PH101: Physics I

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l um w its’. August-November, 2009
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PH1 covere Dr. Deshmukh, P.C.
)
(un
Dr. Kadhane, U.R.
Dr. Harish Kumar, N.
Dr. Vijayan. C.
Department of Physics
Indian Institute of
Technology Madras
Chennai 600036

[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
PCD-09
 A very hearty welcome to
‘PH101: Physics I’ course!

Scope of the course contents: absolutely fascinating!

We shall begin this course with something you already

know: Newton’s I and II laws.

We shall discuss whether or not Newton’s I law can be

considered as a special case of the II, simply by putting

PCD-09
 Alternative way to arrive at Newton’s III law,
following a very different approach
- the principle of translational invariance
in homogeneous space.

This alternative approach illustrates an exciting

path of discovering laws of nature, using
invariance/symmetry principles.

We shall then discuss a fascinating question:

Are the conservation principles consequences of
the laws of nature? Or, are the laws of nature
consequences of the symmetry principles that
govern them?

PCD-09
 In contemporary physics,
SYMMETRY is placed ahead of LAWS OF
NATURE.

This approach has its origins in the works of

Albert Einstein, Emmily Noether & Eugene Wigner.

(1882 – 1935) (1902 – 1995)

(1879 – 1955)

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 w ill
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1 0 1 0
P H i n 1
d
be covere
n )
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s ’.
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Today’s lecture:
Brief overview of the course contents of the
Ten Units
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 Course material is available at:
http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/~labs/amp/
ATOMIC & MOLECULAR PHYSICS
Department of Physics,
Indian Institute of Technology - Madras
"One must always
do what one really
Dr. P. C. Deshmukh cannot."
Professor
Department of Physics, IIT Madras
- Niels Bohr
(1885-1962)
Teaching Courses: PH101 pdf files
uploaded (lectures, resources etc.)
Fragmentary Tale of The Atom
•

100 years of Einstein's Photoelectric Effect

•

Life and Works of C. V. Raman

•

PCD-09
 Big Bang
‘SCIENCE’ is ~ between
12 and 14
relatively young! billion
years ago
Just a few hundred
years old, perhaps
The Solar
a few thousand System ~
years or so, 4.5 billion
years old
but not older!
Humans ~
few million
years

Time

PCD-09 http://www.ccsf.edu/Departments/History_of_Time_and_Life/PDFs/BigBang24x24.pdf
 supernova: 11 Billion Years Old!

A supernova occurs when a massive star runs out of

fuel, collapses in upon itself under the force of its own
gravity to become a tiny, ultra-dense object called a
neutron star. The star then explodes, sending out a shock
wave that reverberates around the galaxy.
http://news.yahoo.com/nphotos/supernova-remnant-supernova-NASA-Chandra-X-ray-
Observatory/photo//090708/photos_sc_afp/17c33e2c57b21a79076d2541f2f4dc0a//s:/afp/spaceastronomysupernova
Downloaded on 8th July 2009

Where is CHANDRA?: http://science.nasa.gov/realtime/

PCD-09
 Why do obj
ects ‘fall’ ?

PCD-09
 Why do objects ‘fall’ ?

“The earth is the natural

abode of things, objects
‘fall’ when thrown up
just as horses return to
their stables.”
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 “Gravity is not responsible
for people falling in love”
- Albert Einstein

A table, a chair, a bowl of fruit

and a violin; what else does a
man need to be happy?
- Albert Einstein
1879 - 1955

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 Albert Einstein: “We owe a lot to Indians, who
taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile
scientific discovery could have been made.”

Scientific outlook in early days……….

ARYABHATTA (in 5 th century) introduced new

concepts: sphericity of the earth, rotation about its

axis, revolution around the sun, explanation of
theestimated
eclipses….. famous Indian
length tradition…..
of the year…..

BRAHMAGUPTA (in 7th century) estimated the

circumference of the earth to be around 5000
yoganas which in today’s units is close to the
correct value as we know it now….
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 Nicolus Copurnicus
1473-1543

http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/~labs/amp/kerala-astronomy.pdf

PCD-09
 Unit 1 : Equations of Motion.
Principle of Causality and Newton’s
I & II Laws.

Determination of Newton’s 3rd Law from

translational symmetry. Alternative formulation
of Mechanics via ‘Principle of Variation’.

Determination of Physical Laws from Symmetry

Principles, Symmetry and Conservation Laws.
Lagrangian / Hamiltonain formulation.
Application to SHO.
ur r Linear Response Formalism
F = ma Cause-Effect Relationship
t2

∫
t1
L ( q , &
q , t )dt = extremum Principle of Variation

PCD-09
 Central problem in ‘Mechanics’: How is the
‘mechanical state’ of a system described,
and how does this ‘state’ evolve with time?
‘position’ and ‘velocity’: both needed
to specify the mechanical state of a system?

The mechanical state of a

system is characterized by
its position and velocity, (q, q& )

or, position and momentum, (q, p )

Or, equivalently by their

well-defined functions:
L(q, q& ) : Lagrangian
H (q, p ) : Hamiltonian
PCD-09
 What is ‘equilibrium’?
What causes departure from ‘equilibrium’?
Galileo Galilei Isaac Newton
1564 - 1642 (1642-1727)

Causality
&
Determinism

I Law II Law
ur r
F = ma Effect is proportional to the Cause.
Linear Response. Principle of causality.
PCD-09
 Unit 1 :
ur r
F = ma Linear Response Formalism
Cause-Effect Relationship
t2

∫
t1
L ( q , &
q , t ) dt = extremum Principle of Variation

Lagrange’s equations:
One 2nd Order equation

Hamilton’s equations: ,
Two first order equations

PCD-09
 “When we ask advice, we are usually
looking for an accomplice. ”
Joseph-Louis Lagrange
(1736-1813)

“He used to carry on, long trains of algebraic

and arithmetical calculations in his mind, during
which he was unconscious of the earthly
necessity of eating; we used to bring in a
William ‘snack’ and leave it in his study, but a brief nod
Rowan
Hamilton of recognition of the intrusion of the chop or
(1805 cutlet was often the only result, …..”
- 1865)
- William Edwin Hamilton (his elder son).
“On earth there is nothing great but man; in man there
is nothing great but mind.” - Hamilton
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 Unit 2 : Oscillations. Small oscillations. SHM.
Electromechanical analogues exhibiting SHM.
Damped harmonic oscillator, types of damping.
Driven and damped & driven harmonic oscillator.
Resonances, Quality Factor.
Waves.

⎛k⎞
x = −⎜ ⎟ x
&&
⎝m⎠

&& 1
Q = −( )Q
LC
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 Resonances Enrico Caruso
1873 - 1921
Enrico Caruso was said to be able to shatter
a crystal goblet by singing a note of just the
right frequency at full voice.
In 2005, the Discovery Channel television
show MythBusters recruited rock singer
and vocal coach Jamie Vendera to hit some crystal
ware with his best shot.

He tried 12 wine glasses … stumbled on the lucky

one that splintered at the blast of his mighty pipes.

Proof that an unassisted voice can indeed shatter glass

was captured on video.

http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=fact-or-fiction-opera-singer-can-shatter-glass&sc=rss
PCD-09
 Tacoma Narrows Bridge (Washington state), 1.9 km
length, one of the largest suspended bridges built at the
time.

The bridge collapsed on Thursday November 7, 1940.

Strong winds produced oscillations which eventually
broke the construction.
Forced / Driven
Damped
Oscillator
See video of this
`Disaster at Resonance’
at the internet link given
below!

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http://www.math.harvard.edu/archive/21b_fall_03/tacoma/index.html
 Wave motion in one
dimension.
Wave equation and
travelling wave
solutions.

Wave velocity, group

velocity and dispersion.

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 Unit 3 :
Y
Plane polar
and
cylindrical polar
coordinate
systems.
eˆϕ
eˆρ
eˆy
ϕ eˆρ = cos ϕ eˆx + sin ϕ eˆy
O X eˆϕ = − sin ϕ eˆx + cos ϕ eˆy
eˆx

⎛ eˆ ρ ⎞ ⎛ co s ϕ sin ϕ 0 ⎞ ⎛ eˆ ⎞
⎜ eˆ ⎟ = ⎜ − sin ϕ co s ϕ
⎟ ⎜ ˆx
0 ⎟ ey ⎟
⎜⎜ ϕ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ eˆ z ⎠ ⎜⎝ 0 0 ⎟
1 ⎠ ⎝ eˆ z ⎠
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Unit 4: Kepler Problem.
Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector, ‘Dynamical’ symmetry.
Conservation principle ↔ Symmetry relation.

Kepler Problem.
Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector, ‘Dynamical’ symmetry.
Conservation principle ↔ Symmetry relation.

Kepler: “equal area in equal time”

Conservation of Angular Momentum :
Central Force Field
Symmetry Conservation Law

Other than ‘energy’ and ‘angular

momentum’, what else is conserved,
and
what is the associated symmetry?
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 b
a
Focus

a = sem i-m ajor axis

b = sem i-m inor axis
b2
e : eccentricity 2
= 1− e
a

b
a

e=0 e=0.5 e=0.75 e=0.95

_____ b = 0, e = 1: straight line
Increasing eccentricity
PCD-09
 Two-body central field Kepler-Bohr
problem,
Attractive force:
inverse-square-law.

Rosette motion
For this potential and
associated field:
no precession of orbit.

The constancy of the

Angular momentum is orbit suggests a
conserved, conserved quantity and
but major-axis not fixed. one must look for an
associated symmetry.

PCD-09
 ur
×L
Laplace Runge Lenz Vector is ê ρ ur
p
constant for a strict 1/r potential.
ur ur ur
A = p × L − mkeˆρ ur
r ur A
ur ⎡ v× L ⎤ r
A = mk ⎢ − eˆρ ⎥ = mka
⎣ k ⎦ uur
r ur dA
r v× L For = 0,
a= − eˆρ r
dt
k dp k
r = − 2 eˆρ
LRL vector is often defined as a dt ρ
DYNAM ICAL
which is also, obviously, a constant.
r SYM M ETRY
One can show that a = e, Eccentricity
vector

orbit's eccentricity. Details in Unit 4

PCD-09
 ‘every symmetry in nature yields a
Noether’s conservation law and conversely, every
Theorem: conservation law reveals an underlying
symmetry’.

SYMMETRY CONSERVATION
PRINCIPLE
Homogeneity of time Energy

Homogeneity of Linear Momentum

space
Emmily
Noether Isotropy of Space Angular momentum
1882 to 1935

‘Dynamical Symmetry’ of the inverse-square force is

associated with the conservation / constancy of the
eccentricity (LRL) vector.
PCD-09
 Z
ρ eˆr
r = x2 + y2 + z 2
Unit 5:
Spherical êϕ
ρ x2 + y 2
Polar tan θ = =
êθ z z
Coordinates
r x2 + y2
θ = tan −1
z
z = r cos θ θ y
ϕ = tan −1

x
y = r sin θ sin ϕ
x = r sin θ cos ϕ Y
ϕ
0≤r<∞
0 ≤θ ≤π x = r sin θ cos ϕ
ρ = r sin θ
0 ≤ ϕ < 2π y = r sin θ sin ϕ
X
z = r cos θ
PCD-09
 Transformations of the unit vectors

⎡ eˆr ⎤ ⎡ sin θ cos ϕ sin θ sin ϕ cosθ ⎤ ⎡ eˆx ⎤

⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢ eˆθ ⎥ = ⎢ cos θ cos ϕ cos θ sin ϕ − sin θ ⎥⎥ ⎢ eˆ ⎥
⎢ y⎥
⎢ eˆϕ ⎥ ⎢⎣ − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ eˆz ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦

Get the inverse matrix, and write the inverse transformations.

⎡ eˆx ⎤ ⎡sin θ cos ϕ cos θ cos ϕ -sinϕ ⎤ ⎡ eˆr ⎤

⎢ eˆ ⎥ = ⎢ sin θ sin ϕ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ y⎥ ⎢ cos θ sin ϕ cos ϕ ⎥ eˆ
⎢ θ⎥
⎢⎣ eˆz ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ cos θ − sin θ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢ eˆϕ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

PCD-09
Unit 6: Inertial and non-inertial reference frames.
Moving coordinate systems. Pseudo forces.
Inertial and non-inertial reference frames.
Deterministic cause-effect relations in inertial frame,
and their modifications in a non-inertial frame.

Real Effects of Pseudo Forces!

Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis

Six Flags over Georgia
PCD-09
1792 - 1843
 The plane of oscillation of
the Foucault pendulum is
seen to rotate due to the
Coriolis effect. The plane
rotates through one full
rotation in 24 hours at
poles, and in ~33.94
“ Foo-Koh” hours at a latitude of 450
(Latitude of Paris is
~490).
ur ur ur ur ⎛ d ⎞ r ur ur r
F R = F I − F ω& − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r - mω × ω × r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
( )
‘Leap second’ term ‘Coriolis force’ ‘Centrifugal force’

PCD-09
 ur
ω Western
North Pacific

Coriolis
1792 - 1843
o n th e N or th er n
te o f fr e e fall
An object in a
s t a
r d th e E a s t, i n the
t s d e f l e c t ed towa ar d We st!
r e g e lected t o w
hemisphe er e w o ul d g et d e f
er n h e m i s p h
South
g t hr ough 1 0 0
0 a n o b j e c t f a llin
a l a ti t ud e o f 60 .
At thr ou g h ~ 1 c m
is de f l e c t e d
meters

Western
South Pacific
PCD-09 http://agora.ex.nii.ac.jp/digital-typhoon/start_som_wnp.html.en
Unit 7: Galilean & Lorentz transformations.
Special Theory of Relativity.
1
γ=
v2
1- 2
c r
v
γ → 1 as v → 0.

x'= γ (x-vt) x= γ (x'+vt')

y'=y y=y'
z'=z z=z'
⎛ vx ⎞ ⎛ vx' ⎞
t'= γ ⎜ t- 2 ⎟ t= γ ⎜ t'+ 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
PCD-09
 Unit 8: Physical examples of fields.
Potential energy function.
Gradient, Directional Derivative, Divergence

y dψ r
= u • ∇ψ
ˆ
ds
h uˆ = lim
uur uur
δ r dr
=
δ s→0 δ s ds
uur
h: dependent δ s = δ r , tiny
variable
increament

x & y:
independent uur
variables ds = dr , differential

Partial derivatives of increament

a function of more
than one variable.
x
δx δx
h( x0 + , y0 ) − h( x0 − , y0 )
⎡ ∂h ⎤ 2 2 ⎡δ h ⎤
⎢⎣ ∂x ⎥⎦ = lim = lim ⎢ ⎥
( x0 , y0 )
δ x →0 δx δ x →0 δ x
⎣ ⎦ y0
PCD-09
 Unit 9: Gauss’ Law;
Equation of Continuity
Hydrodynamic
and Johann
Carl Friedrich
Electrodynamic illustrations Gauss
1777 - 1855

ur ur r ur r uur
∫∫∫
volume
dτ ⎡⎣∇ • A(r ) ⎤⎦ = ∫∫
surface
A(r ) • da
region enclosing
that
region

PCD-09
Unit 10: Fluid Flow, Bernoulli’s Principle
Ishant Sharma
Swing Bowling
Equation of motion for fluid flow.
Definition of curl, vorticity,
irrotational flow and circulation.
Steady flow. Bernoulli’s principle.
Introduction to applications of Gauss’ law
and Stokes’ Theorem in Electrodynamics.

∂ρ (r , t )
∇ • J (r , t ) + =0
∂t

Difference between the rough and shiny

surface of a white ball is much more, and
hence swings morel.

PCD-09
 Curl of the vector
r r r r r uur
∫ A ( r ) • dl = ∫∫ ( ∇ × A ) • dS

William Thomson,
1st Baron Kelvin
(1824-1907)
This theorem is named after George
Gabriel Stokes (1819–1903), although
George Gabriel the first known statement of the theorem
Stokes is by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and
(1819–1903)
appears in a letter of his to Stokes in
PCD-09
July 1850.
 2

p(r ) v
Ψ= +φ + = constant for a given streamline
ρ 2
To read about Bernoulli family, refer to:
http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/people/bernoulli_tree.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/22584/temh3007.htm

Ifthe fluid flow is both ‘steady state’

and ‘irrotational’, ∇ × v = χ = 0 Daniel Bernoulli
1700 - 1782
2

p(r ) v Daniel Bernoulli’s

then Ψ = +φ + Theorem
ρ 2
is constant for the entire velocity field in the liquid.
PCD-09
 ur ur r ur r uur
∫∫∫ dτ ⎡⎣∇ • A(r ) ⎤⎦ = ∫∫ A(r ) • da Gauss’ theorem
r r r r r uur
∫ A(r ) • dl = ∫∫ (∇ × A) • dS Stokes’ theorem
Applications in Electrodynamics
ur r uur Q
∫∫ E ( r ) • dS = enclosed
ε0
Gauss’ law

ur r uur
∫∫ B(r ) • dS = 0 There is no
Magnetic Monopole
ur r uur ∂φB
∫c E ( r ) • dl = −
∂t
Faraday-Lenz-Maxwell

ur r uur Ampere-Maxwell
∂φE
∫c B(r ) • dl = μ0ε 0 ∂t + μ0 I enclosed Next
Fluid Dynamics, Electrodynamics, class:
Maxwell’s equations:
Another course!! Unit 1
PCD-09
 Unit 1: Equations of Motion

Equations of Motion. Principle of Causality and

Newton’s I & II Laws. Interpretation of Newton’s
3rd Law as ‘conservation of momentum’ and its
determination from translational symmetry.

Alternative formulation of Mechanics via

‘Principle of Variation’. Determination of
Physical Laws from Symmetry Principles,
Symmetry and Conservation Laws.

Lagrangian/Hamiltonian formulation.
Application to SHO.
1
PCD-09
 ATOMIC & MOLECULAR PHYSICS
Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology - Madras
Chennai, India - 600 036 Email : [email protected]
Course material is available at:
http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/~labs/amp/ "One must
Dr. P. C. Deshmukh always do
what one
Professor
really
Department of Physics, IIT Madras cannot."
Affilialiation
•

- Niels Bohr
Publications (1885-1962
Teaching Courses: PH101 pdf files uploaded (courses
lectures, resources etc.)
Sponsored Projects
•

Collaboration
•

If you have any difficulty

Fragmentary Tale of The Atom
•

accessing the files, please

100 years of Einstein's Photoelectric Effect send email to
•

Life and Works of C. V. Raman

•

[email protected]
2
PCD-09
 Learning goals:

‘Mechanical system’ is described by (position,

velocity) or (position, momentum) or some well
defined function thereof.

An ‘inertial frame of reference’ is identified and what

is the meaning of ‘equilibrium’, and how Newton’s II
law explains departure from equilibrium and
understand whether or nor Newton’s I law is a special
uur ur r
case of the II, by simply putting F = 0 in F = ma.

3
PCD-09
 Learning goals:

Learn about the ‘principle of variation’ and how it

provides us an alternative and more powerful
approach to solve mechanical problems.

Introduction to Lagrangian and Hamiltonian

methods which illustrate this relationship and apply
the technique to solve the problem of the simple
harmonic oscillator.

4
PCD-09
 Big Bang
‘SCIENCE’ is ~ between
12 and 14
relatively young! billion
years ago
Just a few hundred
years old, perhaps
The Solar
a few thousand System ~
years or so, 4.5 billion
years old
but not older!
Humans ~
few million
years

Time

5
PCD-09 http://www.ccsf.edu/Departments/History_of_Time_and_Life/PDFs/BigBang24x24.pdf
 supernova: 11 Billion Years Old!

A supernova occurs when a massive star runs out of

fuel, collapses in upon itself under the force of its own
gravity to become a tiny, ultra-dense object called a
neutron star. The star then explodes, sending out a shock
wave that reverberates around the galaxy.
http://news.yahoo.com/nphotos/supernova-remnant-supernova-NASA-Chandra-X-ray-
Observatory/photo//090708/photos_sc_afp/17c33e2c57b21a79076d2541f2f4dc0a//s:/afp/spaceastronomysupernova
Downloaded on 8th July 2009

Where is CHANDRA?: http://science.nasa.gov/realtime/

6
PCD-09
 Why do obj
ects ‘fall’ ?

7
PCD-09
 “Gravity is not
responsible for people
falling in love”

- Albert Einstein

8
PCD-09
 “We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how
to count, without which no worthwhile scientific
discovery could have been made.” - Einstein
Scientific outlook in early days……….
ARYABHATTA: first to propound the theory that
earth has a spherical shape. (5th Century)
the famous Indian tradition…..
BRAHMAGUPTA: Estimated, with significant
accuracy, the circumference of the earth.
(7th Century)
9
PCD-09
This paper is available at:
http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/~labs/amp/kerala-astronomy.pdf

Nicolus Copurnicus
1473-1543

10
 Central problem in ‘Mechanics’: How is the
‘mechanical state’ of a system described, and how
does this ‘state’ evolve with time? Formulations due to
Galileo/Newton, Lagrange and Hamilton.
Why ‘position’ and ‘velocity’ are both needed to specify the
mechanical state of a system?

They are independent parameters that specify the ‘state’.

The mechanical state of a
system is characterized by
its position and velocity,(q, q& )
or, position and momentum,(q, p )

Or, equivalently by their

well-defined functions:
L(q, q& ) : Lagrangian
H (q, p ) : Hamiltonian 11
PCD-09
 p
The mechanical state of a system . (q,p)
is described by Point in ‘phase
a point in phase space. space’
specifies the
Coordinates : (q, q& ) or (q, p ) ‘state’ of the
system.
Evolution : (q& , q&&) or (q& , p& )

q
What is meant by ‘Equation of Motion’ ?

- Rigorous mathematical relationship between

position, velocity and acceleration.
12
PCD-09
 Galileo arrived at the
law of inertia by
doing experiments
with sliding blocks
on inclined planes
First important discovery:
Contrary to common and observing how
experience, objects fall from the
motion is governed by the law top of the mast of a
of inertia. sailing ship.

Galileo Galilee
1564 - 1642 13
PCD-09
 What is ‘equilibrium’?
What causes departure from ‘equilibrium’?
Galileo Galilei Isaac Newton
1564 - 1642 (1642-1727)

Causality
&
Determinism

I Law II Law
ur r
F = ma Effect is proportional to the Cause.
Linear Response. Principle of causality.
14
PCD-09
ur r
F = ma Effect is proportional to the Cause.
Linear Response. Principle of causality.

Now, we already need calculus!

15
 From Carl Sagan’s ‘Cosmos’:
“Like Kepler, he (Newton) was not immune to the
superstitions of his day… in 1663, at his age of twenty, he
purchased a book on astrology, …. he read it until he
came to an illustration which he could not understand,
because he was ignorant of trigonometry. So he
purchased a book on trigonometry but soon found himself
unable to follow the geometrical arguments, So he found a
copy of Euclid’s Elements of Geometry, and began to read.
Two years later he invented the differential calculus.”
16
PCD-09
 f ( x)

Differential of a function.
Derivative of a function
Slope of the curve.
x
It is a quantitative measure of how sensitively the
( x ) responds to changes in the
function ff(x)
independent variable x .

The sensitivity may change from point to point and

hence the derivative of a function must be
determined at each value of x in the domain of x.
17
 δx δx
f ( x0 + ) − f ( x0 − )
⎡ df ⎤ ⎡δ f ⎤ 2 2
= = lim
f ( x) ⎢ dx ⎥ lim ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ x0 δ x →0 ⎣ δ x ⎦ x0 δ x →0 δx

δf
f ( x0 )

⎡ df ⎤ δx
δ f =⎢ ⎥ δx
⎣ dx ⎦ x0

x
Tangent to the curve. x0
18
Dimensions of the derivative of the function: [f][x]-1
PCD-09
 One often has to deal with functions of many variables,
such as the height above a flat horizontal surface of a
handkerchief that is stretched out in a warped surface,
…… y
h One must
then define
h: dependent
variable
‘Partial
derivatives’
x & y: of a function
independent
of more than
variables
one variable.

x
Or, the temperature on a flat surface that has various
heat sources spread out on that surface – such as a
tiny hot filament here, a hotter there, a tiny ice cube
here, a tiny beaker of liquid helium there, etc. 19
PCD-09
 δx δx
h( x0 + , y0 ) − h( x0 − , y0 )
⎡ ∂h ⎤ 2 2 ⎡δ h ⎤
⎢ ∂x ⎥ = lim = lim ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ( x0 , y0 ) δ x →0 δx δ x →0 δ x
⎣ ⎦ y0
y
h
h: dependent
variable Partial
x & y: derivatives of a
independent function of
variables more than one
variable.
x
δy δy
⎡ ∂h ⎤ h( x0 , y0 + ) − h( x0 , y0 − ) ⎡δ h ⎤
= lim 2 2 = lim ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ∂y ⎥ δ y →0 δy δ y →0 δ y
⎣ ⎦ ( x0 , y0 ) ⎣ ⎦ x0 20
PCD-09
 Time-Derivatives of
δ t = t2 − t1 position
r &
r (t1 ) uur uur
δr = r δr velocity.
YI r r v = lim velocity
r (t2 ) − r (t1 ) δ t →0 δ t
OI XI r r
r r r (t2 ) − r (t1 )
ZI r (t2 ) v = lim
δ t →0 δt
‘Equation of Motion’
Rigorous relationship uur
between r δv acceleration
a = lim
position, δ t →0 δ t
r r
velocity r v(t2 ) − v(t1 )
and acceleration. a = lim
δ t →0 δt 21
PCD-09
 I Law: Law of Inertia
What is ‘equilibrium’?
Relative to whom?
- frame of reference
Equilibrium means
‘state of rest’,
or of uniform
motion along a Galileo Galilee
straight line. 1564 - 1642

Equilibrium sustains itself,

needs no cause.
It is determined entirely by initial conditions.
22
PCD-09
 II Law: Cause-Effect
Linear Response formalism

What causes departure from

equilibrium? ur r
F = ma
r
Effect a is proportional
ur
to the Cause F .
Proportionality: Mass/Inertia.

Isaac
Newton Linear Response.
(1642-1727) Principle of causality/determinism.
23
PCD-09
 We have introduced the first two laws
of Newton as fundamental principles.
As is often done, we can introduce
Newton’s III law simply by stating
that
‘Action and Reaction are Equal and
Opposite’.
In Newtonian scheme of
mechanics, this is introduced
as a ‘fundamental’ principle
–i.e., as a law of nature.
24
PCD-09
 Newton’s III law :
‘Action and Reaction are Equal and Opposite’.
ur ur
F 12 = − F 21
In Newtonian scheme of uur uur
d p1 d p2
mechanics, this is introduced =−
dt dt
as a ‘fundamental’ principle d ur ur
–i.e., as a law of nature. dt
( )
p1 + p 2 = 0

Newton ' s III Law

We have obtained a as statement of
conservation principle from conservation of
‘law of nature’ linear momentum
25
PCD-09
 However, instead of introducing Newton’s III law as
a fundamental principle,
we shall now deduce it from symmetry / invariance.
This approach places SYMMETRY ahead of LAWS OF
NATURE.
It is this approach that is of greatest value to contemporary
physics. This approach has its origins in the works of
Albert Einstein, Emmily Noether and Eugene Wigner.

26
(1879 – 1955) (1882 – 1935) (1902 – 1995)
PCD-09
 Consider an isolated N-particle System
Total internal force on k th particle
ur N ur
due to all other particles : F k = ∑ F ik
i =1, i ≠ k
Space : Homogeneous
Consider simulteneous displacement of the entire
uur
N-particle system through δ s
without affecting relative positions.
PASSIVE VIEW:
uur
Displacement of the entire SPACE through - δ s.
Virtual Displacement in homogeneous space
(translational invariance)
27
PCD-09
 PASSIVE VIEW:
uur
Displacement of the entire SPACE through - δ s.
Virtual Displacement in homogeneous space
(translational invariance)

Internal forces do *NO* work in this displacement!

Total energy of the system must remain the same

⎧ N ur ⎫ uur ⎧ N N ur ⎫ uur
0 = δ W = ⎨∑ F k ⎬ • δ s = ⎨∑ ∑ F ik ⎬ • δ s
⎩ k =1 ⎭ ⎩ k =1 i =1,i ≠ k ⎭

28
PCD-09
 Conservation of
Space : Homogeneous. Internal forces linear momentum,
do *NO* work in this displacement! and thus Newton’s
III law, is a
⎧ N ur ⎫ uur ⎧ N N ur ⎫ uur property of
0 = δ W = ⎨∑ F k ⎬ • δ s = ⎨∑ ∑ F ik ⎬ • δ s. translational
⎩ k =1 ⎭ ⎩ k =1 i =1,i ≠ k ⎭
invariance.
For the above relation to hold good for arbitrary displacements,
we must have :

r ⎧ N ur ⎫ N dp
uur
N uur
ur ur
dP r
d dP
0 = ⎨∑ F k ⎬ = ∑ k = ∑ pk =
⎩ k =1 ⎭ k =1 dt dt k =1 dt
=0
ur dtuur
r dP
0=
uur
dt d p2 d p1
=−
Symmetry Conservation Law
urdt ur dt
F 12 = − F 21 29
PCD-09
Are the conservation principles consequences of the laws of
nature? Or, are the laws of nature the consequences of the
symmetry principles that govern them?

Until Einstein's special theory of relativity,

it was believed that
conservation principles are the result of the laws of nature.

Since Einstein's work, however, physicists began to analyze

the conservation principles as consequences of certain
underlying symmetry considerations,
enabling the laws of nature to be revealed from this analysis.

30
Emilly Noether: Symmetry Conservation Laws

Eugene Wigner's profound impact on physics:

symmetry considerations using `group theory' resulted
in a change in the very perception of just what is most
fundamental.

`symmetry' : the most fundamental entity whose form

would govern the physical laws.

31
 The connection between SYMMETRY and
CONSERVATION PRINCIPLES brought out in
the previous example,
becomes even more transparent in an
alternative scheme of MECHANICS.

While Newtonian scheme rests on the principle

of causality (effect is linearly proportional to the
cause), this alternative principle does not invoke
the notion of ‘force’ as the ‘cause’ that must be
invoked to explain a system’s evolution.
32
PCD-09
 This alternative principle also begins by the fact that
the mechanical system is characterized by its position
and velocity (or equivalently by position and
momentum), but with a slight difference.

It starts with the premise that the mechanical

system is determined by a well-defined function
of position and velocity/momentum.
The functions that are employed are the
Lagrangian L(q, q& ) and the Hamiltonian H (q, p) .
The primary principle on which this
alternative formulation rests is known as the
Principle of Variation.
33
PCD-09
The principle of least action:

-profound principle and in its various

incarnations applies to all of physics,

- explains why things happen the way they do!

For example, it would explain why water running

down a hill would seek the path along which the
slope of the hill is steepest,
as well as explain the trajectories of mechanical
systems subject to certain initial conditions.
34
The principle of least action has for its precursor
what is known as `Fermat's principle' which
explains why light takes the path it does when it
meets a boundary of a medium.

Common knowledge:
when a ray of light meets the edge of a medium,
it usually does not travel along the direction of
incidence
- gets reflected and refracted.

Fermat's principle explains this by stating that

light travels from one point to another along a
path over which it would need the least time.
35
Pierre de Fermat (1601(?)-1665) was a French lawyer who
pursued mathematics as an active hobby.

Best known for what has come to be known as Fermat's last

theorem, namely that the equation xⁿ+yⁿ=zⁿ has no non-zero
integer solutions for x,y and z for any value of n>2.
"To divide a cube into two other
cubes, a fourth power or in general
any power whatever into two
powers of the same denomination
above the second is impossible, and
I have assuredly found an It took about 350
admirable proof of this, but the years for this
margin is too narrow to contain it." theorem to be
-- Pierre de Fermat proved (by Andrew
J. Wiles, in 1993).
36
Hamilton's principle of least action thus has an
interesting development, beginning with Fermat's
principle about how light travels between two points, and
rich contributions by Pierre Louis Maupertuis (1698 --
1759), Leonhard Paul Euler (1707 - 1783), and Lagrange
himself.
Hamilton’s principle
‘principle of least (rather, extremum) action’
Mechanical state of a system 'evolves'
(along a 'world line') in such a way that
t2

'action', S = ∫ L(q, q& , t )dt is an extremum.

t1

...and now, we need ‘action’,

- ‘integral’ of the ‘Lagrangian’! 37
 Integral of a function of time.
t2

Definite integral of the function = ∫ f (t )dt

t1

f (t ) Area under the curve

area of the strip

δ A = f (t0 )δ t
in the limit
δt → 0

t1 t0 t2
t
38
PCD-09
 t2

Path Integral. 'action', S = ∫ L(q, q& , t )dt

t1

Dependence of L on time is not explicit. It is implicit through

dependence on position and velocity.
The system evolution cannot be shown on such a two-
dimensional surface.
The system then evolves along a path in the ‘phase space’.

The additive property of ‘action’ as area under

the L vs. time curve remains applicable.
Thus, the dimensions of ‘action’ are equal to
dimensions of the Lagrangian multiplied by T.
We shall soon discover what L is!
39
 p
. (q1,p1)

(q2,p2)
.

Consider alternative paths

along which the mechanical state q
of the system may evolve in the
phase space :
q changed by δ q,
and q& changed by δ q& 40
PCD-09
 Alternative paths :
q changed by δ q,
and q& changed by δ q&
The mechanical system evolves in such a way that
t2

'action', S = ∫ L(q, q& , t )dt is an extremum

t1

Note! ‘Force’, ‘Cause-Effect Relationship’ is NOT invoked!

S would be an extremum
when the variation in S is zero;
i.e. δ S = 0
t2 t2

δ S = ∫ L(q + δ q, q& + δ q& , t )dt − ∫ L(q, q& , t )dt = 0

t1 t1 41
 t2 t2

δ S = ∫ L(q + δ q, q& + δ q& , t )dt − ∫ L(q, q& , t )dt = 0

t1 t1
t2

i.e., 0 = δ S = ∫ δ L(q, q& , t )dt

t1

⎧ ∂L ∂L ⎫ ⎧ ∂L ∂L d ⎫
t2 t2

0 = ∫ ⎨ δ q + δ q& ⎬ dt = ∫ ⎨ δ q + (δ q )⎬ dt
t1 ⎩
∂q ∂q& ⎭ t1 ⎩
∂q ∂q& dt ⎭

We need: Integration of product of two functions

42
 differential and
integral of a
product of two
functions.
d ⎧ df ⎫ ⎧ dg ⎫
{ f ( x) g ( x)} = ⎨ ⎬ g ( x) + f ( x) ⎨ ⎬
dx ⎩ dx ⎭ ⎩ dx ⎭

∴
⎧ dg ⎫ d ⎧ df ⎫
f ( x) ⎨ ⎬ = { f ( x) g ( x)} - ⎨ ⎬ g ( x)
⎩ dx ⎭ dx ⎩ dx ⎭

43
PCD-09
 ⎧ dg ⎫ d ⎧ df ⎫
f ( x) ⎨ ⎬ = { f ( x) g ( x)} - ⎨ ⎬ g ( x)
⎩ dx ⎭ dx ⎩ dx ⎭

Integrating both sides:

⎧ dg ⎫ d ⎧ df ⎫
∫ f ( x) ⎨⎩ dx ⎬⎭ dx = ∫ dx { f ( x) g ( x)} dx-∫ ⎨⎩ dx ⎬⎭ g ( x)dx
x2 x2
⎧ dg ⎫ ⎧ df ⎫
∫ f ( x) ⎨ ⎬ dx = f ( x) g ( x) |x1 − ∫ ⎨ ⎬ g ( x)dx
x2

x1 ⎩ dx ⎭ x1 ⎩
dx ⎭
x2 x
⎧ dg ⎫ ⎧ df ⎫
2

∫
x1
f ( x) ⎨ ⎬ dx = f ( x2 ) g ( x2 ) − f ( x1 ) g ( x1 ) − ∫ ⎨ ⎬ g ( x) dx
⎩ dx ⎭ x1 ⎩
dx ⎭
44
PCD-09
 ⎧ ∂L ∂L ⎫ ⎧ ∂L ∂L d ⎫
t2 t2

0 = δ S = ∫ ⎨ δ q + δ q ⎬ dt = ∫ ⎨ δ q +
& (δ q )⎬ dt
t1 ⎩
∂q ∂q& ⎭ t1 ⎩
∂q ∂q& dt ⎭

⎧ ∂L ⎫
t2
⎧ ∂L d (δ q ) ⎫
t2

i.e. 0 = δ S = ∫ ⎨ δ q ⎬ dt + ∫ ⎨ ⎬ dt
t1 ⎩
∂q ⎭ t1 ⎩
∂q& dt ⎭

Integration of product of two functions

x2 x2
⎧ dg ⎫ ⎧ df ⎫
∫ f ( x) ⎨ ⎬ dx = f ( x) g ( x) |x1 − ∫ ⎨ ⎬ g ( x)dx
x2

x1 ⎩ dx ⎭ x1 ⎩
dx ⎭

⎧ d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ⎫
t2
⎧ ∂L ⎫ ⎡ ∂L ⎤
t2 t2

0 = ∫ ⎨ δ q ⎬ dt + ⎢ δ q ⎥ − ∫ ⎨ ⎜ ⎟ δ q ⎬ dt
t1 ⎩
∂q ⎭ ⎣ ∂q& ⎦ t1 t1 ⎩ dt ⎝ ∂q& ⎠ ⎭ 45
 ⎧ ∂L ∂L ⎫ ⎧ ∂L ∂L d ⎫
t2 t2

0 = δ S = ∫ ⎨ δ q + δ q ⎬ dt = ∫ ⎨ δ q +
& (δ q )⎬ dt
t1 ⎩
∂q ∂q& ⎭ t1 ⎩
∂q ∂q& dt ⎭

⎧ ∂L ⎫
t2
⎧ ∂L d (δ q ) ⎫
t2

i.e. 0 = δ S = ∫ ⎨ δ q ⎬ dt + ∫ ⎨ ⎬ dt
t1 ⎩
∂q ⎭ t1 ⎩
∂q& dt ⎭

Integration of product of two functions

x2 x2
⎧ dg ⎫ ⎧ df ⎫
∫ f ( x) ⎨ ⎬ dx = f ( x) g ( x) |x1 − ∫ ⎨ ⎬ g ( x)dx
x2

x1 ⎩ dx ⎭ x1 ⎩
dx ⎭

⎧ d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ⎫
t2
⎧ ∂L ⎫ ⎡ ∂L ⎤
t2 t2

0 = ∫ ⎨ δ q ⎬ dt + ⎢ δ q ⎥ − ∫ ⎨ ⎜ ⎟ δ q ⎬ dt
t1 ⎩
∂q ⎭ ⎣ ∂q& ⎦ t1 t1 ⎩ dt ⎝ ∂q& ⎠ ⎭ 46
δ q(t ) at time t p
@t
t1 < t < t2 (q1,p1)
@t
at time t1
(q2,p2)
at time t2
t 1 < t < t2

δ q ( t1 ) =δ q ( t2 ) = 0
47
PCD-09
 ⎧ d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ⎫
t2
⎧ ∂L ⎫ ⎡ ∂L ⎤
t2 t2

0 = ∫ ⎨ δ q ⎬ dt + ⎢ δ q ⎥ − ∫ ⎨ ⎜ ⎟ δ q ⎬ dt
t1 ⎩
∂q ⎭ ⎣ ∂q& ⎦ t1 t1 ⎩ dt ⎝ ∂q& ⎠ ⎭

⎧ ∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ⎫
t2
⎡ ∂L ⎤
t2

i.e. 0 = ⎢ δ q⎥ + ∫ ⎨ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ δ qdt
⎣ ∂q& ⎦ t1 t1 ⎩ ∂q dt ⎝ ∂q& ⎠ ⎭
Arbitrary variation
Zero !
between the end points.
δ q ( t1 ) =δ q ( t2 ) = 0

∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞
Hence, − ⎜ &⎟=0
∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠
Lagrange ' s Equation 48
PCD-09
 ∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞
− ⎜ & ⎟ = 0 Lagrange ' s Equation
∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠

Homogeneity & Isotropy of space

⇒L can depend only quadratically on the velocity.

∂L
=−
∂V
= F , the force
L(q, q& , t ) = f1 (q& 2 ) + f 2 (q)
∂q ∂q
∂L m 2
= mq& = p, the momentum L(q, q& , t ) = q& − V (q)
∂q& 2
ur
dp dP r =T - V
i.e., = F : in 3D: =F
dt dt Interpretation of L as T-V
Newton ' s II Law gives equivalent
∂L correspondence with
p= , generalized momentum Newtonian formulation.
∂q& 49
PCD-09
 When the Lagrangian is not an
L = L(q, q& , t ) ∂L
⎛ ∂L ⎞ ⎛ d ∂L ⎞ explicit function of time, =0
0 = ⎜ ⎟−⎜ ∂t
⎟
∂
⎝ ⎠ ⎝
q dt ∂q& ⎠ and
dL ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L d ⎡ ⎧ ∂L ⎫ ⎤
= ⎜ ⎟q + ⎜ ⎟q +
& && ⎢ ⎨ ⎬ q& - L ⎥ = 0
dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠ ⎝ ∂q& ⎠ ∂t dt ⎣ ⎩ ∂q& ⎭ ⎦

dL ⎛ d ⎧ ∂L ⎫ ⎞ ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L ⎡ ⎧ ∂L ⎫ ⎤
= ⎜ ⎨ ⎬⎟ q& + ⎜ & ⎟ q&& + ⎢ ⎨ ⎬ q& - L ⎥ is CONSTANT:
dt ⎝ dt ⎩ ∂q& ⎭ ⎠ ⎝ ∂q ⎠ ∂t ⎣ ⎩ ∂q& ⎭ ⎦
ENERGY
d ⎛ ⎧ ∂L ⎫ ⎞ ∂L
= ⎜ ⎨ ⎬ q& ⎟ + Hamiltonian's Principal Function
dt ⎝ ⎩ ∂q& ⎭ ⎠ ∂t ⎡ ⎧ ∂L ⎫ ⎤
H = ⎢ ⎨ ⎬ q& - L ⎥ = pq& - L
d ⎛ ⎧ ∂L ⎫ ⎞ ∂L ⎣ ⎩ ∂q& ⎭ ⎦
⎜ ⎨ ⎬ q& − L ⎟ = − When there are N degrees
dt ⎝ ⎩ ∂q& ⎭ ⎠ ∂t of freedom,
N
H = ∑ pi q&i − L
i =1 50
 Time is homogeneous:
Lagrangian of a closed system
does not depend explicitly on time.
⎡ ∂L ⎤
⎢q& ∂q& - L ⎥ is a CONSTANT.
⎣ ⎦
Conservation of Energy is
thus connected with the
Hamiltonian
symmetry principle
“ENERGY”
regarding invariance with
Summation over i: respect to temporal
degrees of freedom translations.
N
⎛ ∂L ⎞
N
H = ∑ pi q&i − L = ∑ ⎜ ⎟ q&i − L
i =1 i =1 ⎝ ∂q
&i ⎠
PCD-09
Hamiltonian / Hamilton’s Principal Function 51
 In an inertial frame,
Time is homogeneous; Space is homogenous and isotropic

the condition for homogeneity of space : δ L( x, y, z ) = 0

∂L ∂L ∂L
i.e., δ L = δx+ δ y+ δz =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂L
which implies = 0 where q = x, y, z
∂q
∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
since − ⎜ &⎟ = 0, this means i.e. = p is conserved.
∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠ ∂q&
i.e., is independent of time, is a constant of motion

Law of conservation of momentum,

arises from the homogeneity of space.
Symmetry Conservation Laws
52
PCD-09
 Hamiltonian (Hamilton’s Principal Function) of a system
H = qp
& −L

∂L ∂ ⎡ m 2 ⎤
Now, p = = ⎢ q − V (q) ⎥ = mq&
&
∂q& ∂q& ⎣ 2 ⎦

mass × velocity (Newtonian correspondence)

& = q& m = 2T
qp 2

H = 2T - L = 2T - (T - V ) = T + V

Total Energy
53
PCD-09
 Hamiltonian (Hamilton’s Principal Function) of a system
When there are many degrees of freedom, one takes the sum

H = ∑⎡⎣q&k pk − L(q k , q&k )⎤⎦

k

∂L ∂L
dH = ∑ pk dq&k + ∑ q&k dpk −∑ dqk −∑ dq&k
k k k ∂qk k ∂q
&k
∂L
= ∑ q&k dpk −∑ dqk
k k ∂qk
= ∑ q&k dpk −∑ p& k dqk
k k

We have used:
∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞
− ⎜ & ⎟ = 0 Lagrange ' s Equation
∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠
∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ d
= ⎜ &⎟= p = p&
∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠ dt
54
PCD-09
 Hamiltonian (Hamilton’s Principal Function) of a system
When there are many degrees of freedom, one takes the sum

H = ∑⎡⎣qk pk − L(q k , q&k )⎤⎦

k

∂L ∂L
dH = ∑ pk dq&k + ∑ q&k dpk −∑ dqk −∑ dq&k
k k k ∂qk k ∂q
&k
∂L
= ∑ q&k dpk −∑ dqk
k k ∂qk
= ∑ q&k dpk −∑ p& k dqk
k k
But , H = H ( pk , qk )

∂H ∂H
Hamilton’s
so dH = ∑k ∂p k ∑k ∂q dqk
dp +
k k

equations of ∂H ∂H
Hence ∀ k : = q&k and = − p& k
motion ∂pk ∂qk
55
PCD-09
 xi mu m ?
u m – M a ?
E xtre m im u m
Min
P o in t ?
Saddle ari ty… …
Station

cep ts l!
d c on 1 l e v e
a n ce P H 1 0
Adv e y on d
w e l l b
– 56
REFERENCES

[1] Subhankar Ray and J Shamanna,

On virtual displacement and virtual work in Lagrangian dynamics
Eur. J. Phys. 27 (2006) 311--329
[2] Moore, Thomas A., (2004)
`Getting the most action out of least action: A proposal'
Am. J. Phys. 72:4 p522-527
[3] Hanca, J.,Taylor, E.F. and Tulejac, S. (2004)
`Deriving Lagrange's equations using elementary calculus'
Am. J. Phys. 72:4, p510-513
[4] Hanca, J. and Taylor, E.F. (2004)
`From conservation of energy to the principle of least action: A story
line'
Am. J. Phys. 72:4, p.514-521
57
 Applications of Lagrange’s/Hamilton’s Equations

Entire domain of Classical Mechanics

Enables emergence of ‘Conservation of Energy’

and ‘Conservation of Momentum’
on the basis of a single principle.

Symmetry Conservation Laws

Governing principle: Variational principle –

Principle of Least Action
These methods have a charm of their own and very
many applications….
58
PCD-09
 Applications of Lagrange’s/Hamilton’s
Equations

• Constraints / Degrees of Freedom

- offers great convenience!

• ‘Action’ : dimensions
‘angular momentum’ :
h: Max Planck :
fundamental quantity
in Quantum Mechanics
Illustrations: use of Lagrange’s / Hamilton’s equations
to solve simple problems in Mechanics
59
PCD-09
 Manifestation of simple phenomena
in different unrelated situations

Dynamics of
spring–mass systems,
¾ pendulum,
¾ oscillatory electromagnetic circuits,
¾ bio rhythms,
¾ share market fluctuations …

radiation oscillators, molecular

vibrations,
atomic, molecular, solid state,
nuclear physics, ECG
electrical engineering, mechanical
engineering …
Musical instruments 60
PCD-09
SMALL OSCILLATIONS

1581:
Observations on the
swaying chandeliers
at the Pisa cathedral.

Galileo (when only 17

years old) recognized
the constancy of the
periodic time for
small oscillations.
http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Pisa_cathedral_chandelier.jp 61
http://roselli.org/tour/10_2000/102.htmlg
PCD-09
 Use of Lagrange’s / Hamilton’s equations to solve
the problem of Simple Harmonic Oscillator.

q: Generalized Coordinate

q& : Generalized Velocity

⎛ ∂L ⎞
p=⎜ ⎟
p: Generalized Momentum
⎝ ∂q& ⎠

L = L(q, q& , t )

H = H ( q, p, t )
62
PCD-09
 L = L(q, q& , t ) Lagrangian
2nd order
∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞
− ⎜ &⎟=0 Lagrange ' s Equation differential
∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠ equation
H = ∑ q&k pk − L
k
TWO
H = H ( q, p, t ) Hamiltonian
1st order
∂H ∂H differential
∀ k: = qk and
& = − p& k
∂pk ∂qk equations
Hamilton ' s Equations
63
PCD-09
 Mass-Spring Simple Harmonic Oscillator
L = L(q, q& , t ) Lagrangian

m 2 k 2
L = T − V = q& − q
2 2

∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞
− ⎜ &⎟=0 Lagrange ' s Equation
∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠
k d ⎛m ⎞
i.e. − 2q − ⎜ 2q& ⎟ = 0
2 dt ⎝ 2 ⎠
2nd order
− kq − mq&& = 0

Newton’s differential
mq&& = −kq
Lagranges’ equation
Equation of Motion for a simple harmonic oscillator
64
PCD-09
 k
mq&& = −kq q&& = − q
m
Linear relation between restoring force and displacement
for spring-mass system: k
&&x =− x
m
Hooke’s law, after Robert Hooke (1635-1703), (a
contemporary of Newton), who empirically discovered this
relation for several elastic materials in 1678.

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Hooke.html
65
PCD-09
Mass-Spring Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Do we get same result using HAMILTONIAN approach ?
L = L(q, q& , t ) Lagrangian Note! Begin
H = H ( q, p, t ) Hamiltonian Always with
m 2 k 2 the
Lagrangian : L = T − V = q& − q LAGRANGIAN.
t u m 2 2
en
mom ⎛ ∂L ⎞
p = ⎜ ⎟ = mq&
⎝ ∂q& ⎠ L = L(q, q& , t )
m 2 k 2
H = pq& − L = mq& − q& + q H = H (q, p, t )
2

2 2
m 2 k 2
H = q& + q VERY
2 2
p2 k 2 IMPORTANT !
H= + q
2m 2
for a simple harmonic oscillator 66
PCD-09
 m 2 k 2
H = pq& − L = mq& − q& + q
2

2 2
m k
H = q& 2 + q 2
2 2 ∂H 2 p p
p2 k 2 q& = = =
H= + q ∂p 2m m
2m 2
L = L(q, q& , t ) ∂H k
and p& = − = − 2q
H = H ( q, p, t ) ∂qk 2

VERY (i.e. f = −kq)

IMPORTANT ! Hamilton ' s Equations
TWO first order equations

67
PCD-09
 L = L(q, q& , t )

H = H ( q, p, t ) ∂H 2 p p
q& = = =
∂p 2m m
VERY
IMPORTANT ! ∂H k
and p& = − = − 2q
∂qk 2

(i.e. f = −kq)
Hamilton ' s Equations
p& = − kq TWO first order equations

68
PCD-09
 Be careful about how you write the Lagrangian and
the Hamiltonian for the Harmonic oscillator!

m 2 k 2 L = L(q, q& , t )
Lagrangian : L = T − V = q& − q
2 2

⎛ ∂L ⎞
p=⎜ ⎟ = mq&
⎝ ∂q& ⎠ H = H ( q, p, t )

p2 k 2
H= + q VERY
2m 2 IMPORTANT !
Generalized Momentum is interpreted
only as p = ⎛⎜ ∂L ⎞⎟ , and not a product of mass with velocity
⎝ ∂q& ⎠ 69
PCD-09
 S: support
θ V = mgh = mg l(1 − cos θ )
l cos θ l : length

h = l − l cos θ
mg = l(1 − cos θ )
E: equilibrium
L = L(r , θ , r&,θ&)
Remember this! L = T −V
ALWAYS, the first 1 2 &2
thing to do is to set-up
L = m(r + r θ ) − mg l(1 − cos θ )
& 2

2
the Lagrangian in terms 1 2 &2
of the generalized L = ml θ − mg l(1 − cos θ )
coordinates and the 2
1 2 &2
generalized velocities. L = ml θ − mg l + mg l cos θ 70
PCD-09
2
 1 2 &2
L = ml θ − mg l + mg l cos θ
2
r = l : fixed length

Subsequently, we can
find the generalized
momentum for each
degree of freedom. ∂L
= pr =0
∂r&
∂L 2 &
∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ = pθ = ml θ
− ⎜ &⎟=0
∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠ ∂θ&
71
PCD-09
 S: support Application to a simple pendulum

l cos θ θ l : length
L = L(r ,θ , r&,θ&) = T − V
1 2 &2
L = ml θ − mg l + mg l cos θ
2

h = l − l cos θ
mg = l(1 − cos θ )
E: equilibrium
∂ L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞
∂L ∂L − ⎜ &⎟=0
= pr =0 = 0. ∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠
∂r& ∂r
∂L
= pθ = ml 2θ& ∂L = − mgl sin θ ≈ − mglθ d
∂θ&
∂θ − mglθ − (ml 2θ&) = 0
dt
(1) q&& = −α q ml 2θ&& = − mglθ
g
(2) Solution: q = Aeiω0t + Be − iω0t ω0 = g
Substitute (2) in (1) ⇒ ω0 = α l &&
θ =− θ
l 72
PCD-09 Does the r equation give you anything useful?
 For the simple pendulum oscillating in the
gravitational field where the acceleration
due to gravity is g, we must, and do, get
the same answer regardless of which
approach we employ:
(1) Newtonian g
θ&& = − θ
(2) Lagrangian l
(3) Hamiltonian
Note! We haven’t used ‘force’,
g
ω0 = ‘tension in the string’ etc. in the
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian
l approach!
73
PCD-09
 Hamiltonian Approach Application to a simple pendulum
2 &
⎡ ∂L ⎤ p = ml θ
H = ⎢ ∑ q&i - L ⎥ = ⎡⎣ ∑ q&i pi - L ⎤⎦ θ
2 &&
⎣ ∂q&i ⎦ p&θ = ml θ
∂H H = θ pθ − ml θ + mg l − mg l cos θ
& 1 2 &2
p&θ = − 2
∂θ ∂H = −mgl ⎡ ∂ (cos θ )⎤ ∂(cos θ )
∂θ ⎢ ∂ (cos θ ) ⎥ ∂θ
⎣ ⎦
= − mgl (− sin θ ) ≈ + mglθ
∂H
≈ mglθ
∂θ
∂H
&pθ = ml 2θ&& = − = − mglθ g
∂θ
g ω 0 =
θ&& = − θ l
l
74
PCD-09
 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Mechanics has
very many applications. All problems in
‘classical mechanics’ can be addressed using
these techniques.

However, they do depend on the premise

that the mechanical system is
characterized by position and
velocity/momentum, simultaneously and
accurately.

75
PCD-09
 However, the accuracy of the experimental
determination of (q,p) is limited by the
unavoidable coupling between the target and
the probe (Heisenberg’s principle of
uncertainty).

One then has to reformulate ‘mechanics’ by

a new scheme, namely ‘quantum
mechanics’, in which position, momentum,
Hamiltonian are ‘quantized’, i.e., treated as
operators, which operate on ‘state vectors’
that characterize the ‘state of the system’.
This treatment is clearly beyond the scope of
this course!
76
PCD-09
 Oscillations.
Small oscillations.
Unit 2: SHM.
Oscillators Driven and
Resonances
damped
Jamuna Waves
oscillator.
Resonance,
Quality factor.
Waves.

Flip-Flop Square
Wave oscillator
1
PCD-09
 Learning Goals

• Recognize stable, unstable, neutral

equilibrium points and saddle points.

• Learn that in a region close enough to any

point of stable equilibrium, motion can be
described by the simple harmonic oscillator.

• Discover electro-mechanical analogies

and how they can be exploited in solving
problems in different branches of Physics.
Learn about effects of damping, and effects
of a periodic driving force.
2
PCD-09
 Learning Goals

• Get introduced to resonances in

physical systems and the primary
indicators of the quality of
measurement techniques, such as
the ‘Quality Factor’.

• We shall also become familiar

with the ‘wave motion’ which is of
ubiquitous application in both
‘classical’ and ‘quantum
mechanics’.
3
PCD-09
 Kinds of equilibrium
Six Flags over Georgia

unstable

stable
unstable

stable neutral
stable

neutral
a c e d b

4
PCD-09
 Is a point mid-way between two
equal positive point charges a
point of equilibrium for a unit
point positive test charge?
+ +
Can it be unambiguously
classified as a point or ‘stable’ /
‘unstable’ equilibrium?

what if the test charge is

negative?
Saddle point

5
PCD-09
meaning of small oscillations U(x) x
‘Zero’, at equilibrium
∂U
U ( x) = U ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) +
∂x x0

1 ∂ 2U U(x)
+ ( x − x0 ) +
2

2! ∂x 2 x0

1 ∂ 3U
+ ( x − x0 )3 + ...
3! ∂x 3 x0
x

Potential for a
Approximations, close to x0 Linear harmonic oscillator

1 ∂ 2U dU
U ( x) ≈ U ( x0 )+
1
( x − x0 ) = kx 2
2 F =− = − kx
2! ∂x 2 2 dx
x0
by choosing U ( x0 ) = 0 k
x=− x
&&
m
6
PCD-09
 Uniform circular motion
and SHM

‘reference circle’ for the

Simple Harmonic
Oscillator.

Intrinsic www.answers.com
natural frequency

ω = 2πν
Shadow of the red dot
www.physics.uoguelph.ca
would constitute SHM 7
PCD-09
 Unlike what happens in
a resistor, the current
and voltage in an
inductance L and in a
capacitor C do not peak
dV
I is proportional to , together.
dt
not to V, as in the case of a resistor.
VL Voltage lags the current in a
capacitor by 900,
I
but
VC
leads the current in an inductor by
8
PCD-09
the same amount.
 Qmac
Vmax =
C
dI d 2Q &&
VL = − L = − L 2 = − LQ
dt dt −VL + VC = 0
& d d dV d Q Q
2
I = Q = Q = (CV ) = C +L 2 + = 0
dt dt dt
dt C
&& 1
I is proportional to
dV
,
Q = −( )Q
dt LC
not to V, as in the case of a resistor.
VL
I Voltage lags the current in a capacitor by 900,
VC but leads the current in an inductor by the same amount.
9
PCD-09
 Electro-mechanical analogues

Qmin

I=0 Qmax I Imax I I=0

10
PCD-09
 k
x=− x
&&
m Electro-mechanical analogues:
&& 1
Q = −( )Q Inductance mass, inertia
LC Capacitance 1/k, compliance
(1) q&& = −α q
iω0t − iω0t
(2) Most general solution: q = Ae + Be
Substitute (2) in (1) ⇒ ω0 = α
k Question:
ω0 =
m Could we have
associated L with
1/k and C with m?

1
ω0 =
LC 11
PCD-09
 g
θ&& = − θ (1) sim ple pendulum
l
k
x=− x
&& (2) spring-m ass system
m
Q&& = − ( 1 ) Q electrical LC circuit oscillator
(3)
LC

(1) q&& = − α q
(2) M ost general solution: q = Ae iω 0 t + Be − iω 0 t

Substitute (2) in (1) ⇒ ω 0 = α

A and B are determ ined by 'initial conditions'

12
PCD-09
 && = − ( 1 )Q
Q electrical LC circuit oscillator
LC

(1) q&& = −α q
(2) Most general solution: q = Ae iω0 t + Be − iω 0 t

Any wonder that Feynman calls the above

relation as Newton’s law of electricity’ ?

Two initial conditions provide solutions to the

‘equation of motion’ in a linear response
formalism.

13
PCD-09
 The most general solution is
q = Ae iω0 t +B e − iω0 t where ω 0 = α
the frequency is governed by α ;
A and B are determined by initial conditions

the solution at time t = 0 is

q (t = 0) = A + B ; also, q& (t = 0) = iω 0 ( A − B )

solving for A an B from the two equations,

1 ⎧ q& (t = 0) ⎫
A= ⎨ q (t = 0) − i ⎬ ;
2 ⎩ ω0 ⎭
B = A* (complex conjugate)

14
PCD-09
 M ean kinetic energy
k
x=− x
&& spring-mass system KE =
1
mx& 2
m 2
x = A sin(ω0t + ϕ )
k M ean potential energy
ω0 =
T

m ∫
t =0
f ( t ) dt
PE =
1 2
kx
M ean: f (t ) = T 2
∫
t =0
dt

1
<cos 2 (ω t)dt> = = <sin 2 (ω t)dt>
2
1 1 1 1
KE = m x& 2 = m ( Aω 0 ) 2 < >= A 2 mω 0 2
2 2 2 4

1 2 1 1 1
PE = kx = kA 2 < >= kA 2
2 2 2 4
k
Note that < PE >=< KE > , since ω 0 2
= 15
PCD-09 m
 && 1
Q = −( )Q
LC
(1) q&& = −α q
(2) Most general solution: q = Aeiω0t + Be − iω0t
Substitute (2) in (1) ⇒ ω0 = α

a) plot q and q& as functions of t

b) sketch instantaneous V and I as functions of t
c) what is the phase difference between q and q& ?
d) what is the phase difference between I and V ?

16
PCD-09
 Longitudinal oscillations

1 2 Longitudinal Oscillations

Frictionless support

Principle of superposition Coupled Oscillators

Frequency of oscillations?
Longitudinal Displacement, to the
left or right, both make BOTH
THE SPRINGS apply a restoring
force on the mass in essentially
THE SAME DIRECTION.

Can you quickly determine the

oscillation frequency if the spring
constants k for the two springs
Frictionless support

PCD-09
Reference: Berkeley’s Mechanics are the same? 17
 ao: relaxed length of the springs Tension exerted by each string
a: instantaneous stretched length AT EQUILIBRIUM
T0 = k (a − a0 )
T0=k(a-a0)
Transverse oscillations
in
‘vertical’
T=k(l-a0)
l and in
x
θ ‘horizontal’
a a planes
View in the plane of vibration
The total restoring force along − x
is − 2T sin θ
x
1 2 mx&& = −2T sin θ = −2k (l − a0 )
l

18
PCD-09
 ao: relaxed length of the springs
a: instantaneous stretched length
T0=k(a-a0)

T=k(l-a0) Ref.: Berkeley, Vol.1/Mechanics

l
x
x mx&& = −2T sin θ = −2k (l − a0 )
θ l
a0
a a if a0 <<< l i.e. <<< 1 (slinky approximation),
l
View in the plane of vibration
(l − a0 )
≈1
The total restoring force along − x l
is − 2T sin θ k
x ≈ −2 x
&&
m
The SLINKY behaves as a simple harmonic oscillator
with effective spring constant (2k), for very large values of
l without losing the linear elasticity!
A typical slinky with a0 of only 3” can be stretched to as
much as ~15’ without loosing the linear elasticity! 19
PCD-09
Q&& = −( 1 )Q
LC Displacement q (t = 0) = A + B
(1) q&& = −α q q& (t = 0) = iω0 ( A − B)
iω0t − iω0t
(2) Most general solution: q = Ae + Be
1 q& (t = 0)
Substitute (2) in (1) ⇒ ω0 = α A = [q(t = 0) − i ]
2 ω0
B = A*
Displacement q = q( x, t ) = q0 cos ωt
However, q0 cos {ωt ± φ ( x)}
is also a solution
What is the functional form of φ ( x)?
∂φ
must be related to the speed v
∂x
∂φ 2π 2π
= and φ = x + Δ = kx + Δ
∂x λ λ
where Δ is some constant angle. 20
PCD-09
 2π
q(t ) = q0 cos {ωt ± φ ( x)} φ= x + Δ = kx + Δ
λ
q (t ) = q0 cos {ωt ± (kx + Δ )} = q 0 cos{ω t ± kx ± Δ}

phase: θ = ω t ± kx ± Δ
On a surface of constant phase: dθ =0 i.e. ω dt ± kdx = 0
± kdx=-ω dt i.e. kdx= m ω dt
dx ω
when =m
dt k
dx
<0
dt
← a wave travelling to the left
when
dx
>0
dt
→ a wave travelling to the right
21
PCD-09
 q (t ) = q0 cos {ωt ± (kx + Δ )} = q 0 cos{ω t ± kx ± Δ}

phase: θ = ω t ± kx ± Δ

when phase: θ = ω t + kx ± Δ,
on a surface of constant phase,
dx
<0
dt
← a wave travelling to the left
when phase: θ = ω t − kx ± Δ,
on a surface of constant phase,
dx
>0
dt
→ a wave travelling to the right
22
PCD-09
 f(x-vt) represents a pulse traveling to the right
dx dx
> 0, i.e. as a positive quantity
dt dt
→ a wave travelling to the right

g(x+vt) represents a pulse traveling to the left

dx dx
< 0, i.e. as a negative quantity
dt dt
← a wave travelling to the left

The wave covers one

wavelength
λ in one period T,
λ
The traveling speed of the wave is v= = νλ
T 23
PCD-09
λ

24
 The total energy E is constant: conservative forces

<KE> = <PE> : not true when friction is present

Damped harmonic oscillator

Is there only a restoring force in real situations?

Energy dissipation
Breaking, damping in automobiles,
galvanometer
Complex mechanism
Too many particles
25
PCD-09
 Damped Ffriction = −cv = −cx&
Oscillator:

mx&& = −kx − cx&

x + 2γ x& + ω0 x = 0
⇒ && 2

k c
where ω0 = 2
γ=
m 2m
If EM & Gravitational forces are conservative,
and all forces are made up of fundamental forces,

Then,
why is friction dissipative?
Just what is ‘lost’, and why?
26
PCD-09
 All net interactions in nature are superpositions
of fundamental interactions, namely the nuclear
(‘strong’ interaction), electro-weak
(electromagnetic/nuclear ‘weak’ interaction),
and gravity.

The nuclear (strong/weak) interactions hardly

play any perceptible role in our everyday life.

The electrodynamics/electroweak/gravitational
interactions are conservative.

So, what is the origin of dissipation?

27
PCD-09
 Cause of ‘Friction’: we track the evolution of the
state of some pre-specified mechanical system
without keeping track of everything else that this
system interacts with.

There are thus unspecified degrees of freedom –

very many!

Dissipation: result of our neglect of these

unspecified degrees of freedom,
even as the component interactions individually
conserve energy.
28
PCD-09
 The equation of motion: mx&& = −kx − bx&
⇒ x + 2γ x + ω0 x = 0
&& & 2

Eq.[#]
k c
where ω0 = γ=
2

m 2m
We seek a solution in the form: x = Ae qt Eq.[*]

Why seek this form? and inquire what conditions would result on q if
Eq.[*] is to be admitted as a solution of Eq.[#]

Substitute [*] in [#]:

x& = Aqe qt , &&
x = Aq 2 e qt
Aq 2 e qt + 2γ Aqe qt + ω0 2 Ae qt = 0
q 2 + 2γ q + ω0 2 = 0 29
PCD-09
 c
q +2
q + ωο = 0
2
mω0 2 = k
m quadratic equation
mq 2 + cq + k = 0. c
γ=
2m
−c ± c 2 − 4mk
q= .
2m
q1 = − γ + γ 2 − ωο 2 ,

q2 = − γ − γ 2 − ωο 2

x = A1e q1 t + A2 e q2 t ; A1 and A2 are constants

determined by initial conditions on x, x&
30
PCD-09
 q1 = − γ + γ 2 − ωο 2 , k c
ω0 = 2
γ=
m 2m
q2 = − γ − γ 2 − ωο 2

CASE 1:
OVERDAMPED OSCILLATOR
When γ > ω0 ,
γ 2 − ωο 2 is a real number whose value is < γ ,
so both q1 and q 2 become 'real' and essentially 'negative'

Since : x(t ) = A1e q1 t

+ A2 e ;
q2 t

both the terms approach zero as t → ∞, asymptotically

31
PCD-09
 x(t ) = A1e q1 t + A2 e q2 t k
q1,2 = − γ ± γ 2 − ωο 2 , ω0 =2

m
When γ > ω0 ,
c
γ − ωο
2 2
is a real number whose value is < γ , γ=
so both q1 and q 2 become 'real' and essentially 'negative'
2m
x(t ) = A1e q1 t
+ A2 e q2 t
hence
&x(t ) = q1 A1e q1 t + q2 A2 e q2 t q1 x(t = 0) − x& (t = 0) = A2
q1 − q2
Hence, q1 x(t = 0) − x& (t = 0)
x(t = 0) − = A1
x(t = 0) = A1 + A2 q1 − q2
x& (t = 0) = q1 A1 + q2 A2 ‘Overshoot’ is not possible.
q1 x(t = 0) = q1 A1 + q1 A2 Oscillations being completely
killed, this oscillator is called
x& (t = 0) = q1 A1 + q2 A2 ‘OVERDAMPED’. 32
PCD-09
 k
ω0 =2
CASE 2
m
UNDERDAMPED OSCILLATOR
When γ < ω0 ,

γ=
c γ − ωο is an imaginary number
2 2

2m

q1 = − γ + i ω0 2 − γ 2 = −γ + iω where ω = ω0 2 − γ 2
q2 = − γ - i ω0 2 − γ 2 = −γ − iω i.e., ω < ω0
by an amount determined by γ

[ − γ −iω ] t
[ − γ + iω ]t
x = A1e + A2 e
x=e −γ t
{A e1
+ iω t
+ A2 e
− iωt

}
x = e −γ t {( A1 + A2 ) cos(ωt ) + i ( A1 − A2 ) sin(ωt ) }
33
PCD-09
 UNDERDAMPED OSCILLATOR k
When γ < ω0 , γ 2 − ωο 2 is an imaginary number
ω0 =
2

m
c
γ=
[ − γ −iω ] t
[ − γ + iω ]t
x = A1e + A2 e
2m
x=e −γ t
{A e1
+ iω t
+ A2 e
− iωt

}
x = e −γ t {( A1 + A2 ) cos(ωt ) + i ( A1 − A2 ) sin(ωt ) }

Introduce two new parameters B & θ instead of A1 and

A2.
Why?
We shall see that the interpretation in terms of B & θ
provides direct insight in the nature of the solutions.

34
PCD-09
 CASE 2 UNDERDAMPED OSCILLATOR k
ω0 =
2

When γ < ω0 , γ 2 − ωο 2 is an imaginary number m

c
{
x = e −γ t A1e + iω t + A2 e
− iωt

} γ=
2m
x = e −γ t {( A1 + A2 ) cos(ωt ) + i ( A1 − A2 ) sin(ωt ) }
Introduce two new parameters B & θ instead of A1 and A2.

A1 + A2 = B sin θ
i ( A1 − A2 ) = B cos θ iBe + iθ iBe − iθ
A1 = − , A2 = +
2 2

x(t ) = Be −γ t
{sin θ cos(ωt ) + cos θ sin(ωt ) }
x(t ) = Be −γ t sin(ωt + θ )
35
PCD-09
 UNDERDAMPED OSCILLATOR
γ < ω0 , γ 2 − ωο 2 :imaginary ω 2 = k
0
m
x(t ) = Be −γ t {sin θ cos(ωt ) + cos θ sin(ωt ) } c
γ=
x(t ) = Be −γ t sin(ωt + θ ) 2m

• Solution: sinusoidal, at circular frequency ω

determined by the two parameters ω0 and γ .

• Frequency ω < ω0

• Amplitude decreases exponentially with time

• Oscillation is phase shifted by θ

ω = ω0 2 − γ 2
i.e., ω < ω0 by an amount determined by γ 36
PCD-09
 k
ω0 =2

UNDERDAMPED OSCILLATOR m
c
γ=
2m
When γ < ω0 , γ 2 − ωο 2 is an imaginary number

x(t ) = Be −γ t
sin(ωt + θ )

This solution is *NOT* “periodic”; *NOT* repetitive.

One may regard the oscillatory sinusoidal term to

have an exponentially diminishing amplitude.

But the *ZEROES* are repetitive; strictly

periodic; occur at a time period of T=2π/ω,
called “period of the damped oscillator”. 37
PCD-09
 UNDERDAMPED OSCILLATOR γ < ω0 , γ 2 − ωο 2 :imaginary
k c
ω0 = & γ =
2
x(t ) = Be −γ t sin(ωt + θ ) m 2m

*ZEROES* are repetitive; strictly periodic; occur at a time

period of T=2π/ω, called “period of the damped oscillator”.

The number of oscillations in

a small time interval δ t In two successive periods ‘T’,
δt ωδ t the amplitude falls according to
N (in δ t)= =νδ t= the following ratio:
T 2π
B2 Be −γ (t +T ) − γT − ϕ
= = e = e
B1 Be −γ t
Logarithmic decrement factor
38
PCD-09
 UNDERDAMPED OSCILLATOR
Logarithmic
γ < ω0 , γ 2 − ωο 2 :imaginary decrement factor
B2 Be −γ ( t +T )
x(t ) = Be −γ t sin(ωt + θ ) =
B1 Be −γ t
In two successive periods ‘T’, the B2 −γ T − ϕ
amplitude falls according to the following ratio: = e = e
B1
Question: By what amount does the amplitude
diminish over a time δ t = NT ?
BN +1 −γ NT
Now, =e = e − Nϕ ,
B1
1
hence, when γ = ,
NT
the 'amplitude decrease factor' would be 1 . 39
e
PCD-09
 UNDERDAMPED OSCILLATOR

γ < ω0 , γ 2 − ωο 2 is an imaginary number

x(t ) = Be −γ t
sin(ωt + θ )
Unlike the ‘overdamped oscillator’ (no oscillations),
we do have oscillations that are ‘damped’, not
‘killed’; hence called UNDERDAMPED
OSCILLATIONS

40
PCD-09
 Case 3: ‘CRITICAL DAMPING’ q1,2 = − γ ± γ 2 − ωο 2

γ =ω0 , q1 = q2 = q : the two roots are equal

x(t ) = Ae qt

Can we get the 2nd linearly independent −γ t

solution by considering the following x(t ) = Bte
simplest departure from the previous one?
−γ t −γ t −γ t
x(t ) = Ae + Bte = ( A + Bt )e
A
At t = − , the system reaches the equilibium position,
B
and then, after the overshoot,
the next attainment of equilibrium can be
only after infinite time. 41
PCD-09
 Let us recapitulate main results!

Overdamped Oscillator
When γ > ω0 , i.e. c 2 > 4mk ,
γ 2 − ωο 2 is a real number whose value is < γ ,
so both q1 and q 2 become 'real' and essentially 'negative'

Amplitude versus time No oscillation !

No overshoot off
equilibrium

42
PCD-09
 Underdamped Oscillator x = A1e q1 t
+ A2 e q2 t

When γ < ω0 , γ 2 − ωο 2 is an imaginary number; c 2 < 4mk ,

q1 = − γ + iω; q2 = − γ − iω; where ω = ω0 2 − γ 2
i.e., ω < ω0 by an amount determined by γ c
γ=
2m
x = e −γ t {( A1 + A2 ) cos(ωt ) + i ( A1 − A2 ) sin(ωt ) }

x ( t ) = Be − γ t {sin θ cos(ω t ) + cos θ sin(ω t ) }

x ( t ) = Be − γ t sin(ω t + θ )
Exponential fall of amplitude
‘zero crossings’ occur
Oscillations damped, not killed !
Amplitude versus time
Amplitude diminishes more rapidly for larger values of c 43
PCD-09
 Critically damped oscillator
γ =ω0 , c 2 = 4mk , q1 = q2 = q : the two roots are equal
x(t ) = Ae −γ t + Bte −γ t = ( A + Bt )e −γ t
The equilibrium position x =0 is reached
A
in 'finite' time interval, t = − .
B
After the overshoot, the next attainment
of equilibrium can be only after 'infinite' time.

Amplitude versus time 44

PCD-09
 Amplitude versus time: all the three cases

Overdamped: oscillations
are `killed’

Underdamped:
oscillations are damped

critically damped:
overshoots equilibrium
in finite time
45
PCD-09
 Forced oscillations
Restoring force, damping force and driving force

"The Hand That Rocks The Cradle

Is The Hand That Rules The World"

-William Ross Wallace

This poem was first published in 1865

under the title "What Rules The World".

46
PCD-09
 Forced oscillations
Restoring force, damping force and driving force
F = mx&& = − kx − cx& + Fdr
i.e.,
c k Fdr
x + x& + x =
&&
m m m
For a simple pendulum with damping ,
&& c & g Fdr
θ+ θ+ θ=
ml l ml
&& R & 1 Vdr
for an LCR oscillator, Q + Q + Q= or
L LC L
&& & 1
LQ + RQ + Q = Vdr
C 47
PCD-09
 c k Fdr
F = mx&& = − kx − cx& + Fdr or &&
x + x& + x =
m m m
Actual form of the solution depends on the functional form of Fdr

Let Fdr =F0 exp i (Ωt + θ ), a periodic force, with frequency Ω

θ is a phase angle, depending on when we start the driving force
k c F0 i ( Ωt +θ )
ω0 = & γ =
2
x + 2γ x& + ω x =
&& 2
e
m 2m 0
m
Special case: No damping
⎡ Fο i ( Ωt + θ ) ⎤
x + ωο x = ⎢ e
&& 2
⎥ .
⎣m ⎦
Complex amplitude which iθ iΩt
) iΩt
F = Fο e e =Fe
includes time-independent dr )
phase e iθ
where F = Fο eiθ 48
PCD-09
 ⎡ Fο i ( Ωt + θ ) ⎤ ) iΩt ) iθ
x + ωο x = ⎢ e
&& 2
⎥ . Fdr = Fe where F = Fο e
⎣ m ⎦
) iΩt )
x(t ) = xe , (where x includes the phase factor) is a solution
of the differential equation for damped, forced vibrations
The exponential form allows us to
x& = iΩx, interpret the effect of differentiation
with respect to time through the
x = (i Ω ) x
&& 2
operator (d/dt) to be equivalent to
Using above relations in multiplication by (iΩ )
i ( Ωt + θ )
x + ωο 2 x = [ Fο e
&& ] / m, Note !
2 )
)
we get (ω0 − Ω ) x = F / m,
2 Ω, the driving frequency becomes
) equal to ω0 , the natural frequency,
) F
x=
{ o )}
the amplitude blows up to infinity.
m (ω 2
− Ω 2
49
PCD-09
 General case, including damping:
Note! There are two angles
F0
x + 2γ x& + ω02 x =
&& exp i (Ωt + θ ) to keep track of!
m
) iΩt ‘Timing’
θ : – when
Try a solution x(t ) = Ae
) exactly do
with A = A0 ei (θ −φ ) φ : phase lag of
you start
) applying the
x& = A(iΩ)eiΩt = iΩx oscillation w.r.t. driving force
)
x = A(iΩ) 2 eiΩt = −Ω 2 x
&& the driving force

iθ iΩt
) iΩt
Fdr = Fο e e =Fe
Substituting for x& and &&
x: )
) where F = Fο eiθ
[−Ω + i(2γΩ) + ω ] x(t ) = (F / m)eiΩt
2 2
0
) iΩt )
i.e.[(ω0 −Ω ) + i2γΩ ] A e
2 2
= (F / m)eiΩt
50
PCD-09
 General case, including damping: iθ iΩt
) iΩt
Fdr = Fο e e =Fe
F0 )
x + 2γ x& + ω02 x =
&& exp i (Ωt + θ ) where F = Fο eiθ
m
) iΩt
x(t ) = Ae
)
with A = A0 ei (θ −φ )
) iΩt )
[(ω − Ω ) + i 2γΩ ] A e
2
0
2
= ( F / m)eiΩt
)
)
A=
F /m { ;
}
{
(ω0 − Ω ) + i 2γΩ
2 2
}
i.e. A0 e i (θ −φ )
=
{ }
F0 eiθ / m

{( 0 ) + i 2γΩ
ω 2
− Ω 2
}
)
as F = F0 eiθ A0 = A0 (Ω)
51
PCD-09
 cancel

A0 e i (θ −φ )
=
{ F0 eiθ / m } ; A0 e −iφ
=
{F0 / m}
(ω − Ω ) + i 2γΩ
2
0
2
( 0 ) + i 2γΩ
ω 2
− Ω 2

e −iφ
=
{F0 /(mA0 )}
( 0 ) + i 2γΩ
ω 2
− Ω 2

Separate now the real and imaginary parts

by multiplying both numerator and denominator
by the complex conjugate of the denominator

{0
F ( mA0 }( 0
) ω − Ω ) {F / ( mA )} 2γΩ
2 2
/
cos φ = and sin φ =
0 0

(ω − Ω
2
0
2 2
) + 4γ 2 Ω 2 ( 0 −Ω
ω 2
)
2 2
+ 4γ 2 Ω 2
52
PCD-09
 {0
F ( mA0 }( 0
) ω − Ω ) {F / ( mA )} 2γΩ
2 2
/
cos φ = and sin φ =
0 0

(ω − Ω
2
0 )
2 2
+ 4γ 2 Ω 2 ( 0 −Ω
ω 2
)
2 2
+ 4γ 2 Ω 2

⎧ 2γΩ ⎫ 2γΩ
and φ = tan ⎨ 2 2⎬
; tan φ = 2
−1

ω
⎩ 0 − Ω ⎭ ω 0 − Ω 2

Squaring and adding F0

Aο (Ω) =
sin φ & cos φ
(ω )
2 2
2 2
m 2
0 −Ω + 4γ 2 Ω 2
Recall that our solution is: Phase factor φ changes
) iΩt
x(t ) = Ae markedly with the frequency
) Ω of the driving force.
with A = A0 ei (θ −φ )
( F0 / m)
x(t ) = ei (Ωt +θ −φ ) .
(ω02 − Ω 2 ) 2 + 4γ 2 Ω 2 53
PCD-09
 F0 i (Ωt +θ )
x + 2γ x& + ω x = e
Thus the solution for && 2
0 becomes
m
( F0 / m)
x(t ) = ei (Ωt +θ −φ ) .
(ω02 − Ω 2 ) 2 + 4γ 2 Ω 2

Physical features of the steady state solution:

The oscillation is out of step with Fdriving through the angle φ.
The amplitude of the oscillation is governed by the amplitude
of the driving force, modulated further by the factor
1 , and also by the inertia m
(ω0 − Ω ) + 4γ Ω
2 2 2 2 2

Fascinating
Nature of the solution depends on γ applications in
and on the proximity of Ω to ω0 . mechanical, electrical
and many other
physical systems. 54
PCD-09
 ) iΩt
x(t ) = Ae ( F0 / m)
x(t ) = ei (Ωt +θ −φ ) .
) i (θ −φ ) (ω02 − Ω 2 ) 2 + 4γ 2 Ω 2
with A = A0 e

F0
Aο (Ω) =
m (ω − Ω
2
0 )
2 2
+ 4γ 2 Ω 2

A0 = A0 (Ω)

As a function of the frequency of the driving

force, when will the amplitude of oscillation
be a maximum?
55
PCD-09
 Condition for Resonance
dA0 F0
when is = 0? Aο (Ω) =
dΩ
m (ω − Ω
2
0 )
2 2
+ 4γ 2 Ω 2

Two frequencies
are of interest ω0 Intrinsic, natural frequency.
Ω External, under our control!

In the absence of damping, the condition

that the amplitude is maximum is
that Ω = ω0 ….. but what when damping is
present?

56
Reference: Fowles ‘Analytical Mechanics’; Our notation is slightly different!
PCD-09
 Condition for Resonance F0
Aο (Ω) =
when is
dA0
= 0? m (ω − Ω
2
0 )
2 2
+ 4γ 2 Ω 2
dΩ
ω0 Intrinsic, natural frequency.
Ω External, under our control!

1 F0
dA0
− { 2(ω 2
0 − Ω 2
)(-2Ω )+ 8 γ 2
Ω}
when is = 2m = 0?
dΩ {(ω02 − Ω2 )2 + 4γ 2Ω2 }
3/ 2

The N r is zero when Ω 2 = ω02 − 2γ 2 i.e. Ω r = ω02 − 2γ 2

Ω ≈ ω0 − (γ 2 / ω0 ) = Ω r , resonance frequency
condition for resonance for a damped driven pendulum
57
PCD-09
 Ω r = ω02 − 2γ 2 Recall that the frequency of the
unforced (underdamped) oscillator is:
Ω r : resonance frequency
ω = ω0 2 − γ 2
2γ 2
Ω r = ω02 (1 − )
ω0 2
ω 2 = ω02 − γ 2 ; ω02 = ω 2 + γ 2
2γ 2 Ω r = ω 2 + γ 2 − 2γ 2
= ω0 (1 − )
ω0 2
Hence:
γ2
≈ ω0 (1 − 2 )
1/ 2
⎧ 2 γ ⎫
2
ω0 Ωr = ω − γ 2 2
= ⎨ω (1 − 2 ) ⎬
⎩ ω ⎭
γ2
≈ ω0 − γ 2 1/ 2
ω0 = ω (1 − 2 )
ω
γ2
≈ ω (1 − 2 )
2ω 58
PCD-09
 Amplitude at Resonance A (Ω) = F0
ο

ω0 Intrinsic, natural frequency. m (ω − Ω

2
0 )
2 2
+ 4γ 2 Ω 2
Ω External, under our control!
Ω r = ω02 − 2γ 2
Ω r : resonance frequency

F0
Aο (Ω) MAXIMUM = m
( ω − ( ω − 2γ )) + 4γ 2 (ω02 − 2γ 2 )
2
2 2 2
0 0

F0 i.e.
A0 (Ω) MAXIMUM = m F0
= 2γ A0 (Ω) MAXIMUM ω0 2 − γ 2
2γ ω0 − γ
2 2 m
59
PCD-09
 F0
Using: = 2γ A0 (Ω) MAXIMUM ω0 2 − γ 2
m

we get: 2γ A0 (Ω) MAXIMUM ω0 2 − γ 2

Aο (Ω) =
(ω 2
0 −Ω )
2 2
+ 4γ 2 Ω 2
Approximation
ω02 − Ω 2 = (ω0 − Ω )(ω0 + Ω )
≈ (ω0 − Ω )( 2ω0 )

A0 (Ω) MAXIMUM 2γω0

Aο (Ω) ≈
{( 0 )( 0 )}
2
ω − Ω 2ω + 4γ 2
ω 2
Cancelling 0

2ω0 A0 (Ω) MAXIMUM γ

in Numerator Aο (Ω) ≈
( ω0 − Ω ) + γ 2
2
& Denominator 60
PCD-09
 F0
Aο (Ω) = m where D(Ω)=
D (Ω )
(ω − Ω
2
0 )
2 2
+ 4γ 2 Ω 2

When γ << ω0 : Ω r ≈ ω0

A0 (Ω)
Less Damping

Ωr More Damping
Ω 61
PCD-09
Frequency of the Driving Force
 F0 i (Ωt +θ )
x + 2γ x& + ω x = e
Thus the solution for && 2
0 becomes
m
( F0 / m)
x(t ) = ei (Ωt +θ −φ ) .
(ω02 − Ω 2 ) 2 + 4γ 2 Ω 2

It is a ‘particular’ solution : no arbitrary constant.

For complete solution, add the solution of the

corresponding homogeneous
equation (that of ‘unforced’ damped oscillator) as well.

This part is a transient solution consisting of oscillations

of decreasing amplitude for underdamped oscillator.
62
PCD-09
 The GENERAL solution for the
damped driven oscillator will be
−γ t
x(t ) = Be sin(ωt + δ ) +
( F0 / m) i (Ωt +θ −φ )
e
(ω0 − Ω )
2 2

Damping ignored in the

steady state part , but not in the transient.
( F0 / m)
ei (Ωt +θ −φ ) .
(ω02 − Ω 2 ) 2 + 4γ 2 Ω 2
Why?
63
PCD-09
 −γ t ( F0 / m) i (Ωt +θ −φ )
x(t ) = Be sin(ωt + δ ) + e
(ω0 − Ω )
2 2

The three circular frequencies involved :

ω0 , the natural frequency;
ω , the frequnecy of the damped oscillator
and Ω, the driving frequency

Remember! ω = ω02 − γ 2 , where ωο = k / m for mass-spring oscillator,

g 1
ω0 = and ωο = , for LC -circuit
l LC
for simple pendulum
64
PCD-09
 A0 (Ω) MAXIMUM γ
Aο (Ω) ≈
Energy is proportional to
( ω0 − Ω ) + γ 2
2

the square of the

when Ω = ω0 ± γ ,
amplitude,
A0,max γ A0,max
Aο (Ω) = = and for frequencies
separated by 2γ
γ +γ
2 2
2
1
A0 (Ω) 2 = Amax 2 about the resonance
2
frequency, the energy
reduces by a factor of 2.

2γ “RESONANCE WIDTH”

ω ω0
Define: Q= ≈ (for the case of weak damping)
2γ 2γ
Quality Factor 65
PCD-09
The Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Washington state, was
with 1.9 km length one of the largest suspended bridges
built at the time. The bridge connecting the Tacoma
Narrows channel collapsed in a dramatic way on Thursday
November 7, 1940. Winds at about 50-70 km/hr produced
an oscillation which eventually broke the construction.

Forced/Driven
Damped
Oscillator

See video of this `Disaster

at Resonance’ at the
internet link given below!

http://www.math.harvard.edu/archive/21b_fall_03/tacoma/index.html 66
PCD-09
 Google: MRI picture
67
PCD-09
Solutions of the
oscillator problem play
a fundamental, crucial
role in DSP, information
transmission, etc.

68
 A wave packet,
or a wave Wave / Pulse propagation
pulse, is made
up by
superposing a
y = f ( x)
y = f ( x − vt )
large number
of sinusoidal Unit 2:
waves.
Oscillators
Each Resonances
component Waves
wave has a
wavelength X
λ Wave pulse at t=0
vt Wave pulse at t > 0
and the Peak is at x=0
component Peak is at x=vt
travels at its
own phase Shape: same
velocity Medium: Non-dispersive

v = νλ .
69
PCD-09
 Pulse shapes ---- Fourier Analysis

Fourier :

Any periodic function can be Jean Baptiste Joseph

written as a sum of simple Fourier
oscillating functions March 21, 1768
May 16, 1830

- sine and cosine functions

70
PCD-09
 ⎡ ⎛x⎞ ⎛ x ⎞⎤
Plot the function: f ( x) = 2 ⎢ H ⎜ ⎟ − H ⎜ − 1⎟ ⎥ − 1
⎣ ⎝L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎦

when x ∈ [ 0, 2 L ]
H (x) =Unit
0 for
2: x<0 Heaviside step function

=Oscillators
1 for x>0 “Unit step function”
Resonances
Waves

2L
x
x 0
X=0 L

-1

⎡ ⎛x⎞ ⎛ x ⎞⎤
Square Wave: f ( x) = 2 ⎢ H ⎜ ⎟ − H ⎜ − 1⎟ ⎥ − 1
⎣ ⎝L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎦ 71
PCD-09
 ∞
4 1
f (θ ) = ∑
π n =1,3,5,.... n
sin ( nθ )

72
 8 ⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤
f (θ ) = sin θ − sin(3θ ) + sin(5θ ) − sin(7θ ) + sin(9θ ) − ......
π 2 ⎢⎣ 32 52 72 92 ⎥⎦

Applications:

DSP

Digital Signal Processing

for example!

ψ ( x, t ) = f ( x − vt )
73
 We worked with the function f = f ( x)
⎡ ⎛x⎞ ⎛ x ⎞⎤
Square Wave: f ( x) = 2 ⎢ H ⎜ ⎟ − H ⎜ − 1⎟ ⎥ − 1
⎣ ⎝L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎦

also, we examined the saw-tooth triangular waves

Unit 2:
Oscillators
In general, in wave/pulse propogations, we have
and time: f ( x, t ),
Resonances
function of both space
r
Waves f (r , t )
or, more generally,
r
often called the wavefunctionψ (r , t ).

If all the components of the wave-packet travel at

the same speed, the ‘shape’ of the wave-packet
propagates without distortion.
This is the property of a non-dispersive medium.
In a dispersive medium, the wave packet ‘spreads’.74
PCD-09
 ⎧⎪ z ⎫⎪ ω
ψ ( z , t ) = A cos ω ⎨t − ⎬ = A cos(ωt − kz ) where k =
vφ
⎪⎩ vφ ⎪⎭
ω 2πν λ
phase velocity vφ = = = λν =
k k T
Note:
At fixed z, this represents a harmonic oscillation in time.

At fixed t, this represents a harmonic oscillation in space.

Important parameters: frequency, period, wavelength,

75
amplitude, phase
PCD-09
 ‘phase’
phase
The wavefunction ψ ( z , t ) = A cos(ω t − kz )
where (ωt − kz ) = φ ( z , t ), the phase function

At a given z, the phase varies linearly with time

At given t, the phase varies linearly with the space coordinate

In a medium, surface of constant phase is given by:

0 = dϕ = ω dt − kdz
dz ω
= = vϕ , phase velocity.
dt k

‘phase velocity’ is the speed at which a wave-front defined by a surface

at a certain fixed phase ( e.g. a crest) advances with time.
76
PCD-09
 ω
Phase velocity vφ = for a nondispersive group of waves. ω
k
ω
NON-DISPERSIVEWAVES: is constant.
k
k
In general, for dispersive waves, ω
vφ has a much more k
complicated dependence on λ (i.e. k ). is
constant

ω is a function of k , given as ω ( k ), vφ = vφ ( k ),
the functional form is different for different systems
Actually, it is the MEDIUM that is non-dispersive.

Properties of the MEDIUM are central to the phenomenology of

NON-DISPERSIVE WAVES. 77
PCD-09
 Superposition of two sinusoidal traveling waves to give

AMPLITUDE-MODULATED TRAVELING WAVE

Consider superposition of two harmonic waves

ψ ( z , t ) = A cos(ω1t − k1 z ) + A cos(ω2t − k2 z )

Then, we get
ψ ( z , t ) = Amod ( z , t ) cos(ωavet − k ave z )
where Amod ( z , t ) = 2 A cos(ωmod t − kmod z )
1 1
ωmod = (ω1 − ω2 ) ; kmod = ( k1 − k2 )
2 2
Ref: Berkeley/
1 1
Vol.3/ also, ωave = (ω1 + ω2 ) ; kave = ( k1 + k2 )
Page270 2 2 78
PCD-09
 ψ ( z , t ) = Amod ( z , t ) cos(ωavet − kave z ) At what speed does
where Amod ( z , t ) = 2 A cos(ωmod t − kmod z ) the modulation
propagate?
1 1
ωmod = (ω1 − ω2 ) ; kmod = ( k1 − k2 )
2 2
1 1
also, ωave = (ω1 + ω2 ) ; kave = ( k1 + k2 )
2 2
To follow a given modulation wave crest of the
modulation amplitude Amod ( z , t ),
we need to maintain a constant value of (ωmod t − k mod z )
i.e., in time dt , z must increase by dz in such a way that
d (ωmod t − k mod z ) = (ωmod dt − k mod dz ) = 0
To satisfy this, the modulation must propogate at:
dz ωmod ω1 − ω2 δω d ω
= v mod = = = ≈ = v g = 'group velocity'
PCD-09
dt k mod k1 − k 2 δ k dk 79
If all the components of the wave-packet
travel at the same speed, the ‘shape’ of
the wave-packet propagates without
distortion.

This is the property of a non-dispersive

medium.
In a dispersive medium, the wave packet
‘spreads’.

80
 x
A Refraction
θ1 a Why does the light
‘1’ B
B’ ray go along the path
A B C,
‘2’ θ2 b and not along
C A B’ C
d
Time taken for light
( ) ( )
1/ 2 1/ 2
a 2
+x 2
b 2
+ (d − x) 2
to travel the path
t= + A B C:
v1 v2
dt 1 1 2
( ) ( )
−1/ 2 1 1 2 −1/ 2
= a + x2 (2 x) − b + (d − x) 2 (2(d − x))
dx v1 2 v2 2
dt 1 x 1 (d − x) sin θ1 sin θ 2
= − 0= −
(
dx v1 a 2 + x 2 ) ( )
1/ 2 1/ 2
v 2 b 2 + (d − x ) 2 v1 v2
sin θ1 v1
Zero (Fermat’s principle) = = nRefractive Index
sin θ 2 v 2 81
 Refractive index, n:
Ratio of phase velocity of light in
vacuum to that in the medium

c νλvac λvac
n= = =
vϕ νλϕ λϕ

Different colors refract

through
nr = nr (ω )
different
angles Refractive Index
Red
Normal depends on
dispersion FREQUENCY in a
Blue dispersive medium
82
PCD-09
 c ω vs. k graph:
ω = 2πν = 2π = ck
λ constant slope, speed of light
v vacuum c νλvacuum kmedium
n= = = =
v medium v medium νλmedium kvacuum
In the medium:
v medium c 1 c
ω = 2πν = 2π = 2π = 2π
λmedium n λmedium nλmedium
c
ω= kmedium Refractive Index depends
n(ν )
on frequency in a dispersive medium
ω vs. k graph: not linear ↔ Dispersion relation 83
PCD-09
 Control speed of light ! Bring it to a halt !
Jan 18, 2001
Playing stop and go with light
http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2729

2001 PRL 86:5 783

REVIEWS OF MODERN PHYSICS, VOL. 77,

APRIL 2005
Electromagnetically Induced Transparency:
Optics in coherent media 84
PCD-09
Laser smashes light-speed record
http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2810

In a recent (2000) experiment at Princeton, L.J.Wang et al.

managed to get a laser pulse travels at more than 300
times the speed of light !
L J Wang et al. 2000 Nature 406 277
Laws of physics: intact!
‘Normal dispersion’: group velocity < phase velocity.
‘Anomalous dispersion’:
R.I. decreases as frequency increases; vgr > vph.
>c
normal Red ν Blue ν
Normal dispersion Anomolous
Blue Red
85
 c λ
= n = vac nr = nr (ω ) My heart leaps up when I behold
vϕ λϕ A rainbow in the sky:
So was it when my life began;
So is it now I am a man;
So be it when I shall grow old,
Or let me die!…
- William Wordsworth
R.I. of
water for
red is Questions:
~1.331
1. Why is the red outside and blue inside?
2. Which part of this picture is the brightest,
R.I. of
and why?
water for
3. What do you think is the radius of the
blue is
rainbow, and how would you determine it?
~1.343

Rainbow, seen from the ‘Maid of the Mist’ ride 86

at the
PCD-09 Niagara Falls, U.S.A., 18th July, 2009. - pcd
 Questions:
1. Why is the red outside and blue inside?
2. Which part of this picture is the brightest,
and why?
3. What do you think is the radius of the
rainbow, and how would you
determine it?
4. In fact, a secondary rainbow was
seen clearly just above the
prominent one, but my camera did
not record it clearly. If you strain (or train?)
your eyes, may be you can see it – with the
blue outside and the red inside, but the
outer blue gets rather easily merged with
the blue of the sky!
Rainbow, seen on the drive back from
Bandipur National Forest 2nd October, 2009. 87
- pcd
Rainbow, seen on the drive back from Bandipur Next:
88
National Forest 2nd October, 2009. - pcd
Unit 3
 UNIT 3

Thuban

1
PCD-09
 Unit 3
Plane polar and cylindrical
polar coordinate systems.
Motivation: Description of
planetary motion in solar
system, and other dynamics
wherein the central interaction
has a center of symmetry, or
at least an axis of symmetry. 2
PCD-09
 Unit 3: Learning goals
Develop confidence in vector methods and coordinate
transformations and learn to use an appropriate
coordinate system to simplify analysis.
Vector methods are fundamental to physics and not
merely a matter of using powerful mathematical tools.
Physical quantities are tensors of various ranks and
depend on how their components transform under the
rotation of a coordinate frame of reference.
We shall get well acquainted with the algebra of the
vectors, which are tensors of rank 1, and learn to
distinguish between ‘polar’ (such as position, velocity,
acceleration, force, etc.) and ‘axial’ (such as magnetic
field, angular momentum, angular velocity, etc.)
vectors. 3
PCD-09
Originally published in
1884, this wonderful
fantasy--written three
decades before Einstein's
general theory of relativity
and a century before string
theory--explores the world
of many dimensions by
imagining a world of only
two.
EDWIN A. ABBOTT
When its protagonist--
narrator, A Square, is
visited by a sphere, his
mind is stretched, and
ultimately his placid world is
turned inside out.
4
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1134/is_6_117/ai_n27907784
PCD-09
 Ptolemy’s The sun and the planets
coordinate were considered to move on
system a small circle (called
accounted for ‘epicycle’) whose center
the retrograde would move on a large circle
apparent (called ‘deferent’).
motion of all
planets known
at his time.

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/retrograde/aristotle.html
5
PCD-09
 Claudius Ptolemaeus (AD100-170) (called Ptolemy).

Ptolemy worked in the library of Alexandria.

Ptolemy’s coordinate system regarded the earth to be the

centre of the universe around which all heavenly bodies
revolve.
Ptolemy’s coordinate system
became very cumbersome,
but remained accepted, and
being supported by the
church, no alternate
coordinate system could be
proposed – dominated for
~1400 years!
6
PCD-09
 Rene Descartes (17th century, Holland)

Heliocentric system vs Church’s views

French philosopher, mathematician,

scientist: "Father of Modern Philosophy,"

Despite admitting the advantages of the

heliocentric coordinate system,
Descartes was reluctant to promote the
“certain and evident proof” in favor of
the heliocentric system since it was
against the will of the church. 7
PCD-09
 Contributions of Indian Astronomers to the
Understanding of Heliocentric Coordinate System

Aryabhata (b. 476A.D.) - ‘ARYABHATYA’ (499 A.D.)

Bhaskara I (A.D. 600) - ‘MAHABHASKARIYA’,

‘LAGHUBHASKARIYA’, ‘ARYABHATIYA BHASHYA’
Brahmagupta (A.D. 591) - ‘BRAMA SIDDHANTA’

Vateshwa (A.D. 880) - ‘VATESHWARA

SIDDHANTA’
Manjulacharya-(A.D. 932) - ‘LAGHUMANASA’
[ Dealt with precision of equinoxes ]
Aryabhata I I (A.D. 950) - ‘MAHASIDDHANTA’

Bhaskaracharya I I (A.D. 1114) ‘SIDDHANTA

SHIROMANI’ [ This work contains many formulas from spherical
trigonometry ]……..etc.
8
PCD-09
 http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/~labs/amp/kerala-astronomy.pdf

From Golapaada, by Aryabhata, ~500 AD

Just as a man in a boat moving sees the

stationary objects (on either side of the river)
as moving backward, so are the stationary
stars seen by the people at Lanka (i.e.
Nicolus Copurnicus reference coordinate on the equator) as
1473-1543 moving exactly toward the west. 9
PCD-09
 The Trial of Galileo (for supporting Copernican model)
April 1633: Galileo is interrogated before the Inquisition. For over two
weeks he is imprisoned in an apartment in the Inquisition building. Galileo
agrees to plead guilty to a lesser charge in exchange for a more lenient
sentence. He declares that the Copernican case was made too strongly in his
book Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, and offers to refute it
in another book.

June:
Galileo is sentenced to prison for an indefinite term. Seven of
ten cardinals presiding at his trial sign the sentencing order. Galileo signs a
formal recantation. Galileo is allowed to serve his term under house-arrest in
the home of the archbishop of Siena.

December: Galileo is allowed to return to his villa in

Florence, where he lived under house-arrest.
1992: Catholic Church formally admits that
Galileo's views on the solar system are correct.
http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/galileo/galileochronology.html
10
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 VECTORS! General rules for addition,
subtraction and scalar multiplication
r r
A = A Aˆ = AeˆA
r r r r
Commutative A + B = B + A
r r r r
A − B = −B + A
r r
sA = As
r r r r r r
Associative ( A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C )
r r r
m(nA) = (mn) A = n(mA)
r r r
Distributive (m + n)C = mC + nC
r r r r
m( A + B) = mA + mB

11
PCD-09
 z
Definition of a vector: “magnitude” and “direction”

Is rotation by 90 degrees a vector?

y
x

Rotation by 900 Rotation by 900

About the x axis Final
About the z axis
Same two Orientation
900 rotation
operations,
but
performed
in reverse Rotation by 900 Rotation by 900
order About the x axis About the z axis
12
PCD-08
 Will this be a satisfactory definition of a vector?
Quantities that have both magnitude and
direction, AND combine according to the ‘triangle
law’ of addition, ensuring that it is commutative.

Some more properties of vectors

r r r r
There exists a null vector 0 such that a + 0 = a
r r r r
∃ a null vector 0 . ∋ . a + 0 = a
r r r r r
For every a there exists a vector − a such that a + ( − a ) = 0
r r r r r
∀ a ∃ a vector − a . ∋ . a + (− a ) = 0

Closed under addition and multiplication

by scalar: Linear vector space Learn this
language! 13
PCD-09
 vector multiplication: scalar or inner or dot product

Guinness Book of Records confirmed the THE TOWER

award of the most leaning tower to Suurhusen IN THE
tower after officials measured it leaning at a VILLAGE OF
5.19 degree angle compared to only 3.97 SUURHUSEN,
degree angle at which the tower of Pisa leans. GERMANY

ur ur
A • uˆ = A cos θ

ur THE
LEANING
A TOWER OF
PISA, ITALY

PCD-08
uˆ 14
 scalar or inner or dot product
r r r r
A • B = AB cos θ = B • A (Commutative)
r r r r r r r
A • ( B + C ) = A • B + A • C ( Distributive)
r r r r r r
m( A • B ) = (mA) • B = A • (mB ) = mAB cos θ ( Associtive)
¾ Invariant under ROTATION of basis, i.e. coordinate
rotation
¾ ……. This is how a ‘scalar’ *MUST* be defined !

Example: Work done by a force

rr
F .s = ( F cos θ ) s
uur
F × component of displacement along it
ur
s × component of force along it 15
PCD-09
 components Scalar product in the component form
r r r
A • eˆ x = Ax A • eˆ y = A y A • eˆ z = Az
ur ur ur ur
A = ( A • eˆx )eˆx + ( A • eˆy )eˆy + ( A • eˆz )eˆz
r r
A • B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
r r
A • A = Ax Ax + Ay Ay + Az Az = A2
r
A = A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 Kroneker Delta

eˆi • eˆ j = δ ij r r
A • B = Aiδ ij B j
= 1, when i = j
= 0, when i ≠ j = Ai Bi
“God created the integers, all else is the work of man.”
– Leopold Kroneker (1823-1891) 16
PCD-09 http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Kronecker.html
vector or cross product
r r r r
A × B = AB sin θ nˆ = − B × A ( Not Commutative)
r
n̂ B r θ
B sin
directed area
θ A
r r r r r r r
A × ( B + C ) = A × B + A × C ( Distributive)

( ) ( )
A × B × C ≠ A × B × C ( Not Associtive)

( ) ( ) (
A × B × C = A • C B − A • BC = A • C B − A • B C )
( ) ( ) (
A × B × C = A • C B − A • BC = B A • C − C A • B )
(A × B)× C = (C • A)B − (C • B )A 17
PCD-09
 Y
How do vectors
Y/
transform under
rotation of a coordinate VY
VY/ X/
system?

r VX/
V = V x eˆ x + V y eˆ y X
VX

Same vector can also be written as

r
V = Vx 'eˆx ' + V y 'eˆ y '
This can be generalized into three (or N) dimensions
18
PCD-09
 coordinate transformations : rotation

blue: (x, y, z) : ‘old’ system

eˆ z ' red: (x’, y’, z’) : ‘new’ system

ê z
eˆ y '
θ
ê y
θ
ê x
eˆ x '
Positive rotation about z axis

Note: the rotation shown here is about the z-axis;

so z and z’ axes remain the same 19
PCD-09
 eˆ z ' blue: (x, y, z) : ‘old’
red: (x’, y’, z) : ‘new’ The transformation matrix
ê z
eˆ y ' is represented by R
θ ê y

θ
ê x
eˆ x ' ⎡ eˆ ' ⎤ ⎡ cos θ sin θ 0 ⎤ ⎡ eˆx ⎤
⎢ x⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ eˆy' ⎥ = ⎢ − sin θ cos θ 0 ⎥ ⎢eˆy ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ eˆz ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ eˆz ' ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0

R R = RR = I and det [R]=1

T T

Transformation matrices are orthogonal

so that
their inverse is equal to their transpose.
20
PCD-09
 Vx/ =Vx ⎡⎣eˆx/ ⋅ eˆx ⎤⎦ +Vy ⎡⎣eˆx/ ⋅ eˆy ⎤⎦ +Vz ⎡⎣eˆx/ ⋅ eˆz ⎤⎦

Vy/ = Vx ⎡eˆy/ ⋅ eˆx ⎤ +Vy ⎡eˆy/ ⋅ eˆy ⎤ +Vz ⎡eˆy/ ⋅ eˆz ⎤

⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

Vz/ =Vx ⎡⎣eˆz/ ⋅ eˆx ⎤⎦ +Vy ⎡⎣eˆz/ ⋅ eˆy ⎤⎦ +Vz ⎡⎣eˆz/ ⋅ eˆz ⎤⎦

Compact matrix form

⎡Vx / ⎤ ⎡ eˆx / ⋅ eˆx eˆx / ⋅ eˆ y eˆx / ⋅ eˆz ⎤ ⎡Vx ⎤

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
V = e
⎢ y⎥ ⎢ y x
/ ˆ / ⋅e ˆ eˆ y / ⋅ eˆ y eˆ y / ⋅ eˆz ⎥ ⎢V y ⎥
⎢V / ⎥ ⎢ eˆ / ⋅ eˆx eˆz / ⋅ eˆ y eˆz / ⋅ eˆz ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vz ⎥⎦
⎣ z ⎦ ⎣ z 21
PCD-09
 Too much Mathematics?
“IF YOU WANT TO READ THE BOOK OF THE
UNIVERSE ,

YOU MUST KNOW ITS LANGUAGE, WHICH IS

MATHEMATICS”.

Who said that?

Father of experimental
Physics

Grandpa of Engineering?

22
PCD-09
Why is an image in a mirror
inverted left to right
but not top to bottom?
23
PCD-09
Discrete Symmetries OBSERVE
Parity REFLECTION
Charge Conjugation ⎛ − x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
(matter – antimatter) ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Time Reversal ⎜ y ⎟ ← y
⎜ ⎟
⎜ z ⎟ ⎜ z ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
z M
I
x’ R
R
x O
y
R

Right hand goes to left, Left to right;

What happens to the Top/Bottom? Front/Back? 24
⎛ x '⎞ ⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ y ' ⎟ = R
⎜ 21 R 23 R 23 ⎟ ⎜ y ⎟
⎜ z '⎟ ⎜ R R 3 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ z ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 31 R 32

Coordinate transformations expressed using matrix algebra

Of specific interest is the determinant of the Matrix

R11 R12 R13

R 21 R 23 R 23
R 31 R 32 R 33
25
Matrix representation of vectors
⎛ x1 ⎞ ⎛ y1 ⎞
r ⎜ ⎟ r ⎜ ⎟
x = ⎜ x2 ⎟ , y = ⎜ y2 ⎟
⎜ x ⎟ ⎜ y ⎟ Row Matrix is
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ transpose of the
r Column Matrix
x T
= ( x1 x2 x3 )
r
y T
= ( y1 y2 y3 )
r r
expression of scalar x • y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3
product of vectors
as a matrix product. ⎛ y1 ⎞
r r ⎜ ⎟
= ( x1 x2 x3 ) ⎜ y2 ⎟
x• y ≡X Y T
⎜y ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ 26
 ⎛ y1 ⎞ Rotations preserve scalar
r r ⎜ ⎟
x • y ≡ X T
Y = ( x1 x2 x 3 )⎜ y 2 ⎟ product of vectors.
⎜ y ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
r r r r
Is R x • R y = x • y ? i.e ., is (R X )T (R Y ) = X T Y ?

T
⎡ ⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞ ⎛ x1 ⎞⎤ ⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞ ⎛ y1 ⎞
⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
(R X ) T (R Y ) = ⎢ ⎜ R 21 R 23 R 23 ⎟ ⎜ x2 ⎟⎥ ⎜ R 2 1 R 2 3 R 2 3 ⎟ ⎜ y2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎜ R ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝ R 3 1 R 32 R 33 ⎠ ⎝ x3 ⎠⎦ ⎝ 31 R 32 R 33 ⎠ ⎝ y3 ⎠
T T
⎛ x1 ⎞ ⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞ ⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞ ⎛ y1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ x2 ⎟ ⎜ R 21 R 23 R 23 ⎟ ⎜ R 2 1 R 2 3 R 2 3 ⎟⎜ y2 ⎟
⎜ x ⎟ ⎜ R ⎟ ⎜ R R 3 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ y 3 ⎟⎠
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 31 R 32 R 33 ⎠ ⎝ 31 R 32
T
⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞ ⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞ ⎛ y1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
= ( x1 x2 x 3 )⎜ R 21 R 23 R 23 ⎟ ⎜ R 21 R 23 R 23 ⎟ ⎜ y 2 ⎟
⎜ R 3 3 ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ R 3 1 ⎟ ⎜ y ⎟
⎝ R 31 R 32 R 32 R 33 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

T
⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞ ⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ Orthogonal Matrix
⎜ R21 R23 R23 ⎟ ⎜ R21 R23 R23 ⎟ = 1 Inverse=Transpose
⎜R R33 ⎟⎠ ⎜R R33 ⎟⎠
⎝ 31 R32 ⎝ 31 R32 27
 Matrix representation of the transformation operator

⎡ x ' ⎤ ⎡ Rxx Rxy Rxz ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤

⎢ y '⎥ = ⎢ R Ryy
⎥⎢ ⎥
Ryz ⎥ ⎢ y ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ yx
⎢⎣ z ' ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ Rzx Rzy Rzz ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦
COLUMN MATRIX ⎛ −1 0 0⎞ For
⎜ ⎟ parity,
⎜ 0 1 0⎟
r’ = R r ⎜ 0 0 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
det R = −1

For a rotation
TRANSFORMATION ⎛ −1 0 0 ⎞ For
⎜ ⎟ inversion,
(SQUARE) MATRIX RT R = RRT = 1 ⎜ 0 −1 0 ⎟ det R = −1
⎜ 0 0 −1⎟
and det R = 1 ⎝ ⎠ 28
 Rotation & Reflection
r’= R r are fundamentally different
symmetries!
For rotation, For parity,
det |R| = +1 det |R| = −1

29
 ORTHOGONAL
MATRICES
⎛ R11 R1 2 R1 3 ⎞T ⎛ R1 1 R1 2 R1 3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ R 21 R 23 R 23 ⎟ ⎜ R 21 R 23 R 2 3 ⎟ = I 3× 3
⎜R R 3 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ R 3 1 R 3 3 ⎟⎠
⎝ 31 R 32 R 32

D e te r m in a n t o f th e m a tr ix is ± 1

R1 1 R1 2 R1 3
R 21 R 23 R 23 = ± 1
R 31 R 32 R 33

+ R O T A T IO N S
- P A R IT Y
30
 ⎛ x1 ⎞ ⎛ y1 ⎞ Set of all rotations
r ⎜ ⎟ r ⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ x2 ⎟ , y =
x
⎜ x ⎟
⎜ y
⎜ y ⎟
2 ⎟, forms a group,
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
r
x T
= ( x1 x2 x 3 ), y
r T
= ( y1 y2 y3 ) O(3)
r r r r Invariance of scalar O: “orthogonal.”
Rx • Ry = x • y
(R X )T (R Y ) = X T
Y under rotations The subset with
T
⎡ ⎛ R11
⎢⎜
R12 R13 ⎞
⎟
⎛ x1 ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟⎥
⎛ R11
⎜
R12 R13 ⎞
⎟
⎛ y1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
determinant +1 is
• ⎜ R 21
⎢ ⎜ R 21
⎜
R 23 R 23 ⎟ ⎜ x 2 ⎟⎥ R 23 R 23 ⎟ ⎜ y 2
⎜ y ⎟
⎟ also a group:
⎣⎢ ⎝ R 3 1 R 32 R 3 3 ⎠⎟ ⎜ x ⎟⎥
⎝ 3 ⎠⎦
⎜
⎝ R 31 R 32 R 3 3 ⎠⎟ ⎝ 3 ⎠
SO(3)
⎛ y1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ This part: S: “special.”
X T Y = ( x1 x2 x 3 )⎜ y 2 ⎟
⎜ y ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
OPTIONAL. It is usual to refer
⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞T ⎛ R11 R12 R13 ⎞ to the elements of
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ R 21 R 23 R 23 ⎟ ⎜ R 21 R 23 R 2 3 ⎟ = I 3× 3 this subgroup as
⎜ R R 3 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜ R R 3 3 ⎟⎠
⎝ 31 R 32 ⎝ 31 R 32
R11 R12 R13
proper rotations;
R 21 R 23 R 23 = ± 1 Applications in one excludes
R 31 R 32 R 33
somewhat advanced those with
topics! negative
+ R O T A T IO N S Sophus Lie 31
- P A R IT Y determinant.
 Polar vectors and pseudo- or axial-vectors

under inversion,
r r
r → −r ,
ur ur
p → −p
r r ur
but if l = r × p,
r r
then, under inversion, l → −l
Axial vector (pseudo vector) is a vector which does not transform
like a position vector under reflection. Its components are
governed by a different transformation law with respect to
rotation of the coordinate system. 32
r r r r r ur
l = r× p
C = A× B
angular momentum

ur
R R O R p
MI

r
r r
l right − hand −cross − product r r ur
r ur ⊗ l = r× p
= r image × p image 33
Proper- or Polar-vectors (odd parity)

Pseudo- or axial-vectors (even parity)

Polar (proper) vector : gets inverted under 3D inversion

Pseudo (axial) vector : does not change under 3D inversion

3D Inversion (parity transformation) : xÆ -x; yÆ-y and zÆ -z

Polar vector

3D
inversion
Pseudo vector

3D inversion
34
Reflection ≠ Rotation

We imagine the world in front of the mirror has been

rotated through 180° about the mirror's vertical axis,
and it has arrived behind the mirror where we see the
image.

Such a rotation would

put the head and feet
where we expect them,
but leaves the left
and right sides of
the body on opposite
sides to where they
appear in the
reflection.
35
Here, the image goes from top to bottom and
36
bottom to top, but not left to right!
 Examples :
Some ‘real physical quantities’
r r
Angular Momentum Vector r × p

Force on a charged particle moving

in an electromagnetic field
r r r r
{
F = q E + v× B } Lorentz Force

The Lorentz force, like any other force, is a polar vector,

r
since it includes the cross-product of a polar vector v
r
with a pseudo-vector B . 37
PCD-09
 Algebra of Pseudo Vectors and
Examples
Dot and cross products: Examples for axial (pseudo) vectors:
Polar x Polar = Axial r r r
Torque τ =r× f
Polar x Axial = Polar
r r r
Axial x Axial = Axial Angular Momentum L = r × p

Axial . Polar = Pseudo- r r r

mag . = qv × B
Magnetic field F
scalar

Important: An axial vector can never be

equated with a polar vector
38
PCD-09
 x = ρ cos ϕ ρ = + x2 + y 2 FLATLAND SPACE
êy
y = ρ sin ϕ ⎛ y⎞
ϕ = tan ⎜ ⎟
−1 Y êρ
êϕ
⎝x⎠
−∞ < x < ∞
ρ: 0≤ ρ <∞ ϕ
êx
−∞ < y < ∞ ϕ : 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π

eˆρ = cos ϕ eˆx + sin ϕ eˆy ρ coordinates

eˆϕ = − sin ϕ eˆx + cos ϕ eˆy ϕ
( ρ , ϕ ) ≡ ( x, y )
O X
) ) )
ex = cos ϕ eρ − sin ϕ eϕ
) ) ) êϕ points in the
ey = sin ϕ eρ + cos φ eϕ direction in which the
azimuthal angle
eˆρ .eˆρ = 1 = eˆϕ .eˆϕ increases
eˆρ .eˆϕ = 0
(eˆρ , eˆϕ ) constitute an orthogonal pair of base vectors 39
PCD-09
Position vector VELOCITY?
r
ρ = ρ eˆρ ACCELERATION ?
Note that (eˆρ , eˆϕ )
are not constant vectors.

d
[ Product of two functions ]
dt
To get acceleration, d d
we have to do that
twice! dt dt 40
 (eˆρ , eˆϕ ) are not constant vectors,
Y
whereas (eˆx , eˆy ) are.

eˆρ = eˆρ ( ρ , ϕ )
eˆϕ1
“Unit Circle” eˆρ 1 eˆϕ = eˆϕ ( ρ , ϕ )
1
ϕ X
O

eˆρ = cos ϕ eˆx + sin ϕ eˆy

eˆϕ = − sin ϕ eˆx + cos ϕ eˆy
41
PCD-09
 eˆρ = eˆρ ( ρ , ϕ ) eˆρ = cos ϕ eˆx + sin ϕ eˆy
eˆϕ = eˆϕ ( ρ , ϕ ) ∂eˆρ
= − sin ϕ eˆx + cos ϕ eˆy
Y
∂ϕ ) ) )
How do
these unit ex = cos ϕ eρ − sin ϕ eϕ
vectors ) ) )
change with eˆϕ 1 ey = sin ϕ eρ + cos φ eϕ
the azimuthal
1 eˆρ 1
angle?
ϕ
O X

∂eˆρ
= − sin ϕ ( cos ϕ eρ − sin ϕ eϕ ) + cos ϕ ( sin ϕ eρ + cos ϕ eϕ )
) ) ) )
∂ϕ
)
= eϕ
42
PCD-09
 Geometrical Consider (eˆρ , eˆϕ )
determination Y
at two neighboring
∂ê ρ points, infinitesimally
of
∂ϕ −eˆρ 1 eˆρ 2 close to each other.

“Unit Circle” 2 eˆϕ 1

δϕ 1 eˆρ 1
ϕ X
O

eˆρ 2 − eˆρ 1 = δϕ eˆϕ

eˆρ 2 − eˆρ 1 δ eˆρ ∂eˆρ

lim = lim = = eˆϕ
PCD-09
δϕ →0 δϕ δϕ → 0 δϕ ∂ϕ 43
 eˆρ = eˆρ ( ρ , ϕ )
(eˆρ , eˆϕ ) are not constant vectors. eˆϕ = eˆϕ ( ρ , ϕ )

Y
−eˆρ 1 eˆρ 2
2
eˆρ = cos ϕ eˆx + sin ϕ eˆy
“Unit Circle” eˆϕ = − sin ϕ eˆx + cos ϕ eˆy
δϕ 1 eˆρ 1
ϕ X
O
∂eˆρ ∂eˆρ
= 0, = eˆϕ ,
∂ρ ∂ϕ
∂eˆϕ ∂eˆϕ
= 0, = −eˆρ
PCD-09
∂ρ ∂ϕ 44
 If ξ = ξ (u ) and u = φ ( x), chain rule
dξ
then will be a measure of the d ξ ⎛ d ξ ⎞ ⎛ du ⎞
dx =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
sensitivity of ξ to changes in x : dx ⎝ du ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠

If ξ = ξ (u , v)
where u = u ( x), v = v( x),
dξ ⎛ ∂ξ ⎞ ⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ ∂ξ ⎞ ⎛ dv ⎞
the rate at which ξ will = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
dx ⎝ ∂u ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ ∂v ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠
change with respect to x
will be given by :
If ξ = ξ (u , v, x) where u = u ( x), v = v( x), the rate at
which ξ will change with respect to x will be given by :
dξ ⎛ ∂ξ ⎞⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ ∂ξ ⎞ ⎛ dv ⎞ ⎛ ∂ξ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ . &
Eg. L(q (t ), q (t ), t )
dx ⎝ ∂u ⎠⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ ∂v ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ⎠ 45
PCD-09
Example: Velocity of a molecule of water
in a river – depends on ‘where’ and
‘when’ both!
dv d
= v ( r (t ) , t )
dt dt
Time Dependence: both
implicit and explicit
v ( x ( t ), y ( t ), z ( t ), t )
dv d
=
dt dt
d v ∂ v dx ∂ v dy
= + +
dt ∂ x dt ∂ y dt
∂ v dz ∂ v
+
∂ z dt ∂t 46
 Elemental area Position vector & Velocity
in plane polar coordinates in plane polar coordinates
dA = ρ d ρ dϕ ur
ρ = ρ eˆρ
Y
uuur
ρ dϕ d ρ = (d ρ )eˆρ + ρ deˆρ
ur
dρ r r d ρ d ( ρ eˆρ )
v = ρ& = =
dϕ dt dt
ρ dρ deˆρ
= eˆρ + ρ
ϕ dt dt
∂eˆρ ∂eˆρ
R 2π 2
R
X = 0, = eˆϕ ,
∂ρ ∂ϕ
∫ρ =0 ϕ∫=0 ρ ρ ϕ = π = π 2
d d 2 R
2 ∂eˆϕ ∂eˆϕ
= 0, = −eˆρ
∂ρ ∂ϕ 47
PCD-09
 ∂eˆρ ∂eˆρ Motion of a particle
= 0, = eˆϕ , in plane polar coordinates
∂ρ ∂ϕ
∂eˆϕ ∂eˆϕ deˆρ ∂eˆρ
= 0, = −eˆρ = ϕ& = eˆϕϕ&
∂ρ ∂ϕ dt ∂ϕ
and chain rule
Time-dependence deˆϕ ∂eˆϕ
of unit vectors = ϕ& = −eˆρϕ&
dt ∂ϕ
ur
r r d ρ d ( ρ eˆρ ) d ρ deˆ
&
v=ρ = = = eˆρ + ρ ρ

dt dt dt dt
= ρ& eˆρ + ρϕ& eˆϕ
48
Radial velocity and Azimuthal velocity
PCD-09
 r
v = ρ& eˆ ρ + ρϕ& eˆ ϕ instantaneous velocity

deˆρ ∂eˆρ
= ϕ& = eˆϕϕ&
dt ∂ϕ
and
deˆϕ ∂eˆϕ
= ϕ& = −eˆρϕ&
dt ∂ϕ
acceleration
r
r dv deˆρ deˆϕ
a = = ρ&& eˆ ρ + ρ& + ρϕ
& & eˆϕ + ρϕ&& eˆϕ + ρϕ&
dt dt dt
r
⇒ a =(ρ&& − ρϕ& ) eˆ ρ + (2ρϕ
2
& & + ρϕ&&)eˆ ϕ
49
PCD-09
Position vector is d rr = d ρ eˆ ρ + ρ d ϕ eˆ ϕ + dz eˆ z
r
r = ρ eˆ ρ + z eˆ z Z right handed triad
ρdρdφêz
of unit vectors
{eˆ ρ ,eˆ ϕ ,eˆ z }

dz
ρ
ρdφdzêρ
r
dρdz êϕ z

φ
Y
dφ ρdφ
X
dρ V = ρdρdφdz
50
PCD-09
 General Reference on Vector analysis :

[1] Berkeley Physics Course, Vol.1. ‘Mechanics’

[2] Davis: ‘Classical Mechanics’

SUPPLEMENTARY OPTIONAL READING:

General Reference on Astronomy :
Patrik Moore: International Encyclopedia of Astronomy.
Carl Sagan: Cosmos

Slightly advanced references:

Arfken: Mathematical Methods for Physicists.

Boas: Mathematical methods in Physical Sciences.
51
PCD-09
Unit 4: Kepler Problem.
Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector, ‘Dynamical’ symmetry.
Conservation principle ↔ Symmetry relation.

Kepler Problem.
Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector, ‘Dynamical’ symmetry.
Conservation principle ↔ Symmetry relation.

Kepler: “equal area in equal time”

Conservation of Angular Momentum :
Central Force Field
Symmetry Conservation Law

Other than ‘energy’ and ‘angular

momentum’, what else is conserved,
and
what is the associated symmetry?
1
PCD-09
Unit 4: Kepler Problem. Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector,
‘Dynamical’ symmetry. Relationship between
‘Conservation principle’ and ‘Symmetry’.
Learning goals:
Conservation of energy comes in a Kepler problem stems
from symmetry with regard to temporal translations.
Conservation of angular momentum, likewise, stems from
the central field symmetry in the Kepler problem.
Neither of these accounts for the fact that the Kepler
ellipse remains fixed; that the ellipse does not undergo a
rosette motion.
This unit will discover the ‘dynamical’ symmetry of the
Kepler problem and its relation with the constancy
(conservation) of the LRL vector, which keeps the orbit
‘fixed’. Motivation: Connection between symmetry &
conservation laws has important consequences
PCD-09
on issues at the very frontiers of physics.
 Homogeneity of time Conservation of energy
Conservation of linear
Homogeneity of space
momentum
Translational Symmetry
Isotropy of space Conservation of angular
Rotational Symmetry momentum
Emmy Noether
1882 to 1935

SYMMETRY CONSERVATION
LAWS

Her entry to the Senate of the University of

Gottingen, Germany, was resisted.
David Hilbert argued in favor of admitting her to the
University Senate.
PCD-09
 ∂L Time is homogeneous:
pi tul ate… =0
Reca n i t 1 ∂t Lagrangian of a closed system
m U
… Fro does not depend explicitly on time.
⎡ ∂L ⎤
⎢q& ∂q& - L ⎥ is a CONSTANT.
⎣ ⎦

Hamiltonian Conservation of Energy is

thus connected with the
“ENERGY” symmetry principle
regarding invariance with
respect to temporal
translations.

Hamiltonian / Hamilton’s Principal Function

4
PCD-09
 Space is homogenous and isotropic

the condition for homogeneity of space : δ L( x, y, z ) = 0

∂L ∂L ∂L
ul ate … i.e., δ L = δx+ δ y+ δz =0
Recapi t ∂x ∂y ∂z
om U n i t1 ∂L
… Fr which implies = 0 where q = x, y, z
∂q

∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
since − ⎜ &⎟ = 0, this means i.e. = p is conserved.
∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠ ∂q&
i.e., is independent of time, is a constant of motion

Law of conservation of momentum,

arises from the homogeneity of space.
Symmetry Conservation Laws
5
PCD-09
 i tu l a te … N r →
⎡ N r →
⎤
Recap n i t 1 0 = ∑ Fk . δ S = ⎢ ∑ Fk ⋅δ S ⎥
(i ) (i )
U
… From k =1 ⎣k = 1 ⎦

Nr (i) →
Displacement is arbitrary, hence, ∑ Fk = 0;
k =1
→ d N ur (i) d →
i.e. 0 = ∑ pk = P.
dt k = 1 dt
r
Thus P is conserved in the absence of external forces.
The conservation of momentum was secured in ‘Unit 1’ on
the basis of ‘translational invariance in homegenous
space’, and not on the basis of Newton’s III law.
PCD-09
 ur
dP r
=0
dtuur uur
d p2 d p1
=−
urdt ur dt
F 12 = − F 21
Given the symmetry related to
translation in homogenous
space, could you have
discovered Newton’s 3rd law?
7
Kepler-Bohr problem

ρ
ϕ

∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ We explore
− ⎜ &⎟=0 the
∂q dt ⎝ ∂q ⎠
connection
1
L = T − V = m( ρ& 2 + ρ 2ϕ& 2 ) − V (ρ )
between
2 symmetry
∂L and
= 0, ϕ is cyclic conservation
∂ϕ laws further
∂L
pϕ = = constant = mρ 2ϕ& = angular momentum
∂ϕ&
8
PCD-09
 How did Kepler deduce that planetary orbits are
ellipses around the sun ?

Kepler had no knowledge of :

(a) differential equations
(b) inverse square force
(gravity).

Johannes Kepler
1571- 1630

9
PCD-09
 Johannes Kepler Galileo Galilei Isaac Newton
1571- 1630 1564 - 1642 (1642-1727)

Causality, Determinism, Equation of Motion

‘Dynamics’ came AFTER KEPLER!
10
PCD-09
 How did Kepler deduce that planetary
orbits are ellipses around the sun ?

Kepler got his elliptic orbits not

by solving differential
equations for gravitational
force, but by doing clever
curve fitting of Tycho Brahe’s
experimental data.
11
PCD-09
 Tycho Brahe (1546-1601):
Danish astronomer appointed as the imperial
astronomer under Rudolf II in Prague, which then
came under the Roman expire.

Brahe had his own “Tychonian” model of planetary

motion:

Like the Copernican system, Brahe had planets

revolve around the sun, and the sun and the moon
going around the earth (like the system of Ptolemy).

Brahe wore a nose made of gold, his original

nose got cut in a student dual fought to
determine who was a superior mathematician
[Read Carl Sagan’s ‘Cosmos’].
12
PCD-09
 Tycho Brahe (1546-1601):
He discovered the supernova in 1572, in
“Cassiopeia’.
Kepler and Brahe never could collaborate
successfully.
They quarreled, and Tycho did not provide
Kepler any access to the high precision
observational date he (Brahe) had complied.
It was only on his deathbed, saying “……let
me not seem to have lived in vain…….” that
Brahe handed over his observational data to
Kepler [Sagan].
13
PCD-09
 Apart from ENERGY and ANGULAR
MOMENTUM,
what else is conserved, and
what is the associated symmetry?
14
PCD-09
 b
a
Focus

a = sem i-m ajor axis

b = sem i-m inor axis
b2
e : eccentricity 2
= 1− e
a

b
a

e=0 e=0.5 e=0.75 e=0.95

_____ b = 0, e = 1: straight line
Increasing eccentricity 15
PCD-09
 Two-body central field Kepler-Bohr
problem,
Attractive force:
inverse-square-law.

Rosette motion
For this potential and
associated field:
no precession of orbit.

The constancy of the

Angular momentum is orbit suggests a
conserved, conserved quantity and
but major-axis not fixed. one must look for an
associated symmetry.
16
PCD-09
 Laplace Runge Lenz Vector ur
is constant for a strict 1 r The ×L
potential. ur ur angular
p×L
− m keˆ ρ ê ρ momentum
ur
p
vector is
ur
ur ρ P
A ϕ into the
S plane of

ur ur ur this figure.
A = p × L − m keˆ ρ
17
PCD-09
 ur ur ur
A = p × L − mkeˆρ
ur ur ur ur
dA dp u
r u
r dL deˆρ r dL r
= × L + p× − mk
dt dt dt dt τ= = 0.
dt
Central force: No torque!
ur ur
d A d p ur deˆρ
= × L − mk
dt dt dt

deˆρ ∂eˆρ
But = ϕ& = eˆϕϕ&
dt ∂ϕ
ur ur
d A d p ur
Hence = × L − mkeˆϕϕ&
dt dt
18
PCD-09
 ur ur
ur ur ur d A d p ur
A = p × L − mkeˆρ ⇒ = × L − mkeˆϕϕ&
dt dt
ur
dp
What is the form of the force: ?
dt
If we know it, we can plug it in the above
expression
- but for us to do be able to do that,
we must know it!
We must know the form of the interaction!
19
PCD-09
 ur ur ur
A = p × L − mkeˆρ Force:
r
? dp k
ur ur = − ˆ
eρ
d A d p ur dt ρ 2
= × L − mkeϕϕ
ˆ &
dt
ur dt Newton told us!
dA ⎛ k ⎞ u
r
= ⎜ − 2 eˆρ ⎟ × L − mkϕ& eˆϕ
dt ⎝ ρ ⎠
ur
dA ⎛ k ⎞
= ⎜ − 2 eˆρ ⎟ × ( mρ 2ϕ& eˆz ) − mkϕ& eˆϕ
dt ⎝ ρ ⎠ ur
= ( − keˆρ ) × ( mϕ& eˆz ) − mkϕ& eˆϕ
dA
right handed triad
of unit vectors: {eˆ ρ ,eˆ ϕ ,eˆ z }
dt
ur
r
−eˆρ × eˆz = eˆϕ = ( mkϕ& eˆϕ ) − mkϕ& eˆϕ = 0
dA
20
PCD-09
dt
 ur
dA r
Conclusion: =0
dt
ρ
ϕ
ur ur ur
perigee A = p × L − m keˆ ρ apogee
ur ur
A. L = 0 LRL vector is in the plane of the orbit
ur
Find its direction at perigee and at apogee. A
Direction of the LRL vector is: focus to perigee.
ur
:Must remain constant
A
– no matter where the planet is!
This is precisely what FIXES the orbit!
21
PCD-09
 r
dp k
Force: = − 2 eˆρ Newton told us!
dt ρ

Given the constancy related to the

conservation of the LRL vector, could
you have discovered the law of gravity?

If you did that, wouldn’t you have

discovered a law of nature?
22
 ur ur ur
p×L
×L
Laplace Runge Lenz Vector is
constant for a strict 1/r potential.
ê ρ ur
ur ur ur − m keˆ ρ p

A = p × L − m keˆ ρ
ur
For L (angular momentum vector)
to be conserved,
ur uur
any central force would do.
A For
dA
= 0,
[Geometrical Symmetry] dt
1 one requires
L = T − V = m ( ρ& 2 + ρ 2ϕ& 2 ) − V ( ρ ) r
2 dp k
= − 2 eˆ ρ
k dt ρ
V (ρ ) = −
ρ D Y N AM IC AL
Reference: Goldstein’s ‘Classical Mechanics’, Section 9, Chapter 3.
SY M M ET R Y
23
PCD-09
Symmetry & Conservation Principles!

“It is now natural for us to try to derive the laws of nature

and to test their validity by means of the laws of invariance,
rather than to derive the laws of invariance from what we
believe to be the laws of nature.” - Eugene Wigner

Eugene
Paul
Wigner
Emmily Amalie (1902-1995)
Noether
24
(1882 – 1935)
Properties of an ellipse: ρ y ρ'
locus of all points ϕ
such that ρ + ρ ' = 2 a x
ρ ' = 2a − ρ 2λ

( λ − ) + = ρ
2 2 2
2 x y '
Pythagoras Theorem

ρ ,ϕ
relation a b
for
ellipse 2λ
b = a −λ
2 2 2
25
 ρ ,ϕ ρ + ρ ' = 2a ρ y ρ'
ϕ
relation ρ ' = 2 a − ρ
x
for 2λ
ellipse

(2λ − x ) + y = ρ '
2 2 2

( 2λ − ρ cos ϕ ) + y = ( 2 a − ρ )
2 2 2

( 2λ − ρ cos ϕ ) + ( ρ sin ϕ ) = ( 2 a − ρ )
2 2 2

4λ 2 − 4λρ cos ϕ + ρ 2 cos 2 ϕ + ρ 2 sin 2 ϕ = 4 a 2 − 4 a ρ + ρ 2

λ 2 − λρ cos ϕ = a 2 − a ρ
a ρ − λρ cos ϕ = a 2 − λ 2
ρ ( a − λ cos ϕ ) = a 2 − λ 2 26
 ρ y ρ'
ρ ( a − λ cos ϕ ) = a − λ
2 2 ϕ
a2 − λ 2 x
ρ= =
b2 2λ
a − λ cos ϕ a − λ cos ϕ
b = a −λ
2 2 2

a2 − λ 2 b2
ρ= =
a − λ cos ϕ a − λ cos ϕ

⎛λ⎞
1 − ⎜ ⎟ cos ϕ
1 a − λ cos ϕ ⎝ a⎠ 1 − e cos ϕ
= = =
ρ b 2
⎛b ⎞
2
⎛ b2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
a ⎝ a ⎠
27
ur ur ur
A = p × L − m keˆ ρ T he ( ρ , ϕ )
ur ur ur relation
A. L = 0 l =| L | describes the
r ur familiar ellipse.
Examine: r • A = ρ Acosϕ
r ur r ur ur LRL vector
r • A = r • p × L − mk ρ provides an
r ur ur alternative way to
= r × p • L − mk ρ
determine the
= l2 − mk ρ ‘orbit’ equation for
1 mk ⎡ A ⎤ the Kepler
ρ
= 2
l ⎢⎣1 + m k cos ϕ ⎥⎦ problem.

28
PCD-09
ur ur ur
A = p × L − mkeˆρ 1 1 − e cos ϕ “usual”
=
r ur ρ ⎛ b 2
⎞ ellipse
ur ⎡ v× L ⎤ r ⎜ ⎟
A = mk ⎢ − eˆρ ⎥ = mka ⎝ a ⎠ “LRL”
⎣ k ⎦ ellipse
r ur
r v× L 1 mk ⎡ A ⎤
where a = − eˆρ = 2 ⎢1 + cos ϕ ⎥
k ρ l ⎣ mk ⎦
r
a =e , The above ρ , ϕ relation
orbit's eccentricity. expresses the ellipse with the
eccentricity identified as defined
above. Details : bit laborious!
We thus get equation to the orbit using
the LRL vector properties. 29
ur ur ur Conservation law
A = p × L − m keˆ ρ associated with
Laplace R unge Lenz V ector : ‘dynamical/accidental’
1 symmetry.
constant for a strict potential.
r Remember Noether?

Wilhelm
Carl David Tolmé Lenz
Runge 1888 -1957
Pierre-Simon Laplace
1856 - 1927 Symmetry of the H atom: ‘old’
1749 - 1827
quantum theory. En ~ n-2
30
PCD-09
Further reading, beyond PH101
• Symmetry & Conservation laws play an
important role in understanding the very frontiers
of Physics.
• The implications go as far as testing the
‘standard’ model of physics, and exploring if
there is any physics beyond the standards
model.
31
Continuous Symmetries - Translation, Rotation

Dynamical Symmetries - LRL, Fock Symmetry

SO(4)

Discrete Symmetries
- P : Parity
- C : Charge Conjugation
- T : Time Reversal

32
Electroweak Unification
The PHOTON, along with the W and Z provides unification of
weak and Electromagnetic (Electrodynamic) interactions.
Mass of W & Z particles: ~80 and 90 Gev, respectively;
Photon is mass-less.

Difference in masses is attributed to SPONTANEOUS

SYMMETRY BREAKING, as the hot universe cooled.

At very high temperatures (kT>100 GeV), these particles are

essentially identical; the weak and electromagnetic
interactions: manifestations of a single force.

The symmetry-breaking mechanism requires a new

boson, the HIGGS BOSON.

33
Lorentz symmetry: associated with another fundamental
symmetry of particle physics, the PCT symmetry.

PCT theorem (Wolfgang Pauli) links

Lorentz symmetry and PCT symmetry.

Any violation of PCT symmetry would also imply a violation

of Lorentz symmetry.
No experiment has revealed any violation of PCT symmetry.

This is predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics.

34
 The Standard Model today

The ‘standard model’ unifies all the

fundamental building blocks of matter and
three of the four fundamental forces.

To complete the Model a new particle is needed – the Higgs

Boson – that the physics community hopes to find in the new
built accelerator LHC at CERN in Geneva. 35
 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics
"for the discovery of the origin of
"for the discovery of the
the broken symmetry which
mechanism of spontaneous
predicts the existence of at least
broken symmetry in
three families of quarks in nature"
subatomic physics"

Makoto Kobayashi Toshihide Maskawa

Yoichiro Nambu ¼ prize ¼ prize
½ prize High Energy Kyoto Sangyo Univ,
Enrico Fermi Institute, Accelerator KyotoJapan
Chicago, USA Research Organization, 36
Tsukuba, Japan
 ‘every symmetry in nature yields a
conservation law
and conversely,
every conservation law reveals an
underlying symmetry’.
-- Noether’s theorem

“……..one seeks the most general ideas of operation

which will bring together in simple, logical and unified
form the largest possible circle of formal relationships.
In this effort toward logical beauty, spiritual formulas are
discovered necessarily for the deeper penetration into
the laws of nature………..” -Einstein

http://www.relativitycalculator.com/laws_of_conservation.shtml

37
PCD-09
“In the judgment of the most competent living
mathematicians, Fräulein Noether was the most significant
creative mathematical genius thus far produced since the
higher education of women began.”

“In the realm of algebra, … , she discovered methods which

have proved of enormous importance …. “

“………. Her unselfish, significant work over a period of many

years was rewarded by the new rulers of Germany with a
dismissal, which cost her the means of maintaining her
simple life and the opportunity to carry on her mathematical
studies……”
ALBERT EINSTEIN. Princeton University, May 1, 1935.
New York Times May 5, 1935, Excerpts 38
PCD-09
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Obits2/Noether_Emmy_Einstein.html
 Unit 5: Spherical Polar Coordinates

Learning goals:

Many problems in physics have central field

symmetry.

In this unit, we shall develop further confidence

in vector methods and coordinate
transformations and learn to use an appropriate
coordinate system to simplify analysis.
PCD-09 1
 Z
ρ eˆr
r = x2 + y2 + z 2
z = r cos θ êϕ
ρ x2 + y 2
tan θ = =
êθ z z
0≤r<∞ θ x2 + y2
0 ≤θ ≤π r θ = tan −1
z
0 ≤ ϕ < 2π θ y
ϕ = tan −1

x
y = r sin θ sin ϕ
x = r sin θ cos ϕ Y
ϕ
x = r sin θ cos ϕ
ρ = r sin θ
y = r sin θ sin ϕ
X
z = r cos θ
PCD-09 2
 Transformations of the unit vectors

⎡ eˆr ⎤ ⎡ sin θ cos ϕ sin θ sin ϕ cosθ ⎤ ⎡ eˆx ⎤

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ eˆ ⎥
⎢ eˆθ ⎥ = ⎢ cos θ cos ϕ cos θ sin ϕ − sin θ ⎥ ⎢ y⎥
⎢ eˆϕ ⎥ ⎢⎣ − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ eˆz ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦

Get the inverse matrix,

and write the inverse transformations.

⎡ eˆx ⎤ ⎡sin θ cos ϕ cos θ cos ϕ -sinϕ ⎤ ⎡ eˆr ⎤

⎢ eˆ ⎥ = ⎢ sin θ sin ϕ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ y⎥ ⎢ cos θ sin ϕ cos ϕ ⎥ eˆ
⎢ θ⎥
⎢⎣ eˆz ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ cos θ − sin θ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢ eˆϕ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
PCD-09 3
 Z
ρ eˆr rdθ
The point
êϕ
is displaced
dθ êθ to a new point
on the sphere
r
of same radius r = constant
and in the same plane
θ ϕ = constant

Y
ϕ
Recognize the distance
between the old position
ρ = r sin θ and the new position to be rdθ

PCD-09 4
 Z
ρ eˆr ρ dϕ = r sin θ dϕ
êϕ The point

dθ êθ
is displaced
to a new point
r on the sphere r = constant
and on the surface of the

ρ dϕ θ inverted cone θ = constant

= r sin θ dϕ
Y
ϕ
dϕ Recognize the distance
between the old position
ρ = r sin θ and the new position to be
ρ dϕ = r sin θ dϕ
X

PCD-09 5
 dV =
Volume spanned Z
by the
( dr )(rdθ )(r sin θ dϕ )
three = r si n θ dr dθ dϕ
2

displacements
through dr
dr
rdθ r
r sin θ dϕ r
θ dθ

Y
φ dϕ

X
PCD-09 6
 uur
dS r = rdθ eˆθ × r sin θ dϕ eˆϕ = r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ eˆr
uur
Z dS ϕ = dreˆr × rdθ eˆθ = rdrdθ eˆϕ

Determination of r
infinitesimal vector dr dSθ = r sin θ d ϕ eˆϕ × dreˆr
surface elements
made up of r = r sin θ drd ϕ eˆθ
incremental sides r
θ dθ Tiny volume contained
Y between the three pairs
of surfaces
φ dϕ
dV =
( dr )( rdθ )(r sin θ dϕ )
X
= r 2si n θ dr dθ dϕ
PCD-09 7
 Note that (eˆρ , eˆϕ )
Do you remember how Y we got,
are not constant vectors,
in Unit_3,
the CHANGES δ ê whereas (eˆx , eˆy ) are.
in the unit vectors for
the plane polar coordinates? Consider (eˆρ , eˆϕ )
Use the same technique! at two neighboring
δϕ points, infinitesimally
eˆρ = cos ϕ eˆx + sin ϕ eˆy
eˆϕ = − sin ϕ eˆx + cos ϕ eˆy ϕ close to each other.
X
O
∂eˆρ ∂eˆρ
eˆρ 2 − eˆρ 1 = δϕ eˆϕ eˆϕ 2 − eˆϕ 1 = −δϕ eˆρ = 0, = eˆϕ ,
∂ρ ∂ϕ
∂eˆρ ∂eˆϕ ∂eˆϕ ∂eˆϕ
= eˆϕ = −eˆρ = 0, = −eˆρ
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ρ ∂ϕ
PCD-09 8
 Z
ρ eˆr 1st position
eˆr 2 − eˆr1 = δθ eˆθ The point
−eˆr 2nd position
is displaced
dθ êθ
In the limit to a new point

δθ → 0, r on the sphere
of same radius
∂eˆr θ r = constant
= eˆθ
∂θ and in the same plane
ϕ = constant
Y
ϕ
Distance between the 1st
position and 2nd position
is rdθ
X

PCD-09 9
 Partial derivatives of the unit vectors with
respect to the coordinates:

∂eˆr ∂eˆθ ∂eˆϕ If imagining complicated

= = =0 geometrical three-dimensional
∂r ∂r ∂r
objects is getting difficult, you
∂eˆr
= eˆθ can use the ‘chain rule’ of taking
∂θ
derivatives to get the partial
∂eˆθ
= −eˆr derivatives of the unit vectors
∂θ
∂eˆϕ using these transformation rules,
=0
∂θ as illustrated on the next page.
eˆ r = sin θ cos ϕ eˆ x + sin θ sin ϕ eˆ y + cos θ eˆ z
eˆθ = cos θ cos ϕ eˆ x + cos θ sin ϕ eˆ y − sin θ eˆ z
eˆϕ = − sin ϕ eˆ x + co s ϕ eˆ y
PCD-09 10
 Use of ‘chain rule’ to get the partial derivatives of the
unit vectors using the transformation rules for the unit vectors.
eˆ r = s in θ c o s ϕ eˆ x + s in θ s in ϕ eˆ y + c o s θ eˆ z
eˆθ = c o s θ c o s ϕ eˆ x + c o s θ s in ϕ eˆ y − s in θ eˆ z
eˆϕ = − s in ϕ eˆ x + c o s ϕ eˆ y

For example:
∂eˆϕ
= − cos ϕ eˆx − sin ϕ eˆy
∂ϕ
= − cos ϕ ( sin θ cos ϕ eˆr + cos θ cos ϕ eˆθ − sin ϕ eˆϕ )
− sin ϕ ( sin θ sin ϕ eˆr + cos θ sin ϕ eˆθ + cos ϕ eˆϕ )
= − sin θ eˆr − cos θ eˆθ

Other partial derivatives can be obtained equally

easily, and left for your to do as an exercise!
PCD-09 11
 ∂eˆr r
=0
∂r
∂eˆr
= eˆθ
∂θ ∂eˆθ r
∂eˆr =0
= sin θ eˆϕ ∂r
∂ϕ ∂eˆθ
= −eˆr ∂ ˆϕ r
∂θ e
=0
∂eˆθ ∂r
= cos θ eˆϕ ∂eˆϕ r
∂ϕ =0
∂θ
∂eˆϕ
= − cos θ eˆθ − sin θ eˆr
∂ϕ
PCD-09 12
 Getting frightened by Spherical polar ?

Be confident, you can master it !!!

But, How?
Pictures from
What is relativity? Landau and Rumer; Dover 1993
PCD-09 13
 z
êϕ
r êθ
θ
rcosθ

rs y
inθ
φ r sinθ cosϕ

r sinθ sinϕ
x
¾ the surface of constant r sphere of radius r
¾ the surface of constant θ surface of a cone
¾ the surface of constant ϕ plane perpendicular to xy
¾ constant r and θ ‘mouth’ of the cone
¾ constant r and φ arc of a circle
PCD-09
¾ constant θ and φ line segment 14
 Motion in in spherical polar:
Velocity and acceleration
Infinitesimal displacement
r
Position vector r = reˆr
r
dr = dreˆr + rdeˆr
r
dr = dreˆr + rd θ eˆθ + r sin θ d ϕ eˆϕ
r ∂ eˆr ∂ eˆr
⇒ dr = dreˆr + r δθ + r δϕ
∂θ ∂ϕ
PCD-09 15
 Motion in in spherical polar:
Velocity and acceleration
r
dr = dreˆr + rd θ eˆθ + r sin θ d ϕ eˆϕ
r
& ˆr + rθ&eˆθ + r sin θϕ& eˆϕ
v = re

r
r dv &
a= = ( r - rθ - r sin θϕ ) eˆr
&& 2 2
& 2

dt
+ (2 r&θ − r sin θ cos θϕ + rθ&&) eˆθ
& & 2

+ (2 r&ϕ& sin θ + 2 rϕθ & & cos θ + r sin θϕ&&) eˆ

ϕ

PCD-09 16
 Unit 6: Inertial and non-inertial reference frames.
Moving coordinate systems. Pseudo forces.
Inertial and non-inertial reference frames.
Deterministic cause-effect relations in inertial frame,
and their modifications in a non-inertial frame.

Real Effects of Pseudo Forces!

Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis

PCD-09 Six Flags over Georgia 1792 - 1843
1
 Learning goals:

We know that Newton’s laws hold only in an inertial frame

of reference, and we shall learn just what this means.

We shall learn how the distinction between an inertial and a

non-inertial frame is intimately linked to what we consider
as a fundamental physical force/interaction
(electromagnetic/electroweak, nuclear, gravity) or a
pseudo-force (centrifugal, Coriolis etc.).

We shall learn to interpret the ‘real effects of pseudo-forces’

in terms of Newtonian method.

Deterministic cause-effect relations in inertial frame, and

their modifications in a non-inertial frame.
PCD-09 2
 The law of inertia enables us
recognize an inertial frame of
reference as one in which
motion is self-sustaining,
determined entirely by initial
conditions alone.
PCD-09 3
 Where is the inertial frame?

Newton envisaged the

inertial frame to be fixed
in
deep space, amidst
distant stars.
PCD-09 4
 Kabhi kabhi mere dil mein, Khayaal aata hein…..

Kabhi kabhi mere dil mein,

Khayaal aata hein
Ki jaise tujhko , banaya
gaya hei mere liye…..
Tu ab se pahile, sitaron
mein bas rahi thi kahin,
Tujhe jamin pe, bulaya
gaya hei mere liye….
PCD-09 5
 Galilean relativity Time t is the same in the
red frame
r and
in the blue frame.
r (t )
r r r r
YI
constant
r '(t ) r (t ) = r '(t ) + vt
F r ur
OI XI uuuuur r dr dr ' r
OI O ' = v t
Y’
= +v
ZI dt dt
F’ r ur
‘Acceleration’, which 2 2
X’ d r d r'
measures departure from O’
2
= 2
‘equilibrium’ is essentially the dt dt
same in the two frames of Z’ ur r r ur
reference. F = ma = ma ' = F '
Essentially the same ‘cause’ explains the effect
(acceleration) according to the same ‘principle of causality’.
Laws of Mechanics are the same in all
INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCES.
PCD-09 6
 ur r r ur
Galilean relativity
F = ma = ma ' = F '
• A frame of reference moving with respect to
an inertial frame of reference at constant
velocity is also an inertial frame.

ur r
• The same force F = ma explains the
linear response (effect/acceleration is
linearly proportional to the cause/interaction)
relationship in all inertial frames.
PCD-09 7
Galilean relativity
Time t is the same in the
red frame
and
in the green, double-primed frame.

We now compare the motion of a

mass m at point P as observed in
the inertial frame FI, and in
another frame F” which is moving
with respect to FI at constant
ur
acceleration f .

PCD-09 8
Time t is the same Galilean relativity
in the red frame r ur ur
and in the green, r ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞
double-primed ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ r (t ) = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ r ''(t ) + f
r (t ) ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
frame. Y r r r ur
r ''(t ) a = a "+ f
F
O X uuuur r 1 ur 2
Z OO '' = vt + f t
2 Y’’
r r r 1 ur 2 F”
r (t ) = r ''(t ) + vt + f t
2 X’’
O’’
⎛ d ⎞r ⎛ d ⎞ ur r 1 ur
⎜ ⎟ r (t ) = ⎜ ⎟ r ''(t ) + v + f ( 2t ) Z’’
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ 2
⎛ d ⎞r ⎛ d ⎞ ur r ur ur uur r ur
⎜ ⎟ r (t ) = ⎜ ⎟ r ''(t ) + v + f t F " = ma " = m(a − f )
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ur r ur uur ur
F " = m(a − f ) = F − F pseudo
‘Real’/’Physical’
force/interaction
PCD-09 9
 Galilean relativity

r ur uur r ur
r (t ) r F " = ma " = m(a − f )
r ''(t ) ur r ur ur ur
Y
F " = m(a − f ) = F − F pseudo
F
O X uuuur r 1 ur 2
OO '' = vt + f t
2 Y’’
Z F”
X’’
Z’’ O’’
Laws of Mechanics are not the same in a FRAME OF
REFERENCE that is accelerated with respect to an
inertial frame. The force/interaction which explained the
acceleration in the inertial frame does not account for the
acceleration in the accelerated frame of reference.
Same cause-effect relationship does not explain dynamics.
PCD-09 10
 uur Galilean relativity

ma " =
Time t is the same in the
red frame and in the green, double-primed frame.
ur ur ur
F " = F real / physical − F pseudo
Note! An observer in frame F” may not
be aware of which frame is in –
whether it is an inertial or an
accelerated one with respect to an
inertial one!
Real effects of pseudo-forces!
P. Chaitanya Das, G. Srinivasa Murthy, Gopal Pandurangan
and P.C. Deshmukh
Resonance, Vol. 9, Number 6, 74-85 (2004)
http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/June2004/pdf/June2004Classroom1.pdf
PCD-09 11
 Galilean relativity: Time t is the same in all frames of references.

RELATED ISSUES:

Weightlessness

☺ What is Einstein’s weight

in an elevator accelerated
upward/downward?

Sergei Bubka (Ukrainian: Сергій Бубка) (born

December 4, 1963) is a retired Ukrainian pole
vaulter. He represented the Soviet Union before
its dissolution in 1991. He is widely regarded as
the best pole vaulter ever. Reference:
http://www.bookrags.com/Sergei_Bubka
PCD-09 12
 http://www.stabhoch.com/bildserien/20030825_Isinbajeva_465/bildreihe.html

What enables the pole vaulting

champion, Yelena Isinbayeva, twist
her body in flight and clear great
heights?
PCD-09 2008 Olympics champion: 5.05meters 13
http://www.lerc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/state.html

☺ What will be the shape of a tiny little

amount of a liquid in a closed (sealed) beaker
when this ‘liquid-in-a-beaker’ system is (a)
on earth and (b) orbiting in a satellite around
the earth.
PCD-09 14
 In a liquid the molecular forces are weaker than in a solid. A
liquid will take the shape of its container with a free surface in
a gravitational field.
In ‘microgravity’, a liquid forms a ball inside a free surface.
Regardless of gravity, a liquid has a fixed volume.

The actual shape an amount of liquid will take in

a closed container in microgravity depends on
whether the adhesive, or the cohesive, forces
are strong.
Accordingly, the liquid may form a floating ball
inside, or stick to the inner walls of the container
and leave a cavity inside!
These very forces provide the concave or the
convex meniscus to the liquid in a capillary rise
but they become all-important in microgravity.
PCD-09 15
 You can have zero-
gravity experience
by booking your
zero-gravity flight!

http://www.gozerog.com/

Flight ticket (one adult) :

little over $5k

PCD-09 16
 Not Just Another Old Flame !

On Earth, gravity-driven buoyant convection causes a candle flame to be

teardrop-shaped (A) and carries soot to the flame's tip, making it yellow.
In microgravity, where convective flows are absent, the flame is spherical,
soot-free, and blue (B).
Burning Candles in the Microgravity of Space
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1996/6000/6726f.htm
PCD-09 http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast12may_1.htm 29/09/09 17
 Some lunatic exercises for you
(a) Is lifting a cow easier when you are on the Moon?

(a) Is it easier to stop a charging bull on the Moon

PCD-09 18
Galilean relativity
Time t is the same in the
red frame
and
in the green, double-primed frame.

We now compare the motion of

the mass m at point P as
observed in the inertial frame FI
and another frame FR which is
rotating with respect to FI at
constant angular speed about an
arbitrary axis, OC.
PCD-09 19
 ZI
Galilean relativity C Time t is the same in the
red frame
ZR
and
in the green, double-primed frame.

The green axis OC

YR is some arbitrary
FI
O axis about which
YI
OI FR is rotating.
OR
FR
XI
XR
Clearly, the coordinates/components of
the point P in the inertial frame of
reference are different from those in the
r r
rotating frame of reference. However, r = r I R

PCD-09 20
 We have considered earlier the
translational motion of the new frame
relative to the inertial frame FI; so for
the current discussion on rotating
frame of reference, we shall ignore
that.

We can always superpose the two

(translational and rotating) motions.

PCD-09 21
 ZI
Galilean relativity Time t is the same in the
C red frame
ZR
and
in the purple, rotating, frame.

YR
F
YI
OI
OR
First, we consider the position
FR
XI vector of a particle at rest in the
XR
rotating frame.

Clearly, its time-derivative in the rotating frame is zero, but

not so in the inertial frame.
⎛d ⎞ ⎛d⎞
⎜ ⎟ ≠⎜ ⎟
NOTE! The time-derivative is different in the
red frame and in the purple, rotating, frame.
⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R
PCD-09 22
 The time ‘t’ is the same Circle of radius bsinξ n̂
(Galilean relativity) in the
two frames (space-fixed dψ
and body-fixed).
r r
b R = b I as in Slide #20
Nevertheless, ξ
⎛d⎞ r ⎛d⎞ r
⎜ ⎟ b≠ ⎜ ⎟ b
⎝ dt ⎠ R ⎝ dt ⎠ I
r r
The particle seen at
‘rest’ in the rotating
b(at time t ) = b(t )
frame would appear to
have moved to a new r r
location as seen by an b(at time t + dt ) = b(t + dt )
observer in FI.
PCD-09 23
 r
⎛ dr ⎞
When ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ is zero, the position vector of the point P
⎝ dt ⎠ R
will appear to be 'still' (unchanging) in the frame FR but
it will appear to be time-dependent in the frame FI .

i.e., the time derivative in the rotating frame

PCD-09
24
 Galilean relativity
Time t is the same in
the red frame
and in the purple,
rotating, frame.

The time-derivative is
NOTE! different in the red frame
and
in the purple, rotating, frame.

⎛d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ≠⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R

PCD-09 25
1. Position vectors in the two frames are always the same!
r r
rI = rR
2. Of course, their respective Cartesian components are
different!

3. Their velocities are different, since the time-derivatives

are different. This is obvious since a particle at rest
in the rotating frame of reference will appear to be
revolving ‘backward’ about the green axis OC
in the inertial frame.
r
4. In fact, this would be true for any vector b , not just the
position vector. Any vector that appears to be stationary in
the rotating frame will appear to be revolving in the inertial
frame.
PCD-09 26
Often, one uses the term
‘SPACE-FIXED FRAME OF REFERENCE’ for FI, and
‘BODY-FIXED FRAME OF REFERENCE’ for FR.
r
We shall develop our analysis for an arbitrary vector b ,
the only condition being that it is itself not a time-
derivative in the rrotating frame of some another vector,
just as we had r R to be independent of time in the
rotating frame. r ⎛d⎞ r r
No vector q exists such that ⎜ ⎟ q = b
⎝ dt ⎠ R
⎛d⎞ r r
⎜ ⎟ b = 0 in the rotating frame FR .
⎝ dt ⎠ R
⎛d⎞ r
Question : What is ⎜ ⎟ b ?
⎝ dt ⎠ I
PCD-09 27
 uur r r r
db = b(t + dt ) − b(t ) =| db | uˆ n̂
Circle of
nˆ × bˆ radius bsinξ b sin ξ
where uˆ = . dψ
nˆ × bˆ r r
uur b db
db = (b sin ξ )(dψ ) ξ
uur nˆ × bˆ ξ
db = (b sin ξ )(dψ )
nˆ × bˆ

These two terms are equal and hence cancel.

uur r r r
db = dψ nˆ × b b(at time t ) = b(t )
uur ur ur
( )
db = ωdt × b r r
b(at time t + dt ) = b(t + dt )
ur
dψ
where ω = nˆ ⎛ d ⎞ r ur r
⇒⎜ ⎟ b =ω × b
dt ⎝ dt ⎠ I
PCD-09 28
 Remember that we developed
⎛ d ⎞ r ur r this relationship for an arbitrary
⎜ ⎟ b =ω × b vector which itself did not have
⎝ dt ⎠ I
any time-dependence in the
rotating frame.
Hence, if the vector has a time dependence in
the rotating frame, the following operator
equivalence follows:
⎛ d ⎞ r ur r ⎛d ⎞ r
⎜ ⎟ b =ω × b+⎜ ⎟ b
⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R

Operator ⎛d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞ ur
Equivalence: ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ + ω ×
⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R
PCD-09 29
 ⎛d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞ ur ⎛d ⎞ r ⎛d ⎞ r ur r
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ + ω × ⎜ ⎟ r =⎜ ⎟ r + ω × r
⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R ⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R
Operating twice:
⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ r ⎛ d ⎞ ⎧⎛ d ⎞ r ur
r⎫
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ r = ⎜ ⎟ ⎨⎜ ⎟ r + ω × r⎬ +
⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R ⎩⎝ dt ⎠ R ⎭
ur
⎧⎛ d ⎞ r ur r ⎫
+ ω ×
⎨⎜ ⎟ r + ω × r ⎬
⎩⎝ dt ⎠ R ⎭
⎛ d 2 ⎞ r ⎛ d 2 ⎞ r ⎛ d ⎞ ur r ur ⎛d ⎞ r
⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R ⎝ dt ⎠ R
(
⎜ 2 ⎟ r = ⎜ 2 ⎟ r +⎜ ⎟ ω × r +ω × ⎜ ⎟ r )⎝ dt ⎠ R
ur ur r
(
+ ω × ω × r )
Multiplying by mass ‘m’, we shall get quantities
PCD-09
that have dimensions of ‘force’.
30
 ur
⎛d ⎞ r2
⎛d ⎞ r 2
⎛ dω ⎞ r ur ⎛d ⎞ r
m ⎜ 2 ⎟ r = m ⎜ 2 ⎟ r − m ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × r − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r +
⎝ dt ⎠ R ⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R ⎝ dt ⎠ R
ur ur r
- mω × ω × r ( )
r r r r ⎛d ⎞ r r r r
FR = FI − Fω& − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r - mω × (ω × r )
⎝ dt ⎠ R
‘Coriolis force’ ‘Centrifugal force’
‘Leap second’ term Gaspard Gustave
de Coriolis term
1792 - 1843

PCD-09 31
Why are Leap Seconds Used?
Leap seconds are added to keep the atomic clocks
synchronized with the Earth's rotation. The Earth rotates at a
slower pace over time while the atomic clocks do not slow
down. The International Earth Rotation and Reference
System Service (IERS) (IERS) decides when to introduce a
leap second in UTC (Coordinated Universal Time).
On one average day the difference between atomic clocks
and Earth's rotation is around 0.002 seconds, or around 1
second every 1.5 years.
The time to do one rotation differs from day to day and from
year to year. The Earth was slower than atomic clocks by:
0.16 seconds in 2005; 0.30 seconds in 2006; 0.31 seconds in
2007; and 0.32 seconds in 2008. It was only 0.02 seconds
slower in 2001.
http://www.timeanddate.com/time/leapseconds.html ; 14th October, 2009
32
The atomic clocks are occasionally instructed to add an
extra second, known as the leap second, to synchronize
the atomic clocks with the Earth's observed rotation.

The most accurate and stable time comes from atomic

clocks but for navigation and astronomy purposes, atomic
time is synchronized with the Earth’s rotation.

IERS (International Earth Rotation and Reference System Service ), is

responsible for decisions on leap seconds, announced on
July 4, 2008, that a leap second would be added at
23:59:60 (or near midnight) UTC on December 31, 2008.
This was the 24th leap second to be added since the first
leap second was added in 1972.
33
 Rotating 2 Astronauts in a Space Ship
B Y
R = 10m
ω = 0.15 rad/sec
v = (0,5) m/sec

Real
Effects of
Pseudo
A Forces
Please read the paper at the following internet weblink:
PCD-09
http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/~labs/amp/homepage/dasandmurthy.htm
34
 Force = Rate of change of momentum
What interaction is making the instantaneous
momentum change?
R = 10m
Very fundamental question!!
ω = 0.95 rad/sec
v = (-10.0325,2.755) m/s The answer
P. Chaitanya Das, G. determines
Srinivasa Murthy,
Gopal Pandurangan
our notion of
and P.C. Deshmukh a
‘fundamental
'The real effects of
pseudo-forces',
Resonance, Vol. 9,
Number 6, 74- interaction’
85(2004)
(http://www.ias.ac.in/res
onance/June2004/pdf/
June2004Classroom1.
PCD-09
pdf) 35
 The plane of oscillation of
the Foucault pendulum is
seen to rotate due to the
Coriolis effect. The plane
rotates through one full
rotation in 24 hours at
poles, and in ~33.94
“ Foo-Koh” hours at a latitude of 450
(Latitude of Paris is
~490).
ur ur ur ur ⎛ d ⎞ r ur ur r
F R = F I − F ω& − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r - mω × ω × r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
( )
‘Leap second’ term ‘Coriolis force’ ‘Centrifugal force’

PCD-09 36
 To estimate the REAL effects of the PSEUDO-FORCES
(cf: centrifugal and Coriolis), we use in the following
figure a Cartesian coordinate system with reference to a
point on the earth’s surface.

We shall choose {eˆ , eˆ , eˆ } such that eˆ

x y z z
is along the local ‘up/vertical’ direction (which
is not along eˆr due to the centrifugal term).

We shall then choose eˆy such that it is orthogonal to eˆz ,

and points toward the North-pole seen from the point on
the earth’s surface under consideration.

Finally, we shall choose eˆx = eˆy × eˆz , which will

give us the direction of the local ‘East’ at that point.
PCD-09 37
 Caution!
Please note that in the figure that follows, we have
employed a cartesian coordinate system as defined in the
previous slide, and also a spherical polar coordinate system
whose ‘polar’ angle is defined with respect to the axis of the
earth’s rotation rather than with respect to the cartesian z-
axis which is oriented along the local ‘vertical’.

Besides, we also use in the following figure a

cylindrical polar coordinate system whose
radial unit vector is along the radial outward
direction with reference to the earth’s axis of
rotation. Just follow the 6 steps indicated in the
next slide, exactly in the order given!
PCD-09 38
 r
Earth’s ω êv Choose eˆz = eˆv
rotation axis eˆr eˆx = eˆy × eˆz
θ −δ δ
eˆv = eˆvertical π
eˆy = eˆNorth = eˆEast
2 r
eˆh = eˆhorizontal Fcf = Fcf eˆρ
Frame of
r reference on the
Fg θ θ − δ eˆρ rotating earth to
θ −δ study centrifugal
êh and/or Coriolis
effects. The
1. Note earth’s axis of rotation. ‘vertical’ is not
r
2. Recognize that Fcf = Fcf eˆρ Note
r
that:
r
along the radial
3. Recognize that eˆ ≠ eˆ . ( Fg + Fcf ) • eˆh = 0 line, nor along
v r the axis of
4. Choose eˆz = eˆv . ∠ ( ˆ
eρ , ˆ
eh ) = θ − δ
earth’s rotation!
5. Choose eˆ y = eˆNorth , pointing toward North.
ω = (ω • eˆy ) eˆy + (ω • eˆz ) eˆz
r r r
6. Now, eˆx = eˆy × eˆz = eˆEast
PCD-09 39
 r r r r
Fcf = − mω × (ω × r ) = − mω reˆω × ( eˆω × eˆr )
2

= −mω reω × ( sin θ eϕ ) = mω r sin θ eˆρ

2
ˆ ˆ 2

δ Depends on
the latitude.

δ ≈ 0.10 at latitude of 450

Quite significant, isn’t it?

PCD-09 40
r ⎛d ⎞ r r
r r
(
r
)
FCoriolis = −2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r ω = ω • eˆy eˆy + (ω • eˆz ) eˆz
⎝ dt ⎠ R
By plugging in the magnitude and direction of the
⎛d ⎞ r
velocity ⎜ ⎟ r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
of an object in the above
expression, one can easily determine the effect of
the Coriolis force. The effects are quite dramatic!
How would you estimate the Coriolis deflection of an
object ‘falling’ at a point on earth’s surface? Note that
it would have a velocity along −eˆz .
eˆy = eˆNorth , pointing toward North.
eˆz = eˆvertical ; eˆx is toward EAST (−eˆy ) × (−eˆz ) = eˆx (East)
PCD-09 41
 ur
ω Western
North Pacific

Coriolis
1792 - 1843
ll o n th e N o r thern
a s t a te o f fr ee f a , i n the
An o b je c t in ward th e E a st
t s d e f l e c t ed t o r d West!
he r e g e t ed t o w a
hemisp e w o ul d g et d eflec
th er n h e m i s pher
So u
c t fra l ling
r t hr⎛od ⎞ r ugh 100
r At ar latitude ofr 60 0 a n ob j e
FCoriolis = −2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r
( )
ω = ω • eˆy eˆy +ef(lωec•teeˆzd) eˆtzhrough ~1 cm. ⎝ dt ⎠ R
meters is d

Western
South Pacific
PCD-09 http://agora.ex.nii.ac.jp/digital-typhoon/start_som_wnp.html.en 42
 http://daphne.palomar.edu/pdeen/Animations/34_Coriolis.swf

(−eˆz ) × (−eˆy ) = −eˆx (West)

r r ⎛d ⎞ r
FCoriolis = −2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r
⎝ dt ⎠ R

ω = (ω • eˆy ) eˆy + (ω • eˆz ) eˆz

r r r

Also: Read ‘The Flight of Discovery’ –

uploaded at the link ‘Resources’ for the
PCD-09
course. Distance at equator: ~111 Kms. per longitude degree
43
 In the next Unit, we shall consider ‘relativity’ when the electrodynamic
interaction (Faraday-Lenz law) is considered. That will bring us to the
Special Theory of Relativity.

References (Following papers and references therein):

http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/~labs/amp/homepage/dasandmurthy.htm
1. P. Chaitanya Das, G. Srinivasa Murthy, Gopal Pandurangan
and P.C. Deshmukh
'The real effects of pseudo-forces', Resonance, Vol. 9, Number 6, 74-85(2004)
(http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/June2004/pdf/June2004Classroom1.pdf)

2. P. Chaitanya Das, G. Srinivasa Murty, K. Satish Kumar,

T A. Venkatesh and P.C. Deshmukh

'Motion of Charged Particles in Electromagnetic Fields and Special Theory of

Relativity', Resonance, Vol. 9, Number 7, 77-85 (2004)
(http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/July2004/pdf/July2004Classroom3.pdf)

PCD-09 44
 Unit 7: Galilean & Lorentz transformations.
Special Theory of Relativity

Learning goals:

Discover that the finiteness of the speed of light

and its constant value in all inertial frames of
reference requires us to alter our perception of
‘simultaneity’, and leads to the notion of length-
contraction and time-dilation. Understand how
Lorentz transformations account for these.

PCD-09 1
 Unit 7: Galilean & Lorentz Transformations.
Special Theory of Relativity.

Smoking is
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz
1853-1928 injurious to
Galileo Galilei
1564 - 1642 health!

Albert Einstein
PCD-09 1879-1955 2
 Loop : ×
Stationary B
Lorentz
force (a) Clockwise Current
(b) Counterclockwise Current
predicts: √ (c) No Current

Loop : Dragged to the right.

r r
B
(
q v× B ) r
v
Lorentz force predicts:
√ (a) Clockwise Current
I
× (b) Counterclockwise Current
(c) No Current
PCD-09 3
 Faraday’s experiments
Loop held fixed; Magnet field
dragged toward left. *NO*
r B r r
v I
Lorentz force. (
q v× B )
×
Current: identical!

×
Strength of B decreased. B I

Nothing is moving,
but still, current seen!!! Decreasing B↓

Einstein:
dB Special Theory of Relativity
I ∝
dt What matters is relative motion
‘Relativity’ applied to EM fields.
PCD-09 4
 Einstein: Special Theory of Relativity
(1905: http://lorentz.phl.jhu.edu/AnnusMirabilis/)

What matters is relative motion STR Upshots!

‘Relativity’ applied to EM fields.
(x,y,z,t) (x’,y’,z’,t’)
1905: Special Theory of Relativity
Note!
1916: General Theory of Relativity
Length/Lorentz
STR is a ‘special’ case of GTR. Contraction.

In STR, we compare ‘physics’ seen by Time Dilation

observers in two frames of references
r
moving at constant velocity v with
respect to each other.
PCD-09 5
 In Galilean Relativity:
The laws of mechanics are the same in all inertial frames of
reference.

The principle of causality/determinism involve the same

interactions resulting in the same effects seen by observers in
all inertial frames of references.

Time t is the same in all inertial frames of references.

PCD-09 6
 Why did the chicken cross the road?

Ask the chicken!

In her frame, she is in stead wondering why it is the

road that crossed her!

PCD-09 7
ur ur r ur
F = q[ E + v x B]
uur
v is obviously not the same in different frames of references moving
with respect to each other, even if their relative velocity is constant.
Nevertheless, laws of physics must be the same in all inertial frames
of references. The consistency in the laws of physics in all inertial
frames of references is then achieved by Einstein's bold proposal:
1
speed of light, c= constant, in all inertial
μ 0ε 0
frames, contrary to Galilean principles,
ur ur uur uur
and x, y, z , t ↔ x',y',z',t', and E , B ↔ E ', B ' .

P. Chaitanya Das, G. Srinivasa Murty, K. Satish Kumar, T A. Venkatesh and P.C. Deshmukh
'Motion of Charged Particles in Electromagnetic Fields and Special Theory of
Relativity', Resonance, Vol. 9, Number 7, 77-85 (2004)
PCD-09 http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/July2004/pdf/July2004Classroom3.pdf 8
1. Maxwell’s equations are correct in all inertial frames of references.
1
2. Maxwell’s formulation predicts that EM waves travel at the speed c= .
μ 0ε 0
3. HENCE, light (EM waves) travels at the constant speed c= 1
in all inertial frames of references. μ 0ε 0

This would require a major change in

our notion of time ‘t’, since this notion
itself would need to change when we
think of ‘time’ in one frame, relative to
that in another!
Einstein was clever enough, & bold enough, to stipulate just
that!
PCD-09 9
 Furthermore, and not surprisingly, a major
change in our notion of ‘space’ is
required, since the speed after all the
ratio of space-length-interval to time-
interval.

PCD-09 10
Just what does it mean to say that “Light (EM waves)
travels at the constant speed in all inertial frames of
references” ?
ê y ê y'
r c=
1
μ 0ε 0
L v
R
~~ ~~
ê x ê x'
OI The blue frame moves
ê z ê z' toward the right at a constant
Inertial
frame velocity fc where 0<f<1.
The laser guns L & R fire light toward the blue frame. Both the
beams of light, from L & from R, are seen to arrive in the blue
frame at the speed c and not c±v. COUNTER-INTUITIVE !
PCD-09 11
 Light (EM waves) travels at the constant speed in all inertial frames of references.
Experimental proof: A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley, "On the Relative Motion of the
Earth and the Luminiferous Ether," American Journal of Science, 34, 333-345 (1887).

Michelson and Morley mounted their

apparatus on a stone block floating in a
pool of mercury, and rotated it to seek
changes in relation to the motion of the
earth in its orbit around the sun. They
arranged one set of light beams to
travel parallel to the direction of the
earth's motion through space, another
The actual apparatus that was used in the set to travel crosswise to the motion.
Michelson-Morley experiment
http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/ae20.htm
It is debatable whether Einstein paid heed to this particular experiment, but his work
provided an explanation of the unexpected result through a new analysis of space
and time.
http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/emc1.htm

PCD-09 c= 299 792 458 m s-1

12
MEASUREMENTS
Event: A physical event/activity that takes place at
(x,y,z) at the instant t.
SPACE-TIME COORDINATES of the EVENT: (x,y,z,t),
in a frame of reference S.
In another frame S’, the coordinates are: (x’,y’,z’,t’).
STR upshot!
We must revise our notions of ‘simultaneity’.
Events that are ‘simultaneous’ in one frame of
reference S are not so in another frame of
reference S’ that is moving relative to S.
PCD-09 13
 Moving observer M

L F
R
r
v

S
Light sensors Stationary observer

F: The light sensor assembly has a flash-light F at

the top which would give out GREEN LIGHT if R
senses light before L, or it would give out RED LIGHT
if both L & R sense light simultaneously (and also
give out red light if L senses light before R).
Now, both the firecrackers explode simultaneously as seen by S
just as M crosses S. Let us now catalogue S’s observations.
PCD-09 14
 Moving observer M

L F
R
r
v
F would give out GREEN LIGHT if R
senses light before L, or it would give
Stationary S out RED LIGHT if both L & R sense light
observer simultaneously (and also give out red
light if L senses light before R).
Now, both the firecrackers explode simultaneously as seen by S just
as M crosses S. Let us now catalogue S’s observations:
(1) S detects both the flashes simultaneously.
(2) S is half-way between the firecrackers when the two explosions
occurred.
(3) Light from both explosions travels at equal speed toward S.
S must expect F to flash RED LIGHT. Contradiction can be
removed only by
However, recognizing that the
M would ‘expect’ F to flash out GREEN LIGHT. bursts are not
simultaneous in M’s frame !
PCD-09 15
 Moving observer M

L F
R
r
v
F would give out GREEN LIGHT if R
Stationary S senses light before L, or it would give
observer out RED LIGHT if both L & R sense light
simultaneously (and also give out red
light if L senses light before R).

M would expect to see GREEN LIGHT, and he must conclude that the
two bursts were not simultaneous. Instead, the right burst occurred
before the left one!
STR upshot!
We must revise our notions of ‘simultaneity’.
Events that are ‘simultaneous’ in one frame of reference S are not
so in another frame of reference S’ that is moving relative to S.
PCD-09 16
 STR

Time Dilation
Length Contraction
Lorentz Transformations

PCD-09 17
 We shall first describe what is known as a ‘LIGHT CLOCK’
‘TIME KEEPING COUNTER’

Mirror r The light source emits a pulse

at time t1. This pulse gets
v reflected at the mirror and is
h then detected at the detector at
time t2.

The clock advances by one tick

every time the detector
receives a pulse.
Furthermore, as soon as the
Light Source Light Detector detector receives the pulse, the
Both of these: infinitesimal size source gets triggered to emit
gedanken experiment the next pulse.
ge′däŋkən ik′sperəmənt r
The Light Clock moves at velocity v in a frame of reference S.
PCD-09 In the clock-frame S’, the Light Clock is of course at rest. 18
 Mirror clock frame, S ′
r Clearly, Δt ' = t ' − t1' = 2h / c
v 2

In frame S , the light pulse passes

h
along the oblique (diagonal )
⎛1 ⎞
direction, a distance that is ⎜ Δt ⎟ c,
2 2
⎝2 ⎠
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ from source to mirror , and also
⎢⎜ 2 Δt ⎟ c ⎥ = h + ⎢⎜ 2 Δt ⎟ v ⎥
2

⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ from mirror to the detector.

2h / c Δt ' By the time the pulse travels from source
⇒ Δt = =
1− v / c
2 2
1 − β 2 to mirror to detector, the light-clock
advances through sideways distance of
where β =v/c.
vΔt.
If β>1, Δt would become imaginary. That would be absurd!
To prevent that, v<c always. c is not reachable by anything.
PCD-09 19
 Mirror clock frame, S ′
r
v Clearly , Δt ' = t '
2
− t1' = 2h / c
h 2h / c Δτ
Δt = =
1− v / c
2 2
1− β 2
where β =v/c
and Δτ = Δt ' = PROPER TIME
2 2
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ Δt > Δτ
⎢⎜ 2 Δt ⎟ c ⎥ = h + ⎢⎜ 2 Δt ⎟ v ⎥
2

⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
Time Dilation
2h / c Δt '
⇒ Δt = =
1− v / c
2 2
1− β 2 Conclusions do not depend on
where β =v/c. the use of the ‘Light Clock’. Any
clock would give the same
result.
PCD-09 20
 2h / c Δτ
Δt = =
clock frame, S ′ 1 − v2 / c2 1− β 2
r where β =v/c
v and Δτ = Δt ' = PROPER TIME
Δt > Δτ
Time Dilation
“TIMEINTERVAL " Moving clocks go slow;
BETWEEN TWO time interval between
TICKS IS THE
SHORTEST IN two ticks is longer when
THE CLOCK’s measured in a frame in
REST FRAME.” which the clock is moving "

If β>1, Δt would become imaginary. That would be absurd!

To prevent that, v<c always. c is not reachable by anything.
PCD-09 21
 In as much as we have had to modify our notion of
time-interval, we are required to modify our notion
of space-interval as well.

Thus, we are led to Time Dilation

and also to Length Contraction.

Both of these modifications become necessary on

account of the ‘counter-intuitive’ fact that
“Light (EM waves) travels at the constant speed in
all inertial frames of references”.

PCD-09 22
 y We consider two stars in deeeeeep space,
an orange-star and a blue-star.
r
v
x
S
In frame S, the stars are at rest at a length L apart from
each other. The rocket moves from the star O to the star
B. An observer in frame S carries out measurements of
lengths and time intervals.

The rocket moves from the star O to star B

at velocity r in frame S.
PCD-09
v 23
 In the ROCKET-
FRAME-S’, the
stars O and B
move to the left at
the same relative
speed.

y’

x’
S’: Rocket frame
PCD-09 24
 y
The rocket moves
r from the star O to r
star B at velocity
v in frame S. v
x
S In frame S, the objects are at rest at a length L apart from
each other.
This LENGTH L is therefore the “PROPER LENGTH”, l.

In S’, the clock is at rest in the rocket and yields, therefore,

“PROPER TIME”.
In the ROCKET-
y’ FRAME-S’, the
stars O and B
move to the left at
x’ the same relative
speed.
PCD-09
S’: Rocket Frame 25
 y
The rocket moves
r from the star O to the
star B at velocity
v r
v in frame S.
x
S
L=Δx=x orange − x blue
is the LENGTH (distance) between the two stars in frame S .
Also, in this frame, the time measured for the journey is Δt.
L l Note! The stars
Rockets's speed = v = = ,
Δt Δt are fixed in space
where l is the PROPER LENGTH . in frame S.

PCD-09 26
In the ROCKET-FRAME-S', it is the two stars that move to the left at
L'
speed v= , where Δ t' is the PROPER TIME (Δ τ ) measured in
Δ t'
S ' for the blue star to travel the LENGTH L '.
L l L' L' L'
v= = = = =
Δ t Δ t Δ t' Δ τ
( 1-β 2 ) ( Δt )
⇒ L ' = L 1-β 2 = l 1-β 2 ≤ l
y’
This is LORENTZ ( LENGTH )
CONTRACTION

x’
S’: Rocket frame
PCD-09 27
 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz
1853-1928
"in recognition of the extraordinary service they
rendered by their researches into the influence of
magnetism upon radiation phenomena"

Lorentz contraction!

Lorentz moving up! Lorentz moving to right!

Pieter Zeeman
1865-1943
http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~suchii/lorentz.tr.html
PCD-09 28
 LORENTZ transformations (x,y,z,t) to (x’,y’,z’,t’)

Requirements:
Transformation equations must agree
with Galilean transformations when
v<<<c.
Transform both space and time
coordinates.
Ensure that speed of light is same in all
inertial frames of references.
PCD-09 29
 Y Origins O and O’ of Y’ r
the two frames S v
X and S’ coincide at X’

Z
S t=0 and t’=0. Z’
S’

x'= γ (x-vt) x= γ (x'+vt') γ=

1
v2
1- 2
y'=y y=y' c

z'=z z=z' 1
=
1− β 2
⎛ vx ⎞ ⎛ vx' ⎞
t'= γ ⎜ t- 2 ⎟ t= γ ⎜ t'+ 2 ⎟ Note : γ → 1 as v → 0.
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
Lorents transformations transform the space-time
PCD-09
coordinates of ONE EVENT. 30
 References
Main Reference:
‘Physics for Scientists and Engineers’, II Edition, by
Randall D. Knight (Pearson, Addison-Wesley, 2007)

Supplementary reading for key concepts:

P. Chaitanya Das, G. Srinivasa Murty, K. Satish Kumar, T A.

Venkatesh and P.C. Deshmukh
'Motion of Charged Particles in Electromagnetic Fields and Special
Theory of Relativity', Resonance, Vol. 9, Number 7, 77-85 (2004)

http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/July2004/pdf/July2004Classroom3.pdf

‘twin paradox’”
http://mentock.home.mindspring.com/twins.htm
28/09/09 21:50
PCD-09 31
Seeta and Geeta are identical twins. Twin Paradox
Geeta stays at home,
3
and Seeta travels in a rocket at a speed 5 c for 4 yrs
measured in the rocket-clock (proper time).
Geeta’s home-based clock measures the corresponding
time interval as Δt = Δτ ; β = v/c = 3 .
1− β 2 5

( )
2
3 c
v2 5 32 4
1− 2 = 1− = 1− 2 =
c c2 5 5
5 5
Δt = Δτ = (4 yrs ) = 5 yrs “TIMEINTERVAL
4 4 BETWEEN TWO
Δτ = Δt ' = PROPER TIME TICKS IS THE
SHORTEST IN
Δt > Δτ (Time Dilation).
THE CLOCK’s
REST FRAME.”
PCD-09 32
 Seeta now turns around, and returns at same
speed, taking another 4 years
(measured in rocket clock) to return,
during which Geeta’s clock advances by
another 5 years.

G ONWARD SPEED (3/5)c

S
G RETURN TRIP SPEED
S (3/5)c

During Seeta’s round trip then, home-bound

Geeta would age by 10 years, and travelling
Seeta by 8 years.
PCD-09 33
During Seeta’s Now, we seem to have a
PARADOX !
round trip then,
But,
home-bound Geeta
just
would age by 10
what
years, and travelling
is the
Seeta by 8 years.
paradox?
It would seem paradoxical, if one argued that we could
just as well think that Seeta stayed home, and Geeta
travelled in the opposite direction, making the round trip.
Home-bound Seeta would then have aged through 10
years, and travelling Geeta through 8 years!
PCD-09 34
 SCENE II
Seeta stays home, and Geeta shoots off
in opposite direction.

Seeta clocks 4 years in her clock (i.e. waits for 4

Seeta-yrs) and shoots off toward Geeta at a speed
which is the SUM of the SPEEDS OF THE ONWARD
and THE RETURN TRIP of the previous case. This
would enable Seeta to catch up with Geeta in
exactly as much time (4-Seeta-yrs).

G
S
PCD-09 35
 Sum of the velocities as per Galilean relativity:
3 3 6
c+ c= c 〉 c!
5 5 5
Impossible for Seeta to get that speed > c
However, this is not how relative velocity is
added! One must use Lorentz, not Galilean
relativity.
PCD-09 36
 r uuuur
Z r (t ) ur O O ' = ( u x eˆ x ) t
Y r '( t ')
x ' = γ ( x − u xt )
O X
S y'= y
Z’
z'= z
Y’
ux x
O’ X’ t ' = γ (t − 2 )
c
r S’
r d r dx dy dz 1
v= = eˆ x + eˆ y + eˆ z γ =
2
dt dt dt dt 1− 2
u
ur c
ur d r '
v' =
dt '
dx' dy' dz'
= eˆ x + eˆ y + eˆ z
dt' dt' dt'
PCD-09 37
 r uuuur
Z r (t ) ur O O ' = ( u x eˆ x ) t
Y r '( t ')
x ' = γ ( x − u xt )
O X
ux x
S Z’ t ' = γ (t − 2 )
c
r Y’ 1
r dr γ =
v= O’ u2
dt X’ 1− 2
S’ c
ur
ur d r ' dx' dy' dz'
v' = = eˆ x + eˆ y + eˆ z
dt ' dt' dt' dt'

dx' d ( γ ( x − u x t )) d ( x − u xt )
= = dx' v x − u x
dt' d ( γ ( t − u x x )) d ( t − u x x ) ⇒ =
dt' 1 − u x v x
c2 c2
c2
PCD-09 38
 dx' v x − u x
=
dt' 1 − u x v x
c2 If the frame of reference
S’ is moving in the
negative x direction, we
shall get: dx' v x + u x
=
dt' ux vx
1+
c2
vx + ux
vx ' =
ux vx
1+ 2
c
vy ' = vy
vz ' = vz Twins!
PCD-09 39
 G vx + ux
vx ' =
ux vx
S 1+ 2
c
G vy ' = vy
S vz ' = vz
G G
S

v relative =
v1 + v 2
=
( ) ( )
3 c+ 3 c
5 5 Seeta clocks 4 years in
v v
1+ 122
c 1+
( ) ( )
3 c 3 c
5 5 her clock and shoots off
2
c
toward Geeta at a speed
( 5 )c
6
( 5) ( )
15
v relative = = 6 c × 25
34
= 15
17
c of c , and in as
1+ 9 17
25 much time (4-Seeta-yrs),
Again, Geeta would age by 10
catches up with Geeta.
years, and Seeta by 8 years.
PCD-09 No paradox! 40
 In some (published)
comments on the twin-
paradox, resolution has
been sought by invoking
Seeta’s acceleration when
she would begin Geeta’s
chase after 4 years
(previous slide).
One would then argue that we are no longer considering
inertial frames of references, since acceleration of Seeta’s
frame would come into the analysis. However, such an
‘explanation’ is not called for.
PCD-09 41
 One can do away completely with Seeta’s
acceleration by considering in our thought-
experiment a third observer Jayalalitha
( weren’t there a set of triplets, rather than
mere twins? ) who does not undergo any
acceleration, but passes by Seeta and sets her
clock with her as she (J) breezes past her (S).

PCD-09 42
 Jayalalitha
would then
catch up with
Geeta and
compare her
clock with
Geeta’s as
she crosses
her, and then send that information back to Seeta.

The paradox is resolved as per the explanation in slide

no.38 through 40, without invoking acceleration of any
frame of reference, but by using three inertial frames
of reference (G’s, S’s and J’s).
PCD-09 43
 First few Nobel Prizes in Physics
1922 - Niels Bohr
1921 - Albert Einstein
1920 - Charles Edouard Guillaume
1919 - Johannes Stark
1918 - Max Planck
1917 - Charles Glover Barkla
1916 - The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section
1915 - William Bragg, Lawrence Bragg
1914 - Max von Laue
1913 - Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
1912 - Gustaf Dalén
1911 - Wilhelm Wien
1910 - Johannes Diderik van der Waals
1909 - Guglielmo Marconi, Ferdinand Braun
1908 - Gabriel Lippmann
1907 - Albert A. Michelson
1906 - J.J. Thomson
1905 - Philipp Lenard
1904 - Lord Rayleigh
1903 - Henri Becquerel, Pierre Curie, Marie Curie
1902 - Hendrik A. Lorentz, Pieter Zeeman
1901 - Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen 44
 We conclude the unit 7
with a quote from Albert
Einstein:
If at first the idea is not absurd,
then there is no hope for it
- Albert Einstein

-No guarantee that there is hope for

every absurd idea!
- Our experience !!!

PCD-09 45
 Unit 8: Physical examples of fields. Potential
energy function. Gradient, Directional Derivative,

Learning goals:

Develop a strong handle on methods

of vector calculus that provide
powerful tools to study the
relationships between physical
potentials and field.
1
PCD-09
 Equipotentials
PCD-09
and Field Lines of an electric dipole
2
 Objects would move along
equipotentials, motion determined
by initial conditions. To control that
and make them move along desired
trajectories, we must subject them
to potential-gradients, applying
forces on them.
unstable

unstable

stable

neutral
stable

neutral
a c e d b
stable

3
PCD-09
 z Primary, elementary entities in Physics:

Physical Universe is made up of Particles and Fields

and their mutual interactions
zParticles: Material world
• Fields: ‘Action at a distance’
- involved concept, has several
different implications in classical/quantum
physics
Integration / Constant of Integration
Boundary Value problem
Fields Potentials
Differentiation 4
PCD-09
 Scalar/ Vector Fields: ‘Point’ function
r
ψ = ψ ( r ) = ψ ( x, y , z ) = ψ ( r , θ , ϕ ) = ψ ( ρ , ϕ , z )
ur ur r ur ur ur
A = A(r ) = A( x, y, z ) = A(r , θ , ϕ ) = A( ρ , ϕ , z )

Examples of Scalar Point

Functions Examples of Vector Point
Functions

• temperature • velocity field

• gravitational/electrostatic • electric field
potentials • magnetic field
• pressure in a liquid column
5
PCD-09
 Scalar/ Vector Fields: ‘Point’ function

Functions of ‘space’ and ‘time’

r
ψ = ψ ( r , t ) = ψ ( x, y , z , t ) = ψ ( r , θ , ϕ , t ) = ψ ( ρ , ϕ , z , t )

ur ur r ur ur ur
A = A(r , t ) = A( x, y, z , t ) = A(r , θ , ϕ , t ) = A( ρ , ϕ , z , t )

6
PCD-09
 DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE
is a SCALAR QUANTITY
which has a DIRECTIONAL ATTRIBUTE.

This ‘rate’ (‘slope’)

The rate of change of ψ with distance s
depends on the
is a scalar given by direction in which
r r r r r
dψ δψ (r ) ψ ( r + δ r ) −ψ ( r ) the displacement δ r
= lim = lim
ds δ s →0 δ s δ s →0 δs is considered.

Ratio of two scalar quantities.

It has a ‘directional attribute’

7
PCD-09
 r r r r
dψ δψ ψ ( r + δ r ) −ψ ( r ) ψ (r)=ψ ( x, y, z )
= lim = lim
ds δ s →0 δ s δ s →0 δs r
ψ (r)=ψ ( ρ , ϕ , z )
r
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ ψ (r)=ψ (r ,θ , ϕ )
δψ = δx+ δy+ δz
∂x ∂y ∂z Cartesian Coordinate
System
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
= δρ + δϕ + δz Cylindrical Polar
∂ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
Coordinate System

∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
= δr + δθ + δϕ Spherical Polar
∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
Coordinate System

8
PCD-09
 r
The directional derivative ψ (r)= ψ ( x , y , z )
r r r r
dψ ψ ( r + δ r ) −ψ ( r ) ψ (r)= ψ ( ρ , ϕ , z )
= lim
ds δ s →0 δs r
ψ (r)= ψ ( r , θ , ϕ )
dψ ∂ψ dx ∂ψ dy ∂ψ dz Cartesian Coordinate
= + +
ds ∂x ds ∂y ds ∂z ds System

dψ ∂ψ d ρ ∂ψ dϕ ∂ψ dz Cylindrical Polar
= + +
ds ∂ρ ds ∂ϕ ds ∂z ds Coordinate System

dψ ∂ψ dr ∂ψ dθ ∂ψ dϕ Spherical Polar
= + +
ds ∂r ds ∂θ ds ∂ϕ ds Coordinate System
These expressions can be written very nicely by using the
uur
9
PCD-09 expressions for the displacement dr in various coordinate systems.
uur
dr = ? Cartesian Unit vectors cylindrical polar coordinate
are constant vectors; ∂eˆρ ∂eˆρ
= 0, = eˆϕ ,
Unit vectors of the ∂ρ ∂ϕ
cylindrical polar and the ∂eˆϕ ∂eˆϕ
spherical polar coordinate = 0, = −eˆρ
∂ρ ∂ϕ
systems are not!
∂eˆr r spherical polar coordinate
=0 ∂eˆθ r ∂eˆϕ r
∂r =0 =0
∂r ∂r
∂eˆr ∂eˆϕ r
= eˆθ ∂eˆθ =0
∂θ = −eˆr ∂θ
∂θ
∂eˆr ∂eˆϕ
= sin θ eˆϕ ∂eˆθ ∂ϕ
= − cos θ eˆθ − sin θ eˆr
∂ϕ = cos θ eˆϕ
PCD-09
∂ϕ 10
 Position and Displacement vectors in various coordinate systems
r r
r = x eˆ x + y eˆ y + z eˆ z d r =eˆ x dx + eˆ y dy + eˆ z dz

r
r
r = ρ eˆ ρ + z eˆ z d r =(d ρ )eˆ ρ + ρ ( d eˆ ρ ) + ( dz )eˆ z
r
d r =eˆ ρ d ρ + eˆ ϕ ρ d ϕ + eˆ z dz
r r
r =reˆ r dr = (dr )eˆr + r (deˆr )
In order to avoid making
careless mistakes, always
r ⎡ ∂ eˆr ∂ eˆr ⎤
dr = ( dr ) eˆr + r ⎢ dθ + dϕ ⎥
try to write unit vectors ⎣ ∂θ ∂ϕ ⎦
first, differential r
elements last! dr = dreˆr + rd θ eˆθ + r sin θ d ϕ eˆϕ
Example: r
dr = eˆr dr + eˆθ rd θ + eˆϕ r sin θ d ϕ
11
PCD-09
 r r r r
dψ δψ ψ ( r + δ r ) −ψ ( r ) ψ (r)=ψ ( x, y, z )
= lim = lim
ds δ s →0 δ s δ s →0 δs r
ψ (r)=ψ ( ρ , ϕ , z )
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ r
δψ = δx+ δy+ δz ψ (r)=ψ (r ,θ , ϕ )
∂x ∂y ∂z
δψ ∂ψ δ x ∂ψ δ y ∂ψ δ z Cartesian Coordinate
= + +
δs ∂x δ s ∂y δ s ∂z δ s System

dψ δψ r
= lim d r =eˆ x dx + eˆ y dy + eˆ z dz
ds δ s →0 δ s
∂ψ δ x ∂ψ δ y ∂ψ δ z
= lim + +
δ s →0 ∂x δ s ∂y δ s ∂z δ s
uur
dψ dr ⎡ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ ⎤
= • ⎢eˆ x + eˆ y + eˆ z ⎥
PCD-09
ds ds ⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ 12
 Gradient in the Cartesian Coordinate System

r r r
dψ ψ ( r + δ r ) −ψ ( r )
= lim
ds δ s →0 δs
dψ r
= uˆ • ∇ψ
dψ ∂ψ dx ∂ψ dy ∂ψ dz ds
= + + uur uur
ds ∂x ds ∂y ds ∂z ds δ r dr
uˆ = lim =
r δ s →0 δ s ds
d r =e x dx + e y dy + e z dz
ˆ ˆ ˆ uur
ur ∂ ∂ ∂ δ s = δ r , tiny
∇ =eˆ x + eˆ y + eˆ z
∂x ∂y ∂z
increament
uur
ur ⎡ ∂
∇ψ = ⎢eˆ x + eˆ y
∂ ∂⎤
+ eˆ z ⎥ψ ds = dr , differential
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
PCD-09 increament
13
 r
The GRADIENT ∇ r of a
scalar point function ψ ( r )
yields a vector point function
such that the component of
the resultant vector along dψ r
any direction (given by a unit
= uˆ • ∇ψ
ds
vector û ) gives the uur uur
δ r dr
DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE uˆ = lim =
δ s →0 δ s
dψ of the scalar ds
ds function in the
direction of that unit vector.
14
PCD-09
δψ = Cylindrical Polar Coordinate System
ur
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ How should we express ∇ψ
= δρ + δϕ +δ z
∂ρ ∂ϕ ∂z such that :
uur ur
uur ur δψ = δ r • ∇ψ
= δ r • ∇ψ
ur where :
( eˆ ρδρ + eˆϕ ρδϕ + eˆ zδ z ) • ∇ψ r
δ r =eˆ ρ δρ + eˆ ϕ ρδϕ + eˆ zδ z
Following form of the Note how the
gradient operator will work ! 1
ur ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ρ cancels
∇ =eˆ ρ + eˆ ϕ + eˆ z ρ
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
δψ =
⎛ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ⎞
( eˆ ρδρ + eˆϕ ρδϕ + eˆ zδ z ) • ⎜ eˆ ρ ∂ρ + eˆϕ ρ ∂ϕ + eˆ z ∂z 15⎟ψ
PCD-09 ⎝ ⎠
δψ = Spherical Polar Coordinate System
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ ur
=δr + δθ + δϕ How should we express ∇ψ
∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
uur ur
= δ r • ∇ψ such that :
ur uur ur
⎡⎣eˆ r (δ r ) + eˆ θ ( rδθ ) + eˆ ϕ ( r sin θ δϕ ) ⎤⎦ • ∇ψ δψ = δ r • ∇ψ
where :
Following form of the r
δ r =eˆ r (δ r ) + eˆ θ ( rδθ ) + eˆ ϕ ( r sin θ δϕ )
gradient operator will work !
ur ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ =eˆ r + eˆ θ + eˆ ϕ Note the cancellation of
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ the factors that are
circled

δψ =
⎛ ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ⎞
⎡⎣eˆ r (δ r ) + eˆ θ ( rδθ ) + eˆ ϕ ( r sin θ δϕ ) ⎤⎦ • ⎜ eˆ r + eθ
ˆ + eϕ
ˆ ⎟ψ
⎝ ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ⎠

16
PCD-09
 dψ r
Consolidated expressions for = uˆ • ∇ψ
the GRADIENT ds
uur uur
Cartesian Coordinate System δ r dr
ur u = lim =
∂ ∂ ∂ ˆ
δ s →0 δ s
∇ =eˆ x + eˆ y + eˆ z uur
ds
∂x ∂y ∂z δ s = δ r , tiny
Cylindrical Polar Coordinate System increament
uur
ur ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ds = dr , differential
∇ =eˆ ρ + eˆ ϕ + eˆ z
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z increament

Spherical Polar Coordinate System

ur ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ =eˆ r + eˆ θ + eˆ ϕ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
17
PCD-09
 T = 20 + x + y

ur ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ =eˆ x + eˆ y + eˆ z
∂x ∂y ∂z
r
∇T = eˆx + eˆy

18
PCD-09
 T = 100 + x y

ur ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ =eˆ x + eˆ y + eˆ z
∂x ∂y ∂z

This picture shows

the value of scalar
function T;

Brighter regions
have
larger values of T
r
∇T = eˆx y + eˆy x
19
PCD-09
 T = 100 + x y
r
∇T = xeˆy + yeˆx

20
PCD-09
fields -- gradient

Example:

Map of a scalar field

This picture shows

the value of scalar
function T;

Brighter regions
have
larger values of T
21
PCD-09
 fields -- gradient

Equipotential surface
T = x 2 y 2 = 100

T = x 2 y 2 = 400

We can visualize several equipotential surfaces for different values of T

e.g. contours 22
PCD-09
 fields -- gradient

gradient at a point with position vector r is perpendicular to the

equipotential at r

Divide gradient a point by its magnitude to get the unit vector

Example

Φ(x,y,z) = x2 +y2+z2

level surface Φ =c ( a positive constant) is a sphere

of radius √c centered at the origin.

∇ Φ = 2x ex + 2y ey+ 2 zez = 2 r, along er

23
PCD-09
 Example 1 Example 2 : uniform gradient

The shades of grey represent the intensity of the scalar field;

the blacker, the more intense.
The blue vectors indicate the directions of the gradient.
24
PCD-09
 Examples
(calculation of gradient and visualization of the fields)

r
a) T = 20 + x + y ∇T = eˆx + eˆy
r
b) T= 100+xy ∇T = xeˆy + yeˆx

c) T = x2y2 r
∇T = 2 xy ex + 2 x yeˆy
2
ˆ 2

25
PCD-09
 T = 15 + ρ cos φ

r
∇T ?

26
PCD-09
 Geostationary Orbits ⊂ Geosynchronous Orbits
Geostationary Orbit:
The satellite orbits the earth at exactly the same speed as
the earth turns and at zero latitude (equator). It appears
at the same zenith point from the equatorial point
underneath it. Geosynchronous Orbit:
The satellite’s orbit is synchronized with the earth's
rotation. The plane of the satellite’s orbit may be tilted
with respect to the equatorial plane. The satellite will
then appear to move around along a latitude even if it
will remain at the same longitude.
Many advantages! We need detailed maps of ‘potentials’
and ‘fields’ to launch such objects in the sky. 27
PCD-09
Potentials & their Gradients

Force / Field

zTo place a satellite in a desired orbit, we

need to control the trajectories of the
satellite and make it swing as, when and
how we want.

zThis requires a detailed understanding of

the potentials and fields.
28
 http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/index.html
MEASURING COSMIC ASYMMETRY?
The average temperature is 2.725 Kelvin (degrees above
absolute zero; equivalent to -270 C or -455 F), and the
colors represent the tiny temperature fluctuations, as in a
weather map.
Red regions are warmer and blue regions are colder by
about 0.0002 degrees.
The cosmic
microwave
temperature
fluctuations from the
5-year WMAP satellite
data seen over the full
sky. 29
PCD-09
 WMAP: Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
Ref.: http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/mission/observatory.html / October 19, 2009 / 10:48pm /
Orbits around the Lagrange point L2 of the Sun-Earth system.

The Lagrange points are analogous to the points

where geosynchronous orbits can be launched,
but with regard to a 3-body problem.
At the Lagrange points, the resultant gravitational
pull of the sun and the earth on an object, such
as a satellite, will precisely equal the centripetal
force that is required for that object to rotate with
them. At the Lagrange points, net force ~ zero!
Lagrange found five such points (‘LAGRANGE POINTS’) for the
sun-earth system using the PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION. 30
PCD-09
 http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/mission/observatory.html
At L2: Sun, Earth,
The L1 point of & Moon are
the Earth-Sun always behind
system provides the instrument's
uninterrupted view field of view.
of the sun. SOHO WMAP

The specific goal of WMAP is to

Solar and Wilkinson
map the relative CMB temperature Heliospheric Microwave
over the full sky with an angular Observatory Anisotropy
resolution of at least 0.3°, a Probe

sensitivity of 20 µK per 0.3° square

pixel, with systematic artifacts
PCD-09 limited to 5 µK per pixel. 31
 Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe: WMAP

http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/990533/index.html

Colonizing space?
At Lagrange points?
Movie available, showing
trajectory 32
PCD-09
 L1, L2, L3: Unstable ; L4, L5: Stable
Derivation of the L1, L2, L3 points
Reference:
http://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Slagrang.htm
Derivation of the L4 and L5 points,
based on
"When Trojans and Greeks Collide"
by I. Vorobyov,
"Quantum," p. 16-19, Sept-Oct. 1999.
Uses rotating frames of reference.
Reference:
http://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Slagrng3.htm
33
PCD-09
 Interesting Reading on ‘Lagrangian Points’

The colonization of space

Reference:
Gerard K. O'Neill
Physics Today, 27(9):32-40 (September, 1974)

http://www.aeiveos.com/~bradbury/Authors/Engineering/ONeill-GK/TCoS.html

Colonies in Space
by T. A. Heppenheimer
Reference:
http://www.nss.org/settlement/ColoniesInSpace/colonies_chap02.html

34
PCD-09
 October 15, 2009

Planck Surveyor’s trajectory since its launch on 14 May 2009 (ESA)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSNYu86CqSA
Planck Surveyor – European Space Agency
Launched on 14 May 2009
http://www.rssd.esa.int/index.php?project=PLANCK&page=dev_news
20th October 2009, 05:20

35
PCD-09
 http://www.aerith.net/comet/catalog/1998J1/pictures.html
Roughly eighty-five percent of the SOHO discoveries, and also this one,
are fragments from a once great comet that split apart in a death plunge
around the Sun, probably many centuries ago. The fragments are known
as the Kreutz group and now pass within 1.5 million kilometres of the
Sun's surface when they return from deep space.

Downloaded on
20th Oct. 2009
08:00am
Pictures by SOHO@L1
36
PCD-09
 http://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/hotshots/2008_06_23/1500thcomet.tif

Most successful comet catcher in history. SOHO

has discovered its 1500th comet, making it more
successful than all the other discoverers of
comets throughout history put together.

SOHO: spacecraft that was designed as a solar

physics mission. SOHO's history-making
discovery was made on June 25th 2008 by US-
based amateur astronomer Rob Matson. This is
Rob's 76th SOHO comet find.
From the surface
of the planet, the SOlar and Heliospheric Observatory has
space inside our
orbit is largely
one big advantage over everybody else:
obscured because its location - a privileged view of a
of the daytime sky region of space that can rarely be seen
and so we only from Earth.
clearly see close to
the Sun during an
The Kreutz-Group comet SOHO-1500 was
eclipse. spotted on June 25th 2008 in images
PCD-09 taken by the LASCO C2 coronagraph. 37
 http://www.physics.montana.edu/faculty/cornish/lagrange.html

[1] WMAP uses the moon to get a gravity assisted boost

We shall on to the L2 point. This saves a lot of fuel that can be
now
used later to extend WMAP's operational life. This
show
animation shows the flight path around the Moon. Credit:
three
video
NASA / WMAP Science Team
clips, http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/990534/990534_320.mp4
two from [2] WMAP Flight to L2 WMAP orbits around the L2
NASA,
Lagrange point, one million miles beyond Earth. The sun
and one
shield/solar panels always protect it from the radiation
from
youtube
generated by the Sun. This animation Shows the flight
path from Earth to L2
http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/990533/990533_320.mp4
[3] SOHO’s orbit around the sun and around L1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cGm-nrgAIzM&feature=related
38
PCD-09
 Spherical Sun (October 16, 2009)
Quicktime Movie: Large (6.7M), Small (3.9M) MPEG Movie (5.5M)

Downloaded on 20th
Oct. 2009, 08:00am
Pictures by
STEREO
http://stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Other solar observatories:
STEREO (Solar TErrestrial
RElations Observatory) -
NASA's Solar Terrestrial
Probes program - Employs
two nearly identical space-
based observatories - one
ahead of Earth in its orbit, the
other trailing behind
- to provide the first-ever stereoscopic measurements to
study the Sun and the nature of its CME (coronal mass
39
PCD-09 ejections)
 Understanding gradient
Electric field and potential inside a conductor

Conductors have `free electrons’

Consider charges to be placed on a conducting solid/hollow sphere

¾ Electrostatic field inside a conductor is zero

¾ Any net charge resides on the surface only, not inside

¾ A conductor is an equipotential

For any two points a and b inside the conductor,

b r r
U (a ) − U (b) = − ∫ E.dl = 0 and hence U (a) = U (b)
a

¾ The field lines just outside the conductor are perpendicular

to the surface of the conductor
PCD-09 Ref: Introduction to Electrodynamics, Griffiths 40
Understanding gradient
Field and potential due to a point dipole
The elctrostatic potential due to a point dipole is
r r
z k r ⋅ p kpr cos θ 1
U (r ,θ , ϕ ) = = where k =
r 2
r 2
4πε 0
θ
p sin θ p cosθ Field is the negative gradient of potential
r Er = −
∂U 2kp cos θ
p ∂r
=
r3
1 ∂U kp sin θ
Eθ = − =
ur ⎡ ∂ r ∂θ r3
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ⎤
∇U= ⎢e r
ˆ + eθ
ˆ + eϕ
ˆ ⎥ U 1 ∂U
⎣ ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ⎦ Eϕ = −
r sin θ ∂ϕ
=0

r kp
r Thus E (r , θ , ϕ ) = 3 (eˆr 2 cos θ + eˆθ sin θ )
since p = eˆr p cos θ − eˆθ p sin θ r
r r r
3( p ⋅ eˆr )eˆr − p Ref: Introduction to
E=k 3 Electrodynamics, Griffiths
PCD-09
r
Understanding gradient
Electric field and potential due to an infinitely long wire
r 2k λ
E = eˆρ where λ is the uniform charge density per unit length
ρ
ur ⎡ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂⎤
∇U= ⎢eˆ ρ + eˆ ϕ + eˆ z ⎥ U
⎣ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ⎦
r r
E = −∇U ; comparing coefficients of eˆρ and eˆϕ
∂U 2k λ ∂U
=− ; =0
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ
⎧1⎫
hence U = 2k λ ln ⎨ ⎬ + some constant (indep. of ρ )
⎩ρ ⎭
⎧c⎫
i.e. U = 2k λ ln ⎨ ⎬
PCD-09
⎩ρ ⎭ 42
Understanding gradient
Obtaining the field for a given
potential
⎧ ⎛ 2a ρ sin ϕ ⎞ ⎫⎪
⎪π
consider an electrostatic potential U = U 0 ⎨ + tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟⎬
⎪⎩ 2 ⎜ ρ − a ⎟⎪2
ur ⎡ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂⎤ ⎝ ⎠⎭
∇U= ⎢eˆ ρ + eˆ ϕ + eˆ z ⎥ U
⎣ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ⎦
⎧π −1 ⎛ 2 a sin ϕ ⎞ ⎫
U = U 0 ⎨ + tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ at ρ >> a
⎩2 ⎝ ρ ⎠⎭

∂U U 2a sin ϕ 2aU 0 sin ϕ

Eρ = − = =
∂ρ ⎧ 4 a 2 ⎫ ρ 2
ρ2
⎨1 + 2 a sin ϕ ⎬
⎩ ρ ⎭
−2aU 0 cos ϕ
Eϕ =
PCD-09
ρ 2
43
 Understanding gradient: Shapes of fields and potentials, equilibria

U ( x) = 2 Ax − 3Bx
2 4

Plot for A=B=1

PCD-09
44
 Slightly magnified view between -2 and +2 on the Y-axis.

Note that
the force
goes to
zero at
both the
points of
‘unstable’
equilibrium,
and also at
the point of
‘stable’
equilibrium

45
PCD-09
 Given: Force experienced by a particle is
ur
F ( ρ , ϕ , z ) = −eˆρ ρ cos 2ϕ + eˆϕ ρ sin 2ϕ + eˆz z
ur r ∂U 1 ∂U ∂U
F = −∇ U = − eˆρ − eˆϕ − eˆz Obtain the potential
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z for the given field.
∂U ρ2
i.e. = ρ cos 2ϕ ⇒ U= cos 2ϕ + f (ϕ ,z )
∂ρ 2
∂U ∂f
This implies = − ρ sin 2ϕ +
2
.
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
ur 1 ∂U
The azimuthal component of − ∇U is − = ρ sin 2ϕ ,
ρ ∂ϕ
∂f
hence : = 0 which gives f = f ( z ) + c
∂ϕ
∂U ∂f ∂U −z2
Now = ; and = −z ⇒ f =
∂z ∂z ∂z 2
ρ2 z2
∴ U (ρ ,ϕ , z) = cos 2ϕ − + k
PCD-09 2 2 46
 Next Unit is ‘Unit 9’: Gauss’ Law;
Equation of Continuity. Hydrodynamic and
Electrodynamic illustrations.
You will find that the gradient operator has very many
important applications in physics.

We emphasize that ‘observation’ and

‘measurements’ play a fundamental role in Physics.
We therefore introduce mathematical methods as
and where needed, but keep the focus on physical
principles.
We have aimed at introducing you to the romance in
physics, beauty in its simplicity, and rigor in its
formulation.
47
PCD-09
 Unit 9: Gauss’ Law; Johann
Carl

Equation of Continuity. Friedrich

Gauss
Hydrodynamics & 1777 - 1855
Electrodynamics
illustrations.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.jpg

Learning goals:
The divergence theorem is a mathematical expression of
a conservation principle. In the absence of any source or
sink, the density of matter in a well-defined volume
element can change if and only of matter flows in, or out,
of that region across the surface that bounds that
volume region. 1
PCD-09
 The result is equally consequential
with regard to fields just as well for
matter.

We shall develop further handle on

methods of vector calculus and
apply the techniques to study fluid
dynamics and electrodynamics. Gauss & Weber
http://www.gap-system.org/~history/PictDisplay/Gauss.html

ur ur r ur r uur
∫∫∫
volume
dτ ⎡⎣∇ • A(r ) ⎤⎦ = ∫∫
surface
A(r ) • da
region enclosing
that
region 2
PCD-09
 Field Lines
r r 1 q
E (r ) = eˆ − − − −(1)
4πε 0 r 2 r

Field lines fall like 1/r2

Field lines never cross each other 3

PCD-09
 ur r
A(r ) : A vector point function.
Flux
In general, its direction need not be normal to the surface.
ur r ur r
A(r1) A(r 2 )
S
r r
nˆ(r1 ) nˆ(r 2 )

ur r uur
Flux crossing a surface = ∫∫
surface
A(r ) • da

Flux: additive property

Total flux obtained by integrating the quantity 4

PCD-09
 Concept of flux of a vector field

ur r
A(r ) : A vector
r
nˆ (r ) : unit vector point function
r
normal to the surface at the point r

Flux crossing a surface

ur r uur
= ∫∫ A(r ) • da
surface
5
PCD-09
Let the point be P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) Z Y
r
in a vetor field A
eˆz
NET Flux through the xy -face, (perpendicular to eˆz ), is δx
⎡ ⎛ δz⎞ ⎛ δ z ⎞⎤
⎢ z ⎜ 0, 0 0 2 ⎟ z ⎜ 0, 0 0 2 ⎟ ⎥ δ xδ y
A x y , z + − A x y , z − (x0,y0,z0) δz
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦ X
δy
Note! Only the z-component
contributes to the total flux.
−eˆz

Flux crossing a surface

ur r uur
= ∫∫ A(r ) • da
surface

6
PCD-09
Flux crossing a surface
ur r uur Z Y
= ∫∫ A(r ) • da
surface

NET Flux through the xy -face, (perpendicular to eˆz ), is δx

⎡ ⎛ δz⎞ ⎛ δ z ⎞⎤
⎢ z ⎜ 0, 0 0 2 ⎟ z ⎜ 0, 0 0 2 ⎟ ⎥ δ xδ y
A x y , z + − A x y , z − (x0,y0,z0) δz
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦ X
δy

⎡ ∂Az ⎤ ⎡ ∂Az ⎤
=⎢ δ zδ xδ y =⎢ ⎥ δV
⎥
⎣ ∂z ⎦ ( x0, y0 , z0 ) ⎣ ∂z ⎦ ( x0, y0 , z0 )
Flux crossing all
the six surface elements Adding the flux through all faces, total flux
that enclose the cell r r r ⎡ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az ⎤
∫ ∫ ⎢⎣ ∂x + ∂y + ∂z ⎥⎦ dV
ur r uur
= ∫∫ A(r ) • da A(r ).dS =
surface
Cube 7
PCD-09
Flux crossing a surface
ur r uur Adding the flux through Z Y
= ∫∫ A(r ) • da all faces, total flux
surface

r r r ⎡ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az ⎤ δx

∫ A(r ).dS = ∫ ⎢⎣ ∂x + ∂y + ∂z ⎥⎦ dV
Cube (x0,y0,z0) δz
The integrand of the volume integral is δy X
called the divergence of the vector.
Cartesian expression of ‘divergence of
r ⎡ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂A ⎤ r r
the vector’ not its definition! div A = ⎢ + + z ⎥ = ∇• A
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
ur ur r ur r uur
Flux crossing all
the six surface elements
∫∫∫
volume
dτ ⎡⎣∇ • A(r ) ⎤⎦ = ∫∫
surface
A(r ) • da
that enclose the cell region enclosing
ur r uur
= ∫∫ A(r ) • da that
surface
region
8
PCD-09 Gauss’ Divergence Theorem
Physical meaning of ‘divergence’; definition free from coordinate system

ur ur r ur r uur
Take the limit of
∫∫∫
volume
dτ ⎡⎣∇ • A(r ) ⎤⎦ = ∫∫
surface
A ( r ) • d a
the ratio of
region enclosing
that total flux over δs
region
to δV
ur r
∫∫ A(r) • ndS
ˆ
flux per unit volume,
r enclosing r r
divA = lim = ∇• A
surface
δτ →0 δτ at that point
remember: flux is defined through a SURFACE,
whereas divergence is defined at a POINT
Flux is a scalar quantity. It is not a scalar field; it is not a
local quantity – not a ‘point function’.
Divergence is a scalar field; it is a scalar point function,
defined at each point of space 9
PCD-09
 Gauss’s Divergence Theorem
If a volume V is bounded by a surface S, then, for vector A,

The surface integral of the normal component of a vector

A taken over a closed surface is equal to the integral
of the divergence of A taken over the volume enclosed
by the surface ur ur r ur r uur
∫∫∫ dτ ⎣∇ • A(r ) ⎦ = ∫∫
⎡
volume
⎤
surface
A(r ) • da
region enclosing
that
region

since S is a closed surface, the unit normal n̂ of ds

(elemental area) is the outward normal

Conversion of a surface integral to a volume integral.

10
PCD-09
 ur ur r ur r uur r r r r
∫∫∫
volume
dτ ⎡⎣∇ • A(r ) ⎤⎦ = ∫∫
surface
A(r ) • da
∫ divA(r )dV =
V
∫
S
ˆ
A(r ).nds
region enclosing
that
region

With Gauss Divergence theorem, one can write surface integral

of a vector field over a closed surface in terms of volume
integral of the divergence of the vector field over the volume of
space enclosed by the closed surface.

Physical Meaning:
Integration of the faucets
(source of vector field) over
a volume is equal to the
flux flowing out through the
surface enclosing the
volume. 11
PCD-09
 ur ur r ur r uur r r r r
∫∫∫
volume
dτ ⎡⎣∇ • A(r ) ⎤⎦ = ∫∫
surface
A(r ) • da
∫ divA(r )dV =
V
∫ A(r ).nds
S
ˆ
region enclosing
that
region

Example : Electrostatic field

For a point charge of q at origin the electrostatic field is given by

r r q
E (r ) = eˆr
4πε 0 r 2

12
PCD-09
 ur ur r ur r uur
∫∫∫
volume
dτ ⎡⎣∇ • A(r ) ⎤⎦ = ∫∫
surface
A(r ) • da
the electric flux
region enclosing
that
through a spherical
region
surface is given as
uur
dS r = r sin θ dθ dϕ eˆr
2

π 2π
r r ⎛ q ⎞
∫ E (r ) • nds
ˆ = ∫θ φ∫ ⎜ 2 r ⎟
eˆ • r 2
( )
sin θ dθ dφ eˆr
s =0 =0 ⎝ 4πε 0 r ⎠
Solving the integral we get

r r q
∫
Gauss’s law in electrostatics
E ( r ). ˆ
nds = ( in the integral form)
S ε0
The total flux emanating from the closed surface is independent
of radius r, in fact it is also independent of the shape of the
surface chosen!
Exercise: Find the flux of electric field due to a
point charge through a cube of length L. 13
PCD-09
 if we have charge distribution instead of a point charge,
r r q 1
∫∫ E (r ).nds
S
ˆ = =
ε0 ε0 ∫∫∫
volume
ρ dV
of the charge
distribution

by the divergence theorem, r r r 1

∫ ∇.E (r )dV = ε0 V∫ ρ dV
Gauss Law is true even when
Since this is true for any volume V charge density is a function of
r r r ρ space and time.
∇ ⋅ E (r ) =
ε0 First Maxwell Equation:
Coulomb Law with superposition
Differential (or ‘point’) form of the Gauss’s law 14
PCD-09
 r ⎡ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂A ⎤ r r
div A = ⎢ + + z ⎥ = ∇• A Expression for
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ‘divergence’
in cylindrical polar
r r
∇• A = coordinate system
⎡ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂⎤
⎢eˆ ρ ∂ρ + eˆ ϕ ρ ∂ϕ + eˆ z ∂z ⎥ • ⎡⎣ eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦
⎣ ⎦

r r
∇• A = ⎡ ∂ ⎤
⎢eˆ ρ ∂ρ ⎥ • ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 ∂ ⎤
⎢ eˆ ϕ ρ ∂ϕ ⎥ • ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
⎣ ⎦
⎡ˆ ∂ ⎤ ˆ
⎢⎣e z ∂z ⎥⎦ • ⎡⎣e ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦
15
PCD-09
 r r
∇• A = ⎡ ∂ ⎤
⎢eˆ ρ ∂ρ ⎥ • ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 ∂ ⎤
⎢ eˆ ϕ ρ ∂ϕ ⎥ • ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
⎣ ⎦
⎡ˆ ∂ ⎤ ˆ
⎢⎣e z ∂z ⎥⎦ • ⎡⎣e ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦

Note that the components A ρ ,Aϕ ,A z each depends on (ρ ,ϕ ,z)

r r ⎧∂ ⎫
∇ • A = e ρ • ⎨ ∂ρ ⎬ ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
ˆ
⎩ ⎭
⎧1 ∂ ⎫
ˆeϕ • ⎨ ⎬ ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
⎩ ρ ∂ϕ ⎭
⎧ ∂⎫
eˆ z • ⎨ ⎬ ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦16
PCD-09 ⎩ ∂z ⎭
 r r ⎧∂ ⎫
∇ • A = eˆ ρ • ⎨ ⎬ ⎡⎣ eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
∂ρ⎩ ⎭
⎧1 ∂ ⎫
eˆ ϕ • ⎨ ⎬ ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
⎩ ρ ∂ϕ ⎭
⎧ ∂⎫
eˆ z • ⎨ ⎬ ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦
⎩ ∂z ⎭
∂eˆρ ∂eˆρ
= 0, = eˆϕ ,
∂ρ ∂ϕ
∂eˆϕ ∂eˆϕ
= 0, = −eˆρ
∂ρ ∂ϕ
r r ∂ 1
∇• A = Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) +
∂ρ ρ
1 ∂ ∂
+ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + Az ( ρ , ϕ17 , z )
PCD-09 ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
 Expression for ‘divergence’ in spherical polar coordinate system

∂eˆθ r ∂eˆϕ r
∂eˆr r =0 =0
=0 ∂r
∂r ∂r
∂eˆr ∂eˆθ ∂eˆϕ r
= eˆθ = −eˆr =0
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
∂eˆr ∂eˆθ ∂eˆϕ
= sin θ eˆϕ
∂ϕ = cos θ eˆϕ = − cos θ eˆθ − sin θ eˆr
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
r r
∇• A =
⎧ ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ⎫
⎨eˆ r + eˆθ + eˆϕ ⎬ • ⎡⎣eˆ r Ar (r ,θ , ϕ ) + eˆθ Aθ (r ,θ , ϕ ) + eˆϕ Aϕ (r,θ , ϕ )⎤⎦
⎩ ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ⎭
=
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂
⎡
⎣ r Ar (r,θ , ϕ )⎦ +
⎤ [ Aθ (r,θ ,ϕ )sin θ ] + Aϕ (r,θ ,ϕ )
r ∂r
2
r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
18
PCD-09
 Examples for solenoidal and nonsolenoidal fields
r ⎡ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂A ⎤ r r
div A = ⎢ + + z ⎥ = ∇. A
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦

r
r r
∇.A = 0
A = (x -y)eˆ x + ( x + y ) eˆ y
r r
Influx balances the outflux ∇ .A = 2
Solenoidal Example: B

The divergence of a vector field is the extent to which the flux lines
behave like being near a source or a sink at a given point.
19
PCD-09
Flux crossing a surface
ur r uur Is there any net accumulation of
= ∫∫ A(r ) • da
surface
the flux in a volume element?
Source
Sources and
Sinks may be
present in the
region !

Sink

What happens when the size of

the volume element shrinks,
becoming infinitesimally small? 20
PCD-09
 Consider a mass/charge density ρ m or ρc
crossing a certain cross-section of area
at a certain rate.

Sources/Sinks may be present in the region !

r r r
ρ m (r )v(r ) has the dimensions
⎡⎣ ML-3 LT −1 ⎤⎦ = ML-2 T −1
r r r
ρc (r )v(r ) has the dimensions ⎡⎣QL-3 LT −1 ⎤⎦ = QL-2 T −1
Amount of charge crossing unit area in unit time
Amount of mass/charge crossing unit area in unit time
21
PCD-09
 Consider a mass/charge density ρ m or ρc
crossing a certain cross-section of area
at a certain rate.
Amount of mass/charge crossing unit area in unit time:

Physical quantity of interest: Density x Velocity

ur r r r r Current Density Vector
J (r ) = ρ (r )v(r ) current crossing unit area

Mass/Charge Current Density Vector

Sources/Sinks may be present in the region !

22
PCD-09
 Physical significance:
Divergence theorem as a conservation principle
Conservation of mass or charge
r
ρ (r , t ) represents mass/charge density
r r
J (r , t ) represents mass/charge current density
Mass/Charge particles crossing a cross-section of area.

How much mass/charge is crossing

unit area in unit time?
ur r r r r
J (r ) = ρ (r )v(r ) ML T or QL T
−2 −1 −2 −1

r r
∫∫ J (r ).nds
S
ˆ = I , the current through the surface element.
23
PCD-09
 Divergence theorem: Conservation principle
r
ρ
Conservation of mass or charge r , t ) represents mass/charge density
( r
r
J ( r , t ) : mass/charge current density
What shall we get if we integrate the flux
emanating from all the six enclosing surfaces?
ur ur r ur r uur
r r ∫∫∫ dτ ⎡⎣∇ • J (r ) ⎤⎦ = ∫∫ J (r ) • da
∫∫ J (r ).nds
S
ˆ = I. volume
region
surface
enclosing
that
region

Net current oozing out of that region.

r r ∂qtotal ∂ ∂ρ
i.e. ∫∫ J (r ).nds
ˆ =− = − ∫∫∫ ρ dV = − ∫∫∫ dV
S
∂t ∂t V V
∂t
Negative sign:
Outward flux is at the expense of the charge inside! 24
PCD-09
 Divergence theorem: Conservation principle
ur ur r ur r uur
∫∫∫ { } ∫∫
dτ ∇ • J (r ) = J (r ) • da
r r
∫∫ J (r ).nds
ˆ = I.
volume surface
region enclosing
that
region S

r r ∂qtotal ∂ ⎧ ∂ρ ⎫
i.e. ∫∫ J (r ).nds
ˆ =− = − ∫∫∫ ρ dV = ∫∫∫ ⎨- ⎬ dV
S
∂t ∂t V V ⎩
∂t ⎭
Negative sign:
Outward flux is at the expense of the charge inside!

ur ur r ∂ρ Compare the integrands of

∇ • J (r ) = − the definite volume integrals
∂t
ur ur r ∂ρ Equation of Continuity
∇ • J (r ) + =0
PCD-09
∂t 25
 Divergence theorem: Conservation principle Equation of Continuity
ur ur r ur r uur
∫∫∫ { } ∫∫ ur ur r ∂ρ
dτ ∇• J (r ) = J (r) • da ∇ • J (r ) = −
volume surface ∂t
region enclosing ur ur r ∂ρ
that ∇ • J (r ) + =0
region
∂t
r r ∂ q total ∂ ⎧ ∂ρ ⎫
i.e. ∫∫ J ( r ).nds
ˆ =− =− ∫∫∫ ρ dV = ∫∫∫ ⎨ - ⎬ dV
S
∂t ∂t V V ⎩
∂t ⎭
Divergence theorem: Mathematical expression of a
conservation principle: In the absence of the creation or
destruction of matter (no ‘source’ or ‘sink’), the density
within a region of space can change only by having
‘matter’ flow into or out of the region through the
surface that encloses/bounds it. 26
PCD-09
 Divergence theorem: Conservation principle Equation of Continuity
ur ur r ur r uur
∫∫∫ { } ∫∫ ur ur r ∂ρ
dτ ∇• J (r ) = J (r) • da ∇ • J (r ) = −
volume surface ∂t
region enclosing ur ur r ∂ρ
that ∇ • J (r ) + =0
region
∂t
r r ∂ q total ∂ ⎧ ∂ρ ⎫
i.e. ∫∫ J ( r ).nds
ˆ =− =− ∫∫∫ ρ dV = ∫∫∫ ⎨ - ⎬ dV
S
∂t ∂t V V ⎩
∂t ⎭

Integral and
⎧ur ur r ∂ρ ⎫
∫∫∫ dV ⎨∇• J (r ) + ⎬ = 0
⎩ ∂t ⎭
Differential forms of
volume
region the equation of
continuity:
⎧ ur ur r ∂ρ ⎫
⎨∇ • J (r ) + ⎬ = 0 conservation
⎩ ∂t ⎭ principle 27
PCD-09
 Divergence theorem: Conservation principle Equation of Continuity
ur ur r ur r uur
∫∫∫ {
volume
} ∫∫
dτ ∇• J (r ) =
surface
J (r) • da In the absence of any
region enclosing source or sink, the
that
region density of matter in a
well-defined volume
ur ur r ∂ρ
∇ • J (r ) = − element can change if
∂t and only of matter flows
ur ur r ∂ρ
∇ • J (r ) + =0 in, or out, of that region
∂t across the surface that
bounds that volume
region.

⎧ur ur r ∂ρ ⎫
∫∫∫
volume
dV ⎨∇• J (r ) + ⎬ = 0
⎩ ∂t ⎭
region 28
PCD-09
 FLUID MECHANICS
We consider an incompressible fluid.

Under the application of a force, a

solid gets
pushed/pulled/spun…. or deformed.

A fluid ‘flows’
Deformation of solids, fluid flow: “rheology”
Non-Newtonian fluids --- example paints, foams, molten
plastics…..

--- complex systems;

but we shall work with “IDEAL” liquids
29
PCD-09
 δm
Density ρ ( r ) = limit
δV → 0 δ V

What is the meaning of the limit δV → 0 ?

Classical fluid: continuum mechanics,

continuously divisible matter.

δV <<< dimensions of the fluid medium

δV >>> dimensions of the molecules of fluid

30
PCD-09
 The pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container.

The pressure is the same in every direction. The shape of the container
does not matter.
S does not depend on the direction of uˆ N .
Pascal ' s law.
Stress at the point P is S .
δA
P uˆN =
δA

The unit normal û N can take any

Blaise Pascal orientation.
1623-1662
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Pascal.html
“Let no one say that I have said nothing new... the
arrangement of the subject is new. When we play tennis,31we
PCD-09 both play with the same ball, but one of us places it better”.
 We consider ‘ideal’ fluid. some definitions…..
To understand the term ‘ideal’ fluid, we first define
(i) ‘tension’, (ii) ‘compressions’ and (iii) ‘shear’.
Consider the force F on a tiny elemental area δ A passing
through point P in the liquid.

Stress at the point P is S. δA

P uˆN =
S • uˆ N = S S: Tension δA
S • uˆ N = 0 S: Shear

S • uˆ N = − S S: Compression The unit normal û N can take any

orientation.

An ideal fluid is one in which stress at any point is

32
PCD-09
essentially one of COMPRESSION.
The state of a fluid is completely determined by FIVE quantities:

(1,2,3) : Three components of the velocity

at each point : v(r ).
( 4) : The pressure p(r , t ).
(5) : The density ρ (r , t ).

Above, we consider ‘Eulerian’ position vector of a point with

reference to a chosen frame of reference. It is not the
position vector of any particular fluid molecule/particle.
33
PCD-09
 At time t0 At time t > t0

In the Lagrangian viewpoint, one tracks the evolution in

phase space of the entire continuous medium; has
huge amount of detailed information.

- not so in the Eulerian description. 34

PCD-09
 In the Eulerian description, one is interested in quantities
such as the density ρ (r ) or the velocity v ( r ) and
pressure p (r ) of an arbitrary fluid particle at r .
35
PCD-09
 r rr
How do we track density ρ(r) & velocity v(r) at a point in a river?

Sindhu Indus
Vitastha Jhelum
Asikini Chenab
Airavati Ravi
Satadru Sutlej

Rivers
in
Jammu
and
FLUID DYNAMICS Kashmir36
PCD-09
 r rr
How do we track density ρ (r) & velocity v(r) at a point in a river?
Alakananda
Bhagirathi
At 2700 feet, Deoprayag
("Divine confluence") is the
meeting place for the Bhagirathi
River (left) and the Alakananda
River, the two major Himalayan
tributaries of the Ganges.

How do we have
TRIWENI
SANGAM at
Prayag?
http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://personal.carthage.edu/jlochtefeld/picturepages/pilgrimage/deoprayag05.jpg&im
grefurl=http://personal.carthage.edu/jlochtefeld/picturepages/pilgdeoprayag.html&h=481&w=700&sz=87&tbnid=ZQt0BRpsi0E
J::&tbnh=96&tbnw=140&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbhagirathi%2Briver%2Bpicture&hl=en&usg=__899jmh0E8OAKvcBWqaIJPd 37
ON_k8=&sa=X&oi=image_result&resnum=1&ct=image&cd=1
PCD-09
 r rr
How do we track density ρ (r) & velocity v(r) at a point in a river?
Bhagirathi Alakananda

Jamuna
Saraswathi
Is merely the position
How did the waters Ganga vector of a particular
point in space, or is it
of SARASWATHI the position vector of a
ever get to the Prayag moving molecule of
TRIWENI SANGAM? Triweni water that has come
Sangam from either Bhagirathi
38 or
PCD-09 from Alakananda?
 r rr
How do we track density ρ (r) & velocity v(r) at a point in a river?
ONLY A ‘LAGRANGIAN’
TRACKING OF A WATER
MOLECULE WOULD REVEAL
HOW WATERS OF
SARASWATHI MADE IT TO
PRAYAG! The waters of
Yamuna would mix with the
waters of Saraswathi and bring
them to Prayag!

http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://personal.carthage.edu/jlochtefeld/picturepages/pilgrimage/deoprayag05.jpg&im
grefurl=http://personal.carthage.edu/jlochtefeld/picturepages/pilgdeoprayag.html&h=481&w=700&sz=87&tbnid=ZQt0BRpsi0E
J::&tbnh=96&tbnw=140&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbhagirathi%2Briver%2Bpicture&hl=en&usg=__899jmh0E8OAKvcBWqaIJPd 39
ON_k8=&sa=X&oi=image_result&resnum=1&ct=image&cd=1
PCD-09
 Equation of motion for fluids
two basic approaches
Lagrangian Approach:
Follow the motion of some
particle of the fluid; this must be
done for all particles of the fluid
Joseph-Louis Lagrange
1736 - 1813

Eulerian Approach:

Follow the velocity and

density of fluid at a particular
point; this must be done for all
points in space
i.e. sit back and watch Leonhard Euler
40
PCD-09 (1707-1783)
 Quantities of interest:
* velocity : v(r ).
G C
D
* pressure : p(r , t ). H
P
F
* density : ρ (r , t ). E
B
r A

Mass Current Density Vector Amount of mass of fluid

crossing face EFGH in unit
J (r , t ) = ρ (r , t )v(r , t ) time = δm ρδ V
lim = lim
δt → 0 δ t δt → 0 δ t
Dimensions : ML − 2T −1
ρδ xδ y δ z
Measure of the amount of mass = lim = ρ v xδ y δ z
crossing unit area in unit time. δt → 0 δt
= J x , EFGH δ y δ z
41
PCD-09
Amount of mass of fluid
crossing face EFGH in unit
time = δ m ρδ V
= lim = lim G C
δt → 0 δt δt → 0 δt H D
P
ρδ xδ y δ z F
= lim = ρ v xδ y δ z B
δt → 0 δt E
r A
ρδ xδ y δ z êx
= lim = ρ v xδ y δ z
δt → 0 δt Net OUTWARD flux
⎧ ⎡ ∂J x ⎤ ⎛ δx ⎞ ⎫
⎥ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎬δ y δ z
through the two faces
= ⎨ J x (r ) + ⎢
⎩ ⎣ ∂x ⎦ P ⎝ 2 ⎠⎭ orthogonal to x-axis =

⎡ ∂J x ⎤
⎢ ∂x ⎥ δxδyδz
Amount of mass of fluid ⎣ ⎦P
crossing face ABCD in unit
time
⎧ ⎡ ∂J x ⎤ ⎛ δx ⎞ ⎫ ⎡ ∂J x ⎤
= ⎨ J x (r ) + ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎬δ y δ z =⎢ ⎥ δV
⎥ ⎣ ∂ x ⎦ P 42
⎩ ⎣ ∂x ⎦ P ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎭
PCD-09
 Net OUTWARD flux
through the two faces
orthogonal to x-axis =
G C
⎡ ∂J x ⎤ H D
⎢ ∂x ⎥ δxδyδz P
⎣ ⎦P F
B
⎡ ∂J x ⎤ E
r
=⎢ ⎥ δV A
⎣ ∂x ⎦ P êx
This quantity
Net OUTWARD flux through the whole
must be
parallelepiped, per unit volume =
equal to
⎧⎪ ⎡ ∂ J x ⎤
⎨⎢ ⎥
⎡ ∂J y ⎤
+⎢
⎡ ∂ J z ⎤ ⎫⎪
⎥ +⎢ ⎥ ⎬= ∇•J
⎪⎩ ⎣ ∂ x ⎦ P ⎣ ∂ y ⎦ P ⎣ ∂ z ⎦ P ⎪⎭
[ ]
P −
∂ρ
∂t
The choice of the term ‘DIVERGENCE’ ∂ρ
∇ • J = − 43
PCD-09
is thus well justified. ∂t
 Equation of Continuity
Conservation of Matter
∂ρ (r , t )
∇ • J (r , t ) = −
∂t
J (r , t ) • uˆ = mass flux
in the direction
of uˆ
∂ρ (r , t )
∇ • J (r , t ) + =0
∂t

44
PCD-09
 ê y Face ‘1’
of the Face ‘2’
parallelepiped of the
ê x region parallelepiped
region
ê z
Ideal fluid: stress at any point is
essentially one of COMPRESSION.
45
PCD-09
 ⎧ ⎡ ∂p ⎤ δx ⎫
F (1) = ⎨ p ( r ) − ⎢ ⎥ ⎬(δyδz )(+ eˆx ) → 1 2 ←
⎩ ⎣ ∂x ⎦ P 2 ⎭ ê x
⎧ ⎡ ∂p ⎤ δx ⎫
⎬(δyδz )(− eˆx )
Ideal fluid: stress
F ( 2) = ⎨ p ( r ) + ⎢ ⎥ at any point is
⎩ ⎣ ∂x ⎦ P 2 ⎭ essentially one of
COMPRESSION.
⎡ ∂p ⎤ ⎡ ∂p ⎤
F (1) + F ( 2) = − ⎢ ⎥ δx (δyδz )(+ eˆx ) = − ⎢ ⎥ δV eˆx
⎣ ∂x ⎦ P ⎣ ∂x ⎦ P
6

∑ F (i) = −∇ p δV
i =1
HYDROSTATIC force. Of course, there
may be some additional external force
acting, such as gravity.
Net force per unit volum e = − ∇ p = negative
gradient of
HYDROSTATIC force
pressure 46
PCD-09
 Net HYDROSTATIC force acting on
the parallelepiped per unit volume = − ∇p → ←
External force (such as gravity) Total {hydrostatic +
acting on the parallelepiped external (gravity)} force
per unit volume acting on the parallelepiped
F external per unit volume
= lim
δV → 0 δV δm d v
lim
F external δm δV → 0 δ V dt
= lim
δV → 0 δm δV dv
ρ (r ) = −∇ p + g ρ ( r )
F external dt
= lim ρ (r )
δV → 0 δm Mass x Acceleration
“Cause-Effect”
= g ρ (r ) Newton’s law:
Equation of Motion 47
PCD-09
 Mass x Acceleration / “Cause-Effect” δm d v
lim
Newton’s law: Equation of Motion δV → 0 δ V dt
dv
ρ (r ) = −∇ p + g ρ ( r )
dt
The position vector r in this equation must represent the
position of a moving/flowing material particle of the fluid, just
as it is used the Newton’s law. It is the ‘LAGRANGIAN’
position vector of a moving/flowing fluid ‘particle/molecule’, not
the EULERIAN position vector of a fixed point in space.
r Lagrangian = r (t ) This is a function of time

r Euler Fixed point in space, not a function of time

d v Is the ACCELERATION of actual material/fluid
particle/molecule, and not just the rate at which
dt velocity of the fluid is changing at a fixed point in
48
PCD-09 space.
 Mass x Acceleration / “Cause-Effect” dv
Newton’s law: Equation of Motion ρ (r ) = −∇ p + g ρ ( r )
dt
dv ⎡ d ⎤ ⎡d ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ v ( r ( t ) , t ) = ⎢ ⎥ v ( x ( t ), y ( t ), z ( t ), t )
dt ⎣ dt ⎦ ⎣ dt ⎦
∂ v dx ∂ v dy ∂ v dz ∂ v
= + + +
∂ x dt ∂ y dt ∂ z dt ∂t
d v dx ∂ v dy ∂ v dz ∂ v ∂ v
= + + +
dt dt ∂ x dt ∂ y dt ∂ z ∂t
⎡ ∂ ⎤
= ⎢v • ∇ + ⎥ v
⎣ ∂t ⎦
“CONVECTIVE DERIVATIVE OPERATOR” The term ‘convection’
d ⎡ ∂ ⎤ is a reminder of the fact that in the
i.e. ≡ ⎢ v • ∇ + ⎥ convection process, the transport
PCD-09
dt ⎣ ∂ t ⎦ of a material particle is
49
involved.
 Mass x Acceleration / “Cause-Effect” dv
Newton’s law: Equation of Motion ρ (r ) = −∇ p + g ρ ( r )
dt
d v(r , t ) − ∇ p − ∇p
= + g external = − ∇φ External force
dt ρ (r ) ρ (r ) field, which we
considered to
be gravity

⎡ ∂⎤ d v(r , t ) − ∇ p
⎢⎣ v • ∇ + ∂t ⎥⎦ v ( r , t ) = = − ∇φ + F viscous
dt ρ (r )
Hydrodynamic Viscous, frictional,
term dissipative term.
This terms makes
“dry water wet”
Next: Unit 10 - Feynman 50
PCD-09
 Unit 10: Fluid Flow, Bernoulli’s Principle

Definition of circulation, curl, vorticity,

irrotational flow.

Steady flow.
Bernoulli’s equation/principle, some illustrations.

1
PCD-09
 Unit 10: Fluid Flow, Bernoulli’s Principle.
Equation of motion for fluid flow. Definition of
curl, vorticity, Irrotational flow and circulation.
Steady flow. Bernoulli’s principle, some
illustrations. Introduction to applications of Gauss’
law and Stokes’ theorem in Electrodynamics.

Learning goals:
Learn that both the divergence and the curl of a
vector field are involved (along with the boundary
conditions) in determining its properties. Learn
how a rigorous treatment of the velocity field is
necessary to explain quantitatively the observed
phenomena in fluid dynamics. Get ready for a
theory of electrodynamics. 2
PCD-09
 Recall the discussion on directional derivative
dψ r
= uˆ • ∇ψ
ds Gradient: direction in
uur uur which the function varies
δ r dr fastest / most rapidly.
uˆ = lim = ur r
δ s →0 δ s ds F = −∇ψ
uur
δ s = δ r , tiny Force: Negative gradient of
the potential
increament
uur ‘negative’ sign is the result
ds = dr , differential of our choice of natural
motion as one occurring
increament from a point of ‘higher’
potential to one at a ‘lower’
potential. 3
PCD-09
ur r ur r
Is it obvious that the ‘force’ defined by these F = −∇ψ
F = ma two equations is essentially the same?
Consistency in
Is it obvious that the ‘force’ defined by
these relations
these two equations is essentially the exists only for
same? ‘conservative’
forces.
ur uur
The compatibility of the two expressions ∫ F • dr = 0
emerges if, and only if, b ur uur
the potential ψ is defined in such way ∫ F • dr is
a
that the work done by the force given by INDEPENDENT
r
−∇ψ in displacing the object on which this
of the path
force acts, is independent of the path
a to b
along which the displacement occurred. PATH INTEGRAL4
PCD-09 “CIRCULATION”
 ur uur
∫ F • dr = 0 It is only when the line integral of the work done is
path independent that the force is conservative
bur uur
∫ F • dr is and accounts for the acceleration it generates
a when it acts on a particle of mass m through the
INDEPENDENT causality relation of ur r
of the path Newtonian mechanics:
F = ma
a to b

The path-independence of the above line integral is

completely equivalent to an alternative expression which
can be used to define a conservative force.

ur
This alternative expression employsurwhaturis known as CURL of a
VECTOR FIELD F , denoted as ∇× F .

5
PCD-09
Definition of Curl of a vector:
ur ur
ur r ∇ × F is a vector point function
of the vector field F ( r ) such that for an orthonormal basis set
r
of unit vectors
{uˆ (r ), i = 1, 2,3} ,
i
Mean (average) ‘circulation’
per unit area taken at the
ur r uur
r ur ur r
uˆi (r ) • ∇× F (r ) = lim
∫ F (r ) • dr ,
point when the elemental
area becomes infinitesimally
Δs
ΔS →0
small.
where the path integral is taken over a closed path C, taken
over a tiny closed loop C which bounds an elemental vector
uuur r
surface area ΔS = ΔS uˆi (r ).
The direction of the unit vector is to be taken such that
a right-hand screw would propogate forward when turned
along the sense in which the path integral is determined.
6
PCD-09
 ur r uur In general, the unit
r ur ur r
uˆi (r ) • ∇× F (r ) = lim
∫ F (r ) • dr vectors may depend
ΔS →0 Δs
r on the particular point
{ }
uˆi (r ), i = 1, 2,3 under discussion, and
Cartesian unit vectors, of course, hence written as
do not change from point to point. r r
functions uˆi (r ) of r.
They are constant vectors.

The above definition of CURL of a VECTOR is independent of

any coordinate frame of reference; it holds good for any
complete orthonormal set of basis set of unit vectors.

Mean (average) ‘circulation’ per unit area taken at the point

when the elemental area becomes infinitesimally small.
7
PCD-09
 r r r
circulation and curl circulation = ∫
C
A(r ).dl

Consider an open surface S, bounded by a closed curve C.

Circulation depends on the value of the vector at all points on C and
hence is not a scalar field; it is however a scalar quantity even if not a
scalar field which must be described/defined with respect to a scalar
point function.
Shrink the closed path C; in the limit, the circulation would vanish;
and so would the area S bounded by C. C
However, the ratio itself is finite in the limit;
it is a local quantity at that point.
This limiting ratio defines a
r r r
∫C A ( r ).dl
r r
component of the curl of the
lim = ( ∇ × A ).nˆ vector field; the curl itself is
δ S→0 δS
defined through three
limiting circulation per unit area orthonormal components in
PCD-09
{
the basis nˆ1 , nˆ2 , nˆ3 8}
 r r r
r ∫ A ( r ).dl
r r
( curl A ).nˆ = lim C
= ( ∇ × A ).nˆ
δ S→0 δS
limiting circulation per unit area

Curl measures how much the vector

“curls” around at a point

9
PCD-09
 curl of a vector field at a point represents the net circulation of
the field around that point.

the magnitude of curl at a given point represents the

maximum circulation at that point.

the direction of the curl vector is normal to the surface on

which the circulation (determined as per the right-hand-rule) is
the greatest.

ur r r
If ∇×F=0 in a region then there would be no
curliness/rotation, and the field is called irrotational.

10
PCD-09
 r r r
r ∫ A ( r ).dl
r r
( curl A ).nˆ = lim C
= ( ∇ × A ).nˆ
δ S→0 δS
Remember!
The criterion that a force field is conservative is that its path
integral over a closed loop (i.e. “circulation”) is zero. This is
ur r r
equivalent to the condition that ∇×F=0
ur r r
If ∇×F=0 in a region, then there would be no curliness
(rotation), and the field is called irrotational.

Conservative force fields are IRROTATIONAL

Examples for irrotational fields: electrostatic, gravitational

11
PCD-09
 Curl in Cartesian Co-ordinate add up
Y 3rd leg
δx
Consider a point P( x0 , y0 , z0 ). r r r 2nd
δy
th
ur r A(r ).dl 4 δy
leg leg
Consider a vector field A(r ) in some region of space. δx
eˆz 1st leg
Circulation over the peremeter of an elemental surface X
to which the normal is eˆz is
⎡ ⎛ δy ⎞ ⎛ δ y ⎞⎤ Z 3rd leg
A , −
⎢ x⎜ 0 0 2 0⎟
x y , z − A x ⎜ 0
x , y0 + , z0 ⎟ ⎥ δ x + 4th 2nd
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
leg leg
⎡ ⎛ δx ⎞ ⎛ δx ⎞⎤
+ − − 0 ⎟⎥ δ y
⎢ y⎜ 0 2 0 0⎟
A x , y , z A y⎜ 0x , y0 , z 1st leg
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
Closed path C
r r r ∂Ax ∂Ay which bounds
∫ A(r ).dl = −
∂y
δ yδ x +
∂x
δ xδ y an elemental
C surface
r ∂Ax ∂Ay r
⇒ (curl A).eˆz = − + = (curlA) z Make sure that you
∂y ∂x
understand the signs12±
PCD-09
 r r r ∂Ax ∂Ay
∫C A(r ) • dl = − ∂y δ yδ x + ∂x δ xδ y
Determining now the net circulation per unit area:
r ∂Ax ∂Ay ur r
(curl A) • eˆz = − + = (∇ × A) z
∂y ∂x
Color coded arrows are unit vectors
orthogonal to the three mutually
orthogonal surface elements bounded
by their perimeters.
Similarly if we get circulation per unit area along other two
orthogonal closed paths and add up, we get:
ur ⎛ ∂Az ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax ∂Az ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ay ∂Ax ⎞
Curl A = eˆx ⎜ − ⎟ + eˆy ⎜ − ⎟ + eˆz ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
13
PCD-09
 ur ⎛ ∂Az ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax ∂Az ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ay ∂Ax ⎞
Curl A = eˆx ⎜ − ⎟ + eˆy ⎜ − ⎟ + eˆz ⎜ − ⎟
∂
⎝ y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ z∂ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ x∂ ∂y ⎠

The Cartesian expression for curl of a vector

field can be expressed as a determinant; but it
is, of course, not a determinant!
eˆx eˆy eˆz
ur r ur ∂ ∂ ∂
curl A = ∇× A =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az
For example, can you just interchange the 2nd and the 3rd row and
change the sign of this ‘determinant’? The curl is not a cross
product of two vectors; the gradient is a vector operator! 14
PCD-09
 examples of rotational fields, nonzero curl

r r
V ( x, y ) = − yeˆx + xeˆ y A(x,y)=(x-y)eˆ x + ( x + y )eˆy
r r r r
∇ × V = 2eˆz ∇ × A = 2eˆ z

Curl here is directed along the positive z-axis

15
PCD-09
 example of rotational fields, nonzero curl

x
v = xeˆ y
r
∇ × v = êz

16
PCD-09
 What is the DIVERGENCE and the CURL of the following
vector field?

Reference: Berkeley Physics Course, Volume I 17

PCD-09
 What is the DIVERGENCE and the CURL of the following
vector field?

Reference: Berkeley Physics Course, Volume I 18

PCD-09
 What is the DIVERGENCE and the CURL of the following
vector field?

Reference: Berkeley Physics Course, Volume I 19

PCD-09
 What is the DIVERGENCE and the CURL of the following
vector field?

Reference: Berkeley Physics Course, Volume I 20

PCD-09
 What is the DIVERGENCE and the CURL of the following
vector field?

Reference: Berkeley Physics Course, Volume I 21

PCD-09
 What is the DIVERGENCE and the CURL of the following
vector field?

Reference: Berkeley Physics Course, Volume I 22

PCD-09
 curl of a gradient is zero ur ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = eˆx + eˆy + eˆz
∂x ∂y ∂z

eˆ x eˆ y eˆ z
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × ∇φ = The final result will be
∂x ∂y ∂z independent of the
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ coordinate system.
∂x ∂y ∂z

⎛ ∂2φ ∂2φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂2φ ∂2φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂2φ ∂2φ ⎞

∇×∇φ = eˆx ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ + eˆy ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ + eˆz ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂y∂z ∂z∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂z∂x ∂x∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ⎠
r
PCD-09
=0 23
⎛d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞ ur
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ + ω x
⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R Refer: Page29,30 of Unit 6

⎛d ⎞ r ⎛d ⎞ r ur r
⎜ ⎟ r =⎜ ⎟ r + ω x r
⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R

⎛d ⎞ r r ⎛ d ⎞ r ur r
When ⎜ ⎟ r =0, ⎜ ⎟ r =ω x r
⎝ dt ⎠ R ⎝ dt ⎠ I

⎛d ⎞ r r ur r
⎜ ⎟ r = vI = ω x r
⎝ dt ⎠ I
24
PCD-09
⎛d ⎞ r r ur r r r r
⎜ ⎟ r = vI = ω x r
⎝ dt ⎠ I
v =ω×r
r r r ur r eˆx eˆy eˆz
r
∇ × v = ∇ × (ω × r ) = ∇ × ωx ω y ωz
x y z
r
= ∇ × ⎡⎣(ω y z − ωz y )iˆ + (ωz x − ωx z )eˆy + (ωx y − ω y x)eˆz ⎤⎦
eˆx eˆy eˆz The ‘curl’ of
the linear
∂ ∂ ∂
= velocity gives
∂x ∂y ∂z a measure of
(ω y z − ωz y ) (ω z x − ω x z ) (ω x y − ω y x) (twice) the
angular
r r r velocity; thus
∇ × v = 2(ωx eˆx + ω y eˆy + ωz eˆz ) = 2ω justifying the
term ‘curl’. 25
PCD-09
 Remember:
ur r uur
r ur ur r
uˆi (r ) • ∇× F (r ) = lim
∫ F (r ) • dr
ΔS →0 Δs

The component of the curl of a vector field in the

r
direction uˆi (r ) is the circulation about the axis
of the vector field per unit area.

It measures the extent to which a particle being

r
carried by the vector field is being rotated about uˆi (r ).
26
PCD-09
 In that 0th lecture, we mentioned that we shall lead
you to the STOKES THEOREM: William Thomson,
r r r r r uur 1st Baron Kelvin

∫ A ( r ) • dl = ∫∫ ( ∇ × A ) • dS (1824-1907)

Note!
It is STOKES’
THEOREM
not STOKE’S THEOREM

0
K temperature
This theorem is named after George Gabriel Stokes
(1819–1903), although the first known statement of
George Gabriel the theorem is by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and
Stokes
(1819–1903) appears in a letter of his to Stokes in July 1850.
27
PCD-09 Reference: http://www.123exp-math.com/t/01704066342/
 Proof of Stokes’ theorem follows from the very definition of the curl:
r r r
r ∫ A ( r ) • dl
r r
D efinition : ( curl A ) • nˆ = lim C
= ( ∇ × A ) • nˆ
δ S→0 δS
For a path δC, which binds an area δS,
r r r
∫δ
C
A • dl = δ S (curl A) • nˆ

A finite area S is enclosed by C, we can split up S into

infinitesimal bits δSn bounded by tiny curves δCn
ur r uur n ur r uur n ur r uur
∫ A(r ) • dl = ∑
c i =1
∫δ
ci
A(r ) • dl = ∑ ∫∫ curl A(r ) • dS
i =1
ur r uur ur r uur
∫ A(r ) • dl = ∫∫ curl A(r ) • dS Stokes’ theorem
c
28
PCD-09
 consider a surface S enclosed by a curve C Stokes’ theorem
ur r uur ur r uur
∫
c
A ( r ) • dl = ∫∫ curl A ( r ) • dS

The Stokes theorem relates

the line integral of a vector
about a closed curve
to the surface integral of its
curl over the enclosed area
that the closed curve binds.

Any surface bound by the closed curve will work; you

can pinch the butterfly net and distort the shape of the
net any which way – it won’t matter! 29
PCD-09
 consider a surface S enclosed by a curve C Stokes’ theorem
ur r uur ur r uur
∫ A ( r ) • dl = ∫∫ curl A (
c The direction of the vector
r ) • dS

surface element that appears in

the right hand side of the above
equation must be defined in a
C traversed one
manner that is consistent
with the sense in which the way
closed path integral in the left
hand side is evaluated.

The right-hand-screw C traversed

convention must be followed. 30
PCD-09 the other way
 Are there non-orientable surfaces?

The surface under

consideration, however, better
be a ‘well-behaved’ surface!

A cylinder open at both ends is

not a ‘well-behaved’ surface!

A cylinder open at only one end

is ‘well-behaved’; isn’t it already
like the butterfly net? 31
PCD-09
 Consider a rectangular The surface under
strip of paper, spread flat consideration, however, better
at first, and given two be a ‘well-behaved’ surface!
colors on opposite sides.

Now, flip it and paste the

short edges on each other
as shown.

Is the resulting object

three-dimensional?

How many ‘edges’ does

it have?

How many ‘sides’ does it have?

32
PCD-09
 Expression for ‘curl’ in cylindrical polar coordinate system
{eˆ , eˆ , eˆ }
ρ ϕ z

r r
∇× A =
⎡ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂⎤
⎢eˆ ρ ∂ρ + eˆ ϕ ρ ∂ϕ + eˆ z ∂z ⎥ × ⎡⎣ eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦
⎣ ⎦

r r
∇ × A = ⎡⎢eˆ ρ ∂ ⎤⎥ × ⎡eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤ +
∂ρ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 ∂ ⎤
⎢ eˆ ϕ ρ ∂ϕ ⎥ × ⎡⎣ eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
⎣ ⎦
⎡ˆ ∂ ⎤ ˆ
⎢⎣e z ∂z ⎥⎦ × ⎡⎣e ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦

33
PCD-09
 r r
∇× A =
⎡ ∂
ˆ
e + ˆ
1 ∂
⎢ ρ ∂ρ ϕ ρ ∂ϕ
e + ˆ
e z
∂⎤
∂ ⎥ × ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦
{eˆ , eˆ , eˆ }
ρ ϕ z
⎣ z ⎦

⎡ ∂ ⎤
r r ⎢ ρ ∂ρ ⎥ × ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
ˆ
e
∇× A = ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 ∂ ⎤
⎢ eˆ ϕ ρ ∂ϕ ⎥ × ⎡⎣ eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
⎣ ⎦
⎡ˆ ∂ ⎤ ˆ
⎢e z ∂z ⎥ × ⎡⎣e ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦
⎣ ⎦
r r ∂
∇ × A = ⎡⎣ eˆ ρ ⎤⎦ × ⎡⎣ eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
∂ρ
⎛1 ∂ ⎞
⎡⎣ eϕ ⎤⎦ × ⎜
ˆ ⎟ ⎡⎣ eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ +
⎝ ρ ∂ϕ ⎠
∂
[eˆ z ] × ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦ 34
PCD-09 ∂z
 Expression for ‘curl’ in cylindrical polar coordinate system
{eˆ , eˆ , eˆ }
ρ ϕ z

r r ∂
⎡ ⎤
∇ × A = ⎣e ρ ⎦ ×
ˆ ⎡ eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎦⎤ +
⎣
∂ρ
⎛1 ∂ ⎞
⎣⎡ eˆ ϕ ⎦⎤ × ⎜ ρ ∂ϕ ⎟ ⎣⎡ eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎦⎤ +
⎝ ⎠
∂
[e z ] × ⎡⎣eˆ ρ Aρ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ ( ρ , ϕ , z ) + eˆ z Az ( ρ , ϕ , z ) ⎤⎦
ˆ
∂z

⎛ 1 ∂Az ∂Aϕ ⎞ ⎛ ∂Aρ ∂Az ⎞ 1 ⎡ ∂ ( ρ Aϕ ) ∂Aρ ⎤

= eˆ ρ ⎜ − ⎟ + eˆ ϕ ⎜ − ⎟ + eˆ z ⎢ − ⎥
⎝ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂ρ ⎠ ρ ⎢⎣ ∂ρ ∂ϕ ⎥
⎦
35
PCD-09
 Expression for ‘curl’ in spherical polar coordinate system
{eˆ , eˆ , eˆ }
r θ ϕ

r r
∇ × A=
⎛ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ⎞
⎟ × ( eˆ r Ar (r , θ , ϕ ) + eˆ θ Aθ (r ,θ , ϕ ) + eˆ ϕ Aϕ (r ,θ , ϕ ) )
1
ˆ
= ⎜ er + eθ
ˆ + eϕ
ˆ
⎝ ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ⎠

r r ⎧ ∂ ∂Aθ ⎫
⎨ ( sin θ Aϕ ) −
1
∇ × A=eˆ r ⎬
r sin θ ⎩ ∂θ ∂ϕ ⎭
1 ⎧ 1 ∂Ar ∂ ⎫
+eˆ θ ⎨ − ( rAϕ ) ⎬
r ⎩ sin θ ∂ϕ ∂r ⎭
1⎧ ∂ ∂Ar ⎫
+ eˆ ϕ ⎨ ( rAθ ) − ⎬
r ⎩ ∂r ∂θ ⎭ 36
PCD-09
Do you like the ear-ring? The Möbius strip used to be
common in belt drives (like a
car fan belt). With an ordinary
belt only the inside of the belt
was in contact with the
wheels, so it would wear out
before the outside did. Since
a Möbius strip has only one
side, the wear and tear on
It is not
the at
beltall
wasobvious….
spread out more
evenly and they would last
longer. However, modern
It is MOBIUS !!! belts are made from several
layers of different materials,
with a definite inside and
outside, and do not have a
twist. 37
PCD-09 http://mathssquad.questacon.edu.au/mobius_strip.html
 Maurits
Cornelius
M.C. Escher
Escher
1898 - 1972

http://www.mcescher.com/

“The laws of mathematics are not merely human inventions or creations. They
simply 'are'; they exist quite independently of the human intellect. The most that
any(one) ... can do is to find that they are there and to take cognizance of them. ”
38
PCD-09
 An important identity: divergence of a curl is zero
r r r r r r
By
Gauss’ divergence theorem
∫ ∇ ⋅ (∇ × A)dτ = ∫ (∇ × A) ⋅ dS
V S

S2
Volume

S1 c2
Surface enclosing a volume c1

Applying Stoke’s theorem

r r r r r r r
∫∫
S
(∇ × A) ⋅ d S = ∫∫ (
S1
∇ × A) ⋅ ˆ
n 1 dS 1 + ∫∫ (
S2
∇ × A) ⋅ ˆ
n 2 dS 2

r r r r
= ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl = 0 r r r
∇ ⋅ (∇ × A) = 0
C1 C2 39
PCD-09
 The curl of a vector is an important quantity.

A very important theorem in vector calculus is the

Helmholtz theorem which states that given the
divergence and the curl of a vector field, and
appropriate boundary conditions, the vector field is
completely specified. You will use this to study Maxwell’s
equations which provide the curl and the divergence of
the electromagnetic field.

Besides, the ‘curl’ finds direct application also in the

derivation of the Bernoulli’s principle, as shown below.

40
PCD-09
 2 sons of Posed the
Nicolaus Bernoulli brachistrocrone
Bernoulli’s brothers problem
Bernoulli Bernoulli’s
Family Principle
Math/Phys Tree

Johann’s work was assembled by the

Marquis de I;Hospital (1661-1704) under a
strange financial agreement with Johann in
1696 into the first calculus textbook. The
famous method of evaluating the
indeterminate form 0/0 got to be known as
I'Hospital's rule. 41
Reference:
PCD-09 http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/people/bernoulli_tree.htm
 References to read more about the Bernoulli Family:

http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/people/bernoulli_tree.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/22584/temh3007.htm

“...it would be better for the true physics

if there were no mathematicians on
earth”.

Quoted in The Mathematical

Intelligencer 13 (1991).
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Quotations/Bernoulli_Daniel.html

Daniel Bernoulli
1700 - 1782

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Bernoulli_Daniel.html 42
PCD-09
 Result of Page ⎡ ∂⎤ d v(r , t ) − ∇ p
50, Unit 9
⎢⎣ v • ∇ + ∂t ⎥⎦ v ( r , t ) = = − ∇φ
dt ρ (r )

( )
Use now the
following ∇ A• B =
( ) ( )A + A × (∇ × B )+ B × (∇ × A )
vector
identity: A•∇ B + B •∇
∇ (v • v ) =
(v • ∇ )v + (v • ∇ )v + v × (∇ × v )+ v × (∇ × v )
i.e. ∇ (v • v ) = (v • ∇ )v + v × (∇ × v )
1
2
1
2
( )
∇ v• v − v× ∇× v + (
∂v − ∇ p
∂t
= )
ρ (r )
− ∇φ
43
PCD-09
 1
2
( )
∇ v• v − v× ∇× v + (
∂v − ∇ p
∂t
=
ρ (r )
)− ∇φ

∇ p(r ) ⎧⎪ p (r ) ⎫⎪
Now, ≈ ∇⎨ ⎬
ρ (r ) ⎪⎩ ρ ⎪⎭

1
2
( )
∇ v• v − v× ∇× v +(∂v
∂t
= −∇ ⎨)
⎧⎪ p ( r ) ⎫⎪
⎪⎩ ρ ⎪⎭
⎬ − ∇φ

i.e.,
1
2
( )
∇ v• v − v× ∇× v +(∂v
∂t
= −∇ ⎨)
⎧⎪ p ( r )
⎪⎩ ρ
⎫⎪
+φ⎬
⎪⎭
44
PCD-09
 1
2
( ) (
∇ v• v − v× ∇× v +
∂v
∂t
) ⎧⎪ p ( r )
= −∇ ⎨
⎪⎩ ρ
⎫⎪
+φ⎬
⎪⎭

⎛d ⎞ r ⎛d ⎞ r ur r
Recall that : ⎜ ⎟ r = ⎜ ⎟ r + ω x r
⎝ dt ⎠ I ⎝ dt ⎠ R
r r ur r r
v I = v R + ω x r R , where v I is just the
velocity that is employed in the equation
of motion for the fluid.
ur r ur r ur ur r
∴ ∇ × vI = ∇ × vR + ∇ × ω x r R { }
ur ur r
{ }
To determine ∇ × ω x r R we now use another vector
Identity, for the curl of cross-product of two vectors:

( ) ( ) ( )
∇ × A × B = B • ∇ A − A • ∇ B + A(∇ • B ) − B (∇ • A)
45
PCD-09
 ur r ur r ur ur r
{
∇ × vI = ∇ × vR + ∇ × ω x r R }
( ) ( ) ( )
∇ × A × B = B • ∇ A − A • ∇ B + A (∇ • B ) − B (∇ • A)

( ) ( ) ( )
∇ × ω × rR = rR • ∇ ω − ω • ∇ rR + ω (∇ • rR ) − rR (∇ • ω )
∇ × (ω × r ) = − (ω • ∇ )r + ω (∇ • r ) = 2ω
R R R

∇ × v I = ∇ × v R + 2ω

In the rotating frame , v R = 0,

hence , the VORTICITY, ∇ × v I = χ = 2ω
46
PCD-09
 1
2
( ) (
∇ v• v − v× ∇× v +
∂v
∂t
) ⎧⎪ p ( r )
= −∇ ⎨
⎪⎩ ρ
⎫⎪
+φ⎬
⎪⎭

1 2 ∂v ⎧⎪ p ( r ) ⎫⎪
∇ v − v× χ + = −∇ ⎨ +φ⎬ For ‘STEADY STATE’
2 ∂t ⎪⎩ ρ ⎪⎭

∂v ⎧⎪ p ( r ) ⎫⎪ 1 ∂v
=0
2
− v × χ = −∇ ⎨ +φ⎬− ∇ v
∂t ⎪⎩ ρ ⎪⎭ 2 ∂t
⎧ 2
⎫
⎧ 2
⎫ ⎪ p(r ) v ⎪
∂v ⎪ p(r ) v ⎪ − v × χ = −∇ ⎨ +φ + ⎬
− v × χ = −∇ ⎨ +φ + ⎬ ⎪ ρ 2 ⎪
∂t ⎪ ρ 2 ⎪ ⎩ ⎭
⎩ ⎭

⎧ v
2
⎫
⎪ p(r ) ⎪
Hence, 0 = v • ∇ ⎨ +φ + ⎬
⎪ ρ 2 ⎪ 47
PCD-09 ⎩ ⎭
 ⎧ v
2
⎫
⎪ p(r ) ⎪
0 = v • ∇⎨ +φ + ⎬
⎪ ρ 2 ⎪
⎩ ⎭
⎧ v
2
⎫
⎪ p (r ) ⎪
⇒ ∇⎨ +φ + ⎬ must be ORTHOGONAL to v,
⎪ ρ 2 ⎪
⎩ ⎭
⎧ v
2
⎫
⎪ p(r ) ⎪
i.e., ∇ ⎨ +φ + ⎬ must be ORTHOGONAL to STREAMLINES
⎪ ρ 2 ⎪
⎩ ⎭
⇒ ∇Ψ must be ORTHOGONAL to streamlines,
2

p(r ) v
where Ψ = +φ + .
ρ 2
2

p (r ) v
⇒Ψ= +φ + = constant for a given streamline
ρ
48
PCD-09 2 Daniel Bernoulli’s Theorem
 2

p (r ) v
⇒Ψ= +φ + = constant for a given streamline
ρ 2

We derived the above result for a ‘STEADY STATE’ and made use of the relation

⎧ 2
⎫
⎪ p(r ) v ⎪ ∂v
− v × χ = −∇ ⎨
ρ
+φ + ⎬ =0
⎪
⎩
2 ⎪
⎭ ∂t

If the fluid flow is both ‘steady state’ and ‘irrotational’,

2
∇× v = χ = 0
p(r ) v
⇒Ψ= +φ +
ρ 2 Daniel Bernoulli’s Theorem
49
PCD-09 is constant for the entire velocity field in the liquid.
 Mass Current Density Vector J ( r , t ) = ρ (r , t )v(r , t )
Dimensions : ML − 2T −1
G C
H D
For Steady State Flow,
P
ρvA = constant , F
B
E
A : cross - sectional area r A
since,
ur ur r ur r uur ∂ρ
∫∫∫ { } ∫∫
dτ ∇ • J (r ) = J (r ) • dS = 0, for STEADY STATE as
∂t
=0
volume surface
region enclosing
that
region

Work done on the fluid by the pressure Net work done on the fluid in the
that the fluid exerts on Face 1 is: parallelepiped by the pressure
δ W 1 = F1δ s = p 1 A1δ s = p 1 A1 v 1δ t that the fluid exerts on Faces 1
& 2 is:
Work done by the fluid on Face 2 is:
δW1 − δW2 = p1 A1v1δt − p2 A2 v 2δt
δ W 2 = F2 δ s = p 2 A 2 δ s = p 2 A 2 v 2 δ t 50
PCD-09
Net work done on the fluid in the
parallelepiped by the pressure δW1 −δW2 = p1 A1v1δt − p2 A2v2δt
that the fluid exerts at Faces 1 & 2 :

Energy gained per unit mass by the

fluid as it traverses the x-axis of the E 2 − E 1 =
[ p1 A1 v 1 −
p 2 A2 v 2 ]δ t
parallelepiped across the Faces 1 & 2 : δm
[ p1 A1 v 1 −p 2 A2 v 2 ]δ t
= E 2 − E1
δm
⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎡1 2 ⎤
= ⎢ v + φ + U int ernal ⎥ − ⎢ v + φ + U int ernal ⎥
⎣2 ⎦2 ⎣2 ⎦1

[ p1 A1 v 1 − p 2 A2 v 2 ]δ t ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
= ⎢ v 2 + φ + U int ernal ⎥ − ⎢ v 2 + φ + U int ernal ⎥
ρ (δ sA ) ⎣2 ⎦2 ⎣2 ⎦1

51
PCD-09
[ p1 A1 v 1 − p 2 A2 v 2 ]δ t ⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎡1 2 ⎤
= ⎢ v + φ + U int ernal ⎥ − ⎢ v + φ + U int ernal ⎥
ρ (δ sA ) ⎣2 ⎦2 ⎣2 ⎦1

⎡ p1 A1 v 1 p 2 A2 v 2 ⎤ ⎡1 2 ⎤ ⎡1 2 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥ δ t = ⎢⎣ 2 v + φ + U int ernal ⎥ − ⎢ v + φ + U int ernal ⎥
⎣ ρ ( v 1δ t ) A1 ρ ( v 2 δ t ) A 2 ⎦ ⎦2 ⎣ 2 ⎦1

⎡ p1 p 2 ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 ⎤ ⎡1 2 ⎤
⎢ρ − =
⎥ ⎢2 v + φ + U int ernal ⎥ − ⎢2 v + φ + U int ernal ⎥
⎣ ρ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦2 ⎣ ⎦1
⎡1 p⎤ ⎡1 p⎤
0 = ⎢ v 2 + φ + U int ernal + ⎥ − ⎢ v 2 + φ + U int ernal + ⎥
⎣2 ρ ⎦2 ⎣2 ρ ⎦1
1 2 p From page 48 :
i .e. v + φ + U internal + = constant
2 ρ 2
Daniel Bernoulli’s Theorem p(r ) v
Ψ= +φ +
ρ 2
52
PCD-09 is constant for the entire velocity field in the liquid.
 2

p (r ) v
+φ + = constant
ρ 2
The swing of a ball is
governed by Bernoulli's
theorem.
A swing bowler rubs only
one side of the ball. The ball
is then more rough on one Ishant Sharma
side than on the other. Inswing / Outswing
bowler

A white ball has a thin lacquer that is applied to its surface to avoid discoloring
the ball. During play, the shiny surface of the white ball remains shinier than
that of a red ball, which has a rougher surface to begin with.

The difference between the rough and shiny surface of a white ball is
much more, and thus it swings more than the red ball.
53
PCD-09
 ρ James Clerk Maxwell
∇•E = 1831-1879
ε0
Divergence
∇•B = 0 and Curl of

∇× E = −
∂B (E, B )
∂t
∂J 1 ∂E
∇ × B = μ0 + 2
∂t c ∂t
1
c=
μ 0ε 0
Helmholtz Theorem
PH102: PHYSICS II 54
PCD-09
 Revision Topic

Time Period for the Plane of Precession of

Foucault's Pendulum at Different Latitudes

Supplement to Unit 6, in response to some

questions received by email
 Time Of Precession Of Foucault's Pendulum at Different
Latitudes
The plane of oscillation of
the Foucault pendulum is
seen to rotate due to the
Coriolis effect. The plane
rotates through one full
rotation in 24 hours at
poles, and in ~33.94 hours
“ Foo-Koh” at a latitude of 450
(Latitude of Paris is ~490).

ur ur ur ur ⎛ d ⎞ r ur ur r
F R = F I − F ω& − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r - mω × ω × r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
( )
‘Leap second’ term
PCD-09
‘Coriolis force’ ‘Centrifugal force’
 r
Earth’s ω êv Choose eˆz = eˆv
rotation axis eˆr eˆx = eˆy × eˆz
θ −δ δ
eˆv = eˆvertical π
eˆy = eˆNorth = eˆEast
2 r
eˆh = eˆhorizontal Fcf = Fcf eˆρ
Frame of
r reference on the
Fg θ θ − δ eˆρ rotating earth to
θ −δ study centrifugal
êh and/or Coriolis
effects. The
1. Note earth’s axis of rotation. ‘vertical’ is not
r
2. Recognize that Fcf = Fcf eˆρ Note
r
that:
r
along the radial
3. Recognize that eˆ ≠ eˆ . ( Fg + Fcf ) • eˆh = 0 line, nor along
v r the axis of
4. Choose eˆz = eˆv . ∠ ( ˆ
eρ , ˆ
eh ) = θ − δ
earth’s rotation!
5. Choose eˆ y = eˆNorth , pointing toward North.
ω = (ω • eˆy ) eˆy + (ω • eˆz ) eˆz
r r r
6. Now, eˆx = eˆy × eˆz = eˆEast
PCD-09
ur ur ur ur ⎛ d ⎞ r ur ur r
F R = F I − F ω& − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r - mω × ω × r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
( )
ω = (ω • eˆ ) eˆ + (ω • eˆ ) eˆ
ur ur ⎛ d ⎞ r r r r
F Coriolis = −2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r y y z z
⎝ ⎠R
dt
= −2m ⎣(ω • eˆy ) eˆy + (ω • eˆz ) eˆz ⎦⎤ × ⎡⎣ v x eˆx +v y eˆy + v z eˆz ⎤⎦
r r
⎡

= −2mω ⎡⎣cos λ eˆy + sin λ eˆz ⎤⎦ × ⎡⎣ v x eˆx + v y eˆy + v z eˆz ⎤⎦

ω eˆy eˆz We shall ignore
here the ‘leap
λ : latitude λ second’ and the
centrifugal term.
Why is this
approximation
reasonable?
maCoriolis = −2mω ⎡⎣( cos λ v z − sin λ v y ) eˆx + sin λ v x eˆy + (− cos λ v x )eˆz ⎤⎦
r
 ur ur ur ur ⎛ d ⎞ r ur ur r
F R = F I − F ω& − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r - mω × ω × r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
( )
r )
FI = −mgez
maCoriolis = −2mω ⎡⎣( v Rz cos λ − v Ry sin λ ) eˆx + v Rx sin λ eˆy + (− v Rx cos λ )eˆz ⎤⎦
r

r
FR = m ( aRx ex + aRy ey + aRz ez )
) ) )
INTEGRATION

aRx = −2ω ( v Rz cos λ − v Ry sin λ ) v Rx = −2ω ( z cos λ − y sin λ ) + x& R 0

aRy = −2ω ( v Rx sin λ ) v Ry = −2ω ( x sin λ ) + y& R 0
aRz = − g + 2ω ( v Rx cos λ ) v Rz = − gt + 2ω ( x cos λ ) + z&R 0

Subsequent analysis: complicated, but

ω
approximations are often employed, such
as ignoring higher powers of
aRx = −2ω ( v Rz cos λ − v Ry sin λ )
v Ry = −2ω ( x sin λ ) + y& R 0
v Rz = − gt + 2ω ( x cos λ ) + z&R 0

xR = −2ω ⎡⎣( − gt + 2ω x cos λ + z&R 0 ) cos λ − ( −2ω x sin λ + y& R 0 ) sin λ ⎤⎦

&&
xR = 2ω gt cos λ − 2ω z&R 0 cos λ + 2ω y& R 0 sin λ ......ignoring ω 2 terms
&&

integrating :
x&R = ω gt 2 cos λ − 2ωt ( z&R 0 cos λ − y& R 0 sin λ ) + x&R 0
1
xR = ω gt 3 cos λ − ωt 2 ( z&R 0 cos λ − y& R 0 sin λ ) + x&R 0t + xR 0
3

y& R = −2ω x sin λ + y& R 0 ......ignore ω 2 terms,

z&R = − gt + 2ω x cos λ + z&R 0 and integrate.
 Foucault Pendulum
ur ur ur ur ⎛ d ⎞ r ur ur r
F R = F I − F ω& − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r - mω × ω × r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
( )
r r ur ur ⎛ d ⎞ r ur ur r
r&&
mrR = mg + S − F ω& − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r - mω × ω × r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
( )
r ⎡( cos λ z& − sin λ y& ) eˆx ⎤
r ⎢ ⎥
S maCoriolis = −2mω ⎢ + sin λ x& eˆy ⎥
⎢ − cos λ x& eˆ ⎥
rr ˆ ˆ r ˆ ˆ ⎣ z ⎦
r r
mgS = e (e • S ) + e (e
x x y y • S ) + ez (ez • S )
ˆ ˆ
= S ⎡⎣eˆx cos α + eˆy cos β + eˆz cos γ ⎤⎦
r r r
(eˆ • S ) ( ˆ
e • S ) (eˆ • S )
cos α = xr r ;cos β = yr r ;cos γ = zr r
S •S S •S S •S
 ⎡( cos λ z& − sin λ y& ) eˆx ⎤
Foucault Pendulum r ⎢ ⎥
maCoriolis = −2mω ⎢ + sin λ x& eˆy ⎥
⎢ − cos λ x& eˆ ⎥
⎣ z ⎦
r&& r r ur ⎛ d ⎞ r
mrR = mg + S − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
r r r r
S = eˆx (eˆx • S ) + eˆy (eˆy • S ) + eˆz (eˆz • S )
= S ⎡⎣eˆx cos α + eˆy cos β + eˆz cos γ ⎤⎦
r r r
(e • S ) ˆ • (e • S )
r ˆ ( e S )
cos α = xr r ;cos β = yr r ;cos γ = zr r
ˆ
S •S S •S S •S
S
r
r mx&&R = (eˆx • S ) − 2mω ( cos λ z& − sin λ y& )
mg r
my&&R = (eˆy • S ) − 2mω sin λ x&
 r&& r r ur ⎛ d ⎞ r
Foucault Pendulum mrR = mg + S − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r
r r r r ⎝ dt ⎠ R
S = eˆx (eˆx • S ) + eˆy (eˆy • S ) + eˆz (eˆz • S )
= S ⎡⎣eˆx cos α + eˆy cos β + eˆz cos γ ⎤⎦
r r r
(eˆx • S ) (eˆy • S ) (eˆz • S )
cos α = r r ;cos β = r r ;cos γ = r r
S •S S •S S •S

mx&&R = S (eˆx • uˆ ) − 2mω ( cos λ z& − sin λ y& )

my&&R = S (eˆy • uˆ ) − 2mω sin λ x&
r
S S ≈ mg ⇒ mx&&R = mg (eˆx • uˆ ) + 2mω sin λ y&
my&&R = mg (eˆy • uˆ ) − 2mω sin λ x&
r xR = g cos α + 2ω sin λ y& = g cos α + 2Ωy&
&&
mg
yR = g cos β − 2ω sin λ x& = g cos β − 2Ωx&
&&

Ω = ω sin λ
 r&& r r ur ⎛ d ⎞ r
Foucault Pendulum mrR = mg + S − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
xR = g cos α + 2Ωy&
&&
Coupled differential equations
yR = g cos β − 2Ωx&
&&

Solve by transforming to new coordinates x’,y’

such that
xR = x 'cos Ωt + y 'sin Ωt
r yR = − x 'sin Ωt + y 'cos Ωt
S
( &&x '− x 'cos α ) cos Ωt + ( &&y '− y 'cos β ) sin Ωt = 0
r This equation is satisfied if:
mg
( &&x '− x 'cos α ) = 0
Two-dimensional linear
y '− y 'cos β ) = 0 harmonic oscillator
( &&
 r&& r r ur ⎛ d ⎞ r
Foucault Pendulum mrR = mg + S − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r
⎝ dt ⎠ R
Solve by transforming to new coordinates x’,y’
such that xR = x 'cos Ωt + y 'sin Ωt
yR = − x 'sin Ωt + y 'cos Ωt

In (x’,y’) frame, the path is: ellipse

r In the earth’s rotating frame (xR,yR) frame, the
S path is that of an ellipse which would precess
at an angular speed Ω = ω sin λ
r
mg
Note: a number of approximations have gone in!
The “plane” would in fact be a curved surface and a
detailed analysis is rather involved!
 r&& r r ur ⎛ d ⎞ r
Foucault Pendulum mrR = mg + S − 2mω × ⎜ ⎟ r
⎝ dt ⎠ R

Ω = ω sin λ

T for the rotation of the “plane” of

r oscillation of the Foucault Pendulum
S
1 2π 2π
T= = =
r f Ω ω sin λ
mg 2π 24 hours
= =
2πν sin λ sin λ