“Methodology Pengajaran Bahasa: Dari Era Prametode Sampai

Era Pascametode”
By Prof. Suwarsih Madya, M.A., Ph.D.

A Summary by:
Khoirunnisa Isnani – 17716251043

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM
STATE UNIVERSITY OF YOGYAKARTA
2017
 CHAPTER II
LANGUAGE TEACHING IN THE PRE-METHOD ERA

A. INTRODUCTION
The character of pre-method era is practicability without a meaningful effort to prove
systematically that a certain teaching method is better than others. Most of language teaching in
this era is not developed yet based on language concept because the language expert
inconsistently consider that foreign language teaching as the main subject to be learned, although
Palmer makes a comprehensive language theory including phonetic, phonology, orthography,
etymology, semantic, and argons (Stern, 1983: 97-116; Lowe, 2003).
There are four language teaching methods in pre-method era: grammar translation
method (GTM), direct method (DM), compromise method (GTM and DM combination), and
reading method (RM).

B. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

1. Grammar Translation Method (GTM)
This method is used to drill mental objectively using literature work as the main material
which is translated into the target language (Howatt & Widdowson, 2004; Stern, 1983: 455). It
aimed to develop grammar translation skill as the first step in doing a literature study. To reach
the objective, Stern (1983: 454-455) provide the procedures of grammar translation method
(GTM):
 Declaration of regulations (delivering in leaners’ mother language);
 Learners’ studying and memorizing about grammar;
 Vocabularies to be memorized by learners;
 Translation assignment;
 Translation of prose reading.
The characteristics of grammar translation class that is combined from Brown (2000: 15)
and Celce Murcia (2001: 6):
 The class is taught by learners’ mother language with less target language;
 There are many vocabularies taught in word lists;
 Giving the extensive explanation about complex grammar;
  Grammar gives the rules to manage the words, and teaching is only focus on the form;
 Starting to reading a classic text;
 The content of the text is less attention in grammar assignment;
 Only drill an assignment of separate sentence translation from target language to
mother language;
 Less or no attention to pronunciation;
 Usually producing learners’ target language incapacity;
 The teachers have not spoken in the target language.
The English language subject at postgraduate program of Yogyakarta state university
used grammar translation method which is modified to help learners in understanding the main
sentence and phrase or vocabularies as one meaning. Moreover, grammar translation method
seems suitable for adult learners than young learners. It is because the adult learners who think
abstractly will be enjoy with the method than they who less thinking abstractly.
The advantages of grammar translation method (GTM) by Stern (1983: 455):
a. Learners’ mother language has an important role in the process learning of other
languages;
b. Translation in one term or cross language technique plays a role in the language
learning process;
c. In translating assignment, the foreign language learners is mixed up with academic
problem solving;
d. This oldest method is relatively easy to apply.
2. Direct Method (DM)
The direct method is the opposite of grammar translation method in which direct method
have to use the target language as the interaction language in a foreign language class, then it
avoid two things as follows: (a) using learners’ mother language, and (b) translation technique
(Stern, 1983: 456). Therefore, the direct method is only used by an expert target language
teacher. The teacher is also able to give illustration through picture and movement in order to
help the learners understand and remember easily all subjects in target language.
The direct method procedure is described as follows: firstly, the teacher provides s short
text or dialogue conversation that is arranged for the target learners. The complex expressions
are explained by the target language using picture, action, paraphrase, synonym, or context.
Then, the teacher asks about the purpose of the text. The learners do a reading aloud in
assignment. Finally, the learners do the assignment including transposes, substitution, diction,
and narration.
Here are the characteristics of direct method (DM) collected from Brown (2000: 45),
Cerce-Murcia (2001: 6), and Stern (1983):
 Giving a pressure on the verbal language.
 No learners’ mother language at the class.
 Using the target language as an instruction language.
 Daily vocabularies and sentences as the main teaching media.
 Grammar is learned inductively.
 Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, object, and picture.
 New material is introduced verbally.
 Both speaking and observing are taught.
 Pressuring pronunciation and grammar.
 The target culture is taught inductively.
 The literature text is read for entertainment without giving attention on grammar.
 The teacher is a native or close to native teacher.
Staren (1983: 459-460) stated that the direct method is: (a) the first method created from
some critical thinking and language theoretical; (b) the first effort to build a learning situation
without learners’ mother language. Moreover, there are two problems in direct method. The first
one is about how to deliver the meaning without translation and always keep away from
misunderstanding. Then, the other one is about how to apply the direct method at the language
learning base in which there will be so many needs more explanation.
3. Compromise Method
As the explanation before, the direct method is suitable applied for young learners
because it is only learn about anything around. Nowadays, the direct method is combined by
grammar translation techniques. In the first leaning process level, the direct method is mostly
used, whereas this method is combined by translation method at the higher level, especially for
adult learners (Stern: 1983:101).
 4. Reading Method
The reading method is developed in India as reaction of problems in applying direct
method. The main characteristics of reading method from Celce-Murcia (2001: 6) and Stern
(1983: 461) is mentioned below:
 The teaching aimed to comprehend the text;
 The steps of receptive and productive reading learning is separated;
 Only grammar that used to comprehend the text through analysis activity;
 The vocabulary is managed based on using frequencies.
 Translation is a class procedure;
 The teacher with no really well in English skills is allowed;
 Reading for comprehending something is the only learning skill that pressured.
The learning techniques includes: (a) introducing verbally to target language; (b) using
some techniques from mother language teaching; (c) the important role of vocabulary; (d) the
difference between intensive reading for deep study, and extensive reading for global
understanding (Stern, 1983: 461).
According to Stern (1983: 461), the reading method introduces new elements in language
teaching: (a) developing new language teaching technique for special objective; (b)applying
vocabulary on the text of target language as a tool of text gradation; (c) the creation of gradation
text; and (d) introducing fst reading technique in foreign language class.
 CHAPTER III
THE METHOD ERA

A. INTRODUCTION
The method era makes reference in which language teaching method is reputed by the
main factor that determines language teaching success except mother language. Therefore, a
method must be based by language and teaching theory. The experts endeavor to search the best
method. In this situation, the different methods can be developed.
B. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
In the method era, there were many language teaching methods and techniques developed
because the researchers try to find evidence of a certain method. The failure proves an
effectiveness method that makes other methods development. The development language
teaching methods describes below.
1. Audio-lingual Method
The audio-lingual method as reaction of reading method and the weakness on speaking-
listening skills, the audio-lingual method is generated from modernity movement and direct
method, but it is added structural linguistic (Bloomfield, 1933; Skinner, 1957).
The important points of audio-lingual method from Brown (2000: 96), Celce-Murcia
(2001: 7), and Stern (1983: 464):
 The separation and list four language skills with pressure on the base skill in which
listening and speaking, whereas reading and writing are delayed.
 Dialogue as the main tool to provide the teaching material of target language.
 Focus on the certain practices, repeating, memorizing, and drilling.
 Inductive teaching on the grammar rules and language structures with contrastive
analysis one by one.
 Early pronunciation.
 Firm delimitation for vocabulary of the first step.
 Prohibiting the learners’ mistake and ensuring that the learners produce the good target
language utterance.
 Language manipulation without giving attention to the meaning and the context.
 Demanding in the target language expertness verbally.
  The right responses are powerful.
 Language laboratory and visual helping toll are mostly used.
The principles of audio-lingual method (Diller, 1971: 9; Rivers, 1981: 41-43; Stern,
1983: 188):
 Language is statement, not the text.
 Language is what the native said, it is not about what they have to say as someone’s
thinking.
 The languages are different.
 Language is a set of habit.
 Teaching the language, not about language.
The audio-lingual procedures (Stern, 1983: 157-158):
1. The target language structural analysis that form gradation material;
2. Analysis result presentation by the language expert;
3. Daily drilling and doing in a small class;
4. Pressure on speaking skill as the main objective.
The characteristics of audio-lingual method (Brown, 2000):
 The new teaching material is in dialogue form.
 The dependence in repeating and memorizing.
 The structure is list based on the contrastive analysis.
 The structural forms are taught by drilling.
 Mostly no grammar explanation.
 The vocabulary is limited to learn.
 Mostly using language laboratory and visual tool.
 Pronunciation is very important to teach.
Same as the other method, the audio-lingual method also has weaknesses. There are two
weaknesses of this method: the first is the learners are not helped in relating the word and its
meaning. Then, the other weakness is the audio-lingual method depends on the language
laboratory or native language. However, this method also has practical problems that give a
contribution for language teaching method development.
 2. Audiovisual Method
In audiovisual method, visual is the main tool to engage learners in language learning
process. This method is developed in French in 50s, and then it is used in America, Britannia,
and Canada. This method is also suitable for beginner learners as audio-lingual method. The
main techniques of audiovisual include (Stern, 1983: 467):
 The course is started by filmstrip and presentation.
 The teacher explains the meaning of a statements by demonstrating, providing the
selective verbal language, and Q & A.
 Filmstrip and dialogue are played in several times in order to the learners are able to
repeat and memorize it.
 The teaching material is displayed to learners step by step.
Stern (1983: 468) showed the strengths of audiovisual method as follow: (a) audiovisual
method divides language teaching into three levels for problem solving of language teaching; (b)
It is also place language teaching as in social context and language teaching as verbal
communication; (c) Changing the reading text of direct method into visual scenario through
filmstrip; (d) Indicating that responsive and responsible in using technology for language
teaching success. However, the audiovisual method gets two critics. It is because getting a
problem in delivering the meaning. The other critic is the teaching steps are forced by this
method based on the assumption that unproved at all.
The positive side of audiovisual material is not only caused by advancement technology
that affected flexibility. But, this material is also creates a learning environment that rich of
linguistics information and culture of target language. The teacher and the learners are able to
explore more about all target language aspects.
3. Oral-Situational Method
According to Celce-Murcia (2001: 7), oral-situational method is developed as reaction of
reading method that only focus on speaking-listening skills. It is generated from modernity
movement and direct method, but adding linguistic features and language pedagogy. The main
features of this method are described below:
 Verbal language is a prominent.
 Language materials are practiced orally before providing writing text.
 Using target language only.
  Assuring a lexical term and providing the most useful.
 Grammar structures changes to be complex.
 New lexical items and grammar are introduced and practiced by situational.
These features showed that oral-situational method recognize the important language as
communication tool in the real life. In other hand, this method recognizes that the important of
grammar and vocabulary as delivering purpose tool.
4. Cognitive Method
This method reflects theoretical orientation in linguistics and psycholinguistics that
initiative by Chomsky in 60s. This method focused on grammar conscious acquisition as a
system. The features method of cognitive method by Diller (1978) that is quoted by Suwarsih
Madya (1987):
 Language is arranged and creative, this principle implied that language as a learning
system consciously.
 New language is learned by demonstration and practice.
 Human being is equipped for language learning.
 Live language is the language that used to think.
The principal features of cognitive method by Celce-Murcia (2001: 7):
 Language learning is viewed as rules acquisition, not a habit development.
 Learners are obligate on their learning.
 Language must be taught, but it is able to be taught deductively.
 Not really focused on the verbal.
 Reading and writing as important as listening and speaking.
 Grammar teaching is important especially for medium up level.
 An error is something that can be avoided.
 Teacher assumed to have general target language skills.
5. Affective-Humanistic Method
The group of affective-humanistic methods is developed as reaction to audio-lingual
method and direct method. These methods have some features as follows (Celce-Murcia. 2001:
7):
 Both teachers and learners are respecting each other.
  Focusing on learners’ communication.
 Engaging in pairs or small group work in language teaching.
 Class’ climate is more important than method.
 Supporting and interaction is viewed as learning needs.
 Learning a foreign language is viewed as experience by self.
 Teacher is facilitator.
 Teacher assumed expertise in the target and the mother language.
The four methods below called by affective-humanistic because those methods give the
big attention to learners’ affective.
a. Community Language Learning
Harmer (2007: 68) describes the process of community language learning as follows. In
the community language learning, the learners sit around. They free to say what they want and
the teacher as the facilitator only. The teacher stands up out of a circle ready to give feedback in
the target language. For example, when a learner says something in his/her language, the teacher
provides what the learner’s said in the target language. Then, when the learners feel confident to
talk in the target language, they are asked to make a conversation in pairs. The teacher’s role is
more as the facilitator than a teacher in this method.
b. Silent Way
The main feature of silent way is teacher’s behavior that less talks to learners. This is
related to learning theory by Richaeds and Rodgers (1986: 99):
 The learning is facilitated when the learners produce something than memorizing and
repeating.
 The learning is facilitated by physical thing.
 The learning is facilitated by problem solving that engages the material to be learned.
Silent way method procedures describe as follow: firstly, the teacher gives an example
orally while showing to phonemic draft. Then, the learners repeat it and the teacher shows
without saying anything. The learning process is going with the teacher pointed to phonemic and
the learners guessed the objective.
c. Suggestopedia
In this method, teacher and learners are related as a friend in which the learners given a
different name than learners’ real names. Learning in suggestopedia has three main sections. The
past material repeated orally and it becomes a discussion material. Then, it is followed by giving
new material. Finally, the learners listen to music in order makes them relax in the class, and the
learners leave the class quietly (Harmer, 2007: 68).
d. Total Physical Response (TPR)
The TPR class that is learners mostly do listening and acting. The order nuance is used in
this class, it is not only at base expertness but also at advance level. The order makes learners act
easily, such as “open the window”, “close the door”, “stand up”, “sit down”, etc. the teacher
starts to command learners and then they response to do it.
6. Comprehension Based Method
The comprehension based method is based on (a) language acquisition is happen if the
learners understand, and (b) second or foreign language acquisition is resemble as mother
language acquisition. The main features of this method include (Celce-murcia, 2001: 8):
 Oral language comprehension (listening) is viewed as based skill may develop speaking
skill.
 The learners start to listen and response non verbally.
 The learners only speak when they ready to do it.
 The rule teaching is able to help learners observing what they do.
 Error correction is viewed important and may be counter productive
7. PPP Method and Its three alternatives
a. PPP Method
PPP method forms a variation of audio-lingualism in language learning. PPP stand for
Presentation, Practice, and Productive. In the presentation step, the teacher introduces the target
language situation, then provides the language teaching. It is followed by second step that the
learners practice the language by reproductive technique and individual repeating on word,
phrase, or sentence. Finally, in the production step, the learner makes their sentence with the new
language.
PPP method is critical because focus on teacher centered and creating a problem in
teaching. The bad critic comes from Scrivener (1994: 15) that “basically, this method is not
educating”. The alternative PPP receives the strategy may flexibility, it is depends on learners
need.
 b. PPP Alternative
1) ARC or OTK
ARC stands for Authentic use, Restricted use, and Clarification and focus that is
suggested by Jim Asher (1994). An authentic (O) utilizing refers to language that used in
communication. Whereas R/T (Restricted/Terbatas) that is created in language drilling, and C/K
(Clarification/Klarifikasi) to language that is used to explain grammar.
2) OHE
OHE stands for Observe, Hypothesis, and Experiment. According to Lewis (in Harmer,
2007: 83), the learners may do the observation. This observation will provocative learners to
make hypothesis about how language processing. Then, they will experiment based on the
hypothesis.
3) ESA (LPA)
ESA is stands for Engage, Study, and Active. In language teaching and learning process,
the activities divided into three: engage the learners in the process emotionally, studying how
something is arranged (clause, intonation pole, paragraph, and phrase) and activating the learners
to use all language that they know.
C. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
Communicative approach about language teaching and learning showed all perspective
and this approach is generated some models or learning procedures.
1. Theoretical Items
In this approach, language and communicative skills are related each other. It means that
the target language is learned by the learners in order to they are able to comprehend the
language. Therefore, the teacher may engage the target language in communicative language
when helping the learners in language learning. The communicative approach is based on ten
assumptions by Richards (2006: 23):
 Second or foreign language learning is facilitated when the learners mix up with the
interaction and communication.
 Teaching assignments and effective drills in the class give a chance for learner to
negotiate the meaning.
 The communication is happen because the learners deprecate the relevant content,
objectively, interesting, and fun.
  Communication is holistic process in which always need some skills.
 Language learning is facilitated by the activities that engage inductive learning.
 Language learning is a process step that engages language acquisition.
 The learners develop the way in language learning.
 Language learning will be success if engages learning strategy.
 The teacher’s role as facilitator in the class.
2. Communicative Competence
In the communicative learning, communicative competency is a key construct. This
construct was developed since 1980 in which adding sociocultural competition. Littlewood’s
model includes five elements:
 Language competence
 Text competence
 Pragmatic competence
 Sociolinguistic competence
 Sociocultural competence
In the test development, Bachman (1990) suggested learning competence framework:
language communicative skills have two broad rules that is rule competence and pragmatic
competence.
3. Communicative Methodology Principles
Ricahards (2006: 13) has summarized communicative learning principles as follow:
 Making a real communication become language teaching focus.
 Giving a chance to learners in experimenting what they know.
 Giving a tolerance to students’ mistakes
 Giving a chance to develop learners’ fluency and accuracy.
 Relating some skills.
 Letting students to find the grammar rules.
Morrow (1981) suggested five communicative methodology principles. He said that the method
is coverage as procedure equipment. It will be more described below:
 a. Principle 1: Understand What You did
Based on this principle, every subject may be focused on language operation in which
learns to do something in the target language. In the beginning and the last subject, it may be a
certain operation in which the learners want to use target language.
b. Principle 2: Totally More than Collection
The crucial method of communicative method is process with a distance language level
above the sentence. This principle is able to produce procedure syntactically or analytically.
Syntactic procedure will engage learners in learning sentence forms and drilling to combine it.
Analytic procedure introduces a comprehensive interaction and focusing on learning objective.
c. Principle 3: Processes as Important as Its Form
Three processes can be combined to make studying more communicative and
mechanism.
1) Incompletely information
One of teacher’s tasks is to create a situation in which there is incompletely information
and motivate the students to learn to relate incompletely information in the target
language.
2) Choice
From the speaker side, the speaker have to choose not only about the concept that he/she
wants to speak, but also the language forms. The learners is given a freedom in
choosing what they want to say.
3) Feedback
The feedback process can be applied by supporting the learners become good listeners.
It means that if the learners did not understand on something, they will ask their partner
to explain it.
d. Principle 4: Using The Target Language in Language Learning
This principle is applied to give an extensive chance to learners to practice the target
language to communicate both inside and outside the class.
e. Principle 5: Mistake is Not Always A Mistake
Students’ mistakes in the learning process concerned about two factors (Brumfit, 1981, as
cited by Morrow, 1981). Firstly, the learner may be taught by the teacher belief that small
mistake of grammar of verbal is not problem during the learner success in communicating. As a
consequence the mistake becomes a habit. Secondly, the learner may perforce in communicating
activity without any self-preparation.
4. Communicative Methodology Framework
The activities can be classified into pre-communicative and communicative activity. Pre-
communicative activity is focused on the relevant language forms (grammar, oral, phrase,
utterance, vocabulary) and its function. In the other hand, communicative activity is focused on
the leaning to use language forms and function that is learned in the pra-communicative to reach
communicative objective.
a. The Activities of Communicative Language learning
The language leaning activity has some characters (Richards, 2006: 23-24):
 The activities are endeavor to develop students’ communicative competence that
fasten upon grammar development with communicating skill.
 Communicative activity creates communicative needs.
 Communicative activity gives a chance both inductive and deductive.
 Communicative activity benefitted a content that related to learners’ life.
 Communicative activity enables learners to apply learning.
b. The Importance of Fluency Development and Accuracy Balanced
One of language communicative learning principle is the learners is given a chance to
develop accuracy and fluency. In order that, the teacher must be have a skill to create an
activity in developing accuracy and fluency. According to Richards (2006: 14), fluency is
natural language employing in which the speaker relates to communicative. Besides,
accuracy is grammar tool employing consistently.
c. An Error Treatment
In error treatment, the teacher is suggested to give attention on these forms: (1) kind, (2)
source, (3) language subtly, (4) local, (5) seriousness, (6) learners effective, (7) learners’
language, (8) pedagogy focus, (9) communicative context, and (10) teacher’s style.
5. Changes of Communicative Language Learning
There are eight main changes in communicative approach of language leaning. The
changes are listed below:
 The learners autonomy
 Social learning essence
  Curricular integration
 The main focus
 Variety
 Thinking skill
 Alternative grading
6. Communicative Language Learning Framework
The teacher must be developing the language learning framework, it is because the
learner will spend many times, energy, and thinking just for trying. Four frameworks showed
communicative language practicing will be described below.
a. Assignment-Based of Language Learning
1) Base model of assignment-based learning
Assignment-based of language learning is communicative language learning that
focuses on the learning process. Language acquisition will be produced by providing an
appropriate interactional process types, and to create this process by using special
design assignments (Richards, 2006: 15). The characteristics of assignment are:
 Something that done by using learners’ language.
 Result that not only about students’ language learning.
 Focusing on the meaning.
 Demanding the learners to use communicative strategy and interactional skill.
b. Contextual-Communicative Language learning: PPBT Version
Contextual-communicative model in English language teaching is basically as a student-
centered approach in which focused on competency communicative English language
learning acquisition.
c. Content-Based Language learning
Content-based language learning is one model of communicative language learning
model that focused on the learning process. Richards (2006: 28) stated that content-based
language learning is developed by some assumptions:
 The language learning success when the learners using the target language in
communicating not only comprehend the language theory.
 The content-based language learning showed the better learners needs in language
learning.
  The content gives coherence framework that can be used in language skills
development.
d. Text-Based Language Learning Framework (PBT)
This framework focused on target language text. The last teaching product that use text
framework is the target language text both speaking and listening. The teaching
framework will be explained below.
1) Theoretical items
Text-based language learning method is developed to teach mother language, then in the
situation of second or foreign language teaching have to modify into the target
language.
2) Teaching/learning cycle
The language teaching and learning cycle composed on the some stages. Feez and Joyce
(1998) suggested five learning cycle stages. These stages are suggested because it
supports the learners to study in order to expand their perspectives.
a) Developing field ability
This stage aimed to build a knowledge background about topic that they write or speak
from content and vocabulary aspects. In Indonesia context, this step will help the
learners in learning the relevant content and vocabulary of that field.
b) Copying and breaking a text
This stage is engaging analysis and discussion about how a text example type is
arranged to make a meaning. In this stage, the learners investigate the structural pola
and the language feature of model text. Then, the learners compare the example with
the other one.
c) Arranging text together
Arranging text together gives a chance to learners in writing practice in a group or
with a teacher and also applies the critic thinking skill in group working. In this step,
the learners have to arrange new text together.
d) Arranging an individual text
The learners get a chance to practice speaking skill individually and write what they
have before. Language learning cycle steps based text can be showed these activities:
 listening assignment, speaking assignment, listening and speaking assignment, reading
assignment, and writing assignment.
e) Connecting a concern text
The last step is when the learners relate what they have learned from the other texts
before. They supported to investigate how the material that they have learned can be
related with other texts in the same context, and the future or the past teaching cycle.
e. Competence-Based Language Learning
The competence-based language learning is an approach to teaching planning and
implementing. It is an approach that using extensively as the base of language learning
program in which work oriented and survival need for adult. This approach assured the
learners learn the based language that they need in the real life.
 CHAPTER IV
LANGUAGE TEACHING IN THE PASCAMETHOD ERA

A. INTRODUCTION
The development of method’s role in language teaching, Brown (2002: 10) identified
four main reasons from the method lessened:
 Prescriptive method, assumed that too many context.
 In general, the method is not really different each other.
 In the past, assumed that the method is able to test empirically through scientific
qualification to determine the best method.
 The method is usually as creation (Pennycook, 1989)
The second or foreign languages in Indonesia have to start in new professional in the new
era called by pascamethod era with the pedagogy that suggested by Kumaravadivelu (2003,
2006). It is related to pascamethod teacher, pascamethod principles and strategies. All contents
will be described below.
B. PASCAMETHOD PEDAGOGY
1. Parameter
This pedagogy has three parameters as follow: (1) particularly, the best technique step is
based on the teaching situation, in which where, when and who will be taught. Therefore, the
language teacher is suggested to have good understanding on their teaching situation. To reach
relevancy high level, any pedagogy must be care to a certain teachers group that teach a certain
learners group, and with a certain teaching objective. In other word, it may a relation between the
teaching context and methodology. (2) The second parameter is practicability, it means that a
method is suggested applying then the theory relates to practice. This case is able to do through
action research cycle. (3) The third parameter is possibility that the method have to appropriate
with social, culture, and politic. These parameters are only can be released by the teacher who
hold pedagogy pascamethod principle.
2. Pascamethod Teacher
In the pascamethod era, the teachers are who knowing, competence, and individual that
have rich information to design their method based on the coherence and systematic practicing,
and then practice what they have theorize. Kumaravadivelu (1994) argued that the teachers are
obliged to create a chance for the learners in order to better learning and help them to mix up
with language learning process.
The teachers in pascamethod era, that also information technology era, are suggested to
play some roles as: navigator, adaptor, communicator, learner, nara bervisi, autonomy
professional, pious citizen, collaborator, model, risk taker, and leader. If the first ten are mastered
by the teachers, they must become autonomy professional.
a. Navigator
The navigation skill is asked to be able hold out in the learning paradigm of science era
called by navigasionisme. Besides, the teachers’ role is to guide the learners, become
their mentor in the skills and competence that need in the science era.
b. Adaptor
The teachers who live in this century must be able to adapt curriculum and doing
curriculum equipment imaginatively. They also must be able to adapt hardware and
software as a tool that can be used any group, age, and competence. The language
teachers are also as educators that have to be ready to adapt themselves with students
learning style. They also have to adapt their teaching style.
c. Communicator
The teachers have to know what advocating the learners to reach learning purpose. They
have to know what supported and hamper their communication with the learners. They
have to be mastered in using tool and technology that enable an effective communication
and collaboration.
d. Learner
The language teachers are suggested to be a learner forever. As the 21st teachers, they
have to develop themselves these characteristics: collaborative, adaptive, media and
information technology lovers, communicator, creator, and adaptor.
e. Nara Bervisi
The teachets have to see the potentials on technology tools, understanding and
manipulating to fulfill they needs.
 f. Autonomy Professional
The language teaching must be serve the learners who try to develop their language
competence in that situation and condition. In order to do their assignment successfully,
they have to develop themselves into autonomous professional or independent.
g. Pious Citizen
The language teachers also have to always remember the God. They will be pushed to do
good efforts to develop learners’ potential. Then they will receive the learners condition
sincerely and broad minded. They do not demand out of what learners got.
h. Leader
The 21st educator is a leader. The leadership, like a clear target and objective as a key
success or teaching failed in 21st century.
i. Model
The language teachers must be a good role model for behavior that expected from the
learners. The language 21st century also gives a role in reflective practice.
j. Collaborator
In the information technology era, the teachers are suggested to collaborate not only with
the near people, but also with the people in the different region or state. The teachers are
able to sharing, adapting, and getting new thing through collaboration.
k. Risk Taker
The teachers must be have a vision about what they want and what to reach by
technology, identify learning objectives, and facilitating. They have to use the strengths
of digital native source, and ask their learners to teach each other.
3. Teaching Conception and Teacher’s Role in The Pascamethod
The teaching conception categorized into three: science-research conception, theory-
philosophy conception, and craft-art conception (Zahorik, 1986). The science-research
conception includes (a) the principle of scientific study development, (b) implementing the
scientific model learning, and (c) doing an effective activity by teacher.
C. TEACHING PRINCIPLES AND LANGUAGE TEACHING STRATEGIES IN
THE PASCAMETHOD ERA
The language teachers are suggested to have knowledge on language teaching method or
technique refers to develop new method or technique based on their situation and condition of
teaching practice. In this case, the teachers have to apply an appropriate principle, using macro
strategy, using relevant technique, supporting the good behavior of the learners, and helping
students to develop the good learning strategy.
1. Language Teaching Principles
Brown (2001) suggested 12 principles as follow: (a) automatically, (b) meaning teaching,
(c) reward expectation, (d) intrinsic motivation, (e) strategies infestation, (f) language ego, (g)
self-confident, (h) risk taker, (i) language-culture relationship, (j) original language effect, (k)
cross language, (l) communicative competency.
2. Macro Strategy in The Language Teaching
The teachers are suggested to consider the use of macro strategy by Kumaravadivelu
(2003) as follows: (1) minimalize the language chance, (2) facilitating negotiated interaction, (3)
minimalize perceptual, (4) activate intuitive heuristic, (5) improving language awareness, (6)
contextual language, (7) combining language skills, (8) promoting an individual learning, (9)
making culture awareness, (10) assuring social relevancy.
3. Supporting “Good Language Learner” Behavior
Brown (2007: 259-260) stated that the good language learners are able to do these
activities:
 Looking for their learning style
 Managing about language information
 Creative, developing the target language sense by practicing
 Creating a chance to practice the target language at inside or outside the class
 Learning to live in uncertain situation
 Using the remembering strategy to recall what have learned
 Employing the mistake to be better
 Using the language knowledge
 Using the contextual marker to help the understanding
4. Technique of Cognitive Problem Solving
Brown (2007) declared the technique set to solve the cognitive problem:
 Sharing an opinion on low difference tolerance
 Making a reference on logic leaping
 Small group technique on reflectivity
  Looking for syntactic and semantic marks on excessive the right brain domination
 Language cohesive technique on excessive the left brain domination
5. Choosing A Text Book
In choosing process, the teachers have to evaluate the books. The teachers are able to
consider the book criteria to evaluate the text book as suggested by Brown (2007: 192): (1) the
learning objective, (2) learners background, (3) phenomenological, (4) language skill, (5) general
context, (6) the quality of practice material, (7) ranking, (8) vocabulary, (9) general socio-
linguistic, (10) format, (11) accompanist material, (12) teacher blended.
6. Technique of Language Teaching Taxonomy
The second or foreign language teachers are able to consider the techniques in technique
taxonomy. The language teaching taxonomy techniques by Brown (2001): (1) calefaction, (2)
site, (3) setting, (4) context explanation, (5) role play demonstration, (6) dialogue, (7) recites
narration, (8) reading aloud, (9) checking, (10) question-answer, (11) drilling, (12) translation,
(13) dictation, (14) duplicating, (15) identification, (16) recognizing, (17) reviewing, (18) testing,
(19) meaning drill.
7. Principles of Arranging The Macro Language Teaching Skill Technique
Brown (1007: 247-356) provide the principles of arranging the macro language teaching
skill technique:
 Using the technique that inside motivate
 Giving an appropriate feedback
 Supporting reading strategy development
 Combining the good writing techniques
8. Communicative Competence as Target Competence
The target competence in language learning in Indonesia is students’ capability in
communicating by target language. The teachers are suggested to use the complete one model in
order to optimize in facilitating students language learning. They have to help the students in
learning by communicative competence through many kinds of activities.
9. Importance of Grammar, Vocabulary, Pronunciation, And Spelling
Grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and spelling are parts of communicative
competence as the objective of language learning. Thus, the learners are needed to be aware
about the role of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and spelling.
10. Four Strands of Language Teaching
 Learning through listening and reading in which the learners are focused on the
language concepts and messages.
 Learning through speaking and writing in which the learners are focused on the
language concepts delivering.
 Learning through direct vocabulary learning.
 Developing the use of language items that have learned through practice directly.