Set – a collection of things each of which is called an

MATHEMATICS element of the set

Venn Diagram – a diagram, drawn with circles, which

ENGINEERING portrays the relations of sets

Angle of Elevation (θ) – angle between the horizontal and
the
ECONOMICS line of sight which is above the horizontal.
Angle of Depression (∞) – angle between the horizontal
AND BASIC and
the line of sight which is below the

ENGINEERING horizontal
Direction – the angle of the path of a moving object

SCIENCES referred
from the standard directions
Example: Direction of A: N θº E or θº E of N
Bearing – the angle of the line if sight on a stationary object
Arithmetic Progression – a series of numbers having a referred from the standard directions
common difference
CIRCLE
Geometric progression - sequence of numbers in which any
Definition : Locus of points which are equidistant from a
two adjacent terms has a common ratio denoted by r
point
Harmonic Progression – a series of numbers whose
reciprocals form an Arithmetic Progression called the center.

Permutation - an ordered arrangement of a group of things PARABOLA

Combination – a part or all of a set of things Definition : Locus of points whose distance from a fixed
point (called the focus) is equal to the distance from a fixed
Probability =Number of occurrences of a certain event line (called the directrix).
Total number of occurrences ELLIPSE
Definition: Locus of points whose distance from a fixed point This is a type of differential equation which can be put in the
is less than the distance from a fixed line. form
HYPERBOLA
Definition: Locus of points whose distance from a fixed point HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
is more than the distance from a fixed line. This is a type of differential equation in which all the terms
are of the same degree.
Differential Equation – an equation containing derivatives or
differentials. EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
Ordinary differential equation – a differential equation This is a type of differential equation which when put in the
form
involving only one independent variable and therefore
containing only ordinary derivatives.
LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
Order of differential equation – the order of the highest
A type of differential equation which can be put in the
derivative that occurs in the equation. standard form:
Degree of a differential equation – the algebraic degree in Engineering Mechanics – a science which deals with the
the study of forces and motion of rigid bodies.
highest-ordered derivative present in the equation. I. Statics – branch of Mechanics which studies forces on
Solution of a differential equation – an expression, free from rigid bodies that remain at rest.
derivatives, which is consistent with the given II. Dynamics – branch of Mechanics which considers the
motion of rigid bodies caused by the forces acting upon
differential equation.
them.
a. General Solution – solution that contains arbitrary
1. Elinematics: deals with pure motion
constants.
2. Kinetics: relates motion to the applied forces
b. Particular Solution – solution that does not contain any
more arbitrary constants.
FORCES
Coplanar forces – forces that lie on one plane
VARIABLE SEPARABLE
Non-coplanar forces – forces that do not lie on one plane
Moment of Force = Force x Perpendicular distance from the there is no restriction against additional vendors entering
axis to the the market.
line of action of the force Monopoly – a business condition in which unique product or
service is available from only one supplier and that supplier
“Free Body” Diagram – diagram of an isolated body at
can prevent the entry of all others into the market.
which shows only the forces acting on the body
Oligopoly – a condition in which there are so few suppliers
Archimedes Principle:
of a product or service that action by one will almost result
A body partly or wholly submerged in a liquid is buoyed up in similar action by the others.
by a force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.
Law of Supply and Demand: “Under conditions of perfect
competition, the price of a product will be such that the
supply and demand are equal.”
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
Law of Diminishing Returns: “When the use of one of the
Engineering Economics – the study of the cost factors
factors of production is limited, either in increasing cost or
involved in engineering projects, and using the results of
by absolute quantity, a point will be reached beyond which
such study in employing the most efficient cost-saving
an increase in the variable factors will result in a less than
techniques without affecting the safety and soundness of
proportionate increase in output.”
the project.
Interest – money paid for the use of borrowed money
Investment – the sum of total of first cost (fixed capital) and
working capital which is being put up in a project with the Cash Flow Diagram – a graphical representation of cash
aim of getting a profit. flows
Fixed Capital – part of the investment whish is required to drawn on a time scale.
acquire or set up the business.
Annuity – a series of equal payments occurring at equal
Working Capital – the amount of money set aside as part of
intervals of time
the investment to keep the project or business continuously
operating. Ordinary Annuity: payments occur at the end of each
Demand – the quantity of a certain commodity that is period
bought at a certain price at a given place and time. Annuity Due: payments occur at the beginning of each
Supply – the quantity of a certain commodity that is offered period
for sale at a certain place at a given place and time.
Deferred Annuity: first payment occurs later that at the
Perfect Competition – a business condition in which a
product or service is supplied by a number of vendors and end of the first period
Depreciation – the decrease in value of a physical property 2. book value – the worth of a property as shown in the
due accounting records.
to the passage of time 3. salvage or resale value – the price of a property when
sold second-hand; also called trade-in value.
1. Physical Depreciation – type of depreciation caused by
the lessening of the physical ability of the property to
produce results, such as physical damage, wear and tear. 4. scrap value – the price of a property when sold for junk
2. Functional Depreciation – type of depreciation caused by 5. fair value – the worth of a property as determined by a
lessening in the demand for which the property is designed disinterested party which is fair to both seller and buyer
to render, such as obsolescence and inadequacy.
6. use value – the worth of a property as an operating unit
7. face or par value of a bond – the amount that appears on
Valuation (Appraisal) – the process of determining the value the bond which is the price at which the bond is first bought
or worth of a physical property for specific reasons.
Depletion – the decrease in value of a property due to the
Purposes of Depreciation: gradual extraction of its contents, such as mining
1. To provide for the recovery of capital which has been properties, oil wells, timber lands and other consumable
invested in the property. resources.
2. To enable the cost of depreciation to be charged to the Capitalized Cost – the sum of the first cost and the present
cost of producing the products that are turned out by the worth of all cost of replacement, operation and maintenance
property. for a long time.
Break-Even Point – the value of a certain variable for which
the costs of two alternatives are equal.
First Cost (FC) – the total amount invested on the property
until the property is put into operation. Types of Business Organizations
Economic Life – the length of time at which a property can 1. Individual Ownership
be operated at a profit. 2. Partnership
Value – the present worth of all the future profits that are to 3. Corporation
be received through ownership of the property.
a. Private Corporation
1. market value – the price that will be paid by a willing
buyer to a willing seller for a property where each has equal b. Public Corporation
advantage and is under no compulsion to buy or sell c. Semi-Public Corporation
d. Quasi-Public Corporation Payout Period = length of time that the investment can
e. Non-Profit Corporation be recovered
= Total Investment – Salvage Value
Stock – certificate of ownership of corporation Net Annual Cash Flow
a. common stock
b. preferred stock
Present Economy
Bond – a certificate of indebtedness of a corporation usually This involves selection of alternatives in which interest or
for a period of not less than 10 years and guaranteed by a time value of money is not a factor. Studies usually involve
mortgage on certain assets of the corporation or its the selection between alternative designs, material or
subsidiaries methods.
Types of bond according to security behind: 2. Rate of Return
a. Mortgage bond – type of bond in which the security
behind are Rate of Return = Net Profit / Total Investment
the asset of the corporation The alternative which gives a higher rate of return on
b. Collateral bond – type of bond in which the security investment is then the favorable choice.
behind are the assets of a well known subsidiary. 3. Payout Period
c. Debenture bond – a type of bond in which there is no
security behind except a promise to pay
Payout Period = Total Investment – Salvage Value
Basic investment studies are made to determine whether an
investment should be made or not, based on the following Net Annual Cash Flow
criteria: The alternative which has a shorter payout period will be
the choice.
Rate of Return 4. Annual Cost
Rate of Return = Net Profit /Total Investment
2. Payout Period
Annual Cost = Depreciation + Interest on Capital +
Operation and Maintenance + Other Out-of-Pocket Temperature – the degree of hotness or coldness of a
Expenses substance.
The alternative with a lower annual cost is then the more
economical alternative.
Internal Energy, u, kJ/kg
5. Present Worth
– heat energy due to the movement of the molecules within
the substance brought about by its temperature.
This is applicable when the alternatives involve future
expenses whose present value can be easily determined.
5. Flow Work = work due to the change in volume
6. Future Worth
Kelvin-Planck statement applied to the heat engine:
“It is a cycle and receives a given amount of heat engine
This is applicable when the alternatives involve expenses which operates temperature body and does an equal
whose future worth is the more suitable basis of amount of work”
comparison.
Clausius statement applied to the heat pump:
“It is impossible to construct a heat pump that operates
THERMODYNAMICS without an input of work”.
Thermodynamics – study of heat and work and those The most efficient operating cycle is the Carnot Cycle.
properties of substances that bear a relation to heat and
work. IDEAL GAS

Working Substance – a substance to which heat can be Definition: An ideal gas is a substance that has the equation
stored and from which heat can be extracted. of state:

a. Pure Substance – a working substance whose chemical Reversible Process: No friction loss
composition remains the same even if there is a change in Adiabatic Process: No heat loss, no heat gain, that is,
phase; water, ammonia, Freon-12 are pure substances.
completely insulated system
b. Ideal Gas – a working substance which remains in
Adiabatic Throttling Process: constant enthalpy or
gaseous state during its operating cycle (and whose
isenthalpic
equation of state is PV = mRT); air, O2, N2, CO2 are ideal
gases. process, that is, h2 = h1 and t2 = t1
Constant Pressure or Isobaric Process: P1 = P2 Properties of superheated steam are found in Table 3.
Constant Volume or Isovolumic Process: V1 = V2 Subcooled or Compressed Liquid – liquid whose
temperature is lower than the saturation temperature at the
Constant Temperature or Isothermal Process: T1 = T2
given pressure (or liquid whose pressure is higher than the
Constant entropy or Isentropic Process: adiabatic and saturation pressure at the given temperature)
reversible, s1 = s2 Degrees Subcooling = difference between saturation
Polytropic Process: non-adiabatic process temperature and actual temperature)
PURE SUBSTANCE The Mollier (h-s) Diagram of Steam is usually useful in
Definition: A pure substance is a working substance that determining the final enthalpy of steam after an isentropic
has a homogeneous and invariable chemical composition process.
even though there is a change of phase.
Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
Saturation temperature – the temperature at which
vaporization takes place at a given pressure, this pressure
being called the saturation pressure for the given
temperature
Mixture

= ratio of mass of saturated vapor to the total mass

of the
mixture, expressed in decimal or percent
Superheated vapor – vapor whose temperature is higher
than the
saturation temperature at the given pressure
Degrees Superheat = difference between actual
temperature
and saturation temperature
ADDENDA 13. Locus – a figure containing all the points, and only those
points, which fulfill a given requirement
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
14. Parallel Lines – lines that lie in the same plane and do not
DEFINITIONS
meet however far extended.
1. Axiom – a statement accepted as true
15. Parallelogram – a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are
parallel
Postulate – a statement assumed to be true, as a basis for 16. Perpendicular – a line which cuts another line so as to make
argument two adjacent angles equal

Hypothesis – an unapproved theory tentatively accepted to 17. Polygon – a closed plane figure bounded by straight lines
(Triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon, etc)
explain certain facts
18. Quadrilateral – a polygon with four sides (square, rectangle,
Theorem – a proposition that can be proven from accepted parallelogram, trapezoid)
premises 19. Rectangle – a parallelogram whose angles are right angles
Corollary – a proposition that follows from one already proved 20. Regular Polygon – a polygon all of whose angles are equal
2. Altitude of a Triangle – a perpendicular from any vertex of a and all of whose sides are equal
triangle to the side opposite 21. Rhomboid – a parallelogram with oblique angles and only the
3. Angle – the opening between two straight lines drawn from the opposite sides equal
same point 22. Rhombus – an equilateral parallelogram,
4. Apothem – the radius of the inscribed circle of a polygon 23. Similar Polygons – polygons whose corresponding angles
5. Area – the number of unit squares of a plane figure. are equal and whose corresponding sides are proportional
6. Center of Polygon – the common center of the inscribed and 24. Supplementary Angles – two angles whose sum is equal to
circumscribed circles of a regular polygon two right angles (or 180º)
25. Tangent – a straight line which meets a curve only at one
point
7. Circle – a closed plane curve every point of which is equally
distant from a point in the plane of the curve 26. Trapezoid – a quadrilateral two and only two of whose sides
are parallel
8. Complementary Angles – two angles whose sum is equal to a
right angle (or 90º) 27. Triangle – a plane figure bounded by three straight lines; a
polygon with three sides
9. Concurrent Lines – three or more lines which have one point
in common
10. Diagonal – a line joining any two nonconsecutive vertices of 28. Vertical Angles – opposite angles of two intersecting lines
a polygon 29. π(pi) – the ratio of circumference of a circle to its diameter
11. Hypotenuse – the side opposite the right triangle of a right 30. Right Isosceles Triangle – a right triangle whose legs are
triangle. equal
12. Isosceles triangle – a triangle which has two equal sides.
THEOREMS 7. The medians of a triangle are concurrent at a point which is
two-thirds of the distance from any vertex to the midpoint of the
LINES
opposite side.
1. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal:
8. Two triangles are congruent if two angles and the included
a. Alternate interior angles are equal side of one are equal, respectively, to two angles and the
b. Exterior-interior angles are equal included side of the other.

c. Angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary 9. Two triangles are congruent if two sides and the included
angle of one are equal, respectively, to two sides and the
included angle of the other.
2. If a line is perpendicular to one of two parallel lines, it is 10. Two triangles are congruent if the three sides of one are
perpendicular to the other also equal, respectively, to the three sides of the other.

3. Any point in the perpendicular bisector of a line is equally RIGHT ANGLES

distant from the extremities of a line determines the
perpendicular bisector of the line 1. Theorem of Pythagoras: In any right triangle the square of the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides.
116 2. Two right angles are equal if a side and the hypotenuse of one
115 are equal, respectively, to a side and the hypotenuse of the
other.
4. Two points each equally distant from the extremities of a line
determines the perpendicular bisector of the line. 3. Two right triangles are equal if the hypotenuse and an
adjacent angle of one are equal, respectively, to the hypotenuse
and an adjacent angle of the other.
PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES 4. If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle to
1. The sum of the three angles of a triangle is equal to two right the hypotenuse of a right triangle, the two triangles formed are
angles (or 180º). similar to each other and to the given triangle.
2. The sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than the third
side, and their difference is less than the third side. SIMILAR TRIANGLES
3. If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the angles opposite are 1. Two triangles are similar if the angles of one are respectively
unequal, and the greater angle is opposite the greater side; and equal to the angles of the other; or if two angles of one are
conversely. respectively equal to two angles of the other.
4. If tow sides of a triangle are equal (an isosceles triangle), the 2. Two triangles are similar if their sides are in the same ratio.
angles opposite these sides are equal; and conversely.
3. Two triangles are similar if their sides are respectively parallel
5. The bisectors of the angles of the angles of a triangle meet at each to each.
a point which is the center of the inscribed circle.
4. Two triangles are similar if their sides are respectively
6. The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle meet at perpendicular each to each.
a point which is the center of the circumscribed circle.
POLYGONS
1. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon of “n” sides is
equal to (n-2)180º.
2. Each interior angle of a regular polygon of “n” sides is equal to
(n-2)180º / n
3. Corresponding parts of congruent figures are equal.

CIRCLES
1. Through three points not in a straight line one circle and only
one can be drawn.
2. A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point
of tangency; and conversely.
3. The tangents to a circle drawn from an external point are
equal, and make equal angles with the line joining the point to
the center.
4. An inscribed angle is measured by one-half the intercepted
arc.
5. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
6. If two chords intersect in a circle, the product of the segments
of one is equal to the product of the segments of the other.
7. The circumference of two circles are in the same ratio as their
radii, and the arcs of two circles subtended by equal central
angles are in the same ratio as their radii.
 Solid Fuels (principal component: carbon, C):
Coal. Coke, wood, charcoal, bagasse, coconut shells a and
husks, briquetted fuels.
Liquid Fuels (principal component: Hydrocarbon, CnHm):
Gasoline, alcohol, kerosene, diesel, bunker, other fuel oils
Gaseous Fuels (principal component: Hydrocarbon, CnHm):
Natural gas, producer gas, blast furnace gas, liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG), methane, ethane, acetylene, propane
Properties of Fuels and Lubricants:
1. Analysis of composition:
a. Proximate analysis – analysis of the composition of fuel which
gives, on mass basis, the relative amounts of Moisture Content,
Volatile Matter, Fixed Carbon and Ash.
b. Ultimate (chemical) analysis – analysis of the composition of
fuel which gives, on mass basis, the relative amounts of Carbon,
Hydrogen,

3. Heating Value or Calorific Value, kJ/kg

POWER AND a. Higher heating value (gross calorific value) – the heating value
obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in the
liquid state.
INDUSTRIAL b. Lower heating value (net calorific value) – the heating value
obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in the
vapor state.
PLANT Instruments used in measuring heating value of fuels:
a. Oxygen bomb calorimeter: for solid and liquid fuels

ENGINEERING b. Gas calorimeter: for gaseous fuels

Instruments used for measuring specific gravity:

Hydrometer, pycnometer, Westphal balance
INDUSRIAL POWER PLANT
Heating Value or Calorific Value, kJ/kg
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
Classifications of Fuels:
a. Higher heating value (gross calorific value) – the heating value Octane Number – the ignition quality rating of gasoline, which is
obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in the the percentage by volume of iso-octane in a mixture of iso-
liquid state. octane and heptane that matches the gasoline in anti-knock
quality
b. Lower heating value (net calorific value) – the heating value
obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in the Cetane number – the ignition quality rating of diesel, which is the
vapor state. percentage by volume of iso-octane in the standard fuel
Instruments used in measuring heating value of fuels: Combustion
a. Oxygen bomb calorimeter: for solid and liquid fuels Combustion – chemical reaction, between fuel and oxygen,
which is accompanied by heat and light
b. Gas calorimeter: for gaseous fuels
Theoretical air-fuel ratio – the exact theoretical amount, as
determined from the combustion reaction, of air needed to burn
Viscosity of Lubricants a unit amount of fuel, kg air per kg of fuel
Viscosity – resistance to flow or the property which resists Actual air-fuel ratio – theoretical air-fuel ratio plus excess air
shearing of the lubricant
Air by volume consists of 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen, thus
Absolute viscosity – viscosity which is determined by direct there are 3.76 mols of N2 per mol of O2
measurement of shear resistance
Molecular Weights:
Kinematic Viscosity – absolute viscosity divided by the density
C : 12 N2 : 28
Viscosity Index – the rate at which viscosity changes with
temperature H2 : 2 S : 32

Viscosimeter – an instrument, consisting of standard orifice, C2 : 32

used for measuring viscosity (in SSU and SSF) STEAM GENERATORS (BOILERS)
SSU (Saybolt Second Universal) – number of seconds required Primary classification of boilers (based on relative position of
for 60ml of oil (at 37.8ºC) to pass through a standard orifice heated water and hot gases):
5. Other Properties of fuels and lubricants: a. Water Tube (Tubulous) Boiler – type of boiler in which the
water is inside the tubes while the hot gases surround the tubes.

Flash Point – the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that b. Fire Tube (Tubular) Boiler – type of boiler in which the hot
burns temporarily when ignited gases pass inside the tubes while the water is outside the tubes

Fire Point – the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that Boiler Auxiliaries and Accessories:
burns continuously when ignited Stoker – combustion equipment for firing slid fuels
Pour Point – the temperature at which oil will no longer pour Burner – combustion equipment for firing liquid and gaseous
freely
fuels
Dropping Point – the temperature at which grease melts
Feedwater Pump – delivers water into the boiler
Conradson number (carbon residue) – the percentage by weight
Economizer – feedwater pre-heating device which utilizes the
of the carbonaceous residue remaining after destructive
distillation heat of the flue gases
Feedwater Heater – pre-heating device which utilizes steam
mixed with the feedwater - type of condenser in which the steam and cooling water do not
mix; commonly used design is the shell-and-tube.
Water Walls – water tubes installed in the furnace to protect
2. Contact (Jet) Condenser
the furnace against high temperature and also serve as
extension of heat transfer area for the feedwater - type of condenser in which the steam and cooling water are
mixed
Safety Valve – a safety device which automatically releases the
steam in case of over-pressure
Gage Glass (Water Column) – indicated the water level
existing in the boiler
Pressure Gauge – indicates the temperature of the steam in the
boiler
Temperature Gauge – indicates the temperature of the steam in
the boiler
Fusible Plug – a metal plug with a definite melting point through
which the steam is released in case of excessive temperature
which is usually caused by low water level
Baffles – direct the flow of the hot gases to effect efficient heat
transfer between the hot gases and the heated water
Furnace – encloses the combustion equipment so that the heat
generated will be utilized effectively
Soot Blower – device which uses steam or compresses air to
remove the soot that has accumulated in the boiler tubes and
drums
Draft Fans (forced draft and induced draft fans) – supply air
needed for combustion and create the draft required for the flow
of gases in the boiler
Blowdown Valve – valve through which the impurities that settle
in the mud drum are removed
Breeching – the duct that connects the boiler and the chimney
Air Preheater – heat exchanger which utilizes the heat of the flue
gases to preheat the air needed for combustion
Classification of steam condensers:
1. Surface Condenser
GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT Geothermal Plants in the Philippines:
Definitions: 1. Tiwi-Albay Geothermal Plant
1. Magma – molten metal within the earth which is basically
nickel-iron in composition whose stored energy heats the
Albay (330 MW)
surrounding water thereby producing steam or hot water.
2. Makiling-Banahaw Geothermal Plant
2. Well-bore product – the effluent coming out from the
geothermal well as produced after drilling. This can be purely
steam or hot water, or a mixture of both. Los Baños, Laguna (300 MW)
3. Steam-dominated geothermal field – refers to a geothermal 3. Tongonan Geothermal Plant
plant with its well producing all steam, as the well-bore product.
4. Liquid-dominated geothermal field – the well-bore product for
this type of field is practically all hot water pressurized. Leyte (112.5 MW)
5. Sources of geothermal energy: 4. Palimpinon-Dauin Geothermal Plant
a. Hot spring
b. Steam vent Negros Oriental (112.5 MW)
c. Geyser
6. Fumarole – a crack in the earth through which geothermal
substance passes.
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
Types of Geothermal Plants: Typical Nuclear Power Plant:
1. Dry or Superheated Geothermal Plant Fuel Core – radioactive material, U235 with U238, which is the
source of energy
136
135
2. Separated Steam or “Single Flash” Geothermal Plant

3. Separated Steam/Hot-Water-Flash or “Double Flash”

Geothermal Plant

4. Single Flash Plant with Pumped Wells

5. Binary Geothermal Plant

Moderator – slows down the neutrons to thermal energy, made This is the simplest form of nuclear reactor. The feedwater from
of Carbon and Beryllium the power turbine goes directly into the reactor and picks up the
heat from the fuel core. Thus the feedwater also serves as the
Control Rods – Boron-coated steel rods used to control the
coolant. The first experimental reactor installed in Diliman,
reactor
Quezon City is of this type. It has a capacity of 1 MW.
Reflector – made of lead or carbon which surrounds the core to
3. Heavy Water Reactor (HWR)
bounce back any leakage of neutrons
Thermal Shield – prevents escape of radiation from reactor
vessel This type of reactor uses heavy water Deteriu, D2O as coolant.
Reactor Drum – encloses the fuel core and components 4. Gas-Cooled Power Reactor (GCPR)
Biological Shield – concrete or lead which absorbs any leakage
of radiation and protects operators from exposure to radioactivity
The gas coolant used in this type of reactor is carbon dioxide.
Control Cubicle – contains the meters that show the operating
Nuclear power plants in the Philippines:
quantities in the reactor
1. Pressurized Water reactor
Containment Vessel – prevents spread of radiation in case of a
major explosion; made of concrete
Coolants – absorbs the heat from the fuel core and then release Location: Morong, Bataan
the heat to the water in the steam generator Capacity: 620 MW
Coolant Pump – circulates the coolant Purpose: To supply power to the Luzon area
Turbine-Generator – generates the electric power (The Philippine government stopped the completion of the plant
Condenser – converts steam coming from the turbine into liquid in 1986 due to controversy regarding its safety and economic
features)
Feedwater Pump – delivers the feedwater to the steam generator
140
2. Boiling Water Reactor
139
Commercial Types of Nuclear Power Reactors:
Location: Diliman, Quezon City
1. Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
Capacity: 1 MW
Purpose: Experimental
This type of reactor uses high pressure light or heavy water as
both moderator and coolant. This is the type which is constructed
in Morong, Bataan with capacity of 620 MW and intended to DIESEL (I.C.E) POWER PLANT
supply power to the Luzon area. In 1986 the Philippine
government decided to stop the completion of the plant because Basic Classification of Common Internal Combustion
of the controversy regarding its safety and economic features. Engines:
2. Boiling Water reactor (BWR) Type of Engine Fuel Used Method of Ignition
Operating
Cycle Supercharging:
Gasoline Engine Gasoline Spark Otto Supercharging – admittance into the cylinder of an air charge
with density higher than that of the surrounding air
Kerosene Engine Kerosene Spark Otto
Reasons for supercharging:
Gas Engine Gaseous Fuel Spark Otto
1. to reduce the weight-to-power ratio
Diesel Engine Diesel Heat of Compression Diesel
2. to compensate for power loss due to high altitude
Oil-Diesel Engine Fuel Oils Heat of Compression Diesel
Other Methods of Classification:
Types of superchargers:
Number of Strokes per cycle: Method of Starting:
1. Engine-driven compressor
Two-stroke Manual: crank, rope, kick
2. Exhaust-driven compressor (turbo-charger)
Four-stroke Electric (battery)
3. Separately-driven compressor
Compressed air
Five Auxiliary Systems of Diesel Engine:
Number of Cylinders: Using another engine
1. Fuel Sytsem:
Single-cylinder
Two-cylinder
Fuel Storage tank, fuel filter, transfer pump, day yank, fuel pump
Three-cylinder, etc
2. Cooling System:
Position of cylinders: Application:
Vertical Automotive
Cooling water pump, heat exchanger, surge tank, cooling tower,
Horizontal Marine
raw water pump
Incline Industrial
3. Lubrication System:
Stationary Power
Arrangement of cylinders: Locomotive
Lub oil tank, lub-oil pump, oil filter, oil cooler, lubricators
In-line Aircraft
4. Intake and Exhaust System:
V
Radial Number of Piston sides working:
Air filter, intake pipe, exhaust pipe, silencer
Opposed cylinder Single-acting
5. Starting System:
Opposed piston Double-acting
Method of Cooling Intake Pressure:
Air compressor, air storage tank
Air cooled Naturally aspirated
Advantages of Diesel engine over other I.C.E. engines:
Water cooled Supercharged
1. Low fuel cost
2. High Efficiency
3. Needs no large water supply
4. No long warm-up period
5. Simple plant layout

152
151
HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT
Basic Parts of High-Head Hydro-Electric Plant:
Reservoir – stores the water coming from the upper river or
water falls
Headwater – the water in the reservoir
Spillway – a weir in the reservoir which discharges excess water
so that the head of the plant will be maintained
Dam – the concrete structure that encloses the reservoir
Silt Sluice – a chamber which collects the mud and through
which the mud is discharged
Trash Rack – a screen which prevents the leaves, branches and
other water contaminants to enter into the penstock
Valve – opens or closes the entrance of the water into the
penstock
Super Chamber – a standpipe connected to the atmosphere and
attached to the penstock so that the water will be at atmospheric
pressure
Penstock – the channel that leads the water from the reservoir to
the turbine
Turbine – converts the energy of the water into mechanical
energy
Generator – converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into
electrical energy output
Draft tube – connects the turbine outlet to the tailwater so that
the turbine cam be set above the tailwater level
Tailrace – a channel which leads the water from the turbine to
the tailwater
Tailwater – the water that is discharged from the turbine
Pumped Storage Hydro-Electric Plant or Hydraulic
Accumulator:
Pumped Storage Plant is a hydro-electric plant which involves
the use of off-peak energy to store water and to use the stored
water to generate extra energy to cope with the peak load.
Run-of-the-River (Low head) Hydro-Electric Power Plant:
Pondage – the water behind the dam of a run-of-the-river hydro-
electric plant
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines:
1. Impulse (Pelton) Turbine

2. Reaction turbine
a. Francis turbine
b. Propeller (Kaplan) Turbine
NON-CONVENTIONAL Tidal Power
POWER SOURCES Tidal power is basically hydro-electric power utilizing the
difference in elevation between the high and low tide to produce
Solar Power
energy. A basin is required to catch the sea water during high
Types of Solar Collectors: tide while the water drives a turbine. During low tide, the water in
1. Flat Rate the basin discharges back to the sea while driving the turbine.

2. Concentrating Low Thermal Head Plant

3. Focusing Low thermal head plant, otherwise known as Ocean Thermal

energy Conversion, makes use of the temperature difference
between the ocean surface water and the water at the sea
Photovoltaic Cell – a device which converts solar energy to bottom. Surface water which is at relatively high temperature is
electric energy pumped to an evaporator where the water evaporates into
saturated steam. This steam drives a single stage turbine
Solar Energy received at earth’s surface = QS (1-i)A kcal/hr thereby producing electricity, and exhausts to a jet condenser
where: Qs = solar energy without atmospheric maintained at the saturation pressure of the subsurface water
temperature pumped from the sea bottom.
interference, ( = 1200 kcal.hr-m2)
Magneto Hydro Dynamic Plant
i = atmospheric interference, usually expressed
In a magnetohydrodynamic generator, combustion gases
in percent produced in a combustion chamber at high pressure and
A = surface are of solar collector, m2 temperature and seeded with metal vapor to increase its
electrical conductivity, is passed through an expansion tube
Wind Power
lined with a strong magnetic field. This induces an electric
Typical uses of wind power: voltage in the gas conductor and effects the flow of electrons
through the electrodes along the magnetic field, thereby
1. to drive water pumps
generating electricity.
2. to drive rice and corn mills
Thermoinic Converter
3. to charge batteries
Thermoinic converter is a device which converts heat energy
4. to generate power directly to electrical energy.
Fuel Cell
Types of windmills: Fuel Cell is a device which converts chemical energy to
1. Turbine type electrical energy.

2. Rotor type MACHINE FOUNDATION

3. Propeller Type Functions of Machine Foundation:

4. Dutch sail type 1. To support the weight of the machine, and to distribute the
weight of the machine and its own over a safe sub-soil area.
5. Panemone type
2. To absorb the vibrations produced by the machine.
3. To maintain the alignment of the machine Radiation – mode of heat transfer in which invisible
electromagnetic waves are passed from one body to another
through a space.
Monolithic Foundation – concrete foundation which is formed by
pouring the entire concrete mixture continuously at one time and
allowing the structure to harden as whole unit AIR (GAS) COMPRESSORS
Grouting – process of filing a small clearance between machine Compressor - a machine which is used to increase the pressure
and foundation, after the machine is aligned and leveled, by of a gas by decreasing its volume
using a special hardening mixture.
Uses of compressed air:
1. to drive pneumatic tools such as pneumatic hammer, air
CHIMNEY hoists, etc
Functions of Chimney: 2. sand blasting
1. To dispose the exhaust gases at suitable height so that no 3. industrial cleaning
pollution will occur in the vicinity.
4. spray painting
2. To produce the necessary draft required for the flow of the
5. starting diesel engines
gases.
6. to supply air in mine tunnels
7. manufacture of plastics and other industrial products
Stack – name given to steel chimney

HEAT TRANSFER
AND HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat Exchanger – any device which affects a transfer of heat
from one substance to another. Examples: condenser,
superheater, evaporator, economizer, etc.
Modes of Heat Transfer:
Conduction – mode of heat transfer by molecular communication
through solid materials or stagnant fluids
Convection – mode of heat transfer in which the heat is carried
from one point to another by actual movement of the substance
a. Free Convection: the substance moves because of the
decrease in its density which is caused by increase in
temperature
b. Forced convection: the substance moves because of the
application of mechanical power such as that of a fan
Classification of Air Compressors: 1. Ice Refrigeration
1. Reciprocating Compressor 2. Mechanical Refrigeration
3. Absorption Refrigeration
(high pressure, low capacity) 4. Steam Jet Refrigeration
2. Centrifugal Compressor 5. Air Cycle Refrigeration

(low pressure, high capacity) Compressor: compresses refrigerant vapor and causes it to flow
3. Rotary Compressor in he system
Condenser: here the refrigerant condenses while rejecting heat
(medium pressure, low capacity) to the cooling medium which is either air or water
Expansion Valve: reduces the pressure of the refrigerant so that
Discharge = volume flow rate of liquid handled by the pump low temperature will be attained; regulates the flow of the
(m3/sec or gal/min) refrigerant to the evaporator
Head = total energy developed by the pump, expressed in height Evaporator: the liquid portion of the refrigerant evaporates
of the liquid (meters)
while absorbing heat from the surrounding
Refrigeration Compressors
FANS AND BLOWERS
Types of Compressors:
Fan – a machine is used to apply power to a gas in order to
1. Reciprocating Compressor
cause movement of the gas
2. Centrifugal Compressor
Blower – a fan which is used to force air under pressure, that is,
the resistance to gas is imposed primarily upon the discharge 3. Rotary Compressor
Exhauster – a fan which is used to withdraw air under suction a. Vane Type
that is, the resistance to gas flow is imposed primarily upon the b. Screw Type
inlet
Common Uses of Fans:
Classification of refrigeration compressors, based on
Ventilation, air conditioning, forced and induced draft service for enclosure:
boilers, dust collection, drying and cooling of materials, cooling
towers, heating, mine and tunnel ventilation, pneumatic 1. Open-type compressor
conveying and other industrial process work - compressor whose crankshaft extends through the compressor
housing so that a motor can be externally coupled to the shaft
REFRIGERATION 2. Hermetically scaled compressor
Refrigeration – maintaining a space cooler than the surrounding
Methods of Refrigeration
- type in which the compressor and the motor are enclosed in
then same housing
3. Semi-Hermetic Compressor
- hermetically sealed compressor in which the cylinder head can
be removed for servicing of the valves and pistons

204
203
AIR CONDITIONING
Air Conditioning – controlling the properties of air so that the air
will be suitable for its intended use
Functions of air conditioning:
1. control of temperature
2. control of humidity
3. control of purity, that is, removal of dust and other impurities
4. control of air movement or circulation

Psychrometry – study of the properties of air and its water

vapor content
Saturated Air – air whose condition is such that any decrease in
temperature will result in condensation of water vapor into liquid
Properties of Air:
1. Temperature, ºC

Dry Bulb Temperature – the actual temperature of the air

Wet Bulb Temperature – the temperature of the air if it is
saturated
Psychrometer – is an instrument consisting of two
thermometers, one to measure the dry bulb and the other to
measure the wet bulb temperature of the air
 FS FS
MACHINE Working Stress (Sw) = stress actually occurring under
operating

DESIGN, conditions
Endurance Limit or Fatigue Limit (Se, Sn) = maximum stress
that will not cause failure when the force is reversed
MATERIALS indefinitely
Residual Stress = internal, inherent, trapped, locked-up
body stress that exists within a material as a result of things

AND SHOP other than the external loading such as cold working,
heating or cooling, etching, repeated stressing and
electroplating

PRACTICE ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Some Important Properties (Faires, pp 42-44)
Brittleness – tendency to fracture without appreciable
SIMPLE, COMBINED AND VARIABLE STRESSES deformation
Stress (S) = Force or Load, lb, kg, KN Ductility – that property that permits permanent deformation
Area in2 m2 m2 before fracture in tension

Ultimate Stress (Su) = stress that would cause failure Elasticity – ability of a material to be deformed and to return
to the original shape
Yield Stress (Sy) = maximum stress without causing
deformation Hardness – resistance to indentation

(within elastic limit) Machinability – relative ease with which a material can be
cut
Allowable Stress (Sd) = stress used in determining the size
of a Malleability – susceptibility to extreme deformation in rolling
and hammering
member (allowable stress or less)
Plasticity – ability of a metal to be deformed considerably
= Su or Sy without rupture
Stiffness – ability to resist deformation range in still air at room temperature to produce uniform
structure of the metal
Stress Relieving –
heating to a subcritical
temperature, about 110
to 1300ºF and holding at
that temperature for a
suitable time for the
purpose of reducing
internal residual stresses
Tempering – reheating to
a temperature below the
transformation range,
followed by any desired
rate of cooling to attain
the desired properties of
the metal
Case hardening –
process of hardening the
surface pr case of a
Toughness – ability to withstand shock load without metal to provide a hard,
breaking wear-resistant surface while retaining toughness in the core
Heat Treatment Practices (Faires, pp 45-46, p 53) Metal Forming Processes
Annealing – heating above the transformation range, Rolling – process of forming metal parts by the use of dies
usually 1300 to 1350ºF, and cooling slowly to soften the after the metal is heated to its plastic range
metal and increase ease in machining Forging – process of forming metal parts by the use of
Hardening – heating above the transformation temperature powerful pressure from a hammer or press to obtain the
and quenching usually in oil, for the purpose of increasing desired shape, after the metal has been heated to its plastic
the hardness range
Normalizing – heating to some 100ºF above the AISI and SAE Designation of Steel (Fairies p. 47)
transformation range with subsequent cooling to below that AISI Y XXXX SAE XXXX
Y is a letter, used in AISSI only, to indicate the method of
manufacturing; first number (or first two numbers)
represents class of steel; second number indicates the
approximate percentage of the principal alloying element;
last two numbers indicate 100 times the approximate
percentage of carbon present in the metal.
(From Faires p 48)
 KEYS
(Faires: pp 281-286; Vallance: pp 97-102)
THIN-WALL PRESSURE VESSELS Definitions:
(Faires: pp 34-35; Vallance: pp 443-445) Key – a machine member employed at the interface of a
Definition: A thin-wall pressure vessel is one in which the pair of mating male and female circular cross-sectional
ration of the wall thickness to the diameter is less than 0.07. members to prevent relative angular motion between these
mating members.
280; Vallance: pp 177-194)
Keyway – a groove in the shaft and mating member to
Definitions: which the key fits.
Shaft – a rotating member transmitting power Splines – permanent keys made integral with the shaft and
Axle – a stationary member carrying rotating wheels, fitting into keyways broached into the mating hub
pulleys, etc. Types of Keys:
Spindle – a short shaft or axle on machines Square key has a square cross-section with half of its depth
Machine shaft – a shaft which is an integral part of the sunk in the shaft and half in the hub.
machine Flat key has a rectangular cross-section with the smaller
Transmission Shaft – shaft which is used to transmit power dimension placed in the radial direction with half sunk in the
between the source and the machine absorbing the power shaft and half in the hub and is used where the weakening
of the shaft by the keyway is serious.
Line Shaft or main shaft – transmission shaft driven by the
prime mover Round key has a circular cross-section.
Countershaft, jackshaft, headshaft, short shaft – Barth key is a square key with bottom two corners beveled.
transmission shaft intermediate between the line shaft and Woodruff key consists of one-half of a circular disk fitting
the driven machine into a rectangular keyway in the female member and a
semicircular keyway in male member.
Gib-head taper key is a flat key with a special gib-head to
facilitate easy driving and removal of the key.
Saddle key is a flat key used without a keyway in the shaft.
Kennedy keys are tapered square keys with the diagonal
dimension in a circumferential direction.
Feather key is one which has tight fit into one member and Definition:
a loose sliding fit in the other mating member thus allowing
Flywheel – a rotating energy reservoir which absorbs
the hub to move along the shaft but prevents rotation on the
energy from a power source during a portion of the
shaft.
operating cycle and delivers that stored energy as useful
work during the other portion of the cycle.
252 Machines in which flywheels are used: punch presses and
shears, internal combustion engines, compressors,
251
reciprocating, pumps and steam engines
COUPLINGS
(Faires: pp 290-297 Vallance: pp 331-339)
BOLTS AND SCREWS
Definition:
(Faires: pp 155-180; Vallance: pp 127-152)
Coupling – a mechanical device which is used to connect
Definitions:
lengths of shafting permanently
Bolts and Screws are threaded fasteners which are used to
Types of Couplings:
hold together machine members which requires easy
Rigid Couplings – couplings that do not allow angular, axial dismantling.
or rotational flexibility and used with collinear shafts
Bolts are provided with nuts; screws are without nuts.
Flange Coupling – type of rigid coupling which consists of
Commonly used types of bolts and screws:
two halves of flanges connected to each other by bolts
Machine bolt, stud bolt, eye bolt, U-bolt, stove bolt, cap
Sleeve or Collar Coupling – rigid coupling which is a
screw, set screw
cylindrical collar pressed over the ends of two collinear
shafts Types of Threads
Flexible Couplings – couplings which allow angularity to UNC (Unified National Course) – for general use, except
take care of misalignment of the shafts where other types are recommended
Oldham coupling, chain coupling, flexible disk coupling, UNF (Unified National Fine) – frequently used in automotive
flexible gear type coupling, hydraulic coupling, universal and aircraft work and where a fine adjustment is required
joints, are examples of flexible couplings.
UNEF (Unified National Extra Fine) – used in aeronautical
equipment and where very fine adjustment is required
FLYWHEELS Forms of Threads
(Fairess: pp 533-537) Definitions of Terms:
Pitch, p, is the axial distance between adjacent threads.
P = 1 , in Types of springs:
Number of threads per inch Helical, compression, tension, and torsion; conical; spiral;
disk (Belleville); leaf spring
Load is the axial distance a thread advances in one
revolution. Materials for springs:
Major diameter is the outside diameter of the threads and is Oil-tempered spring wire, music wire, hard-drawn spring
the nominal diameter. wire, carbon steel, chrome-vanadium steel, chrome-silicon
steel, stainless steel
Minor diameter or root diameter is the smallest diameter of
the threads.
Pitch diameter is the mean of the major and minor BELTS
diameters.
(Faires: pp 441-463; Vallance: pp 377-397)
Stress area is the area of an imaginary circle whose
Types of transmission belts:
diameter is the mean of the pitch and minor diameters.
Flat belt: used with flat pulleys and allows long distance
Power Screws (Faires pp 246-249)
between shafts
Power screws are used to move weights and machine parts
V-belt: used with sheaves or grooved pulleys and provides
and use square, acme or buttress threads.
stronger grip at short distance between shafts
Toothed belt: paired with toothed pulleys and used as
timing belt where speed ratio must be maintained
SPRINGS Materials for transmission belts:
(Faires: pp 183-210; Vallance: pp 309-329) Oak-tanned leather is the standard material for the flat
belts.
Uses of springs:
Chrome leather is used where very pliable material is
1. to absorb energy or shock loads, as in automobile shock
desired.
absorbers
Rubber belt is used when exposed to moisture, acids and
2. to maintain contact between machine members, as in
alkalies.
valves and clutches
Fabric and canvas belts are used for light power
3. to act as source of energy, as in clocks
transmission.
4. to serve as measuring device, as in spring scales
WIRE ROPES Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means
of successively engaging teeth.
(Faires: pp 469-477; Vallance pp 417-430)
Uses of Wire Ropes:
SPUR GEARS
Elevators, hoists, cranes, drilling, conveyors, tramways,
haulage devices, suspension cables, guy wires Spur gears have tooth elements that are straight and
parallel to the shaft axis and they are used to transmit
Materials for Wire Ropes:
motion and power without slippage between parallel shafts.
Plow steel (PS), mild plow steel (MPS), improved plow steel
Spur Gear Nomenclature
(IPS), wrought iron, cast steel, alloy steel, stainless steel,
copper, bronze Pitch Surface – the surface of the rolling cylinder that the
gear may be considered to replace
Construction of Wire Rope:
Pitch Circle – the circle which is the right section of the pitch
The individual wires are first twisted into strands, and then
surface
the strands are twisted around a hemp or steel center to
form the rope. Often the central element is an independent Pitch point – the point of tangency of the pitch circles
wire rope core (IWRC). In a Regular Lay rope, the wires
Pitch diameter – the diameter of the pitch circle
and strands are twisted in opposite directions while in a
Lang Lay rope, the wires and strands are twisted in the Outside circle or addendum circle – the circle that bounds
same direction. the outer ends of the teeth
Various rope sizes and their applications: Outside diameter – the diameter of the outside circle
6x7 – haulage, tramways, guy wires Root circle or dedendum circle – the circle that bounds the
bottoms of the teeth
6x19 – general purpose rope, hoist, cranes, drilling,
elevators Root diameter – the diameter of the root circle
6x37 – high speed elevators, cranes, hoists Addendum – the radial distance between the pitch circle
and the addendum circle
8x19 – extra flexible hoisting rope applications
Dedendum – the radial distance from the pitch circle to the
root circle
GEARS
Whole depth – addendum plus dedendum
(Faires: p 355-440; Vallance: pp 255-308)
Working depth – sum of the addendums of the mating gears
Definition:
Clearance – the dedendum minus the mating addendum
Tooth thickness – the width of tooth measured along the
pitch circle
(Faires: pp 497-502; Vallance pp 341-360)
Tooth space or space width – the space between teeth
Definition:
measured along the pitch circle
Clutch is a machine member which is used to connect
Backlash – tooth space minus the tooth thickness
shafts so that the driven shaft will rotate with the driving
Face width – the length of teeth in an axial direction shaft, and to disconnect them at will.
Involute – the curve with which the tooth profile of gears are Types of Clutches:
based
1. Jaw clutches: jaws or teeth in the two
Pressure angle, Ø – the angle between the line of action of
elements interlock
the force on the gear tooth and the line tangent to the pitch
circles 2. Friction clutches: the driving force is
HELICAL GEARS (Vallance, pp 281-285) transmitted by friction; the major
Helical gears have teeth which are cut in the form of helix types are: plate or disk clutch, cone
about an axis of rotation. They are used to connect parallel clutch, band clutch, block clutch and
and non-parallel shafts, can be ran at faster speeds, are
quieter and can sustain greater tangential loads than spur expanding-ring clutch
gears. 3. Hydraulic clutches: the torque is transmitted by a moving
Herringbone gears consist of two helical gears in opposite fluid
hands, to balance the axial thrust and are used to connect 4. electromagnetic clutches: the torque is transmitted by
the parallel shafts. means of a magnetic field

BEVEL GEARS BRAKES

(Faires pp 407-425) (Faires: pp 481-497; Vallance: pp 361-376)
Bevel gears are used to connect intersecting shafts, usually Definition:
but not necessarily, at right angle.
Brake is a device which is used to regulate or stop the
Miter gears are bevel gears of the same size connecting motion of a body.
shafts at right angle.
Types of brakes:
CLUTCHES
Mechanical brakes: bans, block, shoe, disk and spot brake
Hydrodynamic brakes: utilize fluid friction Absolute viscosity – viscosity which is determined by direct
measurement of shear resistance
Electrical brakes: utilize the strength of electromagnetic
fields Kinematic viscosity – absolute viscosity divided by the
specific gravity

BEARINGS
THICK-WALL CYLINDERS
(Faires: pp 299-354; Vallance: pp 195-254)
(Faires: pp 254-257; Vallance: pp 443-461)
Definitions:
Review of Thin-Wall Cylinders and Spheres
Bearing – a machine member which supports, guide or
control the motion of another A-thin wall cylinder or sphere is one in which the ratio of the
wall thickness to the inside diameter is less than 0.07.
Lubricant – any substance that will form a film between the
two surfaces of a bearing Specific equations for cylinders (Vallance pp 452-453)
Babbitt – a tin or lead base alloy which is used as bearing Clavarino’s equations: for closed cylinders
material
(Poisson’s ratio given)
Sliding (or sliding element) bearing – type of bearing where
Birnie’s equations: for open cylinders (Poisson’s ratio given)
essentially sliding friction exists
292
Ball bearing – type of rolling-element bearing which uses
spherical balls as rolling elements 291
Roller bearing – type of rolling element bearing which uses
cylindrical rollers as rolling elements RIVETED JOINTS
Classification of bearings according to load application: (Faires: pp 179-182; Vallance: pp 162-175)
Radial bearing (journal bearing): supports radial load Uses of Riveted Joints
Thrust bearing: carries a load collinear to the axis To produce permanent joints in tanks, pressure vessels,
Guide bearing: primarily guides the motion of a machine bridges and building structures
member without specific regard to the direction of load Materials for Rivets:
application
Wrought iron, soft steel, copper, aluminum
Viscosity – a resistance to flow or the property which resists
shearing of the lubricant Size of Rivets:
Before driving, the rivets have diameter approximately 1/16 Electric Resistance Welding – type of welding, requiring
in. smaller than the rivet holes. After driving, the rivet both heat and pressure, in which the parts to be welded are
diameter is the same as that of the rivet holes. brought into contact and a heavy current at low voltage is
passed though the junction which causes the metal to fuse.
Pitch = center distance of rivet holes
Examples of electric resistance welding are spot welding,
293 butt and flash welding, seam, projection and upset welding.
Other methods of joining metals:
WELDED JOINTS (Faires: pp 505-521; Vallnace: pp 153- Soldering – method of joining metal by using an alloy of
162) lead and tin (called the solder) applied between the two
Definitions: pieces in a molten state.

Welding – process of joining metal by heating the metal to a Brazing – method of joining metal using a non-ferrous filler
state of fusion permitting it flow together into a solid joint. (copper alloy) which is melted and applied to the pieces
being joined.
Gas Welding – type of welding which utilizes the heat of the
flame which is produced by the combustion of a gas. The
most commonly used are acetylene, hydrogen and natural MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE
gas in combination with oxygen. Acetylene welding is widely
(PSME Code, pp 225-237)
used in welding thin plates and in welding gas, steam and
hydraulic pipelines. Machine Tools and machining Operations
Electric Arc Welding – type of welding in which heat is Lathe – a machine tool in which the work revolves on a
supplied by a continuous arc drawn between two horizontal axis and acted upon by cutting tool.
electrodes, the work forms one electrode and the welding
Machining operations that are performed in a lathe:
rods forms the other. Shielded arc welding uses coated
welding rods to prevent oxidation of the metal. Straight turning: the cutting tool is made to move along the
horizontal axis to produce cylindrical shape metal parts.
Thermit Welding – type of fusion welding in which the weld
metal is essentially cast steel fused into the parts welded. Facing or Squaring: the cut is at right angle with the axis of
This process is principally used in repairing heavy machine rotation to produce flat surfaces.
parts and in building up defective castings. Tapering: cutting tool is made to move at an angle with the
Atomic-Hydrogen and Helium Arc Welding – type of welding axis of rotation.
in which a jet of hydrogen or helium is forced though the arc Drilling and boring: using a drill bit to produce or enlarge
drawn between two tungsten electrodes to prevent hole.
oxidation of the metal.
Threading: the horizontal feed is made automatic and set to Plain milling machine does not have the swivel table
produce the size of thread desired. construction.
Shaper – a machine tool in which the cutter moves in a Vertical spindle milling machine, in which the axis of rotation
reciprocating motion to produce flat or partly curved of the spindle is vertical, is used for end milling and face
surfaces on metal pieces which are held securely in a vise. milling operations.
Planer – a machine tool which is used to produce flat The machining operations which are performed in a milling
surfaces on pieces which are too large or too heavy to be machine, with the use of suitable milling cutters, are gear
worked in a shaper. The work is securely fastened to the cutting, sprocket cutting, slotting, grooving and facing.
table which moves in reciprocating motion while the tool
Band Saw (for Metal) – a machine tool which is used to cut
head moves in either direction including down feed. Other
metal parts by the use of an endless band with saw teeth
operations performed in a planer are slotting and broaching.
moving around two pulleys
Drill or Drill Press – a machine tool which is used mainly to
Power Hacksaw – a machine tool which is used to cut metal
produce holes in metal parts by the use of rotating drill bit
parts of light, medium and large sections using a
which acts on a securely held piece.
reciprocating hacksaw blade
Grinding Machine or Grinder – a machine tool which uses
Hydraulic Press – a machine tool which consists of a ram
rotating abrasive wheels to smoothen metal parts and to
which is being actuated by the pressure of a hydraulic fluid,
sharpen or shape tools. Other operations performed in a
which is used in various operations such as bending,
grinder are polishing, buffing and honing.
drawing, forced fitting, or disassembling of parts
Boring Machine – a machine tool purposely designed for
Mechanical Press – a machine tool which is driven by an
finishing holes. Vertical boring machine is used to finish
electric motor or mechanical power source and is used in
vertical holes using a tool that moves up and down. In a
sheet metal work like punching, shearing, bending, drawing,
horizontal boring machine, the tool revolves in a horizontal
and other sheet metal forming operations
axis and used for finishing holes in the horizontal direction.
Other machining operations performed in a boring machine Turret Lathe – a type of lathe which consists of multiple-
are reaming and honing. station tool holders or turrets allowing the production of
multiple cuts
Milling Machine – a machine tool which is used to produce
a variety of surfaces by using a circular type cutter with
multiple teeth
Universal milling machine has a table which can be
swiveled at an angle.