Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 5 (2016) 65–75

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Journal of Destination Marketing & Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jdmm

Research Paper

Discursive contradictions in regional tourism marketing strategies: The

case of Fryslân, The Netherlands
Jelmer H.G. Jeuring
University of Groningen, Faculty of Spatial Sciences, Department of Cultural Geography, Landleven 1 9747 AD Groningen, The Netherlands

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Discourses in tourism destination marketing play an important role in constructing and consuming
Received 21 January 2015 tourism destinations. However, various discursive contradictions can emerge, potentially limiting or
Received in revised form facilitating tourism development. This paper has two objectives. First, it aims to identify discursive
27 May 2015
contradictions embedded in the positioning statements of regional tourism marketing strategy docu-
Accepted 2 June 2015
Available online 13 July 2015
ments. Second, it intends to highlight how such contradictions simultaneously prioritize and destabilize
certain destination identities. Employing the case of the Dutch province of Fryslân, discourse analysis of
Keywords: tourism marketing documents was conducted. Findings revealed contradictions emerging along five
Destination identities themes: place branding, identity claims, target groups, roles and collaboration. Regional Frisian tourism
Intraregional tourism
marketing appears to prioritize external orientations and homogenizing identities, with limited con-
Tourism marketing
sideration of geographically proximate markets and a selective perception of internal stakeholders' roles
Discursive contradictions
Qualitative analysis in tourism. Possible implications of such destination positioning are discussed and suggestions are made
to balance various positioning orientations in regional place branding.
& 2015 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction (Burns, 2004; Choi & Sirakaya, 2005; van Rekom & Go, 2006;
Ziakas, 2013).
Tourism marketing strategies can have significant implications This is particularly relevant for regions in which tourism mainly
in terms of the social construction of tourist regions and the op- relies on markets that are geographically proximate or even within
portunities and limitations for stakeholders to engage in tourism. the regions that are branded as destinations. In a context where
Importantly, tourism marketing as a policy tool aims to influence home and away are geographically proximate, binaries of tourist–
representations of tourism destinations (Cousin, 2008; Kavaratzis, host, visitor–resident and consumer–producer become increas-
2012). Destination identities may therefore be politically charged ingly indistinguishable, which makes them vulnerable to con-
(Dredge & Jenkins, 2003) and attributed meanings may be far from testation and to contradictions between attributed meanings.
neutral. As such, various interests may underlie the discourse Contradictions can become problematic in tourism marketing
employed in destination positioning statements made in regional when they are not acknowledged or wrongly used. At the same
tourism marketing. time, when consciously used they might form a basis for tourism
Regions and tourism destinations alike are socially constructed development by positioning destinations through otherness and
and derive their meaning and identities from discursive practices authenticity on various levels, and by constructing and re-
(Saarinen, 2004). While discourses do mobilize meanings them- confirming differences between and within destinations (Salazar,
selves, they are always incomplete and contested, giving room for 2010).
the emergence of tensions between attributed meanings (Dredge However, the ‘intraregional’ perspective of tourism and its so-
& Jenkins, 2003). Such tension can result from discursive contra- cietal dynamics has for a long time remained largely overlooked.
dictions and paradoxes, reflecting opposing interests or unrealistic Mainstream understandings of tourism have become almost
aspirations for tourism development. Marketing strategies then equivalent to international travel, crossing territorial borders and
the mixing of cultures (Salazar, 2010). It is stated that tourism
can become contradictory or even counterproductive, commu-
research suffers from an ‘international bias’ (Eijgelaar, Peeters, &
nicating conflicting signals. An example is when destination
Piket, 2008). Much tourism research has ignored touristic activities
marketing is developed for external visitors only, without con-
and experiences near to everyday environments, where tourism is
sidering the consequences for the local environment and residents
produced and consumed by people living within a region (Cana-
van, 2013) or a city (Braun, Kavaratzis, & Zenke, 2013). As such, a
E-mail address: [email protected] number of challenges arise when aiming for an improved

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2015.06.002
2212-571X/& 2015 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
66 J.H.G. Jeuring / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 5 (2016) 65–75

comprehension of tourism at a regional level. reflecting and affecting various interests and rooted in societal
One challenge pertains to the way everyday experience of issues extending far beyond the realm of tourism itself (Cousin,
places, attractions and regions intermingles with tourist experi- 2008). As such, tourism marketing and the branding of regional as
ences and vice versa (Díaz Soria & Llurdés Coit, 2013). Another tourism destinations are important planning tools for regional
challenge is to better understand how regional destination iden- governments (Dredge & Jenkins, 2003).
tities are produced and reproduced (Pearce, 2014; Saraniemi & However, despite the popularity of destination branding, suc-
Kylänen, 2011) and how key stakeholders in this process engage in cessful examples are limited and the results of substantial financial
this through the discourse they use. While top–down under- investments in marketing campaigns are difficult to identify or
standings of tourism development are countered or com- absent altogether. Literature points to considerable problems of
plemented by bottom–up processes such as word of mouth (Chen, extrapolating conventional product and corporate brand posi-
Dwyer, & Firth, 2014; Pan, Maclaurin, & Croots, 2007), govern- tioning tools to destinations (Kavaratzis & Hatch, 2013; Ren &
ments, destination marketers and policy makers maintain essen- Blichfeldt, 2011). For example, marketing campaigns initiated by
tial players in this process. Therefore, we aim to disentangle var- destination marketing organizations (DMOs) or regional govern-
ious contradictions present in the discourse of regional tourism ments tend to have difficulties accounting for perspectives and
marketing. Employing the case of the Dutch province of Fryslân, a interests of stakeholders such as residents (Burmann, Hegner, &
thematic analysis of destination positioning in tourism marketing Riley, 2009; Hall, 2008; Zenker & Petersen, 2014). This results in a
strategy documents forms the basis of this paper. As such, the lack of bottom–up support, despite the increased acknowledgment
paper is guided by the following research questions: that ‘living the brand’ by local stakeholders is essential (Aronczyk,
(1) What kind of contradictions emerge in the ways Fryslân is 2008). Moreover, as pointed out by Braun et al. (2013), residents
positioned as a tourism destination by regional tourism marketing who do not identify with top–down enforced brand positioning
strategies? claims might engage in ‘counter branding’ as a form of protest.
(2) What are the possible implications of destination posi- Institutionalizing destination identities is therefore far from
tioning discourse and the concurrent contradictions for Fryslân as being a one-way process. Meanings are circulated (Ateljevic &
a destination for intraregional tourism? Doorne, 2004) by commodifying both tangible and intangible as-
By focusing on the implications of destination positioning dis- pects, for example through the representation of heritage (Ash-
course for tourism as an intraregional phenomenon, this paper worth, 2009) or collective identities (Cousin, 2008). In this process,
aligns with a small but growing number of tourism researchers conventional stakeholders such as DMOs increasingly share the
who identify a lacuna of academic knowledge on the social, eco- arena with other who have obtained a legitimate voice through
nomic and psychological processes involved in tourism on national word of mouth facilitated by travel blogs and customer review
and (intra)regional levels (Canavan, 2013; Ganglmair-Wooliscroft websites (Chen et al., 2014; Chu & Kim, 2011; Pan et al., 2007).
& Wooliscroft, 2013; Schänzel, 2010; Singh & Krakover, 2015). After Place branding thus is a process of co-creation (Oliveira & Panyik,
further embedding the paper in relevant academic scholarship, we 2015), forcing regional governments, tourism entrepreneurs and
introduce the particular geographical context of the study and DMOs to be even more conscious about their role in destination
outline the methodology and data used. The paper continues with branding and the ways they attempt to position regions and
the analysis and findings, followed by a discussion about the im- destinations.
plications of discourse in destination marketing, particularly with Constructing and transforming tourism destinations is char-
respect to the various roles of internal stakeholders in relation to acterized by processes of homogenization and differentiation
tourism and the potential of tourism to (re)create value to every- (Saarinen, 2004). Tourism destinations tend to homogenize both
day life environments. from within and compared to other destinations, aligning with
Relph's classic idea of ‘placelesness’ (Relph, 1985) and Appadurai's
‘cultural absorption’ (Appadurai, 2011). Differentiation occurs in a
2. Theoretical background rat-race with other destinations, attempting to create a ‘competi-
tive identity’ (Anholt, 2007). This is done by emphasizing unique
2.1. The discursive construction of tourism destinations features of places, varying from physical assets such as beaches or
mountains, to cultural ones such as local food or festivities (Saar-
The branding of tourism destinations is an important way of inen, 2004). In this vein, regional tourism marketing strategies aim
giving meaning to regions (Cox & Wray, 2011; Lee & Arcodia, 2011; to develop destinations that can compete globally by capitalizing
Ploner, 2009). Similar to regions, meanings of tourism destinations on regional identities, authenticity and local distinctiveness
are continuously contested through discourse (Saraniemi & Kylä- (Dredge & Jenkins, 2003).
nen, 2011), with an ongoing interaction between hegemonic, Tourism marketing is also strongly spatially structured, often
emergent and residual meanings (Harrison, 2013) and several along territorial boundaries on various levels (Dredge & Jenkins,
phases of institutionalization (Paasi, 2003, 2009; Zimmerbauer & 2003), with possible limitations in the translation to tourism re-
Paasi, 2013). gions and destinations, which tend to be less territorially bound
Representing regions as tourism destinations is increasingly (Messely, Schuermans, Dessein, & Rogge, 2014; Pearce, 2014). This
central to regional policy and tourism marketing. Destination po- can create contradictions between internal and external orienta-
sitioning, defined as 'establishing and maintaining a distinctive tions of destination marketing, for example when different mu-
place in the market for an organization and/or its individual pro- nicipalities, states or countries attempt to develop tourist regions
duct offerings' (Lovelock, 1991, in Pike, 2012, p. 101) is an im- collaboratively (García-Álvarez & Trillo-Santamaría, 2013; Terhorst
portant part of competitive marketing strategies. The discourse & Erkuş-Öztürk, 2011; Thomas, Harvey, & Hawkins, 2013), and
used in tourism marketing, and the ways destinations are posi- where histories and identities have to be aligned.
tioned, frames identities (Cousin, 2008; Kavaratzis & Hatch, 2013) Tourism marketing can thus be a mobilizing force, connecting
and (re)constructs destination imaginaries (Salazar, 2012). More- and unifying stakeholders (Cousin, 2008), but at the same time a
over, discourses have multiple functions, as ‘language is both a basis for tensions and conflicts (Dredge & Jenkins, 2003; Stepanova
means of attributing authenticating value to the tourist product as & Bruckmeier, 2013) between them. Awareness of how discourses
well as a means of selling it’ (Heller, Pujolar, & Duchêne, 2014, p. among these stakeholders implicitly and explicitly prioritize some
551). Destination positioning is therefore politically charged, meanings and neglect others, include some stakeholders and
 J.H.G. Jeuring / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 5 (2016) 65–75 67

exclude others, is necessary because discourse is a linguistic familiar and unusual, both mundane and different (Díaz Soria &
commodification (Heller et al., 2014) of meanings and can in Llurdés Coit, 2013). This blurring of meanings and perspectives
tourism marketing become symbolic capital in itself. Therefore, brings possible contradictions between tourism practices, stake-
studying discursive contradictions in destination positioning is holders and meanings attributed to destinations. This makes po-
important not only in order to understand the critical conditions sitioning regions as tourism destinations both for people coming
for tourism marketing, place branding success and policy im- from outside and for people living within the region particularly
plementation, but also to critically examine issues of power and difficult.
stakeholder equity.
2.3. Conceptualizing dimensions of destination positioning discourse
2.2. Intraregional tourism
Building on the reasoning above, two important dimensions
Attention on domestic tourism is increasing slowly but still is in along which destination positioning discourse and inherent con-
its infancy in comparison to the scholarship on international tradictions can emerge can be discerned. The first pertains to
tourism (Singh & Krakover, 2015). While some early research and homogenization and differentiation, signifying the continuous
theorizing on domestic tourism exists (Archer, 1978; Hughes, encounters between the local and the global, the perceived com-
1992; Jafari, 1986; Pearce, 1993), attention on tourism as a phe- petition between tourism destinations and the struggle for au-
nomenon taking place in close geographical proximity to the thenticity (Saarinen, 2004). The second concerns internal and ex-
tourist's home has remained scarce, despite worldwide domestic ternal orientations, reflecting contradictions between various co-
arrivals (4000 million) greatly exceeding international arrivals existing aims underlying the marketing strategies (Terhorst & Er-
(750 million) (UNWTO, 2008). This lack of research on tourism kuş-Öztürk, 2011), and pertaining to the question of for whom
occurring ‘close to home’ might relate to the economic importance tourism is developed and where the benefits are located. For ex-
of transportation and travel, and the relatively large financial ample, through an explicit objective to increase incoming tourism,
contribution per capita by international visitors in some destina- less attention might be paid to returning visitors or intraregional
tions (Page & Thorn, 1997). Eijgelaar et al. (2008), however, show tourism. This dimension helps to explain the ways binaries such as
that this is not always the case, as domestic tourism generates host–guest and tourist–resident are used, thereby enabling us to
more income than international visitors in many countries, parti- particularly focus on the ways intraregional aspects of tourism are
cularly in the long term. considered. By juxtaposing these dimensions (Fig. 1), a conceptual
Franklin and Crang (2001) recognize that ‘[t]ourism studies quadrant appears with four parts: (i) nternally oriented homo-
[have] often privileged the exotic and strange, reflecting anthro- genization; (ii) externally oriented homogenization; (iii) internally
pological legacies, to speak of dramatic contrasts between visitors oriented differentiation; and (iv) externally oriented differentia-
and locals’ (p.8). Yet various scholars provide evidence for a lim- tion. These four parts each imply a different discourse and a par-
ited applicability of conventional tourism binaries (Saraniemi & ticular positioning of a destination. Integrating these two dimen-
Kylänen, 2011) in view of the blurring of tourism places and ev- sions provides for an explicit framework to analyze destination
eryday places. For example, there appears to be a non-linear re- positioning discourses.
lation between (un)familiarity and geographical distance in sec-
ond-home tourism (Müller, 2006). Similarly, Canavan (2013)
shows how residents on the Isle of Man engage in various ‘mi- 3. Case study and method
crodomestic’ tourist experiences in their everyday environment.
Further, Díaz Soria & Llurdés Coit (2013) attempt to understand 3.1. The province of Fryslân
how the everyday environment can be valorized through ‘proxi-
mity tourism’, thereby reframing understandings of otherness, Fryslân is one of the 12 provinces of the Netherlands (Fig. 2).
tourist experiences and spatial identities. Yet, it seems that the With about 650,000 inhabitants, it is considered a relatively rural
field of tourism has not yet found a more widely accepted termi- area. Over 40% of its 574,874 km² surface is water, including a large
nology to engage with such themes (Singh & Krakover, 2015). part of the Wadden Sea and a maze of interconnected fresh water
Important in the context of destination marketing, classic lakes.
taxonomies of tourist, traveler or guest versus resident, inhabitant Part of the population speaks Frisian, the second official lan-
or host, become increasingly contested and might even lead to the guage of the Netherlands. Fryslân and Frisians are signified by a
'exclusion and narrow acceptance in destination development and strong regional identity that is rooted in a long history of territorial
strategic tourism decision making on local, regional, national, and
international levels' (Saraniemi & Kylänen, 2011, p. 140). For ex- Homogenization
ample, while every individual is a potential tourist for every des-
tination, this does not automatically mean that people do actually 1. Internally oriented 2. Externally oriented
go everywhere. When the sky seems to be the limit, it might be homogenization homogenization
forgotten what is actually on the ground; the people who visit
destinations may actually be from nearby.
These notions have only partly found their way into the field of
destination marketing, as has also become clear in Section 2.1. It
seems that both the mundane of the exotic and the exotic of the Internal Orientation External Orientation
everyday tend to be overlooked, affecting tourists' destination
choice, the scope of potential visitor markets among DMOs and the 3. Internally oriented 4. Externally oriented
ways cities, regions and countries are positioned as tourism differentiation differentiation
destinations.
Among the challenges of intraregional tourism with which
DMOs and tourism entrepreneurs are confronted, dealing with the
Differentiation
multiplicity of meanings attributed to places by internal stake-
holders is one of the most important. Touristic places are both Fig. 1. Conceptual dimensions for analyzing regional tourism marketing discourse.
68 J.H.G. Jeuring / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 5 (2016) 65–75

Fig. 2. Municipalities of Fryslân.

changes. However, heterogeneous spatial identities exist within Table 1

the province, and various areas employ their own linguistics Daytrips of Dutch inhabitants per province of residence and by visited province in
Northern Netherlands (CBS, 2012).
(Pietersen, 1969). Similarly, intraregional identities are enacted, for
example through the rivalry between Fryslân's two major football Destination
clubs SC Heerenveen and Cambuur. This intraregional differ-
entiation exemplifies the layering (Boisen, Terlouw, & van Gorp, Total Groningen Fryslân Drenthe

2011) and multiplicity of regional identification. Province of residence

Tourist activities in Fryslân at least go back to the early 19th Groningen 31,090 77.2% 4.6% 11.5%
century, when an early form of cultural tourism on the Wadden Fryslân 33,710 5.0% 81.6% 3.4%
Islands emerged (AFUK, 2013). After the Second World War, a Drenthe 25,130 13.7% 2.0% 70.4%
Overijssel 55,680 0.5% 0.5% 2.5%
steep increase in tourism activities occurred, with an emphasis on Flevoland 16,200 0.6% 2.0% 1.1%
watersports such as sailing at the lakes and beach tourism on the Gelderland 103,950 0.3% 0.2% 0.4%
Wadden Islands. Cycling has become another main outdoor tourist Utrecht 67,990 0.1% 0.2% 0.4%
activity (ISM, 2010). Currently, tourist accommodation is wide- Noord-Holland 148,210 0.5% 0.4% 0.2%
Zuid-Holland 190,460 0.4% 0.1% 0.1%
spread with major tourist regions being the Wadden Islands and Zeeland 18,630 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
the southwest of Fryslân (CBS, 2012; ETFI, 2012). Tourism gen- Noord-Brabant 140,010 0.1% 0.0% 0.1%
erates almost one billion euros on a yearly basis and around seven Limburg 75,580 0.1% 0.0% 0.1%
percent of the Frisian workforce (19,000 jobs) is employed in the Total 906,640 3.5% 3.5% 2.8%

tourism and recreation sector.

Located on a relatively high latitude, Fryslân enjoys a moderate importance of near-home destinations in Europe.
Atlantic climate. With a weather pattern that is highly variable and Frisian destination marketing has not been completely
significant seasonal differences, tourism in Fryslân peaks during straightforward and without struggles. In 1998, the North Neth-
school holidays, particularly in spring and summer season. Similar erlands Bureau for Tourism (NNBT) was set up as a collaborative
to other higher-latitude destinations (Denstadli, Jacobsen, & Loh- regional marketing office for the provinces of Fryslân, Groningen
mann, 2011), intraseasonal variation in weather challenges the and Drenthe. Also in 1996, an independent company named
local tourism sector in terms of stable income, tourist experiences Friesland Holland set itself the goal of promoting Fryslân as a
and destination image (Jeuring & Peters, 2013). tourism destination and offering tourism products. After early
Most people visiting Fryslân are from the Netherlands, with termination of the NNBT in 2003, Fryslân Marketing became its
Germans making up for the largest proportion of foreign tourists. successor. Specifically focusing on Fryslân, it not only aimed at
Moreover, 82% of all daytrips of Frisian residents in 2011 took place increasing tourism but also attempted to attract businesses and
within the province itself (Table 1) (CBS, 2012). This fits within a new residents. In 2012, an intermediate DMO called Beleef Fries-
broader tendency where 76% of Europeans spend their holidays in land took over, from which in 2014 the current marketing orga-
their home country (EUROSTAT, 2014), emphasizing the nization Merk Fryslân emerged.
 J.H.G. Jeuring / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 5 (2016) 65–75 69

Fig. 3. Tourist regions in Fryslân.

DMO activities have arguably contributed to the positioning of the south-east forests and finally the 11 Cities, referring to the
Fryslân as tourism destination. For example, current destination towns that obtained city rights from the 12th to the 15th century
branding strategies discern four sub-provincial themes along (Fig. 3).
which tourism is promoted: the Wadden Islands, the lakes area, These choices affect both the external image of Fryslân and its

Table 2
Documents included in analysis.

Title Governmental level Written in year Period concerned

1. Marketingplan Fryslân Marketing Province 2009 2009–2013

2. Uitvoeringsagenda Fryslân Toeristische Topattractie Province 2010 2011–2013

3. Evaluaasje Provinsjaal Belied Rekreaasje en Toerisme Province 2011 2002–2010

4. Uitvoeringsagenda Streekplan ‘Fryslân, op afstand de mooiste provincie van Nederland’ Province 2011 2011–2014

5. Gastvrij Fryslân. Uitvoeringsprogramma Recreatie & Toerisme Province 2013 2014–2017

6. Marketingplan Fan Fryslân Province 2012 2012–2014

7. Uitvoeringsplan Merk Fryslân Province 2010 2010–?

8. Samen op weg naar één brede regiomarketingorganisatie voor Fryslân Province 2013 2014–?

9. Trots, trend en traditie in het Noorden Province 2009 n.a.

10. Toeristische toekomstvisie Terschelling Municipality of Terschelling 2007 2007–2017

11. ‘Koers houden’. Actualisatie beleidsnota Recreatie en Toerisme 2006–2016 Municipality of Harlingen 2011 2011–2016

12. Visie Toerisme & Recreatie gemeente Súdwest-Fryslân Municipality of Súdwest-Fryslân 2013 2012–2022

13. Visie Recreatie en Toerisme Gemeente Boarnsterhim Municipality of Boarnsterhim 2012 2012–?
70 J.H.G. Jeuring / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 5 (2016) 65–75

internal identity processes, sometimes sparking discussions and internal–external orientation emerged in five themes. The first
around intraregional competitiveness. For example, the Frisian theme, place branding, addresses the ways destination marketing
Woods area was added only recently to the key tourism regions highlights characteristics of regions that are employed in the
that are promoted, following claims from policymakers and tour- construction of competitive place images. Place branding dis-
ism entrepreneurs in this area stating to be underprivileged by courses strongly prioritize outward communications above in-
provincial destination marketing. While tourism is widely seen as traregional orientations. Second, various identity claims are being
an important economic resource for Fryslân, the above makes clear made, which feed the circulation of hegemonic discourse of what
that tourism is neither undisputed nor evenly spread across the regions and tourism destinations are, what they are not and for
province. Therefore, Frisian tourism marketing makes for an in- whom they are constructed. Third, a focus on different target
teresting case to explore emerging discursive contradictions in its groups reveals how Fryslân is seen clearly as a destination for some
attempts to position the province as a tourism destination. but not for others. Issues of inclusion and exclusion permeate the
discourse of this theme, with consequences for intraregional
3.2. Study method visitors. The fourth theme is named collaboration and pertains to
attempts to achieve integration, participation, co-creation and the
Data analyzed in this paper consist of tourism marketing formation of networks, either between different stakeholders,
strategy documents at the provincial and municipality levels. The entrepreneurs, tourism destinations or territorial regions. Finally,
documents cover two decades of consecutive periods of regional the attribution of roles to tourism stakeholders both shapes and is
tourism marketing plans, ranging from 2002 up to 2022 and were shaped by tourism discourses, affecting the ways stakeholders can
written between 2007 and 2013 (see Table 2). In order to obtain participate in tourism on the regional level. The themes that
the documents, websites of the province of Fryslân and Frisian emerged will now be addressed separately, illustrated with ex-
municipalities were searched, resulting in 13 relevant documents. emplary quotes.
Not all municipalities had marketing plans or policy visions, and
the nature of the documents varied from commissioned visions to 4.1. Place branding
marketing plans written by governmental bodies themselves. The
municipalities included were spread across the province, thereby Place branding has become inherent to regional tourism mar-
covering various tourism areas (Fig. 2). keting in Fryslân. Marketing strategies appear highly concerned
Using ATLAS.ti software (version 7), the study followed the with the creation of a positive image of Fryslân as a whole, re-
guidelines of ‘the spiral of analysis’ (Boeije, 2009), which forms the flected in a homogenizing discourse of a Frisian umbrella brand:
core of thematic analysis. This methodology provides a structured “To successfully develop and promote Fryslân, it is necessary to depart
approach for themes to emerge, along a number of iterative steps. from one common image of Fryslân, usable for all stakeholders,
Rooted in grounded theory (Glaser, Strauss, & Strutzel, 1968), connecting and enhancing all initiatives.” (#7, p.4). At the same
thematic analysis can be used to generate theories and hypothesis, time, this holistic image is differentiated by the framing of a
but it can also be used to generate themes deductively based on number of touristic regions, called Unique Selling Points (USPs):
previous research or existing theory (Bos, McCabe, & Johnson, “The Wadden, the Frisian Lakes and the Frisian Eleven Cities should
2013), which is the case in this paper. develop into strong international tourist attractions, our Unique
The first step was concerned with reading all the documents Selling Points.” (#2, p.4). Contrasting between higher-level homo-
and highlighting pieces of text that signified the discursive con- genization and lower-level differentiation appears, however, to be
struction of Fryslân in terms of homogenization–differentiation at least partially a conscious strategy: “As point of departure for
and internal–external orientation dimensions (open coding). Se- collaboration between province and regions we assume: attract on a
lection of text was guided by the following argumentation. The provincial level and guide on a regional level.” (#8, p.23).
primary spatial unit of interest was ‘Fryslân’ as a province, a gov- Similarly, on the municipality-level marketing strategies em-
ernmental territory. Therefore, this was the point of departure for phasize unique features of municipalities instead of adding to the
selecting various discourses. Homogenization–differentiation dis- Frisian umbrella brand: “South-West Fryslân possesses various un-
course was selected when references were found relating to Fry- ique characteristics. Enough munition to strongly position our mu-
slân in terms of unity and similarity (homogenization), or com- nicipality within Fryslân and Northern Netherlands.” (#12, p.33).
petition, differences and comparisons (differentiation). Similarly, This contradiction between provincial and municipal interests is
internal and external discourses were selected when text was also recognized by Dredge and Jenkins (2003), who note that local
found about various stakeholders for whom tourism is developed stakeholders might oppose strongly to homogenizing regional
and where the benefits are located. For example, when marketing policies. A fear of losing local identities might be rooted in a need
documents talk about incoming visitors, this was interpreted as for internal differentiation, deemed necessary for stakeholders to
external orientation, while benefits for residents were interpreted give meaning to themselves, their products and their everyday
as internally oriented discourse. lives.
The second step involved a more abstract categorization of the Further, while place branding is inherently aimed at incoming
selected quotes. Several rounds of coding were employed, result- (international) tourists, internal marketing is discussed, for ex-
ing in more abstract codes and themes (axial coding). The goal ample to change the ‘mentality’ of people living in Fryslân: “In-
here was to find thematic similarities across the selected quotes in ternal promotion – aimed at residents and entrepreneurs-is con-
terms of how these destination positioning statements were at- cerned with changing an introvert mentality that abides to an extent.
tributing meaning to Fryslân as a tourism destination and to the The Northerner and Northern entrepreneurs should become more
process of regional tourism development. The themes that modern, open and extrovert.” (#9, p.115). This somewhat surprising
emerged from this analysis are discussed below. Quotes are and negative quote reflects a discourse that is at the same time
translated from Dutch. Pages and document numbers referring to internally homogenizing and externally differentiating. It positions
Table 2 are in brackets after the quotes. a ‘Northern mentality’ in contrast with mentalities that are sup-
posedly characteristic of entrepreneurs from other regions (i.e.
4. Analysis and findings other parts of the Netherlands).
Internally oriented place branding is mentioned as a necessity
Discursive contradictions of homogenization–differentiation to deliver externally made promises. This is in line with literature
 J.H.G. Jeuring / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 5 (2016) 65–75 71

stating that stakeholder involvement in place branding is essential emphasizing the contrast between the dynamic, urban parts of the
for successful branding and positive tourist experiences (Aronczyk, Netherlands and the traditional, backwards, rural North.” (#9, p.51).
2008). Thus, people living in Fryslân have to support and sustain Employing such a narrative is useful for creating an image of idyllic
the communicated imaginaries: “Winning outside, means starting rurality, where people can find peaceful villages and quite nature.
from the inside. It is useless to promote outside what cannot be ful- Finally, identity claims reflecting an internal orientation tend to
filled on the inside.” (#6, p.6). Therefore, there is a need “To create be homogenized by calling upon a sense of community (‘mienskip’)
commitment by Frisians (and preferably ambassadorship). The brand among inhabitants of Fryslân. They are seen as key stakeholders in
belongs to everyone and we can only get results when Frisians are the tourism products, ‘have respect for Frisian culture and nature’ (#5,
new brand.” (#7, p.9). This can be done by positive word-of-mouth p.21) and form a part of the tourism product that can be externally
communication: “Foreign students play an important role in the consumed. Such a discourse creates an image of uncontested
promotion and internationalization of touristic Fryslân.” (#5, p.11). commitment to a regional Frisian identity.
However, holistic brands are difficult to identify with for local
residents, who likely have fragmented and multiple identities in 4.3. Target groups
relation to Fryslân. As a result, the contradictions between
homogenizing, external place branding and the differentiated The identification of potential groups of visitors is an important
perceptions, interests and expectations (Eshuis, Klijn, & Braun, element of destination management and marketing (Hallab, Yoon,
2014; Kavaratzis, 2012; Klijn, Eshuis, & Braun, 2012) of people & Uysal, 2003; Yannopoulos & Rotenberg, 2000). An overall ten-
living within the province make destination management in Fry- dency to prioritize target groups from outside the province
slân particularly challenging. emerges, reflecting an externally oriented discourse of inter-
nationalization. While currently relatively few foreigners (except
4.2. Identity claims for German tourists) visit the province, tourism marketing em-
phasizes that future market growth is to be found abroad. As such,
Marketing strategies strongly tend to rely on an externally Fryslân increasingly aims to strengthen its position as a non-do-
differentiating and internally homogenizing ‘Frisian identity’, po- mestic tourism destination: “We plan to focus on promising coun-
sitioning Fryslân as distinctive from surrounding provinces and tries like Spain, Italy and the U.S.” (#5, p.27).
other destinations. On several occasions, reference was made to Target groups reflect strategies of prioritizing certain types of
‘Frisian characteristics’, supposedly typical for Frisian communities tourists and tourism above other. At the same time, framing target
and people: “The Frisian mentality, the Frisian feeling, is crucial for groups might be stereotypical homogenizations, based on gen-
success and will play an important role in the image building.” (#7, eralized demands, behavior or other discerning features. Indeed, a
p.6). discourse of ‘classic’ tourism binaries is found, reflecting an ex-
Contrary to contemporary understandings of identity as a ternal orientation of tourism marketing. Visitors are claimed to be
process (Paasi, 2003), these type of identity claims refer to a ‘static’ seeking otherness and unfamiliarity: “Medieval villages: worshiped
identity. The meaning of Frisianness is thus represented as a given, when abroad, but at home they become all too mundane. Sometimes
an almost tangible attribute that is self-evident. This homogenized we forget that our environment and daily life can be someone else's
discourse of Frisian feelings, mentality, core values and ‘Frisian adventure.” (#12, p.14). Hereby a differentiation is made between
DNA’ are also brought up to establish and ‘brand’ regional mar- mobile, excitement-seeking outsiders (visitors) and the immobile,
keting strategy itself: “The strategy must be ‘Frisian’ too: Authentic, daunting life of residential insiders (Bianchi & Stephenson, 2013).
fresh, surprising, expressing belonging and trustworthiness…” (#7, An internally oriented discourse, pertaining to target groups
p.7). Interestingly, this signifies a rather pragmatic use of supposed from within the province is found as well. However, in contrast
regional characteristics of Fryslân and its people: positive here, with external target groups, discourse about internal target groups
negative elsewhere. Recall the earlier quote about the typical is shaped around issues of well-being and positive impacts on
‘Northern mentality’, which was negatively framed. local infrastructure: “Development of tourism in Fryslân enhances
Language is also an important way to enhance differentiation quality of life in terms of living environment, livability of the coun-
and functions as a major force through which identities are en- tryside, social cohesion of cities and health and well-being.” (#5, p.7).
acted. For example, Frisian language is seen as an asset to em- People living in Fryslân are thus considered to be stakeholders
phasize perceived otherness among visitors: “The visibility and who might (indirectly) benefit from tourism development. Such
creative use of Frisian language next to Dutch, English and German accounts align well with contemporary ideas of responsible tour-
enhances the touristic experience, through which tourists become ism development and stakeholder involvement.
aware they are in a special region.” (#5, p.11). Similarly, an ongoing However, a discourse of externally oriented tourism develop-
discussion about the use of Dutch versus Frisian language in ment, aimed at incoming tourists, neglects potential benefits for
tourism communication signifies how identities are claimed residents as intraregional tourists. Internal target groups are
through language use: “In 2017, 60 percent of Frisian tourism and mentioned mainly as day recreationists and framed around var-
recreation related information is multilingual, including Frisian and ious lifestyle segments. In this way, a clear connection is made
regional languages.” (#5, p.28). Interestingly, various dialects exist with everyday life and people's well-being, “supporting policy
within Fryslân, but these intraregional differences are not used in makers and entrepreneurs to meet needs of various recreationists
the marketing strategies. This again reflects how priority is given from within the province”. (#5, p.68). Thus, target groups for tour-
to homogenized representations of Fryslân. ism in Fryslân tend to be framed around a division between
The context of The Netherlands as a nation is obviously im- tourism and recreation, between the out-of-the-ordinary needs of
portant in identity discourses. At this level, Fryslân is represented tourists and the everyday-life needs of residents.
as a peripheral region, different from the urbanized Randstad area
that includes Amsterdam and Rotterdam. This representation 4.4. Collaboration
strongly refers to dichotomies of urban versus rural, but also
frames Fryslân as less progressive and modern: “There is an image Destination marketers and governmental policymakers in-
of tradition. Reflected by commercials through images of silent, rural creasingly aim to collaborate with other stakeholders. Similarly,
and small village characteristics. Also, this is the image of the down to provincial destination marketing aims at collaborating with mu-
earth countryside people. A positive image in itself, but also nicipalities in order to support local tourism development
72 J.H.G. Jeuring / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 5 (2016) 65–75

initiatives: “The provincial scale is too large as a basis for colla- tourists and residents, how they interact and how they can con-
borative, continuous and concrete touristic products. […] The region tribute to regional tourism development. In this respect, residents
is the level where connections and inspiration emerge.” (#2, p.14). As are mentioned as stakeholders in the production of tourism and
such, the local government is attributed a leadership role of or- the representation of the identity of Fryslân and Frisian destina-
ganizer and motivator. tions within the province (Braun et al., 2013): “Winning outside is
Collaboration in itself can be seen as internally oriented, aiming certainly starting from within. Together, over 640,000 potential am-
to create cohesion among participants (Coca-Stefaniak, Parker, & bassadors can make great things happen.” (#6, p.17). Referring to
Rees, 2010; Lee & Arcodia, 2011). This aim is also found here, and a ambassador roles of residents is rooted in organization studies
homogenizing discourse of unity and shared goals is evident. In (Xiong, King, & Piehler, 2013), and is increasingly popular in
line with this, an important motivation to promote collaboration branding literature (Andersson & Ekman, 2009; Rehmet & Dinnie,
in Frisian tourism is its small scale and spatially dispersed nature, 2013) as a tool for dissemination and institutionalization of des-
thereby challenging the options for communicating consistent tination imaginaries (Salazar, 2012) (see also the Place Branding
brand information and ultimately providing attractive tourism theme above). Yet such roles assume a certain commitment on the
products: “Due to the small scale and dispersed character of the part of residents to a brand and might not do justice to in-
tourism sector, a collective profile is difficult to attain.” (#5, p.24). traregional identifications, differences between destinations and
However, the challenge of diverging interests among stake- the personal experiences of residents.
holders is acknowledged as well. This becomes evident in the Similarly, in the context of the roles of residents, who produce
construction of the Eleven Cities brand, which involves several tourism products for external visitors, a discourse of residential
municipalities: “Support for developing an Eleven Cities tourism non-mobility and a touristic mobility (Salazar, 2012) emerges:
product has proven difficult. Commitment is essential for promoting “Tourists feel a need to be part of authentic villages and be among
the Eleven Cities as a whole.” (#2, p.23). local inhabitants.” (#5, p.22). While this is a commonly used di-
While collaboration has proven to be essential for tourism chotomy, it does constrain the understanding of potential roles of
destinations as a whole to become competitive (Arnaboldi & Frisian residents as they engag in tourism within the province it-
Spiller, 2011; Olsen, 2003), tensions may arise when internal self. When they visit another area of Fryslân, are they a ‘local re-
competition is not acknowledged. For almost any tourism product, sident’ or a ‘tourist’?
particularly when these products are the result of collaboration The externally oriented imaginaries of homogenization and
between various stakeholders, there is a multiplicity of choices for unified identities are differentiated and even contradicted by in-
tourists how and where to obtain it. This provides opportunities traregional variation and difference within municipalities: “The
for competitors to indeed collaborate by passing on customers in villages of the Boarnsterhim municipality all have their own qualities.
busy times, which will “strongly increase the quality of the tourism These are their strength and are shaped by residents, cultural history,
product; after all, the customer is not interested in internal compe- authenticity and events.” (#13, p.15). Here, residents are differ-
tition and rivalry. He wants a successful holiday.” (#10, p.22). entiated from each other according to the village they live in,
As becomes clear, there is a thin line between competition which is more or less contradictory to the previously mentioned
(differentiation) and collaboration (homogenization) in order to unity of Frisian people. This contradiction between homogenized
maintain attractive tourism products. Trying to maintain this Frisian identities and localized identities further signifies the
balance, regional tourism marketing seems to be entangled in a pragmatic way in which roles are attributed to residents in re-
quest to deal with interconnectivity, formal and informal net- gional tourism marketing.
works, both within and outside of Fryslân.

4.5. Roles 5. Discussion and implications

Role attributions of stakeholders were made on various occa- 5.1. Discussion

sions. Roles can pertain to responsibilities (Dredge & Jenkins,
2003), for example in the case of governmental organizations; Discrepancies and paradoxes are inherent to society, particu-
marketing and branding of the province as a destination is ex- larly when it comes to tourism (Dredge & Jenkins, 2003). Contra-
plicitly a responsibility of the provincial governmental marketing. dictions are not undesirable by definition, as they are part of a
Yet internal differentiation occurs when a distinction is made be- learning process, requiring constant evaluation, education and
tween marketing aimed at gaining new visitors and the main- measurement (McLennan, Ruhanen, Ritchie, & Pham, 2012). They
tenance of the current, established market, which is attributed as a do have consequences, however, for how the world is perceived
responsibility to tourism entrepreneurs: “Fryslân Marketing is and acted upon. The results of this paper show that the positioning
mainly concerned with attracting new visitors. […] Enhancing repeat of Fryslân as a tourism destination is indeed ‘politically charged’.
visitation is primarily the responsibility of tourism entrepreneurs.” Having an important influence on these processes, destination
(#1, p.15). marketers and policy makers thus find themselves challenged to
Based on the idea that repeat visitation is strongly affected by acknowledge the contradictions between co-existing discourses
positive experiences during a holiday, entrepreneurs directly in- inherent to their work. They need to explore continuously how the
teract with tourists and can therefore play an important role in discourses they use are not only a possible source of conflict and
visitor satisfaction. This role division makes sense for incoming inequality, but also how they can provide added value for the
visitors: “Attract on a provincial level and guide on a regional level.” various stakeholders involved.
(#8, p.23). Yet for intraregional tourism an approach is needed that Partially contributing to filling the often-acknowledged but
takes into account the hybrid nature of people being both re- still-existing research gap on tourism taking place in proximity to
sidents from and tourists within the same region (Canavan, 2013). home and everyday life (Canavan, 2013; Jafari, 1986), the analysis
It is not clear how roles are attributed in this context. points to a need for different ways of thinking about the meaning
Next to roles ascribed to governmental organizations, DMOs of tourism. Such an approach means challenging both academic
and entrepreneurs, various roles can be attributed to individual and practitioner discourses of otherness, destination identities and
residents. On this level, several contradictions surface in the ways how relationships are negotiated between people and the places
regional tourism marketing understands differences between they inhabit (Hauge, 2007; McCabe & Stokoe, 2004; Twigger-Ross
 J.H.G. Jeuring / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 5 (2016) 65–75 73

& Uzzell, 1996). beyond territorial borders of municipalities1, but options on other
The dimensions of homogenization–differentiation and inter- spatial levels are worth exploring too.
nal–external orientation employed in this analysis provide a useful Third, in times where regional, social and self-identities be-
basis for analyzing the complexities of positioning a region as come increasingly commodified for tourism purposes (Aronczyk,
tourism destination and accounting for both internal and external 2008; Pomering, 2013), various intrapersonal roles affected by
stakeholders in tourism marketing strategies. In line with other these practices need also to be considered. Attributing value to
scholars, this study highlights the uneven and unstable (Dredge & identities prioritizes specific role attributions among stakeholders,
Jenkins, 2003) transformation process (Saarinen, 2004) of regional as if performing tourism on a stage (Edensor, 2001). In this regard,
institutionalization (Paasi, 2003; Zimmerbauer & Paasi, 2013). while roles that produce tourism are attributed to internal stake-
The study draws on concepts that are not new for tourism re- holders in Fryslân, this is less so for consuming roles. This is a
search. On the contrary, they address the core of tourism scho- limitation found in current Frisian tourism marketing strategies:
larship and practice, the ways destinations are constructed, con- tourism could be approached more as contributing to inhabitants'
sumed and gazed at (Urry & Larsen, 2011). Still, it is clear that the well-being as potential consumers, as tourists themselves. For
various ways homogenizing, differentiating, externally and in-
example, in Fryslân a ‘lifestyle’ monitor has been developed to
ternally oriented discourses that steer tourism as an industry
assess leisure preferences of its inhabitants2. This is a promising
should be continuously studied and re-interpreted. These forces
start that should find a broader ground in regional tourism
emerge in multiple ways and on many levels, and the contra-
development.
dictions that exist between them become particularly clear
The variety of discourses along which tourists are addressed
through the use of this two-dimensional framework.
are not necessarily always in opposition with each other, but
In the case of Fryslân, an important reason for these contra-
possible conflicting interests are not mentioned either. For ex-
dictions pertains to the target groups in which destination mar-
ample, it can be questioned whether the lifestyles of residents
keting is investing. While various target groups are mentioned, a
main focus on external, incoming target groups can be discerned. comply with demands and travel schedules of international visi-
Fryslân aims to grow quantitatively as a tourism destination, with tors. This can become problematic when place branding and des-
visitors coming increasingly from abroad. Interestingly though, the tination marketing strategies aimed at certain groups are inter-
vast majority of current tourists visiting Frisian destinations are preted (differently) by other groups. Given the large number of
Dutch or even Frisian. There is little evidence in current Frisian intraregional visitors, there is a need to address how externally
destination marketing documents, however, of a specific strategy oriented measures affect destination identities, perceived attrac-
for intraregional tourists. Destination marketers and regional tiveness and tourist behavior among people living within the
governments seem to have a hard time dealing with people being province. A lifestyle approach seems promising (Sherlock, 2001)
inhabitants at one moment and tourists at another. Tourism is still but a mere focus on day recreation might not be sufficient.
often approached as something outside of everyday life and po- Fourth, Fryslân has been attributed a strong regional identity
tential local benefits of tourism development are mentioned rooted in its particular history and enacted in symbols, culture and
mainly as a positive side-effect of incoming tourism. In this regard, language. Simultaneously, a sophisticated level of intraregional
based on the findings in this paper, a number of suggestions can be differentiation exists in terms of languages, identities, landscapes
made. and socio-political processes (Krauss, 2005; Pietersen, 1969; van
Langevelde, 1993). While these differences are employed in ex-
5.2. Implications for regional destination marketing ternally oriented destination marketing to a certain extent, it can
be argued that various opportunities could also be taken from
Tourism in Fryslân tends to be seen primarily as an economic intraregional tourism perspective.
tool. From an intraregional perspective, however, priority should For example, as noted elsewhere, regional unity is often chal-
also be given to societal aspects of tourism. Canavan (2013) em- lenged (Dredge & Jenkins, 2003) and a strong internally oriented
phasizes that an active intraregional tourism dynamic char- measures are needed before external homogenized imaginaries
acterizes a healthy and attractive region. In line with this, Fryslân are ‘lived’ and made real (Aronczyk, 2008). Flags, slogans and
might capitalize even more on intraregional benefits such as other symbols carry the message only partially and are themselves
learning (Falk, Ballantyne, Packer, & Benckendorff, 2012), self- continuously reinterpreted (Elliott & Wattanasuwan, 1998; Fel-
awareness and mutual understanding (Bianchi & Stephenson,
genhauer, 2010). Citizens are therefore indispensable in destina-
2013): not commodified in monetary terms but as a social force
tion branding. Similarly, it is important to approach citizens as
that acts within a region (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2006).
potential tourists themselves. For example, by organizing guided
Second, discursive contradiction might result in mis-
city trips for citizens (Braun et al., 2013) and particularly by calling
understandings, contradictory policies or even in tensions and
upon a link between self-identities and regional identities.
conflicts between stakeholders. This can pertain to struggles be-
Successful intraregional tourism destinations, as stated by Ca-
tween destinations, but most certainly also within them (Bianchi &
navan, are ‘accessible to locals, providing social interest and leisure
Stephenson, 2013). The way stakeholders are represented in dis-
opportunities, supporting community infrastructure and industry,
course in relation to the spaces they inhabit, use and shape, brings
power issues and inequalities to the fore. A key challenge for and ultimately [are] contributing to social cohesion and civic pride’
destination marketers and policy makers, therefore, both in tour- (Canavan, 2013, p. 349). Obviously, this does not shut the door for
ism and other fields, is to balance difference and similarity, across external visitors, but the goal to develop tourism destinations not
people, groups and places. In the case of Fryslân, externally or- only with but also for residents, enhancing the ways along which
iented discourses in place branding might suppress the ways they attribute meanings and identities to their everyday environ-
contradictions can do their work from an intraregional perspec- ment, surely deserves more attention, both from regional desti-
tive. For example, to valorize intraregional differences and au- nation marketing and tourism scholars.
thenticity (Díaz Soria & Llurdés Coit, 2013), marketing strategies
need to incorporate and acknowledge existing differences. One 1
http://www.fryslan.nl/streekagenda
context in which this can be done is the ‘regional agendas' 2
http://ondernemen.touristinfofryslan.nl/mediadepot/34414e7dc6eb/Defini
(Streekagendas), in which sub-provincial policy is developed tiefprogrammaGastvrijFrysln2014-201730092013.pdf
74 J.H.G. Jeuring / Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 5 (2016) 65–75

6. Conclusion Acknowledgments

This paper has sought to disentangle some of the discursive The author would like to thank Dorina Buda, Tialda Haartsen,
contradictions that emerge in regional tourism marketing strate- Dirk Strijker and anonymous reviewers for their comments and
gies, by exploring the ways Fryslân is positioned as a tourism suggestions on earlier versions of this paper. This study was made
destination (Research Question 1). A discourse analysis of regional possible by support of University Campus Fryslân.
tourism marketing documents for the Dutch province of Fryslân
and four of its municipalities revealed how various discursive
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