Activity
initial concentration (200 mg/ml). Among the
compounds isolated from the rhizome, stigmast- Studies found that co-treatment of male
4-en-3-one and stigmast-4-en-6β-ol-3-one, a Sprague–Dawley rats with lead acetate and
mixture of β-sitosterol and stigmasterol and tetra- Etlingera elatior extract significantly reduced
cosanoic acid showed high antitumour-promoting lipid hydroperoxides and protein carbonyl content
activity, with inhibition rate of 78.4 %, 80.6 %, in serum and increased the antioxidant enzyme
85.1 % and 72.4 %, respectively. Compound levels in the liver (Nagaraja et al. 2010a). Treatment
stigmast-4-ene-3,6-dione only showed moderate with E. elatior significantly reduced lead-induced
activity with an inhibition rate of 56.9 %. alterations in hepatic architecture, which also
842 Zingiberaceae

reduced the blood lead levels. The results sug-

gested E. elatior to have a potent effect against Comments
lead-induced hepatotoxicity. Demethoxycurcumin
(also isolated from E. elatior rhizome (Habsah E. elatior is normally propagated by division of
et al. 2005b)) displayed DPPH free radical scav- the rhizome, but this affords a low proliferation
enging activity and showed significant hepato- rate. An efficient protocol for complete plant
protective effects on tacrine-induced cytotoxicity regeneration from suckers has been developed by
in human liver-derived Hep G2 cells (Song et al. Yunus et al. (2012). Also E. elatior can be
2001) micropagated using plantlets derived from axil-
lary bud explants cultured on Murashige and
Skoog (MS) basal medium, supplemented with
Testicular Protective Activity various concentrations of cytokinin (BAP,
6-benzylaminopurine) or auxin (IAA, indole ace-
Etlingera elatior was found to be effective against tic acid) as plant growth regulators (Abdelmageed
oxidative damage caused by lead acetate in the et al. 2011).
testis (Haw et al. 2012). Studies showed that
E. elatior treatment only, concurrent treatment of
lead acetate and E. elatior and posttreatment of Selected References
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Peninsular Malaysia including a new species. Gard Wetwitayaklung P, Phaechamud T, Limmatvapirat C,
Bull Singapore 53:191–239 Keokitichai S (2008) The study of antioxidant activi-
Larsen K, Ibrahim H, Khaw SH, Saw LG (1999) Gingers ties of edible flower extracts. Acta Hort (ISHS)
of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Natural History 786:185–192
Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu, 135 pp Wijekoon MMJO, Bhat R, Karim AA (2011a) Effect of
Lim CK (2001) Taxonomic notes on Etlingera extraction solvents on the phenolic compounds and
Giseke (Zingiberaceae) in Peninsular Malaysia: the antioxidant activities of bunga kantan (Etlingera ela-
“Achasma” taxa and supplementary notes on the tior Jack.) inflorescence. J Food Comp Anal
“Nicolaia” taxa. Folia Malays 2:141–178 24(4–5):615–619
Mackeen MM, Ali AM, El-Sharkawy SH, Manap MY, Wijekoon MMJO, Karim AA, Bhat R (2011b) Evaluation
Salleh KM, Lajis NH, Kawazu K (1997) Antimicrobial of nutritional quality of torch ginger (Etlingera ela-
and cytotoxic properties of some Malaysian traditional tior Jack.) inflorescence. Int Food Res J 18(4):
vegetables. Internat J Pharmacogn 35:174–178 1415–1420
Mai CW, Wong SY, Tan EL, Balijepalli MK, Pichika MR Williams CA, Harborne JB (1977) The leaf flavonoids of
(2009) Antiproliferative and apoptotic studies of Zingiberales. Biochem Syst Ecol 5:221–229
the standardised extracts of Etlingera elatior on Wong KC, Yap YF, Ham LK (1993) The essential oil of
human colorectal carcinoma cells. Malays J Chem young flower shoots of Phaeomeria speciosa Koord.
11(1):136–142 J Essent Oil Res 5(2):135–138
Murakami A, Ali AM, Mat-Salleh K, Koshimizu K, Wu D, Larsen K (2000) Zingiberaceace Lindley. In:
Ohigashi H (2000) Screening for in-vitro antitumour Wu ZY, Raven PH (eds) Flora of China, vol 24,
promoting activities of edible plants from Malaysia. Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae. Science Press/
Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 64:9–16 Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis
Nagaraja H, Tan J, Srikumar C, Rao M, Kulur A (2010a) Yunus MF, Abd Aziz M, Kadir MA, Rashid AA (2012)
Protective effect of Etlingera elatior (torch ginger) In vitro propagation of Etlingera elatior (Jack) (torch
extract on lead acetate–induced hepatotoxicity in rats. ginger). Sci Hortic 135:145–150
J Toxicol Sci 35(5):663–671 Zoghbi MGB, Andrade EH (2005) Volatiles of the
Nagaraja H, Tan J, Srikumar C, Rao M, Thanikachalam P Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M. Sm. and Zingiber spect-
(2010b) Protective effects of Etlingera elatior extract abile Griff.: two Zingiberaceae cultivated in the
on lead acetate-induced changes in oxidative bio- Amazon. J Essent Oil Res 17(2):209–211
 Etlingera hemisphaerica

Scientific Name Family

Etlingera hemisphaerica (Blume) R.M. Sm. Zingiberaceae

Synonyms Common/English Names

Alpinia hemisphaerica (Blume) D. Dietr., Amomum Helani Tulip Ginger, Tulip Ginger
anthoidioides (Teijsm. & Binn.) Koord., Amomum
eriocarpum (Kuntze) K. Schum., Amomum hemi-
sphaericum (Blume) K. Schum., Cardamomum Vernacular Names
anthodiodes (Teijsm. & Binn.) Kuntze,
Cardamomum eriocarpum Kuntze, Cardamomum Indonesia: Sikala (Bengkulu), Sekala (East
hemisphaericum (Blume) Kuntze, Elettaria antho- Sulawesi), Honje Leuweung, Honje Hejo,
dioides Teijsm. & Binn., Elettaria atropurpurea Honje Laka (Sundanese); Honje Hutan
Teijsm. & Binn., Elettaria hemisphaerica Blume, Malaysia: Kantan Liar
Nicolaia anthodioides (Teijsm. & Binn.) Valeton, Thailand: Kaa Laa
Nicolaia atropurpurea (Teijsm. & Binn.) Valeton,
Nicolaia hemisphaerica (Blume) Horan., Nicolaia
rostrata Valeton Nicolaia rostrata var. talangensis Origin/Distribution
Valeton, Nicolaia sanguinea Valeton, Phaeomeria
anthodioides (Teijsm. & Binn.) Koord., It is found in the lower mountainous forest in
Phaeomeria atropurpurea (Teijsm. & Binn.) K. Java and perhaps also in Sumatra. It has been
Schum., Phaeomeria hemisphaerica (Blume) K. introduced and naturalized in other areas in
Schum., Phaeomeria rostrata (Valeton) Loes., Malesia and is also now grown elsewhere in the
Phaeomeria sanguinea (Valeton) Koord. tropics.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 844
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_74, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Etlingera hemisphaerica 845

rounded or ovate–oblong green ligule at the

Agroecology base. Inflorescence lateral, arising from the
base, obovoid or turbinate with a flat or
A wet tropical plant species, it thrives in partial depressed apex; peduncle robust, erect,
shade in moist, well-drained, fertile soil rich in 35–100 cm long closely embraced by large
organic matter. It will grow in warm and wet sub- green amplexicaul bracts; uppermost bracts
tropical areas. enclosing base of spike (Plates 2 and 3). Spike

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The plant is used as a spice (Ibrahim and Setyowati

1999). In Indonesia, the inflorescence is used for
sayur lodeh (Malay) or angen lodeh (Sundanese);
the half-ripe fruits are mixed raw into various
sayur while the ripe fruits are made into manisan
(fruit comfit), the soft heart of the stem called
hubut or boros is eaten raw, cooked or steamed
(Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1980).

Botany Plate 2 Red inflorescences on long peduncles

A clumping, robust, terrestrial, geophyte with

copiously branched subterraneous or partly
superterraneous rhizome. Leafy, spurious, dark
green pseudostems, erect, 3–5.5 m high, thick-
ened at the base, 3–5 cm thick (Plate 2). Leaves
distichous, alternate, upper leaves larger than the
lower leaves, lamina to 77 × 16 cm, ovate–oblong
to elliptic–linear, glabrous on both surfaces,
dark green above, red beneath, base more or less
auriculate, costa red above on young leaves
(Plate 1). Petiole short 2 cm long, broadly
furrowed on anterior side, with a broadly

Plate 1 Foliage—dark green above, reddish below Plate 3 Close view of inflorescence
846 Zingiberaceae

Other Uses

It is grown as an ornamental in parks and gardens

for its foliage with wine red undersurface and
unusual inflorescence.

Comments

The plant is normally propagated by division of

Plate 4 Ripening infructescence the rhizome. Studies showed that Etlingera hemi-
sphaerica cv. ‘Red Tulip’ and ‘Black Tulip’ can
be micropropagated from explants derived from
apices of terminal and lateral buds cultured in the
Murashige and Skoog medium, supplemented
6–7 × 3–6 cm with five sterile bracts, white with various cytokinin and growth regulators
tinged green at base and pink at apex. Receptacle (benzyladenine) (Barra and Mogollon 2007).
1.2–1.5 cm with 38–49 closely crowded flowers.
Fertile bract short-lived, tinged red—also
inside. Bracteole cream tinged red. Calyx nar-
Selected References
rowly tubular, red with yellow-green apex.
Corolla tubular 3-fid, white; segments dark Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC Jr (1968) Flora
red (burgundy) with white margin. Labellum of Java (Spermatophytes only), vol 3. Wolters-
broadly ovate, cymbyform with rounded apex, Noordhoff, Groningen, 761 pp
dark red with white undulating margin laterally, Barra A, Mogollon N (2007) Etlingera hemisphaerica
cultivars “Red Tulip” and “Black Tulip” in vitro prop-
yellowish at apex. Filament cream. Anther red, agation. Rev Fav Agron (LUZ) 24(S1):101–109
darker at apex. Style terete, pilose, red. Stigma Burkill IH (1966) A dictionary of the economic products of
purple. Infructescence to 5.5 × 8 cm, with 2–20 the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint, 2 vols. Ministry
fruits. Fruit green, ripening yellowish-green, of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur, vol 1
(A–H), pp 1–1240, vol 2 (I–Z), pp 1241–2444
apex truncate to slightly depressed (Plate 4). Ibrahim H, Mood J (2001) The torch gingers – sentinel of
Seeds numerous, ovoid, angular, brownish- the forest. Garden Asia, pp 12–19, Jan–Mar 2001
black, hard, arillate. Ibrahim H, Setyowati FM (1999) Etlingera Giseke. In: de
Guzman CC, Siemonsma JS (eds) Plant resources of
South-East Asia No. 13. Spices. Backhuys Publisher,
Leiden, pp 123–126
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties Newman M, Lhuillier A, Poulsen AD (2004) Checklist of
the Zingiberaceae of Malesia. Blumea Suppl. 16, 166 p
No information on its nutritive and medicinal Ochse JJ, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC (1980) Vegetables
of the Dutch Indies, 3rd edn. Ascher & Co.,
properties has been published. Refer to Amsterdam, 1016 pp
notes on a closely related species, Etlingera The Plant List (2013) Etlingera hemisphaerica (Blume)
elatior . R.M. Sm. http://www.theplantlist.org/
 Hedychium coronarium

Scientific Name Garland-Flower, Ginger Lily, Ginger-Lily, White

Garland-Lily, White Ginger, White Ginger-Lily,
Hedychium coronarium. J. König. White-Ginger, Wild Ginger

Synonyms Vernacular Names

Amomum filiforme Hunter ex Ridl., Gandasulium Afrikaans: Witgemmerlelie

coronarium (J. König) Kuntze, Gandasulium Brazil: Borboleta, Lágrima-de-vênus, Lírio do
lingulatum (Hassk.) Kuntze, Hedychium chryso- Brejo (Portugese)
leucum Hook., Hedychium coronarium var. Chinese: Jiang Hua
baimao Z.Y. Zhu, Hedychium coronarium var. Chuukese: Sinser, Sinsér, Tolon, Tunun
chrysoleucum (Hook.) Baker, Hedychium coro- Cook Islands: Kaopui Teatea, Kōpī, Kōpī Teatea,
narium var. maximum (Roscoe) Eichler, Hedychium Re‘A, Re‘A Teatea (Maori)
gandasulium Buch.-Ham. ex Wall., Hedychium Cuba: Flor De Mariposa
lingulatum Hassk., Hedychium maximum Roscoe, Estonian: Lõhnav hedühhium
Hedychium prophetae Buch.-Ham. ex Wall., Fijian: Cevuga Vula, Dalasika, Ndrove, Thevunga
Hedychium spicatum Lodd., nom. illeg., Hedyc- French: Hédychie Couronnée
hium sulphureum Wall. inval., Kaempferia hedy- French Reunion: Longose Blanc, Longoze
chium Lam., illeg. German: Garland Blume, Schmetterlingslilie
Zingiberaceae Ingwergewächs, Weisse
Ingwerlilie
Family Hawaiian: ‘Awapuhi Ke‘Oke‘O
India: Dolan Champa (Hindi), Takhellei, Takhellei
Zingiberaceae Angouba (Manipuri), Sontaka, Sonttaka
(Marathi), Suruli Sugandhi (Kannada),
Cankitam, Cantikantam, Cantiramulikai,
Common/English Names Cimaikkiccilikkilanku, Kaccolam, Kaccoram,
Kaccuram, Kaiccolam, Kaiccoram, Kantapalaci,
Butterfly Flower, Butterfly Ginger, Butterfly Karppuraver, Kentimulam, Kiccili (Tamil),
Ginger Lily, Butterfly Lily, Butterfly-Ginger, Kicciligadda, Vasa Vasanthi (Telugu)
Butterfly-Lily, Cinnamon-Jasmine, Common Indonesia: Gondasuli (Javanese), Gandasoli
Ginger Lily, Garland Flower, Garland Lily, (Sundanese)

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 847
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_75, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
848 Zingiberaceae

Japanese: Hanashukusha
Malaysia: Gandasuli, Suli
Nepalese: Dudh Kevara, Suli
Philippines: Kamia (Bikol), Banai, Katkatan,
Katotant (Bisaya), Donsuli (Bukidnon), Kamia
(Cebu Bisaya), Gandasuli (Moro), Kamia
(Tagalog)
Pohnpeian: Sinter Pwetepwet
Samoan: Teuila, Teuila Paepae
Tahitian: Opuhi Tea
Thai: Hanghong, Mahahong, Tha-Hern
Tongan: Teuila, Thevunga

Origin/Distribution

The species is probably native to the Himalayas—

India and Nepal, Myanmar, Taiwan and south-
western China. It is now found naturalized
throughout the warm tropics, in eastern Australia,
southern Africa, southeastern United States,
Central America and many oceanic islands.

Agroecology Plate 1 Plant habit

Butterfly Ginger Lily likes moist habitats and is

found in shaded areas in rainforests, mesic forests,
pastures, roadside and stream sides, from near sea
level to 3,000 m altitude. It also grows in full sun
to partial shade in fertile, moist soil. It is tolerant of
mild frost.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

Young buds and flowers are eaten as vegetables

or used as a flavouring, and rhizomatous roots
are cooked and eaten as a famine food (Tanaka Plate 2 Pseudostems and rhizome
1976; Kunkel 1984; Facciola 1990; Sirirugsa
1997; Hu 2005).
Leaves alternate, distichous, glabrous, oblanceolate
or narrowly elliptic, acuminate, about 30–60 cm
Botany long, 10 cm wide, petioles short (Plates 1, 3 and 4).
Ligule prominent, 1–3 cm long. Flowers white,
An erect, rhizomatous, perennial shrub, 0.5–1.5 m sweetly fragrant, to 6–8 cm long, corolla fused
tall with fleshy, aromatic rhizomes, 2.5–5 cm with tepals to form a slender tube cleft on one side,
across and erect pseudostems (Plates 1 and 2). labellum obovate, apically notched, white with a
Hedychium coronarium 849

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

Flower Phytochemicals

Two new labdane-type diterpene glycosides,

coronalactosides I (1) and II (2), and a new labdane-
type trinorditerpene, coronadiene (3), were isolated
together with 8 known compounds: (E)-labda-
8(17),12-diene-15,16-dial; coronarins B, C and D;
15-hydroxylabda-8(17),11,13-trien-16,15-olide;
16-formyllabda-8(17),12-dien- 15,11-olide;
kaempferol 3-O-(2′-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-D-
glucuronopyranoside; and ferulic acid from 80 %
aqueous acetone extract of H. coronarium flowers
(Nakamura et al. 2008).
One hundred thirty-one compounds were
identified in the flower essential oil (Omata
et al. 1991). The ginger flower has a diffusive,
sweet, spicy and floral scent, and linalool,
methyl jasmonate, eugenols, cis-jasmone,
β-ionone and lactones were found to make a
major contribution to the odour of this flower.
Of the 175 volatile compounds identified in the
Plate 3 Terminal inflorescence flowers, linalool, methyl benzoate, cis-jasmone,
eugenol, (E)-isoeugenol, jasmin lactone, methyl
jasmonate, methyl epi-jasmonate, indole, nitriles
and oximes were found to make a great contri-
bution to the scent of the flowers (Matsumoto
et al. 1993). A total of 113 compounds were
identified in the headspace.
A total of 29 components were identified in
the flower essential oil of H. coronarium (Lu
et al. 2009). The main constituents were β-trans-
ocimenone (28.05 %), linalool (18.52 %),
1,8-cineole (11.35 %), α-terpineol (7.11 %), 10-epi-
γ-eudesmol (6.06 %), sabinene (4.59 %) and
terpinen-4-ol (3.17 %). The minor constituents
included (E)-β-farnesene 2.28 %, γ-terpinene
2.21 %, limonene 2.02 %, β-pinene 2.01 %,
Plate 4 Open flowers and buds α-pinene 1.37 %, nerolidol 1.25 %, borneol
1.13 %, unknown 1.10 %, geraniol 1.03 %,
p-menthen-9-al 0.78 %, patchoulane 0.61 %,
darker yellow patch near the base (Plates 1 and 4). β-cedrene 0.41 %, carvacrol 0.37 %, α-terpinene
Flowers formed in dense spikelike, terminal, 0.36 %, β-myrcene 0.35 %, isocyclocitral 0.33 %,
bracteate inflorescences; bracts oblong–obovate or β-eudesmol 0.28 %, α-phellandrene 0.20 %,
oblong, imbricate, green. Staminodes are α-gurjunene 0.18 %, α-thujene 0.14 %, fenchyl
white, oblong–elliptic, narrowed at the base. alcohol 0.13 %, β-phellandrene-8-ol 0.13 % and
Capsule oblong with numerous seeds. camphene 0.12 %.
850 Zingiberaceae

A total of 39 compounds were identified in the rhizomes (Singh et al. 1993). Three new labdane
flower oil accounting for 98 % of the entire diterpenes, labda-8(17),11,13-trien-15(16)-olide, an
amount (Báez et al. 2011). The volatile fraction ester of labda-8(17),11,13-trien-15-al-16-oic acid
was characterized by monoterpene hydrocarbons and isocoronarin D, and 7β-hydroxycoronarin B
(34.9 %), oxygenated monoterpenes (34.4 %) were isolated together with four known diter-
and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (13.2 %). The penes, viz. (E)-labda-8(17),12-diene-15,16-dial;
major components were (E)-β-ocimene (28.7 %), coronarins B and D; and isocoronarin D from the
linalool (19.3 %) and 1,8-cineole (14.5 %), and rhizomes of H. coronarium (Nakatani et al. 1994).
they were found to make a major contribution to Three new labdane-type diterpene lactones,
the typical scent of the flower. hedychilactones A (1), B (2) and C (3), together
with six known diterpenes coronarin D (4), coro-
narin D methyl ether (5), coronarin E(6), labda-
Leaf Phytochemicals 8(17),13(14)-dien-15,16-olide (7), hedychenone
(8) and 7-hydroxyhedychenone (9); three
Ali et al. (2002) found the leaf oil in Fiji to be farnesene-type sesquiterpenes, (+)-nerolidol
rich in α-pinene (20.9 %), β-pinene (53.6 %), (10), hedychiol A (11) and hedychiol B
1,8-cineole (11.9 %) and β-caryophyllene 8,9-diacetate (12); and a flavonol, 5-hydroxy-
(17.7 %). Leaf essential oil from Brazil was 3,7,4′-trimethoxyflavone (13), were isolated from
found to be rich in β-caryophyllene (43.0 %), the methanolic extract of the fresh rhizome of
caryophyllene oxide (12.1 %) and β-pinene Japanese H. coronarium (Matsuda et al. 2002a, b)
(11.6 %,) (dos Santos et al. 2010). β-Pinene Two new farnesane-type sesquiterpenes, hedychiol
(33.9 %), α-pinene (14.7 %), 1,8-cineole A and hedychiol B 8,9-diacetate, together with
(13.3 %), r-elemene (11.0 %) and carotol 10 constituents coronarin D; coronarin D methyl
(9.1 %) were the main components in the ether; coronarin E; labda-8(17),13(14)-dien-15,
H. coronarium leaf oil, including 82.0 % 16-olide; hedychenone; 7-hydroxyhedychenone;
terpenoid compounds (Ho 2011). and (+)-nerolidol including hedychilactones
A–C, were isolated from the methanolic extract
of the fresh rhizome of Hedychium coronarium
Rhizome Phytochemicals cultivated in Japan (Morikawa et al. 2002).
Benzoyl eugenol along with the C-14 epimers of
Two labdane-type diterpenes, coronarin E and the labdane diterpene isocoronarin D and the
coronarin F, were isolated from the rhizomes C-15 epimers of the ethoxyl derivative from
(Itokawa et al. 1988b). Four new labdane-type coronarin D were isolated from the rhizomes
diterpenes, coronarins A, B, C and D, and one (Taveira et al. 2005). A new labdane diterpenoid,
known labdane-type diterpene, (E)-labda-8(17), (E)-labda-8(17),12-dien-15,16-olide (1), together
12- diene-15,16-dial, were isolated as cytotoxic with eight known compounds, coronarin D
principles from the rhizomes (Itokawa et al. (2), coronarin D methyl ether (3), coronarin D ethyl
1988a). Singh et al. (1991) isolated coronarin D, ether (4), isocoronarin D (5), coronarin B (6), labda-
coronarin D ethyl ether, coronarin E and a new 8(17),11,13-trien-15,16-olide (7), (E)-labda-8(17),
diterpene identified as (+)-14β-hydroxylabda- 12-diene-15,16-dial (8) and 16-hydroxylabda-
8(17),12-dieno-16,15-lactone, assigned the 8(17),11,13-trien-15,16-olide (9), were isolated
trivial name of isocoronarin D from the rhizome from the rhizomes (Chimnoi et al. 2008, 2009).
of H. coronarium grown in Nepal. Two new Compounds 2–4, 5 and 9 are isolated as mixtures
diterpenes identified as coronarin D methyl of C-15, C-14 and C-16 epimers, respectively.
ether, a labdane diterpene, and 14,15,16- Two new labdane-type diterpenes, hedy-
trinorlabda-8(17),11-(E)-dien-13-al, an unusual chicoronarin A and hedychicoronarin B, and ten
trinorditerpene catabolite, were isolated from the known compounds were isolated from the rhizome
Hedychium coronarium 851

(Chen et al. 2010). Three new labdane-type Antioxidant Activity

diterpenes 1–3, named coronarins G–I, as well
as seven known compounds, coronarin D, The rhizome essential oil from Hedychium species
coronarin D methyl ether, hedyforrestin C, including H. coronarium exhibited moderate-to-
(E)-nerolidol, β-sitosterol, daucosterol and good Fe(2+) chelating activity (Joshi et al. 2008).
stigmasterol, were isolated from the rhizomes The polar extracts of H. coronarium were found to
(Phan et al. 2011). Two new labdanes, possess antioxidant activity as evaluated using
15-methoxylabda- 8(17),11E,13-trien-16,15- DPPH scavenging, chelating effect of ferrous ions
olide and 16-methoxylabda- 8(17),11E, and reducing power assay (Ho 2011). Appreciable
13-trien-15,16-olide, named hedycoronen A and total phenolic content (18.5–26.3 mg/g) was also
hedycoronen B, as well as four known com- detected by Folin–Ciocalteu test.
pounds, labda-8(17),11,13-trien-16,15-olide;
16-hydroxylabda-8(17),11,13-trien-15,16-olide;
coronarin A; and coronarin E, were isolated Anti-inflammatory Activity
from the rhizomes (Phan et al. 2011). Two new
labdane diterpenoids, namely, hedycoronals A The methanolic extract from the rhizome of
and B, together with eight known diterpenoids Hedychium coronarium was found to inhibit the
and a known diarylheptanoid, were isolated from increase in vascular permeability induced by ace-
the rhizomes (Zhan et al. 2012). tic acid in mice and nitric oxide production
Ali et al. (2002) found the rhizome oil of (IC50 = 45 μg/ml) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-
H. coronarium in Fiji to be rich in α-pinene activated mouse peritoneal macrophages
(10.6 %), β-pinene (31.4 %) and 1,8-cineole (Matsuda et al. 2002a, b). The ethyl acetate-
(55.9 %). Rhizome essential oil from Brazil was soluble fraction was more inhibitory on NO pro-
found to be rich in 1,8-cineole (34.8 %), β-pinene duction with an IC50 of 13 μg/ml. In addition,
(16.7 %) and α-terpineol (13.1 %) (dos Santos constituents, coronarin D and its methyl ether
et al. 2010). Gurib-Fakim et al. (2002) found the were found to show an inhibitory effect on the
rhizome essential oil from Mauritius to be rich in increase in vascular permeability induced by ace-
α-muurolol (16.8 %), α-terpineol (15.9 %), 1, tic acid in mice. They also reported the inhibitory
8-cineole (11.2 %), an unknown sesquiterpene effects of labdane-type diterpene constituents
alcohol (7.0 %), α-fenchyl acetate (5.6 %), citro- including hedychilactones (1–3) against NO pro-
nellal (5.5 %) and (E)-methyl cinnamate (5.1 %). duction and/or induction of inducible nitric oxide
1,8-Cineole was found as the most abundant synthase (iNOS) in LPS-activated mouse perito-
component of the rhizome essential oil in south neal macrophages. The results supported the tra-
India (Sabulal et al. 2007). Joshi et al. (2008) ditional effects of this herbal medicine for the
found trans-meta-mentha-2,8-diene and linalool treatment of inflammation. In carrageenan-
as major components in the rhizome essential oil. induced rat paw oedema test, the chloroform and
The major constituents of H. coronarium rhi- methanol rhizome extracts at a dose of 400 mg/
zome oil were 1,8-cineole (37.3 %), β-pinene kg body weight showed statistically significant
(23.0 %), α-terpineol (10.4 %) and α-pinene inhibition of paw oedema by 27.46 and 32.48 %,
(9.9 %), comprising 80.6 % of the oil (Ho 2011). respectively, at the third hour after carrageenan
The essential oil from fresh and dried rhi- injection (Shrotriya et al. 2007). Among the com-
zomes of H. coronarium afforded 44 and 38 pounds isolated from the rhizome, coronarin G,
constituents representing 93.91 % and 95.41 %, coronarin H, 15-methoxylabda-8(17),11E,13-
respectively (Joy et al. 2007). The major com- trien-16,15-olide (hedycoronen A) and labda-
ponents of the essential oil from fresh and dried 8(17),11,13-trien-16,15-olide, and hedyforrestin
rhizome were 1,8-cineole (41.42 %, 37.44 %), C were significant inhibitors of lipopolysaccharide
β-pinene (10.39 %, 17.4 %) and alpha-terpineol (LPS)-stimulated production of proinflammatory
(8.8 %, 6.7 %), respectively. cytokines TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-12 p40 in bone
852 Zingiberaceae

marrow-derived dendritic cells with IC50 ranging (3), coronarin D ethyl ether (4), isocoronarin D
from 0.19 to 10.38 μM (Phan et al. 2011). Further (5), coronarin B (6), labda-8(17),11,13-trien-
they reported that hedycoronens A and B isolated 15,16-olide (7), (E)-labda-8(17),12-diene-15,16-
from the rhizomes were potent inhibitors of LPS- dial (8) and 16-hydroxylabda-8(17),11,13-trien-
stimulated interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-12 p40, with 15,16-olide (9), was isolated from the rhizomes
IC50 ranging from 4.1 to 9.1 μM. Hedycoronens (Chimnoi et al. 2008, 2009). Some of the isolated
A and B showed moderate inhibitory activity on compounds showed significant cytotoxicity with
the tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production IC50 values lower than 4 μg/ml when tested
with IC50 values of 46.0 and 12.73 μM. Their results against the following cancer cell lines: S102,
indicated the potential anti-inflammatory benefits hepatocellular carcinoma; HuCCA-1, cholangio-
of labdane diterpenes from H. coronarium. carcinoma; A549, lung adenocarcinoma; MOLT-3,
The flower essential oil (100 mg/kg p.o.) T-lymphoblast (acute lymphoblastic leukaemia);
produced significant inhibition of paw oedema, KB, epidermoid carcinoma; HeLA, cervical
but showed poor antioxidant activity with the carcinoma; MDA-MB231, hormone-independent
DPPH IC50 value of 1,091.00 μg/ml and FRAP breast cancer; T-47D, hormone-dependent breast
(ferric reducing/antioxidant power assay) value cancer; HL-60, human promyelocytic leukaemia
of 0.22 μmol Fe2+/mg (Lu et al. 2009). There was cell; P388, mouse lymphoid neoplasm; and
no direct correlation between anti-inflammatory HepG2, hepatoblastoma.
effect and antioxidant activity of the essential oil.

Analgesic Activity
Antitumour Activity
In the acetic acid-induced writhing test, the chlo-
Studies showed that coronarin D [E-labda- roform and methanol extract of H. coronarium
8(17),12-diene-15-ol], a labdane-type diterpene, rhizomes at doses of 400 mg/kg body weight
from Hedychium coronarium inhibited both elicited 27.23 and 40.59 % inhibition of writhing
constitutive and inducible nuclear factor-kappa B reflex, respectively (Shrotriya et al. 2007). Both
pathway activation, which led to inhibition of extracts showed significant elongation of tail-flick
inflammation and invasion, potentiation of time (41.15 and 61.32 % elongation, respectively)
apoptosis and suppression of osteoclastogenesis at 400 mg/kg body weight.
(Kunnumakkara et al. 2008). Coronarin D was
found to be more potent than its analogue coro-
narin D acid. Two new labdane diterpenes iso- Hepatoprotective Activity
lated from the rhizomes were found to be
cytotoxic against the A-549 (lung cancer), The 80 % aqueous acetone extract of Hedychium
SK-N-SH (human neuroblastoma), MCF-7 coronarium flowers exhibited a protective effect
(breast cancer) and HeLa (cervical cancer) cell on D-galactosamine-induced cytotoxicity in pri-
lines (Suresh et al. 2010). Two diterpenoids iso- mary cultured mouse hepatocytes (Nakamura
lated from the rhizome exhibited potent cytotoxic et al. 2008). In addition, its constituents, labdane-
activities against four cancer cell lines and dis- type diterpene, coronarin C, coronarin D,
played promising inhibitory activities against 15-hydroxylabda-8(17),11,13-trien-16,15-olide
human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) and 16-formyllabda-8(17),12-dien-15,11-olide,
proliferation with the IC50 values of 6.4 to 3.3 μM exhibited hepatoprotective effects. Coronarin C
(Zhan et al. 2012). and 15-hydroxylabda-8(17),11,13-trien-16,15-
A new labdane diterpenoid, (E)-labda- olide displayed hepatoprotective effects, which
8(17),12-dien-15,16-olide (1), together with were stronger than that of the hepatoprotective
coronarin D (2), coronarin D methyl ether agent, silybin.
Hedychium coronarium 853

Anti-allergic Activity and Candida albicans than against the bacteria

Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Hedychilactone A and coronarin D isolated from H. coronarium rhizome oil exhibited antimicro-
the methanol extracts of H. coronarium rhizome bial activity against Salmonella typhi, Escherichia
inhibited the release of β-hexosaminidase from coli, Proteus vulgaris and the fungi Candida
rat basophilic leukaemia RBL-2H3 cell line cells albicans and Candida glabrata (Sabulal et al. 2007).
(Morikawa et al. 2002). Coronarin D (6) especially The methanol and dichloromethane rhizome
showed strong inhibitory activity (IC50 = 57 μm). extracts exhibited antibacterial activity against
In addition, hedychenone (10) enhanced the both Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus,
release of β-hexosaminidase from RBL-2H3 Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium and
cells. RBL-2H3 cells are tumour analogues of Sarcina lutea and Gram-negative (Escherichia
mucosal mast cells. coli, Shigella sonnei, Shigella shiga,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhi)
bacteria (Aziz et al. 2009). Dichloromethane
Antihypertensive Activity extract showed comparatively higher activity
than the other extracts. The minimum inhibitory
Oral administration of H. coronarium leaf lamina concentrations (MICs) of the extracts were found
aqueous ethanol extract (40 ml/kg) exerted anti- to be in the range of 08–128 μg/ml. The LC50
hypertensive effects in conscious unrestrained cytotoxicity against brine shrimp nauplii
SHR rats (Ribeiro et al. 1986). (Artemia salina) was also evaluated and found to
be 34.85 μg/ml for methanol extract, 62.59 μg/ml
for ethyl acetate extract and 55.59 μg/ml for
Diuretic Activity dichloromethane extract.
The leaf and rhizome essential oil of H. coro-
Of 32 medicinal plants tested, oral administration narium displayed significant antimicrobial activ-
of the aqueous ethanol of H. coronarium leaf ity, inhibiting the growth of all five fungal and
blade and sheath (40 ml/kg) exerted the most sig- four bacterial strains tested (Ho 2011). The anti-
nificant diuretic effect in conscious unrestrained microbial nature of the essential oil was related to
rats (Ribeiro et al. 1988). high terpenoid contents. Among the compounds
isolated from the rhizome, (+)-coronarin A and
coronarin D methyl ether exhibited antitubercu-
Antiasthmatic Activity lar activities against Mycobacterium tuberculosis
H37Rv in vitro, with MICs = 80 and 50 μg/ml,
Of the 19 Brazilian species investigated, respectively (Chen et al. 2010).
Hedychium coronarium, Xylopia frutescens Aubl. Coronarin D was effective against C. albicans
and Hymenaea courbaril L. exhibited a high with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of
5-lipoxygenase inhibitory activity (Braga et al. 2000). 2 mg/ml and a minimum fungicidal concentration
5-Lipoxygenase is a human enzyme that plays a key (MFC) of 4 mg/ml (Kaomongkolgit et al. 2012).
role in regulating the production of leukotrienes. The C. albicans fungicidal activity of coronarin D
was higher than that of clotrimazole and nystatin
at 2 × MFC and 4 × MFC, respectively.
Antimicrobial Activity

The rhizome essential oil was reported to have Larvicidal Activity

antimicrobial activity (Joy et al. 2007). It was
found that the antimicrobial activity was higher The leaf oil exhibited the mosquito larvicidal activity
in the fresh sample than the dried. Both samples with 2 h and 24 h LC50 values of 111 and 90 ppm,
showed a better activity against Trichoderma sp. respectively, while the rhizome oil showed the
854 Zingiberaceae

larvicidal activity with 2 h and 24 h LC50 values of the rhizome is used for headache, inflammatory
86 and 47 ppm, respectively (Ho 2011). β-Pinene, pains, rheumatism and contusion. The plant has
α-pinene and 1,8-cineol in H. coronarium serve as been used as a remedy for foetid nostril. In
the principal larvicidal components of both oils. Hawaii, the natives used the juice of mature seed
head as hair and skin treatment. In the Moluccas,
the base of the stem is chewed and the juice
Leishmanicidal Activity placed on swellings and a decoction used as a
gargle. The rhizomes of Hedychium coronarium
Hedychium coronarium ethanolic plant extract are used in the treatment of diabetes by the Siddis
was found to exhibit good leishmanicidal activity of Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka, India
against Leishmania amazonensis amastigotes (Bhandary et al. 1995). They have been used for
with IC50 <10 μg/ml (Valadeau et al. 2009). the treatment of inflammation, skin diseases,
headache and sharp pain due to rheumatism in
traditional Vietnamese medicine (Phan et al. 2011).
Anthelmintic Activity

The rhizome oils of Hedychium coronarium and Other Uses

H. spicatum exhibited higher anthelmintic activ-
ity than piperazine phosphate against earthworms The plant is popularly grown as an ornamental.
and tapeworms, but the activity against hookworms The plant has been used in occult activities where
and nodular worms was lower than hexylresorcinol the rhizome prescribed in an embrocation was
(Dixit and Varma 1975). used to treat emaciation ascribed to the influence
of an evil spirit. The stems contain 43–48 % cel-
lulose and are useful in making paper. The fra-
Cercaricidal Activity grant flowers are popularly used in the making of
bridal bouquets, leis and wreaths. An essential oil
The cut stem of Hedychium coronarium exuded a obtained from the fragrant flowers is valued in
cercaricidal substance, active against the cercariae high-grade perfumes.
of Schistosoma mansoni (Warren and Peters 1968).

Comments
Traditional Medicinal Uses
In Cuba, H. coronarium is the national flower,
Hedychium coronarium has been used in folk- known as ‘Flor de Mariposa’, literally ‘Butterfly
loric medicine in Asia for a variety of ailments Flower’, due to its similarity with a flying white
(Burkill 1966; Duke and Ayensu 1985; Chopra butterfly. In Australia, H. coronarium is deemed
et al. 1986; Matsuda et al. 2002a, b; Morikawa a potential weed of native bushland, rainforests
et al. 2002; Nakamura et al. 2008) such as to treat and other closed forests, forest margins and
cold, headache, arthritis and injuries. The seed is riparian zones.
aromatic, carminative and stomachic. Juice from
the stem is used for swellings and a decoction
used as a gargle. The rhizome contains 1.7 % Selected References
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 Zingiber zerumbet

Scientific Name French: Amome Sauvage, Zérumbet, Gingembre

Fou, Gingembre Blanc
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Smith German: Wilder Ingwer, Zerumbet
Hawaiian: Awapuhi, Awapuhi Kuahiwi, Ophui
India: Ghatian (Assamese), kulanjan, Mahabari
Synonyms bach, narkachur (Bengali), banadrak,
mahabari-bach, mahabaribach, nar-kachur,
Amomum silvestre Poir, Amomum sylvestre narkachur (Hindi), agale shunti, agaleshunthi,
Lam. (illeg.), Amomum zerumbet L., Zerumbet agalesunthi, agalu shunti, agalusunthi, kaadu
zingiber T. Lestib., Zingiber sylvestre Garsault kolinjana, kaadu shuntee, kaadu shunti, kallu
(inval.) shunti, kallusunthi, kallusunti (Kannada),
kathu-inshi-kua, katinci, katouinschikua, kat-
tinchi, kattinci, kattincikuva, kattinji, kattinji-
Family kuva, kattu-inschi-kua (Malayalam), yaimu,
singkha (Manipuri), kaali halad, narakchora,
Zingiberaceae ran-alem (Marathi), Gada, Pasukedar, viranam
(Oriya), Kachur, Narkachur (Punjab), ahava,
avanti, karpuraharidra, kolanjana, kumbhika,
Common/English Names sthulagranthi, viranam (Sanskrit), araniyacara-
nai, aniyacaranai, cirrinci, kattinci, vanaartti-
Broad-Leaved Ginger, Martinique Ginger, Pine rakam (Tamil), kaarallamu, kaarupasupu,
Cone Ginger, Pinecone Lily, Shampoo Ginger, karallamu, karupasupu, santapasupu (Telugu),
Wild Ginger, Zerumbet Ginger Kallusonti (Tulu), kapur kachri, kapur-kachri,
kapurkachri, narkachoor (zurumbad), narka-
chur, narkachur nim koafta, narkachur nim
Vernacular Names kofta, zarambad, zaranbad, zaranbad nim
kofta, zarnabad, zarnabad nim kofta (Urdu)
Arabic: auruq-ul-kafoor, satwal, zadwar, Zurunbah, Indonesia: Lempuyang, Lampuyang emprit,
Zurunbâd Lampuyang prit, Lampuynag rum, Lampuyang
Bangladesh: Jangli Adha wangi (Javanese), Lampojang, Lampojang
Brazil: Gengibre Amargo paek (Madurese), Lampoyan gajah, Lampuyan
Burmese: Linne-Gyi kapur, Lampuyan kebo, Lampuyang wangi
Chinese: Hong Qiu Jiang (Malay), Lampuyang badak, Lampuyang
Fijian: Cagolaya, Drove, Layalaya ruum, Lampuyang wangi (Sundanese)

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 857
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2_76, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
858 Zingiberaceae

Italian: Zenzero Bianco, Zenzero Salvatico the same way as ginger. The young ends of
Japanese: Niga Shouga rhizomes, peeled or unpeeled, are eaten raw as
Khmer: Khnei Phtu, Prateal Vong Prenh Atit lalab with rice in Java (Ochse and Bakhuizen van
Laotian: Hva:Nz Ph’ai Chai Hluang den Brink 1980).
Malaysia: Lampoyang, Lampuyan, Lempoyang
Persian: kazhur, zaranbad, zhuranbad
Philippines: Balauag, Layag Sasulug (Bikol), Botany
Barik, Langkawas, Luiang-Usiu, Tumbong-Aso
(Tagalog), Lampuyana, Tandok (Bukidnon) A tall erect, herbaceous plant with pseudostems
Portuguese: Gengibre Amargo growing in clumps up to 0.6–2 m tall (Plate 1)
Samoan: ‘Ava’avaaitu sosolo, ‘ava’avaaitu tu, with a subterranean tuberous rhizome which is
‘avapui’ pale yellow inside (Plate 2). Leaves are numer-
Spanish: Jengibre, Jengibre Amargo ous, distichous, sessile or shortly petiolate, green,
Sri Lanka: Waliguru simple, entire, lanceolate or oblong–lanceolate,
Thailand: Haeo Dam, Hiao Kha, Hiao Daeng, 15–40 cm by 3–8 cm, glabrescent or abaxially
Kaen, Ka Thue, Ka Thue Pa, Ka Waen, Kra somewhat pilose, base narrowed, apex acuminate
Thue, Ple Pho (Karen), Wanfai (Don Daeng) (Plates 1, and 3). Inflorescences conical or
Turkish: Yabani zencefil, Zurunbad, Zerunebat, ovoid–oblong, 6–15 cm by 3.5–5 cm, with obtuse
Zernebat apices (Plates 1, 3, and 4), occurring at the end of
Vietnamese: Gừng dại, Gừng gió, Ngải mặt trời,
Ngải xanh

Origin/Distribution

The species is a native of tropical Indo-Malesian–

India, Malaysia and Indonesia. It is widely
cultivated in the Asian tropics—Cambodia, India,
Laos, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Vietnam, Pacific Islands including China
(Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan) and Taiwan. It is
now pantropical in distribution. Plate 1 Flowering clumps of pine cone gingers

Agroecology

The plant thrives in the humid and hot tropical

areas in rainforests and thickets and beaches and
mangroves at low and medium (600 m) altitudes,
under full shade to partial shade in rich, moist,
well-drained soil rich in humus.

Edible Plant Parts and Uses

The flower buds are boiled and eaten as vegeta-

bles (Sirirugsa 1997). The young shoots and
rhizome are used as a spice/condiment in much Plate 2 Harvested rhizomes
Zingiber zerumbet 859

Stamen 10 mm; connective appendage beaklike.

Ovary glabrous. Capsule ellipsoid, 12 mm long.
Seeds oblong, black.

Nutritive/Medicinal Properties

The volatile flower oil was found to contain more

than 60 components, of which 45 compounds,
making up 85 % of the oil, were identified
(Nguyên et al. 1995). (Z)-nerolidol (36.3 %) and
Plate 3 Pine cone inflorescences, flower and peduncles β-caryophyllene (13.2 %) were the major con-
stituents. Flower essential oil was rich in
(E)-nerolidol (34.9 %), β-caryophyllene
(10.2 %) and linalool (17.1 %) (Chane-Ming
et al. 2003).
The major components of the leaf oil were
(Z)-nerolidol (22.3 %), β-caryophyllene (11.2 %),
zerumbone (2.4 %) and trans-phytol (12.6 %).
Predominant minor constituents included
β-pinene (5.2 %), α-humulene (2.9 %), caryoph-
yllene oxide (5.5 %) and linalool (2.4 %) (Nguyên
et al. 1995). Leaf essential oil was rich in β-pinene
(31.4 %), (E)-nerolidol (21.4 %), α-pinene
(10.3 %), linalool (7.7 %) and β-caryophyllene
(6.9 %) (Chane-Ming et al. 2003). Twenty-nine
components were identified in the leaf essential
oil of Z. zerumbet grown in Bangladesh (Bhuiyan
et al. 2009). The leaf oil was rich in zerumbone
(36.98 %), α-caryophyllene (16.35 %), camphene
(9.24 %), 1,2-dihydropyridine,1-(1-oxobutyl),
-(5.82 %), 3-cyclo hexen-1-carboxaldehyde,
3,4-dimethyl-(3.91 %), caryophyllene (3.25 %),
camphor (2.72 %), caryophyllene oxide (2.54 %),
α-pinene (2.23 %), eucalyptol (1.69 %) and
Plate 4 Close-up of pine cone inflorescence and flower
trans-longipinene (1.65 %). Minor leaf oil constit-
uents included the following: limonene (1.14 %),
peduncles 10–30 cm with 5–7scalelike sheaths 1,5-cycloundecadien, 8,8-dimethyl-9-methylene
which arise from rhizomes. Bracts are closely (1.13 %), 3-carene (1.02 %), agarospirol
imbricate, green when young, red when old, (0.97 %), linalool (0.85 %), borneol (0.81 %),
slightly hairy, margin membranous, and bracte- 3α,9-dimethyldodecahydrocyclohepta [D] inden-
oles are 1.5 cm. Calyx 1.2–2 cm, membranous, 3-one (0.72 %), 3-isopropyltricyclo [4.3.1.1]
split on 1 side, apex 3 toothed. Corolla tube (2,5) undec-3-en-l0-ol (0.78 %), β-eudesmol
2–3 cm, slender; lobes pale yellow, lanceolate, (0.71 %), 2,6-dimethylbicyclo [3,2,1]octane
central one 15–25 mm. Labellum pale yellow, (0.69 %), 7-octylidenebicyclo [4.1.0] heptane-
15 × 25 mm; central lobe suborbicular or sub- (0.69 %), cycloheptane, 4-methylene-1-methyl-
obovate, 15–20 mm by 15 mm, apex emarginate; 2-(2-methyl-1-propen-1-1-yl)-1-vinyl (0.68 %),
lateral lobes obovate, 10 mm, free nearly to base. tricyclene (0.56 %), 1,6,10-dodecatrien-3-ol,
860 Zingiberaceae

3,7,11-trimethyl, -[S-(Z)] (0.53 %), borneol (0.52 %) reported approximately 86 % sesquiterpenoids

andazulene1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8-octahydro-1,4-dimethyl- with zerumbone being the major component in
7-(1-methylethylidene), -(IS-cis)- (0.48 %). the ethanol rhizome extract. They also found
The major components of the stem oil were β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide and
(Z)-nerolidol (16.8 %), β-caryophyllene (10.4 %), β-eudesmol. Duve (1980) reported that the local
zerumbone (21.3 %) and trans-phytol (7.0 %). Fijian variety contained 56.7 % zerumbone,
Predominant minor constituents included β-pinene while the Indian variety had 37.5 % zerumbone.
(5.4 %), α-humulene (2.5 %), caryophyllene oxide A sesquiterpene, zederone, was isolated from the
(1.1 %) and linalool (1.1 %) (Nguyên et al. 1995). crude ethanolic extract of Z. zerumbet rhizomes
Two oxygenated derivatives of humulene, viz. (Kader et al. 2010).
humulene monoxide and humulene dioxide, Two flavonoid glycosides, kaempferol-3-
were isolated from the sesquiterpene fractions of O-(3,4-O-diacetyl-α-L-rhamnopyranoside) and
Z. zerumbet oil (Ramaswami and Bhattacharyya kaempferol-3- O -(2,4- O -diacetyl-α-l - rhamno-
1962). Zerumbone and 4″-O-acetylafzelin were pyranoside), and two flavonols, kaempferol-3,4′-
obtained from organic extracts of entire plants of O-dimethylether and kaempferol-3-O-methylether,
Z. zerumbet (Dai et al. 1997). were isolated from the CH2Cl2-soluble part of the
extract of fresh rhizomes of Zingiber zerumbet
along with zerumbone, zerumbone epoxide and
Phytochemicals in Rhizome curcumin (Nakatani et al. 1991). A humulene
sesquiterpene, 5-hydroxyzerumbone (5-hydroxy-
From the rhizome essential oil, humulene was 2E,6E,9E-humulatrien-8-one), and zerum-
identified (Varier 1944), monoterpenes and boneoxide (Jang et al. 2005), two isomers of
zerumbone (Balakrishnan et al. 1956) were also 6-methoxy-2E,9E-humuladien-8-one (1 and 2)
found, the structure of zerumbone was eluci- and stigmast-4-en-3-one (Jang and Seo 2005),
dated as 2,6,9,9-tetramethyl-2,6,10-cyclo- were isolated from the rhizomes. Three new
undecatrien-1-one (Dev 1960). Two oxygenated acetylated and one known kaempferol glyco-
derivatives of humulene, viz. humulene mono- sides were isolated from fresh Zingiber
xide and humulene dioxide, were isolated from zerumbet rhizomes and their structures deter-
the sesquiterpene fractions of Z. zerumbet oil mined to be the kaempferol-3-O-(2-O-acetyl-α-
(Ramaswami and Bhattacharyya 1962). Nigam l-rhamnopyranoside), kaempferol-3-O-(3-O-
and Levi (1963) isolated β-pinene, Δ3-carene, acetyl-α-L-rhamnopyranoside), kaempferol-3-
β-caryophyllene, ar-curcumene, linalool, borneol O-(4- O -acetyl-α-l - rhamnopyranoside ) and
and α-terpineol from the oil. The essential oil kaempferol-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside (Masuda
from Zingiber zerumbet rhizomes was found et al. 1991). Among Fijian edible food plants,
to contain sesquiterpenoids: dihydro-ψ- Z. zerumbet, a widely used herb taken before
photozerumbone, ψ-photozerumbone, humulene meals, was found to provide the richest source of
epoxide-I, humulene epoxide-11, caryophyllene kaempferol (240 mg/100 g) (Lako et al. 2007).
oxide, β-caryophyllene, the sesquiterpene alco- Two aromatic compounds, p-hydroxyben-
hols (+)-humulenol-I and (+)-humulenol-II zaldehyde and vanillin, and six flavonoids,
(Damodaran and Dev 1968a, b, c) and zerum- kaempferol derivatives, kaempferol-3,4′,7-O-
bone oxide, a sesquiterpene epoxy ketone trimethylether, kaempferol-3- O-methylether,
(Chhabra et al. 1975). Zerumbone, zerumbone kaempferol-3,4′-O-dimethylether, 4″-O-acety-
epoxide, diferuloylmethane, feruloyl-p - lafzelin, kaempferol-3-O-(4-O-acetyl-α-l-
coumaroylmethane, di-p-coumaroylmethane rhamnopyranoside), 2″,4″- O-diacetylafzelin,
and 3″,4″-O-diacetylafzelin were isolated from kaempferol-3- O-(2,4-O-diacetyl-α-l-rhamnopyra-
the pentane and ether extracts of Z. zerumbet noside), 3″,4″- O-diacetylafzelin and kaempferol-
rhizome (Matthes et al. 1980). Yu et al. (2008) 3- O -(3,4- O -diacetyl-α-l - rhamnopyranoside ),
Zingiber zerumbet 861

were isolated from the chloroform-soluble [1ar-(1aα, 4β,4aβ, 7α.,7aβ,7bα)]- (1.89 %),
fraction of Zingiber zerumbet rhizome (Jang eucalyptol (1.27 %) and α-pinene (1.17 %).
et al. 2004). Five flavonoids, kaempferol Minor compounds included the following:
3-O-rhamnoside, kaempferol 3-O-(2″-O-acetyl) 2-methylenecholestan-3-ol (1.02 %), carveol
rhamnoside or kaempferol 3-O-(3″-O-acetyl) (0.92 %), limonene (0.88 %), bicyclo[3.1.0]
rhamnoside, kaempferol 3-O-(4″-O-acetyl)rham- hexane-6-methanol, 2-hydroxy-1,4,4-trimethyl-
noside, kaempferol 3-O-(3″,4″-O-diacetyl)rham- (0.88 %), 3-carene (0.82 %), linalool (0.57 %),
noside and kaempferol 3-O-(2″,4″-O-diacetyl) trans-nerolidol (0.45 %), cycloheptane,
rhamnoside, were found in the active fraction 4-methylene-1-methyl-2-(2-methyl-1-propen-1-
from Z. zerumbet rhizome (Ruslay et al. 2007). yl)-1-vinyl- (0.46 %), 2,4-diisopropenyl-1-
Zerumbone, 3-O-methyl kaempferol, kaempferol- methylcyclohexane (0.45 %), bicyclo[5.3.0]
3-O-(2, 4-di-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamnopyranoside) and decane, 2-methylene-5-(1-methylvinyl)-8-methyl-
kaempferol-3-O-(3,4-di-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamno- (0.43 %), anisole, p-styryl- (0.41 %), 2-naphtha-
pyranoside) were isolated from the rhizome of lenemethanol, 1,2,3,4,4α,5,6,7-octahydro-α,
Z. zerumbet (Chien et al. 2008). α,,4α,8-tetramethyl- (0.37 %), (2R-cis)-
Oliveros and Cantoria (1982) found that the β-terpinyl acetate (0.30 %), borneol (0.29 %),
dried rhizome of Z. zerumbet yielded a dextroro- norethynodrel (0.24 %), 4-terpineol (0.23 %),
tatory volatile oil with zerumbone as its major β-cymene (0.21 %), 4-isopropenyl-4,7-dimethyl-
constituent which congealed at 3 °C. In contrast, 1-oxaspiro[2.5]octane (0.21 %) and germacrene
they found a proposed variety which yielded a D-4-ol (0.20 %). The most abundant component
levorotatory volatile oil with 4-terpinenol as its of Z. zerumbet rhizome oil was zerumbone,
main constituent and congealed at −27 °C. The 73 % of the total oil, other major components
essential oil of Z. zerumbet rhizome was found to were α-humulene (5.9 %), camphene (2.8 %)
be rich in oxygenated derivatives of α-humulene, and caryophyllene oxide (2.7 %) (Sri Nurestri
in particular zerumbone (65.3 %) (Lechat- et al. 2005).
Vahirua et al. 1993). More than 30 components Thirty-three compounds, accounting for
were identified in the essential oil of Zingiber 93.6 % of the essential oil of Z. zerumbet var.
zerumbet rhizome, of which zerumbone was the darcyi rhizome, were identified including 20
major constituent (72.3 %) (Nguyêñ et al. 1993). compounds in minor (0.1–0.6 %) and eight in
The essential oil of Zingiber zerumbet trace (<0.05 %) amounts (Rana et al. 2012).
rhizomes afforded 36 compounds (Srivastava The major constituents were zerumbone
et al. 2000). Curzerenone (14.4 %), zerumbone (69.9 %), α-humulene (12.9 %), humulene
(12.6 %), camphor (12.8 %), isoborneol (8.9 %) epoxide-II (2.5 %), caryophyllene oxide
and 1,8-cineole (7.1 %) were found as major (1.1 %) and camphene (1.9 %). Two terpene
compounds. Another study found the essential synthases involved in the production of terpe-
oil obtained from the rhizome to be rich in zerum- noids, namely, α-humulene synthase and
bone (37 %), α-humulene (14.4 %) and cam- β-eudesmol synthase, were found in Z. zerum-
phene (13.8 %) (Chane-Ming et al. 2003). Thirty bet rhizome (Koo and Gang 2012). β-Eudesmol
components were identified in rhizome essential synthase was also isolated from the rhizome by
oil of Z. zerumbet grown in Bangladesh (Bhuiyan Yu et al. (2008). 6-Gingerol ((S)-5-hydroxy-1-
et al. 2009). The rhizome oil was rich in zerum- (4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-3- decanone)
bone (46.83 %), α-caryophyllene (19.00 %), was one of the pungent constituents of Zingiber
1,5,5,8-tetramethyl-12-oxabicyclo[9.1.0]dodeca- zerumbet rhizome (Tzeng and Liu 2013). Nik
3,7-diene (4.28 %), caryophyllene (3.98 %), Norulaini et al. (2009) found that extraction of
caryophyllene oxide (3.70 %), camphene zerumbone, α-caryophyllene and camphene
(3.56 %), camphor (2.80 %), kauran-18-al, from Z. zerumbet could be optimized by using
17-(acetyloxy)-,(4β) (2.16 %), 1H-cycloprop[e] SC-CO2 at 30 °C and 55 MPa with total amount
azulen-4-ol, decahydro-1,1,4,7-tetramethyl-, of 30 g of CO2.
862 Zingiberaceae

Anticancer Activity lipopolysaccharide- and interferon-γ-stimulated

protein expressions of inducible nitric oxide
Many studies, in vivo and in vitro, had high- synthase and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, together
lighted the potent anticancer properties of with the release of tumour necrosis factor-α, in
zerumbone, a cyclic 11-membered sesquiterpene RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages were consider-
from Z. zerumbet, via different cell signalling ably diminished by zerumbone. These suppres-
pathways, reporting its chemopreventive/thera- sive events were accompanied with a combined
peutic effects in different tumour models decrease in the medium concentrations of nitrite
(Prasannan et al. 2012). The multi-targeted and prostaglandin E2, while the expression level
actions of zerumbone are a very desirable prop- of COX-1 was unchanged. Zerumbone inhibited
erty for cancer therapy, as carcinomas typically the proliferation of human colonic adenocarci-
involve dysregulation of multiple genes and noma cell lines (LS174T, LS180, COLO205 and
associated cell signalling pathways at various COLO320DM) in a dose-dependent manner,
stages of initiation, progression and metastasis. while the growth of normal human dermal
However, preclinical and clinical studies are (2F0-C25) and colon (CCD-18 Co) fibroblasts
lacking and are warranted. was less affected. It also induced apoptosis in
COLO205 cells, as detected by dysfunction of
In Vitro Studies the mitochondrial transmembrane. Their results
Zerumbone, zerumbone epoxide, diferuloyl- indicated zerumbone to be a food phytochemical
methane, feruloyl-p-coumaroylmethane, di-p- with distinct potentials for use in anti-inflammation,
coumaroylmethane and 3″,4″-O-diacetylafzelin chemoprevention and chemotherapy strategies.
isolated from Z. zerumbet rhizome exhibited Studies by Takada et al. (2005) found that zerum-
cytotoxic activity (Matthes et al. 1980). bone abrogated NF-kappaB and IkappaBalpha
Zerumbone was found to be a potent inhibitor of kinase activation induced by tumour necrosis fac-
tumour promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13- tor (TNF), okadaic acid, cigarette smoke conden-
acetate-induced Epstein-Barr virus activation sate, phorbol myristate acetate and H2O2. This led
(Murakami et al. 1999). The IC50 value of zerum- to suppression of anti-apoptotic and metastatic
bone (0.14 μM) was markedly lower than those gene expression, up-regulation of apoptosis and
of the antitumour promoters. Further, α-humulene downregulation of invasion, providing a molecu-
lacking the carbonyl group at the 8th position in lar basis for the prevention and treatment of
zerumbone was inactive (IC50 >100 μM), while cancer by zerumbone. In another study, zerumbone
8-hydroxy-α-humulune was markedly active exhibited antiproliferative effect on the growth of
(IC50 = 0.95 μM). Z. zerumbet rhizome extract human breast carcinoma cell lines (Rumiza and
inhibited 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate Azimahtol Hawariah 2005). Zerumbone was
(TPA)-induced Epstein-Barr virus early antigen found to mediate its activity through the inhibi-
(EBV-EA) in Raji cells but had no cytotoxicity tion of activation of nuclear factor NF-κB and
effect in Raji cells (Vimala et al. 1999). NF-κB-regulated gene expression induced by
Zerumbone from Z. zerumbet notably inhib- carcinogens such as tumour necrosis factor
ited free radical generation, proinflammatory (TNF), okadaic acid, cigarette smoke conden-
protein production and cancer cell proliferation sate, phorbol myristate acetate and H2O2 NF-κB
in a variety of cell culture experiments (Murakami activation. Sung et al. (2008) found that zerum-
et al.; 2002). Zerumbone effectively suppressed bone downregulated CXC chemokine receptor 4
12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)- (CXCR4) expression leading to inhibition of
induced superoxide anion generation from ligand CXCL12-induced invasion of breast and
both NADPH oxidase in dimethyl sulfoxide- pancreatic tumour cells.
differentiated HL-60 human acute promyelocytic Zerumbone significantly showed an antipro-
leukaemia cells and xanthine oxidase in AS52 liferative activity upon human hepatocellular
Chinese hamster ovary cell. The combined liver carcinoma HepG2 cells with an IC50 of
Zingiber zerumbet 863

3.45 μg/mL by inducing apoptosis (Sharifah HeLa cells. Weng et al. (2010) demonstrated that
Sakinah et al. 2007). Apoptosis was mediated by zerumbone (10–50 μM) induced apoptosis in
the up-regulation of pro-apoptotic Bax protein human glioblastoma multiforme (GBM8401)
and the suppression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 cells in a dose-dependent manner via inactivation
protein expression and was independent of of IKKα, followed by Akt and FOXO1 phos-
functional p53 activity. Recent studies by phorylation and caspase-3 activation. Studies
Kamalidehghan et al. (2012) found that apoptosis showed that zerumbone suppressed the viability
in zerumbone-induced HepG2 cells was not asso- of pancreatic carcinoma PANC-1 in a concentra-
ciated with DNA fragmentation. Apoptosis was tion- and time-dependent manner by induction of
mediated by low and high expression of Bcl2 and apoptosis (Zhang et al. 2012). The expression
Bax proteins, respectively. Another study demon- of p53 protein and the p21 level was elevated
strated that zerumbone significantly suppressed in zerumbone-treated PANC-1 cells. Further,
the proliferation of promyelocytic leukaemia zerumbone also produced the same antitumour
NB4 cells among several leukaemia cell lines, activity in pancreatic carcinoma cell lines SW1990
but not human umbilical vein endothelial cells and AsPC-1.
(HUVECs), by inducing G2–M cell cycle arrest Recent studies by Ohnishi et al. (2013)
followed by apoptosis with 10 μM of IC50 (Xian reported that the potent bioactivities of zerum-
et al. 2007). It was found that zerumbone induced bone, a promising chemopreventive agent, was
apoptosis by triggering the Fas/CD95- and dependent on the electrophilic moiety of its
mitochondria-mediated apoptotic signalling α,β-unsaturated carbonyl group and to its chemi-
pathway. cal potential for binding to cellular proteins
Zerumbone from Zingiber zerumbet had through a Michael reaction. They showed that
been reported as one of the promising chemopre- zerumbone insolubilized cellular proteins in vitro
ventive agents against colon and skin cancer and induced ubiquitination and aggregation of
(Nakamura et al. 2004). In cultured rat normal cellular proteins. In Hepa1c1c7 cells, zerumbone
liver epithelial cell line, exposure to zerumbone activated the ubiquitin–proteasome system and
activated phase II drug-metabolizing enzymes autophagy and conferred resistance to toxicity of
such as glutathione S-transferase. Zerumbone 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, an endogenous lipid per-
was found to potentiate the gene expression of oxidation product via p62 induction. Their
several Nrf2/ARE-dependent phase II enzyme results suggested that protein modifications by
genes, including gamma-glutamylcysteine syn- zerumbone caused mild proteo-stress, thereby
thetase, glutathione peroxidase and hemeoxygen- activating intracellular proteolytic machineries to
ase-1. The findings suggested the antioxidant role maintain protein homeostasis. They considered
of this detoxification system activation by zerum- these effects on proteolytic mechanisms to be
bone in the neutralization of lipid peroxidation in hormesis, which provides beneficial functions
hepatocytes, providing a new insight for cancer through mild biological stresses.
prevention Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors that
Zerumbone exerted an antiproliferative effect inhibit proliferation and induce differentiation
towards cervical cancer cell line (HeLa) in a and/or apoptosis of tumour cells were isolated
time-dependent manner (24, 48 and 72 h) (Abdul from Z. zerumbet rhizomes (Chung et al. 2008).
et al. 2008). Zerumbone was found to be cyto- The n-hexane-soluble fraction from the rhizome
toxic on human cervical cancer (HeLa) cells yielded two major sesquiterpenoids, 6-methoxy-
(Abdelwahab et al. 2009). The apoptogenic effects 2E,9E-humuladien-8-one (1) and zerumbone (2).
of zerumbone were characterized by nuclear and Compound 1 exhibited growth-inhibitory activity
chromatin condensation, cell shrinkage, multi- on six human tumour cell lines and showed
nucleation, abnormalities of mitochondrial potential inhibitory activity in histone deacety-
cristae, membrane blebbing, holes, cytoplasmic lase (HDAC) enzyme assay (GI50 = 1.25 μM).
extrusions and formation of apoptotic bodies in It also exhibited growth inhibitory activity on five
864 Zingiberaceae

human tumour cell lines and higher inhibitory et al. (2013) substantiated that mitochondrial
activity on the MDA-MB-231 breast tumour cell permeabilization and cytochrome c-dependent
line (IC50 = 1.45 μM). caspase activation dominated in zerumbone-
Of six kaempferol derivatives extracted from induced cancer cell death and that Bax was essen-
Z. zerumbet, kaempferol-3-O-methyl ether and tial for mitochondrial permeabilization. Bax
kaempferol-3,4′-O-dimethylether showed a activation, the essential and early event of cell
potent P-glycoprotein inhibitory effect as great as death, was independently activated by reactive
verapamil, a well-known P-glycoprotein inhibitor, oxygen species (ROS) as well as calpains.
in multidrug-resistant (MDR) human breast can- Mammary epithelial cells, endothelial progenitor
cer cells, MCF-7/ADR (Chung et al. 2007). The cells and smooth muscle cells were relatively
P-glycoprotein inhibitory activity of these two resistant to zerumbone-induced cell death with
compounds was through a threefold increase of lesser ROS accumulation than cancer cells.
the level of [(3)H]-daunomycin accumulation
and a decrease of P-glycoprotein-mediated Animal Studies
efflux. These results suggested that the kaemp- Dietary administration of zerumbone to male
ferol derivative components of Z. zerumbet could F344 rats exposed to the carcinogen azoxymeth-
be used as a scaffold for developing agents that ane (AOM) caused a reduction in the frequency
reverse P-glycoprotein-mediated MDR in human of aberrant crypt foci (ACF): 72 (14 % reduction)
cancer chemotherapy. at a dose of 0.01 % and 45 (46 % reduction) at a
Among 17 zerumbone derivatives synthe- dose of 0.05 % (Tanaka et al. 2001). AOM expo-
sized, derivative 5 showed the most potent antip- sure produced 84 ACF/rat at the end of the study.
roliferative activity against cholangiocarcinoma Feeding of zerumbone significantly reduced
cell line (KKU-100) with an IC50 value of expression of COX-2 and prostaglandins in the
16.44 μM (Songsiang et al. 2010). Docking stud- colonic mucosa and significantly lowered the
ies with different enzymes and receptor proteins number of nucleolar organizer region protein
revealed that the compound 5 exhibited better (AgNORs) in colonic crypt cell nuclei. The
binding interaction to EGFR than CDK-2, CDK-5 findings suggested possible chemopreventive
and GSK-3, indicating that compound 5 could be ability of zerumbone, through suppression of
a promising candidate for treatment of cancer. COX-2 expression, cell proliferating activity of
The inclusion complex of zerumbone with colonic mucosa and induction of phase II detoxi-
hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) was fication enzymes in the development of AOM-
found to retain its cytotoxic activity as shown by induced colonic aberrant crypt foci. A single
in vitro cell survival assay on human cervical topical pretreatment of zerumbone to the mouse
cancer (HeLa), breast cancer (MCF7 and skin (2 μmol) 24 h before application of
MDA-MB-231) and human leukaemic (CEM-SS) dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (0.2 μmol) markedly
cell lines (Eid et al. 2011). The study showed suppressed tumour incidence by 60 % and the
HPβCD to be a suitable encapsular capable of number of tumours by 80 % per mouse (Murakami
forming thermodynamically stable complex with et al. 2004). Repeated pretreatment (16 nmol)
zerumbone for safe delivery of the compound as twice weekly during the post-initiation phase
an anticancer drug in the future. Zerumbone reduced the number of 12-O-tetradecanoyl-
encapsulated with hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin phorbol-13-acetate (TPA, 1.6 nmol)-induced
(HPβCD) afforded a highly soluble inclusion tumours by 83 % as well as their diameter by
complex that was found to be a promising 57 %. They found zerumbone to be a promising
anticancer agent for the treatment of hepatocel- agent for the prevention of both tumour-initiating
lular carcinoma in humans (Muhammad Nadzri and tumour-promoting processes, through
et al. 2013). It induced apoptosis in liver hepato- induction of antioxidative and phase II drug-
cellular HepG2 cells via caspase-8/BID cleavage metabolizing enzymes as well as attenuation of
switch and modulating Bcl2/Bax ratio. Sobhan proinflammatory signalling pathways.
Zingiber zerumbet 865

Huang et al. (2005) found that the diethyl Serum alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate
ether extract of Z. zerumbet rhizome could induce transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (AP)
DNA fragmentation in P-388D1 cells in vitro and and alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) were significantly
significantly prolong the life of P-388D1-bearing lower in zerumbone-treated than untreated rats
CDF1 mice (ILS% = 127.8) at a dosage of 5 mg/ with liver cancer. There was also significant
kg body weight. Zerumbone isolated from the reduction in the hepatic tissue glutathione (GSH)
diethyl ether extract also inhibited the growth of concentrations. The liver sections of untreated
P-388D1 cells, induced DNA fragmentation in DEN/AAF rats also showed abundant prolifer-
culture and significantly prolonged the life of ating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), while in
P-388D1-bearing CDF1 mice (ILS% = 120.5) at zerumbone-treated rats the expression of this
a dosage of 2 mg/kg. Further, zerumbone inhib- antigen was significantly lowered. By the TUNEL
ited the growth of a human leukaemia cell assay, there were significantly higher numbers of
line, HL-60 cells, in a time- and concentration- apoptotic cells in DEN/AAF rats treated with
dependent manner, with IC50 values of 22.29, zerumbone than those untreated. Zerumbone
9.12 and 2.27 μg/mL for 6, 12 and 18 h, respec- treatment had also increased Bax and decreased
tively, via induction of G2–M cell cycle arrest in Bcl-2 protein expression in the livers of DEN/
HL-60 cells. In a separate study, zerumbone was AAF rats, which suggested increased apoptosis.
found to have cytotoxic effect against T-cell acute The results suggested that zerumbone reduced
lymphoblastic leukaemia, CEM-SS cells in vitro oxidative stress, inhibited proliferation and
with an IC50 of 8.4 μg/mL (Abdelwahab et al. induced mitochondria-regulated apoptosis, thus
2011). Zerumbone induced apoptosis of CEM-SS minimizing DEN/AAF-induced carcinogenesis
cells as evidenced by abnormalities such as in the rat liver.
membrane blebbing, holes and cytoplasmic
extrusions.
Using two different preclinical mouse models, Anti-inflammatory Activity
Kim et al. (2009) found that oral administration
of zerumbone at 100, 250 and 500 ppm signi- Anti-inflammatory effects were observed against
ficantly inhibited the multiplicity of colonic an acute (PGE2-induced paw oedema) model of
adenocarcinomas and suppressed colonic inflam- inflammation when rats were pretreated with 50
mation. In the lung carcinogenesis, zerumbone and 100 mg/kg water extracts of Zingiber zerum-
feeding at 250 and 500 ppm significantly inhib- bet rhizome (Somchit and Shukriyah Nur 2003).
ited the multiplicity of lung adenomas in a dose- The extracts were devoid of any toxicity up to
dependent manner. Feeding with zerumbone 500 mg/kg in rats. The anti-inflammatory effect
resulted in inhibition of proliferation, induction of water extract was similar to the reference
of apoptosis and suppression of NF-kappaB and mefenamic acid. The ethanolic rhizome extract was
heme oxygenase (HO)-1 expression in tumours devoid of any anti-inflammatory effect from 25 to
developed in both colon and lung tissues. Topical 100 mg/kg concentrations. Z. zerumbet water
application of zerumbone onto the dorsal skin of extract decreased the release of tumour necrosis
hairless mice and mouse epidermal JB6 cells factor-alpha and interleukin-4 (IL-4) in vitro and
induced activation of NF-E2-related factor 2 effectively suppressed leukotriene C4 (LTC4)
(Nrf2) and expression of heme oxygenase-1 release from lung tissue in vivo (Chaung et al.
(HO-1) (Shin et al. 2011). This afforded a mecha- 2008). Additionally, BALB/c mice treated with
nistic basis for the chemopreventive effects of the extract expressed higher ratios of interferon-
zerumbone on mouse skin carcinogenesis. gamma/IL-4 mRNA in their splenocytes than that
In vivo studies showed that zerumbone pro- of the control group. The results showed that
tected the rat liver from the carcinogenic Z. zerumbet water extract should have beneficial
effects of diethylnitrosamine (DEN) and dietary effects for the treatment of asthmatic patients
2-acetylaminofluorene (AAF) (Taha et al. 2010). through its capabilities to inhibit the synthesis of
866 Zingiberaceae

LTC4 and through the immunomodulation of Zerumbone was found to covalently bind to
Th1/Th2 cytokine production. proteins, Keap1 and HuR, that played key roles
The methanol extract of Zingiber zerumbet in these molecular mechanisms.
rhizomes at doses of 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg Of the following compounds zerumbone (1),
showed significant antioedema activity when 3-O-methyl kaempferol (2), kaempferol-3-O-
assessed using the carrageenan-induced paw (2, 4-di-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamnopyranoside) (3) and
oedema test and the cotton pellet-induced granu- kaempferol-3-O-(3,4-di-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamno-
loma test in mice (Zakaria et al. 2010). The pyranoside) (4) isolated from Z. zerumbet
extract exhibited significant antinociceptive rhizome, compounds 1 and 2 demonstrated potent
activity when assessed by the writhing, hot plate inhibition of NO production, with IC50 values of
and formalin tests. Pretreatment with naloxone 4.37 and 24.35 μM, respectively, and also signifi-
(5 mg/kg) significantly decreased the latency of cantly suppressed iNOS expression in a dose-
discomfort produced by the 100 mg/kg dose dependent manner (Chien et al. 2008). However,
of the extract in the hot plate test. The anti- 1 and 2 could inhibit PGE2 production only at
inflammatory and antinociceptive activities may high doses (20 and 40 μM, respectively), and
involve the inhibition of bradykinin-, prostaglan- COX-2 protein level was not affected. In in-vivo
din-, histamine- and opioid-mediated processes. studies, mice administered with zerumbone
Essential oil of Z. zerumbet, at doses of 30, (10 mg/kg) 1 h before carrageenan injection
100 and 300 mg/kg, administered intraperitone- significantly attenuated oedema and were com-
ally to rats induced significant anti-inflammatory pared to the vehicle control. Separate studies
activity both in acute and chronic animal models demonstrated that intraperitoneal administration
in the carrageenan-induced paw oedema and cot- of zerumbone at doses of 5, 10, 50 and 100 mg/kg
ton pellet-induced granuloma tests (Zakaria et al. to mice produced significant dose-dependent
2011). The essential oil also inhibited inflamma- inhibition of paw oedema induced by carra-
tory- and noninflammatory-mediated pain when geenan (Sulaiman et al. 2010a). At similar doses,
assessed using the formalin test. The results indi- zerumbone significantly suppressed granuloma-
cated that the essential oil of Z. zerumbet possessed tous tissue formation in the cotton pellet-induced
anti-inflammatory activity, in addition to its anti- granuloma test.
nociceptive activity, which may explain its tradi- The humulene sesquiterpene, 5-hydroxy-
tional uses to treat inflammatory-related ailments. zerumbone (5-hydroxy-2E,6E,9E-humulatrien-
Studies showed that pretreatment with zerum- 8-one), and zerumbone oxide, isolated from
bone lowered inflammatory markers IL-1beta, Zingiber zerumbet rhizomes, were found to
tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and prosta- inhibit lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric
glandin (PG)E(2) and suppressed dextran sodium oxide production in murine macrophage RAW
sulphate (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis in mice 264.7 cells with IC50 values of 14.1 and 23.5 μM,
(Murakami et al. 2003). In contrast, nimesulide respectively (Jang et al. 2005). Results of further
(a selective COX-2 inhibitor) suppressed the studies suggested that downregulation of LPS-
histological changes induced by DSS without induced NO production by 5-hydroxyzerumbone
affecting inflammatory biomarkers. However, was mediated by the suppression of iNOS expres-
their combination treatment was most effective sion through the modulation of NF-κB activation
for suppressing these biomarkers. The results and HO-1 induction in macrophage cells (Min
suggested a combination of agents, with different et al. 2009).
modes of actions, may be an effective anti-
inflammatory strategy. In vitro studies showed
that zerumbone suppressed expression of pro- Antinociceptive Activity
inflammatory genes (COX-2 and iNOS) and
induced detoxification genes (GSTP1 and NQO1) Zerumbone, isolated from Z. zerumbet, adminis-
in RAW 264.7 macrophages (Ohnishi et al. 2009). tered intraperitoneally produced significant
Zingiber zerumbet 867

dose-dependent antinociceptive effect in acetic Antihyperlipidemic/Anti-adipogenic

acid-induced abdominal writhing test and hot Activities
plate test in mice (Sulaiman et al. 2009). The
antinociceptive effect in the hot plate test was Oral administration of Z. zerumbet ethanol
reversed by the nonselective opioid receptor extract (300 mg/kg/day) to rats fed with a high-
antagonist naloxone, suggesting that the opioid fat diet (HFD) for 2 weeks produced effects
system was involved in its analgesic mechanism similar to fenofibrate (100 mg/kg) in reducing
of action. Studies demonstrated that intraperito- body weight gain, visceral fat pad weights and
neal administration of the Z. zerumbet essential plasma lipid levels (Chang et al. 2012d). The
oil at the doses of 30, 100 and 300 mg/kg pro- extract caused reductions in hepatic triglyceride
duced significant dose-dependent inhibition of and cholesterol content and lowered hepatic lipid
acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing, compa- droplet accumulation and the size of epididymal
rable to that of obtained with acetylsalicylic adipocytes. HFD-induced reductions in the hepatic
acid (100 mg/kg) (Sulaiman et al. 2010b). At proteins of peroxisome proliferator-activated
similar doses, the essential oil produced sig- receptor (PPAR)-α, acyl-CoA oxidase (ACO) and
nificant dose-dependent increases in the latency cytochrome P450 isoform 4A1 (CYP4A1) were
time in the hot plate test with respect to controls, reversed by the extract. The results suggested that
and in the formalin-induced paw licking test, the extract reduced the accumulation of visceral
the essential oil also significantly reduced the fat and improved hyperlipidaemia in HFD-fed
painful stimulus in both neurogenic and inflam- rats by increasing fatty acid oxidation, mediated
matory phase of the test. The antinociceptive via up-regulation of hepatic PPARα.
effect of the essential oil in the formalin-induced Results of recent in vitro studies suggested
paw-licking test as well as hot plate test was that 6-gingerol isolated from Z. zerumbet effec-
reversed by the nonselective opioid receptor tively suppressed adipogenesis and that it exerted
antagonist naloxone, suggesting that the opioid its role mainly through the significant downregu-
system was involved in its analgesic mechanism lation of PPARγ and C/EBPα and subsequently
of action. It was shown that Zingiber zerumbet inhibiting FAS and aP2 expression (Tzeng and
essential oil administered to mice via intraperi- Liu 2013). 6-Gingerol also inhibited the differen-
toneal and oral routes at doses of 50, 100, 200 tiation in 3T3-L1 cells by attenuating the Akt/
and 300 mg/kg produced significant dose- GSK3β pathway.
dependent antinociception when assessed using
acetic acid-induced abdominal writing test
(Khalid et al. 2011). Similarly intraperitoneal Antiatherosclerotic Activity
administration of the oil produced significant
dose-dependent inhibition of neurogenic pain In THP-1 human monocytic cells, zerumbone
induced by intraplantar injection of capsaicin suppressed phorbol ester-induced expression of
(1.6 μg/paw), glutamate (10 μmol/paw) and multiple scavenger receptor genes governing
phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (1.6 μg/paw). macrophage scavenger receptors like lectin-like
The antinociception activity was reversed by ox-LDL receptor-1 (LOX-1), a key event in
pretreatment with L-arginine (100 mg/kg, i.p.) and atherosclerosis which up-regulated the uptake of
administration of glibenclamide (10 mg/kg, i.p.), oxidized low-density lipoproteins (ox-LDL)
indicating that the essential oil-induced antino- (Eguchi et al. 2007). Further, zerumbone atten-
ciceptive activity was possibly related to its uated the expression of SR-A, SR-PSOX and
ability to inhibit glutamatergic system and CD36, but not that of CD68 or CLA-1, leading
TRPV1 receptors as well as through activation to a blockade of DiI-Ac-LDL uptake, while it
of L-arginine/nitric oxide/cGMP/protein kinase also inhibited the transcriptional activities of
C/ATP-sensitive K(+) channel pathway. activator protein-1 and nuclear factor-kappaB.
868 Zingiberaceae

Their results indicated zerumbone to be a potential significantly rescued the AMP-activated protein
phytochemical for regulating atherosclerosis kinase phosphorylation compared to non-treated
with reasonable action mechanisms. diabetic group.

Nephroprotective Activity Antiviral Activity

Studies showed that zerumbone attenuated Zerumbone and 4″-O-acetylafzelin were obtained
cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats (Ibrahim from organic extracts of entire plants of Z. zerum-
et al. 2010). Zerumbone reduced kidney damage bet (Dai et al. 1997). Zerumbone exhibited HIV
and preserved renal functions and reduced ele- (human immunodeficiency virus) inhibitory and
vated malondialdehyde (MDA) levels induced by cytotoxic activities, while 4″-O-acetylafzelin was
cisplatin. It was concluded that zerumbone was inactive in both assays.
beneficial in cisplatin-induced renal dysfunction
and organ damage in rats possibly via the preven-
tion of lipid peroxidation and preservation of Antibacterial Activity
antioxidant glutathione. Treatment of rats with
Z. zerumbet ethyl acetate extract at doses of 200 and Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant
400 mg/kg prevented the paracetamol-induced Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Streptococcus
nephrotoxicity and oxidative impairments of the mutans and Salmonella typhi were found to be
kidney, as evidenced by a significantly reduced susceptible in vitro to Z. zerumbet chloroform
level of plasma creatinine, plasma renal malondi- extract (Voravuthikunchai et al. 2005). The chlo-
aldehyde (MDA), plasma protein carbonyl and roform extract inhibited the growth of S. aureus
renal advanced oxidation protein product (AOPP) in vitro with MIC (minimum inhibitory con-
(Abdul Hamid et al. 2012). Further, both doses centration) of 0.79 mg/mL and MBC (minimum
were also able to induce a significant increment bactericidal concentration) of >12.5 mg/mL
of plasma and renal levels of glutathione (GSH) (Voravuthikunchai et al. 2006). The chloroform
and plasma superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. extract of Z. zerumbet rhizome inhibited the
Z. zerumbet extract administered at 400 mg/kg growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in vitro
was found to show greater protective effects than with MIC of 125 μg/mL (Phongpaichit et al.
that at 200 mg/kg. The nephroprotective effects 2006). The crude ethanol extract and its petroleum
of Z. zerumbet extract were confirmed by a ether and chloroform fractions of Z. zerumbet
reduced intensity of renal cellular damage. rhizome at 400 μg/disc showed mild-to-moderate
Studies showed that Z. zerumbet rhizome eth- antibacterial activity (Kader et al. 2011). The
anol extract displayed similar characteristics to crude ethanol extract showed the highest activity
those of metformin in reducing hyperglycaemia against Vibrio parahaemolyticus. The minimum
and renal dysfunction in streptozotocin-induced inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the crude etha-
diabetic rats (Tzeng et al. 2013). The histological nol extract and its fractions was within the value
examinations revealed amelioration of diabetes- of 128–256 μg/mL against two Gram-positive
induced glomerular pathological changes follow- and four Gram-negative bacteria, and all the
ing Z. zerumbet treatment. Additionally, protein samples showed the lowest MIC value against
expressions of renal nephrin and podocin in dia- V. parahaemolyticus (128 μg/mL).
betic rats were significantly increased following Zerumbone isolated from Z. zerumbet rhizome
the treatment with the extract. The AMP-activated exhibited a dose-dependent antibacterial effect
protein kinase (AMPK) protein phosphorylation on Salmonella choleraesuis, while no antifungal
and expression levels were remarkably reduced activity was observed (Abdul et al. 2008). Several
in diabetic renal tissues. Z. zerumbet treatment zerumbone derivatives were found to be selective
Zingiber zerumbet 869

inhibitors of the growth of Gram-positive be used as ethnomedicine for improving insulin

bacteria (Kitayama et al. 2001). Zederone iso- sensitivity. In rats fed with a high-fructose diet
lated from the crude ethanolic extract of for six weeks and treated with the extract
Z. zerumbet rhizomes exhibited antibacterial (300 mg/kg/day) for 8 weeks, the extract reduced
activity against a number of multidrug-resistant insulin resistance indicated by a reduction on the
and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR) and
strains with minimum inhibitory concentration enhanced composite whole-body insulin sensitiv-
(MIC) values from 64 to 128 μg/mL. (Kader ity index (ISIcomp) and hepatic glycogen accu-
et al. 2010). mulation. Elevated glycosylated haemoglobin
Two new compounds, viz. azazerumbone 1 levels and hyperinsulinaemia were ameliorated
and azazerumbone 2, were synthesized by ZnCl2- by the extract. The extract also enhanced the
catalysed Beckmann rearrangement of the action of insulin on muscle glucose transporter
zerumbone oxime (Santosh Kumar et al. 2013). subtype 4 translocation and attenuated hepatic
Azazerumbone 2 exhibited higher antibacterial phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase expression.
activity than zerumbone. Among the tested bac- In an earlier study, administration of an aque-
teria, Bacillus cereus was the most sensitive and ous Z. zerumbet extract (50, 100 and 150 mg/kg
Yersinia enterocolitica was found to be the most body weight) did not significantly lower blood
resistant. glucose level in normoglycaemic and
streptozotocin-induced hyperglycaemic rats
(Husen et al. 2004). Similarly Lal et al. (2012)
Immunomodulatory Activity found that aqueous extract of Z. zerumbet exerted
no significant activity in streptozotocin-induced
Lymphocyte proliferation assay showed that diabetic rats.
zerumbone was able to activate dose dependently
mice thymocytes, splenocytes and human peri-
pheral blood mononuclear cells, (PBMC) and the Antiplatelet Aggregating Activity
best dose is 7.5 μg/mL (Keong et al. 2010).
Zerumbone also stimulated the production of Studies by Jantan et al. (2005) showed that the
human interleukin-2 and human interleukin-12 methanol extract of Z. zerumbet rhizome at a con-
cytokines in lymphocytes, indicating its potential centration of 18 μg/mL exerted approximately
to be used as an immunomodulatory agent. The 96.4 % inhibitory effect on platelet-activating
chloroform extract of Z. zerumbet rhizome signifi- factor (PAF) receptor binding. The inhibitory
cantly stimulated T lymphocytes to express CD69 effect of the methanol extract was greater than
antigen by 31.6 % as compared to the control group Cedrol, a known PAF antagonist (85.2 %), which
(6.2 %), while the methanol and aqueous extracts was used as the standard drug. The IC50 value
gave the percentage stimulation of CD69 antigen obtained for the active methanol extract was
of 5.8 % and 2.3 %, respectively (Vuddhakul 1.2 μg/mL, which was the lowest compared to
et al. 2004). None of the crude extracts stimu- Cedrol (2.4 μg/mL) and Boesenbergia pandurata
lated the migration of polymorphonuclear cells, (8.6 μg/mL). The methanol extract of Z. zerumbet
but the chloroform and methanol extracts did rhizome also showed strong antiplatelet aggrega-
suppress polymorphonuclear cell migration. tion activity in human whole blood in vitro at
100 μg/mL (Jantan et al. 2008).
Among all tested compounds, zerumbone
Antihyperglycaemic Activity showed strong inhibition on platelet aggregation
at 100 μg/mL caused by arachidonic acid (100 %
Recent studies by Chang et al. (2012a) suggested inhibition), ADP (100 % inhibition) and collagen
that the ethanol extract of Zingiber zerumbet may (64.7 % inhibition).
870 Zingiberaceae

Antiprotozoal Activity concentration (100 mg/mL) compared to standard

albendazole (100 mg/mL) (Pandey et al. 2011).
The chloroform extracts from Zingiber zerumbet
exhibited anti-giardial activity against trophozo-
ites of Giardia intestinalis with an IC50 of Antimutagenic Activity
<100 μg/mL (Sawangjaroen et al. 2005). The
chloroform extracts from Z. zerumbet exhibited Analogues of zerumbone, viz. azazerumbone 1
moderate anti-amoebic activity against trophozo- and azazerumbone 2, exhibited strong protection
ites of Entamoeba histolytica with IC50 of against sodium azide-induced mutagenicity of
196.9 μg/mL (Sawangjaroen et al. 2005). Salmonella typhimurium strains TA 98 and TA
1531 (Santosh Kumar et al. 2013). Azazerumbone
2 showed better antimutagenic activity than azaz-
Anti-allergic Activity erumbone 1.

The ethanol and aqueous extracts of Z. zerumbet

rhizome inhibited the release of β-hexosaminidase Genotoxicity/Toxicity Study
from RBL-2H3 cell line at doses between 10 and
100 μg/mL with the percentage inhibition of Studies using chromosomal aberration assay and
8.4–53.7 % and 10.9–59.1 %, respectively micronuclei test showed that zerumbone was
(Tewtrakul and Subhadhirasakul 2007). cytotoxic but not clastogenic in cultured human
peripheral blood lymphocytes (Al-Zubairi et al.
2010). Studies found that there were no increases
Larvicidal Activity in the number of revertant colonies with the
ethanol rhizome extract of Z. zerumbet at con-
The essential oil of Z. zerumbet rhizome was centrations of 150–5,000 μg per plate, regardless
toxic against both pyrethroid-susceptible and of the metabolic activation system (S9 mix) used
pyrethroid-resistant Aedes aegypti laboratory in the histidine-dependent auxotrophic mutants
strains at LC50, LC95 and LC99 levels (Sutthanont of Salmonella typhimurium (strains TA97, TA98,
et al. 2010). The major components of the oils TA100, TA102 and TA1535), compared to the
were α-humulene (31.93 %) and zerumbone vehicle control (Chang et al. 2012b). Additionally
(31.67 %). The dichloromethane and methanol the extract, at doses of 150–5,000 μg/mL, did not
extracts of the Zingiber zerumbet rhizomes increase the number of structural aberrations in
exhibited higher inhibitory against Anopheles Chinese hamster lung cells in the presence or
nuneztovari larvae than against Aedes aegypti absence of S9 mix. An oral administration of
larvae (Bücker et al. 2013). the extract to ICR mice, with doses of up to
2,000 mg/kg, caused no significant increases in
the number of micronucleated polychromatic
Anthelmintic Activity erythrocytes (MNPCEs) and mean ratio of
polychromatic erythrocytes to total erythrocytes.
The alcoholic extract of Z. zerumbet rhizome Also, the extract did not increase the incidence of
exhibited good in vitro anthelmintic activity MNPCEs in the bone marrow. The extract was
against Ascaris lumbricoides (Raj 1975). The found to contain zerumbone (200.3 μg/g) and
ethanol extract of the rhizome exhibited potent in 6-gingerol (102.5 μg/g). Based on these findings,
vitro anthelmintic activity against Pheretima they concluded that the use of ethanol rhizome
posthuma (Goswami et al. 2011). They also extract of Z. zerumbet in traditional medicine
reported that Z. zerumbet exhibited better anthel- poses no risk of genotoxicity.
mintic activity against Pheretima posthuma In the acute toxicity study in Wistar rats, the
than Cucurbita maxima seed extract at a higher ethanol extract of Z. zerumbet rhizomes at a
Zingiber zerumbet 871

single dose of 15 g/kg did not produce any toxic or stimulant, while the Taiwanese used the plant as
signs or deaths indicating the 50 % lethal dose an anti-inflammatory adjuvant for stomach ache,
must be higher than 15 g/kg (Chang et al. 2012c). sprain and fever (Stuart 2012). In Thailand, the
In the subchronic toxicity study, the extract fresh rhizomes are also used as antiflatulent agent
administered by gavage at doses of 1,000, 2,000 (Wutthithamavet 1997). In India, the rhizome
and 3,000 mg/kg daily for 4 weeks did not alter powder is mixed with ripe Morinda citrifolia for
either the body weight gain or the food and water the treatment of severe pain; the cooked and soft-
consumption. The haematological and biochemi- ened rhizome is used to treat toothache, cough,
cal analysis did not show significant differences asthma, worms, leprosy and other skin diseases;
in any of the parameters examined in female or and the ground and strained rhizome is mixed with
male groups. Necropsy and histopathological water and drank to treat stomach ache (Tushar
examination did not reveal any remarkable and et al. 2010; Zakaria et al. 2011) In Hawaii, com-
treatment-related changes. The no-observed pressed rhizomes are used for bruises and cuts
adverse-effect level for the extract was deter- and to treat headaches, toothaches, ringworm,
mined at 3,000 mg/kg for rats under the condi- joint sprains and abdominal colic (Abbott 1992;
tions of this study, implying consumption of the Chun 1994). In addition, they also used ashes
ethanol rhizome extract of Z. zerumbet for vari- from burnt Z. zerumbet leaves, which are com-
ous medicinal purposes to be safe. bined with a mixture of ashes of Schizostachyum
glaucifolium, nut sap of Aleurites moluccana and
rhizome sap of Z. zerumbet, as a remedy for cuts
Traditional Medicinal Uses and bruised skin. In Polynesia it is an ingredient
of several medical preparations used to treat ear
Rhizomes have been used as traditional medicine inflammation and diarrhoea (Petard 1986).
in many Asian countries as carminative, anti-
inflammatory, antipyretic, stomachic, anodyne,
antihypertensive, stimulant and depurative, for Other Uses
the treatment of inflammation, asthma, stomach
ache, dyspnoea, dyspepsia, thrush, diabetes, Zingiber zerumbet and Curcuma xanthorrhiza
coughs, bacterial infections, fever, toothache, are two of the most commonly used ingredients
indigestion, constipation, diarrhoea, severe in Indo-Malaysian traditional medicines, health
sprains, pain, boils, fish poisoning, wounds and supplements and tonics (Ruslay et al. 2007).
haemorrhoids, as well as antispasmodic, anti- Recently, a number of products derived from the
rheumatic and diuretic agents (Wutthithamavet aqueous extracts of these species have appeared
1997; WHO 1998; Norhayati et al. 1999; Bhuiyan in the market in the form of spray-dried powder
et al. 2009; Zakaria et al. 2010, 2011; Sulaiman packed in sachet or bottle. The milky sap from
et al. 2010a, b; Stuart 2012). Malays in Malaysia the inflorescence cone has been employed as a
commonly used the rhizome to relive gastralgia, shampoo in Hawaii (Wagner et al. 1999).
debility, vertigo and constipation (Norhayati et al. The plant is cultivated as an ornament for its
1999). Malays used the fresh rhizomes as a cure unique inflorescence which has become a popular
for oedema, stomach ache and sores, while the cut-flower with long shelf life of several weeks.
juice of the boiled rhizomes is used to treat worm
infestation in children (Somchit and Shukriyah
Nur 2003; Ruslay et al. 2007; Sulaiman et al. Comments
2010a, b). A decoction of the rhizome is used as
appetizer and for stomach ache in Indonesia Z. zerumbet is propagated by divisions of the
(Burkill 1966). In the Philippines, decoction is clumps or rhizome pieces. Recent studies showed
prescribed for asthma and as a topical for rheu- that the plant can be efficiently micropropagated
matism (Stuart 2012). The Chinese macerate the from plantelets derived from rhizome bud
rhizomes in alcohol and use it as a tonic, depurative explants (Faridah et al. 2011).
872 Zingiberaceae

Chang CJ, Tzeng TF, Liou SS, Chang YS, Liu IM (2012d)
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 Author’s Blurb

TK Lim (Tong Kwee Lim) obtained his Bachelor products into and out of Australia for the Middle
and Masters in Agricultural Science from the East and Asian region. During his time with
University of Malaya and his PhD (Botanical ACIAR, he oversaw and managed international
Sciences) from the University of Hawaii. He research and development programmes in plant
worked in the University of Agriculture Malaysia protection and horticulture covering a wide array
for 20 years as a lecturer and Associate Professor; of crops that included fruits, plantation crops,
as Principal Horticulturist for 9 years for the vegetables, culinary and medicinal herbs and
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, spices mainly in southeast Asia and the Pacific.
Darwin, Northern Territory; 6 years as Manager In the course of his four decades of working
of the Asia and Middle East Team in Plant career, he has travelled extensively worldwide to
Biosecurity Australia, Department of Agriculture, many countries in South Asia, East Asia, south-
Fisheries and Forestry, Australia; and 4 years as east Asia, Middle East, Europe, the Pacific
Research Program Manager with the Australian Islands, the United States and England, and also
Centre for International Agriculture Research throughout Malaysia and Australia. Since his ter-
(ACIAR), Department of Foreign Affairs and tiary education days, he always had a strong pas-
Trade, Australia, before he retired from public sion for crops and took an avid interest in edible
service. He has published over 100 scientific and medicinal plants. Over the four decades, he
papers including several books: ‘Guava in has taken several thousands of photographs of
Malaysia: Production, Pest and Diseases’, common, known and lesser known edible, medic-
‘Durian Diseases and Disorders’, ‘Diseases of inal and non-medicinal plants, amassed local lit-
Mango in Malaysia’, chapters in books, interna- erature, local indigenous knowledge and books
tional refereed journals, conference proceedings and has developed and established close rapport
(as editor) and technical bulletins in the areas of with many local researchers, scientists, growers
plant pathology, crop protection, horticulture, and farmers during the course of his work and
agronomy and quarantine science. He was also a travels. All relevant available and up-to-date
reviewer of scientific papers for several interna- information collated on more than 1,000 species
tional scientific journals. As Principal of edible, medicinal and non-medicinal plants
Horticulturist in Darwin, he and his team were will be provided in a comprehensive reference
instrumental in establishing the horticultural series fully illustrated with coloured images to
industry in the Northern Territory, Australia, help in plant identification. This work will cover
especially on tropical fruits, vegetables, culinary scientific names, synonyms, common and ver-
herbs, spices/medicinal herbs and tropical flow- nacular names, origin and distribution, agroecol-
ers. During his tenure with Plant Biosecurity, he ogy, edible plant parts and uses, plant habit/
led a team responsible for conducting pest risk description, nutritive and medicinal value, other
analyses and quarantine policy issues dealing uses and selected current references. Additional
with the import and export of plants and plant information is provided on the medicinal uses

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 877
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
878 Author’s Blurb

and pharmacological properties of the plants. horticulturists, food nutritionists, agriculturists,

This work will be of significant interest to botanists, herbalogists, herbologists, naturalists,
scientists, researchers, practitioners (medical conservationists, extension scientists, teachers,
practitioners, pharmacologists, ethnobotanists, lecturers), students and the general public.
 Medical Glossary

AAD Allergic airway disease, an inflammatory Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Is an enzyme

disorder of the airways caused by allergens. that degrades (through its hydrolytic activity)
AAPH 2,2′-Azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydro- the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, producing
chloride, a water-soluble azo compound used choline.
extensively as a free radical generator, often in Acidosis Increased acidity, an excessively acid
the study of lipid peroxidation and the charac- condition of the body fluids.
terization of antioxidants. Acne Vulgaris Also known as chronic acne,
Abdominal Distension Referring to generalized usually occurring in adolescence, with come-
distension of most or all of the abdomen. Also dones (blackheads), papules (red pimples),
referred to as stomach bloating often caused nodules (inflamed acne spots) and pustules
by a sudden increase in fibre from consump- (small inflamed pus-filled lesions) on the face,
tion of vegetables, fruits and beans. neck and upper part of the trunk.
Abeta Aggregation Amyloid beta protein (Abeta) Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
aggregation is associated with Alzheimer’s An epidemic disease caused by an infection
disease (AD); it is a major component of the by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1,
extracellular plaque found in AD brains. HIV-2), a retrovirus that causes immune system
Ablation Therapy The destruction of small areas failure and debilitation and is often accompa-
of myocardial tissue, usually by application of nied by infections such as tuberculosis.
electrical or chemical energy, in the treatment Acridone An organic compound based on the
of some tachyarrhythmias. acridine skeleton, with a carbonyl group at the
Abortifacient A substance that causes or induces 9 position.
abortion. ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone (or corti-
Abortivum A substance inducing abortion. cotropin), a polypeptide tropic hormone pro-
Abscess A swollen infected, inflamed area filled duced and secreted by the anterior pituitary
with pus in body tissues. gland. It plays a role in the synthesis and
ABTS 2.2 Azinobis-3-ethylhenthiazoline-6- secretion of gluco- and mineralo-corticosteroids
sulphonic acid, a type of mediator in chemical and androgenic steroids.
reaction kinetics of specific enzymes. ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) Also
ACAT Acyl CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase. known as ‘corticotropin’, is a polypeptide
ACE See angiotensin-converting enzyme. tropic hormone produced and secreted by the
Acetogenins Natural products from the plants of the anterior pituitary gland.
family Annonaceae; are very potent inhibitors of Activating Transcription Factor (ATF) A protein
the NADH-ubiquinone reductase (Complex I) (gene) that binds to specific DNA sequences
activity of mammalian mitochondria. regulating the transfer or transcription of
Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase (ACC) Enzyme that information from DNA to mRNA.
catalyses the biotin-dependent carboxylation Activator Protein-1 (AP-1) A heterodimeric
of acetyl-CoA to produce malonyl-CoA. protein transcription factor that regulates gene

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 879
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
880 Medical Glossary

expression in response to a variety of stimuli, glutamate, while the A2B and A3 receptors are
including cytokines, growth factors, stress and located mainly peripherally and are involved
bacterial and viral infections. AP-1 in turn in inflammation and immune responses.
regulates a number of cellular processes ADH See alcohol dehydrogenase.
including differentiation, proliferation and Adipocyte A fat cell involved in the synthesis
apoptosis. and storage of fats.
Actoprotective Increasing the body’s physical Adipocytokine Bioactive cytokines produced by
performance. adipose tissues.
Actoprotectors Preparations that increase the Adiponectin A protein in humans that modulates
mental performance and enhance body stabil- several physiological processes, such as
ity against physical loads without increasing metabolism of glucose and fatty acids, and
oxygen consumption. Actoprotectors are immune responses.
regarded as a subclass of adaptogens that hold Adipose Tissues Body fat, loose connective
a significant capacity to increase physical tissue composed of adipocytes (fat cells).
performance. Adrenal Glands Star-shaped endocrine glands
Acute Otitis Media (AOM) See otitis media. that sit on top of the kidneys.
Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenases A group of enzymes Adrenalectomized Having had the adrenal glands
that catalyses the initial step in each cycle of surgically removed.
fatty acid β-oxidation in the mitochondria of Adrenergic Having to do with adrenaline (epineph-
cells. rine) and/or noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
Adaptogen A term used by herbalists to refer to Adrenergic Receptors A class of G protein-
a natural herb product that increases the coupled receptors that are targets of the nor-
body’s resistance to stresses such as trauma, adrenaline (norepinephrine) and adrenaline
stress and fatigue. (epinephrine).
Adaptogenic Increasing the resistance of the Adulterant An impure ingredient added into a
body to stress. preparation.
Addison’s Disease Is a rare endocrine disorder. Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs)
It occurs when the adrenal glands cannot Resultant products of a chain of chemical
produce sufficient hormones (corticosteroids). reactions after an initial glycation reaction.
It is also known as chronic adrenal insuffi- AGEs may play an important adverse role in
ciency, hypocortisolism or hypocorticism. process of atherosclerosis, diabetes, aging and
Adenocarcinoma A cancer originating in glan- chronic renal failure.
dular tissue. Aegilops An ulcer or fistula in the inner corner
Adenoma A benign tumour from a glandular of the eye.
origin. Afferent Something that so conducts or carries
Adenopathy Abnormal enlargement or swelling towards, such as a blood vessel, fibre or
of the lymph node. nerve.
Adenosine Receptors A class of purinergic, G Agalactia Lack of milk after parturition (birth).
protein-coupled receptors with adenosine as Agammaglobulinaemia An inherited disorder
endogenous ligand. In humans, there are four in which there are very low levels of protec-
adenosine receptors. A1 receptors and A2A tive immune proteins called immunoglobu-
play roles in the heart, regulating myocardial lins. cf. x-linked agammaglobulinaemia.
oxygen consumption and coronary blood flow, Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD) A
while the A2A receptor also has broader medical condition of elderly adults that results
anti-inflammatory effects throughout the in a loss of vision in the centre of the visual
body.These two receptors also have important field (the macula) because of damage to the
roles in the brain, regulating the release of retina.
other neurotransmitters such as dopamine and Agglutination Clumping of particles.
Medical Glossary 881

Agglutinin A protein substance, such as an anti- Alexipharmic An antidote, remedy for poison.
body, that is capable of causing agglutination Alexiteric A preservative against contagious
(clumping) of a particular antigen. and infectious diseases and the effects of
Agonist A drug that binds to a receptor of a cell poisons.
and triggers a response by the cell. Algesic Endogenous substances involved in the
Ague A fever (such as from malaria) that is production of pain that is associated with
marked by paroxysms of chills, fever and inflammation, e.g. serotonin, bradykinin and
sweating that recurs with regular intervals. prostaglandins.
AHR AhR, aryl hydrocarbon receptor, a cytosolic Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) An enzyme in the
protein transcription factor. cells lining the biliary ducts of the liver. ALP
AIDS See Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. levels in plasma will rise with large bile duct
Akathisia A movement disorder in which there obstruction, intrahepatic cholestasis or infil-
is an urge or need to move the legs to stop trative diseases of the liver. ALP is also
unpleasant sensations. Also called restless present in bone and placental tissues.
leg syndrome, the disorder is often caused by Allergenic Having the properties of an antigen
long-term use of antipsychotic medications. (allergen), immunogenic.
AKT Serine/threonine kinase (also known as Allergic Pertaining to, caused, affected with or
protein kinase B or PKB) plays a critical the nature of the allergy.
regulatory role in diverse cellular processes, Allergic Conjunctivitis Inflammation of the tissue
including cancer progression and insulin lining the eyelids (conjunctiva) due to allergy.
metabolism. Allergy A hypersensitivity state induced by
Akt Signalling Pathway Akt are protein kinases exposure to a particular antigen (allergen)
involved in mammalian cellular signalling resulting in harmful immunologic reactions
which inhibits apoptotic processes. on subsequent exposures. The term is usually
Akt/FoxO Pathway Cellular processes involving used to refer to hypersensitivity to an environ-
Akt and FoxO transcription factors that play a mental antigen (atopic allergy or contact
role in angiogenesis and vasculogenesis. dermatitis) or to drug allergy.
Akt/GSK-3β/eNOS Phosphorylation Amplifies Allodynia A painful response to a normally
serotonin 5-HT2B receptor blockade mediated innocuous stimulus.
anti-hypertrophic effects. Allogeneic Cells or tissues which are geneti-
Alanine Transaminase (ALT) Also called serum cally different because they are derived from
glutamic pyruvate transaminase (SGPT) or separate individuals of the same species. Also
alanine aminotransferase (ALAT), an enzyme refers to a type of immunological reaction that
present in hepatocytes (liver cells). When a occurs when cells are transplanted into a
cell is damaged, it leaks this enzyme into the genetically different recipient.
blood. Allografts Or homografts, a graft between indi-
ALAT (Alanine Aminotransferase) See alanine viduals of the same species, but of different
transaminase. genotypes.
Albumin Water-soluble proteins found in egg Alloknesis Itch produced by innocuous mechani-
white, blood serum, milk, various animal tissues cal stimulation.
and plant juices and tissues. Allostasis The process of achieving stability, or
Albuminuria Excessive amount of albumin in homeostasis, through physiological or behav-
the urine, a symptom of severe kidney disease. ioural change.
Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH) An enzyme Alopecia Is the loss of hair on the body.
involved in the breakdown of alcohol. Alopecia Areata Is a particular disorder affect-
Aldose Reductase, Aldehyde Reductase An ing hair growth (loss of hair) in the scalp and
enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism that elsewhere.
converts glucose to sorbitol. ALP See alkaline phosphatase.
882 Medical Glossary

Alpha-Adrenoceptor Receptors postulated to spinal cord that control voluntary muscle

exist on nerve cell membranes of the sympa- movement.
thetic nervous system in order to explain the Amyotrophy Progressive wasting of muscle
specificity of certain agents that affect only tissues. adj. amyotrophic.
some sympathetic activities (such as vasocon- Anaemia A blood disorder in which the blood is
striction and relaxation of intestinal muscles deficient in red blood cells and in haemoglobin.
and contraction of smooth muscles). Anaesthesia Condition of having sensation
Alpha Amylase (α-amylase) A major form of temporarily suppressed.
amylase found in humans and other mammals Anaesthetic A substance that decreases partially
that cleaves alpha-bonds of large, alpha-linked or totally nerve the sense of pain.
polysaccharides, such as starch and glycogen, Analeptic A central nervous system (CNS)
yielding glucose. stimulant medication.
ALT See Alanine transaminase. Analgesia Term describing relief, reduction or
Alterative A medication or treatment which suppression of pain. adj. analgetic.
gradually induces a change and restores healthy Analgesic A substance that relieves or reduces
functions without sensible evacuations. pain.
Alveolar Macrophage A vigorously phagocytic Anaphoretic An antiperspirant.
macrophage on the epithelial surface of lung Anaphrodisiac Or antiaphrodisiac is something
alveoli that ingests carbon and other inhaled that reduces or blunts the libido.
particulate matter. Also called coniophage or Anaphylactic Adj. See anaphylaxis.
dust cell. Anaphylatoxins Are fragments (C3a, C4a or C5a)
Alzheimer’s Disease A degenerative, organic, that are produced during the pathways of the
mental disease characterized by progressive complement system. They can trigger release
brain deterioration and dementia, usually of substances of endothelial cells, mast cells
occurring after the age of 50. or phagocytes, which produce a local inflam-
Amastigote Refers to a cell that does not have any matory response.
flagella, used mainly to describe a certain phase Anaphylaxis A severe, life-threatening allergic
in the life cycle of trypanosome protozoans. response that may be characterized by symp-
Amenorrhaea The condition when a woman toms such as reduced blood pressure, wheezing,
fails to have menstrual periods. vomiting or diarrhoea.
Amidolytic Cleavage of the amide structure. Anaplasia A reversion of differentiation in cells
Amoebiasis State of being infected by amoeba and is characteristic of malignant neoplasms
such as Entamoeba histolytica. (tumours).
Amoebicidal Lethal to amoeba. Anaplastic Adj. See anaplasia.
AMPK (5′ AMP-Activated Protein Kinase) Or Anasarca Accumulation of great quantity of
5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein fluid in body tissues.
kinase, enzyme that plays a role in cellular Androgen Male sex hormone in vertebrates.
energy homeostasis. Androgens may be used in patients with breast
Amygdalitis Inflammation of one or both ton- cancer to treat recurrence of the disease.
sils, tonsilitis. Android Adiposity Centric fat distribution pat-
Amyloid Beta (Aβ or Abeta) A peptide of terns with increased disposition towards the
39–43 amino acids that appear to be the main abdominal area, visceral fat—apple-shaped.
constituent of amyloid plaques in the brains of cf. gynoid adiposity.
Alzheimer’s disease patients. Andrology Branch of medicine concerned with
Amyloidosis A disorder that results from the reproductive diseases in men.
abnormal deposition of the protein, amyloid, Anencephaly A cephalic disorder that results
in various tissues of the body. from a neural tube defect that occurs when the
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Or ALS, is a cephalic (head) end of the neural tube fails to
disease of the motor neurons in the brain and
Medical Glossary 883

close, resulting in the absence of a major por- Annexitis Also called adnexitis, a pelvic inflam-
tion of the brain, skull and scalp. matory disease involving the inflammation of
Aneugen An agent that affects cell division and the ovaries or fallopian tubes.
the mitotic spindle apparatus, causing the loss Anodyne A substance that relieves or soothes
or gain of whole chromosomes, thereby induc- pain by lessening the sensitivity of the brain or
ing aneuploidy. adj. aneugenic. nervous system. Also called an analgesic.
Angina Pectoris, angina Chest pain or chest Anoikis Apoptosis that is induced by inadequate
discomfort that occurs when the heart muscle or inappropriate cell–matrix interactions.
does not get enough blood. Anorectal Relating to the rectum and anus.
Angioedema Rapid swelling of the dermis, sub- Anorectics Appetite suppressants, substances
cutaneous tissues, mucosa and submucosal which reduce the desire to eat. Used on a
tissues caused by small blood vessels leaking short-term basis clinically to treat obesity.
fluid into these tissues. Also called anorexigenics.
Angiogenic Adj. See angiogenesis. Anorexia Lack or loss of desire to eat.
Angiogenesis A physiological process involving Anorexic Having no appetite to eat.
the growth of new blood vessels from pre- Anorexigenics See Anorectics.
existing vessels. Anosmia Inability to perceive odour, reduced
Angioplasty Medical procedure used to open sense of smell.
obstructed or narrowed blood vessel resulting Anoxia Absence of oxygen supply.
usually from atherosclerosis. Antagonist A substance that acts against and
Angiotensin An oligopeptide hormone in the blocks an action.
blood that causes blood vessels to constrict Antalgic A substance used to relive a painful
and drives blood pressure up. It is part of the condition.
renin–angiotensin system. Antecubital Vein This vein is located in the
Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) An antecubital fossa—the area of the arm in front
exopeptidase, a circulating enzyme that partici- of the elbow.
pates in the body’s renin–angiotensin system Anterior Uveitis Is the most common form of
(RAS) which mediates extracellular volume ocular inflammation that often causes a pain-
(i.e. that of the blood plasma, lymph and inter- ful red eye.
stitial fluid) and arterial vasoconstriction. Anthelmintic An agent or substance that is
Anguillulosis A parasitosis caused by the intes- destructive to worms and used for expulsion
tinal nematode Strongyloides stercoralis (round of internal parasitic worms in animals and
worm). humans.
Anisakiasis A human parasitic infection of the Anthocyanins A subgroup of antioxidant flavo-
gastrointestinal tract caused by the consump- noids, are glucosides of anthocyanidins.
tion of raw or undercooked seafood containing Which are beneficial to health. They occur as
larvae of the nematode Anisakis simplex. water-soluble vacuolar pigments that may
Anisonucleosis A morphological manifestation appear red, purple or blue according to pH in
of nuclear injury characterized by variation in plants.
the size of the cell nuclei. Anthrax A bacterial disease of cattle and ship
Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) Is a type of that can be transmitted to man though unpro-
inflammatory arthritis that targets the joints of cessed wool.
the spine. Anthropometric Pertaining to the study of
Annexin V Or annexin A5 is a member of the human body measurements.
annexin family of intracellular proteins that Antiamoebic A substance that destroys or
binds to phosphatidylserine (PS) in a calcium- suppresses parasitic amoebae.
dependent manner. Antiamyloidogenic Compounds that inhibit the
formation of Alzheimer’s β-amyloid fibrils
884 Medical Glossary

(fAβ) from amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) and desta- Antidiarrhoeal Having the property of stop-
bilize fAβ. ping or correcting diarrhoea, an agent having
Antianaphylactic Agent that can prevent the such action.
occurrence of anaphylaxis (life-threatening Antidopaminergic A term for a chemical
allergic response). that prevents or counteracts the effects of
Antiangiogenic A drug or substance used to dopamine.
stop the growth of tumours and progression of Antidote A remedy for counteracting a poison.
cancers by limiting the pathologic formation Antidrepanocytary Anti-sickle cell anaemia.
of new blood vessels (angiogenesis). Antidysenteric An agent used to reduce or treat
Antiarrhythmic A substance to correct irregular dysentery and diarrhoea.
heartbeats and restore the normal rhythm. Antidyslipidaemic Agent that will reduce the
Antiasthmatic Drug that treats or ameliorates abnormal amount of lipids and lipoproteins in
asthma. the blood.
Antiatherogenic That protects against athero- Antiemetic An agent that stops vomiting and
genesis, the formation of atheromas (plaques) nausea.
in arteries. Anti-epileptic A drug used to treat or prevent
Antibacterial Substance that kills or inhibits convulsions, anticonvulsant.
bacteria. Antifebrile A substance that reduces fever, also
Antibilious An agent or substance which helps called antipyretic.
remove excess bile from the body. Antifeedant Preventing something from being
Antibiotic A chemical substance produced by a eaten.
microorganism which has the capacity to inhibit Antifertility Agent that inhibits formation of
the growth of or to kill other microorganisms. ova and sperm and disrupts the process of
Antiblennorrhagic A substance that treats fertilization (antizygotic).
blennorrhagia, a conjunctival inflammation Anti-fibrosis Preventing/retarding the develop-
resulting in mucus discharge. ment of fibrosis, i.e. excessive growth and
Antibody A gamma globulin protein produced activity of fibroblasts.
by a kind of white blood cell called the plasma Antifilarial Effective against human filarial
cell in the blood used by the immune system worms.
to identify and neutralize foreign objects Antifungal An agent that kills or inhibits the
(antigen). growth of fungi.
Anticarcinomic A substance that kills or inhib- Antiganacratia Anti-menstruation.
its carcinomas (any cancer that arises in epi- Antigastralgic Preventing or alleviating gastric
thelium/tissue cells). colic.
Anticephalalgic Headache-relieving or preventing. Antigen A substance that prompts the produc-
Anticestodal A chemical destructive to tion of antibodies and can cause an immune
tapeworms. response. adj. antigenic.
Anticholesterolemic A substance that can pre- Antigenotoxic An agent that inhibits DNA
vent the buildup of cholesterol. adduct formation, stimulates DNA repair
Anticlastogenic Having a suppressing effect of mechanisms and possesses antioxidant
chromosomal aberrations. functions.
Anticoagulant A substance that thins the blood Antihaemorrhagic An agent which stops or
and acts to inhibit blood platelets from stick- prevents bleeding.
ing together. Antihematic Agent that stops vomiting.
Antidepressant A substance that suppresses Antihepatotoxic Counteracting injuries to the
depression or sadness. liver.
Antidiabetic A substance that prevents or alle- Antiherpetic Having activity against Herpes
viates diabetes. Also called antidiabetogenic. Simplex Virus (HSV).
Medical Glossary 885

Antihistamine An agent used to counteract the ation of neoplasms that may become malignant
effects of histamine production in allergic by targeting the DNA.
reactions. Antineuralgic A substance that stops intense
Antihyperalgesia The ability to block enhanced intermittent pain, usually of the head or face,
sensitivity to pain, usually produced by nerve caused by neuralgia.
injury or inflammation, to nociceptive stimuli. Antinociception Reduction in pain: a reduction
adj. antihyperalgesic. in pain sensitivity produced within neurons
Antihypercholesterolaemia Term to describe when an endorphin or similar opium-containing
lowering of cholesterol level in the blood or substance opioid combines with a receptor.
blood serum. Antinociceptive Having an analgesic effect.
Antihypercholesterolaemic Agent that lowers Antinutrient Are natural or synthetic compounds
cholesterol level in the blood or blood serum. that interfere with the absorption of nutrients
Antihyperlidaemic Promoting a reduction of and are commonly found in food sources and
lipid levels in the blood or an agent that has beverages.
this action. Anti-oedematous Reduces or suppresses oedema.
Antihypersensitive A substance used to treat Antioestrogen A substance that inhibits the
excessive reactivity to any stimuli. biological effects of female sex hormones.
Antihypertensive A drug used in medicine and Antiophidian Anti venoms of snake.
pharmacology to treat hypertension (high Antiosteoporotic Substance that can prevent
blood pressure). osteoporosis.
Anti-inflammatory A substance used to reduce Antiovulatory Substance suppressing ovulation.
or prevent inflammation. Antioxidant A chemical compound or substance
Antileishmanial Inhibiting the growth and pro- that inhibits oxidation and protects against
liferation of Leishmania a genus of flagellate free radical activity and lipid oxidation such
protozoans that are parasitic in the tissues of as vitamin E, vitamin C or beta-carotene
vertebrates. (converted to vitamin B), carotenoids and
Antileprotic Therapeutically effective against flavonoids which are thought to protect body
leprosy. cells from the damaging effects of oxidation.
Antileukaemic Anticancer drugs that are used Many foods including fruit and vegetables con-
to treat leukaemia. tain compounds with antioxidant properties.
Antilithiatic An agent that reduces or sup- Antioxidants may also reduce the risks of cancer
presses urinary calculi (stones) and acts to and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
dissolve those already present. Antioxytocic Inhibiting premature labour. cf.
Antilithogenic Inhibiting the formation of tocolytic.
calculi (stones). Antipaludic Antimalarial.
Antimalarial An agent used to treat malaria Antiperiodic Substance that prevents the recur-
and/or kill the malaria-causing organism, rence of symptoms of a disease, e.g. malaria.
Plasmodium spp. Antiperspirant A substance that inhibits sweat-
Antimelanogenesis Obstruct production of ing. Also called antisudorific, anaphoretic.
melanin. Antiphlogistic A traditional term for a sub-
Antimicrobial A substance that destroys or stance used against inflammation, an anti-
inhibits growth of disease-causing bacteria, inflammatory.
viruses, fungi and other microorganisms. Antiplasmodial Suppressing or destroying
Antimitotic Inhibiting or preventing mitosis. plasmodia.
Antimutagenic An agent that inhibits mutations. Antiplatelet Agent Drug that decreases platelet
Antimycotic Antifungal. aggregation and inhibits thrombus formation.
Antineoplastic Said of a drug intended to Antiproliferative Preventing or inhibiting the
inhibit or prevent the maturation and prolifer- reproduction of similar cells.
886 Medical Glossary

Antiprostatic Drug to treat the prostate. Antivinous An agent or substance that treats
Antiprotozoal Suppressing the growth or repro- addiction to alcohol.
duction of protozoa. Antiviral Substance that destroys or inhibits the
Antipruritic Alleviating or preventing itching. growth and viability of infectious viruses.
Antipyretic A substance that reduces fever or Antivomitive A substance that reduces or sup-
quells it. Also known as antithermic. presses vomiting.
Antirheumatic Relieving or preventing Antizygotic See antifertility.
rheumatism. Anuria Absence of urine production and excre-
Antiscorbutic A substance or plant rich in vita- tion. adj. anuric.
min C that is used to counteract scurvy. Anxiogenic Substance that causes anxiety.
Antisecretory Inhibiting or diminishing secretion. Anxiolytic A drug prescribed for the treatment
Antisense Refers to antisense RNA strand of symptoms of anxiety.
because its sequence of nucleotides is the APAF-1 Apoptotic protease activating factor 1.
complement of message sense. When mRNA Apelin Also known as APLN, a peptide which
forms a duplex with a complementary anti- in humans is encoded by the APLN gene.
sense RNA sequence, translation of the mRNA Aperient A substance that acts as a mild laxa-
into the protein is blocked. This may slow or tive by increasing fluids in the bowel.
halt the growth of cancer cells. Aperitif An appetite stimulant.
Antiseptic Preventing decay or putrefaction, a Aphonia Loss of the voice resulting from dis-
substance inhibiting the growth and develop- ease, injury to the vocal cords or various psy-
ment of microorganisms. chological causes, such as hysteria.
Anti-sickling Agent An agent used to prevent or Aphrodisiac An agent that increases sexual
reverse the pathological events leading to sick- activity and libido and/or improves sexual
ling of erythrocytes in sickle cell conditions. performance.
Antispasmodic A substance that relieves spasms Aphthae White, painful oral ulcer of unknown
or inhibits the contraction of smooth muscles; cause.
smooth muscle relaxant, muscle relaxer. Aphthous Stomatitis A canker sore, a type of
Antispermatogenic Preventing or suppressing painful oral ulcer or sore inside the mouth or
the production of semen or spermatozoa. upper throat, caused by a break in the mucous
Antisudorific See antiperspirant. membrane. Also called aphthous ulcer.
Antisyphilitic A drug (or other chemical agent) Aphthous Ulcer Also known as a canker sore, is
that is effective against syphilis. a type of oral ulcer, which presents as a painful
Antithermic A substance that reduces fever and open sore inside the mouth or upper throat.
temperature. Also known as antipyretic. Apnoea Suspension of external breathing.
Antithrombotic Preventing or interfering with Apolipoprotein A-I (APOA1) A major protein
the formation of thrombi. component of high-density lipoprotein
Antitoxin An antibody with the ability to neu- (HDL) in plasma. The protein promotes
tralize a specific toxin. cholesterol efflux from tissues to the liver
Antitumoral Substance that acts against the for excretion.
growth, development or spread of a tumour. Apolipoprotein B (APOB) Is the primary apo-
Antitussive A substance that depresses coughing. lipoprotein of low-density lipoproteins (LDL
Antiulcerogenic An agent used to protect or ‘bad cholesterol’), which is responsible for
against the formation of ulcers, or is used for carrying cholesterol to tissues.
the treatment of ulcers. Apolipoprotein E (APOE) The apolipoprotein
Antivenin An agent used against the venom of a found on intermediate-density lipoprotein and
snake, spider or other venomous animal or chylomicron that binds to a specific receptor
insect. on liver and peripheral cells.
Medical Glossary 887

Apoplexy Unconsciousness or incapacity of the Arsenism An incommunicable disease resulting

brain to function resulting from a cerebral from the ingestion of ground water containing
haemorrhage or stroke. unsafe levels of arsenic, also known as
Apoprotein The protein moiety of a molecule arsenicosis.
or complex, as of a lipoprotein. Arteriogenic Erectile Dysfunction A penis
Apoptogenic Ability to cause death of cells. dysfunction caused by the narrowing of the
Apoptosis Death of cells. arteries in the penis, decreasing blood inflow
Appendicitis Is a condition characterized by to it, thus making erection impossible.
inflammation of the appendix. Also called Arteriosclerosis Imprecise term for various
epityphlitis. disorders of arteries, particularly hardening
Appetite Stimulant A substance to increase or due to fibrosis or calcium deposition, often
stimulate the appetite. Also called aperitif. used as a synonym for atherosclerosis.
APPT (Activated Partial Thromboplastin Arthralgia Is pain in the joints from many
time) A blood test, a measure of the part of possible causes.
the blood clotting pathway. Arthritis Inflammation of the joints of the body.
Apurinic Lyase A DNA enzyme that catalyses Arthrodynia An affection characterized by
a chemical reaction. pain in or about a joint.
Arachidonate Cascade Includes the cyclooxy- Arthus Reaction An allergic reaction of the
genase (COX) pathway to form prostanoids immediate hypersensitive type that results
and the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway to from the union of antigen and antibody, with
generate several oxygenated fatty acids, col- complement present, in blood vessel walls.
lectively called eicosanoids. Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) A ligand-
ARE Antioxidant response element is a tran- activated transcription factor best known for
scriptional control element that mediates mediating the toxicity of dioxin and other
expression of a set of antioxidant proteins. exogenous contaminants and is responsible
Ariboflavinosis A condition caused by the dietary for their toxic effects, including immuno-
deficiency of riboflavin that is characterized by suppression.
mouth lesions, seborrhoea and vascularization. ASAT or AST Aspartate aminotransferase; see
Aromatase An enzyme involved in the produc- aspartate transaminase.
tion of estrogen that acts by catalysing the ASBT Apical sodium dependent bile acid trans-
conversion of testosterone (an androgen) to porter; belongs to the solute carrier family
estradiol (an estrogen). Aromatase is located (SLC) of transporters and is an important car-
in estrogen-producing cells in the adrenal rier protein expressed in the small intestine.
glands, ovaries, placenta, testicles, adipose Ascaris A genus of parasitic intestinal round
(fat) tissue and brain. worms.
Aromatherapy A form of alternative medicine Ascites Abnormal accumulation of fluid within
that uses volatile liquid plant materials, such the abdominal or peritoneal cavity.
as essential oils and other scented compounds Ascorbic Acid See vitamin C.
from plants, for the purpose of affecting a Aspartate Transaminase (AST) Also called
person’s mood or health. Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase
Aromatic Having a pleasant, fragrant odour. (SGOT) or aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT)
ARPE-19 Cells A human retinal pigment epi- is similar to ALT in that it is another enzyme
thelial cell line with differentiated properties. associated with liver parenchymal cells. It is
Arrhythmias Abnormal heart rhythms that can increased in acute liver damage, but is also
cause the heart to pump less effectively. Also present in red blood cells, and cardiac and
called dysrhythmias. skeletal muscle and is therefore not specific to
Arsenicosis See arsenism. the liver.
888 Medical Glossary

Asphyxia Failure or suppression of the respira- Atherosclerosis The condition in which an

tory process due to obstruction of air flow to artery wall thickens as the result of a buildup
the lungs or to the lack of oxygen in inspired of fatty materials such as cholesterol.
air. Atherothrombosis Medical condition charac-
Asphyxiation The process of undergoing terized by an unpredictable, sudden disruption
asphyxia. (rupture or erosion/fissure) of an atheroscle-
Asthenia A nonspecific symptom characterized rotic plaque, which leads to platelet activation
by loss of energy, strength and feeling of and thrombus formation.
weakness. Athlete’s Foot A contagious skin disease caused
Asthenopia Weakness or fatigue of the eyes, by parasitic fungi affecting the foot, hands,
usually accompanied by headache and dim- causing itching, blisters and cracking. Also
ming of vision. adj. asthenopic. called dermatophytosis.
Asthma A chronic illness involving the respira- Athymic Mice Laboratory mice lacking a thymus
tory system in which the airway occasionally gland.
constricts, becomes inflamed, and is lined Atonic Lacking normal tone or strength.
with excessive amounts of mucus, often in Atony Insufficient muscular tone.
response to one or more triggers. Atopic Dermatitis An inflammatory, non-
Astringent A substance that contracts blood contagious, pruritic skin disorder of unknown
vessels and certain body tissues (such as aetiology; often called eczema.
mucous membranes) with the effect of reduc- Atresia A congenital medical condition in
ing secretion and excretion of fluids and/or which a body orifice or passage in the body is
has a drying effect. abnormally closed or absent.
Astrocytes Collectively called astroglia, are Atretic Follicle Follicular atresia is the break-
characteristic star-shaped glial cells in the down of the ovarian follicles.
brain and spinal cord. Atretic Ovarian Follicles An involuted or
Ataxia (Loss of coordination) results from the closed ovarian follicle.
degeneration of nerve tissue in the spinal cord Atrial Fibrillation Is the most common cardiac
and of nerves that control muscle movement arrhythmia (abnormal heart rhythm) and
in the arms and legs. involves the two upper chambers (atria) of the
Ataxia Telangiectasia and Rad3-Related heart; the most serious consequence of atrial
Protein (ATR) Also known as serine/ fibrillation is ischaemic stroke.
threonine-protein kinase ATR, FRAP-related Atrioventricular Node A node of specialized
protein 1 (FRP1), is an enzyme encoded by heart muscle located in the septal wall of the
the ATR gene. It is involved in sensing DNA right atrium; receives impulses from the sino-
damage and activating the DNA damage atrial node and directs them to the walls of the
checkpoint, leading to cell cycle arrest. ventricles.
Atelectasis The collapse or closure of the lung Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
resulting in reduced or absent gas exchange. (ADHD, ADD or AD/HD) Is a neurobehav-
ATF-2 Activating transcription factor 2. ioral developmental disorder, primarily char-
Atherogenesis The formation of lipid deposits acterized by the coexistence of attentional
in the arteries. problems and hyperactivity.
Atherogenic Having the capacity to start or Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR) Also
accelerate the process of atherogenesis. called brainstem evoked response (BSER) is
Atheroma A deposit or degenerative accumula- an electrical signal evoked from the brainstem
tion of lipid-containing plaques on the inner- of a human by the presentation of a sound
most layer of the wall of an artery. such as a click.
Medical Glossary 889

Augmerosen A drug that may kill cancer cells Balanitis Is an inflammation of the glans (head)
by blocking the production of a protein that of the penis.
makes cancer cells live longer. Also called BALB/c Mice Balb/c mouse was developed in
bcl-2 antisense oligonucleotide. 1923 by McDowell. It is a popular strain and
Auricular Of or relating to the auricle or the ear is used in many different research disciplines,
in general. but most often in the production of monoclo-
Aurones [2-Benzylidenebenzofuran- 3(2H)- nal antibodies.
ones] are the secondary plant metabolites and Balm Aromatic oily resin from certain trees and
is a subgroup of flavonoids. See flavonoids. shrubs used in medicine.
Autoantibodies Antibodies manufactured by the Baroreceptor A type of interoceptor that is
immune system that mistakenly target and stimulated by pressure changes, as those in
damage specific tissues and organs of the body. blood vessel wall.
Autolysin An enzyme that hydrolyses and Barrett’s Oesophagus (Barrett Oesophagitis)
destroys the components of a biological cell or A disorder in which the lining of the oesopha-
a tissue in which it is produced. gus is damaged by stomach acid.
Autonomic Disorder A neurological disease in Basophil A type of white blood cell with coarse
which the autonomic nervous system ceases to granules within the cytoplasm and a bilobate
function properly. (two-lobed) nucleus.
Autophagy Digestion of the cell contents by Bax/Bad Proapoptotic proteins.
enzymes in the same cell. B-Cell Activating Factor (BAFF) Also called
Autopsy Examination of a cadaver to determine tumour necrosis factor ligand superfamily
or confirm the cause of death. member 13B. It plays an important role in the
Avenanthramides Low molecular weight, solu- proliferation and differentiation of B cells.
ble phenolic compounds found in oats. BCL-2 A family of apoptosis regulator proteins
Avidity Index Describes the collective interac- in humans encoded by the B-cell lymphoma 2
tions between antibodies and a multivalent (BCL-2) gene.
antigen. BCL-2 Antisense Oligonucleotide See
Avulsed Teeth Is tooth that has been knocked augmereson.
out. BCR/ABL A chimeric oncogene, from fusion
Ayurvedic Traditional Hindu system of medi- of BCR and ABL cancer genes associated
cine based largely on homeopathy and with chronic myelogenous leukaemia.
naturopathy. Bechic A remedy or treatment of cough.
Azoospermia Is the medical condition of a male Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis
not having any measurable level of sperm in (BNST) Acts as a relay site within the
his semen. hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and reg-
Azotaemia A higher than normal blood level of ulates its activity in response to acute stress.
urea or other nitrogen containing compounds Belching or Burping Refers to the noisy release
in the blood. of air or gas from the stomach through the
Babesia A protozoan parasite (malaria-like) of mouth.
the blood that causes a haemolytic disease Beri-Beri Is a disease caused by a deficiency of
known as Babesiosis. thiamine (vitamin B1) that affects many sys-
Babesiosis Malaria-like parasitic disease caused tems of the body, including the muscles, heart,
by Babesia, a genus of protozoal piroplasms. nerves and digestive system.
Back Tonus Normal state of balanced tension in Beta-Carotene Naturally occurring retinol
the tissues of the back. (vitamin A) precursor obtained from certain
Bactericidal Lethal to bacteria. fruits and vegetables with potential antineo-
BAFF A cytokine that belongs to the tumour plastic and chemopreventive activities. As an
necrosis factor (TNF) ligand family. antioxidant, beta-carotene inhibits free radical
890 Medical Glossary

damage to DNA. This agent also induces cell Biliousness Old term used in the eighteenth
differentiation and apoptosis of some tumour and nineteenth centuries pertaining to bad
cell types, particularly in early stages of digestion, stomach pains, constipation and
tumorigenesis, and enhances immune system excessive flatulence.
activity by stimulating the release of natural Bilirubin A breakdown product of heme
killer cells, lymphocytes, and monocytes. (a part of haemoglobin in red blood cells)
Beta-Catenin Is a multifunctional oncogenic produced by the liver that is excreted in bile
protein that contributes fundamentally to cell which causes a yellow discoloration of the
development and biology; it has been impli- skin and eyes when it accumulates in those
cated as an integral component in the Wnt organs.
signalling pathway. Biotin Also known as vitamin B7. See vitamin B7.
Beta Cells A type of cell in the pancreas in areas Bitter A medicinal agent with a bitter taste and
called the islets of Langerhans. used as a tonic, alterative or appetizer.
Beta Glucans Polysaccharides of D-glucose Blackhead See comedone.
monomers linked by β-glycosidic bonds, Blackwater Fever Dangerous complication of
(1 → 3), (1 → 4)-β-D-glucan, soluble, viscous malaria whereby the red blood cells burst in
component of fibres found in cereals like oats. the bloodstream, (haemolysis) releasing hae-
Beta-Lactamase Enzymes produced by some moglobin directly into the blood.
bacteria that are responsible for their resistance Blain See chilblain.
to beta-lactam antibiotics like penicillins. Blastocyst Blastocyst is an embryonic structure
Beta-Thalassemia An inherited blood disorder formed in the early embryogenesis of mam-
that reduces the production of haemoglobin. mals, after the formation of the morula, but
BHT Butylated hydroxytoluene (phenolic com- before implantation.
pound), an antioxidant used in foods, cosmet- Blastocystotoxic Agent that suppresses further
ics, pharmaceuticals and petroleum products. development of the blastocyst through to the
BID The only known Bcl-2 family member that ovum stage.
can function as an agonist of proapoptotic Blebbing Bulging, e.g. membrane blebbing also
Bcl-2-related proteins such as Bax and Bak. called membrane bulging or ballooning.
Bifidobacterium Is a genus of Gram-positive, Bleeding Diathesis Is an unusual susceptibility
non-motile, often branched anaerobic bacteria. to bleeding (haemorrhage) due to a defect in
Bifidobacteria are one of the major genera of the system of coagulation.
bacteria that make up the gut flora. Blennorrhaea Inordinate discharge of mucus,
Bifidobacteria aid in digestion, are associated especially a gonorrhaeal discharge from the
with a lower incidence of allergies and also urethra or vagina.
prevent some forms of tumour growth. Some Blennorrhagia Gonorrhea.
bifidobacteria are being used as probiotics. Blepharitis Inflammation of the eyelids.
Bifidogenic Promoting the growth of (benefi- Blister Thin vesicle on the skin containing
cial) bifidobacteria in the intestinal tract. serum and caused by rubbing, friction or burn.
Bile Fluid secreted by the liver and discharged Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) Is a separation of
into the duodenum where it is integral in the circulating blood and cerebrospinal fluid
digestion and absorption of fats. (CSF) in the central nervous system (CNS).
Bilharzia, Bilharziosis See schistosomiasis. It allows essential metabolites, such as oxygen
Biliary Relating to the bile or the organs in and glucose, to pass from the blood to the
which the bile is contained or transported. brain and central nervous system (CNS) but
Biliary Infections Infection of organ(s) associated blocks most molecules that are more massive
with bile, comprise: (a) acute cholecystitis: an than about 500 Da.
acute inflammation of the gallbladder wall; (b) Blood Stasis Syndrome Blood stagnation or
cholangitis: inflammation of the bile ducts. slowing of blood, an important underlying
Medical Glossary 891

pathology of many disease processes accord- Bronchospasm Is a difficulty in breathing

ing to traditional Chinese medicine. caused by a sudden constriction of the muscles
BMPs (Bone Morphogenetic Proteins) A family in the walls of the bronchioles as occurs in
of secreted signalling molecules that can asthma.
induce ectopic bone growth. Brown Fat Brown adipose tissue (BAT) in
BNIP3 A proapoptotic BH3-only protein which mammals, its primary function is to generate
is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction body heat in animals or newborns that do not
and cell death. shiver.
Boil Localized pyrogenic, painful infection, Bubo Inflamed, swollen lymph node in the neck
originating in a hair follicle. or groin.
Borborygmus Rumbling noise caused by the Buccal Of or relating to the cheeks or the mouth
muscular contractions of peristalsis, the pro- cavity.
cess that moves the contents of the stomach Bullae Blisters; circumscribed, fluid-containing,
and intestines downwards. elevated lesions of the skin, usually more than
Bouillon A broth in French cuisine. 5 mm in diameter.
Bowman–Birk Inhibitors Type of serine pro- Bursa A fluid-filled sac or saclike cavity situated
teinase inhibitor. in areas subjected to friction.
Bradycardia As applied to adult medicine, is Bursitis Condition characterized by inflammation
defined as a resting heart rate of under 60 of one or more bursae (small sacs) of synovial
beats per minute. fluid in the body.
Bradyphrenia Referring to the slowness of C Fibres Afferent fibres found in the nerve of
thought common to many disorders of the the somatic sensory system.
brain. c-FOS A cellular proto-oncogene belonging to
Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) A the immediate early gene family of transcrip-
protein member of the neurotrophin family tion factors.
that plays an important role in the growth, c-Jun-I (Ser 73) Substrate of JNK-1 activated
maintenance, function and survival of neurons. by phosphorylation at Ser73.
The protein molecule is involved in the modu- c-Jun II (Ser 63) Substrate of JNK-1 activated
lation of cognitive and emotional functions by phosphorylation at Ser63.
and in the treatment of a variety of mental C-Jun NH(2)-Terminal Kinase Enzymes that
disorders. belong to the family of the MAPK superfamily
Bright’s Disease Chronic nephritis. of protein kinases. These kinases mediate a
Bronchial Inflammation See bronchitis. plethora of cellular responses to such stressful
Bronchiectasis A condition in which the airways stimuli, including apoptosis and production of
within the lungs (bronchial tubes) become inflammatory and immunoregulatory cytokines
damaged and widened. in diverse cell systems. cf: MAPK.
Bronchitis Is an inflammation of the main air C-Kit Receptor A protein tyrosine kinase
passages (bronchi) to the lungs. receptor that is specific for stem cell factor.
Bronchoalveolar Lavage (BAL) A medical This interaction is crucial for the development
procedure in which a bronchoscope is passed of haematopoietic, gonadal and pigment stem
through the mouth or nose into the lungs and cells.
fluid is squirted into a small part of the lung C-Myc Codes for a protein that binds to the
and then recollected for examination. DNA of other genes and is therefore a tran-
Bronchopneumonia Or bronchial pneumonia; scription factor.
inflammation of the lungs beginning in the C-Reactive Protein A protein found in the
terminal bronchioles. blood the levels of which rise in response to
Broncho-Pulmonary Relating to the bronchi inflammation.
and lungs. c-Src A cellular non-receptor tyrosine kinase.
892 Medical Glossary

CAAT Element-Binding Proteins-Alpha Calmodulin Is a calcium-modulated protein

(c/EBP-akpha) Regulates gene expression that can bind to and regulate a multitude of
in adipocytes in the liver. different protein targets, thereby affecting
Cachexia Physical wasting with loss of weight, many different cellular functions.
muscle atrophy, fatigue, weakness caused by cAMP-Dependent Pathway Cyclic adenosine
disease. monophosphate is a G protein-coupled recep-
Caco-2 Cell Line A continuous line of hetero- tor triggered signalling cascade used in cell
geneous human epithelial colorectal adeno- communication in living organisms.
carcinoma cells. CAMP Factor Diffusible, heat-stable, extracel-
Cadaver A dead body, corpse. lular protein produced by Group B streptococ-
Ca2+ ATPase (PMCA) Is a transport protein in cus that enhances the hemolysis of sheep
the plasma membrane of cells that serves to erythrocytes by Staphylococcus aureus. It is
remove calcium (Ca2+) from the cell. named after Christie, Atkins and Munch-
Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP) Is a Peterson, who described it in 1944.
37-amino acid neuropeptide that is abundant Campylobacteriosis Is a gastrointestinal disease
in the sensory neurons which innervate bone. (gastroenteritis) caused by bacteria called
Calcium (Ca) Is the most abundant mineral in Campylobacter which is frequently associated
the body found mainly in bones and teeth. It is with the consumption of contaminated poultry.
required for muscle contraction, blood vessel Cancer A malignant neoplasm or tumour in any
expansion and contraction, secretion of hor- part of the body.
mones and enzymes and transmitting impulses Candidiasis Infections caused by members of
throughout the nervous system. Dietary the fungus genus Candida that range from
sources include milk, yoghurt, cheese, Chinese superficial, such as oral thrush and vaginitis,
cabbage, kale, broccoli, some green leafy to systemic and potentially life-threatening
vegetables, fortified cereals, beverages and diseases.
soybean products. Canker See chancre.
Calcium ATPase Is a form of P-ATPase which Cannabinoid Receptor Family Includes CB1
transfers calcium after a muscle has cannabinoid receptors found predominantly in
contracted. the brain and nervous system and CB2 canna-
Calcium Channel Blockers (CCBs) A class of binoid receptors mainly associated with
drugs and natural substances that disrupt the immune tissues and expressed at low levels in
calcium (Ca2+) conduction of calcium the brain.
channels. Cannabinoid Receptor Type 2 (CB 2
Calciuria Abnormal presence of calcium in the Receptor) A G protein-coupled receptor
urine. from the cannabinoid receptor family that are
Calculi Infection Most calculi arise in the mainly expressed on T cells of the immune
kidney when urine becomes supersaturated system, on macrophages and B cells and in
with a salt that is capable of forming solid haematopoietic cells.
crystals. Symptoms arise as these calculi Carboxypeptidase An enzyme that hydrolyses
become impacted within the ureter as they the carboxy-terminal (C-terminal) end of a
pass towards the urinary bladder. peptide bond. It is synthesized in the pancreas
Calculosis The tendency or deposition to form and secreted into the small intestine.
calculi or stones. Carbuncle Is an abscess larger than a boil, usu-
Calculus (Calculi) Hardened, mineral deposits ally with one or more openings draining pus
that can form a blockage in the urinary system. onto the skin.
Caligo Dimness or obscurity of sight, depen- Carcinogenesis Production of carcinomas. adj.
dent upon a speck on the cornea. carcinogenic.
Medical Glossary 893

Carcinoma Any malignant cancer that arises is a mitochondrial enzyme involved in con-
from epithelial cells. verting long chain fatty acid into energy.
Carcinosarcoma A rare tumour containing Carotenes Are a large group of intense red
carcinomatous and sarcomatous components. and yellow pigments found in all plants;
Cardiac Relating to, situated near or affecting these are hydrocarbon carotenoids (subclass of
the heart. tetraterpenes) and the principal carotene is
Cardiac Asthma Acute attack of dyspnoea beta-carotene which is a precursor of vitamin A.
with wheezing resulting from a cardiac Carotenoids A class of natural fat-soluble pig-
disorder. ments found principally in plants, belonging
Cardiac Hypertrophy Is a thickening of the to a subgroup of terpenoids containing 8 iso-
heart muscle (myocardium) resulting in a prene units forming a C40 polyene chain.
decrease chamber size, including the left and Carotenoids play an important potential role
right ventricles. Common causes of cardiac in human health by acting as biological
hypertrophy include high blood pressure antioxidants. See also carotenes.
(hypertension) and heart valve stenosis. Carotenodermia Yellow skin discoloration
Cardialgia Heartburn. caused by excess blood carotene.
Cardinolides Cardiac glycosides with a Carpopedal Spasm Spasm of the hand or foot
5-membered lactone ring in the side chain of or of the thumbs and great toes.
the steroid aglycone. Caspases Cysteine-aspartic acid proteases, are a
Cardinolide Glycoside Cardenolides that con- family of cysteine proteases, which play
tain structural groups derived from sugars. essential roles in apoptosis (programmed cell
Cardioactive Having an effect on the heart. death), necrosis and inflammation.
Cardiogenic Shock Is characterized by a Catalase (CAT) Enzyme in living organism that
decreased pumping ability of the heart that catalyses the decomposition of hydrogen per-
causes a shock-like state associated with an oxide to water and oxygen.
inadequate circulation of blood due to primary Catalepsy Indefinitely prolonged maintenance
failure of the ventricles of the heart to function of a fixed body posture, seen in severe cases of
effectively. catatonic schizophrenia.
Cardiomyocytes Cardiac muscle cells. Catamenia Menstruation.
Cardiomyopathy Heart muscle disease. Cataplasia Degenerative reversion of cells or
Cardiopathy Disease or disorder of the heart. tissue to a less differentiated form.
Cardioplegia Stopping the heart so that surgical Cataplasm A medicated poultice or plaster. A
procedures can proceed in a still and bloodless soft moist mass, often warm and medicated, that
field. is spread over the skin to treat an inflamed, ach-
Cardiotonic Something which strengthens, tones ing or painful area, to improve the circulation.
or regulates heart functions without overt Cataractogenesis Formation of cataracts.
stimulation or depression. Catarrh, Catarrhal Inflammation of the mucous
Cardiovascular Pertaining to the heart and membranes especially of the nose and throat.
blood vessels. Catechins Are polyphenolic antioxidant plant
Caries Tooth decay, commonly called cavities. metabolites. They belong to the family of fla-
Cariogenic Leading to the production of caries. vonoids; tea is a rich source of catechins. See
Carminative Substance that stops the formation flavonoids.
of intestinal gas and helps expel gas that has Catecholamines Hormones that are released by
already formed, relieving flatulence: relieving the adrenal glands in response to stress.
flatulence or colic by expelling gas. Cathartic Is a substance which accelerates
Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase I (CPT1) Also defecation.
known as carnitine acyltransferase I or CAT1, Caustic Having a corrosive or burning effect.
894 Medical Glossary

Cauterization A medical term describing the Cellular Respiration Is the set of the metabolic
burning of the body to remove or close a part reactions and processes that take place in
of it. organisms’ cells to convert biochemical
Caveolae Tiny (50–100 nm) invaginations of energy from nutrients into adenosine triphos-
the plasma membrane of the cell. phate (ATP), and then release waste products.
CB-1 Receptor Cannabinoid receptor type 1 The reactions involved in respiration are
held to be one of the most widely expressed catabolic reactions that involve the oxidation
G protein-coupled receptors in the brain. of one molecule and the reduction of another.
cdc2 Kinase A member of the cyclin-dependent Cellulitis A bacterial infection of the skin that
protein kinases (CDKs). tends to occur in areas that have been dam-
CDKs Cyclin-dependent protein kinases, a family aged or inflamed.
of serine/threonine kinases that mediate many Central Nervous System Part of the vertebrate
stages in mitosis. nervous system comprising the brain and
CD4T Cell Helper T cell with CD4 receptor that spinal cord.
recognizes antigens on the surface of a virus- Central Venous Catheter A catheter placed
infected cell and secretes lymphokines that into the large vein in the neck, chest or groin.
stimulate B cells and killer T cells. Cephalalgia Pain in the head, a headache.
CD 28 Is one of the molecules expressed on Cephalic Relating to the head.
T cells that provide co-stimulatory signals, Ceramide Oligosides Oligosides with an
which are required for T cell (lymphocytes) N-acetyl-sphingosine moiety.
activation. Cercariae A free-swimming larva of the para-
CD31 Also known as PECAM-1 (Platelet sitic schistosome worm that has a tail and
Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule-1), a suckers on its head for penetration into a host.
member of the immunoglobulin superfamily, Cerebral Embolism A blockage of blood flow
that mediates cell-to-cell adhesion. through a vessel in the brain by a blood clot
CD36 An integral membrane protein found on that formed elsewhere in the body and trav-
the surface of many cell types in vertebrate elled to the brain.
animals. Cerebral Infarction Is the ischaemic kind of
CD40 An integral membrane protein found on stroke due to a disturbance in the blood vessels
the surface of B lymphocytes, dendritic cells, supplying blood to the brain.
follicular dendritic cells, haematopoietic pro- Cerebral Ischaemia Is the localized reduction
genitor cells, epithelial cells and carcinomas. of blood flow to the brain or parts of the brain
CD68 A glycoprotein expressed on monocytes/ due to arterial obstruction or systematic
macrophages which binds to low-density hyperfusion.
lipoprotein. Cerebral Tonic Substance that can alleviate
Cecal Ligation Tying up the cecam. poor concentration and memory, restlessness,
Celiac Disease An autoimmune disorder of uneasiness and insomnia.
the small intestine, triggered in genetically Cerebrosides Are glycosphingolipids which are
susceptible individuals by ingested gluten important components in animal muscle and
from wheat, rye, barley and other closely nerve cell membranes.
related cereal grains. Peptides resulting from Cerebrovascular Disease Is a group of brain
partially digested gluten of wheat, barley or dysfunctions related to disease of the blood
rye cause inflammation of the small intesti- vessels supplying the brain.
nal mucosa. Cerumen Ear wax, a yellowish waxy substance
Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAM) Glycopro- secreted in the ear canal of humans and other
teins located on the surface of cell membranes mammals.
involved with binding of other cells or with cFLIP Cellular FLICE-inhibitory protein, an
the extracellular matrix. inhibitor of death ligand-induced apoptosis.
Medical Glossary 895

cGMP Cyclic guanosine monophosphate is a Cholecystokinin A peptide hormone that plays

cyclic nucleotide derived from guanosine a key role in facilitating digestion in the small
triphosphate (GTP). cGMP is a common regu- intestine.
lator of ion channel conductance, glycogenol- Cholelithiasis Presence of gall stones (calculi)
ysis and cellular apoptosis. It also relaxes in the gall bladder.
smooth muscle tissues. Cholera An infectious gastroenteritis caused by
CGRP Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide A enterotoxin-producing strains of the bacterium
vasodilator neuropeptide that is expressed in a Vibrio cholera and characterized by severe,
subgroup of small neurons in the dorsal root watery diarrhoea.
and trigeminal and vagal ganglia. This neuro- Choleretic Stimulation of the production of bile
peptide has been postulated to play a role in by the liver.
the pathophysiology of migraine. Cholestasis A condition caused by rapidly
Chalcones A subgroup of flavonoids. developing (acute) or long-term (chronic)
Chancre A painless lesion formed during the interruption in the excretion of bile from the
primary stage of syphilis. liver to the duodenum.
Chaperones Are proteins that assist the non- Cholesterol A soft, waxy, steroid substance
covalent folding or unfolding and the assem- found among the lipids (fats) in the blood-
bly or disassembly of other macromolecular stream and in all our body’s cells.
structures. Choline A water-soluble, organic compound,
Chemoembolization A procedure in which the usually grouped within the Vitamin B complex.
blood supply to the tumour is blocked surgi- It is an essential nutrient and is needed for
cally or mechanically and anticancer drugs are physiological functions such as structural
administered directly into the tumour. integrity and signalling roles for cell mem-
Chemokines Are chemotactic cytokines, which branes, cholinergic neurotransmission (acetyl-
stimulate migration of inflammatory cells choline synthesis).
towards tissue sites of inflammation. Cholinergic Activated by or capable of liberating
Chemonociceptors Nociceptors or sensory acetylcholine, especially in the parasympa-
peripheral neurons that are sensitive to chemi- thetic nervous system.
cal stimuli. Cholinergic System A system of nerve cells
Chemosensitizer A drug that makes tumour cells that uses acetylcholine in transmitting nerve
more sensitive to the effects of chemotherapy. impulses.
Chemosis Oedema of the conjunctiva of the eye. Cholinomimetic Having an action similar to
Chickenpox Is also known as varicella, is a that of acetylcholine, also called
highly contagious illness caused by primary parasympathomimetic.
infection with varicella zoster virus (VZV). Choriocarcinoma A quick-growing malignant,
The virus causes red, itchy bumps on the body. trophoblastic, aggressive cancer that occurs in
Chilblains Small, itchy, painful lumps that a woman’s uterus (womb).
develop on the skin. They develop as an abnormal Chromium (Cr) Is required in trace amounts in
response to cold. Also called perniosis or blain. humans for sugar and lipid metabolism. Its
Chlorosis Iron deficiency anaemia characterized deficiency may cause a disease called chro-
by greenish yellow colour. mium deficiency. It is found in cereals,
Cholagogue Is a medicinal agent which pro- legumes, nuts and animal sources.
motes the discharge of bile from the system. Chromoblastomycosis A chronic fungal
Cholecalciferol A form of vitamin D, also infection of the skin and the subcutaneous
called vitamin D3. See vitamin D. tissue caused by traumatic inoculation of
Cholecyst Gall bladder. a specific group of dematiaceous fungi
Cholecystitis Inflammation of the gall bladder. (such as Fonsecaea pedrosoi, Phialophora
896 Medical Glossary

verrucosa, Fonsecaea compacta) through Clonic Seizures Consist of rhythmic jerking

the skin. movements of the arms and legs, sometimes
Chromosome Long pieces of DNA found in the on both sides of the body.
centre (nucleus) of cells. Clonus A series of involuntary muscular con-
Chronic Persisting over extended periods. tractions and relaxations.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Clyster Enema.
(COPD) A progressive disease that makes it CNS Depressant Anything that depresses, or
hard to breathe. slows, the sympathetic impulses of the central
Chronic Venous Insufficiency (CVI) A medical nervous system (i.e. respiratory rate, heart rate).
condition where the veins cannot pump Coagulopathy A defect in the body’s mechanism
enough oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. for blood clotting, causing susceptibility to
Chronotropic Affecting the time or rate, as the bleeding.
rate of contraction of the heart. Cobalamin Vitamin B12. See vitamin B12.
Chyle A milky bodily fluid consisting of lymph Co-carcinogen A chemical that promotes the
and emulsified fats, or free fatty acids. effects of a carcinogen in the production of
Chylomicrons Are large lipoprotein particles cancer.
that transport dietary lipids from the intestines Cold An acute inflammation of the mucous
to other locations in the body. Chylomicrons membrane of the respiratory tract especially
are one of the five major groups of lipopro- of the nose and throat caused by a virus and
teins (chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, HDL) accompanied by sneezing and coughing.
that enable fats and cholesterol to move within Colibacillosis Infection with Escherichia coli.
the water-based solution of the bloodstream. Colic A broad term which refers to episodes of
Chylous Milky (having fat emulsion). uncontrollable, extended crying in a baby who
Chyluria Also called chylous urine, is a medical is otherwise healthy and well fed.
condition involving the presence of chyle Colitis Inflammatory bowel disease affecting
(emulsified fat) in the urine stream, which the tissue that lines the gastrointestinal
results in urine appearing milky. system.
Chymase Member of the family of serine prote- Collagen Protein that is the major constituent of
ases found primarily in mast cell. cartilage and other connective tissues; com-
Chymopapain An enzyme derived from prises the amino acids hydroxyproline, pro-
papaya, used in medicine and to tenderize line, glycine and hydroxylysine.
meat. Collagenases Enzymes that break the peptide
Cicatrizant The term used to describe a product bonds in collagen.
that promotes healing through the formation Collyrium A lotion or liquid wash used as a
of scar tissue. cleanser for the eyes, particularly in diseases
Cirrhosis Chronic liver disease characterized of the eye.
by replacement of liver tissue by fibrous scar Colorectal Relating to the colon or rectum.
tissue and regenerative nodules/lumps leading Coma A state of unconsciousness from which a
progressively to loss of liver function. patient cannot be aroused.
Clastogen Is an agent that can cause one of Comedone A blocked, open sebaceous gland
two types of structural changes, breaks in where the secretions oxidize, turning black.
chromosomes that result in the gain, loss or Also called blackhead.
rearrangements of chromosomal segments. Comitogen Agent that is considered not to
adj. clastogenic. induce cell growth alone but to promote the
Claudication Limping, impairment in walking. effect of the mitogen.
Climacterium Refers to menopause and the Concoction A combination of crude ingredients
bodily and mental changes associated with it. that is prepared or cooked together.
Medical Glossary 897

Condyloma, Condylomata Acuminata Genital produce anaemia-like symptoms. Dietary

warts, venereal warts, anal wart or anogenital sources include curry powder, mushroom,
wart, a highly contagious sexually transmitted nuts, seeds, wheat germ, whole grains and
infection caused by epidermotropic human animal meat.
papillomavirus (HPV). Copulation To engage in coitus or sexual inter-
Conglutination Becoming stuck together. course. adj. copulatory.
Conjunctival Hyperaemia Enlarged blood ves- Cor Pulmonale Or pulmonary heart disease is
sels in the eyes. enlargement of the right ventricle of the heart
Conjunctivitis Sore, red and sticky eyes caused as a response to high blood pressure or
by eye infection. increased resistance in the lungs.
Constipation A very common gastrointestinal Cordial A preparation that is stimulating to the
disorder characterized by the passing of hard, heart.
dry bowel motions (stools) and difficulty of Corn Or callus is a patch of hard, thickened skin
bowel motion. on the foot that is formed in response to pres-
Constitutive Androstane Receptor (CAR, sure or friction.
NR113) Is a nuclear receptor transcription Cornification Is the process of forming an epi-
factor that regulates drug metabolism and dermal barrier in stratified squamous epithe-
homeostasis. lial tissue.
Consumption Term used to describe wasting of Corpora Lutea A yellow, progesterone-secreting
tissues including but not limited to tuberculosis. body that forms from an ovarian follicle after
Consumptive Afflicted with or associated with the release of a mature egg.
pulmonary tuberculosis. Corticosteroids A class of steroid hormones
Contraceptive An agent that reduces the likeli- that are produced in the adrenal cortex, used
hood of or prevents conception. clinically for hormone replacement therapy, for
Contraindication A condition which makes a suppressing ACTH secretion, for suppression
particular treatment or procedure inadvisable. of immune response and as antineoplastic,
Contralateral Muscle Muscle of opposite limb anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory agents.
(leg or arm). Corticosterone A 21-carbon steroid hormone
Contralateral Rotation Rotation occurring or of the corticosteroid type produced in the
originating in a corresponding part on an cortex of the adrenal glands.
opposite side. Cortisol Is a corticosteroid hormone made by
Contusion Another term for a bruise. A bruise, the adrenal glands.
or contusion, is caused when blood vessels are Coryza A word describing the symptoms of a
damaged or broken as the result of a blow to head cold. It describes the inflammation of the
the skin. mucus membranes lining the nasal cavity
Convulsant A drug or physical disturbance that which usually gives rise to the symptoms of
induces convulsion. nasal congestion and loss of smell, among
Convulsion Rapid and uncontrollable shaking other symptoms.
of the body. COX-1 See cyclooxygenase-1.
Coolant That which reduces body temperature. COX-2 See cyclooxygenase-2.
Copper (Cu) Is essential in all plants and CpG Islands Genomic regions that contain a
animals. It is found in a variety of enzymes, high frequency of CpG sites.
including the copper centres of cytochrome C CpG Sites The cytosine–phosphate–guanine
oxidase and the enzyme superoxide dismutase nucleotide that links two nucleosides together
(containing copper and zinc). In addition to its in DNA.
enzymatic roles, copper is used for biological cPLA(2) Cytosolic phospholipases A2, these
electron transport. Because of its role in facili- phospholipases are involved in cell signalling
tating iron uptake, copper deficiency can often processes, such as inflammatory response.
898 Medical Glossary

CPY1B1, CPY1A1 A member of the cytochrome anes that are each involved in the inflammatory
P450 superfamily of heme-thiolate monooxy- response. Two different COX enzymes
genase enzymes. existed, now known as COX-1 and COX-2.
Corticosterone A 21-carbon corticosteroid hor- Cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) Is known to be
mone produced in the cortex of the adrenal present in most tissues. In the gastrointestinal
glands that functions in the metabolism of car- tract, COX-1 maintains the normal lining of
bohydrates and proteins. the stomach. The enzyme is also involved in
Creatine A nitrogenous organic acid that occurs kidney and platelet function.
naturally in vertebrates and helps to supply Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) Is primarily present
energy to muscle. at sites of inflammation.
Creatine Phosphokinase (CPK, CK) Enzyme Cysteine Proteases Are enzymes that degrade
that catalyses the conversion of creatine and polypeptides possessing a common catalytic
consumes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to mechanism that involves a nucleophilic cysteine
create phosphocreatine and adenosine diphos- thiol in a catalytic triad. They are found in
phate (ADP). fruits like papaya, pineapple and kiwifruit.
CREB cAMP response element-binding, a pro- Cystitis A common urinary tract infection that
tein that is a transcription factor that binds to occurs when bacteria travel up the urethra,
certain DNA sequences called cAMP response infect the urine and inflame the bladder
elements. lining.
Crohn’s Disease An inflammatory disease of Cystorrhoea Discharge of mucus from the
the intestines that affect any part of the gastro- bladder.
intestinal tract. Cytochrome bc-1 Complex Ubihydroquinone:
CRP (C-Reactive Protein) A substance pro- cytochrome c oxidoreductase.
duced by the liver that increases in the pres- Cytochrome P450 3A CYP3A A very large
ence of inflammation in the body. and diverse superfamily of heme-thiolate pro-
Crossover Study A longitudinal, balance study teins found in all domains of life. This group
in which participants receive a sequence of of enzymes catalyses many reactions involved
different treatments or exposures. in drug metabolism and synthesis of choles-
Croup Is an infection of the throat (larynx) and terol, steroids and other lipids.
windpipe (trachea) that is caused by a virus Cytokine Non-antibody proteins secreted by
(also called laryngotracheobronchitis). certain cells of the immune system which
Cryptococcal Meningitis A fungal infection of carry signals locally between cells. They are a
the membranes covering the brain and spinal category of signalling molecules that are used
cord (meninges). extensively in cellular communication.
Crytorchidism (Cryptochism) A developmen- Cytopathic Any detectable, degenerative changes
tal defect characterized by the failure of one or in the host cell due to infection.
both testes to move into the scrotum as the Cytoprotective Protecting cells from noxious
male fetus develops. chemicals or other stimuli.
Curettage Surgical procedure in which a body Cytosolic Relates to the fluid of the cytoplasm
cavity or tissue is scraped with a sharp instru- in cells.
ment or aspirated with a cannula. Cytostatic Preventing the growth and prolifera-
Cutaneous Pertaining to the skin. tion of cells.
CXC8 Also known as interleukin 8, IL-8. Cytotoxic Of or relating to substances that are
Cyanogenesis Generation of cyanide. adj. toxic to cells; cell killing.
cyanogenetic. D-Galactosamine An amino sugar with unique
Cyclooxygenase (COX) An enzyme that is hepatotoxic properties in animals.
responsible for the formation of prostanoids— Dandruff Scurf, dead, scaly skin among the
prostaglandins, prostacyclins and thrombox- hair.
Medical Glossary 899

Dartre Condition of dry, scaly skin. Deoxypyridinoline (Dpd) A crosslink product

Debility Weakness, relaxation of muscular fibre. of collagen molecules found in bone and
Debridement Is the process of removing non- excreted in urine during bone degradation.
living tissue from pressure ulcers, burns and Depilatory An agent for removing or destroying
other wounds. hair.
Debriding Agent Substance that cleans and Depressant A substance that diminishes func-
treats certain types of wounds, burns and ulcers. tional activity, usually by depressing the ner-
Decidual Stromal Cells Like endometrial vous system.
glands and endothelium, express integrins that Depurative An agent used to cleanse or purify
bind basement components. the blood; it eliminates toxins and purifies the
Deciduogenic Relating to the uterus lining that system.
is shed off at childbirth. Dermatitis Inflammation of the skin causing
Deciduoma Decidual tissue induced in the discomfort such as eczema.
uterus (as by trauma) in the absence of Dermatitis Herpetiformis An autoimmune
pregnancy. chronic blistering skin disorder characterized
Deciduomata Plural of deciduoma. by blisters filled with a watery fluid.
Decoction A medical preparation made by boil- Dermatophyte A fungus parasitic on the skin.
ing the ingredients. Dermatosis Is a broad term that refers to any
Decongestant A substance that relieves or disease of the skin, especially one that is not
reduces nasal or bronchial congestion. accompanied by inflammation.
Deep Venous Thrombosis Is a blood clot that Dermonecrotic Pertaining to or causing necro-
forms in a vein deep inside a part of the body. sis of the skin.
Defibrinated Plasma Blood whose plasma Desquamation The shedding of the outer layers
component has had fibrinogen and fibrin of the skin.
removed. Desquamative Gingivitis Red, painful, glazed
Degranulation Cellular process that releases and friable gingivae which may be a manifes-
antimicrobial cytotoxic molecules from secre- tation of some mucocutaneous conditions
tory vesicles called granules found inside such as lichen planus or the vesiculobullous
some cells. disorders.
Delayed Afterdepolarizations (DADs) Detoxifier A substance that promotes the
Abnormal depolarization that begins during removal of toxins from a system or organ.
phase 4, after repolarization is completed, but Diabetes A metabolic disorder associated with
before another action potential would nor- inadequate secretion or utilization of insulin
mally occur. and characterized by frequent urination and
Delirium Is common, sudden severe confusion persistent thirst. See diabetes mellitus.
and rapid changes in brain function that occur Diabetes Mellitus (DM) Sometimes called
with physical or mental illness; it is reversible ‘sugar diabetes’, is a set of chronic, metabolic
and temporary. disease conditions characterized by high
Demulcent An agent that soothes internal mem- blood sugar (glucose) levels that result from
branes. Also called emollient. defects in insulin secretion, or action, or both.
Dendritic Cells Are immune cells and form part Diabetes mellitus appears in two forms.
of the mammalian immune system, function- Diabetes Mellitus Type I Formerly known as
ing as antigen presenting cells. juvenile-onset diabetes), caused by deficiency
Dentition A term that describes all of the upper of the pancreatic hormone insulin as a result
and lower teeth collectively. of destruction of insulin-producing beta
Deobstruent A medicine which removes cells of the pancreas. Lack of insulin causes
obstructions, also called an aperient. an increase of fasting blood glucose that
900 Medical Glossary

begins to appear in the urine above the components of dietary fibre may also be of
renal threshold. value in reducing the level of cholesterol in
Diabetes Mellitus Type II Formerly called blood and thereby decreasing a risk factor for
non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus or coronary heart disease and the development of
adult-onset diabetes; the disorder is character- gallstones. Dietary fibre is beneficial in the
ized by high blood glucose in the context of treatment of some diabetics.
insulin resistance and relative insulin defi- Digalactosyl Diglycerides Are the major lipid
ciency in which insulin is available but cannot components of chloroplasts.
be properly utilized. Diosgenin A steroid-like substance that is
Diabetic Foot Any pathology that results directly involved in the production of the hormone
from diabetes mellitus or any long-term or progesterone, extracted from roots of
chronic complication of diabetes mellitus. Dioscorea yam.
Diabetic Neuropathy A neuropathic disorder Dipsia Sensation of dryness in the mouth and
that is associated with diabetes mellitus. It throat related to a desire to drink.
affects all peripheral nerves including pain Dipsomania Pathological use of alcohol.
fibres, motor neurons and the autonomic Discutient An agent (as a medicinal application)
nervous system. which serves to disperse morbid matter.
Diabetic Retinopathy Damage to the retina Disinfectant An agent that prevents the spread
caused by complications of diabetes mellitus, of infection, bacteria or communicable
which can eventually lead to blindness. disease.
Diads Two adjacent structural units in a polymer Distal Sensory Polyneuropathy (DSPN) Or
molecule. peripheral neuropathy, is the most common
Dialysis Is a method of removing toxic sub- neurological problem in HIV disease. DSPN
stances (impurities or wastes) from the blood also represents a complex symptom that
when the kidneys are unable to do so. occurs because of peripheral nerve damage
Diaphoresis Is profuse sweating commonly related to advanced HIV disease.
associated with shock and other medical Diuresis Increased urination.
emergency conditions. Diuretic A substance that increases urination
Diaphoretic A substance that induces perspira- (diuresis).
tion, also called sudorific. Diverticular Disease Is a condition affecting
Diaphyseal Pertaining to or affecting the shaft the large bowel or colon and is thought to be
of a long bone (diaphysis). caused by eating too little fibre.
Diaphysis The main or mid section (shaft) of a DMBA 7,12-Dimethylbenzanthracene. A poly-
long bone. cyclic aromatic hydrocarbon found in tobacco
Diarrhoea A profuse, frequent and loose dis- smoke that is a potent carcinogen.
charge from the bowels. DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid; a nucleic acid that
Diastolic Referring to the time when the heart is contains the genetic instructions used in the
in a period of relaxation and dilatation (expan- development and functioning of all known
sion). cf. systolic. living organisms.
Dieresis Surgical separation of parts. DOCA Desoxycorticosterone acetate—a steroid
Dietary Fibre Is a term that refers to a group of chemical used as replacement therapy in
food components that pass through the stom- Addison’s disease.
ach and small intestine undigested and reach Dopamine A catecholamine neurotransmitter
the large intestine virtually unchanged. that occurs in a wide variety of animals,
Scientific evidence suggest that a diet high in including both vertebrates and invertebrates.
dietary fibre can be of value for treating or Dopaminergic Relating to, or activated by the
preventing such disorders as constipation, neurotransmitter, dopamine.
irritable bowel syndrome, diverticular disease, Double Blind Refers to a clinical trial or experi-
hiatus hernia and haemorrhoids. Some ment in which neither the subject nor the
Medical Glossary 901

researcher knows which treatment any partic- of the gastrointestinal tract (oesophagus,
ular subject is receiving. stomach, small and large intestines).
Douche A localized spray of liquid directed into Dyspareunia Painful sexual intercourse.
a body cavity or onto a part. Dyspedia Indigestion followed by nausea.
DPPH 2,2 Diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl—a crys- Dyspepsia Refers to a symptom complex of
talline, stable free radical used as an inhibitor epigastric pain or discomfort. It is often
of free radical reactions. defined as chronic or recurrent discomfort
Dracunculiasis Also called guinea worm disease centred in the upper abdomen and can be
(GWD), is a parasitic infection caused by the caused by a variety of conditions. cf. func-
nematode, Dracunculus medinensis. tional dyspepsia.
Dropsy An old term for the swelling of soft Dysphagia Swallowing disorder.
tissues due to the accumulation of excess Dysphonia A voice disorder, an impairment in
water. adj. dropsical. the ability to produce voice sounds using the
Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes Play central vocal organs.
roles in the biotransformation, metabolism Dysplasia Refers to abnormality in development.
and/or detoxification of xenobiotics or foreign Dyspnoea Shortness of breath, difficulty in
compounds that are introduced to the human breathing.
body. Dysrhythmias See arrhythmias.
Drusen Tiny yellow or white deposits of extra- Dystocia Abnormal or difficult child birth or
cellular materials in the retina of the eye or on labour.
the optic nerve head. Dystonia A neurological movement disorder
DT Diaphorase Also called DTD or NAD(P) characterized by prolonged, repetitive muscle
H:quinone oxidoreductase, is an obligate contractions that may cause twisting or jerking
two-electron reductase which bioactivates movements of muscles.
chemotherapeutic quinones. Dysuria Refers to difficult and painful urination.
Dysbiosis Also called dysbacteriosis, refers to a E-Cadherin Has traditionally been categorized
condition with microbial imbalances on or as a tumour suppressor.
inside the body. E-Selectin Also known as endothelial leukocyte
Dysentery (Formerly known as flux or the adhesion molecule-1 (ELAM-1), CD62E, a
bloody flux) is a disorder of the digestive member of the selectin family. It is transiently
system that results in severe diarrhoea con- expressed on vascular endothelial cells in
taining mucus and blood in the feces. It is response to IL-1 beta and TNF-alpha.
caused usually by a bacterium called Shigella. EC 50 Median effective concentration that
Dysesthesia An unpleasant abnormal sensation produces desired effects in 50 % of the test
produced by normal stimuli. population.
Dysgeusia Distortion of the sense of taste. Ecbolic A drug (as an ergot alkaloid) that tends
Dyshomeostasis An imbalance or other break- to increase uterine contractions and that is
down of a homeostasis system. used especially to facilitate delivery.
Dyskinesia The impairment of the power of Ecchymosis Skin discoloration caused by the
voluntary movement, resulting in fragmentary escape of blood into the tissues from ruptured
or incomplete movements. adj. dyskinetic. blood vessels.
Dyslipidemia Abnormality in or abnormal ECG See electrocardiography.
amount of lipids and lipoproteins in the blood. EC–SOD Extracellular superoxide dismutase, a
Dysmenorrhoea Is a menstrual condition char- tissue enzyme mainly found in the extracellu-
acterized by severe and frequent menstrual lar matrix of tissues. It participates in the
cramps and pain associated with menstruation. detoxification of reactive oxygen species by
Dysmotility Syndrome A vague, descriptive catalysing the dismutation of superoxide
term used to describe diseases of the muscles radicals.
902 Medical Glossary

Ectopic Heartbeats Small changes in an other- Embryotoxic Term that describes any chemical
wise normal heartbeat that lead to extra or which is harmful to an embryo.
skipped heartbeats. Emesis Vomiting, throwing up.
Ectrodactyly Involves the absence of one or Emetic An agent that induces vomiting, cf:
more central digits of the hand or foot. antiemetic.
Eczema Is broadly applied to a range of persistent Emetocathartic Causing vomiting and purging.
skin conditions. These include dryness and Emmenagogue A substance that stimulates,
recurring skin rashes which are characterized by initiates and/or promotes menstrual flow.
one or more of these symptoms: redness, skin Emmenagogues are used in herbal medicine
oedema, itching and dryness, crusting, flaking, to balance and restore the normal function of
blistering, cracking, oozing or bleeding. the female reproductive system.
Eczematous Rash Dry, scaly, itchy rash. Emollient An agent that has a protective and
ED 50 Is defined as the dose producing a response soothing action on the surfaces of the skin and
that is 50 % of the maximum obtainable. membranes.
Edema Formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, Emphysema A long-term, progressive disease
is characterized swelling caused by abnormal of the lungs that primarily causes shortness of
accumulation of fluid beneath the skin, or in breath.
one or more cavities of the body. It usually Emulsion A preparation formed by the suspen-
occurs in the feet, ankles and legs, but it can sion of very finely divided oily or resinous liq-
involve the entire body. uid in another liquid.
EGFR Proteins Epidermal growth factor receptor Encephalitis Inflammation of the brain caused
(EGFR) proteins—protein kinases are enzymes by a virus.
that transfer a phosphate group from a phos- Encephalocele Protrusion of brain tissue through
phate donor onto an acceptor amino acid in a a congenital fissure in the skull.
substrate protein. Encephalomalacia Cerebral softening, a local-
EGR-1 Early growth response 1, a human gene. ized softening of the brain substance, due to
Eicosanoids Are signalling molecules made by haemorrhage or inflammation.
oxygenation of arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon Encephalopathy A disorder or disease of the
essential fatty acid, includes prostaglandins brain.
and related compounds. Endocrine Adj. of or relating to endocrine
Elastase A serine protease that also hydrolyses glands or the hormones secreted by them.
amides and esters. Endocytosis Is the process by which cells
Electrocardiography Or ECG, is a transtho- absorb material (molecules such as proteins)
racic interpretation of the electrical activity of from outside the cell by engulfing it with their
the heart over time captured and externally cell membrane.
recorded by skin electrodes. Endometrial Cancer Cancer that arises in the
Electromyogram (EMG) A test used to record endometrium, the lining of the uterus (womb).
the electrical activity of muscles. An electro- Endometriosis Is a common and often painful
myogram (EMG) is also called a myogram. disorder of the female reproductive system in
Electuary A medicinal paste composed of pow- which the endometrium, the tissue that nor-
ders, or other medical ingredients, incorpo- mally lines the womb (uterus), grows outside
rated with sweeteners to hide the taste, suitable the uterus. The two most common symptoms
for oral administration. of endometriosis are pain and infertility.
Elephantiasis A disorder characterized by Endometritis Refers to inflammation of the
chronic thickened and oedematous tissue on endometrium, the inner lining of the uterus.
the genitals and legs due to various causes. Endometrium The inner lining of the uterus.
Embrocation Lotion or liniment that relieves Endoplasmic Reticulum Is a network of tubules,
muscle or joint pains. vesicles and sacs around the nucleus that are
Embryonation Formation of embryo in the egg. interconnected.
Medical Glossary 903

Endostatin A naturally occurring 20-kDa Enterohepatonephropathy Hepatorenal lesions

C-terminal protein fragment derived from accompanied by renal failure.
type XVIII collagen. It is reported to serve Enterolactone A lignin formed by the action of
as an anti-angiogenic agent that inhibits the intestinal bacteria on lignan precursors found
formation of the blood vessels that feed cancer in plants; acts as a phytoestrogen.
tumours. Enteropooling Increased fluids and electrolytes
Endosteul Pertaining to the endosteum. within the lumen of the intestines due to
Endosteum The thin layer of cells lining the increased levels of prostaglandins.
medullary cavity of a bone. Enterotoxigenic Of or being an organism con-
Endothelial Progenitor Cells Population of taining or producing an enterotoxin.
rare cells that circulate in the blood with the Enterotoxin Is a protein toxin released by a
ability to differentiate into endothelial cells, microorganism in the intestine.
the cells that make up the lining of blood Entheogen A substance taken to induce a spiri-
vessels. tual experience.
Endothelin Any of a group of vasoconstrictive Enuresis Bed-wetting, a disorder of elimination
peptides produced by endothelial cells that that involves the voluntary or involuntary
constrict blood vessels and raise blood release of urine into bedding, clothing or other
pressure. inappropriate places.
Endotoxaemia The presence of endotoxins in Envenomation Is the entry of venom into a per-
the blood, which may result in shock. adj. son’s body, and it may cause localized or sys-
endotoxaemic. temic poisoning.
Endotoxin Toxins associated with certain Eosinophilia The state of having a high concen-
bacteria, unlike an ‘exotoxin’ that is not tration of eosinophils (eosinophil granulocytes)
secreted in soluble form by live bacteria, but is in the blood.
a structural component in the bacteria which is Eosinophils Or, less commonly, acidophils, are
released mainly when bacteria are lysed. white blood cells that are one of the immune
Enema Liquid injected into the rectum either as system components.
a purgative or medicine, also called clyster. Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor
Enophthalmos A condition in which the eye (EGFR) Belongs to the ErbB family of
falls back into the socket and inhibits proper receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK). EGFR are
eyelid function. involved in the pathogenesis and progression
eNOS (Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase) of different carcinoma types.
The enzyme responsible for most of the vas- Epididymis A structure within the scrotum
cular nitric oxide produced. attached to the backside of the testis and
Enteral Term used to describe the intestines or whose coiled duct provides storage, transit
other parts of the digestive tract. and maturation of spermatozoa.
Enteralgia Pain in the intestines; intestinal colic. Epididymitis A medical condition in which
Enteral Administration Involves the oesopha- there is inflammation of the epididymis.
gus, stomach and small and large intestines Epigastralgia Pain in the epigastric region.
(i.e. the gastrointestinal tract). Epigastric Discomfort Bloated abdomen, swell-
Enteritis Refers to inflammation of the small ing of abdomen, abdominal distension.
intestine. Epilepsy A common chronic neurological dis-
Enterocolic Disorder Inflamed bowel disease. order that is characterized by recurrent unpro-
Enterocytes Tall columnar cells in the small voked seizures.
intestinal mucosa that are responsible for the Epileptiform Resembling epilepsy or its mani-
final digestion and absorption of nutrients. festations. adj. epileptiformic.
Enterohaemorrhagic Causing bloody diar- Epileptogenesis A process by which a normal
rhoea and colitis, said of pathogenic microor- brain develops epilepsy; a chronic condition
ganisms. in which seizures occur. adj. epileptogenic.
904 Medical Glossary

Episiotomy A surgical incision through the Erythema Multiforme Is a skin disorder due to
perineum made to enlarge the vagina and an allergic reaction or infection; characterized
assist childbirth. by fever, general ill feeling, skin itching, joint
Epistaxis Acute haemorrhage from the nostril, aches and multiple skin lesions.
nasal cavity or nasopharynx (nosebleed). Erythematous Characterized by erythema.
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition or Trans- Erythroleukoplakia An abnormal patch of red
formation (EMT) A process by which epi- and white tissue that forms on mucous mem-
thelial cells lose their cell polarity and cell–cell branes in the mouth and may become cancer.
adhesion and gain migratory and invasive Tobacco (smoking and chewing) and alcohol
properties to become mesenchymal cells. may increase the risk of erythroleukoplakia.
Epithelioma A usually benign skin disease Erythropoietin (EPO) A hormone produced
most commonly occurring on the face, around by the kidney that promotes the formation of
the eyelids and on the scalp. red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the bone
Epitope A single antigenic site on a protein marrow.
against which an antibody reacts. Eschar A slough or piece of dead tissue that is
Epitrochlearis The superficial-most muscle of cast off from the surface of the skin.
the arm anterior surface. Escharotic Capable of producing an eschar; a
Epstein Barr Virus Herpes virus that is the caustic or corrosive agent.
causative agent of infectious mononucleosis. Estradiol Is the predominant sex hormone pres-
It is also associated with various types of ent in females, also called oestradiol.
human cancers. Estrogen Female hormone produced by the
ERbeta Estrogen receptor beta, a nuclear receptor ovaries that play an important role in the
which is activated by the sex hormone, estrous cycle in women.
estrogen. Estrogen Receptor (ER) Is a protein found in
Ergocalciferol A form of vitamin D, also called high concentrations in the cytoplasm of breast,
vitamin D2. See vitamin D. uterus, hypothalamus and anterior hypophysis
Ergonic Increasing capacity for bodily or men- cells; ER levels are measured to determine a
tal labour especially by eliminating fatigue breast CA’s potential for response to hormonal
symptoms. manipulation.
ERK (Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinases) Estrogen Receptor Positive (ER+) Means that
Widely expressed protein kinase intracellular estrogen is causing the tumour to grow and
signalling molecules which are involved in that the breast cancer should respond well to
functions including the regulation of meiosis, hormone suppression treatments.
mitosis and post-mitotic functions in differen- Estrogen Receptor Negative (ER−) Tumour is
tiated cells. not driven by estrogen and needs another test
Eructation The act of belching or of casting up to determine the most effective treatment.
wind from the stomach through the mouth. Estrogenic Relating to estrogen or producing
Eruption A visible rash or cutaneous disruption. estrus.
Eryptosis Suicidal death of erythrocytes, Estrus Sexual excitement or heat of female; or
characterized by cell shrinkage, membrane period of this characterized by changes in the
blebbing, activation of proteases and phospha- sex organs.
tidylserine exposure at the outer membrane Euglycaemia Normal blood glucose concentration.
leaflet. Eupeptic Conducive to digestion.
Erysipelas Is an intensely red Streptococcus Exanthematous Characterized by or of the
bacterial infection that occurs on the face and nature of an eruption or rash.
lower extremities. Excitotoxicity Is the pathological process by
Erythema Abnormal redness and inflammation which neurons are damaged and killed by glu-
of the skin, due to vasodilation. tamate and similar substances.
Medical Glossary 905

Excipient A pharmacologically inert substance form mainly in the epithelium of the large
used as a diluent or vehicle for the active intestine.
ingredients of a medication. Familial Amyloid Polyneuropathy (FAP) Also
Exfoliative Cheilitis Is a reactive process, in called Corino de Andrade’s disease, a neuro-
which upper, lower or both lips become chroni- degenerative autosomal dominant genetically
cally inflamed, crusted and sometimes fissured. transmitted, fatal, incurable disease.
Exocytosis The cellular process by which cells Familial Dysautonomia A genetic disorder that
excrete waste products or chemical transmitters. affects the development and survival of auto-
Exophthalmos or Exophthalmia or Proptosis nomic and sensory nerve cells.
Is a bulging of the eye anteriorly out of the Fanconi Syndrome Is a disease of the proximal
orbit. adj. exophthalmic. renal tubes which certain substances normally
Exotoxin A toxin secreted by a microorganism absorbed into the bloodstream by the kidneys
and released into the medium in which it are released into the urine instead.
grows. FasL or CD95L Fas ligand is a type II trans-
Expectorant An agent that increases bronchial membrane protein that belongs to the tumour
mucous secretion by promoting liquefaction necrosis factor (TNF) family.
of the sticky mucous and expelling it from the FAS: Fatty Acid Synthase (FAS) A multi-enzyme
body. that plays a key role in fatty acid synthesis.
Experimental Allergic Encephalomyelitis Fas Molecule A member of the tumour necrosis
(EAE) Is an animal model of brain factor receptors that mediates apoptotic signal
inflammation. in many cell types.
Exteroceptive Responsiveness to stimuli that Fauces The passage leading from the back of
are external to an organism. the mouth into the pharynx.
Extrapyramidal Side Effects Are a group of Favus A chronic skin infection, usually of the
symptoms (tremor, slurred speech, akathisia, scalp, caused by the fungus Trichophyton
dystonia, anxiety, paranoia and bradyphrenia) schoenleinii and characterized by the develop-
that can occur in persons taking antipsychotic ment of thick, yellow crusts over the hair
medications. follicles. Also termed tinea favosa.
Extravasation Discharge or escape of blood Febrifuge An agent that reduces fever, also
from the vein into the surrounding tissues; dis- called an antipyretic.
charge or escape from a vessel or channel. Febrile Pertaining to or characterized by fever.
Fabry Disease Is a rare X-linked (inherited) Febrile Neutropenia The development of fever,
lysosomal storage disease caused by alpha- often with other signs of infection, in an
galactosidase A deficiency, which can cause a individual with neutropenia, an abnormally
wide range of systemic symptoms such as low number of neutrophil granulocytes in the
pain in the extremities, papules on the lower blood.
body parts, cornea clouding, fatigue, neuropa- Felon A purulent infection in the bulbous distal
thy and renal and cardiac complications. end of a finger.
FAC Chemotherapy Fluorouracil, doxorubicin Fetotoxic Toxic to the fetus.
(adriamycin) and cyclophosphamide Fibrates Hypolipidaemic agents primarily used
chemotherapy. for decreasing serum triglycerides, while
FADD Fas-associated protein with death increasing high-density lipoprotein (HDL).
domain, the protein encoded by this gene is an Fibril A small slender fibre or filament.
adaptor molecule which interacts with other Fibrin Insoluble protein that forms the essential
death cell surface receptors and mediates portion of the blood clot.
apoptotic signals. Fibrinolysis A normal ongoing process that dis-
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) Is an solves fibrin and results in the removal of
inherited condition in which numerous polyps small blood clots.
906 Medical Glossary

Fibrinolytic Causing the dissolution of fibrin by Flatulence Is the presence of a mixture of gases
enzymatic action. known as flatus in the digestive tract of mam-
Fibroblast Type of cell that synthesizes the mals expelled from the rectum. Excessive
extracellular matrix and collagen, the struc- flatulence can be caused by lactose intoler-
tural framework (stroma) for animal tissues ance, certain foods or a sudden switch to a
and play a critical role in wound healing. high fibre.
Fibrogenic Promoting the development of fibres. Flavanols A subgroup of flavonoids, are a class
Fibromyalgia A common and complex chronic, of flavonoids that use the 2-phenyl-3,4-
body-wide pain disorder that affects people dihydro-2H-chromen-3-ol skeleton. These
physically, mentally and socially. Symptoms compounds include the catechins and the
include debilitating fatigue, sleep disturbance catechin gallates. They are found in chocolate,
and joint stiffness, also referred to as FM or fruits and vegetables. See flavonoids.
FMS. Flavanones A subgroup of flavonoids, consti-
Fibronectin A high molecular weight (~440 kDa) tute >90 % of total flavonoids in citrus. The
glycoprotein of the extracellular matrix major dietary flavanones are hesperetin, narin-
(ECM) that adheres to membrane-spanning genin and eriodictyol.
receptor proteins called integrins. Flavans A subgroup of flavonoids. See
Fibrosarcoma A malignant tumour derived flavonoids.
from fibrous connective tissue and character- Flavivirus A family of viruses transmitted by
ized by immature proliferating fibroblasts or mosquitoes and ticks that cause some impor-
undifferentiated anaplastic spindle cells. tant diseases, including dengue, yellow fever,
Fibrosis The formation of fibrous tissue as a tick-borne encephalitis and West Nile fever.
reparative or reactive process. Flavones A subgroup of flavonoids based on
Filarial Pertaining to a threadlike nematode the backbone of 2-phenylchromen-4-one
worm. (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one). Flavones are
Filariasis A parasitic and infectious tropical mainly found in cereals and herbs.
disease that is caused by threadlike filarial Flavonoids Or bioflavonoids are a group of
nematode worms in the superfamily polyphenolic antioxidant compounds that
Filarioidea. occur in plant as secondary metabolites. They
Fistula An abnormal connection between two are responsible for the colour of fruit and
organs inside of the body. vegetables. Twelve basic classes (chemical
Fistula-in-Ano A track connecting the internal types) of flavonoids have been recognized:
anal canal to the skin surrounding the anal flavones, isoflavones, flavans, flavanones, fla-
orifice. vanols, flavanolols, anthocyanidins, catechins
5′-Nucleotidase 5′-Ribonucleotide phosphohy- (including proanthocyanidins), leukoanthocy-
drolase, an intrinsic membrane glycoprotein anidins, chalcones, dihydrochalcones and
present as an ectoenzyme in a wide variety of aurones. Apart from their antioxidant activity,
mammalian cells, hydrolyses 5′-nucleotides flavonoids are known for their ability to
to their corresponding nucleosides. strengthen capillary walls, thus assisting
5-HT1A Receptor A serotonin protein that circulation and helping to prevent and treat
binds to 5-5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) with bruising, varicose veins, bleeding gums and
high affinity to exert subtle control over emo- nosebleeds and heavy menstrual bleeding and
tion and behaviour. are also anti-inflammatory.
Flash Electroretinogram or Flash ERG Fluorine F is an essential chemical element that
(fERG) Is a test which measures the electri- is required for maintenance of healthy bones
cal response of the eye’s light-sensitive cells and teeth and to reduce tooth decay. It is found
(rods and cones). It also checks other cell in sea weeds, tea, water, seafood and dairy
layers in the retina. products.
Medical Glossary 907

Fluorosis A dental health condition caused by a Furuncle Is a skin disease caused by the infec-
child receiving too much fluoride during tooth tion of hair follicles usually caused by
development. Staphylococcus aureus, resulting in the local-
Flux An excessive discharge of fluid. ized accumulation of pus and dead tissue.
FMD (Flow-Mediated Dilation) A measure of Furunculosis Skin condition characterized by
endothelial dysfunction which is used to persistent, recurring boils.
evaluate cardiovascular risk. Also called G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinases (GRKs,
FMVD (flow-mediated vasodilation). GPCRKs) A family of protein kinases which
Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK) Is a protein regulate the activity of G protein-coupled
tyrosine kinase which is recruited at an receptors (GPCRs) by phosphorylating their
early stage to focal adhesions and which intracellular domains after their associated G
mediates many of the downstream regulatory proteins have been released and activated.
responses. GABA Gamma aminobutyric acid, required as
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) A hor- an inhibitory neurotransmitter to block the
mone produced by the pituitary gland. In transmission of an impulse from one cell to
women, it helps control the menstrual cycle another in the central nervous system, which
and the production of eggs by the ovaries. prevents over-firing of the nerve cells. It is
Follicular Atresia The breakdown of the ovarian used to treat both epilepsy and hypertension.
follicles. GADD 152 A proapoptotic gene.
Fomentation Treatment by the application of Galactagogue A substance that promotes the
war, moist substance. flow of milk.
Fontanelle Soft spot on an infant’s skull. Galactophoritis Inflammation of the milk ducts.
Forkhead Box-O Transcription Factors Galactopoietic Increasing the flow of milk;
(FOXOs) Are a family of transcription fac- milk producing.
tors that play important roles in regulating the Galctifuge Or lactifuge, causing the arrest of
expression of genes involved in cell growth, milk secretion.
proliferation, differentiation and longevity. It Gall Bladder A small, pear-shaped muscular
also plays an important role in tumour sup- sac, located under the right lobe of the liver, in
pression by regulating the expression of genes which bile secreted by the liver is stored until
involved in stress resistance, DNA damage needed by the body for digestion, also called
repair, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. cholecyst, cholecystitis.
Framboesia See yaws. Gallic Acid Equivalent (GAE) Measures the
FRAP Ferric reducing ability of plasma, an total phenol content in terms of the standard
assay used to assess antioxidant property. gallic acid by the Folin–Ciocalteu assay.
Friedreich’s Ataxia Is a genetic inherited Galphai Proteins or G Alpha I Proteins Are
disorder that causes progressive damage to the heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-regulatory
nervous system resulting in symptoms rang- (G) proteins associated with a variety of intra-
ing from muscle weakness and speech prob- cellular membranes and specific plasma mem-
lems to heart disease. cf. ataxia. brane domains.
Fulminant Hepatitis Acute liver failure. Gamma GT (GGT) Gamma-glutamyl trans-
Functional Dyspepsia A non-ulcer condition peptidase, a liver enzyme.
that causes an upset stomach or pain or dis- Gastralgia (Heart Burn) Pain in the stomach or
comfort in the upper belly, near the ribs. abdominal region. It is caused by excess of acid,
Functional Food Is any fresh or processed food or an accumulation of gas, in the stomach.
claimed to have a health-promoting or dis- Gastric Pertaining to or affecting the stomach.
ease-preventing property beyond the basic Gastric Emptying Refers to the speed at which
function of supplying nutrients, also called food and drink leave the stomach.
medicinal food. Gastritis Inflammation of the stomach.
908 Medical Glossary

Gastrocnemius Muscle The big calf muscle at Glial Cells Support, non-neuronal cells in the
the rear of the lower leg. central nervous system that maintain homeo-
Gastroprokinetic See prokinetic. stasis, form myelin and provide protection for
Gastrotonic (Gastroprotective) Substance the brain’s neurons.
that strengthens, tones or regulates gastric Glioblastoma Common and most lethal form of
functions (or protects from injury) without brain tumour.
overt stimulation or depression. Glioblastoma Multiforme Most common and
Gavage Forced feeding. most aggressive type of primary brain tumour
Gene Silencing Suppression of the expression in humans, involving glial cells.
of a gene. Glioma Is a type of tumour that starts in the
Genotoxic Describes a poisonous substance brain or spine. It is called a glioma because it
which harms an organism by damaging its arises from glial cells.
DNA, thereby capable of causing mutations or Glomerulonephritis (GN) A renal disease
cancer. characterized by inflammation of the glomer-
Genotoxin A chemical or other agents that uli or small blood vessels in the kidneys.
damage cellular DNA, resulting in mutations Also known as glomerular nephritis. adj.
or cancer. glomerulonephritic.
Geriatrics Is a subspecialty of internal medi- Glomerulosclerosis A hardening (fibrosis) of
cine that focuses on healthcare of elderly the glomerulus in the kidney.
people. Glossal Pertaining to the tongue.
Gestational Hypertension Development of GLP-1 Glucagon-like peptide-1.
arterial hypertension in a pregnant woman Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Is derived
after 20 weeks gestation. from the transcription product of the proglu-
Ghrelin A gastrointestinal peptide hormone cagon gene, reduces insulin requirement in
secreted by epithelial cells in the stomach diabetes mellitus and promotes satiety.
lining, it stimulates appetite, gastric emptying Gluconeogenesis A metabolic pathway that
and increases cardiac output. results in the generation of glucose from non-
Gingival Index An index describing the clinical carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate.
severity of gingival inflammation as well as its adj. gluconeogenic.
location. Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD
Gingivitis Refers to gingival inflammation or G6PDH) Is a cytosolic enzyme in the
induced by bacterial biofilms (also called pentose phosphate metabolic pathway.
plaque) adherent to tooth surfaces. Glucose Transporter Type 4 (GLUT 4) Insulin-
Gin-nan Sitotoxism Toxicity caused by inges- regulated glucose transporter found in adipose
tion of ginkgotoxin and characterized mainly tissues and striated muscles that modulate
by epileptic convulsions, paralysis of the legs insulin-related translocation into the cell.
and loss of consciousness. Glucose Transporters GLUT or SLC2A family
GIP Gastric inhibitory polypeptide also known are a family of membrane proteins found in
as the glucose-dependent insulinotropic pep- most mammalian cells.
tide, a member of the secretin family of Glucosuria or Glycosuria Is the excretion of
hormones. glucose into the urine.
Glaucoma A group of eye diseases in which the Glucosyltranferase An enzyme that enables
optic nerve at the back of the eye is slowly the transfer of glucose.
destroyed, leading to impaired vision and Glucuronidation A phase II detoxification
blindness. pathway occurring in the liver in which gluc-
Gleet A chronic inflammation (as gonorrhoea) uronic acid is conjugated with toxins.
of a bodily orifice usually accompanied by an Glutamic Oxaloacetate Transaminase (GOT)
abnormal discharge. Catalyses the transfer of an amino group from
Medical Glossary 909

an amino acid (Glu) to a 2-keto acid to gener- Goitrogen Substance that suppresses the func-
ate a new amino acid and the residual 2-keto tion of the thyroid gland by interfering with
acid of the donor amino acid. iodine uptake, causing enlargement of the thy-
Glutamic Pyruvate Transaminase (GPT) See roid, i.e. goitre.
alanine aminotransferase. Goitrogenic Adj. causing goitre.
Glutathione (GSH) A tripeptide produced in Gonadotroph A basophilic cell of the
the human liver and plays a key role in inter- anterior pituitary specialized to secrete
mediary metabolism, immune response and follicle-stimulating hormone or luteinizing
health. It plays an important role in scavenging hormone.
free radicals and protects cells against several Gonadotropins Protein hormones secreted by
toxic oxygen-derived chemical species. gonadotrope cells of the pituitary gland of
Glutathione Peroxidase (GPX) The general vertebrates.
name of an enzyme family with peroxidase Gonorrhoea A common sexually transmitted
activity whose main biological role is to pro- bacterial infection caused by the bacterium
tect the organism from oxidative damage. Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Glutathione S Transferase (GST) A major Gout A disorder caused by a buildup of a waste
group of detoxification enzymes that partici- product, uric acid, in the bloodstream. Excess
pate in the detoxification of reactive electro- uric acid settles in joints causing inflamma-
philic compounds by catalysing their tion, pain and swelling.
conjugation to glutathione. G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)
Glycaemic Index (GI) Measures carbohydrates Constitute the largest family of cell surface
according to how quickly they are absorbed molecules involved in signal transmission.
and raise the glucose level of the blood. These receptors play key physiological roles
Glycaemic Load (GL) Is a ranking system for and their dysfunction results in several
carbohydrate content in food portions based diseases.
on their glycaemic index and the amount of Granulation The condition or appearance of
available carbohydrate, i.e. GI x available being granulated (becoming grain-like).
carbohydrate divided by 100. Glycemic load Gravel Sandlike concretions of uric acid, cal-
combines both the quality and quantity of car- cium oxalate and mineral salts formed in the
bohydrate in one ‘number’. It’s the best way to passages of the biliary and urinary tracts.
predict blood glucose values of different types Gripe Water Is a home remedy for babies with
and amounts of food. colic, gas, teething pain or other stomach
Glycation or Glycosylation A chemical reac- ailments. Its ingredients vary, and may include
tion in which glycosyl groups are added to a alcohol, bicarbonate, ginger, dill, fennel and
protein to produce a glycoprotein. chamomile.
Glycogenolysis Is the catabolism of glycogen Grippe An epidemic catarrh; older term for
by removal of a glucose monomer through influenza.
cleavage with inorganic phosphate to produce GSH See glutathione.
glucose-1-phosphate. GSH-Px Glutathione peroxidase, general name
Glycometabolism Metabolism (oxidation) of of an enzyme family with peroxidase activity
glucose to produce energy. whose main biological role is to protect the
Glycosuria Or glucosuria is an abnormal condi- organism from oxidative damage.
tion of osmotic diuresis due to excretion of GSSG Glutathione disulfides are biologically
glucose by the kidneys into the urine. important intracellular thiols, and alterations
Glycosylases A family of enzymes involved in in the GSH/GSSG ratio are often used to
base excision repair. assess exposure of cells to oxidative stress.
Goitre An enlargement of the thyroid gland GSTM Glutathione S transferase M1, a major
leading to swelling of the neck or larynx. group of detoxification enzymes.
910 Medical Glossary

GSTM 2 Glutathione S transferase M2, a major Haematopoietic Adj. relating to the formation
group of detoxification enzymes. and development of blood cells.
G2-M Cell Cycle The phase where the cell Haematopoietic Stem Cell Is a cell isolated
prepares for mitosis and where chromatids from the blood or bone marrow that can renew
and daughter cells separate. itself and can differentiate to a variety of spe-
Guillain–Barre Syndrome Is a serious disorder cialized cells.
that occurs when the body’s defence (immune) Haematuria, Hematuria Is the presence of
system mistakenly attacks part of the nervous blood in the urine. Haematuria is a sign that
system, leading to nerve inflammation, muscle something is causing abnormal bleeding in a
weakness and other symptoms. person’s genitourinary tract.
Gynecomastia Enlargement of the gland tissue Haeme Oxygenase HO-1, encoded by Hmox1,
of the male breast, resulting from an imbal- is an inducible protein activated in systemic
ance of hormones. inflammatory conditions by oxidant stress, an
Gynecopathy Any or various diseases specific enzyme that catalyses degradation of heme.
to women. Haemochromatosis Iron overload in the body
Gynoid Adiposity Fat distribution mainly to the with a hereditary or primary cause.
hips and thighs, pear-shaped. Haemodialysis, Hemodialysis A method for
Haemagglutination A specific form of aggluti- removing waste products such as potassium
nation that involves red blood cells. and urea, as well as free water from the blood
Haemagglutination–Inhibition Test Measures when the kidneys are in renal failure.
of the ability of soluble antigen to inhibit the Haemoglobinopathies Genetic defects that
agglutination of antigen-coated red blood cells produce abnormal haemoglobins and anaemia.
by antibodies. Haemolysis Lysis of red blood cells and the
Haemagglutinin Refers to a substance that release of haemoglobin into the surrounding
causes red blood cells to agglutinate. fluid (plasma), adj. haemolytic.
Haemagogic Promoting a flow of blood. Haemolytic Anaemia Anaemia due to haemol-
Haemangioma Blood vessel. ysis, the breakdown of red blood cells in the
Haematemesis, Hematemesis Is the vomiting blood vessels or elsewhere in the body.
of blood. Haemolytic-Uremic Syndrome Is a disease
Haematinic Improving the quality of the blood, characterized by haemolytic anaemia, acute
its haemoglobin level and the number of renal failure (uraemia) and a low platelet count.
erythrocytes. Haemoptysis, Hemoptysis Is the coughing up
Haematochezia Passage of stools containing of blood from the respiratory tract. The blood
blood. can come from the nose, mouth, throat and the
Haematochyluria, Hematochyluria The dis- airway passages leading to the lungs.
charge of blood and chyle (emulsified fat) in Haemorheology Study of blood flow and its
the urine; see also chyluria. elements in the circulatory system. adj.
Haematocrit Is a blood test that measures the haemorheological.
percentage of the volume of whole blood that Haemorrhage, Hemorrhage Bleeding, discharge
is made up of red blood cells. of blood from blood vessels.
Haematoma, Hematoma A localized accumu- Haemorrhagic Colitis An acute gastroenteritis
lation of blood in a tissue or space composed characterized by overtly bloody diarrhoea that
of clotted blood. is caused by Escherichia coli infection.
Haematometra, Hematometra A medical Haemorrhoids, Hemorrhoids A painful condi-
condition involving bleeding of or near the tion in which the veins around the anus or
uterus. lower rectum are enlarged, swollen and
Haematopoiesis, Hematopoiesis Formation of inflamed, also called piles.
blood cellular components from the haemato- Haemostasis, Hemostasis A complex process
poietic stem cells. which causes the bleeding process to stop.
Medical Glossary 911

Haemostatic, Hemostatic Something that stops Hepa-1c1c7 A type of hepatoma cells.

bleeding. Hepatalgia Pain or discomfort in the liver area.
Halitosis (Bad breath) A common condition Hepatomegaly Condition of enlarged liver.
caused by sulphur-producing bacteria that live Hepatectomy The surgical removal of part or
within the surface of the tongue and in the throat. all of the liver.
Hallucinogen Drug that produces hallucinogen. Hepatic Relating to the liver.
Hallucinogenic Inducing hallucinations. Hepatic Cirrhosis Affecting the liver, charac-
Hallux Abducto Valgus Commonly called bun- terized by hepatic fibrosis and regenerative
ion is an abnormal bending of the big toe nodules.
towards the other toes of the foot. Hepatic Fibrosis Is overly profuse wound heal-
Haplotype A set of alleles of closely linked loci ing in which excessive connective tissue
on a chromosome that tend to be inherited builds up in the liver.
together. Hepatitis Inflammation of the liver.
Hapten A small molecule that can elicit an Hepatitis A Formerly known as infectious hep-
immune response only when attached to a atitis, is an acute infectious disease of the liver
large carrier such as a protein. caused by the hepatovirus hepatitis A virus.
HATs Histone acetyl transferases, enzymes that Hepatocarcinogenesis Represents a linear and
regulate the acetylation of histones and tran- progressive cancerous process in the liver in
scription factors, playing a major role in the which successively more aberrant monoclonal
growth and differentiation of cells. populations of hepatocytes evolve.
HbA1c Glycosylated haemoglobin. Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) Also called
HBD-2 (human β-defensin 2) A member of the malignant hepatoma, is a primary malignancy
defensin family of antimicrobial peptides that (cancer) of the liver.
plays important roles in the innate and adap- Hepatocytolysis Cytotoxicity (dissolution) of
tive immune system of both vertebrates and liver cells.
invertebrates. Hepatoma Cancer of the liver.
HBeAg Hepatitis B e antigen. Hepatopathy A disease or disorder of the liver.
HBsAg Hepatitis B s antigen. Hepatoprotective Liver protector, a substance
Heartburn Burning sensation in the stomach that helps protect the liver from damage by
and oesophagus caused by excessive acidity toxins, chemicals or other disease processes.
of the stomach fluids. Hepatoregenerative A compound that pro-
Heat Rash Any condition aggravated by heat or motes hepatocellular regeneration and repairs
hot weather such as intertrigo. and restores liver function to optimum
Heat Shock Chaperones (HSC) Ubiquitous performance.
molecules involved in the modulation of pro- Hepatotonic Liver tonic, a substance that is
tein conformational and complexation states, tonic to the liver—usually employed to nor-
associated with heat stress or other cellular malize liver enzymes and function.
stress response. Hernia Occurs when part of an internal organ
Heat Shock Proteins (HSP) A group of function- bulges through a weak area of a muscle.
ally related proteins the expression of which is HER-2 Human epidermal growth factor recep-
increased when the cells are exposed to elevated tor 2, a protein giving higher aggressiveness in
temperatures or other cellular stresses. breast cancer, also known as ErbB-2, ERBB2.
Helminthiasis A disease in which a part of the Herpes A chronic inflammation of the skin or
body is infested with worms such as pinworm, mucous membrane characterized by the devel-
roundworm or tapeworm. opment of vesicles on an inflammatory base.
Heme Oxygenase-1 (HO-1) An enzyme that Herpes Circinatus Dermatitis herpetiformis
catalyses the degradation of heme; an induc- (resembling herpes).
ible stress protein, confers cytoprotection Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and
against oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo. HSV-2) Are two species of the herpes virus
912 Medical Glossary

family which cause a variety of illnesses/ sometimes called ‘good cholesterol’, or HDL-C.
infections in humans such cold sores, chicken- A high level of HDL-C seems to protect
pox or varicella, shingles or herpes zoster against cardiovascular diseases. cf. LDL.
(VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV) and various Hippocampal Pertaining to the hippocampus.
cancers and can cause brain inflammation Hippocampus A ridge in the floor of each
(encephalitis). HSV-1 is commonly associated lateral ventricle of the brain that consists
with herpes outbreaks of the face known as mainly of grey matter.
cold sores or fever blisters, whereas HSV-2 is Hirsutism A condition where women have
more often associated with genital herpes. excess facial and body hair that is dark and
They are also called human herpes virus 1 and coarse.
2 (HHV-1 and HHV-2) and are neurotropic Histaminergic Liberated or activated by hista-
and neuroinvasive viruses; they enter and hide mine, relating to the effects of histamine at
in the human nervous system, accounting for histamine receptors of target tissues.
their durability in the human body. Histaminergic Receptors Are types of G protein-
Herpes Zoster Or simply zoster, commonly coupled receptors with histamine as their
known as shingles and also known as zona, is endogenous ligand.
a viral disease characterized by a painful skin Histone Acetyltransferases (HAT) Are
rash with blisters. enzymes that acetylate conserved lysine
Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus (HZO) Is a viral amino acids on histone proteins by transfer-
ocular disease characterized by a painful skin ring an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to form
rash in one or more dermatome distributions e-N-acetyl lysine. HATs act as transcriptional
of the fifth cranial nerve, shared by the eye and co-activators.
orbit. Histone Lysine Demethylases (KDMs)
Heterophobia Term used to describe irrational Enzymes that play a key role in the amplifica-
fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against tion of hypoxia-inducible-factor signalling
heterosexuals. and expression of pro-angiogenic genes in
HDL-C (HDL Cholesterol) High-density lipo- cancer and neurological disorders.
protein cholesterol, also called ‘good choles- HIV See human immunodeficiency virus.
terol’. See also high-density lipoprotein. Hives Urticaria, is a skin rash characterized by
HGPRT, HPRT (Hypoxanthine–Guanine circular wheals of reddened and itching skin.
Phosphoribosyl Transferase) An enzyme that HLA Human leukocyte antigen system, name of
catalyses the conversion of 5-phosphoribosyl-1- the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
pyrophosphate and hypoxanthine, guanine or in humans.
6-mercaptopurine to the corresponding 5′-mono- HLA-DQB1 human leucocyte antigen beta
nucleotides and pyrophosphate. The enzyme is chain.
important in purine biosynthesis as well as cen- HLA-DR A major histocompatibility complex
tral nervous system functions. (MHC) class II cell surface receptor encoded
Hiatus Hernia Occurs when the upper part of by the human leukocyte antigen complex on
the stomach pushes its way through a tear in chromosome 6 region 6p21.31.
the diaphragm. HMG-CoAr 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA
High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) Is one of the reductase or (HMGCR) is the rate-controlling
five major groups of lipoproteins which enable enzyme (EC 1.1.1.88) of the mevalonate
cholesterol and triglycerides to be transported pathway.
within the water-based bloodstream. HDL can HMG-CoA 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme
remove cholesterol from atheroma within A, an intermediate in the mevalonate pathway.
arteries and transport it back to the liver Hodgkin’s Disease Disease characterized by
for excretion or re-utilization—which is the enlargement of the lymph glands, spleen and
main reason why HDL-bound cholesterol is anaemia.
Medical Glossary 913

Homeodomain Transcription Factor A protein HT29 Cells Are human intestinal epithelial
domain encoded by a homeobox. Homeobox cells which produce the secretory component
genes encode transcription factors which typi- of Immunoglobulin A (IgA) and carcinoem-
cally switch on cascades of other genes. bryonic antigen (CEA).
Homeostasis The maintenance of a constant Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) A DNA
internal environment of a cell or an organism, herpes virus which is the leading cause of con-
despite fluctuations in the external. genital viral infection and mental retardation.
Homeotherapy Treatment or prevention of dis- Human Factor X A coagulation factor also
ease with a substance similar but not identical known by the eponym Stuart-Prower factor or
to the causative agent of the disease. as thrombokinase, is an enzyme involved in
Homocysteine An amino acid in the blood. blood coagulation. It synthesized in the liver
Homograft See allograft. and requires vitamin K for its synthesis.
Hormesis A term used by toxicologists to refer Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) A ret-
to a biphasic dose response to an environmen- rovirus that can lead to acquired immunodefi-
tal agent characterized by a low dose stimula- ciency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in
tion or beneficial effect and a high dose humans in which the immune system begins
inhibitory or toxic effect. to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunis-
Hormonal (Female) Substance that has a hor- tic infections.
mone-like effect similar to that of estrogen Humoral Immune Response (HIR) Is the aspect
and/or a substance used to normalize female of immunity that is mediated by secreted
hormone levels. antibodies (as opposed to cell-mediated immu-
Hormonal (Male) Substance that has a hormone- nity, which involves T lymphocytes) produced
like effect similar to that of testosterone and/ in the cells of the B lymphocyte lineage (B cell).
or a substance used to normalize male hor- HUVEC Human umbilical vein endothelial cells.
mone levels. Hyaluronidase Enzymes that catalyse the hydro-
HRT Hormone replacement therapy, the admin- lysis of certain complex carbohydrates like
istration of the female hormones, estrogen and hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulphates.
progesterone and sometimes testosterone. Hydatidiform A rare mass or growth that
HSF-1 Factor Major regulator of heat shock forms inside the uterus at the beginning of a
protein transcription in eukaryotes. pregnancy.
HSP27 Is an ATP-independent, 27 kDa heat Hydrocholeretic An agent that stimulates an
shock protein chaperone that confers protec- increased output of bile of low specific gravity.
tion against apoptosis. Hydrocoele Abnormal accumulation of fluid
HSP70 Heat shock protein chaperone that con- inside the scrotum.
fers protection against heat-induced apoptosis. Hydrogogue A purgative that causes an abun-
HSP90 A 90 kDa heat shock protein chaperone dant watery discharge from the bowel.
that has the ability to regulate a specific subset Hydronephrosis Is distension and dilation of
of cellular signalling proteins that have been the renal pelvis and calyces, usually caused by
implicated in disease processes. obstruction of the free flow of urine from the
HSPD 1 Heat shock 60 kDa protein 1 kidney.
hTERT—(TERT) Telomerase reverse tran- Hydrophobia A viral neuroinvasive disease that
scriptase is a catalytic subunit of the enzyme causes acute encephalitis (inflammation of the
telomerase in humans. It exerts a novel protec- brain) in warm-blooded animals, also called
tive function by binding to mitochondrial rabies.
DNA, increasing respiratory chain activity Hydropsy See dropsy.
and protecting against oxidative stress- Hydrothorax Accumulation of serous fluid in
induced damage. the pleural cavity.
914 Medical Glossary

Hyperaemia The increase of blood flow to dif- Hypermethylation An increase in the inherited
ferent tissues in the body. methylation of cytosine and adenosine residues
Hyperalgesia An increased sensitivity to pain in DNA.
(enhanced pricking pain), which may be Hyperoxaluria An excessive urinary excretion
caused by damage to nociceptors or peripheral of oxalate.
nerves. Hyperphagia Or polyphagia, abnormally large
Hyperaemia Is the increased blood flow that ingestion of food beyond that needed for basic
occurs when tissue is active. energy requirements.
Hyperammonemia, Hyperammonaemia A Hyperpiesia Persistent and pathological high
metabolic disturbance characterized by an blood pressure for which no specific cause can
excess of ammonia in the blood. be found.
Hypercalciuria (Idiopathic) Presence of excess Hyperplasia Increased cell production in a nor-
calcium in the urine without obvious cause. mal tissue or organ.
Hypercholesterolaemia High levels of choles- Hyperprebeta- Lipoproteinaemia Increased
terol in the blood that increase a person’s risk concentrations of pre-beta-lipoproteins in the
for cardiovascular disease leading to stroke or blood.
heart attack. Hyperpropulsion Using water pressure as a
Hyperemesis Severe and persistent nausea force to move objects; used to dislodge calculi
and vomiting (morning sickness) during in the urethra.
pregnancy. Hyperpyrexia Is an abnormally high fever.
Hyperfibrinogenaemia Excessive fibrinogen in Hypertension Commonly referred to as ‘high
the blood. blood pressure’ or HTN, is a medical condition
Hyperglycaemia Hyperglycaemic High blood in which the arterial blood pressure is chroni-
sugar, is a condition in which an excessive cally elevated.
amount of glucose circulates in the blood Hypertensive Characterized or caused by
plasma. increased tension or pressure as abnormally
Hyperglycaemic A substance that raises blood high blood pressure.
sugar levels. Hypertonia Abnormal increase in muscle tension
Hyperhomocysteinaemia Is a medical condi- and a reduced ability of the muscle to stretch.
tion characterized by an abnormally large Hypertriglyceridaemia or Hypertriglycaemia
level of homocysteine in the blood. A disorder that causes high triglycerides in the
Hyperinsulinaemia A condition in which there blood.
are excess levels of circulating insulin in the Hypertrophy Enlargement or overgrowth of an
blood; also known as prediabetes. organ.
Hyperkalaemia Is an elevated blood level of Hyperuricaemia Is a condition characterized by
the electrolyte potassium. abnormally high level of uric acid in the blood.
Hyperkeratosis Abnormal thickening of the Hypoadiponectinaemia The state of having too
outer layer of the skin. adj. hyperkeratotic. low level of adiponectin, a major metabolic
Hyperkinesis Enhanced itch to pricking. endocrine, responsible for regulating things
Hyperleptinaemia Increased serum leptin level. like glucose uptake and lipolysis (the break-
Hyperlipoproteinaemia A metabolic disorder down of fat deposits); low adiponectin, is a
characterized by abnormally elevated concen- risk factor for both type II diabetes and meta-
trations of lipid/lipoprotein in the plasma, also bolic syndrome.
known as hyperlipidaemia and hyperlipaemia. Hypoalbuminaemia A medical condition
Hypermenorrhoea Abnormally heavy or pro- where levels of albumin in blood serum are
longed menstruation. abnormally low.
Medical Glossary 915

Hypocalcaemic Tetany A disease caused by an IC50 The median maximal inhibitory concen-
abnormally low level of calcium in the blood tration; a measure of the effectiveness of a
and characterized by hyperexcitability of the compound in inhibiting biological or bio-
neuromuscular system and results in carpo- chemical function.
pedal spasms. I.C.V. (Intra-cerebroventricular) Injection of
Hypochlorhydria Refers to states where the chemical into the right lateral ventricle of the
production of gastric acid in the stomach is brain.
absent or low. Iceterus Jaundice, yellowish pigmentation of
Hypocholesterolaemic Cholesterol reducer, a the skin.
substance that lowers blood cholesterol levels. Ichthyotoxic A substance which is poisonous to
Hypocitraturia Low amount of citrate in the fish.
urine, an important risk factor for kidney stone Icteric Hepatitis An infectious syndrome of
formation. hepatitis characterized by jaundice, nausea,
Hypocorticism See Addison’s disease. fever, right-upper quadrant pain, enlarged
Hypocortisolism See Addison’s disease. liver and transaminitis (increase in alanine
Hypoesthesia Or hypesthesia, refers to a aminotransferase (ALT) and/or aspartate ami-
reduced sense of touch or sensation, or a par- notransferase (AST)).
tial loss of sensitivity to sensory stimuli. Icterus Neonatorum Jaundice in newborn
Hypoglycemic An agent that lowers the con- infants.
centration of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Idiopathic Of no apparent physical cause.
Hypoperfusion Decreased blood flow through an Idiopathic Mesenteric Phlebosclerosis (IMP)
organ, characterized by an imbalance of oxygen A rare disease, characterized by thickening of
demand and oxygen delivery to tissues. the wall of the right hemicolon with calcifica-
Hypophagic Under-eating. tion of mesenteric veins.
Hypospadias An abnormal birth defect in males Idiopathic Sudden Sensorineural Hearing
in which the urethra opens on the under sur- Loss (ISSHL) Is a sudden hearing loss where
face of the penis. clinical assessment fails to reveal a cause.
Hypotensive Characterized by or causing I.g. Gastric intubation, insertion of Levin tube
diminished tension or pressure, as abnormally through the nasal passage to the stomach.
low blood pressure. IgE Immunoglobin E, a class of antibody that
Hypothermia A condition in which an organ- plays a role in allergy.
ism’s temperature drops below that required IGFs Insulin-like growth factors, polypeptides
for normal metabolism and body functions. with high sequence similarity to insulin.
Hypothermic Relating to hypothermia, with IgG Immunoglobin G, the most abundant
subnormal body temperature. immunoglobin (antibody) and is one of
Hypoxaemia Is the reduction of oxygen specifi- the major activators of the complement
cally in the blood. pathway.
Hypoxia A shortage of oxygen in the body. adj. IgM Immunoglobin M, primary antibody
hypoxic. against A and B antigens on red blood cells.
Hypoxia-Inducible Factors (HIFs) Transcription IKAP Is a scaffold protein of the IvarKappaBeta
factors that respond to changes in available kinase complex and a regulator for kinases
oxygen in the cellular environment, specifi- involved in pro-inflammatory cytokine
cally to deficiency in oxygen. signalling.
ICAM-1 (Inter-Cellular Adhesion Molecule 1) IKappa B Or IkB-beta, a protein of the
Also known as CD54 (cluster of differentia- NF-Kappa-B inhibitor family.
tion 54), is a protein that in humans is encoded Ileus A temporary disruption of intestinal peri-
by the ICAM1 gene. stalsis due to non-mechanical causes.
916 Medical Glossary

Immune Modulator A substance that affects or Induration Hardened, as a soft tissue that
modulates the functioning of the immune becomes extremely firm, sclerosis.
system. Infarct An area of living tissue that undergoes
Immunodeficiency A state in which the necrosis as a result of obstruction of local
immune system’s ability to fight infectious blood supply.
disease is compromised or entirely absent. Infarction Is the process of tissue death (necrosis)
Immunogenicity The property enabling a sub- caused by blockage of the tissue’s blood
stance to provoke an immune response. adj. supply.
immunogenic. Inflammation A protective response of the
Immunoglobulin Class Switching Ig Class body to infection, irritation or other injuries,
Switching A biological mechanism that aimed at destroying or isolating the injuries
changes a B cell’s production of antibody and characterized by redness, pain, warmth
from one class to another. and swelling.
Immunomodulatory Capable of modifying or Influenza A viral infection that affects mainly the
regulating one or more immune functions. nose, throat, bronchi and occasionally lungs.
Immunoreactive Reacting to particular anti- Infusion A liquid extract obtained by steeping
gens or haptens. something (e.g. herbs) that are more volatile
Immunostimulant Agent that stimulates an or dissolve readily in water to release their
immune response. active ingredients without boiling.
Immunosuppression Involves a process that Inguinal Hernia A hernia into the inguinal
reduces the activation or efficacy of the canal of the groin.
immune system. Inhalant A medicinal substance that is adminis-
Immunotoxin A man-made protein that con- tered as a vapour into the upper respiratory
sists of a targeting portion linked to a toxin. passages.
Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT) A pre- iNOS, Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthases
diabetic state of dysglycaemia associated Through its product, nitric oxide (NO), may
with insulin resistance, increased risk of contribute to the induction of germ cell
cardiovascular pathology and also a risk factor apoptosis. It plays a crucial role in early
for mortality. sepsis-related microcirculatory dysfunction.
Impetigo A contagious, bacterial skin infec- Inotropic Affecting the force of muscle
tion characterized by blisters that may contraction.
itch, caused by a Streptococcus bacterium or Insecticide An agent that destroys insects. adj.
Staphylococcus aureus and mostly seen in insecticidal.
children. Insomnia A sleeping disorder characterized by
Impotence A sexual dysfunction characterized the inability to fall asleep and/or the inability
by the inability to develop or maintain an erec- to remain asleep for a reasonable amount of
tion of the penis. time.
Incontinence (Fecal) The inability to control Insulin A peptide hormone composed of 51
bowel’s movement. amino acids produced in the islets of
Incontinence (Urine) The inability to control Langerhans in the pancreas causes cells in the
urine excretion. liver, muscle and fat tissue to take up glucose
Incretin A group of gastrointestinal hormones from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the
that cause an increase in the amount of insulin liver and muscle. Insulin deficiency is often
released from the beta cells of the islets of the cause of diabetes and exogenous insulin is
Langerhans after a meal; members include used to control diabetes.
GIP and GLP-1. Insulin Homeostasis Blood sugar regulation.
Index of Structural Atypia (ISA) Index of Insulin-Like Growth Factors (IGFs) Polypep-
structural abnormality. tides with high sequence similarity to insulin.
Medical Glossary 917

They are part of a complex system that cells Interleukin-6 (IL-6) An interleukin that acts as
employ to communicate with their physio- both a pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory
logical environment. cytokine.
Insulin-Mimetic To act like insulin. Interleukin 8 (I-8) A cytokine produced by
Insulin Resistance A condition where the natu- macrophages and other cell types such as epi-
ral hormone insulin becomes less effective at thelial cells and is one of the major mediators
reducing blood sugars. of the inflammatory response.
Insulinogenic Associated with or stimulating Intermediate-Density Lipoproteins (IDL) Is
the production of insulin. one of the five major groups of lipoproteins
Insulinotropic Stimulating or affecting the pro- (chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL and HDL)
duction and activity of insulin. that enable fats and cholesterol to move within
Integrase An enzyme produced by a retrovirus the water-based solution of the bloodstream.
(such as HIV) that enables its genetic material IDL is further degraded to form LDL particles
to be integrated into the DNA of the infected and, like LDL, can also promote the growth of
cell. atheroma and increase cardiovascular diseases.
Interferons (IFNs) Are natural cell signalling Intermittent Claudication An aching, crampy,
glycoproteins known as cytokines produced tired and sometimes burning pain in the legs
by the cells of the immune system of most ver- that comes and goes, caused by peripheral
tebrates in response to challenges such as vascular disease. It usually occurs with walking
viruses, parasites and tumour cells. and disappears after rest.
Interleukins A group of naturally occurring Interoceptive Relating to stimuli arising from
proteins and is a subset of a larger group of within the body.
cellular messenger molecules called cyto- Interstitial Pertaining to the interstitium.
kines, which are modulators of cellular Interstitium The space between cells in a
behaviour. tissue.
Interleukin-1 (IL-1) A cytokine that could Intertrigo An inflammation (rash) caused by
induce fever, control lymphocytes, increase microbial infection in skin folds.
the number of bone marrow cells and cause Intima Innermost layer of an artery or vein.
degeneration of bone joints. Also called Intimal Hyperplasia The thickening of the
endogenous pyrogen, lymphocyte activating tunica intima of a blood vessel as a complica-
factor, haemopoetin-1 and mononuclear cell tion of a reconstruction procedure.
factor, among others. IL-1 is composed of two Intoxicant Substance that produces drunkenness
distinct proteins, now called IL-1α and IL-1β. or intoxication.
Interleukin 1 Beta (IL-1β) A cytokine protein Intracavernosal Within the corpus cavernosum,
produced by activated macrophages. Cytokine columns of erectile tissues forming the body
is an important mediator of the inflammatory of the penis.
response and is involved in a variety of cellular Intraperitoneal (i.p.) The term used when a
activities, including cell proliferation, differ- chemical is contained within or administered
entiation and apoptosis. through the peritoneum (the thin, transparent
Interleukin 2 (IL-2) A type of cytokine immune membrane that lines the walls of the
system signalling molecule that is instrumen- abdomen).
tal in the body’s natural response to microbial Intrathecal (i.t.) Through the theca of the spinal
infection. cord into the subarachnoid space.
Interleukin-2 Receptor (IL-2R) A heterotri- Intromission The act of putting one thing into
meric protein expressed on the surface of cer- another.
tain immune cells, such as lymphocytes, that Intubation Refers to the placement of a tube
binds and responds to a cytokine called IL-2. into an external or internal orifice of the body.
918 Medical Glossary

Iodine (I) Is an essential chemical element that Jaundice Refers to the yellow colour of the skin
is important for hormone development in the and whites of the eyes caused by excess biliru-
human body. Lack of iodine can lead to an bin in the blood.
enlarged thyroid gland (goitre) or other iodine JNK Jun N-terminal kinase, also known as
deficiency disorders including mental retarda- stress activated protein kinase (SAPK),
tion and stunted growth in babies and children. belongs to the family of MAP kinases.
Iodine is found in dairy products, seafood, Jurkat Cells A line of T lymphocyte cells that
kelp, seaweeds, eggs, some vegetables and are used to study acute T cell leukaemia.
iodized salt. Kainate Receptors Or KARs, are non-NMDA
IP See intraperitoneal. (N-methyl-D-aspartate) ionotropic receptors
IP3R3 Inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor type 3, which respond to the neurotransmitter
is an intracellular calcium release channel that glutamate.
mediates calcium release from the endoplasmic Kaliuresis The presence of excess potassium in
reticulum. the urine.
Iron (Fe) Is essential to most life forms and to Kallikreins Peptidases (enzymes that cleave
normal human physiology. In humans, iron is peptide bonds in proteins), a subgroup of the
an essential component of proteins involved in serine protease family; they liberate kinins
oxygen transport and for haemoglobin. It is from kininogens. Kallikreins are targets of
also essential for the regulation of cell growth active investigation by drug researchers as
and differentiation. A deficiency of iron limits possible biomarkers for cancer.
oxygen delivery to cells, resulting in fatigue, Kaposi Sarcoma A cancerous tumour of the
poor work performance and decreased immu- connective tissues caused by the human her-
nity. Conversely, excess amounts of iron can pesvirus 8 and is often associated with AIDS.
result in toxicity and even death. Dietary Kaposi Sarcoma Herpes Virus (KSHV) Also
sources include certain cereals, dark green known as human herpesvirus 8, is a gamma 2
leafy vegetables, dried fruit, legumes, seafood, herpesvirus or rhadinovirus. It plays an impor-
poultry and meat. tant role in the pathogenesis of Kaposi sarcoma
Ischaemia An insufficient supply of blood to an (KS), multicentric Castleman disease (MCD)
organ, usually due to a blocked artery. of the plasma cell type and primary effusion
Ischuria Retention or suppression of urine. lymphoma and occurs in HIV patients.
Isoflavones A subgroup of flavonoids in which Karyolysis Dissolution and disintegration of the
the basic structure is a 3-phenyl chromane nucleus when a cell dies.
skeleton. They act as phytoestrogens in mam- Karyorrhexis Destructive fragmentation of the
mals. See flavonoids. nucleus of a dying cell whereby its chromatin
Isomers Substances that are composed of the disintegrates into formless granules.
same elements in the same proportions and KB Cell A cell line derived from a human carci-
hence have the same molecular formula but noma of the nasopharynx, used as an assay for
differ in properties because of differences in antineoplastic (antitumour) agents.
the arrangement of atoms. Keloids Benign dermal tumours characterized
Isoprostanes Unique prostaglandin-like com- by fibroblastic proliferation and excessive
pounds generated in vivo from the free radical accumulation of collagen.
catalysed peroxidation of essential fatty acids. Keratin A sulphur-containing protein which is a
Jamu Traditional Indonesian herbal medicine. major component in skin, hair, nails, hooves,
Janus Kinase (JAK)-Signal Transducer and horns and teeth.
Activator of Transcription (STAT) Keratinocyte Is the major constituent of the
Signalling Are essential molecules in cyto- epidermis, constituting 95 % of the cells found
kine signal transduction pathways involved in there.
cancer development and progression. Keratinophilic Having an affinity for keratin.
Medical Glossary 919

Keratitis Inflammation of the cornea. Laminin A glycoprotein component of connec-

Keratolysis Softening and separation of the tive tissue basement membrane that promotes
horny layer of the epidermis. cell adhesion.
Keratolytic Pertaining to keratolysis. Laparotomy A surgical procedure involving an
Keratomalacia An eye disorder that leads to a incision through the abdominal wall to gain
dry cornea. access into the abdominal cavity. adj.
Kidney Stones Calculi, are hardened mineral laparotomized.
deposits that form in the kidney. Larvicidal An agent which kills insect or para-
Kinin Is any of various structurally related poly- site larva.
peptides, such as bradykinin, that act locally Laryngitis Is an inflammation of the larynx.
to induce vasodilation and contraction of Laxation Bowel movement.
smooth muscle. Laxatives Substances that are used to promote
Kininogen Either of two plasma α2-globulins bowel movement.
that are kinin precursors. LC 50 Median lethal concentration, see LD 50.
Ki-67 Human protein associated with cell LD 50 Median lethal dose, the dose required to kill
proliferation. half the members of a tested population, also
Knockout Gene knockout is a genetic technique called LC 50 (median lethal concentration).
in which an organism is engineered to carry LDL See low-density lipoprotein.
genes that have been made inoperative. LDL Cholesterol See low-density lipoprotein.
Kunitz Protease Inhibitors A type of protein LDL Receptor (LDLr) A low-density lipopro-
contained in legume seeds which functions as tein receptor gene.
a protease inhibitor. Lectins Are sugar-binding proteins that are
Kupffer Cells Are resident macrophages of the highly specific for their sugar moieties that
liver and play an important role in its normal agglutinate cells and/or precipitate glyco-
physiology and homeostasis as well as partici- conjugates. They play a role in biological
pating in the acute and chronic responses of recognition phenomena involving cells and
the liver to toxic compounds. proteins.
L-Dopa L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, is an Leishmaniasis A disease caused by protozoan
amino acid that is formed in the liver and con- parasites that belong to the genus Leishmania
verted into dopamine in the brain. and is transmitted by the bite of certain spe-
Labour Process of childbirth involving muscu- cies of sand fly.
lar contractions. Lenitive Palliative, easing pain or discomfort.
Lacrimation Secretion and discharge of tears. Lenticular Opacity Also known as or related to
Lactagogue An agent that increases or stimu- cataract.
lates milk flow or production, also called a Leprosy A chronic bacterial disease of the skin
galactagogue. and nerves in the hands and feet and, in some
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) Enzyme that cases, the lining of the nose. It is caused by the
catalyses the conversion of lactate to Mycobacterium leprae, also called Hansen’s
pyruvate. disease.
Lactation Secretion and production of milk. Leptin Is a 16 kDa protein hormone with impor-
Lactic Acidosis Is a condition caused by the tant effects in regulating body weight, metab-
buildup of lactic acid in the body. It leads to olism and reproductive function.
acidification of the blood (acidosis) and is Lequesne Algofunctional Index Is a wide-
considered a distinct form of metabolic spread international instrument (10 questions
acidosis. survey) and recommended by the World
LAK Cell A lymphokine-activated killer cell, Health Organization (WHO) for outcome
i.e. a white blood cell that has been stimulated measurement in hip and knee diseases such as
to kill tumour cells. osteoarthritis.
920 Medical Glossary

Leucocyte White blood corpuscles, colourless, Limbic System Complex set of brain structures,
without haemoglobin that help to combat including the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippo-
infection. campus, anterior thalamic nuclei, septum, lim-
Leucoderma A skin abnormality characterized bic cortex and fornix that control various
by white spots, bands and patches on the skin; functions such as emotion, behaviour, motiva-
they can also be caused by fungus and tinea, tion, memory and olfaction.
also see vitiligo. Liniment Liquid preparation rubbed on skin,
Leucorrhoea Commonly known as whites, used to relieve muscular aches and pains.
refers to a whitish discharge from the female Linterized Starch Starch that has undergone
genitals. prolonged acid treatment.
Leukemia, Leukaemia A cancer of the blood Lipodiatic Having lipid and lipoprotein lower-
or bone marrow and is characterized by an ing property.
abnormal proliferation (production by multi- Lipodystrophy A medical condition character-
plication) of blood cells, usually white blood ized by abnormal or degenerative conditions
cells (leukocytes). of the body’s adipose tissue.
Leukemogenic Relating to leukaemia, causing Lipogenesis Is the process by which acetyl-
leukaemia. CoA is converted to fats.
Leukocytopenia Abnormal decrease in the Lipolysis Is the breakdown of fat stored in fat
number of leukocytes (white blood cells) in cells in the body.
the blood. Liposomes Artificially prepared vesicles made
Leukocytosis Increase in white blood cell count of lipid bilayer.
above its normal range. Lipotoxicity Refers to tissue diseases that may
Leukomyelopathy Any diseases involving the occur when fatty acids spill over in excess of
white matter of the spinal cord. the oxidative needs of those tissues and
Leukopenia A decrease in the number of circu- enhance the metabolic flux into harmful path-
lating white blood cells. ways of nonoxidative metabolism.
Leukoplakia Condition characterized by white Lipotropic Refers to compounds that help
spots or patches on mucous membranes, espe- catalyse the breakdown of fat during
cially of the mouth and vulva. metabolism in the body, e.g. chlorine and
Leukotriene A group of hormones that cause lecithin.
the inflammatory symptoms of hay fever and Lipoxygenase A family of iron-containing
asthma. enzymes that catalyse the dioxygenation of
Levarterenol See norepinephrine. polyunsaturated fatty acids in lipids contain-
LexA Repressor Or repressor LexA, is a repres- ing a cis,cis-1,4-pentadiene structure.
sor enzyme that represses SOS response genes Lithiasis Formation of urinary calculi (stones)
coding for DNA polymerases required for in the renal system (kidneys, ureters, urinary
repairing DNA damage. bladder, urethra) can be of any one of several
Leydig Cells Also called interstitial cells of compositions.
Leydig, are found adjacent to the seminiferous Lithogenic Promoting the formation of calculi
tubules in the testicle. They produce testoster- (stones).
one in response to luteinizing hormone. Lithontriptic Removes stones from kidney, gall
Libido Sexual urge. bladder.
Lichen Planus A chronic mucocutaneous dis- Liver X Receptors Nuclear hormones that
ease that affects the skin, tongue and oral function as central transcriptional regulators
mucosa. for lipid homeostasis.
Ligroin A volatile, inflammable fraction of Lotion A liquid suspension or dispersion of
petroleum, obtained by distillation and used as chemicals for external application to the body.
a solvent. Lovo Cells Colon cancer cells.
Medical Glossary 921

Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Is a type of Lymphadenitis The inflammation or enlarge-

lipoprotein that transports cholesterol and ment of a lymph node caused by microbial
triglycerides from the liver to the peripheral infection.
tissues. High levels of LDL cholesterol can Lymphadenitis, Cervical Inflammation of the
signal medical problems like cardiovascular lymph nodes in the neck, usually caused by an
disease, and it is sometimes called ‘bad infection.
cholesterol’. Lymphadenomegaly Is the enlargement of the
LRP1 Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related lymph node/nodes.
protein-1, plays a role in intracellular signal- Lymphadenopathy A term meaning ‘disease of
ling functions as well as in lipid metabolism. the lymph nodes’, lymph node enlargement.
LTB4 A type of leukotriene, a major metabolite Lymphatitis Inflammation of lymph vessels
in neutrophil polymorphonuclear leukocytes. and nodes.
It stimulates polymorphonuclear cell function Lymphoblastic Pertaining to the production of
(degranulation, formation of oxygen-centred lymphocytes.
free radicals, arachidonic acid release and Lymphocyte A small white blood cell (leuco-
metabolism). It induces skin inflammation. cyte) that plays a large role in defending the
Luciferase Is a generic name for enzymes com- body against disease. Lymphocytes are
monly used in nature for bioluminescence. responsible for immune responses. There are
Lumbago Is the term used to describe general two main types of lymphocytes: B cells and T
lower back pain. cells. Lymphocytes secrete products (lympho-
Lung Abscess Necrosis of the pulmonary kines) that modulate the functional activities
tissue and formation of cavities containing of many other types of cells and are often
necrotic debris or fluid caused by microbial present at sites of chronic inflammation.
infections. Lymphocyte B Cells The B cells make antibod-
Lusitropic An agent that affects diastolic ies that attack bacteria and toxins.
relaxation. Lymphocyte T Cells T cells attack body cells
Lutein A carotenoid, occurs naturally as yellow themselves when they have been taken over by
or orange pigment in some fruits and leafy viruses or have become cancerous.
vegetables. It is one of the two carotenoids Lymphoma A type of cancer involving cells of
contained within the retina of the eye. Within the immune system, called lymphocytes.
the central macula, zeaxanthin predominates, Lymphopenia Abnormally low number of lym-
whereas in the peripheral retina, lutein pre- phocytes in the blood.
dominates. Lutein is necessary for good vision Lysosomes Are small, spherical organelles con-
and may also help prevent or slow down ath- taining digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases)
erosclerosis, the thickening of arteries, which and other proteases (cathepsins).
is a major risk for cardiovascular disease. Maceration Softening or separation of parts by
Luteinising Hormone (LH) A hormone pro- soaking in a liquid.
duced by the anterior pituitary gland. In Macrophage A type of large leukocyte that
females, it triggers ovulation. In males, it travels in the blood but can leave the blood-
stimulates the production of testosterone to stream and enter tissue; like other leukocytes
aid sperm maturation. it protects the body by digesting debris and
Luteolysis Degeneration of the corpus luteum foreign cells.
and ovarian luteinized tissues at the end of the Macular Degeneration A disease that gradu-
luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual ally destroys the macula, the central portion of
cycles in the absence of pregnancy. adj. the retina, reducing central vision.
luteolytic. Macules Small circumscribed changes in the
Luteotropic Stimulating the formation of the colour of skin that are neither raised (elevated)
corpus luteum. nor depressed.
922 Medical Glossary

Maculopapular Describes a rash characterized processes. Manganese superoxide dismutase

by raised, spotted lesions. (MnSOD) is the principal antioxidant enzyme
Magnesium (Mg) Is the fourth most abundant in the mitochondria. Manganese-activated
mineral in the body and is essential to good enzymes play important roles in the metabo-
health. It is important for normal muscle and lism of carbohydrates, amino acids and cho-
nerve function, steady heart rhythm, immune lesterol. Manganese is the preferred cofactor
system and strong bones. Magnesium also of enzymes called glycosyltransferases which
helps regulate blood sugar levels, promotes are required for the synthesis of proteoglycans
normal blood pressure and is known to be that are needed for the formation of healthy
involved in energy metabolism and protein cartilage and bone. Dietary source include
synthesis and plays a role in preventing and whole grains, fruit, legumes (soybean and
managing disorders such as hypertension, car- by-products), green leafy vegetables, beetroot
diovascular disease and diabetes. Dietary and tea.
sources include legumes (e.g. soya bean and MAO Activity Monoamine oxidase activity.
by-products), nuts, whole unrefined grains, MAPK (Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase)
fruit (e.g. banana, apricots), okra and green These kinases are strongly activated in cells
leafy vegetables. subjected to osmotic stress, UV radiation,
MAK Cell Macrophage-activated killer cell, dysregulated K+ currents, RNA-damaging
activated macrophage that is much more agents and a multitude of other stresses, as
phagocytic than monocytes. well as inflammatory cytokines, endotoxin
Malaise A feeling of weakness, lethargy or dis- and withdrawal of a trophic factor. The stress-
comfort as of impending illness. responsive MAPKs mediate a plethora of
Malaria Is an infection of the blood by cellular responses to such stressful stimuli,
Plasmodium parasite that is carried from per- including apoptosis and production of inflam-
son to person by mosquitoes. There are four matory and immunoregulatory cytokines in
species of malaria parasites that infect man: diverse cell systems.
Plasmodium falciparum, so called ‘malignant Marasmus Is one of the three forms of serious
tertian fever’, is the most serious disease; protein-energy malnutrition.
Plasmodium vivax, causing a relapsing form Mastectomy Surgery to remove a breast.
of the disease, Plasmodium malariae; and Masticatory A substance chewed to increase
Plasmodium ovale. salivation, also called sialogue.
Malassezia A fungal genus (previously known Mastitis A bacterial infection of the breast which
as Pityrosporum) classified as yeasts, natu- usually occurs in breastfeeding mothers.
rally found on the skin surfaces of many Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMP) A member
animals including humans. It can cause of a group of enzymes that can break down
hypopigmentation on the chest or back if it proteins, such as collagen, that are normally
becomes an opportunistic infection. found in the spaces between cells in tissues
Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (i.e. extracellular matrix proteins). Matrix
(mTOR) Pathway that regulates mitochon- metalloproteinases are involved in wound
drial oxygen consumption and oxidative healing, angiogenesis and tumour cell metas-
capacity. tasis. See also metalloproteinase.
Mammogram An x-ray of the breast to detect MBC Minimum bacterial concentration, the
tumours. lowest concentration of antibiotic required to
Mandibular Relating to the mandible, the kill an organism.
human jaw bone. MCP-1 Monocyte chemotactic protein-1, plays
Manganese Is an essential element for heath. It is a role in the recruitment of monocytes to sites
an important constituent of some enzymes and of infection and injury. It is a member of small
an activator of other enzymes in physiological inducible gene (SIG) family.
Medical Glossary 923

MDA Malondialdehyde is one of the most fre- Mesangial Cells Are specialized cells around
quently used indicators of lipid peroxidation. blood vessels in the kidneys, at the mesangium.
Measles An acute, highly communicable rash Mesothelioma Is an aggressive cancer affecting
illness due to a virus transmitted by direct the membrane lining of the lungs and abdomen.
contact with infectious droplets or, less com- Meta-analysis A statistical procedure that com-
monly, by airborne spread. bines the results of several studies that address
Mechanonociceptors Sensory neurons that are a set of related research hypotheses.
mechanically sensitive found in all of the para- Metabolic Syndrome (MetS) Represents a
spinal connective tissues including ligament, combination of cardiometabolic risk factors,
joint capsule, annulus fibrosus of the interverte- including visceral obesity, glucose intolerance
bral disc, muscle, tendon and skin. They respond or type 2 diabetes, elevated triglycerides,
to a noxious (damaging) mechanical load. reduced HDL cholesterol and hypertension.
Medial Preoptic Area Is located at the rostral Metabolomics Is the scientific study of chemi-
end of the hypothalamus; it is important for cal processes involving metabolites.
the regulation of male sexual behaviour. Metabonome Complete set of metabologically
Megaloblastic Anaemia An anaemia that regulated elements in cells.
results from inhibition of DNA synthesis in Metalloproteinase Enzymes that breakdown
red blood cell production, often due to a proteins and requiring zinc or calcium atoms
deficiency of vitamin B12 or folate and is for proper function.
characterized by many large immature and Metallothionein (MT) A family of cysteine-
dysfunctional red blood cells (megaloblasts) rich, low molecular weight (500–14,000 Da)
in the bone marrow. proteins.
Melaena (Melena) Refers to the black, ‘tarry’ Metaphysis Is the portion of a long bone between
feces that are associated with gastrointestinal the epiphyses and the diaphysis of the femur.
haemorrhage. Metaphyseal Pertaining to the metaphysis.
Melanogenesis Production of melanin by living Metaplasia Transformation of one type of one
cells. mature differentiated cell type into another
Melanoma Malignant tumour of melanocytes mature differentiated cell type.
which are found predominantly in skin but Metastasis Is the movement or spreading of
also in the bowel and the eye and appear as cancer cells from one organ or tissue to
pigmented lesions. another.
Melatonin A hormone produced in the brain by Metestrus The quiescent period of sexual inac-
the pineal gland; it is important in the regula- tivity between oestrus cycles.
tion of the circadian rhythms of several bio- Metropathy Any disease of the uterus espe-
logical functions. cially of the myometrium.
Menarche The first menstrual cycle, or first Metroptosis The slipping or falling out of place
menstrual bleeding, in female human beings. of an organ (as the uterus).
Menorrhagia Heavy or prolonged menstruation, Metrorrhagia Uterine bleeding at irregular
too frequent menstrual periods. intervals, particularly between the expected
Menopausal Refers to permanent cessation of menstrual periods.
menstruation. Mevinolin A potent inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-
Menorrhagia Is heavy bleeding and that’s usu- 3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase
ally defined as periods lasting longer than 7 (HMG-CoA reductase).
days or excessive bleeding. MHC Acronym for major histocompatibility
Menses See menstruation. complex, a large cluster of genes found on the
Menstruation The approximately monthly dis- short arm of chromosome 6 in most verte-
charge of blood from the womb in women of brates that encodes MHC molecules. MHC
childbearing age who are not pregnant. Also molecules play an important role in the
called menses. adj. menstrual. immune system and autoimmunity.
924 Medical Glossary

MHC 11 Molecules Class II MHC molecules chondrial membranes to molecules of less

belong to a group of molecules known as the than 1,500 Da in molecular weight. MPT is
Immunoglobulin Supergene Family, which one of the major causes of cell death in a vari-
includes immunoglobulins, T-cell receptors, ety of conditions.
CD4, CD8 and others. Mitogen An agent that triggers mitosis, elicit
MIC Minimum inhibitory concentration, all the signals necessary to induce cell
lowest concentration of an antimicrobial proliferation.
that will inhibit the visible growth of a Mitogenic Able to induce mitosis or
microorganism. transformation.
Micelle A submicroscopic aggregation of Mitogenicity Process of induction of mitosis.
molecules. Mitomycin A chemotherapy drug that is given
Micellization Formation process of micelles. as a treatment for several different types of
Microangiopathy Or microvascular disease, is cancer, including breast, stomach, oesophagus
an angiopathy affecting small blood vessels in and bladder cancers.
the body. Mitosis Cell division in which the nucleus
Microfilaria A pre-larval parasitic worm of the divides into nuclei containing the same num-
family Onchocercidae, found in the vector and ber of chromosomes.
in the blood or tissue fluid of human host. MMP Matrix metalloproteinases, a group of
Micronuclei Small particles consisting of acen- peptidases involved in degradation of the
tric fragments of chromosomes or entire chro- extracellular matrix (ECM).
mosomes, which lag behind at anaphase of Mnestic Pertaining to memory.
cell division. Molecular Docking Is a key tool in structural
Microphthalmia-Associated Transcription molecular biology and computer-assisted drug
Factor (MITF) A basic helix–loop–helix design.
leucine zipper transcription factor protein that Molluscidal Destroying molluscs like snails.
plays a role in the development, survival and Molt 4 Cells MOLT4 cells are lymphoblast-like
function of melanocytes and osteoclast. in morphology and are used for studies of
Microsomal PGE2 Synthase Is the enzyme apoptosis, tumour cytotoxicity, tumorigenicity,
that catalyses the final step in prostaglandin as well as for antitumour testing.
E2 (PGE2) biosynthesis. Molybdenum (Mo) Is an essential element
Microvasculature The finer vessels of the body, that forms part of several enzymes such as
as the arterioles, capillaries and venules. xanthine oxidase involved in the oxidation of
Micturition Urination, act of urinating. xanthine to uric acid and use of iron.
Migraine A neurological syndrome character- Molybdenum concentrations also affect pro-
ized by altered bodily perceptions, severe tein synthesis, metabolism and growth.
painful headaches and nausea. Dietary sources include meat, green beans,
Mimosine Is an alkaloid, β-3-hydroxy-4 pyri- eggs, sunflower seeds, wheat flour, lentils and
done amino acid; it is a toxic non-protein free cereal grain.
amino acid and is an antinutrient. Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) Is an isozyme
Mineral Apposition Rate MAR, rate of addi- of monoamine oxidase. It preferentially deaminates
tion of new layers of mineral on the trabecular norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine
surfaces of bones. (adrenaline), serotonin and dopamine.
Miscarriage Spontaneous abortion. Monoaminergic Of or pertaining to neurons
Mitochondrial Complex I The largest enzyme that secrete monoamine neurotransmitters
in the mitochondrial respiratory oxidative (e.g. dopamine, serotonin).
phosphorylation system. Monoclonal Antibodies Are produced by fus-
Mitochondrial Permeability Transition (MPT) ing single antibody-forming cells to tumour
Is an increase in the permeability of the mito- cells grown in culture.
Medical Glossary 925

Monocyte Large white blood cell that ingest Mycosis An infection or disease caused by a
microbes, other cells and foreign matter. fungus.
Monogalactosyl Diglyceride Are the major Myelocyte Is a young cell of the granulocytic
lipid components of chloroplasts. series, occurring normally in bone marrow,
Morbidity A diseased state or symptom or can but not in circulating blood.
refer either to the incidence rate or to the prev- Myeloid Leukaemia (chronic) A type of cancer
alence rate of a disease. that affects the blood and bone marrow, char-
Morelloflavone A biflavonoid extracted from acterized by excessive number of white blood
Garcinia dulcis, has shown antioxidative, cells.
antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. Myeloma Cancer that arise in the plasma cells,
Morphine The major alkaloid of opium and a a type of white blood cells.
potent narcotic analgesic. Myeloperoxidase (MPO) Is a peroxidase
mTOR, the Mammalian (or Mechanistic) enzyme most abundantly present in neutrophil
Target of Rapamycin Regulates a wide granulocytes (a subtype of white blood cells).
range of cellular and developmental processes It is an inflammatory enzyme produced by
by coordinating signalling responses to mito- activated leukocytes that predicts risk of coro-
gens, nutrients and various stresses. nary heart disease.
MTTP Microsomal triglyceride transfer protein Myeloproliferative Disorder Disease of the bone
that is required for the assembly and secretion marrow in which excess cells are produced.
of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins from both Myelosuppressive Causing bone marrow
enterocytes and hepatocytes. suppression.
MUC 5AC Mucin 5AC, a secreted gel-forming Myelotoxicity State of being toxic to myeloid
protein mucin with a high molecular weight of tissues, the bone marrow.
about 641 kDa. Myocardial Relating to heart muscle tissues.
Mucolytic Capable of reducing the viscosity of Myocardial Infarction (MI) Is the rapid devel-
mucus, or an agent that so acts. opment of myocardial necrosis caused by a
Mucositis Painful inflammation and ulceration critical imbalance between oxygen supply and
of the mucous membranes lining the digestive demand of the myocardium.
tract. Myocardial Ischaemia An intermediate condi-
Mucous Relating to mucus. tion in coronary artery disease during which
Mucus Viscid secretion of the mucous membrane. the heart tissue is slowly or suddenly starved
Multidrug Resistance (MDR) Ability of a living of oxygen and other nutrients.
cell to show resistance to a wide variety of struc- Myocardial Lipidosis Is the accumulation of
turally and functionally unrelated compounds. fat droplets in myocardial fibres.
Muscarinic Receptors Are G protein-coupled Myoclonus Brief, involuntary twitching of a
acetylcholine receptors found in the plasma muscle or a group of muscles.
membranes of certain neurons and other cells. Myogenesis The formation of muscular tissue,
Musculotropic Affecting or acting upon mus- especially during embryonic development.
cular tissue. Myopathy A muscular disease wherein the
Mutagen An agent that induces genetic mutation muscle fibres do not function for any one
by causing changes in the DNA. of many reasons, resulting in muscular
Mutagenic Capable of inducing mutation (used weakness.
mainly for extracellular factors such as x-rays Myopia Near or short-sightedness.
or chemical pollution). Myosarcoma A malignant muscle tumour.
Myalgia Muscle pain. Myotonia A symptom of certain neuromuscular
Myc Codes for a protein that binds to the DNA disorders characterized by the slow relaxation
of other genes and is therefore a transcription of the muscles after voluntary contraction or
factor, found on chromosome 8 in human. electrical stimulation.
926 Medical Glossary

Myotonia Dystrophica An inherited disorder atherosclerosis by migration and proliferation

of the muscles and other body systems charac- of cells from the media.
terized by progressive muscle weakness, Neonatal Adj. of or relating to newborn infants
prolonged muscle contractions (myotonia), or an infant.
clouding of the lens of the eye (cataracts), Neoplasia Abnormal growth of cells, which
cardiac abnormalities, balding and infertility. may lead to a neoplasm, or tumour.
Myotube A developing skeletal muscle fibre or Neoplasm Tumour; any new and abnormal
cell with a tubular appearance and a centrally growth, specifically one in which cell multi-
located nucleus. plication is uncontrolled and progressive.
Myringosclerosis Also known as tympanoscle- Neoplasms may be benign or malignant.
rosis or intratympanic tympanosclerosis, a Neoplastic Transformation Conversion of a
condition caused by calcification of collagen tissue with a normal growth pattern into a
tissues in the tympanic membrane of the malignant tumour.
middle ear. Neovascularization Is the development of tiny,
N-Nitrosomorpholine A human carcinogen. abnormal, leaky blood vessels inside the eye.
N-Nitrosoproline An indicator for N-nitrosation Neovasculature Formation of new blood vessels.
of amines. Nephrectomized Kidneys surgically removed.
NADPH The reduced form of nicotinamide Nephrectomy Surgical removal of the kidney.
adenine dinucleotide phosphate that serves as Nephric Relating to or connected with a kidney.
an electron carrier. Nephrin Is a protein necessary for the proper
NAFLD Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. functioning of the renal filtration barrier.
Narcotic An agent that produces narcosis, in Nephritic Syndrome Is a collection of signs
moderate doses it dulls the senses, relieves (known as a syndrome) associated with disor-
pain and induces sleep; in excessive dose it ders affecting the kidneys, more specifically
causes stupor, coma, convulsions and death. glomerular disorders.
Nasopharynx Upper part of the alimentary con- Nephritis Is inflammation of the kidney.
tinuous with the nasal passages. Nephrolithiasis Process of forming a kidney
Natriorexia Excessive intake of sodium evoked stone in the kidney or lower urinary tract.
by sodium depletion. adj. natriorexic, Nephropathy A disorder of the kidney.
natriorexigenic. Nephrotic Syndrome Nonspecific disorder in
Natriuresis The discharge of excessive large which the kidneys are damaged, causing them
amount of sodium through urine. adj. to leak large amounts of protein from the
natriuretic. blood into the urine.
Natural Killer Cells (NK Cells) A type of Nephrotoxicity Poisonous effect of some sub-
cytotoxic lymphocyte that constitutes a major stances, both toxic chemicals and medication,
component of the innate immune system. on the kidney.
Natural Killer T (NKT) Cells A heteroge- Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) A small protein
neous group of T cells that share properties of that induces the differentiation and survival of
both T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. particular target neurons (nerve cells).
Nausea Sensation of unease and discomfort in Nervine A nerve tonic that acts therapeutically
the stomach with an urge to vomit. upon the nerves, particularly in the sense of a
Necropsy See autopsy. sedative that serves to calm ruffled nerves.
Necrosis Morphological changes that follow Neural Tube Defects (NTDs) Are common
cell death, usually involving nuclear and cyto- birth defects of the brain and spinal cord.
plasmic changes. NEU 4 Sialidase This protein belongs to a
Neointima A new or thickened layer of arterial family of glycohydrolytic enzymes, which
intima formed especially on a prosthesis or in remove terminal sialic acid residues from
Medical Glossary 927

various sialo derivatives, such as glycopro- Neuropathy A collection of disorders that

teins, glycolipids, oligosaccharides and occurs when the peripheral nervous systems
gangliosides. are damaged causing pain and numbness in
Neuralgia Is a sudden, severe painful disorder the hands and feet.
of the nerves. Neuropharmacological Relating the effects of
Neuraminidase Glycoside hydrolase enzymes drugs on the neurosystem.
that cleave the glycosidic linkages of neur- Neuroradiology Is a subspecialty of radiology
aminic acids. focusing on the diagnosis and characterization
Neuraminidase Inhibitors A class of antivi- of abnormalities of the central and peripheral
ral drugs targeted at the influenza viruses nervous system. adj. neuroradiologic.
whose mode of action consists of blocking Neurotrophic Relating to the nutrition and
the function of the viral neuraminidase maintenance of nervous tissue (neurons).
protein, thus preventing the virus from Neutropenia A disorder of the blood, character-
reproducing. ized by abnormally low levels of neutrophils.
Neurasthenia A condition with symptoms of Neutrophil Type of white blood cell, specifically
fatigue, anxiety, headache, impotence, neuralgia a form of granulocyte.
and impotence. Neutrophin Protein that induces the survival,
Neurasthenic A substance used to treat nerve development and function of neurons.
pain and/or weakness (i.e. neuralgia, sciatica, NF-kappa B (NF-kB) Nuclear factor kappa B,
etc.). is an ubiquitous rapid response transcription
Neurectomy Surgical cutting through or removal factor in cells involved in immune and inflam-
of a nerve or a section of a nerve. matory reactions.
Neurite Refers to any projection from the cell Niacin Vitamin B3. See vitamin B3.
body of a neuron. Niacinamide An amide of niacin, also known as
Neuritis An inflammation of the nerve charac- nicotinamide. See vitamin B3.
terized by pain, sensory disturbances and Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
impairment of reflexes. adj. neuritic. (NADP) A coenzyme comprising nicotinamide
Neuritogenesis The first step of neuronal differ- mononucleotide coupled by pyrophosphate
entiation, takes place as nascent neurites bud linkage to adenosine 2′,5′-bisphosphate; it
from the immediate post-mitotic neuronal acts as an electron carrier in numerous reac-
soma. tions, being alternately oxidized (NADP+)
Neuroblastoma A common extracranial cancer and reduced (NADPH).
that forms in nerve tissues, common in NIH3T3 Cells A mouse embryonic fibroblast
infancy. cell line used in the cultivation of
Neuroendocrine Adj. of, relating to, or involving keratinocytes.
the interaction between the nervous system Nidation Implantation.
and the hormones of the endocrine glands. Niosomes Are novel, vesicular, drug delivery
Neurogenesis Process by which neurons are systems composed of nonionic surfactants
generated from neural stem and progenitor instead of phospholipids; they are capable of
cells. entrapping hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs.
Neurogenic Originating from the nerves of the Nitrogen (N) Is an essential building block of
nervous system. amino and nucleic acids and proteins and is
Neuroleptic Refers to the effects on cognition essential to all living organisms. Protein-rich
and behaviour of antipsychotic drugs that vegetables like legumes are rich food sources
reduce confusion, delusions, hallucinations of nitrogen.
and psychomotor agitation in patients with NK Cells Natural killer cells, a type of cytotoxic
psychoses. lymphocyte that constitutes a major compo-
Neuroma Is a growth or tumour of nerve tissue. nent of the innate immune system.
928 Medical Glossary

NK1.1+ T (NKT) Cells A type of natural killer It is critical for the uptake of cholesterol across
T (NKT) cells. See natural killer T cells. the plasma membrane of the intestinal
NMDA Receptor N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor, enterocyte.
the predominant molecular device for control- Nrf2 NF-E2-related factor 2, a transcription fac-
ling synaptic plasticity and memory function. tor that activates ARE-containing genes.
A brain receptor activated by the amino acid Nrf2/ARE Pathway Plays an important role in
glutamate, which when excessively stimulated inducing phase II detoxifying enzymes and
may cause cognitive defects in Alzheimer’s antioxidant proteins and has been considered
disease. a potential target for cancer chemoprevention
Nocebo A harmless substance that when taken because it eliminates harmful reactive oxygen
by a patient is associated with unpleasant or species or reactive intermediates generated
harmful effects due to negative expectations from carcinogens.
or the psychological state of the person. Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2
Nociceptive Causing pain, responding to a pain- (Nrf2) A transcription factor that plays a
ful stimulus. major role in response to oxidative stress by
Nociceptors Specialized peripheral sensory binding to antioxidant-responsive elements
neurons that respond to potentially damaging that regulate many hepatic phase I and II
stimuli by sending nerve signals to the spinal enzymes as well as hepatic efflux transporters.
cord and brain. Nucleosomes Fundamental repeating subunits
Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease One cause of all eukaryotic chromatin, consisting of a
of a fatty liver, occurring when fat is deposited DNA chain coiled around a core of histones.
(steatosis) in the liver not due to excessive Nulliparous Term used to describe a woman
alcohol use. who has never given birth.
Non-osteogenic Fibromata of bone, a benign Nyctalopia Night blindness, impaired vision in
tumour of bone which shows no evidence of dim light and in the dark, due to impaired
ossification. function of certain specialized vision cells.
Nootropics Are substances which are claimed to Nycturia Excessive urination at night, especially
boost human cognitive abilities (the functions common in older men.
and capacities of the brain). Also popularly Nystagmus Fast, involuntary movements of the
referred to as ‘smart drugs’, ‘smart nutrients’, eyes.
‘cognitive enhancers’ and ‘brain enhancers’. Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD) A
Noradrenalin See norepinephrine. common psychiatric disorder defined by the
Norepinephrine A substance, both a hormone presence of obsessive thoughts and repetitive
and neurotransmitter, secreted by the adrenal compulsive actions, self-grooming.
medulla and the nerve endings of the sympa- Occludin A novel integral membrane protein
thetic nervous system to cause vasoconstriction localizing at tight junctions cf. tight junction.
and increases in heart rate, blood pressure and Occlusion Closure or blockage (as of a blood
the sugar level of the blood. Also called levar- vessel).
terenol, noradrenalin. Occlusive Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAOD)
Normoglycaemic Having the normal amount of Also known as peripheral vascular disease
glucose in the blood. (PVD), or peripheral arterial disease (PAD),
Normotensive Having normal blood pressure. refers to the obstruction of large arteries not
Nosocomial Infections Infections which are a within the coronary, aortic arch vasculature or
result of treatment in a hospital or a healthcare brain. PVD can result from atherosclerosis,
service unit, but secondary to the patient’s inflammatory processes leading to stenosis, an
original condition. embolism or thrombus formation.
NPC1L1 Niemann–Pick C1-Like 1 gene that Oculomotor Nerve The third of 12 paired cranial
plays a major role in cholesterol homeostasis. nerves.
Medical Glossary 929

Odds Ratio A statistical measure of effect size, sometimes called gamoleic acid, eicosadienoic
describing the strength of association or non- acid, arachidonic acid and docosadienoic acid.
independence between two binary data values. Omega 9 Fatty Acids Are not essential polyun-
Odontalgia Toothache. adj. odontalgic. saturated fatty acids that have in common a
Odontopathy Any disease of the teeth. final carbon–carbon double bond in the n − 9
Oedema See edema. position. Some n − 9s are common compo-
Oedematogenic Producing or causing oedema. nents of animal fat and vegetable oil. Two
Oligoanuria Insufficient urine volume to allow n − 9 fatty acids important in industry are oleic
for administration of necessary fluids, etc. acid (18:1, n − 9), which is a main component
Oligoarthritis An inflammation of two, three or of olive oil, and erucic acid (22:1, n − 9),
four joints. which is found in rapeseed, wallflower seed
Oligoasthenoteratozoospermia Male infertility and mustard seed.
refers to the inability of a male to achieve a Oncogenes Genes carried by tumour viruses
pregnancy in a fertile female. that are directly and solely responsible for the
Oligonucleosome A series of nucleosomes. neoplastic (tumorous) transformation of host
Oligospermia or Oligozoospermia Refers to cells.
semen with a low concentration of sperm, Oncosis Accidental cell death, also referred to
commonly associated with male infertility. swelling necrosis.
Oliguria Decreased production of urine. Ophthalmia Severe inflammation of eye, or the
Omega 3 Fatty Acids Are essential polyunsatu- conjunctiva or deeper structures of the eye,
rated fatty acids that have in common a final also called ophthalmitis.
carbon–carbon double bond in the n − 3 posi- Ophthalmia (Sympathetic) Inflammation of
tion. Dietary sources of omega-3 fatty acids both eyes following trauma to one eye.
include fish oil and certain plant/nut oils. The Ophthalmopathy An autoimmune disease
three most nutritionally important omega 3 fatty where the thyroid gland is overactive leading
acids are alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic to ocular manifestations.
acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Opiate Drug derived from the opium plant.
Research indicates that omega 3 fatty acids are Opioid Receptors A group of G protein-coupled
important in health promotion and disease receptors located in the brain and various
and can help prevent a wide range of medical organs that bind opiates or opioid substances.
problems, including cardiovascular disease, Oppilation Obstruction particularly of the lower
depression, asthma and rheumatoid arthritis. intestines.
Omega 6 Fatty Acids Are essential polyunsatu- Optic Placode An ectodermal placode from
rated fatty acids that have in common a final which the lens of the embryonic eye develops,
carbon–carbon double bond in the n − 6 posi- also called lens placode.
tion. Omega-6 fatty acids are considered ORAC (Oxygen Radical Absorbance
essential fatty acids (EFAs) found in vegetable Capacity) A method of measuring antioxidant
oils, nuts and seeds. They are essential to capacities in biological samples.
human health but cannot be made in the body. Oral Submucous Fibrosis A chronic debilitat-
Omega-6 fatty acids—found in vegetable oils, ing disease of the oral cavity characterized by
nuts and seeds—are a beneficial part of a inflammation and progressive fibrosis of the
heart-healthy eating. Omega-6 and omega-3 submucosa tissues.
PUFA play a crucial role in heart and brain Oral Thrush An infection of yeast fungus,
function and in normal growth and develop- Candida albicans, in the mucous membranes
ment. Linoleic acid (LA) is the main omega-6 of the mouth.
fatty acid in foods, accounting for 85–90 % of Orchidectomy Surgery to remove one or both
the dietary omega-6 PUFA. Other omega 6 testicles.
acids include gamma-linolenic acid or GLA, Orchidectomized With testis removed.
930 Medical Glossary

Orchitis An acute painful inflammatory reaction Otic Placode A thickening of the ectoderm on
of the testis secondary to infection by different the outer surface of a developing embryo from
bacteria and viruses. which the ear develops.
Orexigenic Increasing or stimulating the appetite. Otitis Inflammation of the inner or outer parts of
Orofacial Dyskinesia Abnormal involuntary the ear.
movements involving muscles of the face, Otitis Media Inflammation of the middle ear.
mouth, tongue, eyes and occasionally the Otopathy Disease of the ear.
neck—may be unilateral or bilateral and con- Otorrhoea Running drainage (discharge) exit-
stant or intermittent. ing the ear.
Oropharyngeal Relating to the oropharynx. Ovariectomized With one or two ovaries
Oropharynx Part of the pharynx between the removed.
soft palate and the epiglottis. Ovariectomy Surgical removal of one or both
Ostalgia, Ostealgia Pain in the bones, also ovaries.
called osteodynia. Oxidation The process of adding oxygen to a
Osteoarthritis Is the deterioration of the joints compound, dehydrogenation or increasing the
that becomes more common with age. electro-negative charge.
Osteoarthrosis Chronic non-inflammatory bone Oxidoreductase Activity Catalysis of an
disease. oxidation–reduction (redox) reaction, a
Osteoblast A mononucleate cell that is respon- reversible chemical reaction. One substrate acts
sible for bone formation. as a hydrogen or electron donor and becomes
Osteoblastic Relating to osteoblasts. oxidized, while the other acts as hydrogen or
Osteocalcin A noncollagenous protein found in electron acceptor and becomes reduced.
bone and dentin, also referred to as bone gamma- Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity
carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein. (ORAC) A method of measuring antioxidant
Osteoclastogenesis The production of osteoclasts. capacities in biological samples.
Osteoclasts A kind of bone cell that removes Oxytocic Adj. hastening or facilitating child-
bone tissue by removing its mineralized matrix. birth, especially by stimulating contractions
Osteodynia Pain in the bone. of the uterus.
Osteogenic Derived from or composed of any Oxytocin Is a mammalian hormone that also
tissue concerned in bone growth or repair. acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. It is best
Osteomalacia Refers to the softening of the known for its roles in female reproduction: it
bones due to defective bone mineralization. is released in large amounts after distension of
Osteomyelofibrosis A myeloproliferative disor- the cervix and vagina during labour and after
der in which fibrosis and sclerosis finally lead stimulation of the nipples, facilitating birth
to bone marrow obliteration. and breastfeeding, respectively.
Osteopenia Reduction in bone mass, usually Oxyuriasis Infestation by pinworms.
caused by a lowered rate of formation of new Ozoena Discharge of the nostrils caused by
bone that is insufficient to keep up with the chronic inflammation of the nostrils.
rate of bone destruction. p.o. Per os, oral administration.
Osteoporosis A disease of bone that leads to an P-Glycoprotein (P-gp, ABCB1, MDR1) A cell
increased risk of fracture. membrane-associated drug-exporting protein
Osteoprotegerin Also called osteoclastogene- that transports a variety of drug substrates
sis inhibitory factor (OCIF), a cytokine, which from cancer cells.
can inhibit the production of osteoclasts. P-Selectin Also known as CD62P, GMP-140,
Osteosarcoma A malignant bone tumour, also LLECAM-3, PADGEM, a member of the
called osteogenic sarcoma. selectin family. It is expressed by activated
Otalgia Earache, pain in the ear. platelets and endothelial cells.
Medical Glossary 931

P65 Transcription Factor Is a protein that in Paraoxonase An enzyme that protects against
humans is encoded by the RELA gene. Its oxidation of low-density lipoprotein and
alternative name is nuclear factor NF-kappa-B affects the risk of coronary artery disease.
p65 subunit. Parasitaemia Presence of parasites in blood.
P300/CBP Are transcriptional co-activators that adj. parasitaemic.
play critical roles in integrating multiple Parasympathetic Nervous System Subsystem
signal-dependent transcription events and may of the nervous systems that slows the heart
have specific roles in tumour suppression rate and increases intestinal and gland activity
pathways. and relaxes the sphincter muscles.
p21waf1/cip1 Encodes a cyclin-dependent kinase Parasympathomimetic Having an action
inhibitor that is transcriptionally activated by resembling that caused by stimulation of the
the p53 tumour suppressor gene, transforming parasympathetic nervous system.
growth factor beta 1 (TGF-beta 1), AP2 and Parenteral Administration Administration by
other pathways, all regulating apoptosis and intravenous, subcutaneous or intramuscular
the cell cycle. routes.
Palliative Relieving pain without alleviating the Paresis A condition characterized by partial
underlying problem. loss of movement or impaired movement.
Palpebral Ptosis The abnormal drooping of the Parotitis Inflammation of salivary glands.
upper lid, caused by partial or total reduction Paroxysm A sudden outburst of emotion or
in levator muscle function. action, a sudden attack, recurrence or intensi-
Palpitation Rapid pulsation or throbbing of the fication of a disease.
heart. Paroxystic Relating to an abnormal event of
Paludism State of having symptoms of malaria the body with an abrupt onset and an equally
characterized by high fever and chills. sudden return to normal.
Pancreatectomized Having undergone a PARP See poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase.
pancreatectomy. Pars Compacta Is a portion of the substantia
Pancreatectomy Surgical removal of all or part nigra (a brain structure located in the
of the pancreas. midbrain).
Pancreatitis Inflammation of the pancreas. Parturition Act of child birth.
Pancytopenia A haematological condition in PCAF P300/CBP-associated factor, a histone
which there is a reduction in the number of red acetyl transferase (HAT) that plays an impor-
and white blood cells, as well as platelets. tant role in the remodeling of chromatin and
Pantothenic Acid Vitamin B5. See vitamin B5. the regulation of gene expression, transcription,
Papain A protein-degrading enzyme used cell cycle progression and differentiation.
medicinally and to tenderize meat. PCE/PCN Ratio Polychromatic erythrocyte/
Papilloma A benign epithelial tumour growing normochromatic erythrocyte ratio use as a
outwardly like in fingerlike fronds. measure of cytotoxic effects.
Papule A small, solid, usually inflammatory PCNA Proliferating cell nuclear antigen, an
elevation of the skin that does not contain pus. auxiliary protein of DNA polymerase delta
Paradontosis Is the inflammation of gums and involve in modulating eukaryotic DNA
other deeper structures, including the bone. replication.
Paraesthesia A sensation of tingling, burning, pCREB Phosphorylated cAMP (adenosine 3′5′
pricking or numbness of a person’s skin with cyclic monophosphate), response element-
no apparent long-term physical effect. Also binding protein.
known as ‘pains and needles’. PDEF Acronym for prostate-derived ETS
Paralytic Person affected with paralysis, per- factor, an ETS (epithelial-specific E26
taining to paralysis. transforming sequence) family member that
932 Medical Glossary

has been identified as a potential tumour production is declining and fluctuating. adj.
suppressor. perimenopausal.
PDGFs Platelet-derived growth factors consti- Perineum The region between the thighs infe-
tute a group of growth factors that play a sig- rior to the pelvic diaphragm.
nificant role in blood vessel formation and the Perineal Pertaining to the perineum.
growth of blood vessels. Periodontal Ligament (PDL) Is a group of
PDGR Receptor (Platelet-Derived Growth specialized connective tissue fibres that essen-
Factor Receptor) Are cell surface tyro- tially attach a tooth to the bony socket.
sine kinase receptors for members of the Periodontitis Is a severe form of gingivitis in
platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) which the inflammation of the gums extends
family. to the supporting structures of the tooth, also
Pectoral Pertaining to or used for the chest and called pyorrhoea.
respiratory tract. Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD) Is a disease
pERK Phosphorylated extracellular signal-reg- in which plaque builds up in the arteries that
ulated kinase, protein kinases involved in carry blood to your head, organs and limbs.
many cell functions. Peripheral Neuropathic Pain (PNP) Refers to
P53 Also known as protein 53 or tumour pro- situations where nerve roots or peripheral nerve
tein 53, is a tumour suppressor protein that in trunks have been damaged by mechanical and/
humans is encoded by the TP53 gene. or chemical stimuli that exceeded the physical
Peliosis See purpura. capabilities of the nervous system. Symptoms
Pellagra Is a systemic nutritional wasting may include pain, paraesthesia, dysaesthesia,
disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin B3 spasm, weakness, hypoesthesia or anaesthesia.
(niacin). Peripheral Neuropathy Refers to damage to
Pemphigus Neonatorum Staphylococcal scalded nerves of the peripheral nervous system.
skin syndrome, a bacterial disease of infants, Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD) See
characterized by elevated vesicles or blebs on peripheral artery occlusive disease .
a normal or reddened skin. Peristalsis A series of organized, wave-like
Peptic Ulcer A sore in the lining of the stomach muscle contractions that occur throughout the
or duodenum, the first part of the small digestive tract.
intestine. PERK A transmembrane protein kinase of the
Peptide YY A short (36 amino acid) pancreatic PEK family resident in the endoplasmic retic-
protein released by cells in the ileum and ulum (ER) membrane and is linked to insulin
colon in response to feeding. processing.
Percutaneous Pertains to a medical procedure Perlingual Through or by way of the tongue.
where access to inner organs or tissues is done Perniosis An abnormal reaction to cold that
via needle puncture of the skin. occurs most frequently in women, children
Perfusion To force fluid through the lymphatic and the elderly, also called chilblains.
system or blood vessels to an organ or tissue. Per Os (P.O.) Oral administration.
Periapical Periodontitis Is the inflammation of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors
the tissue adjacent to the tip of the tooth’s root. (PPARs) A family of nuclear receptors that are
Perifuse To flush a fresh supply of bathing fluid involved in lipid metabolism, differentiation,
around all of the outside surfaces of a small proliferation, cell death and inflammation.
piece of tissue immersed in it. Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor
Perilipins Highly phosphorylated adipocyte Alpha (PPAR-Alpha) A nuclear receptor
proteins that are localized at the surface of the protein, transcription factor and a major regu-
lipid droplet. lator of lipid metabolism in the liver.
Perimenopause Is the phase before menopause Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor
actually takes place, when ovarian hormone Gamma (PPAR-γ) A type II nuclear receptor
Medical Glossary 933

protein that regulates fatty acid storage and Pheochromocytoma Is a rare neuroendocrine
glucose metabolism. tumour that usually originates from the adrenal
Pertussis Whooping cough, sever cough. glands’ chromaffin cells, causing overproduc-
Peyer’s Patches Patches of lymphoid tissue tion of catecholamines, powerful hormones
or lymphoid nodules on the walls of the ileal- that induce high blood pressure and other
small intestine. symptoms.
PGE-2 Prostaglandin E2, a hormone-like sub- Phlebitis Is an inflammation of a vein, usually
stance that is released by blood vessel walls in in the legs.
response to infection or inflammation that acts Phlegm Abnormally viscid mucus secreted by
on the brain to induce fever. the mucosa of the respiratory passages during
Phagocytes Are the white blood cells that pro- certain infectious processes.
tect the body by ingesting (phagocytosing) Phlegmon A spreading, diffuse inflammation of
harmful foreign particles, bacteria and dead or the soft or connective tissue due to infection
dying cells. adj. phagocytic. by Streptococci bacteria.
Phagocytosis Is a process the human body uses Phloroglucinol A white, crystalline compound
to destroy dead or foreign cells. used as an antispasmodic, analytical reagent
Pharmacodynamics Branch of pharmacology and decalcifier of bone specimens for micro-
dealing with the effects of drugs and the scopic examination.
mechanism of their action. Phosphatidylglycerol Is a glycerophospholipid
Pharmacognosis The branch of pharmacology found in pulmonary active surface lipoprotein
that studies the composition, use and history and consists of a L-glycerol 3-phosphate back-
of drugs. bone ester-bonded to either saturated or unsat-
Pharmacokinetics Branch of pharmacology con- urated fatty acids on carbons 1 and 2.
cerned with the movement of drugs within the Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases (PI 3-Kinases
body including processes of absorption, distri- or PI3Ks) A group of enzymes involved
bution, metabolism and excretion in the body. in cellular functions such as cell growth,
Pharmacopoeia Authoritative treatise contain- proliferation, differentiation, motility, survival
ing directions for the identification of drug and intracellular trafficking, which in turn are
samples and the preparation of compound involved in cancer.
medicines and published by the authority of a Phosphatidylserine A phosphoglyceride phos-
government or a medical or pharmaceutical pholipid that is one of the key building blocks
society and in a broader sense is a general of cellular membranes, particularly in the ner-
reference work for pharmaceutical drug vous system. It is derived from soy lecithin.
specifications. Phosphaturia A urinary tract condition of
Pharyngitis, Pharyngolaryngitis Inflammation excessive urine phosphorus, causing urine to
of the pharynx and the larynx. appear cloudy or murky colour, also called
Pharyngolaryngeal Pertaining to the pharynx hypophosphataemia.
and larynx. Phosphodiesterases A diverse family of
Phase II Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes Play an enzymes that hydrolyse cyclic nucleotides and
important role in biotransformation of endog- thus play a key role in regulating intracellular
enous compounds and xenobiotics to more levels of the second messengers cAMP and
easily excretable forms as well as in the cGMP, and hence cell function.
metabolic inactivation of pharmacologically Phosphoenolpyruvate C Kinase (PEPCK) An
active compounds. Phase II drug-metabolizing enzyme in the lyase family used in the meta-
enzymes are mainly transferases. bolic pathway of gluconeogenesis.
Phenolics Class of chemical compounds con- Phospholipase An enzyme that hydrolyses
sisting of a hydroxyl group (−OH) bonded phospholipids into fatty acids and other lipo-
directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. philic substances.
934 Medical Glossary

Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) A small lipolytic Phytonutrients are not ‘essential’ for life, also
enzyme that releases fatty acids from the called phytochemicals.
second carbon group of glycerol. Plays an Phytosterols A group of steroid alcohols, cho-
essential role in the synthesis of prostaglan- lesterol-like phytochemicals naturally occur-
dins and leukotrienes. ring in plants like vegetable oils, nuts and
Phospholipase C Enzymes that cleaves legumes.
phospholipase. Piebaldism Rare autosomal dominant disorder
Phospholipase C Gamma (PLC Gamma) of melanocyte development characterized by
Enzymes that cleave phospholipase in cellular distinct patches of skin and hair that contains
proliferation and differentiation, and its enzy- no pigment.
matic activity is upregulated by a variety of Piles See haemorrhoids.
growth factors and hormones. PI3K Phosphoinositide 3-kinase.
Phosphorus (P) Is an essential mineral that PI13K/AKT Signalling Pathways Are involved
makes up 1 % of a person’s total body weight in the modulation of cell survival, cell cycle
and is found in the bones and teeth. It plays an progression and cellular growth in cancer.
important role in the body’s utilization of Pityriasis Lichenoides Is a rare skin disorder of
carbohydrates and fats and in the synthesis of unknown aetiology characterized by multiple
protein for the growth, maintenance and repair papules and plaques.
of cells and tissues. It is also crucial for the PKC Protein kinase C, a membrane-bound
production of ATP, a molecule the body uses enzyme that phosphorylates different intra-
to store energy. Main sources are meat and cellular proteins and raised intracellular Ca
milk; fruits and vegetables provide small levels.
amounts. PKC Delta Inhibitors Protein kinase C delta
Photoaging Is the term that describes damage to inhibitors that induce apoptosis of haemato-
the skin caused by intense and chronic expo- poietic cell lines.
sure to sunlight resulting in premature aging Placebo A sham or simulated medical
of the skin. intervention.
Photocarcinogenesis Represents the sum of a Placode A platelike epithelial thickening in the
complex of simultaneous and sequential embryo where some organ or structure later
biochemical events that ultimately lead to the develops.
occurrence of skin cancer caused by exposure Plantar Verruca Wart occurring on the sole of
to the sun. the foot.
Photodermatoses Skin disorders caused by Plasma The yellow-coloured liquid component
exposure to sunlight. of blood, in which blood cells are suspended.
Photophobia Abnormal visual intolerance to Plasma Kallikrein A serine protease, synthe-
light. sized in the liver and circulates in the plasma.
Photopsia An affection of the eye, in which Plasmalemma Plasma membrane.
the patient perceives luminous rays, flashes, Plasmin A proteinase enzyme that is responsi-
coruscations, etc. ble for digesting fibrin in blood clots.
Photosensitivity Sensitivity towards light. Plasminogen The proenzyme of plasmin,
Phthisis An archaic name for tuberculosis. whose primary role is the degradation of fibrin
Phytohaemagglutinin A lectin found in plant in the vasculature.
that is involved in the stimulation of lympho- Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) Also
cyte proliferation. known as endothelial plasminogen activator
Phytonutrients Certain organic components of inhibitor or serpin E1, is a serine protease
plants that are thought to promote human inhibitor (serpin) that functions as the princi-
health. Fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, nuts pal inhibitor of tissue plasminogen activator
and teas are rich sources of phytonutrients. (tPA) and urokinase (uPA), the activators of
Medical Glossary 935

plasminogen and hence fibrinolysis (the Polycythaemia A type of blood disorder

physiological breakdown of blood clots). characterized by the production of too many
Plaster Poultice. red blood cells.
Platelet Activating Factor (PAF) Is an acety- Polymorphonuclear Having a lobed nucleus.
lated derivative of glycerophosphorylcholine, Used especially of neutrophilic white blood
released by basophils and mast cells in imme- cells.
diate hypersensitive reactions and macrophages Polyneuritis Widespread inflammation of the
and neutrophils in other inflammatory reac- nerves.
tions. One of its main effects is to induce Polyneuritis Gallinarum A nervous disorder in
platelet aggregation. birds and poultry.
Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF) Is Polyneuropathy Simultaneous malfunction
one of the numerous growth factors, or pro- of many peripheral nerves throughout the
teins, that regulate cell growth and division. body.
PLC Gamma Phospholipase C gamma plays a Polyp A growth that protrudes from a mucous
central role in signal transduction. membrane.
Pleurisy Is an inflammation of the pleura, the Polyphagia Medical term for excessive hunger
lining of the pleural cavity surrounding the or eating.
lungs, which can cause painful respiration and Polyposis Describes a condition where there are
other symptoms. Also known as pleuritis. a lot of polyps.
Pneumonia An inflammatory illness of the lung PolyQ Disease Polyglutamine repeat diseases
caused by bacteria or viruses. are neurodegenerative ailments elicited by
Pneumotoxicity Damage to lung tissues. glutamine-encoding CAG nucleotide expan-
Poliomyelitis Is a highly infectious viral disease sions within endogenous human genes.
that may attack the central nervous system Polyuria A condition characterized by the pas-
and is characterized by symptoms that range sage of large volumes of urine with an increase
from a mild non-paralytic infection to total in urinary frequency.
paralysis in a matter of hours, also called polio Pomade A thick oily dressing.
or infantile paralysis. Porphyrin Any of a class of water-soluble,
Poly (ADP-Ribose) Polymerase (PARP) A nitrogenous biological pigments.
protein involved in a number of cellular pro- Postherpetic Neuralgia (PHN) Neuralgia (pain
cesses especially DNA repair and programmed in the nerves) caused by the varicella herpes
cell death. zoster virus. The pain may last for more than a
Polyarthritis Is any type of arthritis which month or more after a shingles infection
involves five or more joints. occurred.
Polychromatic Erythrocyte (PCE) An imma- Postpartum Depression Depression after preg-
ture red blood cell containing RNA that can be nancy, also called postnatal depression.
differentiated by appropriate staining tech- Postprandial After mealtime.
niques from a normochromatic erythrocyte Potassium (K) Is an element that’s essential for
(NCE), which lacks RNA. the body’s growth and maintenance. It’s nec-
Polycystic Kidney Disease Is a kidney disorder essary to keep a normal water balance between
passed down through families in which multi- the cells and body fluids, for cellular enzyme
ple cysts form on the kidneys, causing them to activities and plays an essential role in the
become enlarged. response of nerves to stimulation and in the
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Imbalance of contraction of muscles. Potassium is found in
woman’s sex hormone; this imbalance may many plant foods and fish (tuna, halibut):
cause changes in menstrual cycle, skin chard, mushrooms, spinach, fennel, kale,
changes, small cysts in the ovary and problem mustard greens, Brussels sprouts, broccoli,
in getting pregnant. cauliflower, cabbage winter squash, eggplant,
936 Medical Glossary

cantaloupe, tomatoes, parsley, cucumber, bell Probiotication Enhancement with beneficial

pepper, turmeric, ginger root, apricots, straw- probiotic bacteria such as Lactobacillus spe-
berries, avocado and banana. cies that can prevent the growth of intestinal
Poultice Is a soft moist mass, often heated and pathogenic microflora.
medicated, that is spread on cloth over the Probiotics Are dietary supplements and live
skin to treat an aching, inflamed or painful microorganisms containing potentially benefi-
part of the body, also called cataplasm. cial bacteria or yeasts that are taken into the
PPARs Peroxisome proliferator-activated alimentary system for healthy intestinal func-
receptors—a group of nuclear receptor pro- tions. cf. prebiotics.
teins that function as transcription factors Proctitis An inflammation of the rectum that
regulating the expression of genes. causes discomfort, bleeding and occasionally
PR Interval Is the time (in seconds) from the a discharge of mucus or pus.
beginning of the P wave (onset of atrial depo- Procyanidin Also known as proanthocyanidin,
larization) to the beginning of the QRS oligomeric proanthocyanidin, leukocyanidin,
complex. leucoanthocyanin, is a class of flavanols found
Prebiotics A category of functional food, in many plants. It has antioxidant activity and
defined as non-digestible food ingredients plays a role in the stabilization of collagen and
that beneficially affect the host by selec- maintenance of elastin.
tively stimulating the growth and/or activity Progestational Of or relating to the phase of
of one or a limited number of bacteria in the menstrual cycle immediately following
the colon, and thus improve host health. cf. ovulation, characterized by secretion of
probiotics. progesterone.
Pre-eclampsia Toxic condition of pregnancy Proglottid One of the segments of a tapeworm.
characterized by high blood pressure, abnor- Prognosis Medical term to describe the likely
mal weight gain, proteinuria and oedema. outcome of an illness.
Pregnane X Receptor (PXR; NR1I2) Is a Prokinetic Or gastroprokinetic, substance that
ligand-activated transcription factor that plays enhances gastrointestinal motility by increasing
a role not only in drug metabolism and the frequency of contractions in the small
transport but also in various other biological intestine or making them stronger.
processes. Prolactin A hormone produced by the pituitary
Pregnenolone A steroid hormone produced by gland, it stimulates the breasts to produce milk
the adrenal glands, involved in the steroido- in pregnant women. It is also present in males
genesis of other steroid hormones like proges- but its role is not well understood.
terone, mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, Prolapse A common condition where the blad-
androgens and estrogens. der, uterus and or bowel protrudes into the
Prenidatory Referring to the time period vagina.
between fertilization and implantation. Prolapsus To fall or slip out of place.
Prenidatory Phase Pre-implantation phase. Prolapsus Ani Eversion of the lower portion of
Prenylated Flavones Flavones with an isoprenyl the rectum and protruding through the anus,
group in the 8-position, has been reported to common in infancy and old age.
have good anti-inflammatory properties. Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) A
Prepubertal Before puberty, pertaining to the new marker to study human colonic cell
period of accelerated growth preceding gonadal proliferation.
maturity. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy (PVR) A most
Primiparous Relating to a woman who has common cause of failure in retinal reattach-
given birth once. ment surgery, characterized by the formation
Pro-angiogenic Promote angiogenesis (forma- of cellular membrane on both surfaces of the
tion and development of new blood vessels). retina and in the vitreous.
Medical Glossary 937

Promastigote The flagellate stage in the devel- Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) A protein
opment of trypanosomatid protozoa, charac- produced by the cells of the prostate gland.
terized by a free anterior flagellum. Protein Kinase C (PKC) A family of enzymes
Promyelocytic Leukaemia A subtype of acute involved in controlling the function of other
myelogenous leukaemia (AML), a cancer of proteins through the phosphorylation of
the blood and bone marrow. hydroxyl groups of serine and threonine
Pro-oxidants Chemicals that induce oxidative amino acid residues on these proteins. PKC
stress, either through creating reactive oxygen enzymes play important roles in several signal
species or inhibiting antioxidant systems. transduction cascades.
Prophylaxis Prevention or protection against Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase (PTP) A group
disease. of enzymes that remove phosphate groups
Proptosis See exophthalmos. from phosphorylated tyrosine residues on
Prostacyclin A prostaglandin that is a metabo- proteins.
lite of arachidonic acid, inhibits platelet aggre- Proteinase A protease (enzyme) involved in the
gation and dilates blood vessels. hydrolytic breakdown of proteins, usually by
Prostaglandins A family of C 20 lipid com- splitting them into polypeptide chains.
pounds found in various tissues, associated with Proteinuria Means the presence of an excess of
muscular contraction and the inflammation serum proteins in the urine.
response such as swelling, pain, stiffness, Proteolysis Cleavage of the peptide bonds in
redness and warmth. protein forming smaller polypeptides. adj.
Prostaglandin E2 (PEG −2) One of the prosta- proteolytic.
glandins, a group of hormone-like substances Proteomics The large-scale study of proteins,
that participate in a wide range of body func- particularly their structures and functions.
tions such as the contraction and relaxation of Protheolithic Proteolytic see proteolysis.
smooth muscle, the dilation and constriction Prothrombin Blood-clotting protein that is
of blood vessels, control of blood pressure and converted to the active form, factor IIa, or
modulation of inflammation. thrombin, by cleavage.
Prostaglandin E Synthase An enzyme that Prothyroid Good for thyroid function.
in humans is encoded by the glutathione- Proto-oncogene A normal gene which, when
dependent PTGES gene. altered by mutation, becomes an oncogene
Prostanoids Term used to describe a subclass that can contribute to cancer.
of eicosanoids (products of COX pathway) Prurigo A general term used to describe itchy
consisting of: the prostaglandins (mediators of eruptions of the skin.
inflammatory and anaphylactic reactions), the Pruritus Defined as an unpleasant sensation on
thromboxanes (mediators of vasoconstriction) the skin that provokes the desire to rub or
and the prostacyclins (active in the resolution scratch the area to obtain relief; itch, itching.
phase of inflammation.) adj. pruritic.
Prostanoid EP 4 A prostaglandin receptor that PSA Prostate-specific antigen, a protein which
may be involved in the neonatal adaptation of is secreted into ejaculate fluid by the healthy
circulatory system, osteoporosis, as well as prostate. One of its functions is to aid sperm
initiation of skin immune responses. movement.
Prostate A gland that surrounds the urethra at Psoriasis A common chronic, non-contagious
the bladder in the male. autoimmune dermatosis that affects the skin
Prostate Cancer A disease in which cancer and joints.
develops in the prostate, a gland in the male Psychoactive Having effects on the mind or
reproductive system. Symptoms include pain, behaviour.
difficulty in urinating, erectile dysfunction Psychonautics Exploration of the psyche by
and other symptoms. means of approaches such as meditation,
938 Medical Glossary

prayer, lucid dreaming, brain wave entrain- Pyorrhoea See periodontitis.

ment, etc. Pyretic Referring to fever.
Psychotomimetic Hallucinogenic. Pyrexia Fever of unknown origin.
Psychotropic Capable of affecting the mind, Pyridoxal A chemical form of vitamin B6. See
emotions and behaviour. vitamin B6.
PTEN Phosphatase and tensin homolog, a Pyridoxamine A chemical form of vitamin B6.
tumour suppressor gene. See vitamin B6.
Ptosis Also known as drooping eyelid, caused Pyridoxine A chemical form of vitamin B6. See
by weakness of the eyelid muscle and damage vitamin B6.
to the nerves that control the muscles or loose- Pyrolysis Decomposition or transformation of a
ness of the skin of the upper eyelid. compound caused by heat. adj. pyrolytic.
P13-K Is a lipid kinase enzyme involved in the PYY Peptide A 36 amino acid peptide secreted
regulation of a number of cellular functions by L cells of the distal small intestine and colon
such as cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, that inhibits gastric and pancreatic secretion.
motility, survival and intracellular trafficking, QSR Complex Series of deflections in an elec-
which in turn are involved in cancer. trocardiogram that represent electrical activity
P13-K/AKT Signalling Pathway Shown to be generated by ventricular depolarization prior
important for an extremely diverse array of to contraction of the ventricle.
cellular activities—most notably cellular QT Interval Is a measure of the time between
proliferation and survival. the start of the Q wave and the end of the T
Phthisis Silicosis with tuberculosis. wave in the heart’s electrical cycle. A pro-
Ptosis Drooping of the upper eye lid. longed QT interval is a biomarker for ventric-
PTP Protein tyrosine phosphatase. ular tachyarrhythmias and a risk factor for
PTPIB Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B. sudden death.
P21 Also known as cyclin-dependent kinase Quorum Sensing (QS) The control of gene
inhibitor 1 or CDK-interacting protein 1, is a expression in response to cell density; is used
potent cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor. by both gram-negative and gram-positive
Puerperal Pertaining to child birth. bacteria to regulate a variety of physiological
Puerperium Postpartum period. functions.
Pulmonary Embolism A blockage (blood clot) Radiodermatitis A skin disease associated with
of the main artery of the lung. prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation.
Purgative A substance used to cleanse or purge, Radiolysis The dissociation of molecules by
especially causing the immediate evacuation radiation.
of the bowel. Radioprotective Serving to protect or aiding in
Purpura Is the appearance of red or purple dis- protecting against the injurious effect of
colorations on the skin that do not blanch on radiations.
applying pressure, also called peliosis. RAD23B UV excision repair protein RAD23
Purulent Containing pus discharge. homolog B
Purulent Sputum Sputum containing, or con- RAGE Is the receptor for advanced glycation
sisting of, pus. end products; a multiligand receptor that prop-
Pustule Small, inflamed, pus-filled lesions. agates cellular dysfunction in several inflam-
Pyelitis Acute inflammation of the pelvis of the matory disorders, in tumours and in diabetes.
kidney caused by bacterial infection. RAS See renin–angiotensin system or recurrent
Pyelonephritis An ascending urinary tract aphthous stomatitis.
infection that has reached the pyelum (pelvis) Rash A temporary eruption on the skin, see
of the kidney. urticaria.
Pyoderma Bacterial skin infection. Reactive Oxygen Species Species such as
Pyodermatitis Refers to inflammation of the skin. superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl
Medical Glossary 939

radical. At low levels, these species may func- Respiratory Burst Is the rapid release of
tion in cell signalling processes. At higher reactive oxygen species (superoxide radical
levels, these species may damage cellular mac- and hydrogen peroxide) from different cells.
romolecules (such as DNA and RNA) and par- Restenosis Is the reoccurrence of stenosis, a
ticipate in apoptosis (programmed cell death). narrowing of a blood vessel, leading to
Rec A Is a 38 kDa Escherichia coli protein essen- restricted blood flow.
tial for the repair and maintenance of DNA. Resveratrol Is a phytoalexin produced naturally
Receptor for Advanced Glycation End by several plants when under attack by patho-
Products (RAGE) Is a member of the immu- gens such as bacteria or fungi. It is a potent
noglobulin superfamily of cell surface mole- antioxidant found in red grapes and other
cules, mediates neurite outgrowth and cell plants.
migration upon stimulation with its ligand Reticulocyte Non-nucleated stage in the devel-
amphoterin. opment of the red blood cell.
Recurrent Aphthous Stomatitis or RAS Is a Reticulocyte Lysate Cell lysate produced from
common, painful condition in which recurring reticulocytes, used as an in vitro translation
ovoid or round ulcers affect the oral mucosa. system.
Redox Homeostasis Is considered as the Reticuloendothelial System Part of the immune
cumulative action of all free radical reactions system, consists of the phagocytic cells
and antioxidant defences in different tissues. located in reticular connective tissue, primarily
Refrigerant A medicine or an application for monocytes and macrophages.
allaying heat, fever or its symptoms. Retinal Ischaemia Is a common cause of visual
Renal Calculi Kidney stones. impairment and blindness.
Renal Interstitial Fibrosis Damage sustained by Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP) An inherited,
the kidneys’ renal tubules and interstitial capil- degenerative eye disease that causes severe
laries due to accumulation of extracellular waste vision impairment and may lead to blindness.
in the wall of the small arteries and arterioles. Retinoblastoma Protein A tumour suppressor
Renal Resistive Index (RRI) Measures the protein that is dysfunctional in several major
resistance of renal arterial flow to the kidney. cancers.
Renin Also known as an angiotensinogenase, is Retinol A form of vitamin A; see vitamin A.
an enzyme that participates in the body’s Retinopathy A general term that refers to some
renin–angiotensin system (RAS). form of non-inflammatory damage to the
Renin–Angiotensin System (RAS) Also called retina of the eye.
the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system Revulsive Counterirritant, used for swellings.
(RAAS), is a hormone system that regulates Reye’s Syndrome A potentially fatal disease
blood pressure and water (fluid) balance. that has numerous detrimental effects to many
Reperfusion The restoration of blood flow to an organs, especially the brain and liver, occurs
organ or tissue that has had its blood supply commonly in children after a viral infection.
cut off, as after a heart attack. Rhabdomyolysis Breakdown of muscle fibres
Reporter Gene A transfected gene that produces leading to the release of muscle fibre content
a signal, such as green fluorescence, when it is (myoglobin) into the bloodstream.
expressed. Rheumatic Pertaining to rheumatism or to
Resistin A cysteine-rich protein secreted by abnormalities of the musculoskeletal system.
adipose tissue of mice and rats. Rheumatism, Rheumatic Disorder, Rheumatic
Resolutive A substance that induces subsidence Diseases Refers to various painful medical
of inflammation. conditions which affect bones, joints, muscles,
Resolvent Reduce inflammation or swelling. tendons. Rheumatic diseases are characterized
Resorb To absorb or assimilate a product of the by the signs of inflammation—redness, heat,
body such as an exudates or cellular growth. swelling and pain.
940 Medical Glossary

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Is a chronic, Salve Medical ointment used to soothe the head
systemic autoimmune disorder that most or body surface.
commonly causes inflammation and tissue Sapraemia See septicaemia.
damage in joints (arthritis) and tendon sheaths, Sarcoma Cancer of the connective or supportive
together with anaemia. tissue (bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood ves-
Rhinitis Irritation and inflammation of some sels) and soft tissues.
internal areas of the nose and the primary Sarcopenia Degenerative loss of skeletal muscle
symptom of rhinitis is a runny nose. mass and strength associated with aging.
Rhinopathy Disease or malformation of the nose. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum A special type of
Rhinoplasty Is surgery to repair or reshape the smooth endoplasmic reticulum found in
nose. smooth and striated muscle.
Rhinorrhoea Commonly known as a runny SARS Severe acute respiratory syndrome, the
nose, characterized by an unusually signifi- name of a potentially fatal new respiratory
cant amount of nasal discharge. disease in humans which is caused by the
Rhinosinusitis Inflammation of the nasal cavity SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV).
and sinuses. Satiety State of feeling satiated, fully satisfied
Rho GTPases Rho-guanosine triphosphate (appetite or desire).
hydrolase enzymes are molecular switches Scabies A transmissible ectoparasite skin infec-
that regulate many essential cellular processes, tion characterized by superficial burrows, intense
including actin dynamics, gene transcription, pruritus (itching) and secondary infection.
cell-cycle progression and cell adhesion. Scarlatina Scarlet fever, an acute, contagious
Ribosome Inactivating Proteins Protein that is disease caused by infection with group A
capable of inactivating ribosomes. streptococcal bacteria.
Rickets Is a softening of the bones in children Schistosomiasis Is a parasitic disease caused
potentially leading to fractures and deformity. by several species of fluke of the genus
Ringworm Dermatophytosis, a skin infection Schistosoma. Also known as bilharzia, bilhar-
caused by fungus. ziosis or snail fever.
Roborant Restoring strength or vigour, a tonic. Schizophrenia A psychotic disorder (or a group
Rotavirus The most common cause of infec- of disorders) marked by severely impaired
tious diarrhoea (gastroenteritis) in young thinking, emotions and behaviours.
children and infants, one of several viruses Schwann Cells Or neurolemmocytes, are the
that cause infections called stomach flu. principal supporting cells of the peripheral
Rubefacient A substance for external applica- nervous system, they form the myelin sheath
tion that produces redness of the skin, e.g. by of a nerve fibre.
causing dilation of the capillaries and an Sciatica A condition characterized by pain deep
increase in blood. in the buttock often radiating down the back of
Ryanodine Receptor Intracellular Ca++ chan- the leg along the sciatic nerve.
nels in animal tissues like muscles and Scleroderma A disease of the body’s connec-
neurons. tive tissue. The most common symptom is a
S.C. Abbreviation for subcutaneous, beneath the thickening and hardening of the skin, particu-
layer of skin. larly of the hands and face.
S-T Segment The portion of an electrocardio- Scrofula A tuberculous infection of the skin
gram between the end of the QRS complex on the neck caused by the bacterium
and the beginning of the T wave. Elevation or Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
depression of the S-T segment is the charac- Scrophulosis See scrofula.
teristics of myocardial ischaemia or injury and Scurf Abnormal skin condition in which small
coronary artery disease. flakes or sales become detached.
Medical Glossary 941

Scurvy A state of dietary deficiency of vitamin C Sexual Potentiator Increases sexual activity
(ascorbic acid) which is required for the syn- and potency, enhances sexual performance
thesis of collagen in humans. due to increased blood flow and efficient
Secretagogue A substance that causes another metabolism.
substance to be secreted. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) Infections
Sedative Having a soothing, calming or tran- that are transmitted through sexual activity.
quilizing effect; reducing or relieving stress, SGOT, Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transa-
irritability or excitement. minase An enzyme that is normally present
Seizure The physical findings or changes in in liver and heart cells. SGOT is released into
behaviour that occur after an episode of abnor- blood when the liver or heart is damaged, also
mal electrical activity in the brain. called aspartate transaminase (AST).
Selectins Are a family of cell adhesion mole- SGPT, Serum Glutamic Pyruvic Transa-
cules; e.g. selectin-E, selectin-L, selectin P. minase An enzyme normally present in
Selenium (Se) A trace mineral that is essential serum and body tissues, especially in the liver;
to good health but required only in tiny it is released into the serum as a result of tissue
amounts; it is incorporated into proteins to injury, also called alanine transaminase (ALT).
make selenoproteins, which are important Shiga-Like Toxin A toxin produced by the
antioxidant enzymes. It is found in avocado, bacterium Escherichia coli which disrupts
brazil nut, lentils, sunflower seeds, tomato, the function of ribosomes, also known as
whole grain cereals, seaweed, seafood and verotoxin.
meat. Shiga Toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC)
Sensorineural Bradyacusia Hearing impairment Comprises a diverse group of organisms capa-
of the inner ear resulting from damage to the ble of causing severe gastrointestinal disease
sensory hair cells or to the nerves that supply in humans.
the inner ear. Shiga Toxin A toxin produced by the bacterium
Sepsis Potentially fatal whole-body inflamma- Shigella dysenteriae, which disrupts the func-
tion caused by severe infection. tion of ribosomes.
Sequela An abnormal pathological condition Shingles Skin rash caused by the zoster virus
resulting from a disease, injury or trauma. (same virus that causes chicken pox) and is
Serine Proteinase Peptide hydrolases which medically termed Herpes zoster.
have an active centre histidine and serine Sialogogue Salivation promoter, a substance
involved in the catalytic process. used to increase or promote the excretion of
Serotonergic Liberating, activated by or involv- saliva.
ing serotonin in the transmission of nerve Sialoproteins Glycoproteins that contain sialic
impulses. acid as one of their carbohydrates.
Serotonin A monoamine neurotransmitter syn- Sialylation Reaction with sialic acid or its
thesized in serotonergic neurons in the central derivatives; used especially with oligosac-
nervous system. charides.
Sepsis Is a potentially fatal medical condition Sialyltransferases Enzymes that transfer sialic
characterized by a whole-body inflammatory acid to nascent oligosaccharide.
response (called a systemic inflammatory Sickle Cell Disease Is an inherited blood disor-
response syndrome or SIRS) that is triggered der that affects red blood cells. People with
by an infection. sickle cell disease have red blood cells that
Septicaemia A systemic disease associated with contain mostly haemoglobin S, an abnormal
the presence and persistence of pathogenic type of haemoglobin. Sometimes these red
microorganisms or their toxins in the blood. blood cells become sickle-shaped (crescent-
Sequelae A pathological condition resulting shaped) and have difficulty passing through
from a prior disease, injury or attack. small blood vessels.
942 Medical Glossary

Side Stitch Is an intense stabbing pain under the SOD Superoxide dismutase, is an enzyme that
lower edge of the ribcage that occurs while repairs cells and reduces the damage done to
exercising. them by superoxide, the most common free
Signal Transduction Cascade Refers to a series radical in the body.
of sequential events that transfer a signal Sodium (Na) Is an essential nutrient required
through a series of intermediate molecules for health. Sodium cations are important in
until final regulatory molecules, such as tran- neuron (brain and nerve) function and in influ-
scription factors, are modified in response to encing osmotic balance between cells and the
the signal. interstitial fluid and in maintenance of total
Silicon (Si) Is required in minute amounts by body fluid homeostasis. Extra intake may
the body and is important for the development cause a harmful effect on health. Sodium is
of healthy hair and the prevention of nervous naturally supplied by salt intake with food.
disorders. Lettuce is the best natural source of Soleus Muscle Smaller calf muscle lower down
silicon. the leg and under the gastrocnemius muscle.
Sinapism Signifies an external application, in Somites Mesodermal structures formed during
the form of a soft plaster, or poultice. embryonic development that give rise to
Sinusitis Inflammation of the nasal sinuses. segmented body parts such as the muscles of
SIRC Cells Statens Serum Institut Rabbit the body wall.
Cornea (SIRC) cell line. Soporific A sleep-inducing drug.
SIRT 1 Stands for sirtuin (silent mating type SOS Response A global response to DNA dam-
information regulation 2 homolog) 1. It is an age in which the cell cycle is arrested and
enzyme that deacetylates proteins that con- DNA repair and mutagenesis are induced.
tribute to cellular regulation. Soyasapogenins Triterpenoid products obtained
Sirtuin Also called Sir2 proteins a class of pro- from the acid hydrolysis of soyasaponins,
teins that possess either histone deacetylase or designated soyasapogenols A, B, C, D and E.
mono-ribosyltransferase activity. Soyasaponins Bioactive saponin compounds
6-Keto-PGF1 Alpha A physiologically active found in many legumes.
and stable hydrolysis product of epoprostenol, Spasmogenic Inducing spasm.
found in nearly all mammalian tissues. Spasmolytic Checking spasms; see antispasmodic.
Sjögren’s Syndrome An autoimmune disease Spermatorrhoea Medically an involuntary
that mainly affects the eyes and salivary glands, ejaculation/drooling of semen usually noctur-
but can affect different parts of the body. nal emissions.
SKP1 (S-Phase Kinase-Associated Protein 1) Is Spermidine An important polyamine in DNA
a core component of SCF ubiquitin ligases synthesis and gene expression.
and mediates protein degradation. Sphingolipid A member of a class of lipids
Smads A family of intracellular proteins that derived from the aliphatic amino alcohol,
mediate signalling by members of the TGF- sphingosine.
beta (transforming growth factor beta) Spina Bifida A congenital birth defect caused
superfamily. by the incomplete closing of the embryonic
Smad2/3 A key signalling molecule for neural tube.
TGF-beta. Spinocerebellar Ataxia (SCA) Is a progressive,
Smad7 A TGFβ type 1 receptor antagonist. degenerative, genetic disease with multiple
Smallpox Is an acute, contagious and devastat- types.
ing disease in humans caused by Variola virus Spleen Organ that filters blood and prevents
and have resulted in high mortality over the infection.
centuries. Spleen Tyrosine Kinase (SYK) Is an enigmatic
Snuff Powder inhaled through the nose. protein tyrosine kinase functional in a number
SOCE (Store-Operated Ca2+ Entry) Is a of diverse cellular processes such as the regu-
receptor-regulated Ca2+ entry pathway. lation of immune and inflammatory responses.
Medical Glossary 943

Splenitis Inflammation of the spleen. Stimulant A substance that promotes the activity
Splenocyte Is a monocyte, one of the five major of a body system or function.
types of white blood cell, and is characteristi- Stomachic Digestive stimulant, an agent that
cally found in the splenic tissue. stimulates or strengthens the activity of the
Splenomegaly Is an enlargement of the spleen. stomach; used as a tonic to improve the appe-
Sprain To twist a ligament or muscle of a joint tite and digestive processes.
without dislocating the bone. Stomatitis Oral inflammation and ulcers, may
Sprue Is a chronic disorder of the small intes- be mild and localized or severe, widespread
tine caused by sensitivity to gluten, a protein and painful.
found in wheat and rye and to a lesser extent Stomatology Medical study of the mouth and
oats and barley. It causes poor absorption by its diseases.
the intestine of fat, protein, carbohydrates, Stool Faeces.
iron, water and vitamins A, D, E and K. Strangury Is the painful passage of small quan-
Sputum Matter coughed up and usually ejected tities of urine which are expelled slowly by
from the mouth, including saliva, foreign straining with severe urgency; it is usually
material and substances such as mucus or accompanied with the unsatisfying feeling of
phlegm, from the respiratory tract. a remaining volume inside and a desire to pass
SREBP-1 See sterol regulatory element-binding something that will not pass.
protein-1. Straub Tail Condition in which an animal
Stanch To stop or check the flow of a bodily carries its tail in an erect (vertical or nearly
fluid like blood from a wound. vertical) position.
Statin A type of lipid-lowering drug. STREPs Sterol regulatory element-binding
STAT3 Signal transducer and activator of tran- proteins, a family of transcription factors that
scription 3, a transcription factor, plays a key regulate lipid homeostasis by controlling the
role in many cellular processes such as cell expression of a range of enzymes required
growth and apoptosis. for endogenous cholesterol, fatty acid, triacyl-
Status Epilepticus Refers to a life-threatening glycerol and phospholipid synthesis.
condition in which the brain is in a state of Stria Terminalis A structure in the brain con-
persistent seizure. sisting of a band of fibres running along the
STD Sexually transmitted disease. lateral margin of the ventricular surface of the
Steatohepatitis Liver disease, characterized by thalamus.
inflammation of the liver with fat accumula- Striae Gravidarum A cutaneous condition
tion in the liver. characterized by stretch marks on the abdo-
Steatorrhoea Is the presence of excess fat in men during and following pregnancy.
feces which appear frothy, foul smelling and Stricture An abnormal constriction of the inter-
floats because of the high fat content. nal passageway within a tubular structure such
Steatosis Refers to the deposition of fat in the as a vessel or duct.
interstitial spaces of an organ like the liver, Strongyloidiasis An intestinal parasitic infec-
fatty liver disease. tion in humans caused by two species of the
Sterility Inability to produce offspring, also parasitic nematode Strongyloides. The nema-
called asepsis. tode or round worms are also called thread
Steroidogenesis The production of steroids, as worms.
by the adrenal glands. Styptic A short stick of medication, usually
Steroidogenic Relating to steroidogenesis. anhydrous aluminum sulphate (a type of alum)
Sterol Regulatory Element-Binding Protein-1 or titanium dioxide, which is used for stanch-
(SREBP1) Is a key regulator of the transcrip- ing blood by causing blood vessels to contract
tion of numerous genes that function in the at the site of the wound, also called hemostatic
metabolism of cholesterol and fatty acids. pencil; see antihaemorrhagic.
944 Medical Glossary

Subarachnoid Haemorrhage Is bleeding in the that in general inhibits or opposes the physio-
area between the brain and the thin tissues that logical effects of the parasympathetic nervous
cover the brain. system, as in tending to reduce digestive
Substance P A neuropeptide that functions as a secretions or speed up the heart.
neurotransmitter, neuromodulator and is asso- Synaptic Plasticity The ability of neurons to
ciated with the sensation of pain. change the number and strength of their
Substantia Nigra Is a dark coloured brain struc- synapses.
ture located in the midbrain that plays an Synaptogenesis The formation of synapses.
important role in reward, addiction and Synaptoneurosomes Purified synapses contain-
movement. ing the pre- and postsynaptic termini.
Sudatory Medicine that causes or increases Synaptosomes Isolated terminal of a neuron.
sweating; also see sudorific. Syncope Fainting, sudden loss of consciousness
Sudorific A substance that causes sweating. followed by the return of wakefulness.
Sulphur Sulphur is an essential component of Syndactyly Webbed toes, a condition where
all living cells. Sulphur is important for the two or more digits are fused together.
synthesis of sulphur-containing amino acids, Syneresis Expulsion of liquid from a gel, as
all polypeptides, proteins and enzymes such contraction of a blood clot and expulsion of
as glutathione an important sulphur-containing liquid.
tripeptide which plays a role in cells as a Syngeneic Genetically identical or closely
source of chemical reduction potential. related, so as to allow tissue transplant, immu-
Sulphur is also important for hair formation. nologically compatible.
Good plant sources are garlic, onion, leeks Synovial Lubricating fluid secreted by synovial
and other Alliaceous vegetables, Brassicaceous membranes, as those of the joints.
vegetables like cauliflower, cabbages, Brussels Synoviocyte Located in the synovial membrane,
sprout, Kale; legumes—beans, green and red there are two types. Type A cells are more
gram, soybeans; horse radish, water cress, numerous, have phagocytic characteristics
wheat germ. and produce degradative enzymes. Type B
Superior Mesenteric Artery (SMA) Arises cells produce synovial fluid, which lubricates
from the anterior surface of the abdominal the joint and nurtures nourishes the articular
aorta, just inferior to the origin of the celiac cartilage.
trunk, and supplies the intestine from the Syphilis Is perhaps the best known of all the
lower part of the duodenum to the left colic STDs. Syphilis is transmitted by direct contact
flexure and the pancreas. with infection sores, called chancres, syphitic
Superoxidae Mutase (SOD) Antioxidant enzyme. skin rashes or mucous patches on the tongue
Suppuration The formation of pus, the act of and mouth during kissing, necking, petting or
becoming converted into and discharging pus. sexual intercourse. It can also be transmitted
Supraorbital Located above the orbit of the eye. from a pregnant woman to a fetus after the
Sural Nerve Sensory nerve comprising collat- fourth month of pregnancy.
eral branches off of the common tibial and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus A long-term
common fibular nerve. autoimmune disorder that may affect the skin,
SYK, Spleen Tyrosine Kinase Is a human joints, kidneys, brain and other organs.
protein and gene. Syk plays a similar role in Symptoms may include chest pain, fatigue,
transmitting signals from a variety of cell sur- fever, hair loss, malaise, mouth sores, sensitiv-
face receptors including CD74, Fc Receptor ity to sunlight, skin rash (butterfly-rash).
and integrins. Systolic The blood pressure when the heart is
Sympathetic Nervous System The part of the contracting. It is specifically the maximum
autonomic nervous system originating in the arterial pressure during contraction of the left
thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord ventricle of the heart.
Medical Glossary 945

T Cells Or T lymphocytes, a type of white blood Teletherapy A noninvasive procedure using

cell that plays a key role in the immune external beam radiotherapy treatments.
system. Telomerase Enzyme that acts on parts of chro-
Tachyarrhythmia Any disturbance of the heart mosomes known as telomeres.
rhythm in which the heart rate is abnormally Temporomandibular Joint Disorder (TMJD
increased. or TMD Syndrome) A disorder character-
Tachycardia A false heart rate applied to adults ized by acute or chronic inflammation of the
to rates over 100 beats per minute. temporomandibular joint that connects the
Tachykinins Neuropeptide transmitters that are mandible to the skull.
widely distributed and active in the central Tendonitis Is the inflammation of a tendon.
nervous system and periphery, rapidly acting Tenesmus A strong desire to defecate.
secretagogues and cause smooth muscle Teratogen Is an agent that can cause malforma-
contraction and vasodilation (hypotension). tions of an embryo or fetus. adj. teratogenic.
Tachyphylaxia A decreased response to a Testicular Torsion Twisting of the spermatic cord,
medicine given over a period of time so that which cuts off the blood supply to the testicle
larger doses are required to produce the same and surrounding structures within the scrotum.
response. Tetanus An acute, potentially fatal disease
Tachypnea Abnormally fast breathing. caused by tetanus bacilli multiplying at the site
Taenia A parasitic tapeworm or flatworm of the of an injury and producing an exotoxin that
genus, Taenia. reaches the central nervous system producing
Taeniacide An agent that kills tapeworms. prolonged contraction of skeletal muscle fibres,
Tardive Dyskinesia A disorder characterized also called lockjaw.
by repetitive, involuntary, purposeless move- Tete Acute dermatitis caused by both bacterial
ments in the body such as grimacing, tongue and fungal infection.
protrusion, lip smacking, puckering and purs- Tetter Any of a number of skin diseases.
ing of the lips and rapid eye blinking. Rapid, TGF-Beta Transforming growth factor beta is a
involuntary movements of the limbs, torso and protein that controls proliferation, cellular dif-
fingers may also occur. ferentiation and other functions in most cells.
Tau Is a class of microtubule-associated protein Th Cells or T Helper Cells A subgroup of lym-
(MAP) in neuronal and glial cells. phocytes that helps other white blood cells in
Tau-1 (Ser198/199/202), pS396 (Ser396) and immunologic processes.
pS214 (Ser214) Epitopes Serine phosphory- Th 1 Cells Helper cells that play an important
lation sites of tau-1. role in the immune system.
Tau Phosphorylation Plays an important role Th 17 Cells A subset of T helper cells producing
in neurodegenerative diseases and regulated interleukin 17.
by protein kinases and phosphatases. Thalassemia Major Is a genetic blood disorder
TBARS See thiobarbituric acid reactive that causes the body to manufacture an abnor-
substances. mal form of haemoglobin.
T-Cell A type of white blood cell that attacks Thelarche The beginning of secondary (postnatal)
virus-infected cells, foreign cells and cancer breast development, usually occurring at the
cells. beginning of puberty in girls.
TCA Cycle See tricarboxylic acid cycle. Thermogenesis Is the process of heat produc-
TCID50 Median tissue culture infective dose; tion in organisms.
that amount of a pathogenic agent that will Thermogenic Tending to produce heat, applied
produce pathological change in 50 % of cell to drugs or food (fat burning food).
cultures. Thermonociceptors Or thermal nociceptors,
Telencephalon The cerebral hemispheres, the sensory receptors that are stimulated by noxious
largest divisions of the human brain. heat or cold at various temperature.
946 Medical Glossary

Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances Thyrotoxicosis Or hyperthyroidism—an over-

(TBARS) A well-established method for active thyroid gland, producing excessive
screening and monitoring lipid peroxidation. circulating free thyroxine and free triiodothy-
Thixotropy The property exhibited by certain ronine, or both.
gels of becoming fluid when stirred or shaken Tight Junction Associated areas of two cells
and returning to the semisolid state upon whose membranes join together forming a
standing. virtually impermeable barrier to fluid.
3-β-HSD Or 3-β-hydroxysteroid dehydro- TIMP-3 A human gene belongs to the tissue
genase/δ-5-4 isomerase, is an enzyme that inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)
catalyses the synthesis of progesterone from gene family; see MMP.
pregnenolone. Tincture Solution of a drug in alcohol.
3-Nitrotyrosine (3-NT) Protein Used as a marker Tinea Ringworm, fungal infection on the skin.
for oxidative damage or nitrosative stress. Tinea cruris Ringworm of the groin.
Thrombocythaemia A blood condition charac- Tinea favosa See favus.
terized by a high number of platelets in the Tinea imbricata Also called Tokelau, an eruption
blood. characterized by concentric rings of overlap-
Thrombocytopenia A condition when the bone ping scales forming papulosquamous patches
marrow does not produce enough platelets scattered over the body; it occurs in tropical
(thrombocytes) like in leukaemia. climates especially prevalent in southwest
Thromboembolism Formation in a blood vessel Polynesia and is caused by the fungus
of a clot (thrombus) that breaks loose and is Trichophyton concentricum.
carried by the bloodstream to plug another Tinea pedis Fungal infection of the foot, also
vessel. cf. deep vein thrombosis. called athletes’ foot.
Thrombogenesis Formation of a thrombus or Tinnitus A noise in the ears, as ringing, buzzing,
blood clot. roaring, clicking, etc.
Thrombophlebitis Occurs when there is inflam- Tisane A herbal infusion used as tea or for
mation and clot in a surface vein. medicinal purposes.
Thromboplastin An enzyme liberated from Tissue Plasminogen Activator (tPA) A serine
blood platelets that converts prothrombin into protease involved in the breakdown of blood
thrombin as blood starts to clot, also called clots.
thrombokinase. TNF-Alpha Cachexin or cachectin and formally
Thrombosis The formation or presence of a known as tumour necrosis factor-alpha, a cyto-
thrombus (clot). kine involved in systemic inflammation.
Thromboxanes Any of several compounds, Primary role of TNF is in the regulation of
originally derived from prostaglandin precur- immune cells. TNF is also able to induce apop-
sors in platelets that stimulate aggregation of totic cell death, to induce inflammation, and to
platelets and constriction of blood vessels. inhibit tumorigenesis and viral replication.
Thromboxane B2 The inactive product of Tocolytics Medications used to suppress prema-
thromboxane. ture labour.
Thrombus A fibrinous clot formed in a blood Tocopherol Fat-soluble organic compounds
vessel or in a chamber of the heart. belonging to vitamin E group. See vitamin E.
Thrush A common mycotic infection caused by Tocotrienol Fat-soluble organic compounds
yeast, Candida albicans, in the digestive tract belonging to vitamin E group. See vitamin E.
or vagina. In children it is characterized by Tolerogenic Producing immunological tolerance.
white spots on the tongue. Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs) A class of pro-
Thymocytes Are T cell precursors which teins that play a key role in the innate immune
develop in the thymus. system.
Medical Glossary 947

Tonic Substance that acts to restore, balance, Transcriptional Activators Are proteins that
tone, strengthen or invigorate a body system bind to DNA and stimulate transcription of
without overt stimulation or depression. nearby genes.
Tonic Clonic Seizure A type of generalized Transcriptional Coactivator PGC-1 A potent
seizure that affects the entire brain. transcriptional coactivator that regulates
Tonsillitis An inflammatory condition of the oxidative metabolism in a variety of tissues.
tonsils due to bacteria, allergies or respiratory Transcriptome Profiling To identify genes
problems. involved in peroxisome assembly and function.
TOP2A Topoisomerase II alpha enzyme. Transforming Growth Factor Beta (TGF-β) A
Topoisomerases A class of enzymes involved in protein that controls proliferation, cellular
the regulation of DNA supercoiling. differentiation and other functions in most
Topoisomerase Inhibitors A new class of anti- cells.
cancer agents with a mechanism of action aimed Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1
at interrupting DNA replication in cancer cells. (TRPV1) Receptor also known as capsaicin
Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN) Is a method of receptor and vanilloid receptor, is a Ca 2+
feeding that bypasses the gastrointestinal tract. permeable nonselective cation channel local-
Toxaemia Is the presence of abnormal sub- ized on a subset of primary sensory neurons
stances in the blood, but the term is also used and can be activated by physical and chemical
for a serious condition in pregnancy that stimuli.
involves hypertension and proteinuria, also TRAP 6 Thrombin receptor-activating peptide
called pre-eclampsia. with six amino acids.
Tracheitis Is a bacterial infection of the trachea, Tremorine A chemical that produces a tremor
also known as bacterial tracheitis or acute resembling Parkinsonian tremor.
bacterial tracheitis. Tremulous Marked by trembling, quivering or
Trachoma A contagious disease of the conjunc- shaking.
tiva and cornea of the eye, producing painful Triacylglycerols Or triacylglyceride, is a glyceride
sensitivity to strong light and excessive tearing. in which the glycerol is esterified with three
TRAIL Acronym for tumour necrosis factor- fatty acids.
related apoptosis-inducing ligand, is a cyto- Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA Cycle) A
kine that preferentially induces apoptosis in series of enzymatic reactions in aerobic organ-
tumour cells. isms involving oxidative metabolism of acetyl
Tranquilizer A substance drug used in calming units and producing high-energy phosphate
person suffering from nervous tension or compounds, which serve as the main source of
anxiety. cellular energy, also called citric acid cycle,
Transaminase Also called aminotransferase is Krebs cycle.
an enzyme that catalyses a type of reaction Trichophytosis Infection by fungi of the genus
between an amino acid and an α-keto acid. Trichophyton.
Transaminitis Increase in alanine aminotransfer- Trigeminal Neuralgia (TN) Is a neuropathic
ase (ALT) and/or aspartate aminotransferase disorder of one or both of the facial trigeminal
(AST) to >5 times the upper limit of normal. nerves, also known as prosopalgia.
Transcatheter Arterial Chemoembolization Triglycerides A type of fat (lipids) found in the
(TACE) Is an interventional radiology proce- bloodstream.
dure involving percutaneous access of to the Trismus Continuous contraction of the muscles
hepatic artery and passing a catheter through of the jaw, specifically as a symptom of teta-
the abdominal artery aorta followed by radiol- nus, or lockjaw, inability to open mouth fully.
ogy. It is used extensively in the palliative TrKB Receptor Also known as TrKB tyrosine
treatment of unresectable hepatocellular carci- kinase, a protein in humans that acts as a cata-
noma (HCC). lytic receptor for several neutrophins.
948 Medical Glossary

Trolox Equivalent Measures the antioxidant Ulcerative Colitis Is one of two types of inflam-
capacity of a given substance, as compared to matory bowel disease, a condition that causes
the standard Trolox also referred to as TEAC the bowel to become inflamed and red.
(Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity). Ulemorrhagia Bleeding of the gums.
TRPV1 See transient receptor potential Ulitis Inflammation of the gums.
vanilloid 1. Unguent Ointment.
Trypanocidal Destructive to trypanosomes. Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction Unilateral
Trypanosomes Protozoan of the genus blockage of urine flow through the ureter of
Trypanosoma. one kidney, resulting in a backup of urine,
Trypanosomiasis Human disease or an infec- distension of the renal pelvis and calyces and
tion caused by a trypanosome. hydronephrosis.
Trypsin An enzyme of pancreatic juice that hydro- Uraemia An excess in the blood of urea, creati-
lyses proteins into smaller polypeptide units. nine and other nitrogenous end products of
Trypsin Inhibitor Small protein synthesized protein and amino acids metabolism, more
in the exocrine pancreas which prevents correctly referred to as azotaemia.
conversion of trypsinogen to trypsin, so Urethra Tube conveying urine from the bladder
protecting itself against trypsin digestion. to the external urethral orifice.
Tuberculosis (TB) Is a bacterial infection of Urethritis Is an inflammation of the urethra
the lungs caused by a bacterium called caused by infection.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, characterized Uricaemia An excess of uric acid or urates in
by the formation of lesions (tubercles) and the blood.
necrosis in the lung tissues and other organs. Uricosuric Promoting the excretion of uric acid
Tumorigenesis Formation or production of tumours. in the urine.
Tumour An abnormal swelling of the body Urinary Pertaining to the passage of urine.
other than those caused by direct injury. Urinary Incontinence Sudden and strong need
Tussis A cough. to urinate because of poor bladder control.
Tympanic Membrane Eardrum. Urinogenital Relating to the genital and urinary
Tympanitis Infection or inflammation of the organs or functions.
inner ear. Urodynia Pain on urination.
Tympanophonia Increased resonance of one’s Urokinase Also called urokinase-type plasmin-
own voice, breath sounds, arterial murmurs, etc. ogen (uPA), is a serine protease enzyme in
noted especially in disease of the middle ear. human urine that catalyses the conversion of
Tympanosclerosis See myringosclerosis. plasminogen to plasmin. It is used clinically
Tyrosinase A copper-containing enzyme found as a thrombolytic agent.
in animals and plants that catalyses the oxida- Urokinase-Type Plasminogen (uPA) Plays a
tion of phenols (such as tyrosine) and the key role in tumour invasion and metastasis,
production of melanin and other pigments also see urokinase.
from tyrosine by oxidation. Urolithiasis Formation of stone in the urinary
Ubiquitin Ligase Also called an E3 ubiquitin tract (kidney bladder or urethra).
ligase, is a protein that targets other proteins to Urticant A substance that causes wheals to form.
be broken down (degraded) within cells. Urticaria Or hives, is a skin condition, com-
UCP1 An uncoupling protein found in the mito- monly caused by an allergic reaction, that is
chondria of brown adipose tissue used to gen- characterized by raised red skin welts.
erate heat by non-shivering thermogenesis. Uterine Relating to the uterus.
UCP-2 Enzyme Uncoupling protein 2 enzyme, a Uterine Myomas Also called fibroids, tumours
mitochondrial protein expressed in adipocytes. that grow from the uterine wall.
Ulcer An open sore on an external or internal Uterine Prolapse Occurs when weakened or
body surface usually accompanied by disinte- damaged muscles and ligaments allow the
gration of tissue and pus. uterus to slip into the vagina.
Medical Glossary 949

Uterine Relaxant An agent that relaxes the Vasospasm Refers to a condition in which blood
muscles in the uterus. vessels spasm, leading to vasoconstriction
Uterine Stimulant An agent that stimulates and subsequently to tissue ischaemia and
the uterus (and often employed during active death (necrosis).
childbirth). VCAM-1 (Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1)
Uterotonic Giving muscular tone to the Also known as CD106, contains six or seven
uterus. immunoglobulin domains and is expressed on
Uterotrophic Causing an effect on the uterus. both large and small vessels only after the
Uterus Womb. endothelial cells are stimulated by cytokines.
Vaginal Dystrophy A condition in which the VEGF Vascular endothelial growth factor.
outer part of the vagina becomes dry and the Venereal Disease (VD) Term given to the diseases
skin thickens or thins. syphilis and gonorrhoea.
Vaginitis Infectious or non-infectious inflammation Venule A small vein, especially one joining
of the vaginal mucosa. capillaries to larger veins.
Vaginopathy Any disease of the vagina. Vermifuge A substance used to expel worms
Vagotomy The surgical cutting of the vagus from the intestines.
nerve to reduce acid secretion in the stomach. Verotoxin A Shiga-like toxin produced by
Vagus Nerve A cranial nerve, that is, a nerve Escherichia coli, which disrupts the function
connected to the brain. The vagus nerve has of ribosomes, causing acute renal failure.
branches to most of the major organs in the Verruca A contagious and painful wart on the
body, including the larynx, throat, wind- sole of the foot.
pipe, lungs, heart and most of the digestive Verruca plana Is a reddish-brown or flesh-
system. coloured, slightly raised, flat-surfaced, well-
Varicose Veins Are veins that have become demarcated papule on the hand and face, also
enlarged and twisted. called flat wart.
Variola Or smallpox, a contagious disease Verruca vulgaris Small painless warts on the
unique to humans, caused by either of two skin caused by the human papillomavirus.
virus variants, Variola major and Variola Vertigo An illusory, sensory perception that the
minor. The disease is characterized by fever, surroundings or one’s own body are revolving,
weakness and skin eruption with pustules that dizziness.
form scabs that leave scars. Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) A
Vasa Vasorum Is a network of small blood type of lipoprotein made by the liver. VLDL is
vessels that supply large blood vessels. plur. one of the five major groups of lipoproteins
vasa vasori. (chylomicrons, VLDL, intermediate-density
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) A lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, high-
polypeptide chemical produced by cells that density lipoprotein (HDL)) that enable fats
stimulate the growth of new blood vessels. and cholesterol to move within the water-
Vasculogenesis The process of blood vessel based solution of the bloodstream. VLDL is
formation occurring by a de novo production converted in the bloodstream to low-density
of endothelial cells. lipoprotein (LDL).
Vasoconstrictor Drug that causes constriction Vesical Calculus Calculi (stones) in the urinary
of blood vessels. bladder
Vasodilator Drug that causes dilation or relaxation Vesicant A substance that causes tissue blistering.
of blood vessels. Vestibular Relating to the sense of balance.
Vasodilatory Causing the widening of the lumen Vestibular Disorders Includes symptoms of
of blood vessels. dizziness, vertigo and imbalance; it can be
Vasomotor Symptoms Menopausal symptoms resulted from or worsened by genetic or
characterized by hot flushes and night sweats. environmental conditions.
950 Medical Glossary

Vestibular Schwannoma Also called acoustic zyme or co-substrate for many redox reactions
neuroma is a benign tumour that may develop and is required for energy metabolism.
from an overproduction of Schwann cells that Deficiency causes pellagra.
press on the hearing and balance nerves in the Vitamin B5 Also called pantothenic acid, a
inner ear. water-soluble vitamin that function as coen-
Vestibular System Includes parts of the inner zyme in fatty acid metabolism. Deficiency
ear and brain that process sensory information causes paresthesia.
involved with controlling balance and eye Vitamin B6 Water-soluble vitamin, exists in
movement. three major chemical forms: pyridoxine, pyri-
Vibrissa Stiff hairs that are located especially doxal and pyridoxamine. Vitamin B6 is needed
about the nostrils. in enzymes involved in protein metabolism,
Vimentin A type III intermediate filament red blood cell metabolism, efficient functioning
protein that is expressed in mesenchymal cells. of nervous and immune systems and haemo-
Viraemia A medical condition where viruses globin formation. Deficiency causes anaemia
enter the bloodstream and hence have access and peripheral neuropathy.
to the rest of the body. Vitamin B7 Also called biotin or vitamin H, an
Visceral Fat Intra-abdominal fat, is located essential water-soluble vitamin, is involved in
inside the peritoneal cavity, packed in between the synthesis of fatty acids, amino acids and
internal organs and torso. glucose and in energy metabolism. Biotin
Vitamin Any complex, organic compound, promotes normal health of sweat glands, bone
found in various food or sometimes synthe- marrow, male gonads, blood cells, nerve
sized in the body, required in tiny amounts and tissue, skin and hair. Deficiency causes der-
are essential for the regulation of metabolism, matitis and enteritis.
normal growth and function of the body. Vitamin B9 Also called folic acid, an essential
Vitamin A Retinol, fat-soluble vitamins that water-soluble vitamin. Folate is especially
play an important role in vision, bone growth, important during periods of rapid cell division
reproduction, cell division and cell differenti- and growth such as infancy and pregnancy.
ation, helps regulate the immune system in Deficiency during pregnancy is associated
preventing or fighting off infections. Vitamin with birth defects such as neural tube defects.
A that is found in colourful fruits and vegeta- Folate is also important for production of red
bles is called provitamin A carotenoid. They blood cells and prevents anaemia. Folate is
can be made into retinol in the body. Deficiency needed to make DNA and RNA, the building
of vitamin A results in night blindness and blocks of cells. It also helps prevent changes
keratomalacia. to DNA that may lead to cancer.
Vitamin B1 Also called thiamine, water-soluble Vitamin B12 A water-soluble vitamin, also
vitamins, dissolves easily in water and, in called cobalamin as it contains the metal
general, are readily excreted from the body they cobalt. It helps maintain healthy nerve cells
are not readily stored, consistent daily intake and red blood cells, and DNA production.
is important. It functions as coenzyme in the Vitamin B12 is bound to the protein in food.
metabolism of carbohydrates and branched Deficiency causes megaloblastic anaemia.
chain amino acids and other cellular processes. Vitamin C Also known as ascorbic acid, is an
Deficiency results in beri-beri disease. essential water-soluble vitamin. It functions
Vitamin B2 Also called riboflavin, an essential as cofactor for reactions requiring reduced
water-soluble vitamin that functions as coen- copper or iron metallonzyme and as a protective
zyme in redox reactions. Deficiency causes antioxidant. Deficiency of vitamin C causes
ariboflavinosis. scurvy.
Vitamin B3 Comprises niacin and niacinamide, Vitamin D A group of fat-soluble, prohormone
water-soluble vitamin that functions as coen- vitamin, the two major forms of which are
Medical Glossary 951

vitamin D2 (or ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 responsible for skin pigmentation, die or are
(or cholecalciferol). Vitamin D obtained from unable to function, also called leucoderma.
sun exposure, food and supplements is biologi- Vitreoretinopathy See proliferative vitreore-
cally inert and must undergo two hydroxyl- tinopathy.
ations in the body for activation. Vitamin D is VLA-4 Very late antigen-4, expressed by most
essential for promoting calcium absorption leucocytes but it is observed on neutrophils
in the gut and maintaining adequate serum under special conditions.
calcium and phosphate concentrations to enable VLDL See very low-density lipoproteins.
normal growth and mineralization of bone and Vomitive Substance that causes vomiting.
prevent hypocalcaemic tetany. Deficiency Vulnerary Wound healer, a substance used to
causes rickets and osteomalacia. Vitamin D heal wounds and promote tissue formation.
has other roles in human health, including Vulva–Vaginal Erythema Abnormal redness
modulation of neuromuscular and immune and inflammation of the skin in the vagina.
function, reduction of inflammation and mod- Wart An infectious skin tumour caused by a
ulation of many genes encoding proteins that viral infection.
regulate cell proliferation, differentiation and Welt See wheal.
apoptosis. Wheal A firm, elevated swelling of the skin,
Vitamin E Is the collective name for a group also called a weal or welt.
of fat-soluble compounds and exists in eight White Fat White adipose tissue (WAT) in
chemical forms (alpha-, beta-, gamma- and mammals, store of energy. cf. brown fat.
delta-tocopherol and alpha-, beta-, gamma- Whitlow Painful infection of the hand involving
and delta-tocotrienol). It has pronounced 1 or more fingers that typically affect the
antioxidant activities stopping the formation terminal phalanx.
of reactive oxygen species when fat undergoes Whooping Cough Acute infectious disease usu-
oxidation and helps prevent or delay the ally in children caused by a Bacillus bacterium
chronic diseases associated with free radicals. and accompanied by catarrh of the respiratory
Besides its antioxidant activities, vitamin E is passages and repeated bouts of coughing.
involved in immune function, cell signalling, Wnt Signalling Pathway Is a network of pro-
regulation of gene expression and other teins involved in embryogenesis and cancer
metabolic processes. Deficiency is very rare and also in normal physiological processes.
but can cause mild haemolytic anaemia in Xanthine Oxidase A flavoprotein enzyme con-
newborn infants. taining a molybdenum cofactor (Moco) and
Vitamin K A group of fat-soluble vitamin and (Fe2S2) clusters, involved in purine metabo-
consists of vitamin K1 which is also known as lism. In humans, inhibition of xanthine oxidase
phylloquinone or phytomenadione (also called reduces the production of uric acid and
phytonadione) and vitamin K2 (menaquinone, prevents hyperuricaemia and gout.
menatetrenone). Vitamin K plays an important Xanthones Unique class of biologically active
role in blood clotting. Deficiency is very rare phenol compounds with the molecular formula
but can cause bleeding diathesis. C13H8O2 possessing antioxidant properties,
Vitamin P A substance or mixture of substances discovered in the mangosteen fruit.
obtained from various plant sources, identified Xenobiotics A chemical (as a drug, pesticide
as citrin or a mixture of bioflavonoids, thought or carcinogen) that is foreign to a living
to but not proven to be useful in reducing the organism.
extent of haemorrhage. Xenograft A surgical graft of tissue from one
Vitiligo A chronic skin disease that causes loss species to an unlike species.
of pigment, resulting in irregular pale patches Xerophthalmia A medical condition in which
of skin. It occurs when the melanocytes, cells the eye fails to produce tears.
952 Medical Glossary

Xerostomia Dryness in the mouth due to lack of Zeaxanthin A common carotenoid, found natu-
saliva production. rally as coloured pigments in many fruit
X-Linked Agammaglobulinaemia Also known vegetables and leafy vegetables. It is impor-
as X-linked hypogammaglobulinaemia, XLA, tant for good vision and is one of the two
Bruton type agammaglobulinaemia, Bruton carotenoids contained within the retina of
syndrome or sex-linked agammaglobulinemia; the eye. Within the central macula, zeaxanthin
a rare x-linked genetic disorder that affects the predominates, whereas in the peripheral
body’s ability to fight infection. retina, lutein predominates.
Yaws An infectious tropical infection of the Zinc (Zn) Is an essential mineral for health. It is
skin, bones and joints caused by the spirochete involved in numerous aspects of cellular
bacterium Treponema pertenue, characterized metabolism: catalytic activity of enzymes,
by papules and papilloma with subsequent immune function, protein synthesis, wound
deformation of the skin, bone and joints, also healing, DNA synthesis and cell division. It
called framboesia. also supports normal growth and development
yGCN5 A histone acetyl transferase (HAT) that during pregnancy, childhood and adolescence
plays a role in regulation of transcription, cell and is required for proper sense of taste and
cycle progression and differentiation. smell. Dietary sources include beans, nuts,
Yellow Fever Is a viral disease that is transmitted pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, whole wheat
to humans through the bite of infected mosqui- bread and animal sources.
toes. Illness ranges in severity from an influenza- ZK1 Krueppel-type zinc finger protein, binds
like syndrome to severe hepatitis and DNA and, through this binding, regulates
haemorrhagic fever. Yellow fever virus (YFV) gene transcription.
is maintained in nature by mosquito-borne ZO1 Protein A high molecular weight tight
transmission between nonhuman primates. junction-associated protein.
 Scientific Glossary

Abaxial Facing away from the axis, as of the Adventive Not native to and not fully established
surface of an organ. in a new habitat or environment; locally or tem-
Abortive Imperfectly formed. porarily naturalized, e.g. an adventive weed.
Abscission Shedding of leaves, flowers or fruits Aestivation Refers to positional arrangement of
following the formation of the abscission zone. the floral parts in the bud before it opens.
Acaulescen tLacking a stem or stem very much Akinete A thick-walled dormant cell derived
reduced. from the enlargement of a vegetative cell. It
Accrescent Increasing in size after flowering or serves as a survival structure.
with age. Alfisols Soil with a clay-enriched subsoil and
Achene A dry, small, one-seeded, indehiscent relatively high native fertility, having undergone
one-seeded fruit formed from a superior ovary only moderate leaching, containing aluminium
of one carpel as in sunflower. and iron and with at least 35 % base saturation,
Acid Soil Soil that maintains a pH of less than 7.0. meaning that calcium, magnesium and potas-
Acidulous Acid or sour in taste. sium are relatively abundant.
Actinomorphic Having radial symmetry, capable Alkaline Soil Soil that maintains a pH above 7.0,
of being divided into symmetrical halves by usually containing large amounts of calcium,
any plane, refers to a flower, calyx or corolla. sodium and magnesium and is less soluble
Aculeate Having sharp prickles. than acidic soils.
Acuminate Tapering gradually to a sharp point. Alkaloids Naturally occurring bitter, complex
Acute (Botany) tapering at an angle of less than organic-chemical compounds containing basic
90° before terminating in a point as of leaf nitrogen and oxygen atoms and having
apex and base. various pharmacological effects on humans
Adaxia lSide closest to the stem axis. and other animals.
Adelphous Having stamens united together by Allomorphic With a shape or form different
their filaments. from the typical.
Adherent Touching without organic fusion as Alluvial Soil A fine-grained fertile soil deposited by
of floral parts of different whorls. water flowing over flood plains or in river beds.
Adnate United with another unlike part as of Alluvium Soil or sediments deposited by a river
stamens attached to petals. or other running water.
Adpressed Lying close to another organ but not Alternate Leaves or buds that are spaced along
fused to it. opposite sides of stem at different levels.
Adventitious Arising in abnormal positions, Amplexicaul Clasping the stem as base of
e.g. roots arising from the stem, branches or certain leaves.
leaves, buds arising elsewhere than in the axils Anatomizing Interconnecting network as applied
of leaves. to leaf veins.

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 953
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
954 Scientific Glossary

Andisols Are soils formed in volcanic ash and Apiculate Ending abruptly in a short, sharp,
containing high proportions of glass and small point.
amorphous colloidal materials. Apiculum A short, pointed, flexible tip.
Androdioecious With male flowers and bisexual Apocarpous Carpels separate in single individual
flowers on separate plants. pistils.
Androecium Male parts of a flower, comprising Apopetalous With separate petals, not united to
the stamens of one flower. other petals.
Androgynophore A stalk bearing both the Aposepalous With separate sepals, not united to
androecium and gynoecium above the peri- other sepals.
anth of the flower. Appressed Pressed closely to another structure
Androgynous With male and female flowers in but not fused or united.
distinct parts of the same inflorescence. Aquatic A plant living in or on water for all or a
Andromonoecious Having male flowers and considerable part of its life span.
bisexual flowers on the same plant. Arachnoid (Botany) formed of or covered with
Angiosperm A division of seed plants with the long, delicate hairs or fibres.
ovules borne in an ovary. Arborescent Resembling a tree; applied to
Annual A plant which completes its life cycle non-woody plants attaining tree height and
within a year. to shrubs tending to become tree-like in size.
Annular Shaped like or forming a ring. Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM) A type of
Annulus Circle or ring-like structure or marking; mycorrhiza in which the fungus (of the phy-
the portion of the corolla which forms a fleshy, lum Glomeromycota) penetrates the cortical
raised ring. cells of the roots of a vascular plant and forms
Anthelate An open, paniculate cyme. unique structures such as arbuscules and vesi-
Anther The part of the stamen containing cles. These fungi help plants to capture nutri-
pollen sac which produces the pollen. ents such as phosphorus and micronutrients
Antheriferous Containing anthers. from the soil.
Anthesis The period between the opening of the Archegonium A flask-shaped female reproduc-
bud and the onset of flower withering. tive organ in mosses, ferns and other related
Anthocarp A false fruit consisting of the true plants.
fruit and the base of the perianth. Areolate With areolea.
Anthocyanidins Are common plant pigments. Areole (Botany) a small, specialized, cushion-
They are the sugar-free counterparts of like area on a cactus from which hairs, glochids,
anthocyanins. spines, branches or flowers may arise; an
Anthocyanins A subgroup of antioxidant flavo- irregular angular specs marked out on a
noids, are glucosides of anthocyanidins. They surface, e.g. fruit surface. pl. areolea.
occur as water-soluble vacuolar pigments that Aril Specialized outgrowth from the funiculus
may appear red, purple or blue according to (attachment point of the seed) (or hilum)
pH in plants. that encloses or is attached to the seed. adj.
Antipetala Situated opposite petals. arillate.
Antisepala Situated opposite sepals. Arillode A false aril; an aril originating from the
Antrorse Directed forward upwards. micropyle instead of from the funicle or
Apetalous Lacking petals as of flowers with no chalaza of the ovule, e.g. mace of nutmeg.
corolla. Aristate Bristle-like part or appendage, e.g. awns
Apical Meristem Active growing point. A zone of grains and grasses.
of cell division at the tip of the stem or the root. Aristulate Having a small, stiff, bristle-like part
Apically Towards the apex or tip of a structure. or appendage; a diminutive of aristate.
Scientific Glossary 955

Articulate Jointed; usually breaking easily at the Biennial Completing the full cycle from germination
nodes or point of articulation into segments. to fruiting in more than one, but not more than
Ascending Arched upwards in the lower part 2 years.
and becoming erect in the upper part. Bifid Forked, divided into two parts.
Ascospore Spore produced in the ascus in Bifoliolate Having two leaflets.
Ascomycete fungi. Bilabiate Having two lips as of a corolla or
Ascus Is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced calyx with segments fused into an upper and
in Ascomycete fungi. pl. asci. lower lip.
Asperulous Refers to a rough surface with Bipinnate Twice pinnate; the primary leaflets
short, hard projections. being again divided into secondary leaflets.
Attenuate Tapered or tapering gradually to a Bipinnatisect Refers to a pinnately compound
point. leaf, in which each leaflet is again divided into
Auricle An ear-like appendage that occurs at the pinnae.
base of some leaves or corolla. Biserrate Doubly serrate; with smaller regular,
Auriculate Having auricles. asymmetric teeth on the margins of larger teeth.
Awn A hair-like or bristle-like appendage on a Bisexual Having both sexes, as in a flower
larger structure. bearing both stamens and pistil, hermaphro-
Axil Upper angle between a lateral organ, such dite or perfect.
as a leaf petiole and the stem that bears it. Biternate Twice ternate; with three pinnae each
Axile Situated along the central axis of an ovary hav- divided into three pinnules.
ing two or more locules, as in axile placentation. Blade Lamina; part of the leaf above the sheath
Axillary Arising or growing in an axil. or petiole.
Baccate Beery-like, pulpy or fleshy. Blotched See variegated.
Barbate Bearded, having tufts of hairs. Bole Main trunk of tree from the base to the first
Barbellae Short, stiff, hair-like bristles. adj. branch.
barbellate. Brachyblast A short, axillary, densely crowded
Bark Is the outermost layers of stems and roots branchlet or shoot of limited growth, in which
of woody plants. the internodes elongate little or not at all.
Basal Relating to, situated at, arising from or Bracket Fungus Shelf fungus.
forming the base. Bract A leaflike structure, different in form from
Basaltic Soil Soil derived from basalt, a com- the foliage leaves, associated with an inflores-
mon extrusive volcanic rock. cence or flower. adj. bracteate.
Basidiospore A reproductive spore produced by Bracteate Possessing bracts.
Basidiomycete fungi. Bracteolate Having bracteoles.
Basidium A microscopic, spore-producing Bracteole A small, secondary, bract-like struc-
structure found on the hymenophore of fruit- ture borne singly or in a pair on the pedicel or
ing bodies of Basidiomycete fungi. calyx of a flower. adj. bracteolate.
Basifixed Attached by the base, as certain Bran Hard outer layer of grain and comprises
anthers are to their filaments. the aleurone and pericarp. It contains impor-
Basionym The synonym of a scientific name tant antioxidant, vitamins and fibre.
that supplies the epithet for the correct name. Bristle A stiff hair.
Beak A prominent apical projection, especially Bulb A modified underground axis that is short
of a carpel or fruit. adj. beaked. and crowned by a mass of usually fleshy,
Bearded Having a tuft of hairs. imbricate scales. adj. bulbous.
Berry A fleshy or pulpy indehiscent fruit from a Bulbil A small bulb or bulb-shaped body,
single ovary with the seed(s) embedded in the especially one borne in the leaf axil or an
fleshy tissue of the pericarp. inflorescence, and usually produced for asexual
Biconvex Convex on both sides. reproduction.
956 Scientific Glossary

Bullate Puckered, blistered. Capitulum A flower head or inflorescence

Burr Type of seed or fruit with short, stiff bristles having a dense cluster of sessile, or almost
or hooks or may refer to a deformed type of sessile, flowers or florets.
wood in which the grain has been misformed. Capsule A dry, dehiscent fruit formed from two
Bush Low, dense shrub without a pronounced or more united carpels and dehiscing at matu-
trunk. rity by sections called valves to release the
Buttress Supporting, projecting outgrowth from seeds. adj. capsular.
base of a tree trunk as in some Rhizophoraceae Carinate Keeled.
and Moraceae. Carpel A simple pistil consisting of ovary,
Caducous Shedding or falling early before ovules, style and stigma. adj. carpellary.
maturity refers to sepals and petals. Carpogonium Female reproductive organ in
Caespitose Growing densely in tufts or clumps; red algae. pl. carpogonia.
having short, closely packed stems. Carpophore Part of the receptacle which is
Calcareous Composed of or containing lime or lengthened between the carpels as a central
limestone. axis; any fruiting body or fruiting structure of
Calcrete A hardpan consisting gravel and sand a fungus.
cemented by calcium. Cartilaginous Sinewy, having a firm, tough,
Callus A condition of thickened raised mass of flexible texture (in respect of leaf margins).
hardened tissue on leaves or other plant parts Caruncle (Bot) fleshy structure attached to the
often formed after an injury but sometimes seed of certain plants.
a normal feature. A callus also can refer to Caryopsis A simple dry, indehiscent fruit
an undifferentiated plant cell mass grown on a formed from a single ovary with the seed coat
culture medium. n. callosity. pl. calli, callosities. united with the ovary wall as in grasses and
adj. callose. cereals.
Calyptra The protective cap or hood covering Cataphyll A reduced or scarcely developed leaf
the spore case of a moss or related plant. at the start of a plant’s life (i.e. cotyledons) or
Calyptrate Operculate, having a calyptra. in the early stages of leaf development.
Calyx Outer floral whorl usually consisting of Catkin A slim, cylindrical, pendulous flower
free sepals or fused sepals (calyx tube) and spike usually with unisexual flowers.
calyx lobes. It encloses the flower while it is Caudate Having a narrow, tail-like appendage.
still a bud. adj. calycine. Caudex Thickened, usually underground base
Calyx Lobe One of the free upper parts of the of the stem.
calyx which may be present when the lower Caulescent Having a well-developed aerial stem.
part is united into a tube. Cauliflory Botanical term referring to plants
Calyx Tube The tubular fused part of the calyx, which flower and fruit from their main stems
often cup-shaped or bell-shaped, when it is or woody trunks. adj. cauliflorus.
free from the corolla. Cauline Borne on the aerial part of a stem.
Campanulate Shaped like a bell, refers to calyx Chaffy Having thin, membranous scales in the
or corolla. inflorescence as in the flower heads of the sun-
Canaliculate Having groove or grooves. flower family.
Candelabriform Having the shape of a tall Chalaza The basal region of the ovule where
branched candlestick. the stalk is attached.
Canescent Covered with short, fine whitish or Chamaephyte A low-growing perennial plant
greyish hairs or down. whose dormant overwintering buds are borne
Canopy Uppermost leafy stratum of a tree. at or just above the surface of the ground.
Cap See pileus. Chartaceous Papery, of paper-like texture.
Capitate Growing together in a head. Also Chasmogamous Describing flowers in which
means enlarged and globular at the tip. pollination takes place while the flower is open.
Scientific Glossary 957

Chatoyant Having a velvety sheen or lustre. Cleistogamous Refers to a flower in which

Chloroplast A chlorophyll-containing organelle fertilization occurs within the bud, i.e. without
(plastid) that gives the green colour to leaves the flower opening. cf. chasmogamous.
and stems. Plastids harness light energy that is Climber Growing more or less upwards by
used to fix carbon dioxide in the process called leaning or twining around another structure.
photosynthesis. Clone All the plants reproduced, vegetatively,
Chromoplast Plastid containing coloured from a single parent thus having the same
pigments apart from chlorophyll. genetic make-up as the parent.
Chromosomes Thread-shaped structures that Coccus One of the sections of a distinctly lobed
occur in pairs in the nucleus of a cell, containing fruit which becomes separate at maturity;
the genetic information of living organisms. sometimes called a mericarp. pl. cocci.
Cilia Hairs along the margin of a leaf or corolla Coenocarpium A fleshy, multiple pseudocarp
lobe. formed from an inflorescence rather than a
Ciliate With a fringe of hairs on the margin as of single flower.
the corolla lobes or leaf. Coherent Touching without organic fusion, refer-
Ciliolate Minutely ciliate. ring to parts normally together, e.g. floral parts of
Cilium A straight, usually erect hair on a the same whorl. cf. adherent, adnate, connate.
margin or ridge. pl. cilia. Collar Boundary between the above and below
Cincinnus A monochasial cyme in which the ground parts of the plant axis.
lateral branches arise alternately on opposite Colliculate Having small elevations.
sides of the false axis. Column A structure formed by the united style,
Circinnate Spirally coiled, with the tip innermost. stigma and stamen(s) as in Asclepiadaceae and
Circumscissile Opening by a transverse line Orchidaceae.
around the circumference as of a fruit. Comose Tufted with hairs at the ends as of seeds.
Cladode The modified photosynthetic stem of a Composite Having two types of florets as of the
plant whose foliage leaves are much reduced flowers in the sunflower family Asteraceae.
or absent. cf. cladophyll, phyllode. Compost Organic matter (like leaves, mulch,
Cladophyll A photosynthetic branch or portion manure, etc.) that breaks down in soil releas-
of a stem that resembles and functions as a ing its nutrients.
leaf, like in asparagus. cf. cladode, phyllode. Compound Describe a leaf that is further
Clamp Connection In the Basidiomycetes fungi, divided into leaflets or pinnae or flower with
a lateral connection or outgrowth formed more than a single floret.
between two adjoining cells of a hypha and Compressed Flattened in one plane.
arching over the septum between them. Conceptacles Specialized cavities of marine
Clavate Club-shaped thickened at one end, algae that contain the reproductive organs.
refers to fruit or other organs. Concolorous Uniformly coloured, as in upper
Claw The conspicuously narrowed basal part of and lower surfaces. cf. discolorous.
a flat structure. Conduplicate Folded together lengthwise.
Clay A naturally occurring material composed Cone A reproductive structure composed of an
primarily of fine-grained minerals like kaolin- axis (branch) bearing sterile bract-like organs
ite, montmorillonite-smectite or illite which and seed or pollen-bearing structures. Applied to
exhibit plasticity through a variable range of Gymnospermae, Lycopodiaceae, Casuarinaceae
water content and which can be hardened and also in some members of Proteaceae.
when dried and/or fired. Conic Cone-shaped, attached at the broader end.
Clayey Resembling or containing a large pro- Conic-Capitate A cone-shaped head of flowers.
portion of clay. Connate Fused to another structure of the same
Cleft Incised halfway down. kind. cf. adherent, adnate, coherent.
958 Scientific Glossary

Connective The tissue separating two lobes of Crenate Round-toothed or scalloped as of leaf
an anther. margins.
Connivent Converging. Crenulate Minutely crenate, very strongly
Conspecific Within or belonging to the same scalloped.
species. Crested Frilled and ruffled edge.
Contorted Twisted. Crispate Weakly undulating edge.
Convolute Refers to an arrangement of petals in Crisped With a curled or twisted edge.
a bud where each has one side overlapping the Cristate Having or forming a crest or crista.
adjacent petal. Crozier Shaped like a shepherd’s crook.
Cordate Heart-shaped as of leaves. Crustaceous Like a crust; having a hard crust or
Core Central part. shell.
Coriaceous Leathery texture as of leaves. Cucullate Having the shape of a cowl or hood,
Corm A short, swollen, fleshy, underground hooded.
plant stem that serves as a food storage organ Culm The main aerial stem of the Gramineae
used by some plants to survive winter or other (grasses, sedges, rushes and other monocots).
adverse conditions. Culm Sheath The plant casing (similar to a
Cormel A miniature, new corm produced on a leaf) that protects the young bamboo shoot
mature corm. during growth, attached at each node of culm.
Corn Silk The long, filamentous styles that grow Cultigen Plant species or race known only in
as a silky tuft or tassel at the tip of an ear of corn. cultivation.
Corolla The inner floral whorl of a flower, Cultivar Cultivated variety; an assemblage of
usually consisting of free petals or a petals cultivated individuals distinguished by any
fused forming a corolla tube and corolla lobes. characters significant for the purposes of
adj. corolline. agriculture, forestry or horticulture, and which,
Corona A crown-like section of the staminal when reproduced, retains its distinguishing
column, usually with the inner and outer lobes features.
as in the Stapelieae. Cuneate Wedge-shaped, obtriangular.
Coroniform Crown-shaped, as in the pappus of Cupular Cup-shaped, having a cupule.
Asteraceae. Cupule A small cup-shaped structure or organ,
Cortex The outer of the stem or root of a plant, like the cup at the base of an acorn.
bounded on the outside by the epidermis and Cusp An elongated, usually rigid, acute point.
on the inside by the endodermis containing cf. mucro.
undifferentiated cells. Cuspidate Terminating in or tipped with a sharp
Corymb A flat-topped, short, broad inflores- firm point or cusp. cf. mucronate.
cence, in which the flowers, through unequal Cuspidulate Constricted into a minute cusp. cf.
pedicels, are in one horizontal plane and cuspidate.
the youngest in the centre. adj. corymbose Cyathiform In the form of a cup, a little wid-
Costa A thickened, linear ridge or the midrib of ened at the top.
the pinna in ferns. adj. costate. Cyathium A specialized type of inflorescence
Costapalmate Having definite costa (midrib) of plants in the genus Euphorbia and
unlike the typical palmate leaf, but the leaflets Chamaesyce in which the unisexual flowers
are arranged radially like in a palmate leaf. are clustered together within a bract-like
Cotyledon The primary seed leaf within the envelope. pl. cyathia.
embryo of a seed. Cylindric Tubular- or rod-shaped.
Cover Crop Crop grown in between trees or in Cylindric-Acuminate Elongated and tapering
fields primarily to protect the soil from ero- to a point.
sion, to improve soil fertility and to keep off Cymbiform Boat-shaped, elongated and having
weeds. the upper surface decidedly concave.
Scientific Glossary 959

Cyme An inflorescence in which the lateral axis Dicotyledon Angiosperm with two cotyledons.
grows more strongly than the main axis with Didymous Arranged or occurring in pairs as of
the oldest flower in the centre or at the ends. anthers, having two lobes.
adj. cymose Digitate Having digits or fingerlike projections.
Cymule A small cyme or one or a few flowers. Dikaryophyses Or dendrophydia, irregularly,
Cystidium A relatively large cell found on the strongly branched terminal hyphae in the
hymenium of a Basidiomycete, for example, Hymenomycetes (class of Basidiomycetes)
on the surface of a mushroom. fungi.
Cystocarp Fruitlike structure (sporocarp) devel- Dimorphic Having or occurring in two forms,
oped after fertilization in the red algae. as of stamens of two different lengths or a
Deciduous Falling off or shedding at maturity plant having two kinds of leaves.
or a specific season or stage of growth. Dioecious With male and female unisexual
Decorticate To remove the bark, rind or husk from flowers on separate plants. cf. monoecious.
an organ; to strip of its bark; to come off as a skin. Diplobiontic Life Cycle Life cycle that exhibits
Decompound As of a compound leaf; consisting alternation of generations, which features of
of divisions that are themselves compound. spore-producing multicellular sporophytes
Decumbent Prostrate, laying or growing on the and gamete-producing multicellular gameto-
ground but with ascending tips. cf. ascending, phytes. Mitoses occur in both the diploid and
procumbent. haploid phases.
Decurrent Having the leaf base tapering down Diplochory Seed dispersal involving two or
to a narrow wing that extends to the stem. more modes.
Decussate Having paired organs with successive Diploid A condition in which the chromosomes
pairs at right angles to give four rows as of leaves. in the nucleus of a cell exist as pairs, one set
Deflexed Bent downwards. being derived from the female parent and the
Degumming Removal of gum deposits (phospha- other from the male.
tides, entrained oil and meal particles) from Diplontic Life Cycle Or gametic meiosis, wherein
crude edible oils traditionally done with water. instead of immediately dividing meiotically to
Water degumming process also removes hydro- produce haploid cells, the zygote divides mitoti-
philic substances such as sugars from the oil. cally to produce a multicellular diploid individ-
Dehisce To split open at maturity, as in a capsule. ual or a group of more diploid cells.
Dehiscent Splitting open at maturity to release Dipterocarpus Trees of the family Diptero-
the contents. cf. indehiscent. carpaceae, with two-winged fruit found
Deltate Triangular shape. mainly in tropical lowland rainforest.
Deltoid Shaped like an equilateral triangle. Disc (Botany) refers to the usually disc-shaped
Dendritic Branching from a main stem or axis receptacle of the flower head in Asteraceae;
like the branches of a tree. also the fleshy nectariferous organ usually
Dentate With sharp, rather coarse teeth perpen- between the stamens and ovary; also used for
dicular to the margin. the enlarged style-end in Proteaceae.
Denticulate Finely toothed. Disc Floret The central, tubular 4- or 5-toothed
Diadelphous Having stamens in two bundles as or lobed floret on the disc of an inflorescence,
in Papilionaceae flowers. as of flower head of Asteraceae.
Diageotropic The tendency of growing parts, Disciform Flat and rounded in shape. cf .
such as roots, to grow at right angle to the line discoid, radiate.
of gravity. Discoid Resembling a disc; having a flat, circular
Dichasium A cymose inflorescence in which form; disc-shaped cf. disciform, radiate.
the branches are opposite and approximately Discolorous Having two colours, as of a leaf
equal. pl. dichasia. adj. dichasial. which has different colours on the two sur-
Dichotomous Divided into two parts. faces. cf. concolorous.
960 Scientific Glossary

Disomic Having one or more chromosomes Endosperm Tissue that surrounds and nourishes
present twice but without the entire genome the embryo in the angiosperm seed. It contains
doubled. starchy carbohydrates, proteins and small
Dispersal Dissemination of seeds. amounts of vitamins and minerals.
Distal Site of any structure farthest from the Endospermous Refers to seeds having an
point of attachment. cf. proximal. endosperm.
Distichous Referring to two rows of upright Endotrophic As of mycorrhiza obtaining
leaves in the same plane. nutrients from inside.
Dithecous Having two thecae. Ensiform Shaped like the blade of a sword, long
Divaricate Diverging at a wide angle. and narrow with sharp edges and a pointed tip.
Domatium A part of a plant (e.g. a leaf) that has Ensilage The process of preserving green food
been modified to provide protection for other for livestock in an undried condition in airtight
organisms. pl. domatia. conditions, also called silaging.
Dormancy A resting period in the life of a plant Entire Having a smooth, continuous margin
during which growth slows or appears to stop. without any incisions or teeth as of a leaf.
Dorsal Referring to the back surface. Entisols Soils that do not show any profile
Dorsifixed Attached to the back as of anthers. development other than an A horizon.
Drupaceous Resembling a drupe. Ephemeral Transitory, short-lived.
Drupe A fleshy fruit with a single seed enclosed Epicalyx A whorl of bracts, subtending and
in a hard shell (endocarp) which is tissue embed- resembling a calyx.
ded in succulent tissue (mesocarp) surrounded Epicarp Outermost layer of the pericarp of a
by a thin outer skin (epicarp). adj. drupaceous. fruit.
Drupelet A small drupe. Epicormic Attached to the corm.
Ebracteate Without bracts. Epicotyl The upper portion of the embryonic
Echinate Bearing stiff, stout, bristly, prickly hairs. axis, above the cotyledons and below the first
Edaphic Refers to plant communities that are true leaves.
distinguished by soil conditions rather than by Epigeal Above grounds with cotyledons raised
the climate. above ground.
Eglandular Without glands. cf. glandular. Epiparasite An organism parasitic on another
Elaioplasts A type of leucoplast that is specialized that parasitizes a third.
for the storage of lipids in plants. Epipetalous Borne on the petals, as of stamens.
Elaiosome Fleshy lipid-rich structures that are Epiphyte A plant growing on, but not parasitic
attached to the seeds of many plant species. on, another plant, deriving its moisture and
Ellipsoid A 3-dimensional shape; elliptic in nutrients from the air and rain, e.g. some
outline. Orchidaceae. adj. epiphytic.
Elliptic Having a 2-dimensional shape of an Epithet Name.
ellipse or flattened circle. Equitant In a loose fan pattern.
Elongate Extended, stretched out. Erect Upright, vertical.
Emarginate Refers to leaf with a broad, shal- Essential Oils Volatile products obtained from a
low notch at the apex. cf. retuse. natural source; refers to volatile products obtained
Embryo (Botany) a minute rudimentary plant by steam or water distillation in a strict sense.
contained within a seed or an archegonium, Etiolation To cause (a plant) to develop without
composed of the embryonic axis (shoot end chlorophyll by preventing exposure to sunlight.
and root end). Eutrophic Having waters rich in mineral and
Endemic Prevalent in or peculiar to a particular organic nutrients that promote a proliferation
geographical locality or region. of plant life, especially algae, which reduces
Endocarp The hard innermost layer of the the dissolved oxygen content and often causes
pericarp of many fruits. the extinction of other organisms.
Scientific Glossary 961

Excentric Off the true centre. Foliaceous Leaflike.

Excrescence Abnormal outgrowth. Foliage Leaves of the plant.
Excurrent Projecting beyond the tip, as the Foliar Pertaining to a leaf.
midrib of a leaf or bract. Foliolate Pertaining to leaflets, used with a number
Exserted Sticking out, protruding beyond some prefix to denote the number of leaflets.
enclosing organ, as of stamens which project Foliose Leaflike.
beyond the corolla or perianth. Follicle (Botany) a dry fruit, derived from a single
Exstipulate Without stipules. cf. stipulate. carpel and dehiscing along one suture.
Extra-Floral Outside the flower. Forb Any herb that is not grass or grass-like.
Extrose Turned outwards or away from the axis Foveolate Surface pitted with shallow depressions.
as of anthers. cf. introrse, latrorse. Free Central Placentation The arrangement of
Falcate Sickle-shaped, crescent-shaped. ovules on a central column that is not con-
Fascicle A cluster or bundle of stems, flowers, nected to the ovary wall by partitions, as in the
stamens. adj. fasciculate. ovaries of the carnation and primrose.
Fasciclode Staminode bundles. Frond The leaf of a fern or cycad.
Fastigiate A tree in which the branches grow Fruit Ripened ovary with adnate parts.
almost vertically. Frutescent Shrubby.
Ferrosols Soils with an iron oxide content of Fugacious Shedding off early.
greater than 5 %. Fulvous Yellow, tawny.
Ferruginous Rust coloured, reddish-brown. Funiculus (Botany) short stalk which attaches
Fertile Having functional sexual parts which are the ovule to the ovary wall.
capable of fertilization and seed production. Fuscescent Dusky.
cf. sterile. Fusiform A 3-dimensional shape; spindle-
Filament The stalk of a stamen supporting and shaped, i.e. broad in the centre and tapering at
subtending the anther. both ends thick, but tapering at both ends.
Filiform Having the form of or resembling a Gall Flower Short-styled flower that does not
thread or filament. develop into a fruit but is adapted for the
Fimbriate Fringed. development of a specific wasp within the
Fixed Oils Non-volatile oils, triglycerides of fruit, e.g. in the fig.
fatty acids. Gamete A reproductive cell that fuses with
Flaccid Limp and weak. another gamete to form a zygote. Gametes are
Flag Leaf The uppermost leaf on the stem. haploid (they contain half the normal (diploid)
Flaky In the shape of flakes or scales. number of chromosomes); thus when the two
Flexuous Zig-zagging, sinuous, bending, as fuse, the diploid number is restored.
of a stem. Gametophyte The gamete-producing phase in a
Floccose Covered with tufts of soft woolly hairs. plant characterized by alternation of generations.
Floral Tube A flower tube usually formed by Gamosepalous With sepals united or partially
the basal fusion of the perianth and stamens. united.
Floret One of the small individual flowers of Geniculate Bent like a knee, refers to awns and
sunflower family or the reduced flower of the filaments.
grasses, including the lemma and palea. Genome Complete set of genetic material of an
Flower The sexual reproductive organ of flowering organism.
plants, typically consisting of gynoecium, Geocarpic Where the fruit is pushed into the
androecium and perianth or calyx and/or soil by the gynophore and mature.
corolla and the axis bearing these parts. Geophyte A plant that stores food in an under-
Fluted As of a trunk with grooves and folds. ground storage organ, e.g. a tuber, bulb or rhi-
Fodder Plant material, fresh or dried fed to zome and has subterranean buds which form
animals. aerial growth.
962 Scientific Glossary

Geotextile Are permeable fabrics which, when Gynomonoecious Having female flowers and
used in association with soil, have the ability bisexual flowers on the same plant. cf.
to separate, filter, reinforce, protect or drain. andromonoecious.
Germ Of cereal is the embryo of the seed or ker- Gynophore Stalk that bears the pistil/carpel.
nel. It contains vitamins B, E, folic acid, some Habit The general growth form of a plant, com-
protein, minerals and polyunsaturated fats. prising its size, shape, texture and stem orien-
Glabrescent Becoming glabrous. tation, the locality in which the plant grows.
Glabrous Smooth, hairless without pubescence. Halophyte A plant adapted to living in highly
Gland A secretory organ, e.g. a nectary, extra- saline habitats. Also a plant that accumulates
floral nectary or a gland tipped, hair-like or high concentrations of salt in its tissues. adj.
wart-like organ. adj. glandular. cf. eglandular. halophytic.
Glaucous Pale blue-green in colour, covered Hapaxanthic Refers to palms which flower
with a whitish bloom that rubs off readily. only once and then dies. c.f. pleonanthic.
Gley Soils A hydric soil which exhibits a Haploid Condition where nucleus or cell has a
greenish blue-grey soil colour due to wetland single set of unpaired chromosomes; the hap-
conditions. loid number is designated as n.
Globose Spherical in shape. Haplontic Life Cycle Or zygotic meiosis
Globular A three-dimensional shape, spherical wherein meiosis of a zygote immediately after
or orbicular; circular in outline. karyogamy produces haploid cells which pro-
Glochidiate Having glochids. duces more or larger haploid cells ending its
Glochidote Plant having glochids. diploid phase.
Glochids Tiny, finely barbed hair-like spines Hastate Having the shape of an arrowhead but
found on the areoles of some cacti and other with the basal lobes pointing outwards at right
plants. angles as of a leaf.
Glume One of the two small, sterile bracts at the Hastula A piece of plant material at the junction
base of the grass spikelet, called the lower and of the petiole and the leaf blade; the hastula
upper glumes, due to their position on the can be found on the top of the leaf, adaxial or
rachilla. Also used in Apiaceae, Cyperaceae the bottom, abaxial or both sides.
for the very small bracts on the spikelet in Heartwood Wood from the inner portion of a
which each flower is subtended by one floral tree.
glume. adj. glumaceous. Heliophilous Sun-loving, tolerates high level of
Grits Consist of coarsely ground corn, or some- sunlight.
times alkali-treated corn. Heliotropic Growing towards sunlight.
Groats Hulled, whole grains of various cereals, Herb A plant which is non-woody or woody at
such as oats, wheat, barley or buckwheat; it the base only, the above ground stems usually
includes the cereal germ, fibre-rich bran por- being ephemeral. adj. herbaceous.
tion and endosperm of the grain. Herbaceous Resembling a herb, having a habit
Guttation The appearance of drops of xylem of a herb.
sap on the tips or edges of leaves of some vas- Hermaphrodite Bisexual, bearing flowers with
cular plants, such as grasses and bamboos. both androecium and gynoecium in the same
Guttule Small droplet. flower. adj. hermaphroditic.
Gymnosperm A group of spermatophyte seed- Heterocyst A differentiated cyanobacterial cell
bearing plants with ovules on scales, which that carries out nitrogen fixation.
are usually arranged in cone-like structures Heterogamous Bearing separate male and
and not borne in an ovary. cf. angiosperm. female flowers, or bisexual and female flowers,
Gynoecium The female organ of a flower; a col- or florets in an inflorescence or flower head,
lective term for the pistil, carpel or carpels. e.g. some Asteraceae in which the ray florets
Scientific Glossary 963

may be neuter or unisexual and the disc florets Hurd Fibre Long pith fibre of the stem.
may be bisexual. cf. homogamous. Hyaline Colourless, almost transparent.
Heteromorphous Having two or more distinct Hybrid The first-generation progeny of the sexual
forms. cf. homomorphous. union of plants belonging to different taxa.
Heterophyllous Having leaves of different form. Hybridization The crossing of individuals from
Heterosporous Producing spores of 2 sizes, the different species or taxa.
larger giving rise to megagametophytes Hydathode A type of secretory tissue in leaves,
(female), the smaller giving rise to microga- usually of Angiosperms, that secretes water
metophytes (male). Refers to the ferns and through pores in the epidermis or margin of
fern allies. cf. homosporous. the leaf.
Heterostylous Having styles of two different Hydrophilous Water loving; requiring water in
lengths or forms. order to be fertilized, referring to many aquatic
Heterostyly The condition in which flowers on plants.
polymorphous plants have styles of different Hygrochastic Applied to plants in which the
lengths, thereby facilitating cross-pollination. opening of the fruits is caused by the absorp-
Hilar Of or relating to a hilum. tion of water.
Hilum The scar on a seed, indicating the point Hygrophilous Living in water or moist places.
of attachment to the funiculus. Hymenial Cystidia The cells of the hymenium
Hirsute Bearing long coarse hairs. develop into basidia or asci, while in others some
Hispid Bearing stiff, short, rough hairs or bristles. cells develop into sterile cells called cystidia.
Hispidulous Minutely hispid. Hymenium Sore-bearing layer of cells in
Histosol Soil comprising primarily of organic certain fungi containing asci (Ascomycetes)
materials, having 40 cm or more of organic or basidia (Basidiomycetes).
soil material in the upper 80 cm. Hypanthium Cup-like receptacles of some
Hoary Covered with a greyish layer of very dicotyledonous flowers formed by the fusion
short, closely interwoven hairs. of the calyx, corolla and androecium that
Holdfast An organ or structure of attachment, surrounds the ovary which bears the sepals,
especially the basal, root-like formation by petals and stamens. adj. relating to or of the
which certain seaweeds or other algae are nature of a hypanthium.
attached to a substrate. Hypha Is a long, branching filamentous cell of a
Holocarpic Having the entire thallus developed fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria.
into a fruiting body or sporangium. pl. hyphae.
Homochromous Having all the florets of the Hypocotyl The portion of the stem below the
same colour in the same flower head cf. cotyledons.
heterochromous. Hypodermis The cell layer beneath the epidermis
Homogamous Bearing flowers or florets that do of the pericarp.
not differ sexually cf. heterogamous. Hypogeal Below ground as of germination of
Homogenous Endosperm Endosperm with seed.
even surface that lacks invaginations or Hysteresis Refers to systems that may exhibit
infoldings of the surrounding tissue. path dependence.
Homogonium A part of a filament of a cyano- Imbricate Closely packed and overlapping. cf.
bacterium that detaches and grows by cell valvate.
division into a new filament. pl. homogonia. Imparipinnate Pinnately compound with a
Homomorphous Uniform, with only one form. single terminal leaflet and hence with an odd
cf. heteromorphous. number of leaflets. cf. paripinnate.
Homosporous Producing one kind of spores. Inceptisols Old soils that have no accumulation
Refers to the ferns and fern allies. cf. of clays, iron, aluminium or organic matter.
heterosporous. Incised Cut jaggedly with very deep teeth.
964 Scientific Glossary

Included Referring to stamens which do not Introrse Turned inwards or towards the axis or
project beyond the corolla or to valves which pistil as of anthers. cf. extrorse, latrorse.
do not extend beyond the rim of a capsular Involucre A whorl of bracts or leaves that
fruit. cf. exserted. surround one to many flowers or an entire
Incurved Curved inwards; curved towards the inflorescence.
base or apex. Involute Having the margins rolled inwards,
Indefinite Numerous and variable in number. referring to a leaf or other flat organ.
Indehiscent Not opening or splitting to release the Jugate Of a pinnate leaf; having leaflets in pairs.
contents at maturity as of fruit. cf. dehiscent. Juvenile Young or immature, used here for
Indumentum Covering of fine hairs or bristles leaves formed on a young plant which is
commonly found on external parts of plants. different in morphology from those formed on
Indurate To become hard, often the hardening an older plant.
developed only at maturity. Keel A longitudinal ridge, at the back of the
Indusium An enclosing membrane, covering leaf. Also the two lower fused petals of a ‘pea’
the sorus of a fern. Also used for the modified flower in the Papilionaceae, which form a
style end or pollen cup of some Goodeniaceae boat-like structure around the stamens and
(including Brunoniaceae). adj. indusiate. styles, also called carina. adj. keeled. cf.
Inferior Said of an ovary or fruit that has sepals, standard, wing.
petals and stamens above the ovary. cf. superior. Labellum The modified lowest of the three
Inflated Enlarged and hollow except in the case of petals forming the corolla of an orchid, usu-
a fruit which may contain a seed. cf. swollen. ally larger than the other two petals, and often
Inflexed Bent or curved inwards or downwards, spurred.
as petals or sepals. Lacerate Irregularly cleft.
Inflorescence A flower cluster or the arrange- Laciniate Fringed; having a fringe of slender,
ment of flowers in relation to the axis and to narrow, pointed lobes cut into narrow lobes.
each other on a plant. Lamella A gill-shaped structure: fine sheets of
Infrafoliar Located below the leaves. material held adjacent to one another.
Infraspecific Referring to any taxon below the Lamina The blade of the leaf or frond.
species rank. Lanate Wooly, covered with long hairs which
Infructescence The fruiting stage of an are loosely curled together like wool.
inflorescence. Lanceolate Lance-shaped in outline, tapering
Infundibulum Funnel-shaped cavity or structure. from a broad base to the apex.
Inrolled Curved inwards. Landrace Plants adapted to the natural environ-
Integuments Two distinct tissue layers that ment in which they grow, developing naturally
surround the nucellus of the ovule, forming with minimal assistance or guidance from
the testa or seed coat when mature. humans and usually possess more diverse
Intercalary Of growth, between the apex and the phenotypes and genotypes. They have not
base; of cells, spores, etc. between two cells. been improved by formal breeding programs.
Interfoliar Inter leaf. Laterite Reddish-coloured soils rich in iron
Internode Portion of the stem, culm, branch or oxide, formed by weathering of rocks under
rhizome between two nodes or points of oxidizing and leaching conditions, commonly
attachment of the leaves. found in tropical and subtropical regions. adj.
Interpetiolar As of stipules positioned between lateritic.
petioles of opposite leaves. Latex A milky, clear or sometimes coloured sap
Intrastaminal Within the stamens. of diverse composition exuded by some plants.
Intricate Entangled, complex. Latrorse Turned sideways, i.e. not towards or
Introduced Not indigenous; not native to the away from the axis as of anthers dehiscing
area in which it now occurs. longitudinally on the side. cf. extrorse, introse.
Scientific Glossary 965

Lax Loose or limp, not densely arranged or crowded. Lobed Divided but not to the base.
Leaflet One of the ultimate segments of a com- Loculicidal Opening into the cells, when a ripe
pound leaf. capsule splits along the back.
Lectotype A specimen chosen after the original Loculus Cavity or chamber of an ovary. pl.
description to be the type. loculi.
Lemma The lower of two bracts (scales) of a Lodicules Two small structures below the ovary
grass floret, usually enclosing the palea, which, at flowering, swell up and force open
lodicules, stamens and ovary. the enclosing bracts, exposing the stamens
Lenticel Is a lens-shaped opening that allows and carpel.
gases to be exchanged between air and the Lorate Strap-shaped with obtuse tip.
inner tissues of a plant, commonly found on Lyrate Pinnately lobed, with a large terminal
young bark, or the surface of the fruit. lobe and smaller laterals ones which become
Lenticellate Dotted with lenticels. progressively smaller towards the base.
Lenticular Shaped like a biconvex lens. cf. Macronutrients Chemical elements which are
lentiform. needed in large quantities for growth and
Lentiform Shaped like a biconvex lens. cf. development by plants and include nitrogen,
lenticular. phosphorus, potassium and magnesium.
Leptomorphic Temperate, running bamboo Maculate Spotted.
rhizome; usually thinner then the culms they Mallee A growth habit in which several to many
support and the internodes are long and hollow. woody stems arise separately from a lignotuber;
Liane A woody climbing or twining plant. usually applied to certain low-growing species
Ligneous Woody. of Eucalyptus.
Lignotuber A woody, usually underground, Mangrove A distinctive vegetation type of trees
tuberous rootstock often giving rise to numer- and shrubs with modified roots, often vivipa-
ous aerial stems. rous, occupying the saline coastal habitats that
Ligulate Small and tongue-shaped or with a are subject to periodic tidal inundation.
little tongue-shaped appendage or ligule, Marcescent Withering or to decay without
star-shaped as of florets of Asteraceae. falling off.
Ligule A strap-shaped corolla in the flowers of Margin The edge of the leaf blade.
Asteraceae; also a thin membranous outgrowth Medulla The pith in the stems or roots of certain
from the inner junction of the grass leaf sheath plants, or the central portion of a thallus in
and blade. cf. ligulate. certain lichens.
Limb The expanded portion of the calyx tube or Megasporangium The sporangium containing
the corolla tube or the large branch of a tree. megaspores in fern and fern allies. cf.
Linear A 2-dimensional shape, narrow with microsporangium.
nearly parallel sides. Megaspore The large spore which may develop
Linguiform Tongue-shaped. cf. ligulate. into the female gametophyte in heterosporous
Lipotubuloids Are cytoplasmic domains con- ferns and fern allies. cf. microspore.
taining aggregates of lipid bodies surrounded Megasporophyll A leaflike structure that bears
by a network of microtubules, which join one megasporangia.
lipid body with the others. Megastrobilus Female cone, seed cone or ovu-
Lithosol A kind of shallow soils lacking well- late cone, contains ovules within which, when
defined horizons and composed of imperfectly fertilized by pollen, becomes seeds. The
weathered fragments of rock. female cone structure varies more markedly
Littoral Of or on a shore, especially seashore. between the different conifer families.
Loam A type of soil made up of sand, silt and Meiosis The process of cell division that results
clay in relative concentration of 40-40-20 %, in the formation of haploid cells from diploid
respectively. cells to produce gametes.
966 Scientific Glossary

Mericarp A 1-seeded portion of an initially Monostichous Forming one row.

syncarpous fruit (schizocarp) which splits Monotypic Of a genus with one species or a
apart at maturity. cf. coccus. family with one genus; in general, applied to
Meristem The region of active cell division in any taxon with only one immediately subordi-
plants, from which permanent tissue is nate taxon.
derived. adj. meristematic Montane Refers to highland areas located
-merous Used with a number prefix to denote below the subalpine zone.
the basic number of the 3 outer floral whorls, Mucilage A soft, moist, viscous, sticky secretion.
e.g. a 5-merous flower may have 5 sepals, 10 adj. mucilaginous.
petals and 15 stamens. Mucous (Botany) slimy.
Mesic Moderately wet. Mucro A sharp, pointed part or organ, especially
Mesocarp The middle layer of the fruit wall a sharp terminal point, as of a leaf.
derived from the middle layer of the carpel Mucronate Ending with a short, sharp tip or
wall. cf. endocarp, exocarp, pericarp. mucro, resembling a spine. cf. cuspidate,
Mesophytes Terrestrial plants which are adapted muticous.
to neither a particularly dry nor particularly Mucronulate With a very small mucro; a
wet environment. diminutive of mucronate.
Micropyle The small opening in a plant ovule Mulch Protective cover of plant (organic) or
through which the pollen tube passes in order non-plant material placed over the soil, pri-
to effect fertilization. marily to modify and improve the effects of
Microsporangium The sporangium containing the local microclimate and to control weeds.
microspores in pteridophytes. cf. megas- Multiple Fruit A fruit that is formed from a
porangium. cluster of flowers.
Midvein The main vascular supply of a simple Muricate Covered with numerous short hard
leaf blade or lamina, also called midrib. outgrowths. cf. papillose.
Mitosis Is a process of cell division which Muriculate With numerous minute hard out-
results in the production of two daughter cells growths; a diminutive of muricate.
from a single parent cell. Muticous Blunt, lacking a sharp point. cf.
Mollisols Soils with deep, high organic matter, mucronate.
nutrient-enriched surface soil (A horizon), MYB Proteins Are a superfamily of transcription
typically between 60 and 80 cm thick. factors that play regulatory roles in developmen-
Monadelphous Applied to stamens united by tal processes and defence responses in plants.
their filaments into a single bundle. Mycorrhiza The mutualistic symbiosis (non-
Monocarpic Refers to plants that flower, set pathogenic association) between soil-borne
seeds and then die. fungi with the roots of higher plants.
Monochasial A cyme having a single flower on Mycorrhiza (Vesicular Arbuscular) Endo-
each axis. mycorrhiza living in the roots of higher plants
Monocotyledon Angiosperm having one producing inter- and intracellular fungal
cotyledon. growth in root cortex and forming specific
Monoecious Having both male and female fungal structures, referred to as vesicles and
unisexual flowers on the same individual arbuscles. abbrev. VAM.
plant. cf. dioecious. Myrmecochory Seed dispersal by ants.
Monoembryonic Seed The seed contains only Native A plant indigenous to the locality or
one embryo, a true sexual (zygotic) embryo. region.
polyembryonic seed. Naviculate Boat-shaped.
Monolete A spore that has a simple linear scar. Necrotic Applied to dead tissue.
Monopodial With a main terminal growing Nectariferous Having one or more nectaries.
point producing many lateral branches Nectary A nectar secretory gland; commonly in
progressively. cf. sympodial. a flower, sometimes on leaves, fronds or stems.
Scientific Glossary 967

Nervation Venation, a pattern of veins or nerves Nucellus Central portion of an ovule in which
as of leaf. the embryo sac develops.
Nixtamalization Refers to a process for the Nut A dry indehiscent 1-celled fruit with a hard
preparation of maize (corn), or other grain, in pericarp.
which the grains are soaked and cooked in Nutlet A small, 1-seeded, indehiscent lobe of a
an alkaline solution, usually limewater, and divided fruit.
hulled. Ob- Prefix meaning inversely or opposite to.
Node The joint between segments of a culm, Obconic A 3-dimensional shape; inversely
stem, branch or rhizome; the point of the stem conic; cone-shaped, conic with the vertex
that gives rise to the leaf and bud. pointing downwards.
Nodule A small knoblike outgrowth, as those Obcordate Inversely cordate, broad and notched
found on the roots of many leguminous, that at the tip; heart-shaped but attached at the
contains Rhizobium bacteria which fix nitro- pointed end.
gen in the soil. Obdeltate Inversely deltate; deltate with the
Nom. ambig. Nomen ambiguum (Latin) ambig- broadest part at the apex.
uous name used in different senses which has Oblanceolate Inversely lanceolate, lance-shaped
become a long-persistent source of error. but broadest above the middle and tapering
Nom. cons. Nomen nonservandum (Latin) name towards the base as of leaf.
conserved in International Code of Botanical Oblate Having the shape of a spheroid with the
Nomenclature. equatorial diameter greater than the polar
Nom. dub. Nomen dubium (Latin) an invalid diameter, being flattened at the poles.
proposed taxonomic name because it is not Oblong Longer than broad with sides nearly
accompanied by a definition or description of parallel to each other.
the taxon to which it applies. Obovate Inversely ovate, broadest above the
Nom. illeg. Nomen illegitimum (Latin) illegiti- middle.
mate taxon deemed as superfluous at its time Obpyramidal Resembling a 4-sided pyramid
of publication either because the taxon to attached at the apex with the square base
which it was applied already has a name or facing away from the attachment.
because the name has already been applied to Obpyriform Inversely pyriform, resembling a
another plant. pear which is attached at the narrower end. cf.
Nom. invalid. Nomen invalidum (Latin) invalid pyriform.
name according to International Code of Obspathulate Inversely spathulate; resembling
Botanical Nomenclature. a spoon but attached at the broadest end. cf.
Nom. nud. Nomen nudum (Latin) the name of a spathulate.
taxon which has never been validated by a Obtriangular Inversely triangular; triangular
description. but attached at the apex. cf. triangular.
Nom. rej. Nomen rejiciendum (Latin) name Obtrullate Inversely trullate; resembling a
rejected in International Code of Botanical trowel blade with the broadest axis above the
Nomenclature. middle. cf. trullate.
Notho- (Subsp. or var.) prefix to the rank of a Obtuse With a blunt or rounded tip, the con-
hybrid taxon below the rank of species. verging edges separated by an angle greater
Nucellar Embryony A form of seed reproduction than 90°.
in which the nucellar tissue which surrounds Ochraceous A dull yellow colour.
the embryo sac can produce additional embryos Ocreate Having a tube-like covering around some
(polyembryony) which are genetically identi- stems, formed of the united stipules; sheathed.
cal to the parent plant. This is found in many -oid Suffix denoting a 3-dimensional shape, e.g.
citrus species and in mango. spheroid.
968 Scientific Glossary

Oleaginous Oily. Paleate Having glumes.

Oligotrophic Lacking in plant nutrients and Palm Heart Refers to soft, tender inner core
having a large amount of dissolved oxygen and growing bud of certain palm trees which
throughout. are eaten as vegetables. Also called heart of
Operculum A lid or cover that becomes detached palm, palmito, burglar’s thigh, chonta or
at maturity by abscission, e.g. in Eucalyptus, swamp cabbage.
also a cap or lid covering the bud and formed Palmate Describing a leaf which is divided into
by fusion or cohesion of sepals and/or petals. several lobes or leaflets which arise from the
adj. operculate. same point. adj. palmately.
Opposite Describing leaves or other organs which Palmito See palm heart.
are borne at the same level but on opposite Palustrial Paludal, swampy, marshy.
sides of the stem. cf. alternate. Palustrine Marshy, swampy.
Orbicular Of circular outline, disc-like. Palustrine Herb Vegetation that is rooted below
Order A taxonomic rank between class and water but grows above the surface in wetland
family used in the classification of organisms, system.
i.e. a group of families believed to be closely Panduriform Fiddle-shaped, usually with
related. reference to two dimensions.
Orifice An opening or aperture. Panicle A compound, indeterminate, racemose
Organosols Soils not regularly inundated by inflorescence in which the main axis bears
marine waters and containing a specific lateral racemes or spikes. adj. paniculate.
thickness of organic materials within the Pantropical Distributed throughout the tropics.
upper part of the profile. Papilionaceous Butterfly-like, said of the pea
Orth. Var. Orthographic variant, i.e. an incorrect flower or flowers of Papilionaceae, flowers
alternate spelling of a name. which are zygomorphic with imbricate petals,
Ovary The female part of the pistil of a flower one broad upper one, two narrower lateral
which contains the ovules (immature seeds). ones and two narrower lower ones.
Ovate Egg-shaped, usually with reference to Papilla A small, superficial protuberance on the
two dimensions. surface of an organ being an outgrowth of one
Ovoid Egg-shaped, usually with reference to epidermal cell. pl. papillae. adj. papillose.
three dimensions. Papillate Having papillae.
Ovule The young, immature seed in the ovary Papillose Covered with papillae.
which becomes a seed after fertilization. adj. Pappus A tuft (or ring) of hairs, bristles or
ovular. scales borne above the ovary and outside the
Ovulode A sterile reduced ovule borne on the corolla as in Asteraceae often persisting as a
placenta, commonly occurring in Myrtaceae. tuft of hairs on a fruit. adj. pappose.
Oxisols Refer to ferralsols. Papyraceous Resembling parchment of paper.
Pachymorphic Describes the short, thick, Parenchyma Undifferentiated plant tissue
rhizomes of clumping bamboos with short, thick composed of more or less uniform cells.
and solid internode (except the bud-bearing Parietal Describes the attachment of ovules to
internodes, which are more elongated). cf. the outer walls of the ovaries.
sympodial. Paripinnate Pinnate with an even number of
Palate (Botany) a raised appendage on the lower leaflets and without a terminal leaflet. cf.
lip of a corolla which partially or completely imparipinnate.
closes the throat. -partite Divided almost to the base into seg-
Palea The upper of the two membranous bracts ments, the number of segments written as a
of a grass floret, usually enclosing the prefix.
lodicules, stamens and ovary. pl. paleae. adj. Patelliform Shaped like a limpet shell; cap-
paleal. cf. lemma. shaped and without whorls.
Scientific Glossary 969

Patent Diverging from the axis almost at right Phenology The study of periodic plant life cycle
angles. events as influenced by seasonal and interan-
Peat Is an accumulation of partially decayed nual variations in climate.
vegetation matter. Phyllary A bract of the involucre of a composite
Pectin A group of water-soluble colloidal plant, term for one of the scale-like bracts
carbohydrates of high molecular weight found beneath the flower head in Asteraceae.
in certain ripe fruits. Phylloclade A flattened, photosynthetic branch
Pectinate Pinnatifid with narrow segments or stem that resembles or performs the func-
resembling the teeth of a comb. tion of a leaf, with the true leaves represented
Pedicel The stalk of the flower or stalk of a by scales.
spikelet in Poaceae. adj. pedicellate. Phyllode A petiole that function as a leaf. adj.
Pedicellate Having pedicel. phyllodineous. cf. cladode.
Peduncle A stalk supporting an inflorescence. Phyllopodia Refers to the reduced, scale-like
adj. pedunculate leaves found on the outermost portion of the
Pellucid Allowing the passage of light; trans- corm where they seem to persist longer than
parent or translucent. typical sporophylls as in the fern Isoetes.
Pellucid-Dotted Copiously dotted with Phytoremediation Describes the treatment of
immersed, pellucid, resinous glands. environmental problems (bioremediation)
Peltate With the petiole attached to the lower through the use of plants which mitigate the
surface of the leaf blade. environmental problem without the need to
Pendant Hanging down. excavate the contaminant material and dispose
Pendulous Drooping, as of ovules. of it elsewhere.
Penniveined or Penni-Nerved Pinnately veined. Pileus (Botany) cap of mushroom.
Pentamerous In five parts. Piliferous (Botany) bearing or producing hairs,
Perennial A plant that completes it life cycle or as of an organ with the apex having long, hair-
lives for more than 2 years. cf. annual, biennial. like extensions.
Perfoliate A leaf with the basal lobes united Pilose Covered with fine soft hairs.
around—and apparently pierced by—the stem. Pinna A primary division of the blade of a
Pergamentaceous Parchment-like. compound leaf or frond. pl. pinnae.
Perianth The two outer floral whorls of the Pinnate Bearing leaflets on each side of a
Angiosperm flower; commonly used when central axis of a compound leaf; divided
the calyx and the corolla are not readily distin- into pinnae.
guishable (as in monocotyledons). Pinnatifid, Pinnatilobed A pinnate leaf parted
Pericarp (Botany). The wall of a ripened ovary; approximately halfway to midrib; when
fruit wall composed of the exocarp, mesocarp divided to almost to the midrib described as
and endocarp. deeply pinnatifid or pinnatisect.
Persistent Remaining attached; not falling off. Pinnatisect Lobed or divided almost to the midrib.
cf. caduceus. Pinnule A leaflet of a bipinnate compound leaf.
Petal Free segment of the corolla. adj. petaline. Pistil Female part of the flower comprising the
cf. lobe. ovary, style and stigma.
Petiolar Relating to the petiole. Pistillate Having one or more pistils; having
Petiolate Having petiole. pistils but no stamens.
Petiole Leaf stalk. adj. petiolate. Placenta The region within the ovary to which
Petiolulate Supported by its own petiolule. ovules are attached. pl. placentae.
Petiolule The stalk of a leaflet in a compound Placentation The arrangement of the placentae
leaf. adj. petiolulate. and ovules in the ovary.
pH Is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a Plano- A prefix meaning level or flat.
solution. It is defined as the cologarithm of the Pleonanthic Refers to palms in which the stem
activity of dissolved hydrogen ions (H+). does not die after flowering.
970 Scientific Glossary

Plicate Folded like a fan. Prophyll A plant structure that resembles a leaf.
Plumose Feather-like, with fine hairs arising lat- Prostrate Lying flat on the ground.
erally from a central axis; feathery. Protandous Relating to a flower in which the
Pneumatophore Modified root which allows anthers release their pollen before the stigma
gaseous exchange in mud-dwelling shrubs, of the same flower becomes receptive.
e.g. mangroves. Proximal End of any structure closest to the
Pod A dry 1 to many-seeded dehiscent fruit, as point of attachment. cf. distal.
applied to the fruit of Fabaceae, i.e. Caesal- Pruinose Having a thick, waxy, powdery coating
piniaceae, Mimosaceae and Papilionaceae. or bloom.
Podzol, Podsolic Soil Any of a group of acidic, Pseudocarp A false fruit, largely made up of
zonal soils having a leached, light-coloured, grey tissue that is not derived from the ovary but
and ashy appearance, also called spodosol. from floral parts such as the receptacle and
Pollen Cone Male cone or microstrobilus or calyx.
pollen cone is structurally similar across all Pseudostem The false, herbaceous stem of a
conifers, extending out from a central axis are banana plant composed of overlapping leaf
microsporophylls (modified leaves). Under bases.
each microsporophyll is one or several micro- Pteridophyte A vascular plant which reproduces
sporangia (pollen sacs). by spores; the ferns and fern allies.
Pollinia The paired, waxy pollen masses of Puberulent Covered with minute hairs or very
flowers of orchids and milkweeds. fine down; finely pubescent.
Polyandrous (Botany) having an indefinite Puberulous Covered with a minute down.
number of stamens. Pubescent Covered with short, soft hairs.
Polyembryonic Seed Seeds contain many Pulvinate Having a swelling, pulvinus at the
embryos, most of which are asexual (nucellar) base as a leaf stalk.
in origin and genetically identical to the Pulviniform Swelling or bulging.
maternal parent. Pulvinus Swelling at the base of leaf stalk.
Polygamous With unisexual and bisexual Punctate Marked with translucent dots or
flowers on the same or on different individuals glands.
of the same species. Punctiform Marked by or composed of points
Polymorphic With different morphological or dots.
variants. Punctulate Marked with minute dots; a diminu-
Polypetalous (Botany) having a corolla com- tive of punctate.
posed of distinct, separable petals. Purpurascent Purple or becoming purple.
Pome A fleshy fruit where the succulent tissues Pusticulate Characterized by small pustules.
are developed from the receptacle. Pyrene The stone or pit of a drupe, consisting of
Pore A tiny opening. the hardened endocarp and seed.
Premorse Abruptly truncated, as though bitten Pyriform Pear-shaped, a 3-dimensional shape;
or broken off as of a leaf. attached at the broader end. cf. obpyriform.
Procumbent Trailing or spreading along the Pyxidium Seed capsule having a circular lid
ground but not rooting at the nodes, referring (operculum) which falls off to release the seed.
to stems. cf. ascending, decumbent, erect. Raceme An indeterminate inflorescence with a
Pro Hyb. (Latin) as a hybrid. simple, elongated axis and pedicellate flowers,
Pro Parte (Latin) in part youngest at the top. adj. racemose.
Pro Parte Majore (Latin) for the greater part. Rachilla The main axis of a grass spikelet.
Pro Parte Minore (Latin) for a small part. Rachis The main axis of the spike or other inflo-
Pro Sp. (Latin) as a species. rescence of grasses or a compound leaf.
Pro Subsp. (Latin) as a subspecies. Radiate Arranged around a common centre;
Pro Syn. (Latin) as a synonym. as of an inflorescence of Asteraceae with
Scientific Glossary 971

marginal, female or neuter, ligulate ray florets Rosette A tuft of leaves or other organs arranged
and central, perfect or functionally male, tubu- spirally like petals in a rose, ranging in form
lar, disc florets. cf. disciform, discoid. from a hemispherical tuft to a flat whorl. adj.
Radical Arising from the root or its crown, or the rosetted, rosulate.
part of a plant embryo that develops into a root. Rostrate Beaked; the apex tapered into a
Ray The marginal portion of the inflorescence slender, usually obtuse point.
of Asteraceae and Apiaceae when distinct Rostrum A beak-like extension.
from the disc. Also, the spreading branches of Rosulate Having a rosette.
a compound umbel. Rotate Wheel-shaped; refers to a corolla with a
Receptacle The region at the end of a pedicel or very short tube and a broad upper part which is
on an axis which bears one or more flowers. flared at right angles to the tube. cf. salverform.
adj. receptacular. Rotundate Rounded; especially at the end or ends.
Recurved Curved downwards or backwards. Rugae Refers to a series of ridges produced by
Reflexed Bent or turned downwards. folding of the wall of an organ.
Regosol Soil that is young and undeveloped, Rugose Deeply wrinkled.
characterized by medium to fine-textured Rugulose Finely wrinkled.
unconsolidated parent material that may be Ruminate (Animal) chew repeatedly over an
alluvial in origin and lacks a significant extended period.
horizon layer formation. Ruminate Endosperm Uneven endosperm sur-
Reniform Kidney-shaped in outline. face that is often highly enlarged by ingrowths
Repand With slightly undulate margin. or infoldings of the surrounding tissue. cf.
Replicate Folded back, as in some corolla lobes. homogenous endosperm.
Resinous Producing sticky resin. Rz Value Is a numerical reference to the mesh/
Resupinate Twisted through 180°. emulsion equalization on the screen.
Reticulate Having the appearance of a network. Saccate Pouched.
Retrorse Bent or directed downwards or Sagittate Shaped like an arrow head.
backwards. cf. antrorse. Saline Soils Soils that contain excessive levels
Retuse With a very blunt and slightly notched of salts that reduce plant growth and vigour by
apex. cf. emarginated. altering water uptake and causing ion-specific
Revolute With the margins enrolled on the toxicities or imbalances.
lower (abaxial) surface. Salinity Is characterized by high electrical con-
Rhizine A root-like filament or hair growing ductivities and low sodium ion concentrations
from the stems of mosses or on lichens. compared to calcium and magnesium
Rhizoid Root-like filaments in a moss, fern, Salverform Applies to a gamopetalous corolla
fungus, etc. that attach the plant to the having a slender tube and an abruptly
substratum. expanded limb.
Rhizome A prostrate or underground stem con- Samara An indehiscent, winged, dry fruit.
sisting of a series of nodes and internodes with Sand A naturally occurring granular material
adventitious roots and which generally grows composed of finely divided rock and mineral
horizontally. particles range in diameter from 0.0625 μm to
Rhizophore A stilt-like outgrowth of the stem 2 mm. adj. sandy
which branches into roots on contact with the Saponins Are plant glycosides with a distinc-
substrate. tive foaming characteristic. They are found
Rhombic Shaped like a rhombus. in many plants, but get their name from the
Rhomboid Shaped like a rhombus. soapwort plant (Saponaria).
Rib A distinct vein or linear marking, often Saprophytic Living on and deriving nourishment
raised as a linear ridge. from dead organic matter.
Riparian Along the river margins, interface Sapwood Outer woody layer of the tree just
between land and a stream. adjacent to and below the bark.
972 Scientific Glossary

Sarcotesta Outermost fleshy covering of Cycad Setaceous Bristle-like.

seeds below which is the sclerotesta. Setate With bristles.
Scabrid Scurfy, covered with surface abrasions, Setiform Bristle-shaped.
irregular projections or delicate scales. Setulose With minute bristles.
Scabrous Rough to the touch because of scattered Sheathing Clasping or enveloping the stem.
rough hairs. Shrub A woody plant usually less than 5 m high
Scale Dry bract or leaf. and many-branched without a distinct main
Scandent Refers to plants, climbing. stem except at ground level.
Scape Erect flowering stem, usually leafless, Silicula A broad, dry, usually dehiscent fruit
rising from the crown or roots of a plant. adj. derived from two or more carpels which usu-
scapose. ally dehisce along two sutures. cf. siliqua.
Scapigerous With a scape. Siliqua A silicula which is at least twice as long
Scarious Dry, thin and membranous. as broad.
Schizocarp A dry fruit which splits into longi- Silt Is soil or rock derived granular material of
tudinally multiple parts called mericarps or a grain size between sand and clay, grain
cocci. adj. schizocarpous. particles ranging from 0.004 to 0.06 mm in
Sclerotesta The innermost fleshy coating of diameter. adj. silty.
cycad seeds, usually located directly below Simple Refers to a leaf or other structure that is
the sarcotesta. not divided into parts. cf. compound.
Scorpoid Refers to a cymose inflorescence in Sinuate With deep wavy margin.
which the main axis appears to coil. Sinuous Wavy.
Scutellum (Botany) any of various parts shaped Sinus An opening or groove, as occurs between
like a shield. the bases of two petals.
Secondary Venation Arrangement of the lateral Sodicity Is characterized by low electrical con-
veins arising from the midrib in the leaf lamina. ductivities and high sodium ion concentra-
Secund With the flowers all turned in the same tions compared to calcium and magnesium.
direction. Sodic Soils Contains high levels of sodium salts
Sedge A plant of the family Apiaceae, Cyperaceae. that affects soil structure, inhibits water move-
Segmented Constricted into divisions. ment and causes poor germination and crop
Seminal Root Or seed root originate from the establishment and plant toxicity.
scutellar node located within the seed embryo Soil pH Is a measure of the acidity or basicity of
and are composed of the radicle and lateral the soil. See pH.
seminal roots. Solitary Usually refers to flowers which are
Senescence Refers to the biological changes borne singly and not grouped into an inflores-
which take place in plants as they age. cence or clustered.
Sepal Free segment of the calyx. adj. sepaline. Sorocarp Fruiting body formed by some cellular
Septum A partition or cross wall. pl. septa. adj. slime moulds, has both stalk and spore mass.
septate. Sorophore Stalk bearing the sorocarp.
Seriate Arranged in rows. Sorosis Fleshy multiple fruit formed from flowers
Sericeous Silky; covered with close-pressed, that are crowded together on a fleshy stem,
fine, straight silky hairs. e.g. pineapple and mulberry.
Serrate Toothed like a saw; with regular, asym- Sorus A discrete aggregate of sporangia in ferns.
metric teeth pointing forwards. pl. sori
Serrated Toothed margin. Spadix Fleshy spike-like inflorescence with an
Serratures Serrated margin. unbranched, usually thickened axis and small
Serrulate With minute teeth on the margin. embedded flowers often surrounded by a
Sessile Without a stalk. spathe. pl. spadices.
Seta A bristle or stiff hair. pl. setae. adj. setose, Spathe A large bract ensheathing an inflores-
setaceous. cence or its peduncle. adj. spathaceous.
Scientific Glossary 973

Spatheate Like or with a spathe. Staminate Unisexual flower bearing stamens

Spathulate Spatula- or spoon-shaped; broad at but no functional pistils.
the tip and narrowed towards the base. Staminode A sterile or abortive stamen, often
Spicate Borne in or forming a spike. reduced in size and lacking anther. adj.
Spiculate Spikelet-bearing. staminodial.
Spike An unbranched, indeterminate inflores- Standard Refers to the adaxial petal in the
cence with sessile flowers or spiklets. adj. flower of Papilionaceae. cf. keel, wing.
spicate, spiciform. Starch A polysaccharide carbohydrate consist-
Spikelet A small or secondary spike character- ing of a large number of glucose units joined
istics of the grasses and sedges and generally together by glycosidic bonds α-1-4 linkages.
composed of 2 glumes and one or more florets. Stellate Star-shaped, applies to hairs.
Also applied to the small spike-like inflores- Stem The main axis of a plant, developed from
cence or inflorescence units commonly found the plumule of the embryo and typically
in Apiaceae. bearing leaves.
Spine A stiff, sharp, pointed structure, formed by Sterile Lacking any functional sexual parts which
modification of a plant organ. adj. spinose. are capable of fertilization and seed production.
Spinescent Ending in a spine; modified to form Stigma The sticky receptive tip of an ovary with
a spine or without a style which is receptive to pollen.
Spinulate Covered with small spines. Stilt Root A supporting root arising from the
Spinulose With small spines over the surface. stem some distance above the ground as in
Spodosol See podsol. some mangroves, sometimes also known as a
Sporangium A spore-bearing structure found prop root.
in ferns, fern allies and gymnosperms. pl. Stipe A stalk that support some other structure
sporangia. adj. sporangial. like the frond, ovary or fruit.
Sporidia Asexual spores of smut fungi. Stipel Secondary stipule at the base of a leaflet.
Sporocarp A stalked specialized fruiting pl. stipellae. adj. stipellate.
structure formed from modified sporophylls, Stipitate Having a stalk or stipe, usually of an
containing sporangia or spores as found in ovary or fruit.
ferns and fern allies. Stipulated Having stipules.
Sporophore A spore-bearing structure, especially Stipule Small leaflike, scale-like or bristle-like
in fungi. appendages at the base of the leaf or on the
Sporophyll A leaf or bract which bears or petiole. adj. stipulate.
subtends sporangia in the fern allies, ferns Stolon A horizontal, creeping stem rooting at
and gymnosperms. the nodes and giving rise to another plant at
Sporophyte The spore-producing phase in the its tip.
life cycle of a plant that exhibits alternation of Stoloniferous Bearing stolon or stolons.
generations. Stoma A pore in the epidermis of the leaf or
Spreading Bending or spreading outwards and stem for gaseous exchange. pl. stomata.
horizontally. Stone The hard endocarp of a drupe, containing
Spur A tubular or saclike extension of the corolla the seed or seeds.
or calyx of a flower. Stramineous Chaffy; straw-liked.
Squama Structure-shaped like a fish scale. pl. Striae Parallel longitudinal lines or ridges. adj.
squamae. striate.
Squamous Covered in scales. Striate Marked with fine longitudinal parallel
Squarrose Having rough or spreading scale- lines or ridges.
like processes. Strigose Bearing stiff, straight, closely appressed
Stamen The male part of a flower, consisting typi- hair; often the hairs have swollen bases.
cally of a stalk (filament) and a pollen-bearing Strobilus A cone-like structure formed from
portion (anther). adj. staminal, staminate. sporophylls or sporangiophores. pl. strobili
974 Scientific Glossary

Strophile An appendage at the hilum of certain Synangium An organ composed of united

plant seeds. sporangia, divided internally into cells, each
Strophiolate Furnished with a strophile or containing spores. pl. synangia.
caruncle. Syncarp An aggregate or multiple fruit formed
Style The part of the pistil between the stigma from two or more united carpels with a single
and ovary. style. adj. syncarpous.
Sub- A prefix meaning nearly or almost, as in Syncarpous Carpels fused forming a compound
subglobose or subequal. pistil.
Subcarnose Nearly fleshy. Synteny Presence of two or more genetic loci
Subfamily Taxonomic rank between the family on the same chromosome.
and tribe. Tannins Group of plant-derived phenolic
Subglobose Nearly spherical in shape. compounds.
Subretuse Faintly notched at the apex. Taxon The taxonomic group of plants of any
Subsessile Nearly stalkless or sessile. rank, e.g. a family, genus, species or any infra-
Subshrub Intermediate between a herb and shrub. specific category. pl. taxa.
Subspecies A taxonomic rank subordinate to Tendril A slender, threadlike organ formed from
species. a modified stem, leaf or leaflet which, by coil-
Substrate Surface on which a plant or organism ing around objects, supports a climbing plant.
grows or attached to. Tepal A segment of the perianth in a flower in
Subtend Attached below something. which all the perianth segments are similar in
Subulate Narrow and tapering gradually to a appearance and are not differentiated into
fine point, awl-shaped. calyx and corolla; a sepal or petal.
Succulent Fleshy, juicy, soft in texture and Tetrasporangium A sporangium containing
usually thickened. four haploid spores as found in some algae.
Suckers Young plants sprouting from the under- Terete Having a circular shape when cross-
ground roots of a parent plant and appearing sectioned or a cylindrical shape that tapers at
around the base of the parent plant. each end.
Suffrutescent Stem Stem woody at the base. Terminal At the apex or distal end.
Sulcate Grooved longitudinally with deep furrows. Ternate In threes as of leaf with 3 leaflets.
Sulcus A groove or depression running along Testa A seed coat, outer integument of a seed.
the internodes of culms or branches. Thallus Plant body of algae, fungi and other
Superior Refers to the ovary is free and mostly lower organisms.
above the level of insertion of the sepals and Thyrse A dense, panicle-like inflorescence, as
petals. cf. inferior. of the lilac, in which the lateral branches
Suture Line of dehiscence. terminate in cymes.
Swidden Slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation. Tomentellose Mildly tomentose.
Syconium A type of pseudocarp formed from a Tomentose Refers to plant hairs that are bent
hollow receptacle with small flowers attached and matted forming a wooly coating.
to the inner wall. After fertilization the ovaries Torus Receptacle of a flower.
of the female flowers develop into one-seeded Transpiration Evaporation of water from the
achenes, e.g. fig. plant through leaf and stem pores.
Symbiosis Describes close and often long- Tree That has many secondary branches
term mutualistic and beneficial interactions supported clear of the ground on a single main
between different organisms. stem or trunk.
Sympetalous Having petals united. Triangular Shaped like a triangle, 3-angled and
Sympodial Refers to a specialized lateral 3-sided.
growth pattern in which the apical meristem. Tribe A category intermediate in rank between
cf monopodial. subfamily and genus.
Scientific Glossary 975

Trichome A hair-like outgrowth of the epidermis. Umbel An inflorescence of pedicellate flowers

Trichotomous Divided almost equally into of almost equal length arising from one point
three parts or elements. on top of the peduncle. adj. umbellate.
Tridentate Three toothed or three pronged. Umbellet A secondary umbel of a compound
Trifid Divided or cleft into three parts or lobes. umbel. cf. umbellule.
Trifoliate Having three leaves. Umbellule An, a secondary umbel of a compound
Trifoliolate A leaf having three leaflets. umbel. cf. umbellet.
Trifurcate Having three forks or branches. Uncinate Bent at the end like a hook; unciform.
Trigonous Obtusely three-angled; triangular in Undershrub Subshrub; a small, usually sparsely
cross-section with plane faces. branched woody shrub less than 1 m high. cf.
Tripartite Consisting of three parts. shrub.
Tripinnate Relating to leaves, pinnately divided Undulate With an edge/margin or edges wavy
three times with pinnate pinnules. in a vertical plane; may vary from weakly to
Tripliveined Main laterals arising above base of strongly undulate or crisped. cf. crisped.
lamina. Unifoliolate A compound leaf which has been
Triploid Describing a nucleus or cell that has reduced to a single, usually terminal leaflet.
three times (3n) the haploid number (n) of Uniform With one form, e.g. having stamens of
chromosomes. a similar length or having one kind of leaf. cf.
Triveined Main laterals arising at the base of dimorphic.
lamina. Uniseriate Arranged in one row or at one level.
Triquetrous Three-edged; acutely 3-angled. Unisexual With one sex only, either bearing the
Trullate With the widest axis below the middle anthers with pollen, or an ovary with ovules,
and with straight margins; ovate but margins referring to a flower, inflorescence or individual
straight and angled below middle, trowel- plant. cf. bisexual.
shaped, angular ovate. Urceolate Shaped like a jug, urn or pitcher.
Truncate With an abruptly transverse end as if Utricle A small bladdery pericarp.
cut off. Vaginate Forming or enclosed in a sheath.
Tuber A stem, usually underground, enlarged as Valvate Meeting without overlapping, as of
a storage organ and with minute scale-like sepals or petals in bud. cf. imbricate.
leaves and buds. adj. tuberous. Valve One of the sections or portions into which
Tubercle A wart-like protuberance. adj. tuberculate. a capsule separates when ripe.
Tuberculate Bearing tubercles; covered with Variant Any definable individual or group of indi-
warty lumps. viduals which may or may not be regarded as
Tuberization Formation of tubers in the soil. representing a formal taxon after examination.
Tuft A densely packed cluster arising from an Variegate, Variegated Diverse in colour or
axis. adj. tufted. marked with irregular patches of different
Turbinate Having the shape of a top; cone-shaped, colours, blotched.
with the apex downwards, inversely conic. Variety A taxonomic rank below that of
Turgid Distended by water or other liquid. subspecies.
Turion The tender young, scaly shoot such as Vein (Botany) a strand of vascular bundle tissue.
asparagus, developed from an underground Veinlets Small veins.
bud without branches or leaves. Velum A flap of tissue covering the sporangium
Turnery Articles made by the process of turning. in the fern, Isoetes.
Twining Winding spirally. Velutinous Having the surface covered with a
Ultisols Mineral soils with no calcareous mate- fine and dense silky pubescence of short fine
rial, have less than 10 % weatherable minerals hairs; velvety. cf. sericeous
in the extreme top layer of soil, and with less Venation Distribution or arrangement of veins
the 35 % base saturation throughout the soil. in a leaf.
976 Scientific Glossary

Veneer Thin sheet of wood. Villous Covered with soft, shaggy unmatted hairs.
Ventral (Botany) facing the central axis, Vine A climbing or trailing plant.
opposed to dorsal. Violaxanthin Is a natural xanthophyll pigment
Vernation The arrangement of young leaves or with an orange colour found in a variety of
fronds in a bud or at a stem apex. cf. circinnate plants like pansies.
Verrucose Warty Viscid Sticky, being of a consistency that resists
Verticil A circular arrangement, as of flowers, flow.
leaves or hairs, growing about a central point; Viviparous Describes seeds or fruit which
a whorl. sprout before they fall from the parent plant.
Verticillaster False whorl composed of a pair of Whorl A ring-like arrangement of leaves, sepals,
opposite cymes as in Lamiaceae. stamens or other organs around an axis.
Verticillate Whorled, arranged in one or more Winged Having a flat, often membranous
whorls. expansion or flange, e.g. on a seed, stem or
Vertisol A soil with a high content of expansive one of the two lateral petals of a Papilionaceous
montmorillonite clay that forms deep cracks flower or one of the petal-like sepals of
in drier seasons or years. Polygalaceae. cf. keel, standard.
Vertosols Soils that both contain more than Xanthophylls Are yellow, carotenoid pigments
35 % clay and possess deep cracks wider than found in plants. They are oxidized derivatives
5 mm during most years. of carotenes.
Vesicle A small bladdery sac or cavity filled Xeromorphic Plant with special modified
with air or fluid. adj. vesicular. structure to help the plant to adapt to dry
Vestigial The remaining trace or remnant of an conditions.
organ which seemingly lost all or most of its Xerophyte A plant which naturally grows in dry
original function in a species through evolution. regions and is often structurally modified to
Vestiture Covering; the type of hairiness, scali- withstand dry conditions.
ness or other covering commonly found on the Zygomorphic Having only one plane of sym-
external parts of plants. cf. indumentums. metry, usually the vertical plane, referring to a
Vibratile Capable of to and fro motion. flower, calyx or corolla. cf. actinomorphic.
Villose Covered with long, fine, soft hairs, finer Zygoten The fist cell formed by the union of two
than in pilose. gametes in sexual reproduction. adj. zygotic.
 Common Name Index

A Alucon, 23
A-204 (human rhabdomyosarcoma), 96 Amaro, 11
A549 (human lung carcinoma cells), 95, 257, 296, 378, Amber, 4
603, 604, 813, 852 American aspen, 51
Aaron’s rod, 53 American basswood, 54
Abaca, 25 American brooklime, 36
Abal, 37 American linden, 54
Abutilon, 16 American olive, 29
Acacia, 65 American speedwell, 36
ACHN (renal adenocarcinoma), 800 American tulip tree, 15
Acid lime, 50 American Veronica, 36
Acuminate violet, 56 Amur daylily, 60
Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL), 421, 743 Amur silver grass, 36
Adenoviruses, 535 Anar, 14
ADV-11, 535 Ando cherry, 46
Afghan Columbine, 42 Anise-hyssop, 5, 151–154
African baobab, 16 Anise-mint, 151
African gladiolus, 4, 141 Anise seeds, 462
African peach, 49 Annual lion’s ear, 7
African rosemallow, 17 Annual teosinte, 37
Agiachita, 53 Anu, 54
Agrimony, 43 Apong-Apong, 19
Aihre don, 62 Apothecary rose, 46
Aithing, 64 Apple, 44, 461
Ajowan, 462 leaf, 795
Akalbih, 5 mint, 8
Akee, 52 Apricot, 43
Akee apple, 52 Apricot vine, 34
Aki-No-Tamura-Sou, 11 Arabian jasmine, 29, 529
Akkhi thawan, 5 Arabian lavender, 192
Akla brikhsa, 5 Arage-Sumire, 58
Alakon, 23 Aramina, 21
Alamo cottonwood, 51 Aramina plant, 21
Alang-Alang, 36 Archangel red dead nettle, 6
Alaska violet, 57 Arctic bramble, 48
Aleutian selfheal, 10 Ardisia, 39
Allard’s lavender, 7 Armenian plum, 43
Alligator flag, 21 Arrowleaf
Allspice, 461 monochoria, 39
Almond, 173 pondweed, 39
Alokon, 23 sida, 21
Alpine grevillea, 40 Arrowroot, 21
Alpine spring beauty, 22 Artichoke, 493
Alpine strawberry, 44 Asama-Kisuge, 61
Alpine white marsh marigold, 42 Ascitic tumours, 739
Althaea, 374 Ashanti pepper, 36

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 977
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
978 Common Name Index

Asian armyworm, 441 Beach hibiscus, 19, 385

Asian bulrush, 788 Beach plum, 682
Asian butterfly bush, 53 Beach rose, 682
Asian jasmine, 529 Beach tomato, 682
Asian saffron, 77 Bead tree, 22, 409
Asiatic jasmine, 529 Beans, 461
ASK cancer cell, 196 Beauty of the Night, 27, 497
AsPC-1, 863 Beaver root, 28
Athia kol, 24 Bedstraw, 48
Australian raspberry, 48 Bee balm, 9
Australian sage, 11 Beefsteak plant, 10
Australian silver oak, 41 Bee tree linden, 54
Autumn clematis, 43 Beggarticks, 65
Autumn crocus, 4 BEL-7402, 813
Azadirachta, 409 Belfruit tree, 50
Azores thyme, 12 Belinjo, 3
Bell pepper, 53
Bengal quince, 50
B Benin pepper, 36
Babylon willow, 52 Bent alligator flag, 21
Baby pink banana, 25 Bergamot, 9
BAE cells, 254 mint, 7
Bael, 50 orange, 50
Baeltree, 50 Bergtee, 2
Bagflower, 5 Bering Sea Spring Beauty, 22
Baimo, 13 Bermuda buttercup, 32
Bairnworth, 795 Betony, 11
Bai-Yu-Lan, 15 Bhat meteka, 39
Bakeapple, 48 Bhukua chepa, 27
Balakatoa, 64 Biara, 40
Bald head, 7 Biblical hyssop, 10
Baldhip rose, 46 Biblical mint, 8
Balik adap, 49 Bicknell’s cranesbill, 2
Balinese long pepper, 36 Bigarade orange, 50
Balkan sideritis, 207 Big laurel, 243
Balm, 7 Big leaf maple, 52
Balsam poplar, 51 Bilimbi, 31
Banana, 25, 509 Birch flower, 23
flowers, 25 Birch leaf pear, 46
shrub, 15 Bird cherry, 45
Banewort, 808 Bird honey, 7
Banksias, 40 Bird’s eye, 808
Banwort, 808 Bird’s foot violet, 58
Banworth, 795 Bishop’s head, 49
Baobab, 16 Bitter ginger, 64
Barbasco, 52 Bitter orange, 50
Barnacles, 799 Blackboy, 61
Barringtonia, 13 Black
Basil, 9 cardamom pods, 461
Basil lemon, 9 cottonwood, 51
Basil lime, 9 currant, 3
Basil thyme, 5 hills spruce, 35
Basswood tree, 21 jack pine, 35
Bastard vervain, 56 pepper, 461
Bawar, 31 peppercorn, 461
Bay laurel, 197 pine, 35
Bay leaves, 461 spruce, 35
Bay thyme, 469 tea tree, 26
B16-BL6 cells, 254, 255 Blackthorn, 45
B16 cancer cell lines, 421 Bladder ketmia, 385
Common Name Index 979

Bladdernut, 53 Brazilian tea, 56

Blady grass, 36 Bread & butter tree, 43
Blanket weed, 53 Breadfruit, 23
Bl-13 (bladder cancer) cells, 485, 647 Breast cancer, 304
Bleeding-heart, 5 Breast cancer cell lines, 254
Blind lavender, 7 Breast cancer (T47D) cell lines, 693
Blinjau, 3 Breast cancer cells MDA-MB-435S, 390
Blood Breast cancer MCF-7 cell lines, 97, 800, 864
banana, 25 Breckland thyme, 12
flag, 4 Brewer’s spruce, 35
lily, 4 Briar rose, 47
Blood-red gladiolus, 4 Bride’s tears, 643
Blowfly, 434 Bridewort, 44
Blue columbine, 41 Brier hip, 46
Blue crown passionflower, 34 Brier rose, 46
Blue giant hyssop, 5, 151 Brine shrimp nauplii, 853
Blue gum, 477 Bristly rose, 47
Blue lily of the Nile, 28 Broadleaf cattail, 55
Blue limestone columbine, 42 Broadleaf sage, 11
Blue lotus Broad-leaved bristlegrass, 37
of Egypt, 28 Broad-leaved cattail, 55
of India, 28 Broad-leaved cumbungi, 55, 788, 790
Blue mallow, 20, 395 Broad-leaved ginger, 857
Blue malva, 395 Broad-leaved lime, 21
Blue passion flower, 34 Broad-leaved paperbark, 26
Blue porterweed, 56 Broad-leaved thyme, 12
Blue rat’s tail, 56 Brown boronia, 50, 748
Blue snakeweed, 56 Browne’ savoury, 6
Blue spruce, 35 143B.TK osteosarcoma (human), 420
Blue star water lily, 519 Bua Kin Saai, 28
Blue tongue, 22 Bua Luang, 27
Blue violet, 58, 795 Buckbrush, 43
Blue water lily, 28, 519 Buckbrush ceanothus, 43
Blume, 13 Buckles, 39
Blunt violet, 57 Buckwheat, 38
Blush honey myrtle, 26 Bulbous buttercup, 43
B16 melanoma cell line, 421, 579 Bulgarian saffron, 77
Boca De Dragón, 63 Bulgarian sideritis, 11
Bog Bulgarian viagra, 207
myrtle, 25 Bull Banksia, 40, 655
spruce, 35 Bull bay, 243
Bohot, 23 Bullweed, 808
Bombax, 17 Bulrush/Bullrush, 54, 55, 788
Bonchini, 53 Bunga combrang, 63
Bông Súng Lam, 28 Bunga kantan, 63
Bonina, 27 Bunga raya, 18
Bonita, 27 Burgundy rose, 47
Boomerang passionvine, 34 Bur mallow, 21
Bootblack flowers, 405 Burmese neem tree, 22, 409
Borage, 65 Burnet, 45, 48
Border forsythia, 526 Burning love, 734
Bordi, 43 Burr, 21
Bottlebrush, 25 Bush basil, 9
Bottle tree, 16 Bush hollyhock, 374
Bougainvillea, 27, 483, 489, 494 Bush lavender, 192
Bouncing bet, 808 Bush nasturtium, 54
Bovine herpesvirus type 1, 427 Buttercup, 43
Bpulai, 64 Butterfly ginger, 63
Bracelet honey myrtle, 26 Butterfly ginger lily, 63, 848
Brazilian bell flower, 290 Butterfly lavender, 192
980 Common Name Index

C Cattail, 54, 55, 788

Cabbage rose, 47 Caucasian spruce, 35
Caesar weed, 21 C6 (mouse glioma) cancer cell, 566
Caesar weed cadillo, 21 C26 colon carcinoma, 99
Cajeput, 26 CCRF-CEM/VM-1(T-cell leukaemia), 800
Calamint, 5 Cekur, 63
Calathea, 21 CEM-SS (human T lymphoblastoid), 841, 865
Calendula, 65 Cervical cancer cell line (HeLa), 693, 863
California golden poppy, 623 Cervical carcinoma MDA-MB231, 852
California golden violet, 58 CGTH W-2 thyroid carcinoma cells, 254
Californian poppy, 625 Chaba, 20
Californian yellow poppy, 628 Chabei, 36
California poplar, 51 Chain of Love, 37, 643
California poppy, 34, 623, 628 Chamomile, 65, 330
California sunlight, 34, 623 Changeable rose, 18
Call-me-to-you, 808 Chang Guan Xuan Cao, 60
Cambridge cherry, 45 Chaparral, 64
Camellia, 53, 764, 770, 772, 774 Charak Pa, 5
Camphor, 179 Chase devil, 4
Canada columbine, 42 Cheeses, 20, 395
Canada rice, 37 cake, 20, 395
Canada violet, 56 flower, 395
Canadian poplar, 51 rennet, 48
Canadian spruce, 35 Cherokee plum, 45
Cancer cell line COL-2, 196 Chewing louse, 179
Cancer cell line P-388, 196 Chickasaw plum, 45
Candillo, 21 Chiknma Chik Nom Yam, 13
Candle Banksia, 40 Chile-samtpappel, 16
Candlestick Banksia, 40 Chillies, 461
Candlestick lily, 14 Chinaberry, 22, 409
Candy corn plant, 290 China rose, 18, 46, 306
Candy flower, 23 China shoe flower, 18
Cane inflorescence, 640 China violet, 58
Canton ginger, 64 Chinese basil, 10
Cape bulrush, 55 Chinese bell flower, 16, 276, 290
Cape hibiscus, 18 Chinese bush cherry, 46
Cape honey flower, 22 Chinese daylily, 832
Cape jasmine, 49, 705, 723 Chinese dwarf cherry, 46
Cape jessamine, 705 Chinese fever vine, 49
Cape lilac, 22 Chinese hibiscus, 18, 306
Cape mallow, 20 Chinese Ixora West Indian Jasmine, 49
Cape saffron, 53 Chinese knotweed, 38
Cape sorrel, 32 Chinese lantern, 16, 19, 290, 371
Carambola, 31 Chinese love vine, 643
Caraway thyme, 12 Chinese magnolia, 15
Cardamom, 461, 472 Chinese malunggay, 34
Cardinal royal, 48 Chinese moutan cortex, 602
Cardinal’s hat, 405 Chinese peony, 33, 559, 560
Carnations, 65 Chinese perfume plant, 22
Carolina rose, 46 Chinese plum, 43, 45
Carpenter bees, 648 Chinese spruce, 34
Carpet geranium, 2 Chinese tea rose, 46
Cassumunar ginger, 64 Chinese violet, 59
Catchweed bedstraw, 700 Chinese weeping spruce, 35
Catmint, 9 Chives, 65
Catnip, 9, 153 Chlorambucil-resistant B-cell chronic lymphocytic
Cat’s face, 808 leukaemia (B-CLL) cells, 254
Cat spruce, 35 Chokeberry, 685
Cat’s whiskers, 6 Cholangiocarcinoma, 852
Catswort, 9 Cholangiocarcinoma cell line (KKU-100), 864
Common Name Index 981

Christmas candlestick, 7 Common hollyhock, 292

Christmas tree, 14 Common lavender, 156
Chronic myelogenous leukaemia (CML), 743 Common leucas, 7
Chrysanthemum, 65 Common lilac, 30, 541
Churchsteeples, 43 Common lime, 21
Cinnamon, 208, 461, 469, 472 Common linden, 21
Cinnamon rose, 47 Common mallow, 20, 395
Citronella, 476 Common marshmallow, 16
Clary, 11, 173 Common meadow violet, 58
Clary sage, 11 Common mignonette, 43
Clear eye, 11 Common monkey flower, 53
Cleavers, 48 Common motherwort, 7
Climbing knotweed, 38 Common mullein, 53
Climbing nasturtium, 777 Common myrtle, 27
Clivers, 48 Common nasturtium, 777
Cloudberry, 48 Common passionfruit, 34
Clove(s), 27, 460, 461, 463–470, 472–474, 476, 477 Common peony, 33, 559
bud, 179 Common petunia, 755
tree, 460 Common primrose, 40, 653
Cluster-flowered fuchsia, 30 Common purslane, 39
Coastal Banksia, 40, 658 Common rose mallow, 18
Coastal cottonwood, 19, 385 Common sage, 11
Coastal daylily, 60, 822 Common sorrel, 38
Coastal hibiscus, 385 Common spruce, 34
Coastal pitpit, 37, 640 Common sugarbush, 41
Coastal screwpine, 33 Common thyme, 13
Coast Banksia, 40, 658 Common violet, 795
Coast cottonwood, 385 Common wild rose, 47
Coast hibiscus, 385 Common wood sorrel, 32
Coba, 37 Common yellow day lily, 822
Cockleburr, 43 Conehead thyme, 12
Coffee, 462 Confederate rose, 18
Cogongrass, 36 Confederate vine, 643
Colchis bladdernut, 53 Congo jute, 21
Colon cancer cells, 390 Congo pump, 55
COLO320DM (human colonic adenocarcinoma cell Cooking ginger, 64
lines), 862 Cooktown orchid, 31, 555, 556
COLO205 (human colonic adenocarcinoma cell lines), 862 Copra mite, 615
Colonic adenocarcinomas, 865 Coral bells, 643
Colorado blue columbine, 41 Coral creeper, 643
Colorado blue spruce, 35 Coral hibiscus, 18, 371
Colorado pinon, 35 Coralita, 643
Colorado spruce, 35 Coral Ixora, 745
Columbine, 41 Coral jasmine, 29
Come-and-Cuddle-Me, 58 Coral peony, 559
Comfort root, 17 Coral vine, 37, 643
Common balm, 7 Coriander, 461
Common blue violet, 58, 795 Coriander seeds, 461
Common bulrush, 55 Corkwood, 41
Common burnet, 48 Corkwood oak, 41
Common calamint, 5 Cornemint, 5
Common camellia, 764 Cornflower, 65
Common cattail, 55 Corn, 37
Common columbine, 42 mint, 7
Common four O’clock, 497 poppy, 34
Common garden hollyhock, 292 rose, 34
Common gardenia, 49, 705 tortillas, 462
Common garden peony, 33, 559 Cornucopia, 409
Common ginger, 64 Cossack asparagus, 55
Common hibiscus, 374 Cotton rose, 18
982 Common Name Index

Cottonseed, 770 Dandelion, 65

Cotton tree, 19 Dauricum lily, 14
Cotton tree kapok tree, 17 Daylily, 59, 60, 65, 826, 827, 832
Cottonwood, 19 Dead-rat tree, 16
Cottonwood hibiscus, 385 Dendrobium, 556
Country mallow, 15, 20, 276, 395 Dendrobium orchid, 31
Coville’s columbine, 42 Dengue virus type 2, 427
Cow lily, 28 Den-Phal, 555
Cowslip, 39, 653 Dense knotweed, 38
Cowslip primrose, 39 Derangong, 62
Coyote mint, 9 Derives, 292
Crab apple, 44 Desert columbine, 42
Crabapple mangrove, 14 Desert grevillea, 40
Cranberry shield, 17 Desert paintbrush, 31
Cranesbill, 2 Devil lily, 215
Cream of tartar tree, 16 Devilwood, 29
Creeping charlie, 6 Devon violet, 795
Creeping geranium, 2 Dewa chali, 23
Creeping jenny, 39 Dewberry, 48
Creeping mallow, 20 Dhoby bush, 49
Creeping raspberry, 48 Diamondleaf willow, 52
Creeping rockfoil, 52 Didier’s tulip, 222
Creeping saxifrage, 52 Dieng jowat, 49
Creeping thyme, 12 Dieng-Piu, 3
Creeping wood sorrel, 32 Dieng pylieng, 39
Creosote bush, 64 Digger pine, 35
Cretan dittany, 9 Ditch daylily, 822
Cretan thyme, 12 Ditch lily, 59
Crewel, 39 Dittany of crete, 9
Crimson bee balm, 9 DLA tumour cells, 98
Crimson columbine, 42 Dobi tree, 49
Crimson turkey bush, 53 Dog rose, 46
Crisped leaf pelargonium, 2, 72 Dog’s head lotus, 381
Crokbark, 41 Dog tail, 53
Crowfoot, 43 Dogtooth violet, 13
Crowfoot violet, 58 Dog violet, 56
Cubeb, 35 Dong Fang Xiang Pu, 55
Cucumber tree, 31 Doron, 7
Cuddle Me, 808 Dotted smartweed, 38
Culinary sage, 11 Double cinnamon rose, 47
Cull Me, 808 Downy cherry, 46
Cumbungi, 54, 788 Dragon’s-Eye Japanese Red Pine, 35
Cumin, 461 Dragon’s head lily, 141
Cup of gold, 34, 623 Dragon spruce, 34
Curdwort, 48 Dried oregano, 462
Curled leaved cranesbill, 2, 72 Drummond’s false pennyroyal, 6
Curry leaf, 51 Drummond’s wax-mallow, 405
Curry tree, 51 Drumstick primula, 39
Curtis violet, 57, 792 Drumstick tree, 24
Cydonian apple, 44 Duck plague virus (DPV), 427
Cytria, 7 DU-145 human prostate carcinoma cells, 467, 567, 813
Ðuôi Vảy, 31
Durian, 17
D Duruka, 37, 640
Dai Dai Hua, 50 Dutch lavender, 7
Dalmatian sage, 11 Dwarf, 25
Dalton’s lymphoma ascites (DLA), 98, 390, 746 banana, 24
Dalton’s lymphoma cells, 739 honey flower, 22
Damask rose, 47 marsh violet, 57
Damson, 45 nasturtium, 54
Common Name Index 983

prairie rose, 46 Evening star, 30

rose, 46 Evergreen magnolia, 15, 243
serbian spruce, 35 Ezo-Kisuge, 61
Dyer’s saffron, 4 Ezo-No-Tachitsubo-Sumire, 56
Ezo-Ryukin-Ka, 42

E
EAC tumour cells, 98 F
Earth ginger, 63 Fairy cups, 39
Earthworm, 487, 648 Falling stars, 4
East-African hibiscus, 371 Fall phlox, 37
East Asian balsam poplar, 51 False cubeb pepper, 36
East Asian cherry, 45 False jalap, 497
Easter lily, 14, 215 False mallow, 20
Eastern jack pine, 35 False oxlip, 648
Eastern white pine, 35 False rhubarb, 38
Eau de cologne mint, 7, 8 False roselle, 17
Egoma, 10 False shamrock, 32
Egyptian blue water lily, 28 False turmeric, 62
Egyptian lavender, 7 Fan columbine, 42
Egyptian lotus, 28, 514, 517 Feijoa, 26
Egyptian sugarcane, 37 Feng Dan Bai, 33
Egyptian white water lily, 28, 514 Fennel, 197, 461
Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC), 98, 739, 746 Fennel giant hyssop, 151
Elatior hybrid primroses, 648 Fennel seeds, 461
Elegant cymbidium, 31 Fenugreek seeds, 461
Elephant apple, 44, 50 Fernleaf grevillea, 41
Elephant arass, 55 Fernleaf lavender, 7
Elephant nettle, 55 Fernleaf woodland oak, 41
Emperor’s mint, 8 Ferny leaved silky oak, 41
Empress of India, 777 Fever nettle, 55
Empress tree, 34 Fiddle tree, 15
Emu bush, 53 Field mint, 7
Engelmann spruce, 35 Field pansy, 808
English hawthorn, 44 Field poppy, 34
English lavender, 6, 156 Fig buttercup, 43
English pennyroyal, 8 Fiji asparagus, 37, 640
English primrose, 40 Finger bowl geranium, 2, 72
English violet, 795 Finger leaved violet, 58
Entire marshwort, 22 Firecracker, 405
Epidermoid carcinoma, 852 Firecracker hibiscus, 20, 405
Epstein-Barr virus, 257, 770, 862 Fire flag, 21
Epstein-Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA), 422 Fire-flame bush, 14
Erva cidrera, 7 Fireweed, 30
Ethiopian sour tree, 16 Five corner, 31
Eucalyptus, 179 Five-fingered mallow, 18
European bladdernut, 53 Five-leaved bramble, 48
European columbine, 42 Five-ripped thyme, 12
European dewberry, 48 Flag bush, 49
European lime, 21 Flag flower, 144
European linden, 21 Flame of the woods, 49, 734
European mallow, 20 Flame spider flower, 41
European meadowsweet, 44 Flanders poppy, 34
European mountain ash, 48 Flax-leaved paperbark, 26
European pennyroyal, 8 Floating hearts, 22
European peony, 33 Floating marsh marigold, 42
European plum, 45 Floating water hyacinth, 39
European white water lily, 28 Flor de Cacao, 20
European wild pansy, 808 Florida cranberry, 19, 324
Evening primrose, 30 Florida sand plum, 45
984 Common Name Index

Florist primrose polyanthus, 648 nasturtium, 54, 777, 785

Florist’s violet, 795 pansy, 808, 818–820
Flowering maple, 16, 290 petunia, 755
Flowering raspberry, 48 phlox, 37
Flower-o-luce, 808 rhubarb, 38
Flowery knotweed, 38 sage, 11
Forest blackbutt, 458 thyme, 13
Forest mallow, 395 tree mallow, 19
Formosan hibiscus, 381 tulip, 222
Forrest’s daylily, 59 violet, 57, 795
Forsythia, 28, 526 Gardenia, 538, 705
Four-leaved pink sorrel, 32 Garland flower, 63, 847
Four O’clock, 497 Garlic, 461, 462
flower, 27, 497 Gastric adenocarcinoma
plant, 497 (AGS) cells, 485, 647
Foxglove tree, 34 Geed hindi, 22
Fragrant evening primrose, 30 Genji-sumire, 58
Fragrant giant hyssop, 151 German wachsmalve, 20
Fragrant olive, 29 Ghoraneem, 22
Fragrant peony, 559 Giant Banksia, 40, 655
Fragrant water lily, 28 Giant Chinese silver grass, 36
Fraser’s hakea, 41 Giant curcuma, 62
Freesia, 4, 137–139 Giant eulalia grass, 36
Fremont cottonwood, 51 Giant hibiscus, 18
French lavender, 6, 7, 186, 192, 198 Giant honey flower, 22
French lilac, 30, 541 Giant hyssop, 5, 151
Frgrant screwpine, 33 Giant lion’s ear, 7
Fringed hibiscus, 371 Giant miscanthus, 36
Fringed lavender, 6, 186 Giant rose mallow, 18
Fringed rosemallow, 19, 371 Giant tea rose, 46
Fringed water lily, 22 Giant water canna, 21
Fritillaria, 13 Gibraltar range waratah, 41
Fritillary, 13 Ginger, 64, 461, 462
Frogbit, 3 bud, 834
Frosted mint, 10 flower, 63, 834
Fruit sage, 10 flower buds, 834
Fruit-scented sage, 10 lily, 847
Fuchsia, 30, 548, 551 mint, 8
Fuengfa, 27 Ginko-Boku, 15
Fulvous daylily, 822 Ginseng, 107
Gladiola, 144
Gladioli, 145, 148
G Gladiolus, 4, 141, 144–146, 148
Galanga, 62 Glads, 4, 144
Galangal, 62 Glaucus cattail, 55
Galanga major, 62 Glioblastoma cells, 257
Gall midge, 179 Glorybower, 5
Gameri, 6 Glory of the Garden, 483
Garden Glossy Ixora Javanese Ixora, 745
burnet, 45, 48 Gnetum, 3
cress, 205 Goat weed, 4, 53
gardenia, 705 Godfathers and Godmothers, 808
gladiolus, 4, 144 Golden apple, 50
hollyhock, 292 Golden apple snails, 803
jalap, 497 Golden bells, 28, 526
lavender, 156 Golden bow dendrobium, 31
lily, 215 Golden cup, 623
mallow, 292 Golden currant, 3
mignonette, 43 Golden currant buffalo currant, 3
mint, 8 Golden deadnettle, 6
Common Name Index 985

Golden gardenia, 49 H
Golden grevillea, 41 H209 (squamous cell carcinoma), 378
Golden mariposa lily, 13 H661 (large cell carcinoma), 378
Golden needles, 830 Hackberry, 45
Golden poppy, 34, 623 Hageir, 49
Golden sage, 11 Haggebutt, 46
Golden tree, 41 Hailans pitpit, 37
Gollins, 42 Hair lice, 439
Gomari, 6 Hairpin Banksia, 40
Goodding’s willow, 52 Hairy banana, 25
Good luck leaf, 32 Hairy capraria, 53
Good luck plant, 32 Hairy portia tree, 21
Goosegrass, 48 Hairy water lily, 28
Gooseneck loosestrife, 39 Hajing, 64
Graceful cattail, 55 Hakuun-Kisuge, 60
Grains of paradise, 462 Hala, 33
Gram pod borer, 441 Halberd-leaved rose mallow, 18
Granada, 14 Halia jacus, 62
Granny’s Bonnet, 42 Halia landak, 62
Granny’s Nightcap, 42 Hamabo, 18
Grapes, 59 Hamster buccal pouch carcinomas, 424
Grassleaf daylily, 60 Hana-Ikada, 3
Grass pansy, 58 Hansen’s bush cherry, 46
Grass tree, 61 Hardy fuchsia, 30
Gray French lavender, 186 Hardy water canna, 21
Gray pine, 35 Harendog, 22
Great basin spring beauty, 23 Hastate-leaf pondweed, 39
Great bougainvillea, 27, 489 Hawaiian hibiscus, 306
Great burnet, 48 Hawaiian tree hibiscus, 385
Greater burnet, 48 Hawthorn, 43
Greater cardamom, 465 Hay plant, 700
Greater galanga, 62 HC-29 (colorectal adenocarcinoma) cells, 485, 647
Greater henbit, 6 HCT-15 (colon adenocarcinoma), 257, 296
Greater thalia, 21 HCT 116 human colon cancer cell, 167, 239, 254, 693
Great laurel magnolia, 243 Headed savoury, 12
Great mullein, 53 Head lice, 177
Great purple monkey flower, 53 Heal-All, 10
Great red hibiscus, 17 Heartleaf hibiscus, 18
Great reedmace, 55 Heartleaf rose mallow, 18
Great-spurred violet, 58 Heart’s delight, 59
Great willowherb, 30 Heartsease, 58, 808, 809, 812, 815
Greek basil, 9 Hearts on a Chain, 643
Greek mountain tea, 207 Heath Banksia, 40
Greek oregano, 10 Heath-leaved Banksia, 40
Greek saffron, 77 HEI 193 human cells schwannoma, 256
Green cardamom, 461 HeLa (cervical cancer) cell lines, 95, 96, 257, 421, 467,
Green cottonwood, 385 566, 852
Green tea, 772 Helani tulip ginger, 844
Ground blackboy, 61 Henbit deadnettle, 6
Guavasteen, 26 Hens-and-roosters, 808
Guest tree, 19 Hep-2, 534
Guiana chestnut, 20 Hepatitis B virus (HBV), 567
Gui-Hua, 29 Hepatitis C virus (HCV), 258, 472
Guinea arrowroot, 21 Hepatoblastoma, 852
Guinea cubeb, 36 Hepatocellular carcinoma, 852, 864
Guinea sorrel, 324 Hepatoma, 304
Gumbo, 15 Hep3B hepatoma cell lines, 566
Gunnison’s mariposa lily, 13 HepG2 (human hepatocellular carcinoma), 96, 239, 257,
Guti Kol, 24 304, 566, 852
986 Common Name Index

Herba sancti petri, 39 Horseradish tree, 24

Herb constancy, 808 Hortulan plum, 45
Herb peter, 39 House dust mites, 614
Herb robert, 2 Housefly, 177, 433, 434
Herb walter, 700 Howell’s marsh marigold, 42
Hermit’s waterlily, 232 Hsin-I, 15, 236
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), 258, 427, HSV type 2, 472
472, 535, 703 HT-29 (colon) human cancer cell lines, 421, 566, 693
Herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2), 304, 535 HT 1080 (human fibrosarcoma), 254, 567
Herpes simplex virus (HSV), 604 HuCCA-1, 852
He Shou Wu, 38 Human and animal adenocarcinoma cells (HT-29
Hibiscus, 18, 65, 306, 324, 339 and DHD/K12-PROb), 99
Hibiscus flower, 306 Human brain glioblastoma-astrocytoma cancer
Hibiscus-piment, 405 (U-87 MG) cells, 283
Hidden ginger lilies, 62 Human breast cancer cells (MCF-7), 255, 770
Higan cherry, 46 Human cervical cancer (HeLa), 864
Highland pitpit, 37 Human cervical epithelioid carcinoma cells, 96
High mallow, 20, 395 Human choriocarcinoma (BeWo) cells, 422
Hill cherry, 45 Human colon cancer HCT116 cell line, 752
Hillock bush, 26 Human colorectal cancer cells (HCT-116, SW-480 and
Himalayan spruce, 35 HT-29), 97
Himbabao, 23 Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), 472
Hime kozo, 23 Human epidermoid nasopharynx
Hip tree, 46 carcinoma KB9 cells, 253
Hite violet, 58 Human fibrosarcoma HT-1080 cell, 254
Hkhinkang, 49 Human gastric adenocarcinoma cancer (SGC-7901), 752
HL-60 cancer cell lines, 255, 421, 422, Human gastric carcinoma (AGS) cells, 340
693, 852, 862, 865 Human glioblastoma multiforme (GBM8401) cells, 863
Hoary basil, 9 Human hepatocarcinoma SK-Hep-1 cells, 753
Hoary plantain, 36 Human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line, 603
Holland rose, 47 Human hepatocellular liver carcinoma HepG2, 862
Hollyhock, 16, 65, 292, 297, 298 Human immunodefeciency virus (HIV),
Hollyhock mallow, 20 74, 440, 517, 693, 800
Holy herb, 56 Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1),
Honey ball myrtle, 26 304, 507, 604, 694, 770
Honey bees, 648 Human leukaemia cell line, 865
Honey bush, 22 Human leukaemia cells (HL-60), 211, 340
Honey flower, 22, 41 Human leukaemic (CEMss) cell lines, 770, 864
Honey grevillea, 40 Human lung carcinoma, 254
Honey melon sage, 202 Human lymphoma cell line U-937 GTB, 800
Honeysuckle, 658 Human malignant melanoma A375-S2 cells, 255
grevillea, 41 Human osteosarcoma U2os cells, 753
oak, 658 Human papillomavirus, 166
Honey tree, 52 Human promonocytic leukaemia U937 cells, 257
Hong Kong lily, 14 Human promyelocytic leukaemia cell, 852
Honje, 63 Human promyelocytic leukaemia HL-60
Honje Hutan, 63 cancer cell, 339, 566
Honolulu creeper, 643 Human prostate cancer cell line, 693
Hooded violet, 57 Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV), 567
Hooked needlewood, 41 Human transitional cell carcinoma TCC 5637, 97
Hookedspur violet, 56 Hurch steeples, 43
Hooker’s Cymbidium, 31 Hybrid cattail, 55
Hop majoram, 9 Hybrid fuchsia, 548
Horlosies, 2 Hybrid rose, 47
Hormone-dependent breast cancer, 852 Hyssop, 6
Hormone-independent breast cancer, 852
Horned pansy, 56
Horned violet, 56 I
Horn fly, 434 Indian abutilon, 15, 276
Horse mint, 8 Indian azadirach, 409
Common Name Index 987

Indian bael fruit, 50 Japanese field mint, 8

Indian blue water lily, 519 Japanese flowering crab apple, 44
Indian butter tree, 52 Japanese ginger, 64
Indian cedar, 22, 409 Japanese glorybower, 5
Indian cress, 54, 777 Japanese hibiscus, 371
Indian jasmine, 529 Japanese lantern, 19, 371
Indian lantern plant, 276 Japanese lime, 21
Indian lettuce, 23 Japanese mint, 8
Indian lilac, 22, 409 Japanese mountain cherry, 45
Indian long pepper, 36 Japanese peony, 33
Indian mallow, 15, 16 Japanese pepper, 51
Indian mallow abutilon, 276 Japanese pepper tree, 51
Indian oak, 13 Japanese pricklyash, 51
Indian paint brush, 31 Japanese pussy willow, 52
Indian pavetta, 49 Japanese red pine, 35
Indian pellet shrub, 50 Japanese rose, 47, 682
Indian primrose, 39 Japanese show lily, 215
Indian quince, 50 Japanese silver grass, 36
Indian rhododendron, 22 Japanese spicebush, 13
Indian rice, 37 Japanese thyme, 12
Indian saffron, 62, 77 Japanese wonder flower, 497
Indian snake tree, 55 Japanese woodland sage, 11
Indian sorrel, 19, 324 Jarrah, 458
Indian tulip tree, 21 Jasmine, 29, 530, 531, 535, 538, 705
Indian water lily, 28 Jasmine orange, 51
Indonesian tall ginger, 63, 834 Java cardamom, 62
Influenza virus strain A/FM/1/47-MA, 712 Java feroniella, 51
Iron cross plant, 32 Java jute, 324
Ironwort, 11, 207, 208 Javanese aromatic ginger, 834
Italian burnet, 48 Javanese Ixora, 49
Italian grape hyacinth, 3 Javanese long pepper, 36
Italian lavender, 192 Javanese pepper, 36
Italian pimperne, 48 Javanese turmeric, 62
Italian saffron, 77 Javanese wild banana, 25
Ivy-leaf violet, 57, 792 Java tea, 6
Ivy-leaved, 792 Jebikkot, 57
Ixora, 734, 747 Jelly leaf, 21
Jelly okra, 324
Jerry pine, 35
J Jersey tea, 43
Jackfruit, 23 Jiao-Bai, 37
Jack-jump-up-and-kiss-me, 58, 808 Jin-Zhen-Cai, 59
Jack pine, 35 Johnny-jump-up, 58, 808
Jade lily, 236 Johnson’s grass tree, 61
Jade orchid, 236 John’s wort, 4
Jalap, 27 Jointed glasswort, 400
Jalap plant, 497 Joint fir, 3
Jamaica flower, 306 Joy perfume tree, 15
Jamaican/Jamaica sorrel, 19, 324 Judas fruit, 16
Jamaica tea flower, 324 Jujube, 43
Jamaica vervain, 56 Jump-up, 808
Janki phul, 39 Jungle flame, 49, 734, 745
Japanese apricot, 43, 45 Jungle geranium, 49, 734, 745
Japanese bird cherry, 45 Jurkat T leukaemia cells, 254
Japanese bitter orange, 50
Japanese camellia, 53, 764
Japanese cattail lesser reed mace, 788 K
Japanese cherry, 45 K562, 421
Japanese clematis, 43 Kadok, 36
Japanese crab apple, 44 Kaempfer’s Glorybower, 5
988 Common Name Index

Kaffir bread, 61 Ko-Tachi-Tsubo-Sumire, 57

Kalkoentjie, 4 Kotukutuku, 30
Kammetjie, 4 Kozo, 23
Kampong tree, 3 Kra Don, 13
Kankara, 49 Kradonbok, 13
Kansisa, 7 Kradonkhon, 13
Kantan liar (Malay), 63 Kua-Kabig, 64
Kaphul kebeb, 64 Kumquats, 50
Kapok, 17 Kunai, 36
Kapok tree, 17, 20 Kunyit, 62
Karabil, 22 Kunyit putih, 62
Karasu, 21 Kurrajong, 385
Karkadé, 324 Kuw-Sun, 37
Karri, 34, 458 Kwei Hua, 29
Kawakawa, 35, 36 Kwo-Bai, 37
KB (Human tumour cell lines ), 421, 852
Keepit hakea, 41
Kelalang, 24 L
Kelor, 24 Labrador rose, 46
Kentan, 215 Labrador violet, 57
Ketaki, 33 Labung garai, 27
Keteki, 33 Ladies delight, 58, 818
Keya, 33 Ladies teardrop, 405
Key flower, 39 Lady of the Meadow, 44
Key lime, 50 Lady’s bedstraw, 48
Key of heaven, 39 Lady’s finger, 15
Khaa, 62 Lady’s thumb, 38
Kha-Daeng, 62 Lagoon hibiscus, 385
Kham Noi, 64 Lakuchi, 23
Kha Taa Daeng, 62 Lalang, 36
Khui, 13 Lamb mint, 8
Kidneyleaf violet, 58 Lanceleaf plantain, 36
Kidney tea plant, 6 Lance-leaf tiger lily, 215
Kimberley christmas tree, 41 Lance selfheal, 10
King cup, 42 Langtu, 6
King’s spear, 59 Languas, 62
Kisses, 48 Lantern flower, 19, 290
Kiss-her-in-the buttery, 808 Lân Vĩ Vẩy Rông, 31
Kiss-me-quick, 700 Laos root, 62
Kitchen sage, 11 Laphu tharo, 24
Kit-run-about, 808 Large-flower magnolia, 243
Kit-run-in-the-fields, 808 Large-leaved lime, 21
Kkaennip Namul, 10 Lasiandra, 22
Klamath weed, 4 Late crocus, 4
Kluai, 25 Late yellow daylily, 61
Kluai-Pa, 24 Lá Tía Tô, 10
Knotted majoram, 9 Laurel-leaved magnolia, 243
Kobushi, 15 Lavandin, 160
Kobushi magnolia, 15 Lavandula dentata, 187
Kobus magnolia, 15 Lavatera, 19
Ko Gama, 55 Lavender, 6, 7, 65, 156–165, 168–180,
Koldil, 24 186, 187, 190, 193, 199, 471
Koma-Yuri, 14 giant, 151
Koneng gede, 62 hyssop, 5
Korean cherry, 45, 46 Le, 33
Korean hyssop, 5 Least yellow sorrel, 32
Korean lily, 14 Lebanese oregano, 10
Korean mint, 5, 154 Leibak Kundo, 39
Korean poplar, 51 Le’ie, 33
Ko-Sumire, 57 Lemon, 50, 462
Common Name Index 989

Lemon balm, 7, 107 Long yellow daylily, 59

Lemon bee balm, 8 Lotus lily, 519, 520
Lemon beebrush, 56 Louse, 177
Lemon clover, 32 Love chain, 643
Lemon daylily, 60, 830 Love-in-idleness, 58, 808
Lemon geranium, 2, 72, 73 Love-liesbleeding, 808
Lemongrass, 177 Love plant, 32
Lemon lily, 60, 830, 831 Love-vine, 643
Lemon mint, 7, 8 Loving idol, 808
Lemon-scented geranium, 2, 72 Lowland pitpit, 37
Lemon-scented thyme, 13 Low prairie rose, 46
Lemon thyme, 12, 13 Low red shrub, 497
Lemon verbena, 56 LS174T (human colonic adenocarcinoma
Lemon-yellow rosemallow, 17 cell lines), 862
Lengkuas, 62 LS180 (human colonic adenocarcinoma
Lengmaser, 6 cell lines), 862
Lesser bougainvillea, 483 L-929 tumour cells, 74
Lesser bulrush, 54 Luc Binh, 39
Lesser calamint, 5 Luchol, 62
Lesser celandine, 43 Lucky clover, 32
Lesser grain borer, 154 Lucky shamrock, 32
Lesser honey bush, 22 Lung adenocarcinoma, 852
Lesser reedmace, 54 Lung adenomas, 865
Lettuce, 22 Lung cancer (A549) cell lines, 97, 693
Lewis’ monkey flower, 53 Lung cancer cells, 378
Lice, 814
Licorice mint, 5
Li-Ji, 63 M
Lilac, 30, 541, 544–546 Mace, 461, 462, 465
Lilac Oxalis Pink Shamrock, 32 Maculatum lily, 14
Lilies, 65 Madeira jasmine, 29
Lily of a Day, 61 Madre de Cacao, 20
Lily tree, 236 Mahoe, 385
Lime, 21 Mahua, 52
Lime basil, 9 Mahuat, 385
Lime geranium, 3 Mahwa, 52
Lime mint, 7, 8 Maid of Orleans, 529
Lime thyme, 12 Maid’s hair, 48
Limnocharis, 232 Mai-Yan-Kat, 49
Linaria-leaved Indian paintbrush, 31 Maize, 37
Linden, 21, 54 Makaen, 476
Linden hibiscus, 385 Makino-Sumire, 59
Lion’s ear, 7 Makomo Dake, 37
Lion’s tail, 7 Malabar chestnut, 20
Lipstick flower, 18 Malabar melastome, 22
Lipstick hibiscus, 20 Malabar plum, 27
Liquorice, 465 Malaria vector, 434
Little hogweed, 39 Malayan Ixora, 49
Little leaf lilac, 30 Malay apple, 27
Little leaf linden, 21 Malay rose, 63
Live-in-idleness, 808 Malaysian tree gardenia, 49
Llomba, 6 Malignant carcinomic human alveolar
LNCaP, 196, 693 basal epithelial cells (A549), 97
Loblolly magnolia, 15, 243 Malignant HSG1 cells, 339
Locusts, 442 Mallow, 374, 395
Long-bracted cattail, 54 Mallow night flowering maple, 16
Long Chuan Hua, 49 Malvastrum, 20
Long-horned dendrobium, 31 Mammary carcinomas, 167, 168
Long-leaved mat rush, 61 Manchu cherry, 46
Long pepper, 36 Manchurian violet, 57
990 Common Name Index

Manchurian wild rice, 37 Mejorana, 12

Mandarin, 51 Melaleuca, 26
Mangite, 40, 655 Melanoma, 257
Mango ginger, 62 Melinjo, 3
Mangrove apple, 14 Meninjau, 3
Manila hemp, 25 Metastatic colorectal cancer, 168
Manipur wild, 46 Mexican coral vine, 643
Manzanilla, 20 Mexican creeper, 643
Maple-leaved bayur tree, 20 Mexican evening primrose, 552
Maple twist, 20 Mexican gold, 623
Margosa, 22, 409 Mexican gold poppy, 623
Margosa tree, 22, 409 Mexican hyssop, 5
Marigolds, 65 Mexican lime, 50
Mariposa lily, 13 Mexican love vine, 643
Marjoram, 10 Mexican teosinte, 37
Marmalade orange, 50 Mexican turks cap, 20, 405
Maroom, 24 Mexican wood sorrel, 32
Marri, 25, 456, 457 Mgunghwa, 19
Marsh blue violet, 57, 58 MiaPaCa, 256
Marsh mallow, 16, 395 Mignonette, 43
Marsh marigold, 42 Miles honey myrtle, 26
Marsh pestle, 55 Milk-weeds, 65
Marshwort, 22 Mill mountain, 5
Martagon, 215 Milo, 21
Martinique ginger, 857 Miner’s lettuce, 23
Maruba-Ke-Sumire, 56 Miniature pansy, 808
Maruba sumire, 57 Mint, 8, 461
Marvel of Peru, 27, 497 Mint charlie, 6
Marvel of the World, 497 Mint leaves, 461
Mashua, 54 Mioga ginger, 64
Master of the forest, 700 Missouri evening primrose, 30
Master of the woods, 700 Miyama cherry, 45
Mastic thyme, 12 Miyama-Ki-Sumire, 56
Ma Sung, 51 Mi Zai Lan, 22
Maté tea, 702 Mizu obako, 3
Matoom, 50 Mock lime, 22
Mat rush, 61 Mock olive, 26
Mauve butterfly orchid, 555 Mock orange, 51
May, 43 Mogheli, 33
Mayanba, 9 Mo Li Hua, 29
May blobs, 42 MOLT-3, 852
May blossom, 44 MOLT-4 cell lines, 421
May bush, 44 Money tree, 20
Mayflower, 39, 42 Moneywort, 39
Mayflower maythorn, 43 Monkey bread tree, 16
Maypop, 34 Monkey bush, 15, 276
May tree, 44 Monkey jack, 23
MCF-7, 422, 534, 864 Monks cress, 777
MCF-7 (breast cancer), 255, 566, 852 Monochoria, 39
MCF-7 (ER-positive), 467 Montbretia, 4
MCF7 (human tumour cell lines), 421 Moon flower, 276
MCF-7 cancer cell line, 96, 189 Morinda spruce, 35
MCF-7 cells, 304 Moringa, 24
MDA-MB-231 cells, 422, 467, 813, 864 Morning star lily, 14
Meadow Queen, 44 Moroccan wild thyme, 13
Meadowsweet, 44 Mosquito(es), 177, 205, 433, 648, 803, 853
Meadow wort, 44 Mosquito plant, 5
Meadsweet, 44 Moss rose, 39
Meet-me-in-the-entry, 808 Mother of thyme, 12
Mei flower, 43, 45 Motherwort, 7
Common Name Index 991

Mountain apple, 27 Natal sorrel, 324

Mountain balm, 5 Native cottonwood, 18
Mountain Banksia, 40 Native hibiscus, 385
Mountain calamint, 5 Native lasiandra, 22
Mountain cherry, 46 Native rosella, 18, 385
Mountain cotton rose, 381 Native tulip, 661
Mountain devil, 41 Native violet, 56, 57, 792, 794
Mountain magnolia, 15 Navel orange, 51
Mountain mahoe, 385 NCI/ADR-RES cells, 257
Mountain mint, 5 NCI-H69 (small cell lung cancer), 800
Mountain Monarda, 9 NCL-H460 cancer cells, 240
Mountain mustard blue, 31 Nectarine, 45
Mountain pansy, 815 Needle flower, 49
Mountain pennyroyal, 9 Neem, 22, 409, 411–413, 415, 418,
Mountain peony, 597 420–424, 427–429, 431–442
Mountain rose, 47, 643 Neem tree, 22, 409
Mountain-rose coralvine, 643 Negro peach, 49
Mountain spruce, 35 Nematode, 268, 442
Mountain tea, 11, 207 N1E-115 neuroblastoma (mouse), 420
Mountain thyme, 12 Nenuphar, 28
Mouse lymphoid neoplasm, 852 Neroli, 50
Moutan, 33, 597 Nettai suiren, 28
Cortex, 597, 601, 603–609, 611, 613–616 Nettle leaf giant hyssop, 5
peony, 33, 597, 598 Nettleleaf velvetberry, 56
Mui, 51 Neuroblastoma cells, 257
Multidrug-resistant (MDR) human New jersey tea, 43
breast cancer cells, 864 New Mexico Giant Hyssop, 5
Mume, 43, 45 New South Wales Waratah, 41, 661
Mu Mian, 17 New Zealand flax, 61
Murasalski tea, 207 New Zealand fuchsia, 30
Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV), 472 New Zealand hemp, 61
Murine Ehrlich’s carcinoma, 421 New Zealand pepper tree, 35, 36
Murine forestomach tumours, 424 New Zealand Yam, 32
Murine mammary cancer cells (4T1), 255 Ngieo-Daeng, 17
Murine melanoma B16 cells, 211, 613 Ngót Rúg, 30
Mursalitza tea, 213 Night flowering jasmine, 29
Mushrooms, 223 Night jasmine, 29
Musk hyacinth, 3 Nim, 409
Musk mallow, 15 Nimba, 409
Musk okra, 15 Nimtree, 22, 409
Musk rose, 47 Nioi-Tachi-Tsubo-Sumire, 57
Musk willow, 51 Noble dendrobium, 31
Mustard aphid, 441 Nootka rose, 47
Myoga, 64 Norfolk hibiscus, 385
Myrtle, 27 Northern cranesbill, 2
Northern Japanese magnolia, 15
Northern marsh violet, 57
N Northern violet, 58
Nagoon berry, 48 Norway spruce, 34
Nanking cherry, 46 Nubia tea, 324
Narrow-leaved cattail, 54 Nutmeg, 461, 469
Narrow-leaved cumbungi, 54 Nutmeg hyacinth, 3
Narrow-leaved dock, 38
Narrow-leaved Indian paintbrush, 31
Narrow-leaved lavender, 156 O
Narrow-leaved paperbark, 26 Oca, 32
Narrow-leaved tea tree, 26 Oka, 32
Narrow-leaved ti tree, 26 Okra, 15
Nasturtium, 54, 777–779, 781–783, 785 Ola’a, 48
Natal lily, 141 Old English lavender, 156
992 Common Name Index

Old fashion rose geranium, 2 Pancreatic tumour cells, 862

Old man Banksia, 40 Pandan laut, 33
Old man’s apple, 405 Pandanus, 33
Olive, 462, 770 Pansy, 59, 808, 818, 820
Olive fruit fly, 179 Pansy violet, 58
Ondje, 63 Pan-Ya, 20
Onions, 461, 462 Papegaai-gladiolus, 4
Orange, 166 Paperbark, 26
Orange bergamot mint, 8 Paperbark tea tree, 26
Orange daylily, 59, 822, 823 Paper flower, 27, 483, 489
Orange-fulvous daylily, 59 Paper mulberry, 23
Orange jessamine, 51 Paprika, 461
Orange mint, 8 Paradise apple, 44
Orange thymes, 12 Parainfluenza virus type 1 (PIV-1), 712
Orange tritonia, 4 Paras pipal, 21
Ordinary violet, 57, 795 Parlour maple, 16
Oregano, 10 Parma violet, 795
maple, 52 Parrot-beaked gladiolus, 4, 141
wood sorrel, 32 Parrot gladiolus, 141
Oriental bulrush, 788 Parrot lily, 141
Oriental cattail, 788 Passionate love, 734
Oriental cherry, 45 Passion flower, 34
Oriental spruce, 35 Passion fruit, 34
Ornamental crocus, 4 Passion vine, 34
Oshima cherry, 45 Password, 39
Osti’s moutan peony, 33 Pasture rose, 46
Osti’s tree, 33 Paulownia, 34
Oswego tea, 9 P-388D1 cells, 189, 865
Our Lady’s Keys, 39 Pea, 223, 461
Oval-leaf monochoria, 39 Peach, 43, 45
Ovarian (TOV-112D), 693 Peach sage, 10
Ovarian cancer, 168 Peanut, 462
OVCAR-3, 257 Pearl of Egypt, 497
OVCAR-4, 421 Peggle, 39
OVCAR-8, 421 Pennyroyal, 8
O-Zumi, 45 Pennyroyal pelargonium, 3
Peony, 33, 564, 566–569, 571, 572, 577,
579–582, 584, 585, 588
P Peppercorn, 461
P388 (promyelocytic leukaemia cells), 852 Pepper hibiscus, 405
Paapidi, 49 Peppermint, 7, 177, 179
Pacific Island Silver Grass, 36 Peppermint-scented pelargonium, 3
Pacific rosewood, 21 Perennial phlox, 37
Paddy’s lucerne, 21 Perilla, 10
Pagoda flower, 371 Persian lilac, 22
Paigle, 39 Persian saffron, 77
Paillotte, 36 Peruvian berry bush, 30
Paintbrush, 31 Petty mulleins, 39
Pak-Lan, 15 Petunia, 53, 755, 756, 758, 761
Pak Wan, 30 Phak Kadron, 13
Pale bloodwood, 26 Phak top, 39
Pale rose, 47 Phak Waan Paa, 30
Palmate violet, 58 Phắc Van, 30
Palm grass, 37 Philippine waxflower, 63, 834
Palm-leaved setaria, 37 Phlai, 64
Palm oil, 509 Phog, 38
Palsywort, 39 Phuk Kui, 13
Panc, 256 Phut nam but, 49
Pancreatic cancer cell lines, 256 Pick-cheese, 20, 395
Pancreatic carcinoma cell lines SW1990, 863 Pickerelweed, 39
Pancreatic carcinoma PANC-1, 863 Pickle plant, 32
Common Name Index 993

Pigweed, 39 Pomerac, 27
Pilewort, 43 Pommel, 51
Pin-cushion fruit, 49 Poolgarla, 40
Pineapple guava, 26 Pop-a-Gun, 55
Pineapple mint, 8 Porcelain ginger, 834
Pineapple quince, 44 Porcelain rose, 63
Pineapple sage, 11, 202, 203, 205 Port gregory gum, 25, 456
Pineapple scented sage, 202 Portia tree, 21
Pine cone ginger, 857 Posutia, 53
Pinecone ginger, 64 Pot marjoram, 10
Pinecone lily, 857 Powderbark, 458
Pinelands mallow, 17 Prairie four O’clock, 497
Pine scented thyme, 12 Prairie rose, 46, 47
Pink banana, 25 Prairie wild rose, 46
Pink bloodwood, 26 Pretty-by-Night, 497
Pink burr, 21 Prickly leaved paperbark, 26
Pink evening primrose, 30, 552 Prickly leaved tea tree, 26
Pink-eyed-John, 808 Prickly paperbark, 26
Pink flowered Chinese, 21 Pride of China, 409
Pink flowered Chinese burr, 21 Pride of the Meadow, 44
Pink ginger bud, 834 Prik Kra Taai, 36
Pink honey myrtle, 26 Primavera, 39
Pink ladies, 30, 552 Prince’s pine, 35
Pink lemonade, 324 Princess tree, 34
Pink marsh mallow, 19 Procumbent yellow sorrel, 32
Pink mempat, 4 Promyelocytic leukaemia HL-60 cell, 95
Pink-othe-eye, 808 Prostate cancer (PC-3) cells, 255, 256, 420
Pink pavonia, 20 Provence rose, 47
Pink primrose, 30 Provision tree, 20
Pink purslane, 23 Puangchompoo, 37
Pink satinash, 27 Puawananga, 43
Pink sorrel, 32 Pudina, 7
Pink tree mallow, 19 Pui-Khao, 13
Pink vine, 643 Puikradon, 13
Pink wampee, 51 Pulse beetle, 441
Pink water lLily, 28 Pummelo, 51
Pink wood sorrel, 32 Pumpkin seeds, 462
Pioneer violet, 57 Pumpwood, 55
Pipal, 36 Punk tree, 26
Pippali, 36 Punti, 25
Pirin mountain tea, 213 Purple Betony Bishops Wort, 11
Pirin tea, 207 Purple Bougainvillea, 489
Pisang Hutan, 24, 25 Purple chokeberry, 44
Pisang Klutuk, 24 Purple-coned spruce, 35
Pisang Pidak, 24 Purple-flowered Indian, 16
Pisang Utan, 24 Purple granadilla, 34
Pitpit, 37, 640 Purple mint, 10
Pixie bush, 53 Purple Nepal cowslip, 39
Plai, 477 Purple passionflower, 34
Plantain banana, 24 Purple passionfruit, 34
Plantain lily, 13 Purple shamrock, 32
P388 leukaemia cells, 239 Purple violet, 795
Plum, 45 Pusley, 39
Plumrocks, 39 Pyramid spirae, 48
Poet’s jasmine, 29
Poliovirus type 1 (PV-1), 427
Polyanthus primrose, 40, 648 Q
Polyanthus primula, 648 Qiu Hua Mao She Xiang, 36
Pomarossa, 27 Qiu Kui, 15
Pomegranate, 14 Quaking aspen, 51
Pomelo, 51 Quasti lavender, 192
994 Common Name Index

Queen of the Meadow, 44 Rio Grande cottonwood, 51

Queen’s jewels, 643 River beauty, 30
Queensland jelly plant, 324 River tea tree, 26
Queen’s wreath, 37, 643 Rocky mountain columbine, 41
Quickset, 44 Rocky mountain nut pine, 35
Quickthorn, 43 Rose, 47, 65, 170
Quince, 44 Rose althea, 374
Quince-Apple of India, 50 Rose apple, 27
Rosebay willowherb, 30
Rosebud cherry, 46
R Rose De Mai, 47
Rabbit ears, 192 Rose De Porcelaine, 63
Radish, 205 Rose geranium, 2
Ragantulu, 23 Rosegold pussy willow, 52
Ramanas rose, 47, 682 Roseleaf bramble, 48
Rau Ngót Núi, 30 Roseleaf raspberry, 48
Raupo, 788 Roselle/Rosella, 19, 324–330, 332, 334, 335,
Raupo bulrush, 788 337, 338, 340–349, 351–360
Rau Sắng, 30 Rose mallow, 306, 374
Rau Tía Tô, 10 Rosemary, 10, 65, 349, 471
Red and blue water lily, 28 Rose of China, 306
Red bloodwood, 26 Rose of Sharon, 19, 374, 379
Red bud malee, 26 Rose-scented geranium, 2
Red cotton silk tree, 20 Rosin rose, 4
Red flour beetle, 154 Rosita de Cacao, 20
Red-flowered apple mangrove, 14 Rosy paperbark, 26
Red-flowered lambertia, 41 Round dock, 20, 395
Red-flowered paperbark, 26 Rowan, 48
Red-flowered silk cotton tree, 16 Rowan tree, 48
Red ginger lily, 63, 834 Royal Roselle, 324
Red gum, 25, 456 Rozelle, 324
Red haw, 43 Rozelle hemp, 324
Red honey myrtle, 26 RPMI-8226/Dox40 (myeloma), 800
Red honeysuckle, 40 RPMI-8226/LR-5 (myeloma), 800
Red Ixora, 745 RPMI-8226/s (myeloma), 800, 813
Red jackfruit, 23 Rubbed thyme, 13
Red leaf hibiscus, 17 Rue, 801
Red leaf maple, 17 Rue berries, 462
Red leg, 38 Rugosa rose, 47, 682
Red or tawny daylily, 833 Ruikpypie, 4
Red poppy, 34 Russian sage, 10
Red roselle, 19 Russian violet, 795
Red silk cotton tree, 17 Rutabaga, 38
Red sorrel, 324
Red spruce, 35
Red tea, 324 S
Red water lily, 28, 519 S102 cancer cell lines, 852
Red weed, 34 Saba nut, 20
Redwood sorrel, 32 Sacred Ixora, 734
Redwood violet, 58 Sacred jasmine, 529
Reedmace, 54 Sacred lotus sacred water lotus, 27
Rengma Ser, 6 Sadao, 22
Reniform nematode, 442 Saffron, 4, 77, 79–85, 87–110, 112, 113, 115–119,
Resak, 62 121–124
Resectable pancreatic cancer, 168 Saffron cress, 77
Respiratory syncytial virus, 712 Saffron crocus, 77
Rhodendron, 22 Sage, 11, 107, 187, 349
Rhubarb, 38 Sagebrush mariposa lily, 13
Rice leaffolder, 442 Sage-leaved germander, 11
Ring-Hkat-Ping, 49 Sajin, 24
Common Name Index 995

Sakhalin spruce, 35 Sesame seeds, 462

Salad burnet, 45, 48 Seville orange, 50
Sa Lae, 23 Sewali, 29
Salmonberry, 48 Sewali Phul, 29
Salt marsh mallow, 19 Shaddock, 51
Saltspray rose, 682 Shady wood sorrel, 32
Sambac jasmine, 529 Shampoo ginger, 64, 857
Samui, 51 Shamrock, 32
Sand fly, 487 Shanghai cherry, 46
Sandhill plum, 45 Shanghai pink mallow, 18
Sand violet, 56 Shan-Jie-Lan, 31
Sandwich island creeper, 643 Shea butter tree, 52
San Miguelito vine, 643 Sheathed gladiolus, 4
Sansho, 51 Sheathed violet, 58
Santawa, 3 Shekta, 24
Santintail, 36 Sheperd tea, 11
Sarcoma-180 (S-180) tumour, 98, 739, 770 Shepherd’s tea, 207
Sargent’s lily, 14 Shihai-Sumire, 59
Sargent spruce, 35 Shinajitea, 14
Satsuma, 51 Shiso, 10
Sauce thyme, 13 Shisonoha (Japanese), 10
Savoury, 461 Shiva’s flame, 734
Sawah-flower rush, 232 Shoeback plant, 18
Sawah lettuce, 232 Shoeblack plant hibiscus, 306
Saw Banksia, 40 Shoebutton ardisia, 39
Sawtooth Banksia, 40 Shoeflower, 306
Scamman’s claytonia, 23 Shona-No-Ki, 21
Scamman’s springbeauty, 23 Short pitpit, 37
Scarlet bee balm, 9 Showy crab apple, 44
Scarlet hibiscus, 17 Showy evening primrose, 30, 552
Scarlet Ixora, 734 Showy forsythia, 28, 526
Scarlet jungle flame, 734 Shrub althea, 19, 374
Scarlet monarda, 9 Shrubby althaea, 374
Scarlet rose mallow, 17 Shrubby baeckea, 25
Scented boronia, 748 Shrubby blue sage, 10
Scented evening primrose, 30 Shrubby honeysuckle, 40
Scented geranium, 3 Shu Wei Cao, 11
Scented pelargonium, 2 Siamese ginger, 62
Schizopetalus, 371 Siberian crab apple, 44
Scotchman’s purse, 405 Siberian miners lettuce, 23
Scotch mint, 8 Siberian purslane, 23
Scrub typhus, 477 Sierra columbine, 42
Scurvy grass, 32 Sieu Hing Hwa, 29
Scurvy grass sorrel, 32 Silk cotton tree, 17, 20
Sea hibiscus, 19, 385 Silky eremophila, 53
Sea lemon, 28 Silky grevillea, 41
Sea rose mallow, 385 Silky oak, 41
Seashore mallow, 19 Silver Banksia, 40
Seaside mahoe, 21 Simpler’s joy, 56
Sea tomato, 682 Sirih tanah, 36
Seeded sweet banana, 24 Sitka spruce, 35
Seep monkey flower, 53 Skeleton hibiscus, 19, 371
Sego lily, 13 SK-HEP-1 cells, 603
Selfheal, 10 SK-MEL-2 (melanoma), 257, 296
Selkirk’s violet, 58 SK-N-SH (human neuroblastoma), 852
Semal, 20 SK-OV-3 (ovary), 257, 296, 421
Sémul, 17 Skunkvine, 49
Senegal calabash, 16 Sleeping beauty, 32
Sennin-So, 43 Sleeping hibiscus, 20
Serbian spruce, 35 Sleepy hibiscus, 20, 405
996 Common Name Index

Sleepy mallow, 405 Star lotus, 519

Slender Banksia, 40 Starry wild jasmine, 29
Sloe, 45 Stepmother, 808
Sloe berry, 45 Sterretjies-jasmyn, 29
Sloe flower, 45 Sticklewort, 43
Small bulrush, 54 Stickybud, 48
Small burnet, 45, 48 Sticky geranium, 2
Smaller red root, 43 Sticky purple geranium, 2
Smallflower columbine, 41 Stickyweed, 48
Small-flowered sage, 11 Sticky willy, 48
Small leaved lime, 21 Stinkvine, 49
Small reedmace, 54 St. John’s wort, 4
Smartweed, 38 St Joseph’s rod, 374
Smooth bedstraw, 700 Stone apple, 50
Smooth rose mallow, 18 Storkbill, 2
Snail, 477 Stow weed, 53
Snakewood, 55 Straits rhododendron, 22
Snapdragon, 36 Strawberry, 44
Snowdrop wood sorrel, 32 Strawberry geranium, 52
Snow in summer, 26 Strawberryleaf raspberry, 48
Snow in summer Budjur, 26 Strawberry saxifrage, 52
Snowy evening primrose, 552 Stream barringtonia, 13
Solid tumours, 739 Stream violet, 57
Sorot Gosh, 55 Striped hibiscus, 19
Sorrel, 19, 324 Sugarbush, 41
Sour cotton rose, 381 Sukashiyuri, 14
Sour gourd, 16 Sumire saishin, 58
Sour grass, 32 Summer phlox, 37
Sour orange, 50 Summer savoury, 11
Soursob, 32 Summer squash, 761
Sour-Sour, 324 Sundrop ozark, 30
Southern cattail, 54 Sung Lo Cha, 30
Southern grevillea, 40 Sun hibiscus, 17
Southern magnolia, 15, 243 Sunset hibiscus, 15
Southern silky oak, 41 Sunset muskmallow, 15
Soybean, 334 Suo Cao Lan, 31
Spanish joint fir, 3 Suring, 32
Spanish lavender, 7, 192, 197 Swamp hibiscus, 18
Spanish marjoram, 12 Swamp rose mallow, 18
Spanish saffron, 4 Swamp smartweed, 38
Spanish thyme, 10 Swamp spruce, 35
Spanish wood, 12 Sweet autumn clematis, 43
Spatterdock, 28 Sweet basil, 9
Spearleaf swamp mallow, 20 Sweet blue violet, 795
Spearmint, 8 Sweet boronia, 748
Speedwell, 36 Sweet briar, 47
Spice ginger, 62 Sweet corn root, 21
Spiked willowherb, 30 Sweet dog-violet, 795
Spike lavender, 7, 156 Sweet gale, 25
Spinach dock, 38 Sweet grass, 700
Spotted fuchsia, 53 Sweet hibiscus, 15
Spring beauty, 23 Sweet leaf bush, 34
Squamous cell carcinoma, 98 Sweet majoram, 9
Squash, 65 Sweet olive, 29
Stable fly, 434 Sweet orange, 51
St. Anthony’s Turnip, 43 Sweet osmanthus, 29
Star anise, 461 Sweet pepper, 53
Star Fruit, 31 Sweet-scented bedstraw, 700
Star gooseberry, 34 Sweet-scented violet, 795
Star grass, 700 Sweet violet, 57, 795, 796, 804
Common Name Index 997

Sweet white woodruff, 48 Thalay, 33

Sweet woodruff, 48, 700, 703 Thambul, 27
Sword lily, 141, 144 Thariktha, 28
Syrian bean caper, 64 Thariktha macha, 22
Syrian hibiscus, 374 Tharo, 28
Syrian ketmia, 374 Thatch screwpine, 33
Syrian oregano, 10 Theing, 64
Syrian rose, 374 Thick-leaved mallee, 26
Syringa, 541 Thimbleberry, 48
Szechuan peppercorns, 461 Thin red willow, 52
Thit-Gan, 49
Thnk pui, 51
T Thornapple tree, 44
Taapia, 14 Thousand faces beauty, 381
Table grapes, 59 Thousand pretty women, 381
Tahitian lime, 50 THP1 cancer cell lines, 254, 421
Tailed pepper, 35 Three-coloured violet, 808
Taiwan cotton rose, 381 Three faces in a Hood, 58
Taiwan hibiscus, 381 Three-faces-under-a-hood, 808
Talirusan, 63 Throw wort, 7
Tall daylily, 59 Thunberg’s daylily, 61
Tall garden tulip, 222 Thyme, 13
Tall mallow, 20, 395 Thyme honey myrtle, 27
Tallow wood, 28 Thyme-leaved bottlebrush, 27
Tall phlox, 37 Tian Shi Zi, 6
Tamarind, 462 Tía Tô, 10
Tampang, 23 Tick, 177, 435, 436
Tangerine, 51 Tickle-My-Fancy, 58
Tangerine sage, 202 Tiew, 4
Tangutui, 24 Tiger daylily, 59, 822
Tapioca, 223 Tiger lily, 14, 215, 216, 219
Tarrakirra, 41 Tiger lotus white Egyptian lotus, 514
Tartarian rhubarb, 38 Timanga tree, 19
Tasmanian violet, 56 Timbo, 52
Tasmanian waratah, 41 Tiny thyme, 12
Tawny daylily, 59, 822 Tipton weed, 4
4T1 breast cancer, 424 T-lymphoblast (acute lymphoblastic
T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia), 852
leukaemia, 865 Tobacco armyworm, 441
T-47D, 852 Tobacco budworm, 441
Tea, 53, 330, 461 Tobishima-Kanzo, 59
Tealeaf willow, 52 Tochi-Kagami, 3
Tea olive, 29 Togor, 48
Tea rose, 46 Toilet paper bush, 18
Tea tree, 26, 177–179, 477 Tolol, 64
Temu blobo, 62 Tomatoes, 462
Temu labak, 62 Tongkak, 64
Temu lawak, 62 Toothed lavender, 186
Temu mangga, 62 Tooth-leaved primula, 39
Temu purut, 62 Topped lavender, 7, 192
Temu putih, 62 Torash, 55
TE-13 oesophageal cancer Torch ginger, 63, 834–838
cell lines, 467 Torch lily, 63, 834
Teosinte, 37 Torch nicola flower buds, 834
Tepu, 62, 63 Tou-Kanzo, 59
Texas hummingbird mint, 5 Trailing Abutilon, 16, 290, 291
Texas mallow, 20, 405 Trailing wild raspberry, 48
Texas swamp mallow, 20 Tree cotton, 17
Texas umbrella, 22 Tree fuchsia, 30
Thai tulip, 62 Tree hakea, 41
998 Common Name Index

Tree hibiscus, 385 V

Tree peony, 33, 597, 598 VA13 (SV-40 transformed foetal
Tree sorrel, 31 lung fibroblast), 95
Trematode, 827 Valencia orange, 51
Trinitaria, 808 Valentine flower, 4
Trinity violet, 808 Variegated basil, 9
Trout lily, 13 Vegetable cane, 37, 640
True jasmine, 29 Velvel pink banana, 25
True lavender, 6, 156 Velvet banana, 25
True myrtle, 26 Velvet leaf, 232
True saffron, 77 Velvet mallow, 18
True sage, 11 Verdolaga, 39
Trumpet lily, 14 Vervain, 56
Trumpet tree, 55 Vervain mallow, 20
Tsubo-Sumire, 59 Vervain sage, 11
Tsukushi-Sumire, 57 Vối, 25
Tsukushi violet, 57 Victorian tree peony, 33
Tuberous spring beauty, 23 Viola, 57, 818
Tuhau, 63 Violet, 792, 795, 801, 811
Tulip, 14, 65, 222, 223, 228, 229 Violet willow, 52
Tulipan del Monte, 18 Violet wood sorrel, 32
Tulip cedar, 22 Viper, 119
Tulip ginger, 844 Virginia fen-rose, 19
Tulip poplar, 15 Virginia mountain mint, 6, 10
Tulip tree, 15 Virginia rose, 47
Tummy wood, 13 Virginia saltmarsh mallow, 19
Tupia, 14 Virginia spring beauty, 23
Turkcap, 405 Virginia strawberry, 44
Turkestan rose, 682 Vrouetee, 2
Turkish oregano, 10, 197
Turk’s cap, 20, 405
Turk’s cap hibiscus, 20 W
Turk’s Turban, 405 Wadanggari, 40
Turmeric, 62, 462, 472 Waltzing ladies, 371
Turmeric root, 62 Wan-Fai, 64
Tuscan jasmine, 29, 529 Waratah, 41, 661
Tussock grass tree, 61 Warrock, 40
Tutubuh, 63 Wasabinoki, 24
Twelve O’clock flower, 276 Waster bubbles, 42
Twist leaf paperbark, 27 Water bamboo, 37
Two-flowered marsh marigold, 42 Water banyan, 25
Twoflower passionflower, 34 Water canna, 21
Twoflower violet, 56 Water hyacinth, 39
Two-humped dendrobium, 31, 555 Water lily, 28
Two-lobed passionflower, 34 Water lily tiger lotus, 28
Water mint, 7, 8
Water oats, 37
U Water pepper, 38
U251 (brain tumour cell line), 257, 813 Water snowflake, 22
U-373 cancer cell line, 189 Water snowflake water fringe, 22
U-937 GTB (lymphoma), 74, 421, Wax currant, 3
800, 813 Wax mallow, 20, 405
Ukon-Zakura, 45 Wedgeleaf ceanothus, 43
Ume, 43, 45 Weeping Higan cherry spring cherry, 46
Upright yellow sorrel, 32 Weeping spruce, 35
Upside tree, 16 Weeping willow, 52
Urena, 21 Weissdorn, 44
Urena burr, 21 West-African black pepper, 36
Urena weed, 21 Western balsam, 51
U-937VCR(histiocytic lymphoma), 800 Western balsam poplar, 51
Common Name Index 999

Western columbine, 42 Wild olive, 28, 29

Western dog violet, 56 Wild pansy, 808, 815
Western marsh marigold, 42 Wild pawpaw, 55
Western poppy, 623 Wild pear, 17
Western thimbleberry, 48 Wild plum flower, 45
Western white spruce, 35 Wild pomegranate, 48
Western wild rose, 47 Wild rose, 46, 47
West Indian jasmine, 734 Wild rosella, 18
West Indian lime, 50 Wild sage, 11
West Indian raspberry, 48 Wild sesame, 10
West Virginia spruce, 35 Wild strawberry, 44
White Banksia, 658 Wild sugarcane, 37
White basswood, 54 Wild thyme, 12
White bottlebrush, 658 Wild violet, 56
White cattail, 55 Wild water lily, 516
White cedar, 22 Willow, 51
White champak, 15 Wine grapes, 59
White clematis, 43 Winged java cardamom, 62
White dogtooth violet, 13 Winter flowering cherry, 46
White evening primrose, 552, 553 Winter purslane, 23
White fawn lily, 13 Winter savoury, 11
White garland lily, 63, 847 Winter wandoo, 458
White ginger, 63, 847 Witches brier, 46
White ginger-lily, 847 Wittrock’s violet, 818
White honeysuckle, 658 Wonder honey plant, 5
White Jade Orchid Tree, 15 Wonder violet, 57
White jasmine, 29 Wood apple, 50, 51
White lotus, 28, 514 Woodfordia, 14
White magnolia, 236 Wood germander, 11
White marsh marigold, 42 Woodland calamint, 5
White mistletoe, 14 Woodland strawberry, 44
White moho, 405 Wood mallow, 395
White mountain Banksia, 660 Wood rose, 46, 47
White mussaenda, 49 Wood rove, 700
White peony, 559 Woodruff, 700, 702
White pine, 35 Wood sorrel, 31
White spruce, 35 Wood violet, 58
Whitethorn, 43 Wooly blue violet, 58
White trout lily, 13 Wooly geranium, 2
White trumpet lily, 14 Wooly lousewort, 31
White water lily, 514 Wright pavonia, 20
Whitewood, 15, 54 Wrinkled rose, 682
White Yulan, 236 Wuderove, 700
WiDr colon cancer cells, 422 Wyoming desert paintbrush, 31
Wild apple, 405 Wyoming Indian, 31
Wild baby’s breath, 48, 700
Wild banana, 24
Wild bergamot, 9 X
Wild betel, 36 XF498 (central nerve system), 257
Wild breadnut, 20 Xia-Ku-Kao, 10
Wild brier, 46 Xiang Bao Jiaing, 63
Wild chestnut, 20 Xiao Jin, 21
Wild clary, 11 Xiao Jin Ying, 46
Wild columbine, 42
Wild ceranium, 2
Wild ginger, 63, 834, 847, 857 Y
Wild hyssop, 5 Yakuwa, 21
Wild majoram, 10 Yama Odamaki, 41
Wild mallow, 20, 395 Yama-Shakuyaku, 33
Wild mint, 8 Yamazakura, 45
1000 Common Name Index

Ya Nuat Suea, 6 Yellow violet, 58

Ya Tod Ma, 49 Yellow water lily, 28
Yeh-Ye-Hua, 15 Yellow wood sorrel, 32
Yellow Adder’s tongue, 13 Yellow wood violet, 57
Yellow archangel, 6 Yen-Kuei, 29
Yellow asphodel, 59 Yezo Spruce, 35
Yellow bedstraw, 48 Yin-Gat-Gyi, 49
Yellow bells, 526 Yucca, 65
Yellow burrhead, 232 Yue Ji Hua, 46
Yellow butterfly, 774 Yuki-No-Shita, 52
Yellow cleavers, 48 Yulan, 236
Yellow columbine, 42 Yulan magnolia, 236
Yellow daylily, 60, 830 Yulan magnolia White magnolia, 15
Yellow flame grevillea, 40 Yulan tree, 236
Yellow floating heart, 22 Yunnan gemlina, 6
Yellow jasmine, 29 Yusuge, 61
Yellow mallow tree, 385
Yellow marsh marigold, 42
Yellow monkey flower, 53 Z
Yellow oxalis, 32 Zanzibar redheads, 460
Yellow pansy, 58 Zebrine mallow, 395
Yellow plum, 28 Zabel border forsythia, 28
Yellow pond lily, 28 Zerumbet ginger, 857
Yellow poplar, 15 Zhong Hua Qing Jia Ye, 3
Yellow sorrel, 32 Zinc violets, 815
Yellow spruce, 35 Zucchini, 65
Yellow star of Bethlehem, 39 Zumi crab apple, 45
 Scientific Name Index

A A. vexillarium, 290
Abelmoschus A. vitifolium, 16
A. cruentus, 324 Abutilon × hybridum, 16
A. esculentus, 15, 388 Abutilon × milleri, 16
A. manihot, 15 Abutilon × suntense, 16
A. moschatus, 15 Acacia spp., 65
A. mutabilis, 300 A. arabica, 426
Abroma A. myriophylla, 538, 723
A. augusta, 430 A. nilotica, 471, 516
A. indica, 430–432, 435 Acca sellowiana, 26
Abutilon Achania
A. albidum, 276 A. coccinea, 405
A. album, 276 A. malvaviscus, 405
A. arborescens, 276 A. mollis, 405
A. asiaticum, 276 Achasma
A. asiaticum var. subasperum, 276 A. megalocheilos, 62
A. asiaticum var. supraviride, 276 A. sphaerocephalum, 62
A. australe var. malvifolium, 276 Acinetobacter baumannii, 338, 694
A. cavaleriei, 276 Acinos arvensis, 5
A. croizatianum, 276 Aconitum carmichaelii, 606
A. cunninghamii, 276 Acrocinus longimanus, 502
A. cysticarpum, 276 Actinidia polygama, 693
A. elongatum, 276 Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, 258, 259
A. esculentum, 15 Actinomyces viscosus, 470
A. frutescens, 276 Adansonia digitata, 16
A. grandiflorum, 276 Adenosma
A. hirsutissimum, 276 A. caeruleum, 286
A. indicum, 15, 276, 278–286 A. glutinosum, 723
A. indicum var. albidum, 276 A. indianum, 36
A. indicum var. asiaticum, 276 Aedes
A. indicum var. guineense, 15 A. aegypti, 267, 285, 433, 441, 476, 477, 803, 870
A. indicum var. microphyllum, 276 A. albopictus, 205
A. indicum var. populifolium, 276 Aegle marmelos, 50, 317
A. indicum var. welwitschii, 276 Aeollanthus pubescens, 5
A. inflatum, 290 Aeromonas spp., 471
A. leiospermum, 276 A. hydrophila, 471
A. malvifolium, 276 Aframomum danielli, 469
A. megapotamicum, 16, 290 Agastache
A. ochsenii, 16 A. anethiodora, 5, 151, 153
A. oxycarpum var. malvifolium, 276 A. cana, 5
A. populifolium, 276 A. foeniculum, 5, 151–154
A. pubescens, 276 A. foeniculum f. bernardii, 151
A. purpurascens, 16 A. foeniculum f. candicans, 151
A. subpapyraceum, 276 A. mexicana, 5
A. vesicarium, 276 A. neomexicana, 5

T.K. Lim, Edible Medicinal And Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 8, Flowers, 1001
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8748-2, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
1002 Scientific Name Index

Agastache (cont.) A. maximum, 62

A. pallidiflora subsp. neomexicana, 5 A. silvestre, 857
A. rugosa, 5, 153, 154 A. subulatum, 465
A. urticifolia, 5 A. sylvestre, 857
Aglaia odorata, 22 A. tridentatum, 834
Agrimonia A. xanthophlebium, 62
A. eupatoria, 43 A. zerumbet, 857
A. pilosa, 607 Amygdalus persica, 43
Alcea Anethum graveolens, 801
A. biennis, 292 Angelica sinensis, 560
A. ficifolia, 292 Anisopetala crispa, 72
A. rosea, 16, 292–295, 297 Anopheles
Aleurites moluccana, 871 A. dirus, 476
Alisma A. gambiae, 434
A. flava, 232 A. nuneztovari, 870
A. plantago-aquatica var. orientale, 607 A. stephensi, 285, 433–435, 803
Allium, 740 A. vagus, 476
A. cepa, 199, 319 Antigonon
Aloysia triphylla, 56 A. cordatum, 643
Alpinia A. leptopus, 37, 485, 486, 643–648
A. acrostachya, 834 A. platypus, 643
A. diracodes, 834 Antirrhinum
A. elatior, 834 A. grandiflorum, 633
A. galanga, 62 A. hispanorum, 633
A. hemisphaerica, 844 A. latifolium var. pseudomajus, 633
A. javanica, 834 A. latifolium var. purpurascens, 633
A. magnifica, 834 A. majus, 36, 633, 635–638
A. nigra, 62 A. majus pseudomajus, 638
A. regia, 62 A. majus striatum, 638
A. speciosa, 62, 834 A. majus var. longipedunculatum, 633
A. zerumbet, 841 A. majus var. peloria, 633
Alternaria A. majus var. pseudomajus, 633
A. alternata, 268 A. murale, 633
A. brassicae, 630 A. vulgare, 633
A. brassicicola, 630 Apis
A. longipes, 502 A. cerana, 648
A. solani, 318 A. dorsata, 648
Althaea A. florea, 648
A. caribaea, 292 A. mellifera, 648
A. chinensis, 292 Aquilegia
A. coromandeliana, 292 A. advena, 664
A. flexuosa, 292 A. brevistyla, 41
A. frutex, 374 A. buergeriana, 41
A. godronii, 395 A. caerulea, 41, 664–667
A. mauritiana, 395 A. caerulea f. glandulosa, 664
A. meonantha, 292 A. caerulea f. pallidiflora, 664
A. mexicana, 292 A. caerulea subsp. albiflora, 664
A. officinalis, 16 A. caerulea subsp. alpina, 664
A. rosea, 16, 292, 296, 298 A. caerulea subsp. daileyae, 664
A. rosea var. nigra, 294 A. caerulea subsp. pinetorum, 664
A. rosea var. sinensis, 292 A. caerulea var. albiflora, 664
A. sinensis, 292 A. caerulea var. alpina, 664
Ambrosia confertiflora, 250 A. caerulea var. caerulea, 665
Amomum A. caerulea var. daileyae, 664
A. anthoidioides, 844 A. caerulea var. flavescens, 42
A. eriocarpum, 844 A. caerulea var. leptocera, 664
A. filiforme, 847 A. caerulea var. macrantha, 664
A. hemisphaericum, 844 A. caerulea var. ochroleuca, 664
A. magnificum, 834 A. caerulea var. pinetorum, 664, 665
Scientific Name Index 1003

A. canadensis, 42 Astragalus membranaceus, 217, 573, 580

A. canadensis subsp. caerulea, 664 Averrhoa
A. flabellata, 42 A. bilimbi, 31
A. flavescens, 42 A. carambola, 31
A. formosa, 42 Azadirachta
A. formosa var. macrantha, 664 A. indica, 22, 409, 413, 415, 416, 418, 420,
A. formosa var. truncata, 42 421, 425–429, 436, 437, 439, 441
A. jonesii, 42 A. indica subsp. vartakii, 409
A. karelinii, 42 A. indica var. minor, 409
A. macrantha, 664 A. indica var. siamensis, 409
A. oreophila, 664 Azospirillum lipoferum, 426
A. piersoniana, 664
A. pinetorum, 664
A. pubescens, 42 B
A. shockleyi, 42 Bacillus sp., 426
A. vulgaris, 42 B. anthracis, 296, 318
Ardisia B. cereus, 75, 281, 296, 318, 339, 391, 426,
A. boissieri, 39 506, 694, 813, 840, 869
A. elliptica, 39 B. licheniformis, 281
A. griffithii, 39 B. megaterium, 281, 426, 523, 853
A. purpurea, 39 B. pertolis, 647
A. squamulosa, 39 B. pumilus, 281, 339, 739
Argemone, 625 B. subtilis, 166, 197, 259, 281, 304, 339, 426,
Aristolochia indica, 313 469, 486, 493, 506, 523, 536, 584, 647,
Armeniaca 694, 720, 739, 761, 784, 827, 853
A. mume, 43 Bacteroides
A. mume var. mume, 45 B. fragilis, 165, 585
A. vulgaris, 43 B. vulgatus, 694
Armigeres subalbatus, 477 Bactrocera oleae, 179
Aronia melanocarpa, 685 Baeckea frutescens, 25
Artabotrys odoratissimus, 313 Bakeridesia esculenta, 16
Artemia salina, 535, 853 Balanus improvisus, 799
Artemisia Bambusa arundinacea, 313
A. absinthium, 205 Banksia spp., 40
A. scoparia, 313 B. asplenifolia, 658
Artocarpus B. attenuata, 40
A. altilis, 23 B. cunninghamii, 40
A. heterophyllus, 23 B. ericifolia, 40
A. lakoocha, 23 B. glauca, 658
Ascaris, 439 B. grandis, 40, 655, 656
A. lumbricoides, 870 B. integrifolia, 658
Aspergillus, 470 B. integrifolia subsp. compar, 660
A. flavus, 197, 281, 352, 469, 506 B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia, 660
A. fumigatus, 400, 470, 536 B. integrifolia subsp. monicolia, 660
A. niger, 142, 148, 165, 259, 281, 400, 426, B. integrifolia var. dentata, 658
469, 506, 536, 720, 739 B. integrifolia var. major, 658
A. ochraceus, 281 B. integrifolia var. minor, 658
A. oryzae, 281 B. intergrifolia, 40
A. parasiticus, 352 B. marginata, 40
A. terreus, 281 B. occidentalis, 656
Asperula B. oleifolia, 658
A. eugeniae, 700 B. prionotes, 656
A. matrisylva, 700 B. reticulata, 658
A. odora, 700 B. serrata, 40
A. odorata, 700, 702, 703 B. spicata, 658
Asphodeline lutea, 59 B. spinulosa, 40
Asterophyllum Barringtonia
A. asperula, 700 B. acutangula subsp. acutangula, 13
A. sylvaticum, 700 B. edaphocarpa, 13
1004 Scientific Name Index

Bauhinia divaricata, 491 C. ascendens, 5

Beloere cistiflora, 276 C. nepeta, 5, 166
Bemsetia paniculata, 730 C. officinalis, 5
Bergera koenigii, 51 C. sylvatica, 5
Bifidobacterium Calathea
B. bifidum, 165 C. allouia, 21
B. breve, 694 C. micans, 21
B. longum, 166 Calendula officinalis, 298
Bipolaris sorokiniana, 720 Calligonum
Boesenbergia pandurata, 869 C. comosum, 37
Bojeria magnifica, 834 C. polygonoides, 38
Bombax Callista
B. buonopozense, 16 C. bigibba, 555
B. ceiba, 17, 20 C. phalaenopsis, 555
B. ceiba var. leiocarpum, 17 C. sumneri, 555
B. malabaricum, 17 Callistemon spp., 25
Boronia Callosobruchus analis, 441
B. megastigma, 50, 748–753 Calochortus
B. megastigma var. aurea, 748 C. aureus, 13
B. tristis, 748 C. gunnisonii, 13
Botrytis C. macrocarpus, 13
B. cinerea, 165, 318, 407, 502, 801 C. nuttallii, 13
B. tulipae, 227 Calophyllum inophyllum, 389
Bougainvillea × buttiana, 487 Caltha
Bougainvillea sp., 27, 484, 490 C. biflora, 42
B. brachycarpa, 483 C. leptosepala, 42
B. bracteata, 489 C. leptosepala var. howellii, 43
B. brasiliensis, 489 C. natans, 42
B. glabra, 27, 483–487, 645, 647, 648 C. palustris, 42
B. glabra var. acutibracteata, 483 C. palustris var. barthei, 42
B. glabra var. alba, 483 Camellia
B. glabra var. brachycarpa, 483 C. bonnardii, 764
B. glabra var. graciliflora, 483 C. florida, 764
B. glabra var. sanderiana, 483 C. hayaoi, 764
B. hybrida, 27 C. hozanensis, 764
B. peruviana, 487, 489 C. japonica, 53, 764–774
B. rubicunda, 483 C. japonica f. ilicifolia, 764
B. speciosa, 489 C. japonica f. lancifolia, 764
B. spectabilis, 27, 487, 489–494 C. japonica f. leucantha, 764
B. spectabilis var. glabra, 483 C. japonica f. lilifolia, 764
B. spectabilis var. hirsutissima, 489 C. japonica f. macrocarpa, 764
B. spectabilis var. parviflora, 489 C. japonica f. otome, 764
B. spectabilis var. virescens, 489 C. japonica f. parviflora, 764
B. spectoperuviana, 487 C. japonica f. polypetala, 764
B. spectro-glabra, 487 C. japonica f. trifida, 764
B. virescens, 489 C. japonica subsp. hortensis, 764
Bovicola (Werneckiella) ocellatus, 179 C. japonica var. concava, 764
Broussonetia C. japonica var. hexapetala, 764
B. kazinoki, 23 C. japonica var. hortensis, 764
B. kurzii, 23 C. japonica var. hozanensis, 764
B. luzonica, 23 C. japonica var. longifolia, 764
B. papyrifera, 23 C. japonica var. macrocarpa, 764
Brucella melitensis, 114 C. japonica var. nakaii, 764
Buddleja asiatica, 53 C. kaempferia, 764
Burchellia bubalina, 48 C. mutabilis, 764
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, 268 C. nakaii, 764
C. oleifera, 770, 773
C. planipetala, 764
C C. sasanqua, 767
Caenorhabditis elegans, 442 C. sinensis, 53, 211, 330, 468, 770
Calamintha C. tenuifolia, 770
Scientific Name Index 1005

C. thea, 53 C. subhirtella var. subhirtella, 46

C. tsubaki, 764 C. tomentosa, 46
C. tuckiana, 764 Chlorostemma odoratum, 700
C. wabiske, 764 Chromobacterium violaceum, 471
Cameraria lilioasphodelus, 830 Chryseomonas luteola, 197
Camptomyia corticalis, 179 Chrysomya megacephala, 434
Campylobacter jejuni, 469 Cichorium intybus, 402
Candida sp., 506 Cinnamomum
C. albicans, 148, 165, 197, 259, 281, 296, 400, 426, C. cassia, 607, 616
470–472, 506, 536, 694, 720, 739, 784, 813, 827, 853 C. pubescens, 840
C. glabrata, 536, 853 C. verum, 470
C. parapsilosis, 694 C. zeylanicum, 468, 470, 471
Capnocytophaga gingivalis, 258 Citrobacter freundii, 471
Capraria biflora, 53 Citrus
Capsicum annuum, 53 C. aurantiifolia, 50
Cardamindum majus, 777 C. aurantium, 50, 166
Cardamomum C. aurantium var. amara, 50
C. anthodiodes, 844 C. japonica, 50
C. eriocarpum, 844 C. limon, 166
C. hemisphaericum, 844 C. maxima, 51
C. magnificum, 834 C. reticulata, 51
C. speciosum, 834 C. sinensis, 51, 165
C. tridentatum, 834 Citrus × bergamia, 50
Careya Citrus × limon, 50
C. arborea, 13 Citrus × microcarpa, 51
C. sphaerica, 13 Clausena excavata, 51
Carica papaya, 313 Claytonia
Carum carvi, 165, 477 C. acutifolia, 22
Caryophyllus C. megarhiza, 22
C. aromaticus, 460 C. perfoliata, 23
C. hortensis, 460 C. scammaniana, 23
C. silvestris, 460 C. sibirica, 23
Cassia tora, 723 C. tuberosa, 23
Castalia C. umbellata, 23
C. caerulea, 519 C. virginica, 23
C. edulis, 514 Cleistocalyx operculatus, 25
C. lotus, 514 Clematis
C. mystica, 514 C. maximowicziana, 43
C. pubescens, 514 C. paniculata, 43
C. sacra, 514 C. terniflora, 43
C. scutifolia, 519 Clerodendrum
C. stellaris, 519 C. japonicum, 5
C. stellata, 519 C. serratum, 5
Castilleja linariifolia, 31 C. serratum var. wallichii, 5
Cattleya, 723 C. spicatum, 6
Ceanothus Clinopodium
C. cuneatus, 43 C. acinos, 5
C. herbaceus, 43 C. brownie, 6
C. ovatus, 43 C. menthifolium subsp. ascendens, 5
Cecropia C. menthifolium subsp. menthifolium, 5
C. palmata, 55 C. nepeta, 5
C. peltata, 55 C. nepeta subsp. glandulosum, 5
Cedrela sinensis, 691 Clostridium
Ceiba pentandra, 17 C. botulinum, 506
Centella asiatica, 814 C. butyricum, 585
Cerasus C. difficile, 165
C. jamasakura, 45 C. perfringens, 165, 470
C. maximowiczii, 45 Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, 442
C. pseudocerasus, 45 Colletotrichum
C. serrulata var. lannesiana, 45 C. lagenarium, 720
C. serrulata var. serrulata, 45 C. lindemuthianum, 625
1006 Scientific Name Index

Colubrina asiatica, 389 C. parvifolia, 62

Conocephalus, 538 C. sessilis, 21
Coptis japonica, 626, 627 C. xanthorrhiza, 871
Corculum C. zanthorrhiza, 62
C. leptopum, 643 C. zedoaria, 841
C. leptopus, 643 Curvularia maculans, 630
Cordyceps sinensis, 217 Cydonia oblonga, 44
Cornus officinalis, 607 Cymbidium
Cortus sativum, 739 C. elegans, 31
Corydalis cava, 628 C. hookerianum, 31
Corylopsis himalayana, 3 Cymbopogon
Corymbia C. citratus, 177, 471, 472
C. calophylla, 25, 456, 458 C. martini, 471
C. gummifera, 26 C. nardus, 476
C. intermedia, 26 Cyperus conglomeratus, 330
Corynabutilon
C. ochsenii, 16
C. vitifolium, 16 D
Corynabutilon × suntense, 16 Damasonium flavum, 232
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, 212 Datura quercifolia, 313
Corynespora cassiicola, 720 Daucus carota, 313
Cosmos sulphureus, 485, 486, 645, 647, 648 Dendrobium cv. ‘Pompadour,’ 557
Crataegus Dendrobium Jaquelyn Thomas, 557
C. curvisepala, 44 Dendrobium × Mme. ‘Pompadour’, 557
C. monogyna, 43 Dendrobium phalaenopsis ‘Schroederianum,’ 557
C. oxyacantha, 44, 629 Dendrobium spp., 31
Cratoxylum formosum, 4 D. affine, 557
Crocosmia aurea, 4 D. bigibbum, 31, 555–557
Crocus D. bigibbum f. phalaenopsis, 555
C. almehensis, 79 D. bigibbum f. superbium, 555
C. autumnalis, 77 D. bigibbum f. venosum, 555
C. cartwrightianus, 79 D. bigibbum var. albomarginatum, 555
C. hadriaticus, 79 D. bigibbum var. albopurpuratum, 555
C. mathewii, 79 D. bigibbum var. album, 555
C. michelosnii, 79 D. bigibbum var. candidum, 555
C. officinalis, 77 D. bigibbum var. compactum, 555
C. orsinii, 77 D. bigibbum var. macranthum, 555
C. pallasii ssp. haussknechtii, 79 D. bigibbum var. phalaenopsis, 555, 557
C. pendulus, 77 D. bigibbum var. sumneri, 555
C. sativus, 4, 77, 79, 81–95, 97–101, 103, D. bigibbum var. superbum, 555
105–110, 112–117, 119, 121–124 D. chrysotoxum, 31
C. sativus subsp. orsinii, 77 D. compactum, 557
C. sativus var. cartwrightianus, 120 D. dicuphum, 557
C. serotinus, 4 D. gouldii, 557
C. setifolius, 77 D. kultana, 557
C. thomasii, 79 D. lithocola, 555
Cryptococcus neoformans, 259 D. longicornu, 31
Cucurbita pepo, 761 D. nobile, 31
Culex D. phalaenopsis, 31, 555, 557
C. pipiens molestus, 199 D. phalaenopsis var. albopurpureum, 555
C. quinquefasciatus, 285, 319, 433, 434, D. phalaenopsis var. album, 555
476, 648, 803 D. phalaenopsis var. chamberlainianum, 555
C. tarsalis, 433 D. phalaenopsis var. compactum, 555
C. vishnui, 476 D. phalaenopsis var. dellense, 555
Cuminum cyminum, 470 D. phalaenopsis var. highburyense, 555
Curcuma, 62 D. phalaenopsis var. hololeuca, 555
C. alismatifolia, 62 D. phalaenopsis var. lindeniae, 555
C. aurantiaca, 62 D. phalaenopsis var. rothschildianum, 555
C. longa, 62, 426, 606 D. phalaenopsis var. rubescens, 555
C. mangga, 62 D. phalaenopsis var. schroderianum, 555
Scientific Name Index 1007

D. phalaenopsis var. splendens, 555 Escherichia coli, 148, 165, 166, 190, 197, 212,
D. phalaenopsis var. statterianum, 555 259, 281, 296, 304, 318, 339, 400, 407,
D. phalaenopsis var. thundersleyense, 555 426, 433, 469–471, 486, 493, 506, 507,
D. sumneri, 555 523, 536, 694, 720, 739, 761, 771, 784,
D. superbiens, 557 801, 827, 853
D. williamsianum, 557 Eschscholzia
Dendrobium × superbiens, 557 E. californica, 34, 622, 624–629
Dendrocnide sinuata, 55 E. californica var. douglasii, 622
Dermatophagoides E. californica var. luxurians, 622
D. farinae, 614, 615 E. californica var. maritima, 622
D. pteronyssinus, 614, 615 E. californica var. peninsularis, 622
Dioscorea japonica, 607 E. californica var. stricta, 622
Diracodes javanica, 834 E. calosperma, 622
Dombeya rotundifolia, 17 E. chartacea, 622
Dracocephalum moldavica, 814 E. clevelandi, 622
Drosophila E. cognata, 622
D. auraria, 198 E. columbiana, 622
D. melanogaster, 441, 615 E. compacta, 622
Durio zibethinus, 17 E. confinis, 622
E. crocea, 622
E. crocea var. apiifolia, 622
E E. crocea var. longissima, 622
Edwardsiella spp., 471 E. crocea var. sanctarum, 622
E. tarda, 471 E. cucullata, 622
Eichornia crassipes, 38 E. cyathifera, 622
Elettaria E. debilis, 622
E. anthodioides, 844 E. diversiloba, 622
E. atropurpurea, 844 E. douglasii, 622
E. cardamomum, 801 E. eastwoodiae, 622
E. hemisphaerica, 844 E. floribunda, 622
E. speciosa, 834 E. floribunda var. gorgonica, 622
Elsholtzia E. floribunda var. gracillima, 622
E. blanda, 6 E. glauca, 622
E. strobilifera, 6 E. granulata, 622
Embelia ribes, 313 E. granulata var. minuscula, 622
Embothrium E. helleriana, 622
E. spathulatum, 661 E. helleriana var. tilingii, 622
E. speciosissimum, 661 E. inflata, 622
Encephalartos caffer, 61 E. isostigma, 622
Ensete glaucum, 24 E. juncea, 622
Entamoeba histolytica, 870 E. lacera, 622
Enterobacter E. leptandra, 622
E. aerogenes, 259 E. leptomitra, 622
E. cloacae, 166, 189, 435 E. leucosticta, 622
Enterococcus faecalis, 212, 296, 304, 400, 426, E. marcida, 622
506, 604, 739, 813 E. marcida var. monticola, 622
Epidermophyton floccosum, 259, 470 E. maritima, 622
Epilachna varivestis, 441 E. menziesiana, 622
Epilobium E. menziesiana var. anemophila, 622
E. angustifolium, 30 E. menziesiana var. coarctata, 622
E. latifolium, 30 E. menziesiana var. nesiaca, 622
Eremophila E. menziesiana var. recedens, 622
E. latrobei, 53 E. microloba, 622
E. oldfieldii, 53 E. nitrophila, 622
Erpetion hederaceum, 792 E. oregana, 622
Erwinia carotovora, 400 E. peninsularis, 622
Eryngium creticum, 402 E. physodes, 622
Erythronium E. picta, 622
E. albidum, 13 E. pseudoinflata, 622
E. americanum, 13 E. recta, 622
1008 Scientific Name Index

Eschscholzia (cont.) Eurotium

E. revoluta, 622 E. amstelodami, 469
E. revoluta var. caudatocalyx, 622 E. herbariorum, 469
E. rigida, 622 E. repens, 469
E. robusta, 622 E. rubrum, 469
E. rosea, 622
E. sanctarum, 622
E. scariosa, 622 F
E. scariosa var. dichasiophora, 622 Fagopyrum esculentum, 38
E. setchellii, 622 Fallopia multiflora, 38
E. shastensis, 622 Feijoa sellowiana, 26
E. straminea, 622 Feroniella lucida, 51
E. stricta, 622 Ferula
E. tenuisecta, 622 F. asafoetida, 477
E. thermophila, 622 F. narthex, 313
E. tristis, 622 Festuca juhata, 784
E. vernalis, 622 Ficaria verna, 43
E. xylorrhiza, 622 Filipendula ulmaria, 44, 811
E. yainacensis, 622 Flavobacterium spp., 471
E. yainacensis var. modocensis, 623 Foeniculum vulgare, 197, 402, 801
Etlingera Foetida, 672
E. elatior, 62, 63, 834–836, Forsythia × densiflora, 526
838–842, 846 Forsythia × intermedia, 28, 526
E. elatior var. alba, 834 Forsythia × intermedia var. densiflora, 526
E. elatior var. pileng, 834 Forsythia × intermedia var. divaricata, 526
E. fulgens, 839–841 Forsythia × intermedia var. primulina, 526
E. hemisphaerica, 63, 64, 844, 846 Forsythia × intermedia var. spectabilis, 526
E. littoralis, 63, 840, 841 Forsythia × intermedia var. vitellina, 526
E. maingayi, 63, 840, 841 Forsythia sp., 28
E. megalocheilos, 62, 63 F. intermedia, 527, 528
E. metriocheilos, 62 F. suspensa, 528
E. punicea, 63 F. suspensa var. fortune, 526
E. rubrolutea, 63 F. viridissima, 526
E. rubrostriata, 839–841 Forsythia × spectabilis, 526
Eubacterium sp., 719 Forsythia × vitellina, 526
Eucalyptus Fragaria
E. accedens, 458 F. vesca, 44
E. calophylla, 456, 458 F. virginiana, 44
E. calophylla var. maideniana, 456 Fragaria × ananassa, 44
E. calophylla var. multiflora, 456 Freesia spp., 4
E. calophylla var. parviflora, 456 F. alba, 4, 137, 138
E. calophylla var. rosea, 456 F. corymbosa, 138
E. calophylla var. rubra, 456 F. gentilis, 137
E. calophylla var. typica, 456 F. herbertii, 137
E. diversicolor, 458 F. hybrida, 139
E. ficifolia var. alba, 456 F. leichtlinii subsp. alba, 4, 137
E. glaucophylla, 456 F. refracta, 137
E. globulus, 179, 199, 471, 477 Freycinetia
E. gummifera, 26 F. demissa, 33
E. intermedia, 26 F. marquisensis, 33
E. marginata, 458 F. monticola, 33
E. pachyphylla, 26 Fritillaria verticillata, 13
E. patens, 458 Fuchsia × hybrida, 30, 548, 549
E. wandoo, 458 Fuchsia spp., 30, 550
Eugenia F. arborescens, 550
E. aromatica, 460 F. boliviana, 550
E. caryophyllata, 179, 460, 466 F. boliviana var. luxurians, 550
E. caryophyllus, 460 F. corymbiflora, 30
Eurema hecabe mandarina, 774 F. excorticata, 30, 550
Scientific Name Index 1009

F. fulgens, 550 G. jasminoides var. grandiflora, 705

F. magellanica, 30, 550 G. jasminoides var. longisepala, 705
F. procumbens, 550 G. jasminoides var. maruba, 705
F. splendens, 549 G. jasminoides var. ovalifolia, 705
F. triphylla, 550 G. jasminoides var. plena, 705
Fusarium G. jasminoides var. radicans, 705, 710
F. culmorum, 268 G. jasminoides var. variegata, 705
F. granularium, 506 G. longisepala, 705
F. lini, 630 G. maruba, 705
F. oxysporum, 197, 227, 506, 720 G. pictorum, 705
F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum, 318, 407 G. radicans, 705
F. oxysporum f. sp. tulipae, 227 G. radicans var. simpliciflora, 705
F. proliferatum, 470 Geanthus
F. solani, 506 G. autumnalis, 77
F. solani f. sp. cucurbitae, 318, 407 G. speciosus, 834
Geissorhiza grandis, 144
Genipa
G G. florida, 705
Gaertnera hongkongensis, 730 G. grandiflora, 705
Galium G. radicans, 705
G. aparine, 48 Geotrichum candidum, 197
G. matrisylva, 700 Geraniospermum crispum, 72
G. odoratum, 48, 700–703 Geranium
G. verum, 48 G. bicknellii, 2
Gandasulium G. crispum, 72
G. coronarium, 847 G. erianthum, 2
G. lingulatum, 847 G. graveolens, 2
Gardenia G. incanum, 2
G. angusta, 705 G. quercifolium, 2
G. angustifolia, 705 G. robertianum, 2, 171
G. angustifolia var. kosyunensis, 705 G. tomentosum, 2
G. augusta, 48, 705 G. viscosissimum, 2
G. augusta var. grandiflora, 705 Geranium × fragrans, 2
G. augusta var. kosyunensis, 705 Geum japonicum, 472
G. augusta var. longisepala, 705 Giardia
G. augusta var. ovalifolia, 705 G. duodenalis, 177
G. coronaria, 49 G. intestinalis, 870
G. florida, 705 G. lamblia, 476
G. florida f. oblanceolata, 705 Gibberella zeae, 227
G. florida var. fortuniana, 705 Ginkgo biloba, 107
G. florida var. grandiflora, 705 Gladiolus
G. florida var. maruba, 705 G. cardinalis, 145, 149
G. florida var. ovalifolia, 705 G. cruentus, 4
G. florida var. plena, 705 G. dalenii, 4, 141–143, 145, 148
G. florida var. radicans, 705 G. dracocephalus, 141
G. grandiflora, 705 G. ecklonii, 4
G. jasminoides, 48, 84, 603, 705, 707, 708, 710–723 G. fasciatus, 144
G. jasminoides f. albomarginata, 705 G. floribundus subsp. fasciatus, 144
G. jasminoides f. albovariegata, 705 G. floribundus subsp. milleri, 144
G. jasminoides f. aureovariegata, 705 G. gandavensis, 147
G. jasminoides f. grandiflora, 705, 711 G. grandiflorus, 144, 147, 148
G. jasminoides f. longicarpa, 705 G. hortulanus, 4, 145
G. jasminoides f. maruba, 705 G. milleri, 144
G. jasminoides f. oblanceolata, 705 G. natalensis var. cooperi, 141
G. jasminoides forma grandiflora, 709 G. oppositiflorus, 145
G. jasminoides f. ovalifolia, 705 G. papilio, 145
G. jasminoides f. simpliciflora, 705 G. psittacinus, 141
G. jasminoides f. variegata, 705 G. saundersii, 145
G. jasminoides var. fortuniana, 705 G. scaphochlamys, 144
1010 Scientific Name Index

Gladiolus (cont.) Helwingia

G. socium, 144 H. chinensis, 3
G. tristis, 149 H. japonica, 3
G. venustus, 149 Hemerocallis spp., 61, 823
G. vittatus, 144 H. altissima, 59
Gladiolus × grandiflorus, 145, 147 H. aurantiaca, 59
Glycyrrhiza H. bulbiferum, 59
G. glabra, 465 H. citrina, 59
G. uralensis, 603, 723 H. coreana, 59
Gmelina arborea, 6 H. darrowiana, 59
Gnetum gnemon, 3 H. dumortieri, 59
Grevillea H. esculenta, 60
G. australis, 40 H. exaltata, 59
G. eriostachya, 40 H. flava, 830, 832
G. juncifolia, 41 H. flava var. aurantiaca, 830
G. kennedyana, 41 H. forrestii, 59
G. pteridifolia, 41 H. fulva, 59, 822, 824–828, 833
G. robusta, 41 H. fulva var. angustifolia, 60, 828
Gundelia tournefortii, 402 H. fulva var. aurantiaca, 59, 828
Gunnera tinctoria, 784 H. fulva var. fulva, 828
Gwillimia yulan, 236 H. fulva var. kwanso, 825, 828
Gyrocarpus americanus, 143 H. fulva var. littorea, 60
H. fulva var. longituba, 60
H. fulva var. sempervirens, 825, 827
H H. graminea, 60
Haematobia irritans, 434 H. hakuunensis, 60
Haemonchus contortus, 803 H. lilioasphodelus, 60, 830
Haemophilus sp., 212 H. lilioasphodelus f. aurantiaca, 830
H. influenzae, 189, 190 H. lilioasphodelus var. flava, 830
Hakea H. lilioasphodelus var. fulva, 822
H. eriantha, 41 H. lilioasphodelus var. fulvus, 822
H. fraseri, 41 H. lilioasphodelus var. major, 830
H. prostrata, 656 H. lilioasphodelus var. nana, 830
H. pubescens, 658 H. littorea, 60
H. pulvinifera, 41 H. lutea, 934
H. suberea, 41 H. micrantha, 60
H. tephrosperma, 41 H. middendorffii, 60
Hamamelis virginiana, 468 H. middendorffii var. esculenta, 60
Hansenula anomala, 771 H. minor, 60
Hartmannia speciosa, 552 H. multiflora, 61
Hedeoma drummondii, 6 H. pedicellata, 61
Hedera helix, 784 H. plicata, 61
Hedychium H. thunbergii, 59, 61
H. chrysoleucum, 847 H. yezoensis, 61
H. coronarium, 63, 847, 849–854 Hexamita inflata, 177
H. coronarium var. baimao, 847 Hibiscus
H. coronarium var. chrysoleucum, 847 H. acerifolius, 374
H. coronarium var. maximum, 847 H. acetosella, 17
H. gandasulium, 847 H. acetosus, 324
H. gardnerianum, 784 H. aculeatus, 17
H. lingulatum, 847 H. arnottii, 306
H. maximum, 847 H. boninensis, 385
H. prophetae, 847 H. calyphyllus, 17
H. spicatum, 847 H. cannabinus, 324
H. sulphureum, 847 H. coccineus, 17, 405
Helicobacter pylori, 165, 259, 474, 584, 721 H. cooperi, 306
Helicoverpa armigera, 441, 442, 804 H. digitatus, 324
Heliothis virescens, 441 H. divaricatus, 18
Heliotropium indicum, 313 H. diversifolius, 18
Helminthosporium spp., 268, 720 H. festalis, 306
H. pennisetti, 630 H. floridus, 374
Scientific Name Index 1011

H. fragilis, 306 Hypericum perforatum, 4, 199, 430

H. fraternus, 324 Hyptis
H. fulgens, 306 H. marathrosma, 151
H. gossypiifolius, 324 H. suaveolens, 179, 180
H. grandiflorus, 18 Hyssopus
H. hamabo, 18 H. anethiodorus, 151
H. heterophyllus, 18 H. anisatus, 151
H. javanicus, 306 H. foeniculum, 151
H. laevis, 18 H. officinalis, 6
H. malvaviscus, 405
H. martianus, 18
H. moscheutos, 18 I
H. mutabilis, 18, 300–302, 304, 311, 338, 352, 372, Imperata cylindrica, 36
382, 383, 389 Ipomoea batatas, 839
H. nutans, 405 Iris × hollandica, 673
H. palmatilobus, 324 Isostylis integrifolia, 658
H. paramutabilis, 18 Ixodes ricinus, 177
H. pentaphyllus, 18 Ixora
H. pilosus, 405 I. amara, 745
H. rhombifolius, 374 I. amoena, 745
H. rosa-sinensis, 18, 303, 306, 308–320, 338, 352, I. blanda, 730
372, 382, 383, 389 I. chinensis, 49, 730–732
H. rosa-sinensis var. schizopetalus, 371 I. coccinea, 49, 732, 734, 736–742
H. rosella, 324 I. colei, 730
H. rosiflorus, 306 I. congesta, 49
H. sabdariffa, 19, 303, 310, 311, 324, I. crocata, 730
326, 327, 329–331, 333, 335–349, I. cyathosperma, 745
351, 352, 354–360, 372, 382, 383, I. dixiana, 730
388, 389 I. incarnata, 730
H. sabdariffa var. albus, 360 I. javanica, 49, 745, 746
H. sabdariffa var. altissima, 360 I. javanica var. multinervia, 745
H. sabdariffa var. bhagalpuriensis, 360 I. javanica var. paucinervia, 745
H. sabdariffa var. intermedius, 360 I. javanica var. retinervia, 745
H. sabdariffa var. ruber, 360 I. kroneana, 730
H. sabdariffa var. sabdariffa, 360 I. mutabilis, 745
H. sanguineus, 324 I. pallida, 730
H. schizopetalus, 19, 310, 338, 371–373, 382, I. rosea, 730
383, 389 I. speciosa, 730
H. sinosyriacus, 19 I. stricta, 730
H. striatus, 19 I. stricta var. amoena, 745
H. syriacus, 19, 374–379 I. stricta var. blumeana, 745
H. syriacus var. micranthus, 374 I. stricta var. incarnata, 730
H. taiwanensis, 310, 338, 372, 381–383, 389 I. stricta var. javanica, 745
H. tiliaceus, 19, 303, 310, 311, 338, 352, 372, 382, I. stricta var. mekongensis, 730
383, 385, 386, 388–392, 841 I. stricta var. pubistyla, 745
H. tiliaceus var. abutiloides, 385 I. subsessilis, 49
H. tiliaceus var. heterophyllus, 385
H. tiliaceus var. tortuosus, 385
H. tiliifolius, 385 J
H. tortuosus, 385 Jacea tricolor, 808
Hominis placenta, 607 Jalapa
Hornstedtia sp., 63 J. congesta, 497
H. imperialis, 834 J. officinalis, 497
Hosta plantaginea, 13 Jambosa caryophyllus, 460
Houttuynia cordata, 691 Jasminum
Hyalomma J. bicorollatum, 529
H. anatolicum excavatum, 435 J. blancoi, 529
H. marginatum rufipes, 177 J. capense, 705
Hydrocharis dubia, 3 J. fragrans, 529
Hylogyna speciosa, 661 J. grandiflorum, 533, 536
Hymenaea courbaril, 853 J. heyneanum, 529
1012 Scientific Name Index

Jasminum (cont.) Lamium

J. lanceolaria subsp. lanceolaria, 29 L. amplexicaule, 6
J. multipartitum, 29 L. galeobdolon, 6
J. odoratissimum, 29 L. purpureum, 6
J. odoratum, 529 Larrea tridentata, 64
J. officinale, 29 Lasioderma serricorne, 199
J. paniculatum, 29 Lassonia heptapeta, 236
J. pubescens, 529 Laurus
J. quadrifolium, 529 L. azorica, 784
J. quinqueflorum, 529 L. nobilis, 197, 468
J. quinqueflorum var. pubescens, 529 Lavandula × allardii, 7
J. sambac, 29, 529, 531–537 Lavandula × heterophylla, 7
J. sambac var. duplex, 529 Lavandula × intermedia, 160, 163, 164, 177, 179
J. sambac var. gimea, 529 Lavandula latifolia × Lavandula angustifolia, 165
J. sambac var. goaense, 529 Lavandula spp., 7
J. sambac var. heyneanum, 529 L. angustifolia, 6, 156–161, 163–166, 169–172,
J. sambac var. kerianum, 529 174–179, 187, 198, 471
J. sambac var. nemocalyx, 529 L. angustifolia spp. pyrenaica, 162
J. sambac var. plenum, 529 L. angustifolia ssp. angustifolia, 162, 165
J. sambac var. syringifolium, 529 L. dentata, 6, 186, 188–190, 196
J. sambac var. trifoliatum, 529 L. dentata var. candicans, 188
J. sambac var. undulatum, 529 L. dentata var. dentata, 188
J. sambac var. verum, 529 L. dentata var. vulgaris, 186
J. sanjurium, 529 L. hybrida, 162
J. undulatum, 529 L. intermedia, 197
Jatropha tanjorensis, 517 L. latifolia, 7, 166, 190, 196
Juncus effusus, 614 L. luisieri, 166, 197
L. multifida, 7
L. pyrenaica, 197
K L. stoechas, 7, 166, 192, 194–199
Kaempferia, 538 L. stoechas ssp. atlantica, 194
K. galanga, 63 L. stoechas ssp. stoechas, 194–197
K. hedychium, 847 L. vera, 197
Ketmia Lavatera thuringiaca, 19
K. arborea, 374 Leishmania
K. mutabilis, 300 L. amazonensis, 436, 854
K. syriaca, 374 L. major, 487
K. syrorum, 374 Lemna, 494
Klebsiella sp., 425 Leonotis nepetifolias, 7
K. pneumoniae, 189, 197, 212, 281, 296, 304, Leonurus cardiaca, 7
318, 338, 426, 470, 471, 486, 493, 506, Lepidium sativum, 205, 470
536, 604, 694, 720, 739, 801 Leptospermum corsiacum, 26
Kleinhovia hospita, 19 Leptotrombidium imphalum, 477
Koellia virginiana, 6 Leucas
Kosteletzkya L. aspera, 7
K. pentacarpos, 19 L. plukenetii, 7
K. virginica, 19 Leuconymphaea
L. lotus, 514
L. stellata, 519
L Ligusticum wallichii, 560
Laccardia lacca, 313 Lilac
Lactobacillus sp., 426 L. caerulea, 541
L. acidophilus, 165, 471 L. cordatifolia, 541
L. brevis, 585 L. suaveolens, 541
L. casei, 337 L. vulgaris, 541
L. fermentum, 585 L. vulgaris var. alba, 541
L. plantarum, 165, 585 L. vulgaris var. purpurea, 541
L. salivarius, 694 L. vulgaris var. violacea, 541
Lambertia Liliacum
L. formosa, 41 L. album, 541
L. proxima, 41 L. vulgare, 541
Scientific Name Index 1013

Lilium M. biondii, 238, 240

L. amabile, 14 M. citriodora, 236
L. brownii, 14 M. coco, 15
L. concolor, 14, 218 M. conspicua, 236
L. dauricum, 14 M. conspicua var. rosea, 236
L. davidii var. unicolor, 218 M. cyathiformis, 236
L. lancifolium, 14, 215–219 M. denudata, 15, 236–240
L. lancifolium var. flaviflorum, 215 M. denudata var. angustitepala, 236
L. lancifolium var. fortunei, 215 M. denudata var. purpurascens, 238–240
L. lancifolium var. splendens, 215 M. denudata var. pyriformis, 236
L. leichtlinii var. maximowiczii, 219 M. elliptica, 243
L. leopoldii, 215 M. exoniensis, 243
L. leucanthum, 218 M. ferruginea, 243
L. lishmannii, 215 M. foetida, 243
L. longiflorum, 14 M. foetida f. margaretta, 243
L. maculatum, 14 M. foetida f. parvifolia, 243
L. pensylvanicum, 14 M. galissoniensis, 243
L. pumilum, 218 M. glabra, 243
L. regale, 218 M. gloriosa, 243
L. sargentiae, 14 M. grandiflora, 15, 243–248, 250, 254,
L. tigrinum, 215 258–260, 266–268, 376
L. tigrinum var. fortunei, 215 M. grandiflora f. galissoniensis, 243
L. tigrinum var. plenescens, 215 M. grandiflora f. lanceolata, 243
L. tigrinum var. splendens, 215 M. grandiflora var. angustifolia, 243
Limnocharis, 65 M. grandiflora var. elliptica, 243
L. emarginata, 232 M. grandiflora var. lanceolata, 243
L. flava, 232–234 M. grandiflora var. obovata, 243
L. laforesti, 232 M. grandiflora var. praecox, 243
L. plumieri, 232 M. grandiflora var. rotundifolia, 243
Lindera obtusiloba, 13 M. hartwegii, 243
Lipaphis erysimi, 441 M. hartwicus, 243
Lippia graveolens, 56 M. heptapeta, 236
Liriodendron tulipifera, 15 M. kobus, 15, 240
Listeria M. lacunosa, 243
L. innocua, 471 M. lanceolata, 243
L. monocytogenes, M. liliflora, 240
148, 165, 166, 189, 197, 296, M. longifolia, 243
318, 469, 470, 771, 784 M. maxima, 243
Locusta M. microphylla, 243
L. migratoria, 442 M. obovata, 243, 253, 265
L. migratoria migratorioides, 441 M. obtusifolia, 243
Lomandra longifolia, 61 M. officinalis, 268
Lonicera japonica, 839 M. praecox, 243
Lophanthus M. pravertiana, 243
L. anisatus, 151 M. precia, 236
L. foeniculum, 151 M. purpurea var. denudata, 236
Lymnaea acuminata, 477 M. rotundifolia, 243
Lysimachia M. sargentiana, 240
L. clethroides, 39 M. spectabilis, 236
L. nummularia, 39 M. sprengeri, 238, 240
M. stricta, 243
M. superba, 236
M M. tardiflora, 243
Macropiper excelsum, 35 M. tomentosa, 243
Madhuca M. triumphans, 236
M. indica, 52 M. umbrella var. maxima, 243
M. longifolia, 52 M. virginiana var. foetida, 243
M. longifolia var. latifolia, 52 M. virginiana var. grisea, 243
Magnolia M. yulan, 236
M. alexandrina, 236 Mahonia aquifolium, 814
M. angustifolia, 243 Malus × robusta, 44
1014 Scientific Name Index

Malus spp., 44 Melianthus

M. domestica, 44 M. major, 22
M. floribunda, 44 M. minor, 22
M. pumila, 44 Melientha suavis, 30
M. zumi, 45 Melissa officinalis, 7, 107, 164, 175, 205
Malva Meloidogyne incognita, 442
M. alcea, 20 Mentha × citrata, 8
M. ambigua, 395 Mentha × gentilis, 8
M. erecta, 395 Mentha × gracilis, 8
M. excisa, 20 Mentha × piperita, 7, 8
M. florida, 292 Mentha spp., 8, 65
M. grossheimii, 395 M. aquatica, 7
M. hortensis, 292 M. aquatica var. citrata, 7
M. mauritiana, 395 M. arvensis, 7
M. neglecta, 400 M. arvensis L. forma piperascens, 8
M. rosea, 292 M. canadensis, 8
M. sylvestris, 20, 294, 395–402 M. haplocalyx, 603, 613
M. sylvestris subsp. mauritiana, 395 M. longifolia, 8
M. sylvestris var. mauritiana, 395, 397, 398 M. microcorphylla, 199
M. thuringiaca, 19 M. piperita, 165, 166, 171, 177, 179
Malvastrum lateritium, 20 M. pulegium, 8
Malvaviscus M. spicata, 8, 166
M. acapulcensis, 405 M. suaveolens, 8
M. arboreus, 20, 405–407 Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, 502
M. arboreus drummondii, 407 Michelia
M. arboreus mexicana, 407 M. alba, 15
M. arboreus penduliflorus, 407 M. yulan, 236
M. arboreus var. drummondii, 20 Micrococcus
M. arboreus var. lobatus, 405 M. albus, 647
M. arboreus var. mexicanus, 20 M. ascoformans, 166
M. arboreus var. sagraeanus, 405 M. flavus, 166
M. arboreus var. sepium, 405 M. luteus, 197, 259, 281, 339, 391, 493,
M. balbisii, 405 506, 694, 840
M. ciliatus, 405 Microcystis aeruginosa, 268
M. cocineus, 405 Micromelum pubescens, 51
M. lanceolatus, 405 Micromeria sp., 8
M. mollis, 405 Microsporum
Manduca sexta, 441 M. canis, 470
Mangifera indica, 466 M. gypseum, 259, 426, 470
Matricaria chamomilla, 166, 330 M. nanum, 426
Megapterium missouriensis, 30 Mimosa pudica, 313
Melaleuca spp., 26 Mimulus
M. alternifolia, 26, 179, 477 M. guttatus, 53
M. armillaris, 26 M. lewisii, 53
M. bracteata, 26 Mirabilis
M. densispicata, 26 M. ambigua, 497
M. erubescens, 26 M. jalapa, 27, 497, 499–505, 507–510
M. hypericifolia, 26 M. pedunculata, 497
M. linariifolia, 26 M. planiflora, 497
M. nodosa, 26 M. pubescens, 497
M. quinquenervia, 26 M. suaveolens, 497
M. styphelioides, 26 M. xalapa, 497
M. thymifolia, 27 Miscanthus floridulus, 36, 642
M. tortifolia, 27 Mnemion
Melastoma M. agreste, 808
M. malabatrichum, 22 M. alpestre, 808
M. polyanthum, 22 M. contemptum, 808
Melia M. elegans, 808
M. azadirachta, 409 M. gracilescens, 808
M. indica, 409 M. nemausense, 808
Scientific Name Index 1015

M. sagotii, 808 Myrica gale, 25

M. segetale, 808 Myristica fragrans, 465, 468, 470
M. sudeticum, 808 Myrtus
M. tenellum, 808 M. caryophyllus, 460
M. tricolor, 808 M. communis, 27, 179, 199
M. variatum, 808
Mogorium
M. gimea, 529 N
M. goaense, 529 Nauclea latifolia, 49
M. sambac, 529 Navicularia scardica, 207
M. undulatum, 529 Neisseria meningitidis, 189, 190
Monarda Nelumbo nucifera, 27
M. citriodora, 8 Nepeta cataria, 9
M. citriodora subsp. austromontana, 8 Nicolaia
M. citriodora var. austromontana, 8 N. anthodioides, 844
M. didyma, 9 N. atropurpurea, 844
M. fistulos, 9 N. elatior, 63, 834
Monardella N. hemisphaerica, 844
M. odoratissima, 9 N. imperialis, 834
M. villosa, 9 N. intermedia, 834
Monochoria N. magnifica, 834
M. hastata, 39 N. rostrata, 844
M. vaginalis, 39 N. rostrata var. talangensis, 844
Montia N. sanguinea, 844
M. perfoliata, 23 N. speciosa, 834
M. sibirica, 23 Nicotiana
Moraxella catarrhalis, 212 N. alata, 760
Morganella morganii, 472 N. benthamiana, 493
Morinda citrifolia, 871 N. tabacum, 760
Moringa, 477 Nigella sativa, 98, 115, 466
M. oleifera, 24 Nigrospora spp., 268
M. pterygosperma, 24 Nocardia sp., 420
Murraya N. asteroides, 281
M. koenigii, 51 Noronhia linocerioides, 517
M. paniculata, 51 Nuphar luteum, 28
Musa spp., 25 Nuytsia floribund, 14
M. acuminata, 24 Nyctago
M. acuminata ssp. zebrina, 25 N. hortensis, 497
M. balbisiana, 24 N. jalapae, 497
M. balbisiana var. brachycarpa, 24 N. versicolor, 497
M. brachycarpa, 24 Nyctanthes
M. campestris, 24 N. arbor-tristis, 29
M. glauca, 24 N. goa, 529
M. hirta, 24 N. sambac, 529
M. laterita, 24 N. undulata, 529
M. paradisiaca, 24 Nymphaea spp., 516
M. salaccensis, 25 N. alba, 28
M. textilis, 25 N. bernierana, 519
M. velutina, 25 N. caerulea, 28
M. violascens, 25 N. cyanea, 519
M. zebrina, 25 N. dentata, 514
Musca domestica, 177, 433, 434 N. emirnensis, 519
Muscari N. liberiensis, 514
M. atlanticum, 3 N. lotus, 28, 514–517
M. botryoides, 3 N. madagascariensis, 519
M. neglectum, 3 N. nouchali, 28, 519, 521–524
Mussaenda N. nouchali var. caerulea, 28
M. frondosa, 49 N. odorata, 28
M. roxburghii, 49 N. pubescens, 28
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 853, 868 N. stellata, 28, 519, 521–524
1016 Scientific Name Index

Nymphaea spp (cont.) P

N. stellata var. cyanea, 519 Pachira
N. stellata var. parviflora, 519 P. aquatica, 20
Nymphoides P. insignis, 20
N. indica, 22 Padus
N. peltata, 22 P. avium var. avium, 45
P. grayana, 45
Paederia foetida, 49
O Paeonia
Ocimum P. albiflora, 559, 561, 570, 586, 587
O. americanum, 9 P. albiflora f. nuda, 559
O. basilicum, 9, 166 P. albiflora f. pilifera, 559
O. canum, 9 P. albiflora f. pilosella, 559
O. gratissimum, 355 P. albiflora var. edulis, 559
O. minimum, 9 P. albiflora var. fragrans, 559
O. sanctum, 425 P. albiflora var. humei, 559
Ocimum × africanum, 9 P. albiflora var. purpurea, 559
Ocimum × citriodorum, 9 P. albiflora var. spontanea, 559
Oenothera P. albiflora var. trichocarpa, 559
O. biennis, 30 P. albiflora var. whitleyi, 559
O. macrocarpa, 30 P. chinensis, 559
O. missouriensis, 30 P. decomposita, 33, 601
O. odorata, 30 P. delavayi, 33, 601
O. speciosa, 30, 552, 553 P. edulis, 559
O. versicolor, 30 P. edulis var. reevesiana, 559
Oldenlandia affinis, 800, 803 P. edulis var. sinensis, 559
Omonoia californica, 623 P. fragrans, 559
Oreochromis niloticus, 803 P. humei, 559
Origanum spp., 10 P. japonica, 33, 565
O. dictamnus, 9 P. lactea, 559
O. majorana, 9 P. lactiflora, 33, 559–571, 573, 575–582, 584–587,
O. minutiflorum, 197 602, 606–608, 616
O. onites, 10, 199 P. lactiflora f. nuda, 559
O. syriacum, 10, 199 P. lactiflora f. pilosella, 559
O. vulgare, 10, 164, 166, 171, 199 P. lactiflora f. trichocarpa, 559
Ornithogalum umbellatum, 295 P. lactiflora f. villosa, 559
Orontium majus, 633 P. lobata, 559
Orthosiphon aristatus var. aristatus, 6 P. lutea, 33
Osbeckia nepalensis, 313 P. makoya, 559
Osmanthus P. obovata, 33, 586, 587
O. americana, 29 P. officinalis, 33, 559
O. americanus, 29 P. ostii, 33
O. fragrans, 29 P. potaninii, 33
Ottelia alismoides, 3 P. reevesiana, 559
Oxalis spp., 32 P. sinensis, 559
O. acetosella, 32 P. suffruticosa, 565, 586, 599–604, 606–616
O. articulata, 32 P. suffruticosa subsp. suffruticosa, 616
O. corniculata, 32 P. suffruticosa subsp. yinpingmudan, 616
O. corymbosa, 32 P. suffruticosa var. papaveracea, 614
O. debilis var. corymbosa, 32 P. szechuanica, 33
O. deppei, 32 P. whitleyi, 559
O. enneaphylla, 32 P. yui, 559
O. exilis, 32 Paeonia × arborea, 597
O. magellanica, 32 Paeonia × chinensis, 597
O. oregana, 32 Paeonia × fruticosa, 597
O. pes-caprae, 32 Paeonia × moutan, 597
O. stricta, 32 Paeonia × moutan var. anneslei, 597
O. tetraphylla, 32 Paeonia × moutan var. papaveracea, 597
O. triangularis, 32 Paeonia × papaveracea, 597
O. tuberosa, 32 Paeonia × suffruticosa, 33, 588, 597
O. violacea, 32 Paeonia × suffruticosa f. anneslei, 597
Scientific Name Index 1017

Paeonia × suffruticosa f. maculata, 597 Perovskia atriplicifolia, 10

Paeonia × suffruticosa f. rubida, 597 Persicaria
Paeonia × suffruticosa var. papaveracea, 597 P. glabra, 38
Paeonia × suffruticosa var. purpurea, 597 P. hydropiperoides, 38
Paeonia × yunnanensis, 597 P. maculosa, 38
Panagrellus redivivus, 268 P. punctata, 38
Panax species, 107 Petunia
Pandanus P. axillaris, 755
P. fascicularis, 33 P. axillaris subsp. parodii, 755
P. odoratus, 33 P. grandiflora, 53
P. odorifer, 33 P. hybrida, 757–761
P. tectorius, 33 P. inflata, 755
Pantoea sp., 189, 190 P. integrifolia, 755
Papaver rhoeas, 34 P. nyctaginiflora, 755
Pariti P. violacea, 755
P. boninense, 385 P. violacea var. hybrida, 755
P. tiliaceum, 385 Petunia × hybrida, 53, 757
P. tiliaceum var. heterophyllum, 385 Phaeomeria
Paritium P. anthodioides, 844
P. abutiloides, 385 P. atropurpurea, 64, 844
P. elatum var. abutiloides, 385 P. hemisphaerica, 844
P. tiliaceum, 385 P. imperialis, 834
Passiflora spp., 34 P. magnifica, 834
P. biflora, 34 P. rostrata, 844
P. caerule, 34 P. sanguinea, 844
P. edulis, 34 P. speciosa, 64, 834
P. incarnata, 34 Phellodendron amurense, 723
P. lunata, 34 Pheretima posthuma, 285, 487, 508, 648, 742, 870
Pasteurella multocida, 212 Phlebotomus papatasi, 487
Paulownia tomentosa, 34 Phlox paniculata, 37
Pavetta Phormium tenax, 61
P. arborea, 730 Photobacterium phosphoreum, 471
P. chinensis, 730 Phyllanthus
P. coccinea, 734 P. amarus, 340
P. indica, 49 P. emblica, 466
P. javanica, 745 Phyllosticta mali, 616
P. kroneana, 730 Physalis angulata, 677
P. stricta, 730 Phytolacca americana, 502, 506
Pavonia Phytophthora cinnamomi, 458
P. hastata, 20 Picea
P. lasiopetala, 20 P. abies, 34
Peddia involucrata, 517 P. asperata, 34
Pedicularis P. brachytyla, 35
P. kanei, 31 P. breweriana, 35
P. lanata, 31 P. engelmannii, 35
Pediculus P. glauca, 35
P. humanus, 814 P. glehnii, 35
P. humanus capitis, 476 P. jezoensis, 35
Pelargonium × nervosum, 3 P. mariana, 35
Pelargonium spp., 2 P. omorika, 35
P. crispum, 2, 72–75 P. orientalis, 35
P. graveolens, 2 P. pungens, 35
P. ovale, 2 P. purpurea, 35
P. quercifolium, 2 P. rubens, 35
P. tomentosum, 3 P. sitchensis, 35
Penicillium corylophilum, 469 P. smithiana, 35
Peptostreptococcus anaerobius, 585 Pimenta dioica, 468
Perilla Pinus
P. frutescens, 10 P. banksiana, 35
P. marathrosma, 151 P. densiflora, 35
Periptera megapotamica, 290 P. edulis, 35
1018 Scientific Name Index

Pinus (cont.) Proteus

P. sabiniana, 35 P. mirabilis, 166, 189, 190, 197,
P. strobus, 35 281, 507, 536, 694
Piper P. vulgaris, 75, 166, 259, 304, 400,
P. cubeba, 35, 677 486, 493, 647, 853
P. excelsum, 35, 36 Prunella vulgaris, 10
P. guineense, 36, 509 Prunus spp., 45
P. longum, 36 P. angustifolia, 45
P. nigrum, 313 P. armeniaca, 43
P. retrofractum, 36 P. domestica, 45
P. sarmentosum, 36 P. grayana, 45
Pistacia lentiscus, 199 P. hortulana, 45
Plantago P. lannesiana, 45
P. major, 296, 297 P. maximowiczii, 45
P. media, 36 P. mume, 45, 217
Plasmodium P. padus, 45
P. berghei, 435 P. persiba var. davidiana, 616
P. falciparum, 190, 428, 435, 476 P. persica, 43, 45, 607, 616
P. yoelii, 428 P. persica var. nucipersica, 45
Pleurotus ostreatus, 720 P. pseudocerasus, 45
Plumbago zeylanica, 313 P. serrulata, 45
Plumeria P. spinosa, 45
P. acutifolia, 723 P. subhirtella, 46
P. rubra, 313 P. tomentosa, 46
Pogostemon cablin, 476 Pseudomonas spp., 471, 507
Poliomintha incana, 10 P. aeruginosa, 148, 166, 189, 197, 212, 259,
Polygonum 281, 296, 304, 318, 338, 339, 400, 427, 470,
P. densiflorum, 38 471, 493, 506, 523, 536, 584, 604, 647, 694,
P. hydropiperoides, 38 720, 739, 761, 784, 801, 853
P. multiflorum, 38 P. fluorescens, 197, 471
P. persicaria, 38 P. solanacearum, 616
P. punctatum, 38 P. stutzeri, 197
Polyporus umbellatus, 579 Psoroptes cuniculi, 177
Pomacea canaliculata, 803 Pterospermum acerifolium, 20
Pongamia pinnata, 426 Puccinia species, 720
Populus balsamifera, 51 Pueraria
Poria cocos, 607, 616 P. thomsonii, 723
Porphyromonas gingivalis, 258, 259, 469 P. tuberosa, 313
Portulaca oleracea, 39 Punica granatum, 14, 401, 466
Poterium sanguisorba, 45 Pycnanthemum virginianum, 6, 10
Premna integrifolia, 286 Pyricularia, 720
Prevotella Pyrus betulifolia, 46
P. gingivalis, 258 Pythium ultimum, 318, 407
P. intermedia, 259, 469
Primula
P. denticulata, 39 Q
P. helodoxa, 653 Quararibea funebris, 20
P. polyantha, 40, 653, 654
P. veris, 39, 653
P. veris × vulgaris, 650 R
P. vulgaris, 40, 653 Ranunculus
Primula × polyantha, 650, 653 R. bulbosus, 43
Primula × variabilis, 650 R. ficaria, 43
Propionibacterium R. kochii, 43
P. acnes, 250, 259 Raphanus sativus, 205
P. granulosum, 259 Rauvolfia serpentina, 426
Protea Rehmannia glutinosa, 560, 607
P. cynaroides, 41 Reseda odorata, 43
P. repens, 41 Reticulitermes speratus, 441
Scientific Name Index 1019

Rheum R. pedatus, 48
R. rhabarbarum, 38 R. rosifolius, 48
R. rhaponticum, 38 R. spectabilis, 48
R. tataricum, 38 Rumex acetosa, 38
Rheum × cultorum, 38 Ruta graveolens, 801
Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus, 177
Rhipicephalus microplus, 436
Rhizoctonia solani, 197, 268, 318, 407, 442, 616 S
Rhizopus stolonifer, 165 Sabdariffa
Rhodnius prolixus, 435 S. digitata, 324
Rhus S. rubra, 324
R. javanica, 472 Saccharomyces, 228
R. verniciflua, 607 S. cerevisiae, 217, 281, 389, 469, 523, 627, 693, 827
Rhyzopertha dominica, 154, 442 Saccharum
Ribes S. edule, 37, 642
R. aureum, 3 S. robustum, 642
R. aureum var. villosum, 3 S. spontaneum, 37, 642
R. cereum, 3 S. spontaneum L. var. edulis, 640
R. nigrum, 3 S. spontaneum var. edulis, 640
R. odoratum, 3 Saccharum × edule, 640
Ricinus communis, 487 Safran officinarum, 77
Rosa × centifolia, 47 Salicornia europaea, 400
Rosa × damascena, 47 Salmalia malabarica, 20, 313
Rosa × hybrida, 668, 669, 673, 676 Salmonella spp., 189, 471, 694, 761, 784
Rosa × odorata nothovar. gigantea, 46 S. choleraesuis, 339, 868
Rosa × rugosa, 47, 682 S. enterica, 114, 469
Rosa spp., 47 S. enterica serovar Typhi, 471
R. arkansana, 46 S. enterica serovar Typhimurium LT2, 801
R. blanda, 46 S. enteritidis, 165, 166, 197, 426, 469
R. canina, 46, 685, 686 S. epidermidis, 166
R. carolina, 46 S. paratyphi, 281
R. chinensis, 46, 669 S. typhi, 281, 296, 304, 318, 426, 486, 493, 506, 536,
R. chinensis gigantean, 669 647, 739, 801, 853, 868
R. damascena, 669, 677 S. typhimurium, 96, 165, 166, 176, 197, 249, 281,
R. ferox, 682 296, 316, 318, 356, 389, 425, 468, 471, 506, 536,
R. gallica, 46 567, 648, 732, 738, 771, 801, 870
R. gigantea, 46 Salvadora persica, 426
R. gymnocarpa, 46 Salvia spp., 107
R. hybrida, 47, 672–678 S. ballotaeflora, 10
R. inodora, 685 S. ballotiflora, 10
R. majalis, 47 S. camertonii, 202
R. moschata, 47, 669 S. dorisiana, 10
R. multiflora, 669 S. elegans, 11, 202, 204, 205
R. nutkana, 47 S. elegans var. sonorensis, 202
R. odorata, 47, 671 S. fruticosa, 197
R. pubescens, 682 S. greggii, 205
R. rubiginosa, 47 S. incarnata, 202
R. rugosa, 683–697 S. japonica, 11
R. rugosa var. plena, 688 S. longiflora, 202
R. virginiana, 47 S. microcalyx, 202
R. woodsii, 47 S. microculis, 202
Rosmarinus officinalis, 10, 179, 471 S. miltiorrhiza, 717
Rotheca serrata, 5 S. munzii, 205
Rotylenchulus reniformis, 442 S. officinalis, 11, 166
Rubus S. plebeia, 11
R. arcticus, 48 S. punicea, 202
R. caesius, 48 S. rutilans, 202
R. chamaemorus, 48 S. sclarea, 11, 172, 173
R. parviflorus, 48 S. splendens, 205
1020 Scientific Name Index

Salvia spp (cont.) S. syriaca, 11

S. syriaca, 209 S. taurica, 11, 209
S. tomentosa, 197, 199 Sinomenium acutum, 585, 606
S. verbenaca, 11 Sirmuellera
Sanguisorba S. grandis, 655
S. minor, 45, 48 S. integrifolia, 658
S. officinalis, 48 Sitophilus
Sarcina lutea, 281, 523, 853 S. oryzae, 442
Sarcocephalus latifolius, 49 S. zeamais, 179, 476
Satureja Smilax
S. hortensis, 11 S. china, 579
S. macrostema, 504 S. glabra, 607
S. montana, 11 Solanum jasminoides, 487
Sauropus androgynus, 34 Solidago canadensis, 811
Saussurea lappa, 250 Sonneratia caseolaris, 14
Saxifraga stolonifera, 52 Sophora japonica, 607, 723
Scaphochlamys sp., 64 Sorbus
Schistocerca gregaria, 442 S. aucuparia, 48
Schistosoma mansoni, 356, 827, 854 S. sambucifolia, 693
Schizostachyum glaucifolium, 871 Spiraea menziesii var. pyramidata, 48
Sclerotium rolfsii, 442 Spiraea × pyramidata, 48
Serratia sp., 425 Spodoptera
S. marcescens, 493 S. frugiperda, 442
Setaria S. littoralis, 179, 442
S. cervi, 303, 435 S. litura, 441
S. palmifolia, 37 Stachys
Shewanella putrefaciens, 471 S. foeniculum, 151
Shigella S. officinalis, 11
S. boydii, 281, 426, 523 Stachytarpheta
S. dysenteriae, 281, 523 S. jamaicensis, 56
S. flexneri, 165, 259, 493, 801 S. urticifolia, 56
S. shiga, 523, 853 Staphylea
S. sonnei, 523, 853 S. colchica, 53
Sida S. pinnata, 53
S. albida, 276 Staphylococcus sp., 425, 694
S. asiatica, 276 S. albus, 536
S. beloere, 276 S. aureus, 75, 148, 165, 166, 189, 197, 212, 259,
S. coronata, 276 281, 296, 304, 318, 338, 339, 391, 400, 407,
S. doniana, 276 426, 469, 470, 486, 493, 506, 507, 516, 523,
S. eteromischos, 276 536, 584, 647, 694, 720, 739, 761, 771, 784,
S. guilleminiana, 276 801, 813, 827, 840, 853, 868, 869
S. hookeri, 276 Staphylococcus epidermidis, 75, 190, 197, 259,
S. indica, 276 296, 318, 471, 506, 584, 694, 813
S. leopoldii, 290 S. pyogenes, 212
S. megapotamicum, 290 Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, 197
S. meridionalis, 276 Stoechas
S. polycarpa, 276 S. dentata, 186
S. populifolia, 276 S. officinarum, 192
S. pubescens, 276 Stomoxys calcitrans, 434
S. spinosa, 21 Streptococcus spp., 190, 471, 761
S. vesicaria, 276 S. agalactiae, 400, 471
Sideritis S. canis, 212
S. florida, 207 S. faecalis, 493
S. perfoliata, 11, 209 S. mutans, 197, 339, 426, 469–470, 868
S. raeseri, 11, 207, 209, 211, 212 S. pneumoniae, 189–190
S. raeseri subsp. florida, 207 S. pyogenes, 212, 259, 296, 318, 471
S. scardica, 11, 207, 209–213 S. sanguis, 425
S. scardica subsp. longibracteata, 207 S. sobrinus, 426
S. scardica subsp. scardica, 210 Sutera atropurpurea, 53
Scientific Name Index 1021

Swietenia, 441 Thalia geniculata, 21

Sykesia hongkongensis, 730 Thespesia
Syringa T. lampas, 21
S. alba, 541 T. populnea, 21
S. albiflora, 541 Thymbra capitata, 12
S. amoena, 541 Thymus × citriodorus, 13
S. bicolor, 541 Thymus spp., 12
S. caerulea, 541 T. caespititius, 12
S. carlsruhensis, 541 T. capitatus, 12
S. cordifolia, 541 T. citriodorus, 12
S. cordifolia var. alba, 541 T. herba-barona, 12
S. cordifolia var. caerulescens, 541 T. mastichina, 12
S. cordifolia var. purpurascens, 541 T. praecox, 12
S. latifolia, 541 T. praecox subsp. arcticus, 12
S. lilac, 541 T. praecox subsp britannicus, 12
S. marliensis, 541 T. pulegioides, 12
S. microphylla, 30 T. quinquecostatus, 12
S. nigricans, 541 T. serphyllum, 12
S. notgeri, 541 T. serphyllum subsp. serphyllum, 12
S. philemon, 541 T. syriacus, 402
S. pubescens subsp. microphylla, 30 T. vulgaris, 13, 166
S. rhodopea, 541 T. zygis, 13
S. versaliensis, 541 Tilia × europaea, 21
S. virginalis, 541 Tilia spp., 21
S. vulgaris, 30, 541–543, 545, 546 T. americana, 54
S. vulgaris f. albipleniflora, 541 T. cordata, 21
S. vulgaris var. alba, 541 T. japonica, 21
S. vulgaris var. caerulea, 541 T. platyphyllos, 21
S. vulgaris var. lilacina, 541 Trachyspermum
S. vulgaris var. macrantha, 541 T. ammi, 801
S. vulgaris var. pulchella, 541 T. copticum, 165
S. vulgaris var. purpurea, 541 Tribolium
S. vulgaris var. rubra, 541 T. castaneum, 154, 476
S. vulgaris var. transsilvanica, 541 T. confusum, 442
S. vulgaris var. violacea, 541 Trichoderma sp., 853
Syzygium T. viride, 281
S. aromaticum, 27, 171, 460, 464–477 Trichomonas vaginalis, 177, 801
S. corymbosa, 389 Trichophyton
S. formosum, 27 T. mentagrophytes, 148, 259, 378, 425, 426,
S. jambos, 27 470, 536, 720
S. malaccense, 27 T. rubrum, 165, 281, 425, 426, 470
S. nervosum, 25 T. tonsurans, 426
Trichostrongylus colubriformis, 803
Tripleurospermum disciforme, 798
T Tritonia crocata, 4
Tabernaemontana heyneana, 313 Tropaeolum
Tagetes erecta, 485, 486, 645, 647, 648 T. elatum, 777
Tanacetum parthenium, 798 T. hybridum, 777
Telopea T. majus, 54, 777, 779–785
T. aspera, 41 T. minus, 54
T. speciosissima, 41, 661 T. quinquelobium, 777
T. truncata, 41 T. repandifolium, 777
Terminalia T. schillingii, 777
T. arjuna, 471 T. tuberosum, 54
T. bellirica, 516 Trypanosoma
T. chebula, 472, 516 T. brucei, 190
Termontis racemosa, 633 T. brucei rhodesiense, 435
Teucrium T. congolense, 355, 356
T. polium, 199 T. cruzi, 190, 435, 476
T. scorodonia, 11 Tsiangia hongkongensis, 730
1022 Scientific Name Index

Tulipa spp., 14 T. scabriscapa var. primulina, 221

T. acuminata, 221 T. scabriscapa var. rebouliana, 221
T. acutiflora, 221 T. scabriscapa var. sommieri, 221
T. armena f. galatica, 221 T. scabriscapa var. strangulata, 221
T. aurea, 221 T. scardica, 221
T. aximensis, 221 T. segusiana, 221
T. baldaccii, 221 T. serotina, 221
T. bicolor, 221 T. serotina var. etrusca, 221
T. billietiana, 221 T. sommieri, 221
T. bonarotiana, 221 T. spathulata, 221
T. campsopetala, 221 T. stenopetala, 221
T. connivens, 221 T. strangulata, 221
T. connivens subsp. luteoguttata, 221 T. strangulata subsp. bonarotiana, 221
T. connivens subsp. obtusata, 221 T. strangulata subsp. obtusa, 221
T. connivens var. luteoguttata, 221 T. strangulata subsp. variopicta, 221
T. connivens var. obtusata, 221 T. strangulata var. bonarotiana, 221
T. cornuta, 221 T. strangulata var. obtusata, 221
T. coronaria, 221 T. strangulata var. variopicta, 221
T. didieri, 221 T. stricta, 221
T. didieri subsp. billietiana, 221 T. suaveolens var. passeriniana, 221–222
T. didieri subsp. flavicans, 221 T. turcica var. media, 222
T. didieri subsp. platystigma, 221 T. unguiculata, 222
T. didieri var. billietiana, 221 T. variopicta, 222
T. didieri var. flavicans, 221 T. viridiflora, 222
T. didieri var. mauriana, 221 T. vitellina, 222
T. didieri var. planifolia, 221 Tupeia antarctica, 14
T. elegans, 221 Typha × glauca, 55
T. etrusca, 221 Typha spp., 55
T. fransoniana, 221 T. angustata, 54
T. fransoniana subsp. mauriana, 221 T. angustifolia, 54, 790
T. fulgens, 221 T. angustifolia subsp. muelleri, 788
T. galatica, 221 T. australis, 54
T. gesneriana, 221, 222, 225–228 T. bungeana, 55
T. gesneriana var. spathulata, 221 T. capensis, 55
T. grengiolensis, 221 T. davidiana, 55
T. hortensis, 221 T. domingensis, 54, 790
T. laciniata, 221 T. elephantina, 55
T. lurida, 221 T. japonica, 788
T. lutea, 221 T. latifolia, 55, 790
T. marjolletii, 221 T. latifolia var. orientalis, 788
T. mauriana, 221 T. laxmannii, 55
T. mauriannensis, 221 T. muelleri, 788
T. mauritiana, 221 T. orientalis, 55, 788–790
T. media, 221 T. orientalis var. brunnea, 788
T. montisandrei, 221 T. shuttleworthii, 788
T. neglecta, 221 T. shuttleworthii subsp. orientalis, 788
T. neglecta subsp. atroguttata, 221 Tyrophagus putrescentiae, 615
T. neglecta var. atroguttata, 221
T. passeriniana, 221
T. perrieri, 221 U
T. planifolia, 221 Urena lobata, 21
T. platystigma, 221 Urobotrya latisquama, 31
T. pubescens, 221
T. repens, 221
T. retroflexa, 221 V
T. saracenica, 221 Vaccinium smallii, 693
T. scabriscapa, 221 Vappodes
T. scabriscapa var. bonarotiana, 221 V. bigibba, 555
T. scabriscapa var. hawardeniana, 221 V. lithocola, 555
T. scabriscapa var. mixta, 221 V. phalaenopsis, 555
T. scabriscapa var. neglecta, 221 Varneria augusta, 705
Scientific Name Index 1023

Veillonella dispar, 258 V. pedata, 58

Vepris ampody, 517 V. pedunculata, 58
Verbascum thapsus, 53 V. pinnata, 58
Verbena officinalis, 56 V. prionantha, 58
Vernicia fordii, 774 V. renifolia, 58
Vernonia cinerea, 319 V. riviniana, 58, 811
Veronica americana, 36 V. selkirkii, 58
Verticillium dahliae, 318, 397, 407, 625 V. sempervirens, 58
Vibrio spp., 471 V. sororia, 58
V. cholerae, 432, 486, 493 V. sororia var. sororia, 58
V. mimicus, 281, 426 V. tokubuchiana, 58
V. parahaemolyticus, 281, 523, 868 V. tricolor, 58, 808–815, 820
Viola V. tricolor var. hortensis, 808
V. acuminata, 56 V. vaginata, 58
V. adunca, 56 V. variegata, 58
V. altaica, 820 V. verecunda, 59
V. arvensis, 811 V. violacea, 59
V. banksii, 56 V. wiedemannii, 795
V. biflora, 56, 811 V. yezoensis, 59
V. blanda var. renifolia, 58 Viola × hortensis, 818
V. brevistipulata, 56 Viola × wittrockiana, 59, 818, 820
V. canadensis, 56 Vipera russelli, 120
V. canina, 56 Vitis vinifera, 59
V. cerasifolia, 57 Vleckia
V. collina, 56 V. albescens, 151
V. cornuta, 56 V. anethiodora, 151
V. cotyledon, 811 V. anisata, 151
V. cucullata, 57 V. bracteata, 151
V. diffusa, 57 V. bracteosa, 151
V. epipsila, 57 V. discolor, 151
V. glabella, 57 V. foeniculum, 151
V. grypoceras, 57 V. incarnata, 151
V. hederacea, 57, 792
V. hederacea forma A, 792
V. hederacea forma B, 792 W
V. hederacea forma C, 792 Warneria augusta, 705
V. hederacea forma D, 792 Woodfordia fruticosa, 14
V. hederacea forma E, 792
V. hederacea forma F, 792
V. hederacea forma G, 792 X
V. hybrida, 57 Xanthomonas
V. japonica, 57 X. campestris, 523
V. keiskei, 57 X. oryzae pv. oryzicola, 616
V. labradorica, 57 Xanthorrhoea spp., 61
V. langsdorffii, 57 X. acaulis, 61
V. lutea, 815, 820 X. glauca subsp. angustifolia, 61
V. lutea ssp. calaminaria, 815 X. glauca subsp. glauca, 61
V. lutea ssp. westfalica, 815 X. johnsonii, 61
V. mandschurica, 57 Ximenia americana, 28
V. mirabilis, 57 Xylocopa fenestrata, 648
V. obtusa, 57 Xylopia
V. odora, 795 X. aethiopica, 469
V. odorata, 57, 795, 797–804, 811 X. frutescens, 853
V. odorata f. odorata, 795 Xylopleurum
V. palmata, 58 X. drummondi, 552
V. palustris, 57 X. nuttallii, 552
V. papilionacea, 58 X. obtusifolium, 552
V. patrinii, 58 X. speciosum, 552
1024 Scientific Name Index

Y Zerumbet zingiber, 857

Yersinia enterocolitica, 165, 471, 869 Zingiber sp., 64
Yulania Z. amaricans, 64
Y. conspicua, 236 Z. cassumunar, 64, 477
Y. denudata, 236 Z. mioga, 64
Y. denudata subsp. pubescens, 236 Z. montanum, 64
Y. pyriformis, 236 Z. odoriferum, 64
Z. officinale, 64, 357
Z. sylvestre, 857
Z Z. zerumbet,
Zanthoxylum 64, 857, 859–871
Z. piperitum, 51, 691 Z. zerumbet subsp.
Z. tsihanimposa, 517 zerumbet, 64
Zea Zizania latifolia, 37
Z. mays, 37 Ziziphus nummularia, 43
Z. mexicana, 37 Zygophyllum fabago, 64