STEPPER MOTORS

1.What is stepper motor?Explain its construction and operating principle .

Stepper motors are electromagnetic incremental devices that convert electric pulses to shaft
motion (rotation). These motors rotate a specific number of degrees as a respond to each input
electric pulse. Typical types of stepper motors can rotate 2°, 2.5°, 5°, 7.5°, and 15° per input
electrical pulse. Rotor position sensors or sensor less feedback based techniques can be used to
regulate the output response according to the input reference command. Stepper motors offers
many attractive features such as:

• Available resolutions ranging from several steps up to 400 steps (or higher) per

revolution.

• Several horsepower ratings.

• Ability to track signals as fast as 1200 pulses per second.

Stepper motors have many industrial applications such as:

• Printers.
• Disk Drives.
• Machine Tools.
• Robotics.
• Tape Drives

Types of Stepper Motors

Stepper motors are usually classified into three main categories, namely,

1) Variable reluctance (single stack and multi stack),

2) Permanent Magnet, and
3) Hybrid motors.
Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors

Fig. 1 presents the basic circuit configuration of a typical 4-phase, 2-pole, single-stack,
variable reluctance stepper motor. The stator is made of a single stack of steel laminations
with the phase windings wound around the stator poles. The rotor is made of stack of steel
laminations without any windings. The main principle of operation depends on aligning
one set only of stator and rotor poles by energizing the stator windings. Therefore, the
number of poles in the stator and rotor windings has to be different. The stator windings are
energized by a DC source in such a sequence to generate a resultant rotating air-gap field
around the rotor in steps. The rotor is made of ferromagnetic material that provides a
tendency to align the rotor axis along the direction of the resultant air-gap field. Therefore, the
rotor tracks the motion of this stepped field.

Fig. 1 Basic circuit configuration of a typical 4-phase, 2-pole, single-stack, variable

reluctance stepper motor

Fig. 2 illustrates the different modes of operation of the 4-phase, 2-pole, single-stack,
variable reluctance stepper motor for 45° step in the following energizing sequence A,
A+B, B, B+C, C, C+D, D, and then D+A. Then this switching sequence is repeated.
• Energizing winding A: The resultant air-gap flux will be aligned along the axis of pole A
windings. Consequently, the rotor aligns itself along the phase A axis as shown in the upper part of
Fig. 2.
• Energizing windings A and B: The resultant air-gap flux will be oriented in the midway
between pole A and pole B i.e., the resultant mmf rotated 45° in the clockwise direction.
Consequently, the rotor aligns itself with the resultant mmf (45°) as shown in the middle part of
Fig. 2.
• Energizing winding B: The resultant air-gap flux will be aligned along the axis of pole B
windings. Consequently, the rotor aligns itself along the phase B axis as shown in the lower part of
Fig. 2.
The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the switching sequence to be A, A+D,
D, D+C, C, C+B, B, and then B+A. Then this switching sequence is repeated.

Fig. 2 Operation modes of single-stack, 2-poles, and variable reluctance stepper motor with
45° step
Smaller steps can be obtained by using multi-pole rotor configuration such as the one
shown in Fig. 3 that rotate in an anticlockwise direction with a 15° step in the following
energizing sequence A, A+B, B, B+C, C, C+D, D, and then D+A. Then this switching
sequence is repeated.
• Energizing winding A: The resultant air-gap flux will be aligned along the axis of
pole A windings. Consequently, the rotor pole P1 aligns itself along the phase A
axis as shown in the upper part of Fig. 3.
• Energizing windings A and B: The resultant air-gap flux will be oriented in the

midway between pole A and pole B i.e., the resultant mmf rotated 45° in the

clockwise direction. In this case, the nearest rotor pole to this direction is pole P 2.

Consequently, the rotor rotates in an anticlockwise direction to align pole P 2 with

the resultant mmf (45°). Therefore, the net rotational step is 15° in an anticlockwise

direction.
• Energizing winding B: The resultant air-gap flux will be aligned along the axis of
pole B windings. In this case, the nearest rotor pole to this direction is pole P 3.
Consequently, the rotor rotates in an anticlockwise direction to align pole P 3 with

the resultant mmf (90°). Therefore, the net rotational step in this stage is also 15° in an

anticlockwise direction.
• and so on.
The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the switching sequence to be A, A+D,
D, D+C, C, C+B, B, and then B+A. Then this switching sequence is repeated.

Fig. 3 Construction and operation of 4-phase, 6-pole, single-stack, variable reluctance

stepper motor
Fig. 4 presents the circuit configuration and different operation modes for a 3-phase, 4-
pole, single stack, variable reluctance stepper motor that rotate in a clockw ise direction
with a 30° step. Table 1 and Fig. 5 present each phase switching sequence for one
revolution of the rotor.

Fig. 4 Construction and operation of 3-phase, 4-pole, single-stack, variable reluctance

stepper motor

Fig. 5 Phase switching sequence

Table 1 Phase switching sequence: “1” and “0” corresponds to positive and zero phase
voltage (currents), respectively

Multi-Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors

In this type, the motor is divided along its axis into a number of stacks. Each stack is
energized by a separate winding (phase) as shown in Fig. 6. These stacks are magnetically
isolated from each other. The most common type is the three-stack, three-phase motors;
however, number of stacks and phases up to seven are also available.
 Fig. 6 Cross section view of a typical three-stack variable reluctance stepper motor

Fig. 7 Teeth position for a 3-phase, 4-pole, 12-teeth, three-stack, variable reluctance stepper
motor when phase a is energized
Fig. 7 also illustrates the rotational sequence of a 3-phase, 4-pole, 12-teeth, three-stack,
variable reluctance stepper motor for 10° step in a clockwise direction according to the
following energizing sequence A, B, and C. Then this switching sequence is repeated.

• Energizing phase (stack) A: when stack A winding is energized, the rotor teeth
will move to align themselves with the stator teeth is stack A as shown in Fig. 7.
• Energizing phase (stack) B: when stack B winding is then energized while stack A
winding is de-energized, the rotor teeth will move to align themselves with the
 stator teeth is stack B. This will result in a clockwise rotation of the rotor by 10° as
shown in Fig. 7.
• Energizing phase (stack) C: when stack C winding is then energized while stack B
winding is de-energized, the rotor teeth will move to align themselves with the
stator teeth is stack C. This will result in another clockwise rotation of the rotor by
10°. After this stage the rotor has moved one rotor tooth pitch as illustrated by Fig.
7.
• And So on
The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the switching sequence. Assume that
the total number of stacks (phases) is N while the total number of teeth in each stack is x.
The tooth pitch ( τ p ) can be expressed by,

36 O
τp =
0
x

Moreover, the step size (Δ θ ) can be expressed by,

0
Δθ = 360
xN
Consequently, the number of steps per revolution (n) is given by
0
36
n= = xN
0
Δ
θ
As an example, for the motor in Fig. 7, x = 12 and N = 3. Therefore,
36 O 360 0
τ p= 0
0 = = 30
12
x
0 0
Δ θ = 360 360 0
xN = = 10
12 *3
0
n = 360 = 36
1
0
2.2.4. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motors
Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motors are similar in construction to that of single-stack;
variable reluctance stepper motors except that the rotor is made of permanent magnet. Fig.
8 presents the circuit configuration and different operation modes for a 2-phase, permanent
magnet stepper motor that rotate in an anticlockwise direction with a 90° step. Table 2 and
Fig. 9 present each phase switching sequence for one revolution of the rotor. Reversing the
switching sequence will result in reversing the direction of rotation.
PM stepper motors offer many features compared to variable reluctance type such as
• Higher inertia and consequently lower acceleration (deceleration) rates.
• Maximum step pulse rate is 300 pulses per second compared to 1200 pulses per
second for variable reluctance stepper motors.
• Larger step sizes, ranging from 30° to 90° compared to step sizes as low as 1.8° for
variable reluctance stepper motors.
• Generate higher torque per ampere of stator currents than variable reluctance
stepper motors.

Fig. 8 Construction and operation of 2-phase, permanent magnet stepper motor

 Fig. 9 Phase switching sequence

Table 2 Phase switching sequence: “1”, “-1” and “0” corresponds to positive, negative, and zero
phase voltage (currents), respectively

2.2.4. Hybrid Stepper Motors

Hybrid stepper motors have similar stators‟ construction to that of variable reluctance
stepper motors. However, their rotors constructions combine both variable reluctance and
permanent magnet constructions. The rotors are made of an axial permanent magnet at the
middle and two identical stacks of soft iron poles at the outer ends attached to the north and
south poles of the permanent magnet. The rotor poles connected to the north pole of the
permanent magnet forms North Pole, while the other forms the south poles as shown in Fig.
10. This figure also presents two different views of these motors types. Fig. 11 presents a
complete cross section view of 4-pole stator and 5-pole rotor hybrid stepper
motor while Fig. 12 presents the different components of standard hybrid stepper motor.
These types of motors have similar operation modes as the permanent magnet types.
Moreover, they are characterized by smaller step sizes but they are very expensive
compared to variable reluctance stepper motors.

Fig. 10 Construction of 4-pole stator and 5-pole rotor hybrid stepper motor

Fig. 11 Cross section view of 4-pole stator and 5-pole rotor hybrid stepper motor
Working Principle of Hybrid Motors
Consider a 2-phase, 4-poles stepper motor as shown in Fig. 13. When energizing phase B,
the rotor starts to rotate in an anticlockwise direction to align itself with pole 2. It is
supposed theoretically, that the rotor will come to rest once its axis is aligned with pole 2
axis. However, practically, due to the inertia of the rotor, the rotor will overshot and pass
the central line of pole 2. After that, the magnetic field generated from pole 2 pulls the rotor
in the opposite direction. The rotor will swing around the central line of pole 2 until finally
it comes to rest after being aligned. Fig. 14 a presents the variation of the rotor position and
the rotor speed as a result of energizing phase B.

Fig. 12 Different components of standard hybrid stepper motor

Fig. 13 2-phase, 4-poles stepper motor

 Fig. 14 a Effect of inertia on rotor angular speed and angular position

Fig. 14 b Effect of viscous damping on rotor angular speed and angular position
2.3. Modes of Operation
There are two main modes of operation of stepper motors that can be summarized as follows:

Start-Stop Mode: In this mode the motor is controlled to settle down (rest) after each step
before advancing to the next step. The rotational speed will be in the form of pulses that drops
to zero at the end each step while the rotor position will be in the form of pulses also but with
an increasing steady state value with time as shown in Fig. 15. This mode is sometimes
referred to by the start without error mode. A maximum permissible stepping rate is required
for this mode of operation; otherwise, the motor will not be able to track the control current
pulses and the step will be lost. This minimum rate depends on the motor inertia and the
loading condition. Fig. 16 presents the torque speed (steps per second, where each step

equivalent to 1.8°) characteristic for this mode of operation represented by:

• Curve 1: Low inertia. If the motor drives a load of 1.4 N.m then the maximum
permissible pulse rate is 500 steps per second.
• Curve 2: Higher inertia. If the motor drives a load of 1.4 N.m then the maximum
permissible pulse rate is 400 steps per second.
 Fig. 15 Rotor angular speed and angular position for different operating modes

Slewing Mode: In this mode the motor is controlled to rotate at a constant uniform speed
without stopping at the end of each step and the rotor position varies linearly with time as
shown in Fig. 15. The torque speed characteristic of this mode will not be affected by the
system inertia because of the constant speed. Moreover, for a specific pulse rate (500 steps per
second) this mode allows the motor to drive higher torque load as in the start-stop mode as
shown in Fig. 16.

Fig. 16 (a) Start Stop Mode (b) Slewing Mode

2.Explain the Drive Circuits for the Stepper motor.
There are two main drive circuits for stepper motors, namely; Uni-polar and Bi-polar drive
circuits.
Uni-polar Drive Circuit
Fig. 17 presents a schematic diagram for a uni-polar drive circuit. This circuit is suitable for
three phase variable reluctance stepper motors. Each phase winding of the motor is
controlled by a separate drive circuit with a transistor as its controllable power switch. All
drive circuits are energized by the same DC source. The transistor (power switch) of each
winding has two modes of operation as follows:
 On Mode: When sufficiently high base current flow through the transistor base it
turn ON and acts ideally like a short circuit. Consequently, the supply voltage will
be applied across the phase winding and the external resistor (Rext) connected in
series with the phase winding. The DC source magnitude is adjusted to produces the
rated phase current when the switch is turned ON. Therefore,
V = I (R + R )
s ph ext

Where Vs is the DC source voltage in V, I is the phase winding rated current in A,Rph is the

phase winding resistance in Ω , and Rext is the external resistance connected in series to the

phase winding in Ω .

The phase winding inductance is very large and consequently results in slow rate of
building the phase winding current that might result in unsatisfactory operation of the
stepper motor at high stepping rates. Therefore, the external resistance is connected in
series with the phase winding to reduce the time constant. The net ON Mode circuit time
constant will be very large and can be expressed by,
L ph
τ ON =
(R +R )
ph ext

Where Lph is the phase winding average inductance in H.

 OFF Mode: In this mode, the base drive current of the transistor is removed and the
switch is turned OFF and acts as an open circuit. The phase winding current will
continue to flow through the freewheeling path formed by the freewheeling diode
(Df) and the freewheeling resistance (Rf). The maximum OFF state voltage appears
across the transistor (switch) (VCE (max)) can be expressed by,

VCE (max) = Vs + I Rf
During this mode of operation, phase current decays in the OFF mode circuit with a net
OFF Mode circuit time constant that can be expressed by,
L ph
τ OFF =
(R +R +R )
ph ext f

The energy stored in the phase inductance during the ON mode is dissipated in the OFF
mode circuit resistances during the switch turn OFF period.

Fig. 17 Uni-polar drive circuit for three-phase variable reluctance stepper motor

Bi-polar Drive Circuit

Fig. 18 presents a schematic diagram for one phase of a bi-polar drive circuit. This circuit is
suitable for permanent magnet or hybrid stepper motors. Each phase winding of the motor is
controlled by a separate drive circuit with a transistor as its controllable power switch. All drive
circuits are energized by the same DC source. Each two transistors (power switches) of each
phase winding are turned ON simultaneously. Two modes of operation occur as follows:
 T1 and T2 are in the On Mode: This is done by injecting sufficiently high base
current through their bases simultaneously. Each transistor acts ideally like a short
circuit. Consequently, the current will flow as indicated by the solid line in Fig. 18.
The inductor is then energized.
 D3 and D4 are in the On Mode: This mode follows the switching OFF of T1 and T2.
In this mode, the phase winding current cannot change its direction or decay to zero
instantaneously after turning OFF of T1 and T2 because of the phase winding
 inductances. Thus the current continue to flow through of D3 and D4 as indicated by
the dotted line in Fig. 18. The inductor discharges and the energy is returned back to the
DC source.

Fig. 18 One phase of a Bi-polar drive circuit for permanent magnet or hybrid stepper motors
A reverse flow of current in the phase windings and hence a reverse direction of rotation of
the motor can be achieved by activating T 3 and T4. When T 3 and T4 are turned OFF the
freewheeling path will provided through D1 and D2. The bi-polar circuit is characterized by,
 Higher efficiency than the uni-polar drive circuit as part of the stored energy in the
phase winding returns back to the DC source during the power switches turn OFF
mode.
 Fast decaying of the freewheeling current as the inductor discharge through the
phase winding resistance, phase external resistance and the DC source.
 No freewheeling resistance is required.
 More power switches (devices) than the uni-polar drive circuit. 
More expensive than the uni-polar drive circuit.
 Most of the large stepper motors types (> 1 kW) are driven by the bi-polar drive
circuit including variable reluctance types.
3.Discuss the various switching sequence of stepper motor

Consider the 4-pole hybrid stepper motor shown in Fig. 11. The motor is drived by a Bi-
polar drive circuit where the power switches are represented by contacts as illustrated by
Fig. 19. Four contacts are used with each coil set of the motor (A1 and A2) and (B1 and
B2). The two coil sets are energized by the same DC source. There are three main
switching techniques for controlling these contacts namely; Wave Switching, Normal
Switching, and Half-Step Switching.

Fig. 19 Drive circuit for the hybrid motor under consideration

 Wave Switching Sequence: In this technique, only one set of coils is switches each

step and the generated flux rotates by 90° per step. Table 3 presents the switching

sequence for clockwise rotation. The corresponding coils‟ current pulses and the

generated fluxes are shown in Fig. 20.

Table 3 Wave switching sequence for clockwise rotation
 Fig. 20 Current pulses and generated fluxes for wave switching sequence

 Normal Switching Sequence: In this technique, the two sets of coils are switches
each step. The generated flux also rotates by 90° per step; however, it is oriented in
the midway between the stator‟s poles. Table 4 presents the switching sequence for
clockwise rotation. The corresponding coils‟ current pulses and the generated fluxes
are shown in Fig. 21. This technique is characterized by slightly greater torque than
the wave switching sequence.
Table 4 Normal switching sequence for clockwise rotation
 Fig. 21 Current pulses and generated fluxes for normal switching sequence

 Half-Step Switching Sequence: In this technique, both the wave and the normal
switching sequence are combined. The generated flux also rotates by 45° per step.
Table 5 presents the switching sequence for clockwise rotation. The corresponding
coils‟ current pulses and the generated fluxes are shown in Fig. 22. This technique
is characterized by better resolution of position and reduction in the resonance
problem.
Table 5 Half-step switching sequence for clockwise rotation
 Fig. 22 Current pulses and generated fluxes for half-step switching sequence

High Speed Operation

In the previous analysis, the current waveforms is considered to be in the form of

rectangular pulses (ideal case) that reach it is peak value and drops from peak to zero in no time
as shown in Fig. 23-a. However, in practice, because of the system inductance, the current
can not change its value instantaneously. This can be explained by considering the circuit
shown in Figs. 23-b and 23-c. In this configuration, an inductive load is connected to a DC
source via transistor. A freewheeling diode is also used to provide a continuous path for the
load current when the transistor is switched OFF. Fig.
23-d presents the shape of the current pulse in this case. There are two operation modes for this
circuit that can be explained as follows:
  Mode 1 (Transistor is ON): The transistor behaves as short circuit. The load
(motor‟s phase) current (i = i1) starts to flow with an increasing magnitude until it
E
reaches its rated value I (where I = ) in approximately 3 times the circuit time
R

L 3L
constant ( τ O = R ) i.e. time to reach rated current is 3 xLo = . The load current
R
continue to flow with its rated value (i = I) until the transistor is switched OFF
at t = Tp

 Mode 2 (Transistor is OFF): The transistor behaves as open circuit. The load
current (I = i2) will continue to circuit in the freewheeling circuit path as shown in
Fig. 23-c. This current starts to decay until it reaches zero in approximately 3 times
3L
the circuit time constant i.e. time to decay to zero is also 3 xLo =
R
This practical pulse shape is characterized by:

 The total current period is τ p+ 3τ o. This results in delaying the switching

ON process of the next phase in stepper motor.

 The initial torque developed by stepper motors is less than its ideal value
because the current doesn‟t reach its rated value instantly.
 The short current pulse period required to allow the current to reach its rated
6
value is approximately 6 times the circuit time constant ( 6 xLo = L ) as
R
shown in Fig. 23-e.Normally, stepper motors have time constants ranging from
1 to 8 ms. Therefore, the minimum permissible pulse period (minimum duration
for one step) is 6 ms which corresponds to a maximum stepping rate of about
166 steps per second.
 Fig. 23 High speed operation equivalent circuits and current waveforms
There two methods that can be applied to increase the switching rate. These methods can be
explained briefly as follows:
 External Resistance: In this method, an external resistance is inserted in series with
the motor‟s phase winding, as shown in Fig. 24, to reduce the circuit time constant.
This figure shows that an external resistance with a resistive value four times the
L
phase winding resistance is added. In this case, the new time constant is τ O =
5R
consequently, the new minimum permissible pulse period is 1.2 ms which
corresponds to a maximum stepping rate of about 833 steps per second. However,
 this method requires increasing the DC source rating to five time its initial vale 5E
as it has to deliver five times the original power. Moreover, the power losses in the
resistances are very high.

Fig. 24 Circuits to modify the rise and fall time of the current pulse and the associated current

 Bi-level Drive: In this method, two controllable switches (transistors) and two
diodes are used in each phase as shown in Fig. 25-a. Moreover, an additional DC
source (Eext) with higher magnitude than the original source (E) is also used. This
circuit has three modes of operation that can be explained briefly, with numerical
values, as follows:
 Q1 and Q2 are switched ON: This is represented by the equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 25-b. The transistors behave as short circuits.
The load (motor‟s phase) current starts to flow with an increasing magnitude until it
reaches its rated value of,
E 3
I=
R 0 3 = 10 A
=

The circuit time constant is given by,

 −3
τ O = L 2 4 x 10
R= = 8 ms
03
Therefore the current approximately increases linearly with an increasing rate (Rate 1) as
shown in Fig. 25-c that can be expressed by,
E + E est 3 + 57
Rate 1 = R = 0 3 = 25 ,000 A / sec
τO 0 008
The time required to reach the phase winding‟s rated current (t 1) is therefore approximated
to,
I 10
t1 = = = 0 4 ms
Rate 1 25
,000
 Q1 is switched OFF while Q2 is still ON: This mode is activated once the phase
current reaches its rated value of 10 A. The switch Q1 is switched OFF while the
switch Q2 remains conducting. This is represented by the equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 25-d. The switch Q1 behaves as an open circuit. In this case the
diode D1 will conduct and the current flows as shown in Fig. 25-d with a constant
E 3
magnitude of 10 A( I =
R 0 3 = 10 A )
=

 Q1 and Q2 are switched OFF: The current will remain flowing in the phase
winding circuit until switch Q2 is turned OFF. Both switches are now in their OFF
state and behave as open circuits. In this case the two diodes D1 and D2 will conduct
and the current flows as shown in Fig. 25-e.
Assume that the switch Q2 is turned OFF after 5 ms from the instant at which the current
reached its rated value. The circuit time constant is given by,
L 2 4 x 10−3
τ O=
R= = 8 ms
03
Fig. 25 Bi-level drive circuits to modify the rise and fall time of the current pulse and the associated
current
Therefore the current approximately decreases linearly with an decreasing rate (Rate2) as
shown in Fig. 25-f that can be expressed by,
E 57
est

R 03
Rate 2 = τ O = 0 008 = 23 ,750 A / sec

The time required for the current to decay to zero (t2) is therefore approximated to,
 I 10
t2 = Rate 2 = 23 = 0 42 ms
,750
Once the current reaches zero, switch Q1 is switched ON to force the phase current to
remain zero until the next pulse.
Chopper Drive Circuit

This drive circuit - illustrated in its unipolar form in Fig.26 - has a high supply voltage
which is applied to the phase winding whenever the current falls below its rated value. If the
phase excitation signal is present, the base drive for transistor T2 is controlled by the voltage
Vc dropped across the small resistance Rc by the winding current. At the beginning of the
excitation interval the transistor T1 is switched on and the base drive to T2 is enabled. As
the phase current is initially zero there is no voltage across Vc and the transistor T2 is switched
on. The full supply voltage is therefore applied to the phase winding, as shown in the timing
diagram, Fig.27.

Fig.26 Chopper drive current waveform and transistor switching times

The phase current rises rapidly until it slightly exceeds its rated value (I). Consequently the
control voltage is Rc I+e and this is sufficient to switch off transistor T2. There is now no
voltage applied to the phase winding and the current decays around a path which includes
T1, Rc and diode D1. This current path has a small resistance and no opposing voltage, so
the decay of current is relatively slow. As the resistance Rc is still included in the circuit the
winding current can be monitored and when the control voltage has fallen to R c I-e the
transistor T2 is switched on again. The full supply voltage is applied to the winding and the
current is rapidly boosted to slightly above rated. This cycle is repeated throughout the
excitation time, with the winding current maintained near its rated value by an 'on-off'
closed-loop control.

Fig.27 Copper drive current waveform and transistor switching times

At the end of the excitation interval both transistors are switched off and the winding
current freewheels via diodes D1 and D2. The current is now opposed by the supply
voltage and is rapidly forced to zero. A high proportion of the energy stored in the winding
inductance at turn-off is returned to the supply and therefore the system has a high
efficiency.
The chopper drive incorporates more sophisticated control circuitry, e.g. the T2
base drive requires a Schmitt triggering of the control voltage V c to produce the transition
levels. If these levels are not well-separated the transistor T2 switches on and off at a very
high frequency, causing interference with adjacent equipment and additional iron losses in
the motor. However the chopper drive does have the advantage that the available supply
voltage is fully utilized, enabling operation over the widest possible speed range, and the
power losses in forcing resistors are eliminated, giving a good system efficiency.
4.Explain the Characteristics of Stepper motor
Static Characteristics
The characteristics relating to stationary motors are called static characteristics.

\
Fig.28 T/θcharacteristics
 T/θcharacteristics
The stepping motor is first kept stationary at a rest (equilibrium) position by supplying a
current in a specified mode of excitation, say, single-phase or two phase excitation. If an
external torque is applied to the shaft, an angular displacement will occur. The relation
between the external torque and the displacement may be plotted as in Fig.28. This curve is
conventionally called the T/characteristic curve, and the maximum of static torque is
termed the 'holding torque', which occurs at θ=θM in Fig.28. At displacements larger than
θM, the static torque does not act in a direction towards the original equilibrium position,
but in the opposing direction towards the next equilibrium position. The holding torque is
rigorously defined as 'the maximum static torque that can be applied to the shaft of an
excited motor without causing continuous motion'. The angle at which the holding torque is
produced is not always separated from the equilibrium point by one step angle.

 T/I characteristics

The holding torque increases with current, and this relation is conventionally
referred to as T/I characteristics. Fig.29 compares the T/I characteristics of a typical hybrid motor
with those of a variable-reluctance motor, the step angle of both being 1.8º. The maximum
static torque appearing in the hybrid motor with no current is the detent torque, which is
defined as the maximum static torque that can be applied to the shaft of an unexcited motor
without causing continuous rotation.
Fig.29 Examples of T/I characteristics: (a) a 1.8ºfour phase variable reluctance motor; and
(b) a 1.8º four phase hybrid motor.
Dynamic Characteristics

Fig.30 Dynamic characteristics

The characteristics relating to motors which are in motion or about to start are
called dynamic characteristics.
(1) Pull-in torque characteristics
These are alternatively called the starting characteristics and refer to the range of
frictional load torque at which the motor can start and stop without losing steps for various
frequencies in a pulse train. The number of pulses in the pulse train used for the test is 100 or
so. The reason why the word 'range' is used here, instead of 'maximum', is that the motor is not
capable of starting or maintaining a normal rotation at small frictional loads in certain frequency
ranges as indicated in Figure. When the pull-in torque is measured or discussed, it is also
necessary to specify clearly the driving circuit, the measuring method, the coupling
method, and the inertia to be coupled to the shaft. In general, the self-starting range
decreases with increases in inertia.
(2) Pull-out torque characteristics
This is alternatively called the slewing characteristic. After the test motor is started
by a specified driver in the specified excitation mode in self-starting range, the pulse
frequency is gradually increased; the motor will eventually run out of synchronism. The
relation between the frictional load torque and the maximum pulse frequency with which
the motor can synchronize is called the pull-out characteristic (see Figure). The pull-out
curve is greatly affected by the driver circuit, coupling, measuring instruments, and other
conditions.
(3) The maximum starting frequency
This is defined as the maximum control frequency at which the unloaded motor can start
and stop without losing steps.
(4) Maximum pull-out rate
This is defined as the maximum frequency (stepping rate) at which the unloaded
motor can run without losing steps, and is alternatively called the 'maximum slewing
frequency'
(5) Maximum starting torque
This is alternatively called 'maximum pull-in torque' and is defined as the maximum
frictional load torque with which the motor can start and synchronize with the pulse train of a
frequency as low as 10Hz.
5.Explain the various Modes of Excitation of Stepper motor.
Excitation Sequence in the single-phase-on operation
In this mode of operation only one phase is excited at any time so it is called
“single-phase-on operation”.The below table shows the sequences of a single phase
excitation mode for three and four-phase motors. In the table the shaded parts represent the
excited state and white the blanks show the un-excited state.
1) Three-phase motor

Clock State R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
To rotate a motor into clockwise direction, the excitation sequence is
for counter clockwise rotation the excitation sequence is

It is also known as “one-phase-on drive”

2) Four-phase motor
Clock State R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Phase 4

Excitation Sequence in the two-phase-on operation

In this mode of operation two phases are always in excited condition so it is called
“two-phase-on operation”. The below table shows the sequences of a two phase excitation mode
for three and four-phase motors. It is seen in these tables that when an excitation current is
switched from one phase to another (e.g. as shown by the arrow in table Ph2 is turned off and
Ph1 is turned on) the third phase (Ph3 in the above example) remains excited. It is also
known as “Two-phase-on drive”
 In two-phase-on drive the oscillation damps more quickly than the case of the one-
phase-on drive mode
1) Three-phase motor
Clock State R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3

2) Four-phase motor
Clock State R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Phase 4
Half-Step mode

Excitation Sequence in the half-step operation (three-phase motor)

Clock State (A) R 1 2 3 4 5

Clock State (B) R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3

Excitation Sequence in the two-phase-on operation for a bifilar-wound three-phase VR

motor

Clock State R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Phase 1 (S1)
Phase 2 (S2)
Phase 3 (S3)
Phase 4 (S4)
Phase 5 (S5)
Phase 6 (S6)

Excitation Sequence in the bridge operation for a two-phase motor

Clock State R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8

2.7. Windings Used in Stepper Motors

The transistor bridge bipolar drive circuit requires four transistor/diode pairs per
phase, where as the simple unipolar drive requires only one pair per phase, so drive costs
for a hybrid stepping motor are potentially higher than for the variable reluctance type; a
two phase hybrid motor drive has eight transistors and diodes, but a three-phase variable
reluctance motor drive has only three transistors and diodes. The bridge configuration has the
additional complication of base drive isolation for the pair of switching transistors
connected to the positive supply rail. From the view point of drive costs the conventional
hybrid motor has a severe disadvantage and therefore many manufacturers have introduced
'bifilar-wound' hybrid motors, which can be operated with a unipolar drive.
A bidirectional current flowing in the hybrid motor windings produces a
bidirectional field in the stator poles. With a bifilar winding the same results is achieved by
two pole windings in opposite senses, as illustrated for one pole in Fig.31. Depending on
the field direction, one of the windings is excited by a unidirectional current; in Fig.31 the
field produced by a positive current in the conventional arrangement is available by
exciting the bifilar +winding with positive current. The effect of negative current in the
conventional winding is then achieved by positive excitation of the bifilar -winding.
Each of the bifilar pole windings must have as many turns as the original winding
and the same rated current, so a bifilar winding has twice the volume of a conventional
winding. This additional volume does, of course, increase the manufacturing costs but for
small size of hybrid motor this is outweighed by resultant reduction in drive costs.

Fig.31 Comparison of conventional (monofilar) and bifilar windings

6.Explain the Linear and Non-Linear Analysis of Stepper motor.

The linear and non-linear analysis of the motor performance with respect to the torque
produces by the motor is explained below. Let
be the motor torque produced by the rotor in NM
 be the inertia of the rotor and load combination in Kgm2
be the angular velocity of the rotor
be the damping co-efficient or viscous frictional co-efficient be

the frictional load torque independent of the speed

be the step angle in radians

be the stepping rate in steps/sec or pps

Frictional load torque

According to rotor dynamics

------- (1)

Also step angle

---------- (2)

Where
--------- (3)

Substitute in (1)

--------- (4)

is fixed for a particular type of motor.

So can be considered as constant therefore

--------- (5)

In the above equation if viscous friction constant is neglected the equation will be linear
equation, the corresponding analysis is a linear analysis. If the damping co-efficient is also
considered the corresponding acceleration will be non-linear and the equation will be a
nonlinear which given rise to non-linear analysis.
Linear acceleration on Linear Analysis:
If the damping co-efficient is neglected D=0 .The expression for motor torque becomes
---------- (6)
 ------------- (7)

Integrating on both sides

----------- (8)

Where = Integrating Constant

Mathematically is the constant of integration but it indicates the initial angular velocity
of the motor before the occurrence of acceleration. Therefore

Sub and in (8)

Divide by we get

Therefore stepping rate ----------------------- (9)

And

Figure shows the linear acceleration from and

Non Linear (Exponential) acceleration on non linear Analysis:

Considering the torque produced by the motor

---------- (10)
Divide by we get

Or

-------------- (11)

The above equation is of the form

Which have the solution

----------- (12)

Here
y=f, x=t, P=D/J

----------- (13)

----------- (14)

-------------- (15)

Where „c‟ is integration constant.

To find „c‟ substitute initial conditions,
At t=0 and f(0)=f1

------------------- (16)

Sub (16) in (15) we get

------------ (17)
Divide by

There fore Stepping frequency

The above equation is a nonlinear exponential equation which gives rise to nonlinear
acceleration of the rotor of the motor.
6.Explain the THEORY OF TORQUE PREDICTION
Mechanism of static torque production in a VR Motor
Basic field theory approach of torque production depends on
• Magnetic energy and Co-energy
• Ideal case of torque production, in which stator and rotor cores have infinite
permeability
• Cores when subjected to magnetic saturation
The case of infinitely permeable cores
To analysis the situation of an iron piece being drawn into a magnetic field created by
electromagnet as shown in figure below.

A current I is flowing in the coil of „n‟ turns to yield magnetic flux and force „f‟ is acting on the
iron piece in the x-direction. The iron piece may be regarded as a tooth of the rotor of a stepping
motor, and the electromagnet corresponds to a pair of teeth of the stator in a VR motor.
Ampere‟s circuit law along the closed loop is expressed as

------------- (1)

When „H‟ is the magnetic field intensity

The left hand side of the above equation can be written as

= ---------- (2)

Where
= Magnetic field intensity in airgaps

= Magnetic field intensity in cores

= Total magnetic path in cores
When, the permeability of cores is extremely large, is so low that is it is allowable to
put . If and the core permeability is namely that in the
cores. So, equ (2) becomes,

Therefore substitute the above equation in (1), we get

---------- (3)

The airgap flux density is given by

( ) ----------- (4)

Where = Permeability of airgap = 4π x 10-7 NA-2

Let
w = Transverse length of iron piece
x = Distance by which rotor tooth and iron piece over lap
The over lapped area is xw
The Bg in (4) multiplied by the overlapped area is the magnetic flux
-------------- (5)

Hence the flux linkages is given by

---------- (6)

Now let as assume that there is an incremental displacement of the tooth during a time
interval then the incremental flux linkage, is given by
 ----------- (7)

The emf induced in the coils by change in flux linkage is given by,

--------- (8)

The minus sign in the equation implies that the direction of the emf is opposing the current.
Since the current I is supplied by the power source for the time interval overcoming the
counter-emf, the work (energy) done by the source is

The coil resistance is assumed to be zero, to simplify the analysis using (4), is
expressed in terms of as follows

The work done by the source is converted partly to mechanical work, and the rest is
spent in increasing the magnetic field energy in the gaps. The increase in the gap field
energy is given by
 From the observations of the equations (10) & (11) we find that a half of is
converted into magnetic energy in the airgaps, consequently we are allowed to say that the
other half of is converted into mechanical work. Since the mechanical work is the force
„f‟ multiplied by the displacement , we obtain

--------- (12)

Eliminating from both sides,

Which by use of equation (4), may be put in the form,

On the other hand, the magnetic energy in the gap is

From equation (13) and (15) we derive

Attention must, however, be paid to the assumption that the current I is kept constant during
the displacement. Hence (16) must be described in the rigorous from

The case of constant Permeability‟s

In the model with infinitely permeable cases, the magnetic field appears only in the gaps
and its magnetic treatment is simple. When cores are of finite permeability, on the other
hand, magnetic energy appears not only in the airgaps, but also in the cores and spaces
other than the gaps. If the coil inductance is L in the model of figure the flux linkages is
given by
-----------(1)
The magnetic energy in the system is expressed as

--------------- (2)

If the iron piece undergoes a displacement during the time interval , the inductance L
will increase by . The emf induced in the coil is

If the power supply is a current source and provides a current I during displacement (3)
become

Since the voltage at the source is equal but opposite to the counter emf of equation (4), the
work done by the source on the circuit is,

On the other hand, the increase in the magnetic energy

From comparison of equations (5) and (6) it is seen that half of the work done on the circuit by
the source is converted into mechanical energy. Hence it is supposed that the other half is
converted to mechanical work

Then the force is