Archaean gold potential

Archaean gold mineralisation in the

Gawler Craton, South Australia

Tim Birt and Anthony J Reid (Geological Survey Branch, PIRSA)

Introduction and chemical sediments including banded These geochemical features have been
iron formations (BIFs), carbonates interpreted to indicate that the late
As recently as 15 years ago, Archaean and chert (Daly and Fanning 1993). Archaean volcanic rocks formed in
gold systems were an unknown Voluminous concordant intrusives are an arc-like environment (Swain et al.
concept in South Australia. Now these also present within the stratigraphic 2005) and, at the very least, indicate
systems within the Gawler Craton are pile. Sedimentation and volcanism significant mantle involvement in the
demonstrated by a newly recognised gold within these complexes occurred over magmatic processes over the interval
deposit style, with mined and contained the interval ~2570–2510 Ma, with ~2570–2520 Ma. It is worth noting that
resources surpassing 1 Moz (Figs 1, 2). ages for the intrusives clustering at the geochemistry of the mafic/ultramafic
The metavolcano-sedimentary complexes ~2520 Ma (Fanning, Reid and Teale sequences within the late Archaean of the
that host these systems also contain the 2007). The presence of such reactive and Gawler Craton is virtually identical to
potential for significant greenfield gold potentially metallogenic-rich lithologies, Archaean komatiites of the Yilgarn Craton
resources. This article outlines the setting, along with syn-sedimentary magmatic
(Western Australia) and Superior Province
nature and exploration criteria that are processes, argues for a likely significant
(North America; Hoatson et al. 2005).
relevant to gold systems within the late metallogenic endowment.
Archaean rocks of the Gawler Craton. The principal orogenic episode to have
Geochemically, ~2570–2520 Ma felsic
affected these late Archaean lithologies of
to intermediate igneous lithologies show
the Gawler Craton is the 2480–2420 Ma
Regional setting weak light rare earth element enrichment,
Sleafordian Orogeny (Daly and Fanning
significant Nb and Ti depletion, as well
Archaean rocks of the Gawler Craton as moderately juvenile eHf and eNd 1993). The Sleafordian Orogeny is
are contained within the Mulgathing signatures (Swain et al. 2005; Nebel et typically manifest as gneissic foliations
and Sleaford complexes (Fig. 1). These al. 2007). Mafic/ultramafic and komatiite and tight to isoclinal folding within a
complexes are typically perceived as sequences within the Harris Greenstone range of lithologies. Although dominated
multiply deformed granulite–granitoid Belt and the Hall Bay Volcanics are by granulite-grade mineral assemblages,
terranes. However, they contain a diverse characterised by flat chondrite normalised regions of lower metamorphic grade are
and relatively complicated stratigraphy. trace element patterns and juvenile also known, ranging as low as chlorite +
This stratigraphy consists of mafic to eNd signatures (+2.8 to +3; Hoatson muscovite foliations within greenschist
ultramafic volcanics including komatiitic et al. 2005) that indicate derivation facies metavolcanics (Cowley and
flows, along with felsic volcanics, clastic from a potential mantle plume source. Fanning 1991).

Figure 1 Location of the Mulgathing and Sleaford complexes within the

Gawler Craton.
Figure 2 Gold production, reserves, resources and potential for the
Challenger Mine, current 30 June 2007. (Courtesy of Dominion Mining).

‘SEZ’ and ‘M3’ Reserves South East Zone (SEZ) Challenger

ne Prominent Hill above 1115 m RL Open Pit Production
o 4700 oz 120 000 oz
u lt Z 1060 m RL
1055 m RL
a
ri F v ‘SEZ’ and ‘M3’ Potential ‘M1’ Crown Pillar
Ka Challenger
ra
v v Olympic Dam below 1070 m RL
v v ~300 oz per vertical metre
Underground Production
v v i.e.: 321 000 oz to 0 m RL
Carrapateena to be evaluated by 243 200 oz
v v v ‘hand-held’ mining at 720 m RL
v v v v 1040–980 m RL ‘M2’ Reserves 660 m RL Position of decline
v v v v 1060–480 m RL
v v v v 298 100 oz
‘M1’ (incl. Shadow Zone)
v v v v Reserves – above 480 m RL
480 m RL 203 550 oz

v v
v Gawler Range Volcanics ‘M2’ Resources ‘M1’ (incl. Shadow Zone)*
Wallaroo 480–130 m RL * Resources
Moonta 201 150 oz 293 550 oz
Hiltaba Suite
Undifferentiated ADELAIDE ‘M2’ Potential *
Palaeo-Mesoproterozoic 130–0 m RL 130 m RL ‘M1’ Potential
70 700 oz 130–0 m RL
*
Mulgathing Complex 98 550 oz
— Harris Greenstone Belt
Summary (at 30 June 2007)
Sleaford Complex 0 150 Production 363 200 oz 0 m RL
— Hall Bay Volcanics
KILOMETRES
Reserves
Resources
512 000 oz
544 000 oz
} 1 056 000 oz * ‘Challenger Deeps’ drilling evaluation
Mine (additional to Reserves) July–December 2007
203618_006
Prospect 203618_005

MESA Journal 46 September 2007 29

 Exploration

Deposit styles following distinguishing criteria. The rises and increased depth of bedrock
mineralisation is structurally controlled, weathering. Challenger, pre-mining,
Migmatised gold mineralised folded and attenuated, generally striking exhibited a broad, low topographic rise of
systems NNE and is strongly transposed parallel 2–3 m relative to the surrounding country.
The most significant gold resource is to the regional tectonic fabric. The ore In addition, the base of weathering at
Dominion Mining Limited’s Challenger shoots at Challenger plunge 30º towards Challenger is significantly thicker than
gold deposit, 900 km NW of Adelaide. 030º and this orientation is interpreted the immediately adjacent unmineralised
This high-grade, low-cost and hence to represent the short limb dilational gneisses. This increased weathering has
extremely profitable underground gold zones of the folds that have acted as a been mapped using ground electrical
operation has produced 363 200 oz of trap for gold-bearing leucosome material resistivity, electromagnetic and gravity
gold (Fig. 2) and contains resources of that mobilised during metamorphism surveys (Williams et al. 2004) and is
1 090 000 oz of gold (Dominion 2007a). (Tomkins 2002). interpreted to have been caused by
Production is currently over 100 000 oz No diagnostic geophysical signature acidic groundwater derived from the
per annum at a head grade of ~10 g/t. A exists at Challenger (Williams et al. sulfide mineralisation (Bonwick 1997).
plant upgrade to a production capacity 2004), but several minor features should A weak bedrock IP response over the
of 130 000 oz per annum is being be noted. Most significant gold-in- Challenger system was coincident with
investigated. bedrock drilling intercepts have been mineralisation, but was not considered
At Challenger the gold is hosted coincident with minor local topographic diagnostic due to difficulties in collecting
by a sequence of quartz–feldspar–
garnet–biotite–cordierite gneisses that (a)
occur within the Christie Domain of
the northwestern Gawler Craton (Figs
3–5, 6a). Protoliths of the Challenger
gneiss have been regarded as being
pelitic (Tomkins 2002), although recent
reinterpretations suggest the host may
have originally been a ~2520 Ma
volcaniclastic sequence (McFarlane,
Mavrogenes and Tomkins 2007).
Remnant quartz-dominated veins have
been identified within the ore hosting
leucosomes (Figs 6a, b), and rare Migmatised gold occurrences
pyroxene granulite also occurs transposed mentioned in text
Other migmatised gold occurrences
with the regional gneissosity. Later
Metamorphosed gold occurrences
crosscutting mafic to ultramafic dykes and mentioned in text
Other metamorphosed gold occurrences
sills are evident at Challenger. The deposit
0 20 Orogenic gold occurrences
represents a migmatised gold mineralised Scale 1:1 000 000 mentioned in text
KILOMETRES Other orogenic gold occurrences
system in which the granulite facies
Railway
(~7.5 kbar and >800 ºC) metamorphic 203618_007
event has modified pre-existing
mineralisation, redistributing the gold and Au in calcrete (b)
(ppb)
hence enhancing the grade (Tomkins and 15

Mavrogenes 2002). 11.8

Other prospects in the Christie Domain

8.5
considered to represent migmatised
gold mineralised systems include 5.25
Monsoon, Typhoon, Challenger West,
2
Kelpie (Challenger 2 and 3), Mainwood
and Campfire Bore (Figs 3a, b). Of
these, Challenger West (21 000 oz),
Challenger 2 (4000 oz) and Challenger
3 (1500 oz) have been sufficiently tested
to have calculated resources (Dominion
2007a). These prospects are all hosted
by the same garnet-gneiss package as at
Challenger and are all within the Christie
Domain’s characteristic smooth, low- 0 20
intensity aeromagnetic relief signature KILOMETRES
Scale 1:1 000 000

(Fig. 3a).
Migmatised gold mineralisation such 203618_008

as at Challenger and other prospects Figure 3 Northwestern Gawler Craton. (a) Prospect locations overlying regional grey-scale TMI
within the Christie Domain have the (total magnetic intensity). (b) Gold-in-calcrete image draped over regional grey-scale TMI.

30 MESA Journal 46 September 2007

 Archaean gold potential

the IP data. A subtle but discernable characteristics of an epithermal-style The South Hilga prospect is spatially
magnetic anomaly was also identified system (McFarlane, Mavrogenes and associated with a regional fold hinge
coincident with mineralisation and is Tomkins 2007). However, the absence within BIF units and is interpreted to be
interpreted to be caused by pyrrhotite of elements associated with felsic of this style. Little structural information
associated with the gold mineralisation, magmatism — such as Cu, Mo or Ag — exists for the area due to limited outcrop
but this is complicated by interference is problematic for the epithermal origin and no diamond drillholes. Significant
from the mafic and ultramafic dykes and hypothesis. The robust Au–As association, potential exists in these areas containing
sills (Williams et al. 2004). presence of pre-peak metamorphic quartz reactive host rocks, anomalous bedrock
Typically fine-grained disseminated veining and phyllic alteration, and drilling intercepts and elevated surface
sulfide mineralogy is dominated by extensive vertical extent can also be gold anomalism.
pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite and löllingite, interpreted as a mesozonal-orogenic-
locally reaching abundances of ~5% style system emplaced in a dilational site Orogenic gold mineralised
within an Archaean shear zone.
(McFarlane, Mavrogenes and Tomkins systems
2007). Gold is visible and generally Orogenic gold mineralisation has also
coarse grained (millimetre scale). Other Metamorphosed gold been identified within the Mulgathing
minor components of the ore mineralogy mineralised systems Complex. This mineralisation tends to
include bismuth, chalcopyrite, pentlandite While migmatised gold systems like strike NE (subtly different from the ENE
and sphalerite (Tomkins and Mavrogenes Challenger remain the predominant of Challenger) and is interpreted to be
2002). Geochemically, the ore exploration target within the Mulgathing hosted by mylonites. Prospects include
characteristically contains primary Au + Complex, other styles have been Golf Bore, Golf North and Black Knight
As + Bi with weakly elevated Ag + Co + intersected. These other types may (Fig. 3a).
Ni + Cu + Te (Tomkins 2002). Significant represent typical orogenic gold At Golf Bore lithologies are dominated
arsenic (up to 1%) occurs in ore material, mineralisation or epithermal style, as also by micaceous schist with coarser grained
bismuth is elevated to tens of parts per found at Challenger, within mafic and BIF leucosomes (Fig. 6d). The micaceous
million (McFarlane, Mavrogenes and units. These include prospects such as schist is medium-to fine-grained and
Tomkins 2007) and silver is detectable but South Hilga, Indooroopilly, Mars, Aurora dominated by biotite and muscovite,
not significantly enhanced. Tank and Comet (Fig. 3a). the latter forming distinct shear bands.
Alteration is not visibly recognisable It is apparent from the gold-in- Leucosomes are locally isoclinally
but whole-rock geochemistry has calcrete and aeromagnetic imagery that folded and contain clots of biotite ±
identified that sericitisation, chloritisation coincident elevated gold and higher cordierite after garnet. These lithologies
and silicification existed at Challenger magnetic response occurs to the west and suggest a typical garnet-gneiss precursor
prior to the granulite facies overprint SE of Challenger (Fig. 3b). As opposed that has been subject to fluid flux and
(McFarlane, Mavrogenes and Tomkins to migmatised gold, there would not be retrogression during a low-grade, non-
2007). These are identifiable by depletion sufficient silicate melt within BIF, mafic coaxial deformation event. Elevated
in CaO, Na2O and Sr, and K-, OH- and and ultramafic lithologies during peak arsenic, copper and silver are associated
Si-metasomatism evident in the proximal metamorphism for significant leucosome with gold mineralisation. Gold-rich zones
gneisses (McFarlane, Mavrogenes development. Deformation and high- are localised within the biotite–muscovite
and Tomkins 2007). This pre-existing grade metamorphism would however schist and at this stage it is possible that
alteration is interpreted to indicate the generate metal sulfide melt and this could the gold is either simply reworked from
presence of a phyllic-alteration system be trapped at dilational sites such as fault pre-existing Challenger-type, primary
and that the original mineralisation had jogs and fold hinges. Archaean mineralisation, or newly

Figure 4 Long-section of the Challenger Mine, 30 June 2007. (Courtesy

South East Pit Challenger Pit of Dominion Mining).

Figure 5 Plan view of the Challenger Mine development at 1000 m RL

South East Zone, 1055 m RL (relative level) displaying modelled ore shoots. (Courtesy of Dominion
1040 m RL Mining).
M2 and M3 Shoots not shown 1020 m RL
1000 m RL
980 m RL
960 m RL ‘M1’ Shadow Zone
940 m RL
‘M2’ Zone 920 m RL
900 m RL M1 Orebody Mined ‘M1’ Shoot
880 m RL S5
860 m RL –S
7
840 m RL 4
–S
820 m RL S3
‘M1’ Shoot 800 m RL ‘M3’ Shoot
2
780 m RL –S
760 m RL S0
‘M2’ Shoot
740 m RL (S0–S7)
720 m RL 0 50
700 m RL
Main Decline 680 m RL METRES
Declin
e
203618_009 203618_010

MESA Journal 46 September 2007 31

 Exploration

(a) (b)
gt

qz + felds + Au

2 cm 100 cm

(c) (d)

4 cm

203618 011

Figure 6 Core photographs. (a) Typical host quartz–feldspar–biotite–garnet–cordierite gneiss (top of view) and leucosome hosting visible Au + As
mineralisation (bottom of view) at the Challenger Mine. (b) Underground face of Challenger ore displaying leucosomes and partially assimilated,
relict quartz veins. (c) Bonanza-grade ore from recently discovered Challenger ‘Shadow Zone’. (d) Mylonitic mica-gneiss at the Golf Bore prospect
displaying sericite defined shear planes and retrograde alteration.

introduced within the retrograde shear The footprint of economic mineralisation Edgecombe (1997) for the Challenger
bands during Proterozoic deformation of within these shoots is in the order of 40 gold deposit.
the northwestern Gawler Craton. x 40 m with a lower grade (to 0.1 g/t) As evidenced by the Challenger
halo extending 150 m along strike and system, significant blind high-grade
Gold potential 50 m wide (within 50 m of surface). shoots such as the ‘Shadow Zone’ (Fig.
High-grade ore is concentrated in the 6c; Dominion 2007b) can be discovered
Following the development of a calcrete
antiformal positions within the M-shaped close to defined resources. Mineralisation
geochemical sampling technique, a
fold structures. This all combines to make may cluster in this way at other prospects,
significant number of low-level gold-
targeting of economic mineralisation and to evaluate the potential close-
in-calcrete anomalies were identified
reliant on close-spaced drilling traverses, spaced definition drilling is required
(Birt, Fidler and Katona in prep.). A especially if supergene dispersal is not and sufficient geological, structural and
proportion of the higher tenor anomalies laterally significant. geochemical interpretation. Target size
were drill tested, with the majority of
Target generation incorporating surface and hence sampling density is a major
targets returning anomalous bedrock
geochemistry, regolith interpretation, consideration due to restricted bedrock
geochemistry (Bonwick 1997; Robinson geochemical and alteration haloes
bedrock geochemistry and early-stage
1998). Significant economic occurrences (McFarlane, Mavrogenes and Tomkins
diamond drilling is essential to provide
were intersected at the prospects 2007) and possible transported surface
structural and lithological controls. If
discussed above. geochemistry.
supergene and/or bedrock mineralisation
Potential exists throughout the were intersected, early-stage, close- Renewed exploration activity at several
Mulgathing and Sleaford complexes spaced (20 m) diamond drilling and prospects by Southern Gold Limited
for further greenfield gold discoveries. lithogeochemical orientation would has highlighted the potential of these
As displayed at Challenger, high-grade potentially identify if prospective ore systems. Close-spaced air core drilling
shoots are elongated and transposed shoots are present. A useful exploration has been conducted targeting bedrock
parallel to the regional structural fabric. case history has been documented by and supergene gold mineralisation at the

32 MESA Journal 46 September 2007

 Archaean gold potential

Monsoon and Typhoon prospects. These References Robinson P 1998. Gawler Joint Venture. Partial
infill and extensional drilling programs surrender reports for various ELs issued
Birt TR, Fidler R and Katona L in prep. Gawler since 9/10/92, for periods ending either on
were designed to test ore shoot positions Craton calcrete reanalysis: interpretation
similar in dimension and orientation 30/6/97 or on 13/10/98, Open file Envelope
and exploration implications. MESA 9229. Department of Primary Industries and
to those at Challenger (Southern Gold Journal. Department of Primary Industries Resources South Australia, Adelaide.
2007a). Significant drillhole intercepts and Resources South Australia, Adelaide.
include 12 m at 2.1 g/t at Typhoon, 3 m at Bonwick CM 1997. Discovery of the Southern Gold Limited 2007a. First JV drilling
5.6 g/t at Monsoon–Northeast, and 3 m at Challenger gold deposit. Implications for identifies new gold near SA’s Challenger
8.1 g/t and 12 m at 2.2 g/t at Monsoon. A further exploration on the Gawler Craton. mine, Australian Stock Exchange Release,
In Proceedings of the New Generation Gold 20 August 2007. Southern Gold Limited,
similar, close-spaced reverse circulation
Mines ‘97, Case histories of discovery. viewed 28 September 2007, <http://www.
drilling program has been conducted by
Australian Mineral Foundation, Hartley southerngold.com.au>.
Southern Gold at the Golf Bore prospect
Poynton Limited, Keith Yates & Associates. Southern Gold Limited 2007b. RC Drilling
targeting high-grade shoot positions and
orientation within the broadly defined Cowley WM and Fanning CM 1991. Low- commences north of Challenger gold mine,
grade Archaean metavolcanics in the Australian Stock Exchange Release, 22
resource (Southern Gold 2007b). Results
northern Gawler Craton. Quarterly August 2007. Southern Gold Limited,
from this program are awaited. Geological Notes 119:2–17. Geological viewed 28 September 2007, <http://www.
Survey of South Australia, Adelaide. southerngold.com.au>
Conclusion Daly SJ and Fanning CM 1993. Archaean. In Swain G, Woodhouse A, Hand M, Barovich
The Archaean of South Australia’s JF Drexel, WV Preiss and AJ Parker eds,
K, Schwarz M and Fanning CM 2005.
Gawler Craton contains significant scope The geology of South Australia; Volume 1,
Provenance and tectonic development
for discovery of further gold resources. The Precambrian, Bulletin 54. Geological
of the late Archaean Gawler Craton,
The main targets and areas of interest Survey of South Australia, Adelaide, pp.
Australia; U-Pb zircon, geochemical and
are migmatised gold systems in the 32–49.
Sm-Nd isotopic implications. Precambrian
metavolcano-sedimentary packages within Davies M 2003. Harris Greenstone Domain Research 141:106–136.
the Christie Domain and associated with bedrock drilling program. MESA Journal
29:4–10. Department of Primary Industries Teale G, Schwarz M and Fanning CM 2000.
the Hall Bay Volcanics on Eyre Peninsula Potential for Archaean VHMS-style
and Resources South Australia, Adelaide.
(Teale, Schwarz and Fanning 2000). This mineralisation and other targets in southern
style of deposit is the most attractive Dominion Mining Limited 2007a. Quarterly
Eyre Peninsula. MESA Journal 18:17–21.
report for the period ending 30 June 2007.
due to the potential for high-grade, low Department of Primary Industries and
Dominion Mining Limited, viewed 28
to moderate tonnage operations that September 2007, <http://www.dml.com. Resources South Australia, Adelaide.
are highly profitable. Metamorphosed au>. Tomkins AG 2002. Evolution of the granulite-
deposit styles are possible throughout the Dominion Mining Limited 2007b. New zone hosted Challenger gold deposit, South
complexes discussed and targeting would discovered at Challenger, Australian Australia: implications for ore genesis.
be specific to the scale of structural traps Stock Exchange Release, 1 March 2007. PhD thesis, Australian National University,
targeted. Shear-hosted, metamorphosed Dominion Mining Limited, viewed 28 Canberra.
styles similar to that at the Golf Bore September 2007, <http://www.dml.com.
Tomkins AG and Mavrogenes JA 2002.
prospect are possible upon identification au>.
Mobilization of gold as a polymetallic melt
of remobilised shear zones. Orogenic gold Edgecombe D 1997. Challenger gold deposit; during pelite anatexis at the Challenger
styles are possible in areas such as the exploration case history. MESA Journal deposit, South Australia; a metamorphosed
Harris Greenstone Belt and the recently 4:8–11. Department of Primary Industries Archean gold deposit. Economic Geology
recognised mafic volcanic sequences on and Resources South Australia, Adelaide. 97(6):1249–1271.
Eyre Peninsula (Davies 2003; Hoatson et Fanning CM, Reid A and Teale G 2007.
A geochronological framework for the Williams P, Frances D, Gillman J and Bonwick
al. 2005) in the vicinity of Mount Hope. C 2004. Geophysical characterisation
Gawler Craton, South Australia, Bulletin
55. Geological Survey of South Australia, of the Challenger gold deposit, Gawler
Acknowledgements Adelaide. Craton, South Australia. In M Dentith ed,
Sue Daly (PIRSA) provided advice, Geophysical signatures of South Australian
Hoatson DM, Sun SS, Duggan MB, Davies
discussions and helpful suggestions for mineral deposits. Centre for Global
MB, Daly SJ and Purvis AC 2005. Late
Metallogeny, the University of Western
the text. We acknowledge the significant Archaean Lake Harris Komatiite, central
Australia, Publication 31; Australian
work of the Australian National University Gawler Craton, South Australia: geologic
Society of Exploration Geophysicists,
researchers including Andy Tomkins, Chris setting and geochemistry. Economic
Special Publication 12; Department of
McFarlane and John Mavrogenes on the Geology 100:349–374.
Primary Industries and Resources South
complex geology of the Challenger gold McFarlane CRM, Mavrogenes JA and Tomkins Australia, Adelaide; pp. 19–27.
deposit. Paul Androvic, Andy Giles and AG 2007. Recognizing hydrothermal
Tony Poustie from Dominion Mining are alteration through a granulite facies
metamorphic overprint at the Challenger Au First published in World Gold 2007
thanked for access to the Challenger Mine,
deposit, South Australia. Chemical Geology Conference Proceedings. Reprinted with
Golf Bore diamond core and discussions 243:64–89. minor modification with the permission of
on the gold potential of the Christie
Nebel O, Nebel-Jacobsen Y, Mezger K the Australasian Institute of Mining and
Domain. Dave Edgecombe from Kelpie and Berndt J 2007. Initial Hf isotope Metallurgy.
Exploration Pty Ltd and an anonymous compositions in magmatic zircon from
reviewer from the Australasian Institute of early Proterozoic rocks from the Gawler For further information contact Tim Birt,
Mining and Metallurgy are also thanked Craton, Australia: a test for zircon model phone +61 8 463 3042, email <birt.tim@
for their contributions. ages. Chemical Geology 241: 23–37. saugov.sa.gov.au>.

MESA Journal 46 September 2007 33