Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults

Series Editors: Massimo Chessa · Helmut Baumgartner

Andreas Eicken · Alessandro Giamberti

Jolien W. Roos-Hesselink
Mark R. Johnson Editors

Pregnancy
and
Congenital
Heart Disease
Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents
and Adults

Endorsed by
The ESC Working Group on Grown-up Congenital Heart Disease
AEPC Adult with Congenital Heart Disease Working Group

Series Editors
M. Chessa
San Donato Milanese, Italy
H. Baumgartner
Münster, Germany
A. Eicken
Munich, Germany
A. Giamberti
San Donato Milanese, Italy
The aim of this series is to cast light on the most significant aspects – whether still
debated or already established – of congenital heart disease in adolescents and
adults and its management. Advances in the medical and surgical management of
congenital heart disease have revolutionized the prognosis of infants and children
with cardiac defects, so that an increasing number of patients, including those with
complex problems, can reach adolescence and adult life. The profile of the adult
population with congenital heart disease (ACHD) is consequently changing, and in
future many adult patients will present different hemodynamic and cardiac problems
from those currently seen. A cure is rarely achieved, and provision of optimal care
is therefore dependent on ongoing surveillance and management in conjunction
with experts in this highly specialized field. Specialists in ACHD management need
to have a deep knowledge not only of congenital cardiac malformations and their
treatment in infancy and childhood, but of general medicine, too. A training in adult
cardiology, including coronary artery disease, is also essential. Similarly, surgeons
need to acquire expertise and good training in both adult and pediatric cardiosurgery.
Readers will find this series to be a rich source of information highly relevant to
daily clinical practice.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13454

Jolien W. Roos-Hesselink
Mark R. Johnson
Editors

Pregnancy and Congenital

Heart Disease
Editors
Jolien W. Roos-Hesselink Mark R. Johnson
Erasmus MC University Medical Center Imperial College London
Rotterdam Chelsea and Westminster Hospital
Gelderland London
The Netherlands UK

ISSN 2364-6659     ISSN 2364-6667 (electronic)

Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults
ISBN 978-3-319-38911-0    ISBN 978-3-319-38913-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016955961

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publica-
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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Preface to the Series

In Europe, we are currently faced with an estimated ACHD population of 4.2 mil-
lion; adults with congenital heart disease now outnumber children (approximately
2.3 million). The vast majority cannot be considered cured but rather having a
chronic heart condition that requires further surveillance and timely re-intervention
for residual or consequent anatomical and/or functional abnormalities. ACHD
patients have very special needs and the physicians taking care of them need expert
training. Special health care organization and training programs for those involved
in ACHD care are therefore required to meet the needs of this special population.
ACHD problems remain a small part of general cardiology training curricula
around the world, and pediatric cardiologists are trained to manage children with
CHD and may, out of necessity, continue to look after these patients when they
outgrow pediatric age.
There are clearly other health issues concerning the adult with CHD, beyond the
scope of pediatric medicine, that our patients now routinely face. Adult physicians
with a non-CHD background are therefore increasingly involved in the day-to-day
management of patients with CHD.
Experts in congenital heart disease should work to improve the health care sys-
tem, so that teens and young adults have an easier time making the transition from
receiving health care in pediatric cardiology centers to receiving care from special-
ists in adult cardiology.
The aim of this series is to cast light on the most significant aspects of congenital
heart disease in adolescents and adults and its management, such as transition from
pediatric to adulthood, pregnancy and contraception, sport and physical activities,
pulmonary hypertension, burning issues related to surgery, interventional catheter-
ization, electrophysiology, intensive care management, and heart failure.
This series wishes to attract the interest of cardiologists, anesthesiologists, car-
diac surgeons, electrophysiologists, psychologists, GPs, undergraduate and post-
graduate students, and residents, and would like to become relevant for courses of
cardiology, pediatric cardiology, cardiothoracic surgery, and anesthesiology.

v
vi Preface to the Series

We thank both the wonderful groups of leading cardiovascular experts from

around the world, for donating their precious time, producing excellent textbooks
and making this book series a reality, and the members of the two Working Groups
(ESC and AEPC ACHD/GUCH Working Group) for the invaluable suggestions and
support without which this work would not be possible.

San Donato, Italy Massimo Chessa

Münster, Germany  Helmut Baumgartner
Munich, Germany  Andreas Eicken
San Donato, Italy  Alessandro Giamberti
Preface

Advances in diagnostic modalities and treatment options for children born with a
congenital heart defect have changed the landscape of patients with congenital heart
disease considerably. Advanced cardiac surgery and intensive care have dramati-
cally improved the outcome for these patients: before the introduction of the heart-
lung machine, survival was about 15 %; now more than 90 % of patients reach
adulthood. Half are women, and most of them want to start a family and raise chil-
dren. However, pregnancy has a major impact on the cardiovascular system. It not
only leads to an increase in cardiac output of up to 50 % but also increases the risk
of thromboembolic complications and the development of arrhythmias. Further,
pregnancy appears to affect vessel structure, increasing the risk of aortic dissection.
Delivery is the period of dramatic fluid shifts predisposing to the development of
pulmonary oedema.
Most patients with congenital heart disease are diagnosed when young and have
undergone corrective cardiac surgery. However, some still have residual lesions, and, in
others, the diagnosis was missed or the condition was found to be inoperable. As a
group, women with CHD are at higher risk of developing complications during preg-
nancy and after delivery. Cardiovascular mortality and morbidity are higher in patients
with heart disease; heart failure and arrhythmias are especially common. Therefore,
timely counselling and risk stratification are of great importance. In addition, the moth-
er’s life expectancy and the impact of the pregnancy on her condition should be dis-
cussed openly. Some women may need treatment before embarking on a pregnancy, and
others may need to have existing treatment optimized. Follow-up during pregnancy and
the timing, place and mode of delivery are also important and sometimes difficult issues.
Specific knowledge is not available from large randomized trials in this field, and
therefore, many decisions are made based on “expert knowledge”. This book is an
extremely valuable resource for all those looking after women with congenital heart
disease especially when they are pregnant. It provides up-to-date information on
specific topics and gives detailed, lesion-specific information from well-known
experts in this field. We hope this book will be the definitive resource for cardiolo-
gists, obstetricians, anaesthetists and other members of the team providing care and
support to women with congenital heart disease.

Rotterdam, The Netherlands Jolien W. Roos-Hesselink

London, UK Mark R. Johnson

vii
Pregnancy and Congenital Heart Disease
Contents

Part I  General Issues

1 Fetal Heart Disease��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  3

Julene S. Carvalho and Olus Api
2 Contraception and Cardiovascular Disease��������������������������������������������  23
Jan S. Erkamp and Jérôme Cornette
3 Preconception Counseling ������������������������������������������������������������������������  35
M.A.M. Kampman and P.G. Pieper
4 Inheritance of Congenital Heart Disease ������������������������������������������������  51
Ingrid van de Laar and Marja Wessels
5 Care During Pregnancy����������������������������������������������������������������������������  67
Iris M. van Hagen and Jolien W. Roos-Hesselink
6 The Management of Labour and the Post-partum Period in CHD������  83
Matt Cauldwell, Mark Cox, Roisin Monteiro, and Mark R. Johnson

Part II  Specific Lesions

7 Pregnancy in Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot����������������������������������������������  99

Sonya V. Babu-Narayan, Wei Li, and Anselm Uebing
8 Transposition of the Great Arteries ������������������������������������������������������  113
Daniel Tobler and Matthias Greutmann
9 Shunt Lesions ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  129
Antonia Pijuan-Domenech and Maria Goya
10 Aortic Stenosis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  141
Stefan Orwat and Helmut Baumgartner
11 Pregnancy in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy��������������������������������������  155
Michelle Michels

ix
x Contents

12 Aortopathy������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  165
Julie De Backer, Laura Muiño-Mosquera, and Laurent Demulier
13 Aortic Coarctation ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  195
Margarita Brida and Gerhard-Paul Diller
14 Ebstein Anomaly��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  207
Andrea Girnius, Gruschen Veldtman, Carri R. Warshak, and Markus
Schwerzmann
15 Fontan ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  225
Margherita Ministeri and Michael A. Gatzoulis
16 Cyanotic Lesions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  243
Matthias Greutmann and Daniel Tobler
17 Pulmonary Hypertension������������������������������������������������������������������������  257
Werner Budts
18 Pulmonary Stenosis����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  271
Marianna Stamatelatou and Lorna Swann
 Part I
General Issues
Fetal Heart Disease
1
Julene S. Carvalho and Olus Api

Abbreviations

3VTV Three vessels and trachea view

3VV Three-vessel view
CHD Congenital heart disease
ISUOG International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology
LA Left atrium
LV Left ventricle
NHS FASP National Health Service Fetal Anomaly Screening Programme
NT Nuchal translucency
PA Pulmonary artery
RA Right atrium
RV Right ventricle
SSA Sequential segmental analysis
SVC Superior vena cava
VMax Maximal velocity

J.S. Carvalho, MD, PhD, FRCPCH (*)

Brompton Centre for Fetal Cardiology, Royal Brompton Hospital and St. George’s University
Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Reader in Fetal Cardiology, Molecular and Sciences
Research Institute, St. George’s University of London, London, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
O. Api, MD, PhD
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yeditepe University Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 3
J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_1
4 J.S. Carvalho and O. Api

1.1 Introduction

Imaging of the fetal heart started in the 1980s but was mainly targeted at high-risk
pregnancies [1–3], such as those with previous family history of congenital heart
disease (CHD). The introduction of the four-chamber view into routine obstetric
scans of low-risk pregnancies was first reported by Fermont et al. in 1985 [4] and
initiated the pathway for antenatal screening. However, based on this view alone,
antenatal detection remained low, being 23 % in the UK in the mid-1990s [5]. The
importance of adding outflow tract views as well as training professionals at the
forefront of screening cannot be underestimated, but over the years, improvements
in detection rates have been slow. More recently however, dissemination of clinical
guidelines and national protocols have had a positive impact on screening.

1.2 Birth Prevalence of CHD

Congenital heart defects are the most common cause of major congenital anomalies.
In the EUROCAT study, they accounted for 28 % of major defects [6]. Whilst a birth
prevalence of 8 per 1000 live births is generally accepted, there seems to be variation
worldwide and over time [7–9]. According to a recent systematic review and meta-
analysis, which included eight common types of major CHD, total CHD birth preva-
lence was found to increase substantially over time. It changed from 0.6 per 1000 live
births in 1930 to 1934 to 9.1 per 1000 live births after 1995 but has remained stable
over the last 15 years to 2010 [8]. Ventricular septal defects were the most commonly
encountered CHD. Significant geographical differences also occurred, being highest
in Asia (birth prevalence of 9.3 per 1000 live births) and significantly higher in
Europe (8.2 per 1000) than in North America (6.9 per 1000) [8].
Limited access to health care and diagnostic facilities such as echocardiography
may be responsible for some of the differences in reported birth prevalence. On the
other hand, observed variations may also be of ethnic, genetic and environmental
origin. In part, however, some of the differences are due to inclusion of a milder
form of CHD such as small ventricular septal defects, mild pulmonary stenosis and
bicuspid aortic valves [7, 9]. From the fetal cardiologist’s perspective, the more
significant forms of CHD are the ones most likely to be suspected on routine screen-
ing. These are also more likely to have an impact on fetal and neonatal outcome.
Hoffman and Kaplan [9] reported an incidence for moderate to severe forms of
CHD of 6 per 1000 live births. In general, approximately half of defects are consid-
ered major, i.e. with a prevalence of about 4 per 1000 live births [10].

1.3 Risk Factors for CHD

Inheritance of CHD is multifactorial. Various risk factors, from genetic or genome vari-
ations to teratogen exposure, trigger molecular responses during cardiac development
that may lead to CHD [11]. However, the vast majority of fetuses with heart defects are
1  Fetal Heart Disease 5

seen in families without a known risk factor, which highlights the importance of having
an effective screening programme for the detection of fetal heart disease.
In Chap. 4, inheritance of CHD is discussed at length. Briefly, recurrence is low
for most forms of structural defects. In a population-based study, previous history of
any CHD in first-degree relatives accounted for 2.2 % of the heart defects [12]. The
risk associated with a previous child with a non-syndromic defect is around 2–3 %,
rising to 10 % with two previously affected pregnancies [13, 14]. If one of the par-
ents has CHD, the overall risk is increased to about 2–4 % [14, 15] but higher in the
presence of maternal CHD (~6 %) [15]. A higher risk is also seen in association with
left-sided obstructive lesions [16]. Risks other than family history can be of mater-
nal or fetal origin. They also constitute an indication for fetal echocardiography and
are summarized below.

1.3.1 Maternal Risk Factors

1.3.1.1 Autoantibodies
The risk associated with maternal autoantibodies (anti-Ro/SSA, anti-La/SSB) is
mainly related to development of fetal heart block rather than structural CHD. With
no previously affected child, the risk is around 4 % but significantly higher (19 %)
if a previous child has developed heart block [17]. Serial scans are often per-
formed, aiming to capture the development of first- and second-degree block,
even though there is no effective evidence-based therapy to prevent progression to
complete heart block. Recent evidence also suggests that the individual risk of
heart block is affected by the level of maternal antibodies and that serial scans
should be restricted to pregnant women with high levels [18]. Currently however,
antibody levels are not widely available at the time women are referred for fetal
echocardiography.
Autoantibodies have also been linked to myocardial dysfunction and endocardial
fibroelastosis [19] and, rarely, rupture of mitral valve subvalvar apparatus leading to
important mitral regurgitation [20].

1.3.1.2 Pre-gestational Diabetes

The risk associated with maternal diabetes is five times greater than the general
population [21] and up to 8.5 per 100 live births in one study [22]. Common defects
include double-outlet right ventricle, truncus arteriosus, transposition of the great
arteries and ventricular septal defect [23, 24]. A link with isomerism has also been
established [25]. Hyperglycaemia is known to modify multiple biochemical and
signal transduction pathways; thus high maternal levels of haemoglobin A1c during
early pregnancy are associated with increased risk of malformations [26, 27].
However, maternal diabetes continues to influence the fetal heart through the sec-
ond and third trimesters. Reversible hypertrophic cardiomyopathy has long been
described in infants of the diabetic mothers [28]. It may be observed whether or not
there is reasonable metabolic control [26, 29], although there is some evidence that
fetal insulin levels are related to myocardial wall thickness [30].
6 J.S. Carvalho and O. Api

1.3.1.3 Phenylketonuria
Maternal phenylketonuria also increases the risk of CHD significantly, being 15-fold
above the general population in untreated pregnancies [31]. High maternal levels of
phenylalanine (>30 mg/dL) increase the risk significantly. Preconception or early
pregnancy low phenylalanine diet to achieve a basal maternal level <15 mg/dL espe-
cially in the first 8 weeks of pregnancy may be effective in preventing CHD. Tetralogy
of Fallot, aortic coarctation and hypoplastic left heart syndrome have been reported
in the offspring [31, 32].

1.3.1.4 Maternal Obesity

There is some evidence that obese women are at increased risk of having a child
with CHD [33, 34]. In a population-based study, the odds ratio of women with BMI
>30 having an affected child was 1.15 (95 % CI 1.07–1.23) compared to normal
weight women. The risk was even higher for women with BMI >40 compared to
BMI >30 (Odds ratio = 1.33 95 % CI 1.15–1.54). A significant trend existed between
increasing obesity and the odds ratio of having a child with CHD [33]. There is
additional evidence that risks remain high, after excluding women with pre-­
gestational diabetes and controlling for oral glucose tolerance test, suggesting that
factors other than abnormal glucose metabolism may be involved [34].

1.3.1.5 Folic Acid

There is some evidence that preconceptual folic acid supplementation protects
against the development of CHD [35, 36], similar to the known risk reduction for
neural tube defects [35–37]. This finding was first identified from a Hungarian ran-
domized trial on birth defects where the use of multivitamins containing folic acid
was associated with an approximate 60 % overall reduction in risk for CHD [38,
39]. A similar population-based case-control study done in Atlanta revealed an
approximate 25 % overall reduction in risk for CHD [40]. Although folic acid-­
containing multivitamin supplements seem to have a possible protective effect for
CHD, the results are still inconclusive due to the limited number of studies and the
multifactorial nature of CHD.

1.3.1.6 Teratogenic Drugs

Exposure to teratogenic drugs during pregnancy may be unavoidable, including
anticonvulsants (e.g. phenytoin, carbamazepine and valproic acid) and antidepres-
sants (e.g. lithium carbonate). Other examples include retinoids, ethanol and ACE
inhibitors [37].

1.3.2 Fetal Risk Factors

1.3.2.1 Increased Nuchal Translucency

An increased nuchal translucency (NT) thickness measured by ultrasound in the
fetus at 10–14 weeks of gestation is a recognized marker for chromosomal abnor-
malities and is also an independent risk factor for CHD [41]. The reason for this
1  Fetal Heart Disease 7

association is unclear but may be related to the lymphatic system [42]. In chromo-
somally normal fetuses, the risk of CHD increases with increasing NT measurement
[42, 43]. Thus, in a proportion of affected pregnancies, CHD can potentially be
identified in the late first/early second trimester. In a pooled analysis of CHD diag-
nosed in four major centres, increased NT was associated with earlier diagnosis by
approximately 6 weeks [44]. However, despite this strong association, the NT mea-
surement alone is only modestly effective as a screening tool as most fetuses with
major CHD have normal measurements [45]. It has been shown that NT>95th cen-
tile (~2.5 mm but value varies with fetal crown-rump-length) and NT >99th centile
(> 3.5 mm) may predict 37 % and 31 % of major CHD, respectively [46]. The pres-
ence of increased NT in combination with tricuspid regurgitation and abnormal
ductus venosus Doppler flow profile in the first trimester is a stronger marker for
CHD [47].
It is currently recommended that all women with a fetal NT measurement greater
than 3.5 mm be referred for detailed fetal cardiac assessment. Depending on local
resources and expertise, fetuses with NT >4 mm may be evaluated in early preg-
nancy, at 13–16 weeks of gestation.

1.3.2.2 Extra-Cardiac and Chromosomal Abnormalities

Certain extra-cardiac and chromosomal abnormalities should prompt referral to
fetal cardiology. Conversely, in the presence of a major CHD, fetal medicine assess-
ment is also indicated. Important examples include abdominal wall defects (e.g.
exomphalos), gastrointestinal obstruction (e.g. duodenal atresia) and diaphragmatic
hernia [48–50]. In the latter, the fetal heart may also show features of left heart
hypoplasia, even in the absence of a structural defect, which may represent func-
tional alterations due to external compression [51]. Fetal cardiac abnormalities may
also occur in association with central nervous, genitourinary and skeletal systems.
The most common examples of chromosomal defects associated with CHD are
trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) and micro-deletion of chromosome 22q11 (Di George
syndrome), with a high prevalence of atrioventricular septal defects and conotruncal
malformations, respectively.

1.3.2.3 Suspected CHD

It is long known that the most important factor to detect fetal CHD is to suspect an
abnormality during routine screening. About 80 % of abnormal cases in Alan’s
series were cases of suspected CHD [1]. Many other reports have echoed these find-
ings and as outflow tract views are gradually incorporated into routine screening,
the detection rate of CHD is expected to increase.

1.4 Screening for CHD

Following the French initiative to introduce the four-chamber view to routine obstetric
scans and subsequent introduction of outflow tract views, in utero detection of major
CHD still remains around 50 % according to most recent studies [52–55]. Cardiac
8 J.S. Carvalho and O. Api

lesions that require intervention in the first 28 days of life are defined as critical CHD,
and without prenatal diagnosis, some may not be identified until after neonatal dis-
charge, leading to increased morbidity and mortality [56–58]. Some reports have shown
that prenatal diagnosis of specific types of CHD has a positive impact on outcome
[59–61]. Thus, every effort should be made to improve antenatal detection of CHD.

1.4.1 Screening Guidelines and UK Cardiac Protocol

Over the years, the importance of assessing outflow tracts when screening for CHD in
pregnancy has been stressed – but with the caveat ‘when technically feasible’[62–64].
In 2008, the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence [65] also recom-
mended that outflow tracts should be included to screening. However, this was only
implemented in 2010 when the National Health Service Fetal Anomaly Screening
Programme (NHS FASP), now part of NHS England, published a national cardiac pro-
tocol. The FASP protocol included assessment of (1) situs, (2) four-­chamber view, (3)
left ventricular outflow tract and (4) right ventricular outflow tract or three-vessel view.
In 2013, the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology
(ISUOG) also published revised guidelines whereby a comprehensive assessment
of the fetal heart is recommended and achieved through five axial planes of the fetal
chest [66, 67] (Fig. 1.1). The 2010 FASP protocol did not include the fifth plane
(three-vessel and trachea view), which is to be incorporated in the UK screening
programme in 2016 [68]. Both ISUOG and FASP recommended that fetal laterality
and visceral situs be part of screening. This was first suggested in 1997 [69]. Its
screening value should not be underestimated as many complex forms of CHD are
associated with atrial isomerism/heterotaxy.
In practice, it is difficult to ensure that guidelines are followed at national and
international level in order to deliver equal care to all pregnant women worldwide. It
is well accepted that the effectiveness of any screening programme is highly depen-
dent on training, so that professionals responsible for screening can deliver such care
[70–72]. Data from the UK National Institute for Cardiovascular Outcomes Research
[73] shows that the percentage of infants requiring surgery or catheter intervention
for CHD has increased over the years since 2003. A steeper increase around 2010
suggests this may be related to introduction of the FASP cardiac protocol.

1.5 Fetal Cardiology Assessment

The role of a fetal cardiologist, beyond making an accurate diagnosis, is to provide

the parents with a comprehensive, evidence-based picture of the outcome possibili-
ties, starting with pregnancy, through childhood, and into adult life [74]. This is not
an easy task. Surgical results and outcomes are constantly changing and naturally,
counselling is lesion specific (e.g. tetralogy of Fallot) and within each lesion, it is
further tailored to the scan findings in each individual fetus (e.g. tetralogy of Fallot
with pulmonary stenosis versus pulmonary atresia).
1  Fetal Heart Disease 9

Ideally, fetal cardiac assessment happens within a fetal medicine unit or in close
collaboration with a fetal medicine specialist to facilitate a multidisciplinary
approach. In the fetus with a cardiac abnormality, risk of extra-cardiac, chromo-
somal or genetic abnormalities and the option of invasive tests (amniocentesis or
cordocentesis) need to be discussed. The first step, however, is to establish an accu-
rate diagnosis. Similarly to postnatal cardiology, it is important to adopt a structured
approach, often based on a sequential segmental analysis (SSA) of the heart
[75–77].

3VTV IV RV outflow/ 3VV

Tr
SVC dAo

Ao
PA

III

LV outflow

II

4-Chamber

Situs

Fig. 1.1 (a) The five axial views for optimal fetal heart screening. The colour image shows the
trachea, heart and great vessels, liver and stomach, with the five planes of insonation indicated by
polygons corresponding to the grey-scale images, as indicated. (I) Most caudal plane, showing
abdominal situs. (II) Four-chamber view. (III) Left ventricular (LV) outflow tract. (IV) Right ven-
tricular (RV) outflow tract/three-vessel view (3VV). (V) Three vessels and trachea view (3VTV). Ao
aorta, dAo descending aorta, PA pulmonary artery, SVC superior vena cava, Tr trachea (Modified
with permission from Carvalho et al. and Yagel et al. © ISUOG [66, 67]). (b) Increase in number
referrals for suspected cardiac abnormalities, 2003–2013, Fetal Medicine Unit, St George’s
Hospital, London, UK
 10 J.S. Carvalho and O. Api

Referrals for suspected abnormalities

160
Number of referrals

120

60

40

0
2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013
Year

Fig. 1.1 (continued)

1.5.1 Structural Fetal CHD

Being able to confirm normality of the fetal heart is as important as making the
diagnosis of CHD, simple or complex. For the pregnant woman who is aware of
the increased risk of cardiac malformation in her unborn child, reassurance is of
paramount importance. For those referred because of a suspected abnormality,
accuracy of diagnosis forms the platform for subsequent pregnancy management.
Neither scenario can be underestimated. In both instances, it is important to
approach the fetal heart in a logical manner. The SSA offers a step-by-step
approach to describing the cardiac anatomy in normal and malformed fetal hearts.
Determination of situs, cardiac connections and associated defects facilitates
understanding of the pathophysiology of abnormalities, which is essential for
counselling families.
When applied to the fetus, the SSA differs, in that prior to ascertaining abdomi-
nal situs and by inference, atrial arrangement, it is imperative to determine fetal
laterality [69, 77]. This is achieved by assessing fetal lie within the maternal abdo-
men so that the right and left sides of the fetus can be established. Subsequently, the
same 7postnatal rules and definitions used in the SSA apply.
The diagnosis of major CHD involving abnormalities of cardiac connections is
often straightforward, such as in tricuspid atresia and complete transposition of the
great arteries (Fig. 1.2). More complex lesions, including those seen in the setting
of atrial isomerism, can also be identified accurately but are also more challenging.
1  Fetal Heart Disease 11

a b

c d e

Fig. 1.2 (a) Four-chamber view obtained from a fetus with tricuspid atresia, obtained at 32 weeks
of gestation. Left panel, 2D and right panel, with colour Doppler. The arrow points to the absent
right atrioventricular connection. (b) Images obtained from a fetus at 23 weeks of gestation, with
complete transposition. Left panel (2D) and right panel (e-flow mapping) are sagittal views of the
fetus showing the parallel arrangement of the two vessels with an anterior aorta and posterior pul-
monary artery. (c–e) Images obtained from a hydropic fetus at 25 weeks of gestation, with supra-
ventricular tachycardia, partially controlled on dual maternal therapy. (c) Shows fetal ascites, (d)
four-chamber view shows cardiomegaly and mitral and tricuspid regurgitation, (e) M-mode recod-
ing shows 1:1 atrioventricular conduction with heart rate = 215 bpm. Pretreatment rate was
270 bpm. The rhythm was sinus a few days afterward. Ao aorta, LA left atrium, LV left ventricle,
RA right atrium, RV right ventricle, PA pulmonary artery, * rudimentary RV

It can be more difficult to exclude relatively minor defects, e.g. a small to moderate
perimembranous ventricular septal defect, than to diagnose a complex abnormality.
If images are suboptimal, additional scans may be needed.
An important consideration in fetal heart disease relates to potential progression of
obstructive lesions as pregnancy advances [78–80]. A classical example is seen in
critical aortic stenosis in mid-pregnancy that is likely to progress to hypoplastic left
heart syndrome (Fig. 1.3). Also to be taken into account in predicting postnatal pre-
sentation of CHD are the physiological perinatal circulatory changes. In addition to
closure of the foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus and ductus venosus, changes in right
and left ventricular preload and afterload may alter the appearances of the normal and
abnormal heart. This is particularly relevant in cases of borderline left ventricle when
trying to predict if it will be able to sustain a biventricular circulation after birth.
12 J.S. Carvalho and O. Api

a b c

d e f

Fig. 1.3 (a–c) Images obtained from a fetus at 21 weeks of gestation with critical aortic stenosis.
(a) Four-chamber view in diastole on 2D (left panel) and colour flow (right panel) shows a dilated
left atrium. The left ventricle reaches the cardiac apex and shows areas of hyperechogenicity. (b)
Left ventricular outflow tract view in systole. Note the presence of important mitral regurgitation
and a narrow jet (arrow) of forward flow across the aortic valve. (c) Pulsed wave Doppler shows
high aortic velocity (290 cm/s, normal for gestation ~60–70 cm/s). (d–f) Images obtained from a
fetus at 14 weeks of gestation with hypoplastic left heart syndrome. (d) Four-chamber view in
diastole, on 2D (left panel) and e-flow mapping (right panel). Note filling of the right ventricle
only. (e) Transverse view through upper mediastinum at the level of the three-vessel view. E-flow
mapping shows a large ductal arch only. No aortic flow seen at this level. (f) Sagittal view demon-
strates forward flow across the ductal arch and reversed flow in the transverse aortic arch. Ant
anterior, LA left atrium, LV left ventricle, Post posterior, RA right atrium, RV right ventricle, VMax
maximal velocity

1.5.2 Fetal Arrhythmias

Fetal cardiac rhythm should be regular and heart rate roughly ranges from 120 to
160 beats per minute (bpm). M-mode echocardiography and pulsed-wave Doppler
are the most commonly used methods to assess rhythm in the fetus, based on simul-
taneous recording of atrial and ventricular activities [81]. The most common rhythm
disturbances are intermittent extrasystoles, which are of little clinical relevance.
Arrhythmias that potentially affect fetal well-being or have postnatal implications
for the newborn and child are relatively uncommon. Less than 10 % of referrals are
due to sustained tachy- or bradyarrhythmias [81].
Intermittent extrasystoles are frequently encountered, usually of atrial origin and
generally considered to be ‘benign’. They are often described as ‘skipped’ or
‘missed’ beats, which can cause a lot of anxiety, even if the vast majority resolve
1  Fetal Heart Disease 13

spontaneously and require no treatment. In about 2 % of cases, skipped beats may
represent incomplete heart block [82] or be associated with intermittent tachycar-
dia. Therefore, it is important that these possibilities be excluded. A scan performed
locally by the sonographer or obstetrician usually suffices. If heart rate is within
normal range, with no fluid accumulation in any fetal compartment and the cardiac
screening views are normal, the pregnant woman can be reassured. Urgent referral
to a specialist is only warranted in a few selected cases when either heart rate and/
or the scan findings are abnormal [83]. If the ectopic beats occur ‘very frequently’
(i.e. the rhythm is irregular most of the time), there is a slightly higher risk of fetus
developing a tachyarrhythmia [84] and a referral is also warranted, after the initial
assessment in the local hospital.
Tachycardia is defined as rate ≥180 bpm. If persistent, it may lead to congestive
heart failure and hydrops fetalis (Fig. 1.3). If it is intermittent or not, urgent referral
to the fetal cardiologist is required. However, not all cases need treatment as some-
times the arrhythmia resolves spontaneously. Thus, if the fetus is stable, close moni-
toring of fetal heart rate for 24 h or so to determine if the arrhythmia persists may be
appropriate, before initiating therapy. If there is sustained tachycardia or it persists
for >50 % of the time, or the fetus is compromised, fetal treatment or delivery of the
baby (if gestational age ≥37 weeks) is indicated. Choice of medication varies from
centre to centre and with experience. Maternal transplacental transfer is the preferred
option to deliver the chosen drug to the fetus. Currently, a randomized controlled
trial for treatment of fetal tachyarrhythmia is on its early implementation phase [85].
Traditionally, fetal bradycardia has been defined as rates <100 bpm but current
obstetric threshold is 110 bpm [86]. More recently, gestational age-specific heart rates
have been developed and centile charts are available [87]. Transient periods of sinus
bradycardia during scanning are common and benign. Persistent sinus bradycardia is
relatively rare and may be a manifestation of long QT syndrome [87]. More com-
monly however, fetal bradycardia is due to blocked atrial bigeminy, which typically
presents with heart rate around 70–80 bpm. This can be transient or last for days or
weeks. Whilst it is well tolerated by the fetus and of no hemodynamic consequence,
it is important to differentiate blocked bigeminy from second-degree atrioventricular
block with 2:1 conduction [82]. Heart block is often caused by transplacental passage
of circulating maternal IgG antibodies (anti-Ro/ SSA and anti-La/SSB), which causes
injury to the conduction tissue with subsequent fibrous replacement. Certain forms of
CHD can also lead to fetal heart block, notably cases which are associated with left
isomerism, but it can also occur in the presence of atrioventricular discordance. The
prognosis for autoimmune-mediated complete atrioventricular block is better than if
associated with CHD but there still is significant mortality and morbidity. Most survi-
vors require pacemaker implantation in the first year of life [88].

1.5.3 Inherited Cardiac Conditions

Despite recent advances in genetics and better understanding of inherited cardiac

conditions that may confer a 50 % risk to the fetus, little has been reported in fetal
14 J.S. Carvalho and O. Api

life. Inherited cardiomyopathies are relatively uncommon in the fetus [89].

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy rarely manifests prenatally, but can be associated
with Noonan syndrome. Among channelopathies, recent data on prenatal manifesta-
tion of long QT syndrome, bradycardia with rates below the 3rd centile for gesta-
tional age, has increased interest in identifying affected fetuses [87]. Among
aortopathies and related conditions, there are scarce fetal reports, mainly related to
the infantile type of Marfan syndrome [90].

1.5.4 Early Fetal Echocardiography

Initial observations of CHD diagnosed in the first trimester of pregnancy were made
by obstetricians utilizing a transvaginal approach [91, 92]. Subsequently, it became
clear that the transabdominal route could also be used in clinical practice to image
the fetal heart at less than 14 weeks gestation [93]. Over the years, this practice has
become more common. The number of fetal cardiologists offering a detailed assess-
ment of the fetal heart at 15–16 weeks has increased but it is not yet universally
available. Early scans can be challenging due to the small fetal heart size and addi-
tional technical limitations sometimes imposed by fetal position and maternal char-
acteristics. Nevertheless, its clinical utility in high-risk pregnancies has been shown
by a number of investigators [94–97]. Similarly to mid-gestation, it is very impor-
tant that the fetus with CHD identified early in pregnancy be assessed by a multidis-
ciplinary team, especially in cases referred because of increased NT measurements.
Figure 1.3 illustrates a case of hypoplastic left heart syndrome diagnosed at 14 weeks
in a woman referred with family history of CHD.

1.6 Counselling and Pregnancy Options

Counselling a woman who attends for a fetal echocardiogram should start before the
scan is performed. For each family, the perceived risks of encountering an abnor-
mality during the scan and/or the likelihood of the scan being normal should be
discussed. Limitations posed by early scans (<16 weeks) should be highlighted.
This prepares the woman for what to expect, especially when she is referred due to
a suspected abnormality.
Following the diagnosis of any form of CHD, the ultrasound findings are
explained to the family, often with the help of diagrams to help them understand the
anatomy and pathophysiological implications of the defect. An account of the likely
postnatal manifestations of the disease, surgical options, risks and need for long-­
term follow-up is provided. In cases where progression is expected to occur during
pregnancy, the need for serial fetal scans is reinforced. Family consultation is often
in the presence of a fetal cardiac nurse specialist who provides the family with
ongoing support. An obstetric/fetal medicine assessment should also be arranged on
the same day or shortly afterwards to exclude or document extra-cardiac abnormali-
ties and review pregnancy risks for chromosomal abnormalities and genetic
syndromes.
1  Fetal Heart Disease 15

The option of an invasive procedure (amniocentesis or cordocentesis) to check

fetal karyotype is discussed, often jointly between the fetal cardiac and fetal medi-
cine specialists. Depending on the type of CHD, associated abnormalities and ges-
tational age, the option of TOP, if legally possible, is also discussed. Interrupting the
pregnancy often involves induction of labour and may require fetocide, depending
on gestational age. In the UK, the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
recommend this be performed at >22 completed weeks of gestation. Spontaneous
fetal demise in the absence of heart failure/ hydrops is uncommon, but the risk is
increased if there is an associated chromosomal abnormality (e.g. trisomy 21).
There is growing literature – summarized in a recent meta-analysis, indicating
that, in the absence of known chromosomal or genetic abnormalities, the child with
major CHD is at increased risk of brain abnormalities (detected on neuroimaging)
and neurodevelopmental delay [98, 99]. Most of the reported cases are examples of
hypoplastic left heart syndrome and complete transposition. In this analysis, the
findings were independent of surgical risk, but it did not provide data to indicate if
the origin was fetal or postnatal. On a more recent meta-analysis, there is some
evidence to suggest that at least in part, some of these changes occur before birth
[100]. However, a survey of experts’ attitudes towards counselling families regard-
ing risks of development delay in CHD advises caution [101]. Any information
provided needs to be accurate but is inevitably based on current knowledge, which
is limited by the retrospective nature of the published studies and lack of correlation
between individual neuroimaging abnormalities and developmental outcome.
Further research is required in this important area.

1.7 Perinatal Plan for the Fetus with CHD

One of the strengths of prenatal diagnosis is optimization of perinatal care. Fetuses

expected to have neonatal intervention require delivery in a hospital with facilities
to stabilize the neonate. In some instances, this needs to be at or close to a cardiac
unit. However, local delivery is also possible, depending on the abnormality and
available local human and medical resources [102–105].
Ideally, babies with CHD will be delivered at term. For those with critical defects,
retrospective data suggest that mortality is lower if delivery occurs at 39–40 com-
pleted weeks. Delivery before 39 weeks is also associated with increased morbidity.
However, premature delivery may be unavoidable, for example, if there is spontane-
ous labour or obstetric concern about fetal growth.
The neonatal team will be aware that a child with major or critical CHD is to be
delivered and should be aware of the initial postnatal management.

1.8 Changing Pattern of Fetal CHD

Traditionally, fetal CHD meant complex CHD. The defects were often associated
with worse prognosis, with many abnormalities leading to a univentricular circula-
tion. For many years, abnormal hearts showing a normal four-chamber view were
16 J.S. Carvalho and O. Api

unlikely to be recognized on routine screening. In the mid-1990s only 3 % of

infants with complete transposition undergoing surgery were antenatally diag-
nosed [5]. With improvements in screening and especially the introduction of out-
flow tract views, fetal diagnosis of less complex abnormalities with potential for
biventricular repair has increased. However, there has also been an increase in
detection of CHD that may not require intervention or may be considered variants
of normal. This new, emerging pattern of fetal CHD will enhance our understand-
ing of natural history. For example, it is clear that many children with an isolated
right aortic arch are asymptomatic [106] and would have not been diagnosed had
it not been for prenatal screening. It also seems that persistence of a left superior
vena draining into the coronary sinus as an isolated finding is not uncommon.
Nevertheless, when a pregnant woman is referred for fetal cardiology assessment,
the anxiety generated is not insignificant and prompt evaluation is required in order
to clarify if fetal CHD is present and the potential impact it may have on the child
and family.

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Contraception and Cardiovascular
Disease 2
Jan S. Erkamp and Jérôme Cornette

Abbreviations

COC Combined oral contraceptives

DMPA Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate
IUDs Intrauterine devices
LARC Long-acting reversible contraceptives
LNG-IUS Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system
PCOS Polycystic ovary syndrome
PID Pelvic inflammatory disease
WHO-MEC WHO medical eligibility criteria

2.1 Introduction

With improvements in medical and surgical management, most women with con-
genital or acquired heart disease will reach reproductive age and become sexually
active [1, 2]. As for healthy women, contraception is important for women with
heart disease for various reasons. Besides preventing unintended pregnancies, it can
be used for cycle control, treatment of hyperandrogenism and prevention of

J.S. Erkamp, MD
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Franciscus Gasthuis,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
J. Cornette, MD, PhD (*)
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Erasmus Medical Center,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 23

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_2
24 J.S. Erkamp and J. Cornette

sexually transmittable diseases [3–5]. However, some issues, like drug interactions
with cardiac medication and effects on haemodynamics, are very specific to women
with cardiac disease and deserve particular attention.
Women with simple cardiac lesions often have similar pregnancy and contraceptive-­
related risks as healthy women, but these risks are substantially higher in women with
complex heart disease [1, 2, 6]. Adequate contraception prevents unintended pregnan-
cies and thereby the pregnancy associated risk of that particular cardiac condition. If
pregnancy is undesired, contraception prevents termination of pregnancy, which,
beside the emotional burden, also carries added medical risks in this population.
Contraception can also help to carefully plan and prepare women for pregnancy,
which helps achieving better pregnancy outcomes. Some cardiac conditions imply
an absolute contraindication for pregnancy, making effective contraception an
essential part of disease management [2].
Most women with heart disease are not or, perhaps even worse, inappropriately
advised on the use of contraceptives [7]. Oestrogen-containing formulations with
their inherent increased risk of thromboembolic disease are still widely prescribed,
while safer alternatives with better contraceptive efficacy are available [8, 9]. Each
woman deserves personalised contraceptive advice, which takes her specific medi-
cal problems and personal preference into account. A team, consisting of general
practitioners, cardiologists and gynaecologists, each with their particular area of
expertise on the subject, is best paced to provide contraceptive advice to women
with cardiac disease. In young girls with heart disease, it is important to address
contraception from the menarche, which often starts around the age of 12–13; while
this might seem early, up to 30 % will have sexual intercourse before the age of 15
and up to 50 % by the age of 17 [7, 8]. Usually, this event is not planned and without
prior discussion with their parents or healthcare providers.
Most contraceptive advice is based on data from women without heart disease.
The first consideration is the efficacy of the contraceptive method. Large studies
have determined efficacy of each method, expressing efficacy as the incidence of
unplanned pregnancy over a year of theoretical contraceptive use (correct use) or
typical use (use in real live) as the main outcome measure [10]. The efficacy of a
contraceptive method is based on its mechanism of action and is dependent on cor-
rect use. The discrepancy between theoretical and typical use is more pronounced
when the method requires a substantial amount of compliance or in case of a smaller
safety window (time frame in which contraceptive efficacy persists). Equally, the
chances of the patient continuing to use a given contraceptive method are higher if
she feels well while using that particular method [6]. Creating realistic expectations
during counselling leads to higher satisfaction and helps accepting side effects that
may be undesirable, as is the case with abnormal bleeding patterns [11–13]. These
factors are important when striving for optimal patient adherence and long-term
results.
The modified WHO classification of maternal cardiovascular risk assesses risks
and consequences of pregnancy, and WHO medical eligibility criteria (WHO-MEC)
for contraceptive use can be used as a guideline in women with specific conditions
[14, 15]. Recommendations are made using four categories for each contraceptive
2  Contraception and Cardiovascular Disease 25

Table 2.1  MEC categories for contraceptive eligibility [15]

1 A condition for which there is no restriction for the use of the contraceptive method
2 A condition where the advantages of using the method generally outweigh the theoretical or
proven risks
3 A condition where the theoretical or proven risks usually outweigh the advantages of using
the method
4 A condition which represents an unacceptable health risk if the contraceptive method is used

method and medical condition including heart disease. Categories range from 1,
where there is no restriction on the use of the contraceptive method, to category 4
where the condition represents an unacceptable health risk if the contraceptive
method is used (Table 2.1) [15, 16]. These guidelines are regularly updated based on
available evidence or on expert opinion if the evidence is lacking.

2.2 Short-Acting Contraceptives

Barrier contraceptives (male condoms, female condoms, diaphragms), coitus inter-

ruptus and fertility awareness-based methods (calendar methods, temperature
curves) are considered insufficient as failure rates are substantial [10]. While 1 year
of typical use of male condom as a sole form of contraception is associated with
pregnancy rates up to 18 %, this method still has its value in protection against sexu-
ally transmitted diseases (STDs) or as an additional method of contraception when
necessary.
Combined oestrogen and progesterone contraceptives are successful in prevent-
ing pregnancies, but their efficacy is highly dependent on correct use [10, 17].
They consist of different combinations and doses of either ethinylestradiol or
estradiol along with a progestogen. The progestogen component varies and is clas-
sified by generation (1–4), each with specific characteristics. They are usually deliv-
ered in the form of a daily oral tablet but can also be administered transdermally
(weekly patch) or through the vaginal mucosa (3-week vaginal ring), thereby avoid-
ing the hepatic first-pass effect. This method acts on three different levels. Ovulation
is inhibited; cervical mucus is thickened, preventing sperm penetration; and endo-
metrial receptivity is altered, preventing implantation.
An advantage of the combined oral contraceptives (COC) is improved cycle con-
trol, with lighter, less painful and more regular periods. Traditionally, they are used
for 3 weeks, after which a withdrawal bleed is induced, mimicking the natural cycle.
However, the frequency of withdrawal bleeds can easily be reduced if desired by
prolonged or continuous use [3, 4, 18]. Combined oral contraceptives can help in
managing ovarian cysts, PCOS (polycystic ovary syndrome), or relieve symptoms
of hyperandrogenism [5].
Of concern is the two- to sevenfold increased risk of venous thrombosis associ-
ated with any type of COC. This is mainly induced by the oestrogen component
which elevates the level of circulating vitamin K-depending clotting factors,
26 J.S. Erkamp and J. Cornette

plasminogen and platelet adhesion and reduces the anti-thrombin levels [16]. While
this increase in risk is substantial and consequences are important, one should bear
in mind that the absolute risk remains low in the range of 8–10/10,000 women-years
exposure.
COC also increase the risk of arterial thrombosis and dyslipidaemia and may
induce hypertension through an increase in the circulating blood volume [16, 19, 20].
Therefore, COC are not recommended or are contraindicated when the cardiac
condition increases the risk of hypertensive, ischaemic or thrombogenic complica-
tions or when the consequences of such complications are more severe [9, 15]. As
such, COC are not suitable in women with (a history of) ischaemic heart disease,
hypertension and additional thrombogenic factors or women with atrial flutter or
fibrillation [9, 21–23]. In women with potential right to left shunts (cyanotic heart
disease, unoperated ASD), venous thrombosis might result in paradoxical embo-
lism and stroke.
In women with complicated valvular disease or Fontan circulation, the risks and
consequences of thrombogenic complications (mechanical valve thrombosis, pul-
monary embolus) are such that this form of contraception is also contraindicated.
While some controversy exists on whether the increased thrombogenic risk of
COC persists when anticoagulant drugs are used, most guidelines still recommend
against the use of COC in these cases. An exception might be made in women on
oral anticoagulants in whom ovulation bleeding leads to a massive life-threatening
haemoperitoneum. In these rare cases, COC is the method of contraception that
most effectively suppresses ovulation.
Also one should be aware of the potential influence of both progestogens and
oestrogens on the metabolism of warfarin, requiring more frequent INR monitoring
when COC are initiated in women on established oral anticoagulation therapy [24].
Alternatively, some drugs used in certain cardiac conditions may reduce the efficacy
of combined oral contraceptives. Bosentan, which is used in management of pulmo-
nary hypertension, accelerates the metabolism of contraceptive steroids, requiring
additional contraceptive measures like a condom [9, 16, 25].
COC may induce some fluid retention, but there is no evidence that contraceptive
steroid hormones affect cardiac function directly. Still, combined oral contracep-
tives are contraindicated in women with a reduced ejection fraction after a myocar-
dial infarction, especially in the presence of other risk factors, like smoking and
hypertension.
There is no formal contraindication for COC use in women with isolated arrhyth-
mias (isolated supraventricular or ventricular extra beats, AVNT or VT in long QT
syndrome).
Contraceptive pills, containing progesterone only, prevent sperm penetration by
cervical mucus thickening and prevent implantation by reducing endometrial recep-
tivity. If used in a higher dose, ovulation may be inhibited [17, 26]. No increased
risk of thrombosis in women using progesterone-only pills is reported [27]. These
pills can contain different types of progestogens with varying efficacy and safety
window and are commonly used as additional contraception in lactating women.
2  Contraception and Cardiovascular Disease 27

Desogestrel (Cerazette)-containing tablets are effective in inhibiting ovulation with

a safety window of 12 h and have similar efficacy as the combined oral contracep-
tive pill [9, 16, 25, 26, 28]. They are therefore the only pills of this type recom-
mended in women with (severe) cardiac disease.

2.3 Long-Acting Reversible Contraceptives (LARC)

Long-acting reversible contraceptives consist of intrauterine devices (IUDs), sub-

dermal implants and intramuscular injections of DMPA (depot-­medroxyprogesterone
acetate). By eliminating patient adherence, the efficacy of LARC is excellent, even
exceeding sterilisation [10, 29]. Two models of IUDs exist: levonorgestrel-releasing
intrauterine system (LNG-IUS) and copper-bearing IUDs. LNG-IUS induces endo-
metrial atrophy and causes formation of a cervical mucus plug, impeding sperm
penetration and implantation over a 5-year period. Copper is toxic to the ova and
sperm and induces endometrial inflammation which prevents implantation, offering
contraception for 10 years [30]. IUDs can be used in both nulliparous and multipa-
rous women. IUDs can be inserted at any point of the cycle or directly postpartum
[31, 32]. Insertion during menstruation offers immediate contraception and is facili-
tated by the physiological opening of the cervical ostium.
Fertility rapidly returns upon removal [29]. Uterine perforation and spontaneous
expulsion are rare but are recognised complications. Importantly, IUDs are devoid
of increased thrombotic risk. LNG-IUSs increase the levels of high-density lipopro-
tein, making it a good option for women with ischaemic heart disease and hyperlipi-
daemia [16, 20]. They often reduce menstrual blood loss, sometimes resulting in
complete amenorrhea, but the bleeding pattern may become irregular in some
women. It can help to control menstrual bleeding problems which occur more often
in women using anticoagulants [33–35]. While the natural menstrual cycle is main-
tained with copper IUDs, an increase in blood loss and discomfort are often observed
with menstruation.
The risk of pelvic infection is increased during the first 3 months after insertion,
and transient bacteraemia has been documented at replacement but is rare in uncom-
plicated insertion or removal [36, 37]. Recent studies and guidelines do not recom-
mend the standard use of prophylactic antibiotics to prevent either PID (pelvic
inflammatory disease) or endocarditis at insertion [38–43]. Nevertheless, since the
introduction of this guideline which limited the indications for antibiotic prophy-
laxis, an increase in prevalence of endocarditis has been observed in women with
cardiac disease in general [44].
As such, the administration of prophylactic antibiotics (ampicillin 2 g and gen-
tamicin 80 mg given intravenously 1 h before IUD insertion) may be considered in
women at high risk of endocarditis [45]. Insertion of an IUD requires extra caution
in women with pulmonary hypertension or Fontan repair. Vasovagal reactions may
occur upon insertion due to pain and cervical manipulation, which is potentially
dangerous in these women [9, 16, 21, 25, 46–48]. Insertion is therefore best
28 J.S. Erkamp and J. Cornette

performed with pain relief (e.g. IV opioids), cardiovascular monitoring and anaes-
thetic support on standby, to prevent or adequately anticipate the consequences of
a vagal reaction [48].
Subdermal implants, containing etonogestrel (Implanon) or levonorgestrel
(Norplant), gradually release their progesterone over the course of 3 years, inhibit-
ing ovulation and altering cervical mucus and endometrial receptivity. Subcutaneous
insertion just below the medial groove between the biceps and triceps after local
anaesthetic infiltration makes it a simple procedure, leading to contraception with
an efficacy exceeding that of sterilisation [10]. Failure rates are low due to the elimi-
nation of the “patient adherence” factor. The newer easy-to-use insertion devices
and incorporation of radioactive filaments prevent failure due to unnoticed loss and
facilitate retrieval in the rare occasion of spontaneous migration of the device [29,
49]. The simplicity of insertion (no vasovagal reaction accompanying cervical
manipulation), high efficacy and absence of increased thrombogenic risk make that
subdermal implants are an excellent option for women with mechanical valves, pul-
monary hypertension or Fontan repair [9, 11, 16, 21, 25, 29, 50, 51]. Women often
experience a reduction in vaginal blood loss in terms of amount, frequency and
duration of bleeding. Endometrial atrophy, which may occur after prolonged expo-
sure to progesterone, may cause vascular fragility, occasionally leading to irregular
and unpredictable bleeding or spotting [29, 52–55]. As previously mentioned, addi-
tional contraceptive measures should be taken in women using Bosentan.
Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate offers reliable contraception if used every
13 weeks, with a grace period of 4 weeks, but effects usually last much longer.
DMPA injections can induce intramuscular haematoma, but even in women on anti-
coagulants, this rarely seems to be of clinical significance [9, 16, 21, 25]. Uncertainty
regarding a potential thrombogenic effect remains, as evidence is conflicting [27,
51, 56, 57].

2.4 Sterilisation

Sterilisation is a good option for patients with a contraindication for pregnancy or

for couples with a completed family [9, 21, 25]. The role of sterilisation has
decreased as other highly reliable and reversible contraceptive methods have
emerged. Sterilisation does not offer non-contraceptive benefits like reduction of
blood loss or cycle control.
Although sterilisation is considered a definitive method of contraception, rever-
sal surgery may restore fertility in some cases. Laparoscopic tubal ligation and hys-
teroscopic insertion of intratubal stents are all considered good options, but these
procedures carry risks. Laparoscopic tubal ligation is performed under general
anaesthesia and requires a pneumoperitoneum with elevated intra-abdominal pres-
sures and is therefore contraindicated in the presence of pulmonary hypertension or
Fontan repair. Alternatively, an open or laparoscopic procedure with minimal infla-
tion can be considered. Perioperative cessation of anticoagulation increases risk of
2  Contraception and Cardiovascular Disease 29

thrombosis, and anaesthesia and the procedure itself create an inherent risk of
haemorrhage and infection [9, 21, 25, 58]. Sterilisation at the time of Caesarean
section is associated with a slightly higher regret and failure rate as compared to a
laparoscopic procedure [59, 60]. The psychological impact of definitive contracep-
tion, even in the case of severe heart disease with an absolute contraindication for
pregnancy, should be taken into consideration. Vasectomy imposes no risk for the
woman, but in case of a cardiac condition with a high chance of early demise, vasec-
tomy may lead to male fertility problems in a future relationship.
Hysteroscopic tubal occlusion can also be achieved using various techniques. It
does not require a skin incision or abdominal entry. Technical developments mean
that hysteroscopes are now very thin and insertion devices allow these procedures to
be performed with limited discomfort in an outpatient setting. However, pain relief
(e.g. IV opioids), cardiovascular monitoring and anaesthetic support on standby
remain necessary in women with pulmonary hypertension or Fontan repair, to pre-
vent or adequately anticipate the consequences of a vagal reaction [48]. Currently,
the most commonly used method consists of coils (Essure), which are inserted in
the proximal part of the fallopian tube and induce fibrosis and occlusion. This
method was approved in Europe and by the FDA and seems to have a low complica-
tion and low failure rate after tubal patency is assessed by ultrasound or hysterosal-
pingography after 3 months [61]. Nevertheless, recently some controversy on its
safety emerged after the reports of numerous adverse events by women. This
resulted in serious concerns about the risk of chronic pain, device migration and
contraceptive efficacy [21, 25, 62–65]. Until these concerns are resolved, it is pru-
dent to avoid this method.

2.5 Emergency Contraception

Emergency or postcoital contraception is essential in women not using any method

or in whom a contraceptive method was not used appropriately (e.g. irregular pill
intake, condom failure). The method with the highest contraceptive efficacy (failure
rate of 0.09 %) is the insertion of a copper IUD within 120 h after intercourse.
A single dose of 1.5 mg levonorgestrel inhibits follicular growth or rupture and
is therefore only effective before ovulation. It has a failure rate of 1.1 % if taken
within 72 h after unprotected coitus. Obesity (BMI >30 kg/m2) increases the failure
rate, and a copper IUD should therefore be preferred in obese women requiring
emergency contraception. Drug interactions with warfarin are reported, requiring
close control of the INR [24].
Mifepristone 25 mg or ulipristal acetate 30 mg can be taken up to 120 h after
unprotected intercourse. The superior efficacy of mifepristone and ulipristal over
levonorgestrel may arise from ovulation inhibition and its additional postovulatory
mechanism of action in inhibiting endometrial receptivity and tubal contractility.
Proper counselling on reliable ongoing contraception should be offered at the time
of provision of emergency contraception.
30 J.S. Erkamp and J. Cornette

Conclusion
Contraceptive counselling in women with cardiovascular disease should begin
early, preferably soon after menarche. Choices should be made by a multidisci-
plinary team, based on impact of pregnancy, safety of use, associated benefits of
the contraceptive and the individual’s preferences. Efficacy and ease of use are
important factors for adequate contraception. Continuation rates are highest
when the patient feels well using a particular method. Progestogen-only long-
acting reversible contraceptive methods are a good option for patients with car-
diovascular disease.

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Preconception Counseling
3
M.A.M. Kampman and P.G. Pieper

Abbreviations

ACC American College of Cardiology

ACE Angiotensin-converting enzyme
AHA American Heart Association
ARBs Angiotensin receptor blockers
AVA Aortic valve area
CHD Congenital heart defect
CT Computed tomography
ESC European Society of Cardiology
FDA Food and Drug Administration
ICD Implantable cardioverter defibrillator
LMWH Low-molecular-weight heparin
LVOT Left ventricular outflow tract
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
MVA Mitral valve area
NYHA New York Heart Association
ROPAC Registry of Pregnancy and Cardiac Disease
TPVR Total peripheral vascular resistance
WHO World Health Organization

M.A.M. Kampman, MD, PhD • P.G. Pieper, MD, PhD (*)

Department of Cardiology, University Medical Center Groningen,
Groningen, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 35
J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_3
36 M.A.M. Kampman and P.G. Pieper

3.1 Introduction

Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are the most common congenital defects in new-
borns, affecting 9/1000 live-born children worldwide [14, 54]. Due to improved
surgical techniques and medical management, the majority of these children survive
until adulthood. Nowadays, adults represent two thirds of the total CHD population,
and the prevalence of severe CHD in adults is rapidly increasing [30]. It is important
to realize that these patients are not cured, and because pregnancy requires major
hemodynamic adaptations, these women are at risk of cardiovascular complications
and worsening cardiac function.

3.2 Physiological Changes During Pregnancy

Knowledge of the normal physiological changes during pregnancy, labor, and post-
partum period is essential for doctors caring for pregnant women with (congenital)
heart disease. The most important changes are described here. The initial step is prob-
ably a fall in total peripheral vascular resistance (TPVR), as response to the circulat-
ing gestational hormones, and later in pregnancy to the low vascular resistance in the
uterus and placenta [21]. The fall in TPVR creates a relatively underfilled state, lead-
ing to an expansion of the plasma volume, and results in a rise of the cardiac output
of 30–50 % above prepregnancy values. This is achieved by increases in stroke vol-
ume and heart rate. The changes start early in pregnancy and cardiac output continues
to increase until 24 weeks of gestation. The augmented cardiac output is then main-
tained until term [41]. The hemodynamic changes described result in progressive left
ventricular remodeling. Left ventricular end-diastolic and end-systolic dimensions
increase during pregnancy, while ejection fraction remains unchanged [12, 45]. Left
ventricular mass increases as a result of eccentric hypertrophy of the myocardium.
During labor, cardiac output increases further by approximately 12 % toward the
end of labor compared with the end of pregnancy (gestational week 38–39). Pain,
anxiety, and autotransfusion because of uterine contraction play an important role in
this additional increase in cardiac output [39–41]. The puerperium is characterized
by a physiological state of overfilling, due to decompression of the vena cava infe-
rior and autotransfusion from the involution of the uterus [40].
Pregnancy constitutes a hypercoagulable state owing to the increase in coagula-
tion factors and fibrinogen. These changes protect against massive blood loss but
also result in increased risk of thromboembolic complications. Venous stasis due to
inferior vena cava compression by the growing uterus also contributes to the
increased thromboembolic risk.

3.3 Pregnancy in Women with Congenital Heart Disease

The hemodynamic changes of pregnancy can be challenging for women with (con-
genital) heart disease. Extensive research in the past decades has shown that preg-
nancy in women with CHD is associated with increased incidence rates of maternal
3  Preconception Counseling 37

cardiovascular complications and mortality, but obstetric and neonatal complica-

tions are also more common [8, 9, 42, 46, 47].
Arrhythmia and heart failure are the most frequently observed cardiac complica-
tions. Other important complications are thromboembolic events (especially in
women with mechanical heart valves) [8, 9, 42, 47]. Most of the arrhythmias occur-
ring are supraventricular in nature and not life threatening, though they can cause
hemodynamic compromise for both mother and child [50].
Data from the European Registry on Pregnancy and Cardiac Disease (ROPAC)
showed that the timing of heart failure was dependent on the nature of the underly-
ing heart disease, with heart failure in the second trimester occurring in patients
with shunt lesions or valvular heart disease. By contrast, patients with cardiomy-
opathy or ischemic heart disease developed heart failure shortly after delivery [44].
Common obstetric complications are hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and pre-
mature labor. The risk of these complications appears to be associated with the under-
lying congenital heart disease [9]. Preeclampsia during pregnancy appears an important
risk factor for development of heart failure in women with structural CHD [44].
Neonatal mortality, premature birth, and small for gestational age are frequently
observed complications in the offspring of women with cardiac disease. Offspring
outcome is worse when women experienced heart failure during pregnancy or the
peripartum period [44]. There is also a chance of recurrence of congenital heart
disease, which is addressed in Chap. 4.
In addition to pregnancy complications, late cardiovascular events also occur
more frequently. These occur more frequently in women who have experienced
cardiac complications during pregnancy [2, 23]. Deterioration in cardiac function
after pregnancy has been described in women with systemic right ventricles and
tetralogy of Fallot [6, 10, 17, 53]. Women with congenital aortic valve stenosis, who
have been pregnant, have a higher frequency of valvular interventions compared to
nulliparous women [52].
Preconception counseling is important in the care for women with congenital heart
disease and should be performed before conception or, when this was not possible, as
early as possible during pregnancy. It enables women and their partners to make a
well-informed choice whether to pursue (or continue) pregnancy or not. Preconception
counseling should be multidisciplinary with both cardiac and obstetric input, and it
should address at least the cardiovascular risk of pregnancy for the mother and wher-
ever possible fetal risk. Additionally, medication should be reviewed [13].

3.4 Risk Assessment

3.4.1 Maternal Risk

The risk of pregnancy depends on the specific type of congenital heart disease and on
the clinical condition of the patient. In general, the risk of pregnancy increases with
increasing complexity of the underlying disease, though complexity of disease alone
is insufficient for risk prediction [9, 51]. Current European Society of Cardiology
(ESC) guidelines on the management of cardiovascular disease during pregnancy
38 M.A.M. Kampman and P.G. Pieper

Table 3.1  Modified World Health Organization (WHO) risk classification

WHO I (no increased risk of maternal mortality, mild increased risk of maternal morbidity)
Uncomplicated, small, or mild
 Pulmonary valve stenosis
 Patent ductus arteriosus
 Mitral valve prolapse
Successfully repaired simple lesions
 Atrial septal defect
 Ventricular septal defect
 Patent ductus arteriosus
 Anomalous pulmonary venous drainage
WHO II (small increased risk of maternal mortality, moderate increased risk of maternal
morbidity)
Unoperated atrial or ventricular septal defect
Repaired tetralogy of Fallot
WHO II-III (depending on individual)
Mild left ventricular impairment
Native or tissue valvular heart disease not considered WHO I or IV
Marfan syndrome without aortic dilatation
Aorta <45 mm in aortic disease associated with bicuspid aortic valve
Repaired coarctation
WHO III (significantly increased risk of maternal mortality or severe morbidity)
Mechanical valve
Systemic right ventricle
Fontan circulation
Cyanotic heart disease (unrepaired)
Other complex congenital heart disease
Aortic dilatation 40–45 mm in Marfan syndrome
Aortic dilatation 45–50 mm in aortic disease associated with bicuspid aortic valve
WHO IV (extremely high risk of maternal mortality or severe morbidity, pregnancy contraindicated)
Pulmonary arterial hypertension of any cause
Severe systemic ventricular dysfunction (LVEF <30 %, New York Heart Association functional
(NYHA) III–IV)
Previous peripartum cardiomyopathy with any residual impairment of left ventricular function
Severe mitral stenosis, severe symptomatic aortic stenosis
Marfan syndrome with aorta dilated >45 mm
Aortic dilatation >50 mm in aortic disease associated with bicuspid aortic valve
Native severe coarctation

recommend the use of the modified World Health Organization (WHO) risk class to
identify maternal cardiovascular risk during pregnancy (Table 3.1) [13]. Since this
risk classification integrates all identified maternal cardiovascular risk predictors,
including underlying heart disease, residual lesions, and any other comorbidity, this
classification is the preferred manner of identifying the cardiovascular risk during
pregnancy. For women in modified WHO risk class IV, termination of pregnancy
should always be discussed, since maternal mortality and morbidity risk are high.
In the past decade, various predictors of adverse maternal cardiac outcome have
been identified, and two widely used prediction models, CARPREG and ZAHARA,
have been developed (Table 3.2) [8, 24, 25, 47–49]. These risk scores assign points
3  Preconception Counseling 39

Table 3.2  Risk predictors for adverse maternal and neonatal outcome
Maternal outcome Risk
points
CARPREGa
Prior cardiac event (heart failure, stroke/transient ischemic attack) or arrhythmia 1.0
Baseline NYHA functional class >II or cyanosis 1.0
Left heart obstruction (mitral valve area (MVA) <2 cm2, aortic valve area (AVA) 1.0
<1.5 cm2, or peak left ventricular outflow tract gradient (LVOT) >30 mmHg)
Reduced systemic ventricular systolic function (ejection fraction <40 %) 1.0
ZAHARAb
History of arrhythmias 1.5
Use of cardiac medication before pregnancy 1.5
Baseline NYHA functional class ≥2 0.75
Left heart obstruction (peak aortic gradient >50 mmHg or AVA <1.5 cm2 or mitral 2.5
valve area <2.0 cm2)
Moderate/severe systemic atrioventricular valve regurgitation 0.75
Moderate/severe pulmonary atrioventricular valve regurgitation 0.75
Mechanical valve prosthesis 4.25
Repaired or unrepaired cyanotic heart disease 1.0
Other studies
Smoking history
Severe pulmonary valve regurgitation/depressed subpulmonary ventricular ejection fraction
Mechanical valve prosthesis
Subpulmonary ventricular dysfunction (TAPSE <16 mm)
Use of cardiac medication
Use of anticoagulation
Pulmonary hypertension
Dilatation subpulmonary ventricle
Neonatal outcome
CARPREG
NYHA functional class <II or cyanosis
Heparin/warfarin during pregnancy
Smoking
Multiple gestation
Left heart obstruction (mitral valve area <2 cm2, aortic valve area <1.5 cm2 or peak left
ventricular outflow tract gradient >30 mmHg)
ZAHARA
Multiple gestation
Smoking
Repaired or unrepaired cyanotic heart disease
Mechanical valve prosthesis
Use of cardiac medication before pregnancy
AVA aortic valve area, MVA mitral valve area, LVOT left ventricular outflow tract, NYHA New York
Heart Association functional class
a
For each CARPREG predictor present, 1 point is assigned. The risk of maternal cardiovascular
complications is 5 % with 0 points, 27 % with 1 points, and 75 % with ≥2 points
b
For each ZAHARA predictor present, a predictor-specific number of points is assigned. The risk
of maternal cardiovascular complications is 2.9 % with <0.5 points, 7.5 % with 0.5–1.5 points,
17 % with 1.51–2.50 points, 43.1 % with 2.51–3.5 points, and 70 % >3.5 points
40 M.A.M. Kampman and P.G. Pieper

when specific risk predictors are present, and the total of points gathered gives an
indication of maternal cardiovascular risk during pregnancy. The CARPREG and
ZAHARA risk scores have been validated in several studies and appear helpful in
predicting maternal cardiac risk [1, 8, 22, 28, 38]. However, in both risk scores,
several high-risk populations were underrepresented and because of that several
important risk factors were not identified (i.e., dilated aorta and pulmonary arterial
hypertension). Recent studies comparing the CARPREG, ZAHARA, and modified
WHO risk class indicate that the latter is superior to the CARPREG and ZAHARA
risk scores in identifying patients at high risk of cardiovascular complications [1,
28, 38]. Therefore, it should be advised to use the modified WHO risk classification
in preconception counseling of women with CHD.
Table  3.2 displays an overview of various identified predictors prior to preg-
nancy. The use of cardiac medication prior to pregnancy is most likely a surrogate
marker for severity of heart disease. This may also be the case for the predictor
cyanotic heart disease (corrected and uncorrected), which probably reflects the
greater complexity of the underlying lesion.
Two studies thus far investigated the role of increased natriuretic peptide levels in
the prediction of cardiovascular complications during pregnancy [24, 49]. Women with
cardiovascular complications during pregnancy had higher natriuretic peptide levels
compared to women without. More research is required in this field, but natriuretic
peptides might provide a valuable tool to identify patients at highest risk of complica-
tions when they are already pregnant, as well as to identify women with the lowest risk.

3.4.2 Neonatal Risk

The CARPREG and ZAHARA studies identified predictors of adverse neonatal

outcome [8, 47], and data from the European Registry on Pregnancy and Cardiac
Disease (ROPAC) indicate that high-modified WHO risk class is associated with
adverse offspring outcome, such as low birth weight and premature birth (Fig. 3.1).
However, recent validation showed that all three risk assessment strategies failed to
accurately identify the risk to the offspring [1].

3.5 Preconception Investigations

Several investigations should be done in order to gather the required information for
a full risk assessment (Fig. 3.1). Ideally, these investigations should be performed
before pregnancy, otherwise as early as possible during the first trimester. Risk
assessment begins with exploring the medical history of the patient. History and
clinical assessment are essential in the evaluation of women with CHD who desire
to become pregnant, in order to evaluate if the patient is symptomatic (dyspnea or
palpitations) or cyanotic or had previous cardiovascular events. Taking a good his-
tory and performing an accurate clinical assessment provide instant information
about patient well-being and the presence of long-term complications, such as
3  Preconception Counseling 41

Residual Exercise
lesions capacity
NYHA Previous
functional cardiovascular
class events

Current
Type of
myocardial
congenital
and valvular
heart disease
function

Medication Risk Comorbid

use assessment conditions

Modified
WHO risk
classification Offspring
of maternal risk
risk

Fig. 3.1  Information required for cardiovascular risk assessment during pregnancy in women
with congenital heart disease

hypertension. It also provides an important reference point, in case deterioration

occurs during pregnancy.
Echocardiography is an essential tool in the evaluation of cardiac performance. In
particular ventricular and valvular function should be assessed, and lesion-­specific
investigations should be performed (i.e., aortic diameters, signs of re-­coarctation,
baffle leakage, etc.). These all give important insights in cardiac function and are
important to make a good risk assessment. Stress echocardiography using bicycle
ergometry may add in the evaluation of patients with valve dysfunction and in
patients with reduced systemic ventricular function.
Exercise capacity testing is recommended before pregnancy to assess the func-
tional capacity, chronotropic, and blood pressure response and to identify exercise-­
induced arrhythmias [13]. Liu et al. found in a population with mainly complex
congenital heart disease that abnormal chronotropic response correlated with adverse
maternal and neonatal pregnancy outcome [29]. Comparable results were reported
by Ohuchi et al. In this study not only peak heart rate but also peak oxygen uptake
during exercise testing was associated with maternal and neonatal outcome [37].
42 M.A.M. Kampman and P.G. Pieper

Electrocardiography provides valuable information concerning the presence of

conduction disorders, which are common in certain types of, mainly complex, con-
genital heart disease. In patients known with previous arrhythmia or those reporting
symptoms of palpitations, Holter monitoring should be performed.
Other imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or com-
puted tomography (CT), can be useful in situations where echocardiography is not
sufficient and are particularly useful for evaluation of aortic disease. There is no
place for routine cardiac catheterization as preconception investigation. However,
catheterization can be helpful when interventions are necessary before pregnancy
and should be done before pregnancy when pulmonary arterial hypertension is sus-
pected, since pulmonary arterial hypertension is a contraindication for pregnancy.
All imaging modalities using radiation are relatively contraindicated during early
pregnancy [13].
Preconception investigations might reveal that an intervention (i.e., valve inter-
ventions, aortic root replacement, and stent placement for re-coarctation) is indi-
cated. It is advised to perform such interventions before pregnancy is actively
pursued, since this may reduce cardiovascular risk during pregnancy [13].

3.6 Medication and Devices

The ROPAC registry indicated that cardiac medication is used during one third of
the pregnancies in women with cardiac disease [43]. A careful review of all medica-
tion used should be performed, since several cardiovascular medications are contra-
indicated during pregnancy. Whenever possible, these medications should be
discontinued or should be switched to an alternative which is safe during pregnancy.
When medication is indicated, taking the lowest effective dose can be of benefit for
both mother and fetus.
It should be noticed that, although some medications are not recommended by
the pharmaceutical industry during pregnancy, the benefit to the mother (especially
in case of emergency) may outweigh the potential harmful effects for the fetus, and
the drug should then not be withheld from the mother [13].
Until December 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifica-
tion was widely used to describe the fetal risks of drugs during pregnancy and
breastfeeding:

• Category A: Adequate and well-controlled studies have failed to demonstrate a

risk to the fetus in the first trimester of pregnancy (and there is no evidence of
risk in later trimesters).
• Category B: Animal reproduction studies have failed to demonstrate a risk to the
fetus, but there are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women,
or animal reproduction studies have shown an adverse effect that was not con-
firmed in controlled studies in women.
• Category C: Either animal reproduction studies have shown an adverse effect on
the fetus and there are no adequate and well-controlled studies in humans or
3  Preconception Counseling 43

studies in women or animals are not available. Potential benefits may warrant the
use of the drug in pregnant women despite potential risks.
• Category D: There is positive evidence of human fetal risk based on adverse
reaction data from investigational or marketing experience or studies in humans,
but potential benefits may warrant the use of the drug in pregnant women despite
potential risks.
• Category X: Studies in animals or humans have demonstrated fetal abnormali-
ties and/or there is positive evidence of human fetal risk based on adverse
reaction data from investigational or marketing experience, and the risks
involved in the use of the drug in pregnant women clearly outweigh potential
benefits.

Because there were major concerns with this classification, it has been replaced
by a narrative summary on the risk of each drug during pregnancy and lactation,
together with a discussion of the available data. However, in the literature and in the
current guidelines, the FDA classification is still widely used. Large databases are
available on the Internet, where recommendations for a specific drug can be found
(www.embryotox.de; www.safefetus.com; www.lareb.nl).

3.6.1 Beta-Blockers

Beta-blockers are important drugs to modify pregnancy-associated risk of cardio-

vascular complications (i.e., risk of arrhythmia, prevention of aortic dissection in
patients with Marfan syndrome) [13]. They constitute two thirds of the cardiac med-
ication used during pregnancy [43]. A large meta-analysis concluded that there is no
increased risk of major congenital anomalies associated with beta-blocker use dur-
ing the first trimester [57]. However, organ-specific analyses showed a possible
small increased risk of cardiovascular defects, cleft lip/palate, and neural tube
defects. Various studies indicated an association between the usage of beta-blockers
and fetal growth restriction though causality is uncertain [11, 33, 35, 43]. However,
beta-blockers should only be discontinued if fetal risk outweighs maternal benefit.
Given the wide experience with labetalol and metoprolol during pregnancy, these
are preferred, and changing to these medications should be considered before preg-
nancy. It should be noted that beta-blockers have been associated with hypoglyce-
mia, bradycardia, and hypotension in the neonate; therefore, close observation of
neonates exposed to beta-blockers is necessary postpartum.

3.6.2 A
 ngiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors/
Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARBs)

ACE inhibitors and ARBs are teratogenic and therefore contraindicated during
pregnancy [13]. In women using these drugs, it is wise to introduce an evaluation
period before pregnancy without the drugs, in order to see the effect on cardiac
44 M.A.M. Kampman and P.G. Pieper

function when the patient is not pregnant. If cardiac function remains stable after
cessation of the drug (and left ventricular ejection fraction >30 %), pregnancy can
be pursued, but close follow-up of cardiac function is warranted.

3.6.3 Antiarrhythmic Agents

ESC guidelines state that beta-blockers and digoxin are the preferred choice for the
treatment of arrhythmias [13]. Women who use digoxin can continue this during
pregnancy since it is safe for the fetus, though it is less effective during strenuous
exercise (as pregnancy is considered to be), and dosing can be difficult because of
altered pharmacokinetics during pregnancy. Procainamide is safe during pregnancy
and no teratogenic effects were reported for flecainide. However, switching to beta-­
blockers should be considered for women using these drugs. Sotalol has similar
concerns for the fetus as other beta-blockers but can be used during pregnancy when
necessary.
Amiodarone can cause neonatal hypothyroidism and should be discontinued
before pregnancy or switched to one of the drugs considered safe during pregnancy.
New antiarrhythmic drugs, such as dronedarone, should not be used in women who
pursue pregnancy.

3.6.4 Calcium Channel Blockers

Diltiazem has been demonstrated to be teratogenic in animals; therefore, its use dur-
ing pregnancy is not recommended [13]. Verapamil does not seem to be associated
with congenital anomalies and can be used during pregnancy and is recommended
as second-line drug (after beta-blockers) for rate control in atrial fibrillation [13].
Nifedipine can be used during pregnancy.

3.6.5 Diuretics and Aldosterone Antagonists

Furosemide and hydrochlorothiazide are not associated with congenital anomalies

but can cause oligohydramnios and underperfusion of the placenta. Therefore, they
should not be used during pregnancy unless used to treat acute heart failure in the
pregnant patient [13]. Spironolactone has been associated with feminization of
male rats and should be discontinued before pregnancy. Data for eplerenone are
lacking.

3.6.6 Platelet Aggregation Inhibitors

For low-dose acetylsalicylic acid (<100 mg daily), no teratogenic effects have been
reported, and it is considered safe during pregnancy. Clopidogrel did not show any
teratogenic effects in animal studies, but data in humans are lacking. Clopidogrel
3  Preconception Counseling 45

should only be used when strictly indicated (i.e., after stent implantation) and for a
shortest period as possible [13]. The use of other platelet aggregation inhibitors is
not recommended [13].

3.6.7 Statins

Statins should be discontinued before pregnancy, although the risk appears low [4,
15]. Their safety has not been proven, and maternal negative effects due to its ces-
sation are unlikely during the short period of interruption of therapy for pregnancy
[13, 19].

3.6.8 Pulmonary Hypertension Agents

Pulmonary hypertension constitutes a contraindication for pregnancy; therefore, for

all drugs used for pulmonary arterial hypertension, only limited data are available.
Because of teratogenic effects that have been shown in animal studies, endothelin
receptor antagonists (i.e., bosentan, ambrisentan) are contraindicated during preg-
nancy and are usually discontinued. For the use of epoprostenol, sildenafil, and
treprostinil during pregnancy, only limited data are available, but they are preferred
over endothelin receptor antagonists [13]. Recent evidence suggests that the use of
these medications contributes to reduced mortality in the mother, and their use is
advisable in women who choose to continue their pregnancy, after careful counsel-
ing of these patients about advantages and disadvantages.

3.6.9 Anticoagulation and Mechanical Valve Prosthesis

Women with mechanical valves on oral anticoagulation medication are of special

concern. Because of the hypercoagulable state of pregnancy, the risk of “potentially
life-threatening” valve thrombosis is increased. Further, the risk of adverse obstetric
outcomes (such as hemorrhage and preterm labor) is increased, as well as adverse
offspring events, including miscarriage, neonatal death, and fetal growth restriction
[27, 55]. Therefore, preconception counseling about the importance of precise anti-
coagulation is essential.
In general, three regimens have been widely used:

• Vitamin K antagonist throughout pregnancy

• Unfractionated heparin/low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) during the first
12 weeks of gestation and, for 13–36 weeks, vitamin K antagonist
• Unfractionated heparin/LMWH throughout pregnancy

There is no ideal anticoagulation regimen, as every approach has inherent risks

and benefits for both mother and fetus [31, 55]. Warfarin and other vitamin K
46 M.A.M. Kampman and P.G. Pieper

antagonists cross the placental barrier and are associated with embryopathy, late
pregnancy loss, and stillbirth [18]. However, several of these effects appear dose
dependent, where daily dosage <5 mg warfarin was associated with lower risk of
some of the fetal complications [18, 20, 56]. Heparins, on the other hand, do not
cross the placenta and therefore do not put the fetus at risk of embryopathy/fetopa-
thy. However, unfractionated and low-molecular-weight heparins are both associ-
ated with increased risk of valve thrombosis when compared to treatment with
warfarin [3, 7, 32]. Because of this, dosage regimens with unfractionated heparin or
LMWH require close monitoring of activated partial thromboplastin time or peak
and possibly also through antifactor Xa levels, respectively, to assure an adequate
level of anticoagulation [16].
The choice of the regimen depends on patient’s preference, expected therapeutic
adherence, doctors’ experience, and the availability of monitoring facilities and can
only be made by the mother-to-be after careful counseling by an experienced
cardiologist.
Both ESC and American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology
(AHA/ACC) guidelines state that continuation of oral anticoagulation through-
out pregnancy should be considered in women taking a daily dose of warfarin
<5 mg (phenprocoumon <3 mg or acenocoumarol <2 mg) [13]. In patients tak-
ing higher daily doses or not willing to continue oral anticoagulation during the
first trimester, a switch to unfractionated heparin or LMWH between the 6th
and 12th weeks of pregnancy (under strict dose control) should be considered
[13, 36].
Both guidelines explicitly do not recommend usage of any kind of heparin
(unfractionated or LMWH) throughout pregnancy, because of the increased risk of
valve thrombosis with these regimens in combination with the relatively low fetal
risk of vitamin K antagonist in the second and third trimester of pregnancy [13,
36]. The new anticoagulants, such as dabigatran and rivaroxaban, should be
avoided during pregnancy since they have shown to be teratogenic in animal stud-
ies [26].

3.6.10 Devices

Some women with congenital heart disease wear an implantable cardioverter defi-
brillator (ICD). Several studies, however, with small populations, indicate that
pregnancy had no effect on ICD operation, and no evidence was found to link the
presence of an ICD with adverse pregnancy outcome [5, 34]. Women with an ICD
and on beta-blocker therapy should continue the drug, as the benefits outweigh the
fetal risk. Additional caution might be required during the postpartum period,
since one study showed that ICD therapy was mainly necessary in the postpartum
period [34].
3  Preconception Counseling 47

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Inheritance of Congenital Heart Disease
4
Ingrid van de Laar and Marja Wessels

Abbreviations

AS Aortic valve stenosis

ASD Atrial septal defect
AVSD Atrioventricular septal defects
BAV Bicuspid aortic valve
CGH Comparative genomic hybridization
CHD Congenital heart disease
CNVs Copy number variations
DORV Double outlet right ventricle
HLHS Hypoplastic left heart syndrome
LVOTO Left ventricular outflow tract obstruction
NGS Next-generation sequencing
PDA Patent ductus arteriosus
PTA Persistent truncus arteriosus
SNP Single-nucleotide polymorphism
TGA Transposition of great arteries
TOF Tetralogy of Fallot
VSD Ventricular septal defects
VUS Variants of unknown significance
WES Whole exome sequencing

I. van de Laar, MD, PhD (*) • M. Wessels, MD, PhD

Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center,
‘s-Gravendijkwal 230, Rotterdam 301 CE, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 51

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_4
52 I. van de Laar and M. Wessels

4.1 Introduction

For adult patients with congenital heart disease (CHD), knowledge about the origin
and inheritance of their disease and the recurrence risk in (future) offspring is
important for several reasons. First, knowledge about the recurrence risk is essential
to make informed choices regarding family planning and prenatal screening. While
the background risk for CHD in offspring is 0.8 %, the overall risk for babies born
to mothers with CHD is in general higher, at about 5–6 %, and disease-specific
inheritance risks are available [1, 2]. If CHD is part of a syndrome, the recurrence
risks can be as high as 25–50 %. Secondly, in syndromic cases the patient and his or
her offspring may be at risk for extracardiac manifestations that may require addi-
tional screening and treatment. Third of all, there may be other relatives for whom
genetic or cardiologic examination may be appropriate [3]. Therefore, clinical
genetic counseling should be part of the multidisciplinary preconception counseling
of all women with a CHD who are in the reproductive age. The added value of clini-
cal genetic consultation has been shown by van Engelen et al. who revealed that less
than half of the adults with CHD estimated the recurrence risk in a correct range of
magnitude [4]. Genetic consultation improves diagnostics by establishing an etio-
logical diagnosis and associated recurrence risk in a substantial proportion of
patients and leads to more informed reproductive decisions [5].
In this chapter, we will summarize the genetic and nongenetic causes of CHD
and focus on the recurrence risk for a live-born offspring of adults with CHD. In
general, both males and females with CHD have a significantly reduced reproduc-
tive fitness, e.g., fewer total offspring and more childlessness, as compared to adults
without CHD. Not surprisingly, this is even more true for CHD patients with extra-
cardiac manifestations. There is also an increased risk of miscarriage as compared
to the normal population [2, 6]. Some of these miscarriages could be due to cardiac
disease in the fetus, but this usually remains unclear since generally no pathological
examinations are performed of these aborted fetuses.

4.2 Classification and Genetics

Most commonly, CHD occurs as an isolated finding in an otherwise healthy person.

Additional noncardiac malformations are present in about a quarter of patients with
CHD [7]. CHD can occur as part of many (submicroscopic) chromosomal abnor-
malities or copy number variations (CNVs) and specific syndromes or as a conse-
quence of teratogenic exposure. The majority of CHD is thought to be due to
complex inheritance, involving a multitude of mutations in susceptibility genes
superposed on unfavorable environmental and lifestyle factors. In the past decade,
tremendous progress has been made in the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms
involved in CHD by new technologies that have become available and new insight
by alternative inheritance paradigms. Several CHDs have recently been shown to
result from de novo genetic aberrations [8]. Epigenetic factors, including imprinting
and chromatin remodeling, also play a role in the heart development [8, 9]. Despite
4  Inheritance of Congenital Heart Disease 53

of all this progress, many genetic factors contributing to CHD and their interaction
with environmental factors are still to be discovered. Also, the relative importance
of many DNA alterations (common variants, rare variants, copy number variations
(CNVs), de novo mutations) in various known genetic factors remains to be defined.
To establish a recurrence risk for the affected parent, it is essential to determine
whether the CHD is:

(a) Non-syndromic (or isolated)

(b) Non-syndromic, but with a family history of CHD
(c) Syndromic
(d) Chromosomal
(e) Due to teratogenic exposure or maternal illnesses

Clinical history, family history, and assessment of dysmorphic features sugges-

tive of a chromosomal or syndromic CHD are essential to discriminate between
these different subgroups.

4.2.1 Non-syndromic CHD

Most cases of non-syndromic CHD occur sporadically, and families with clear
monogenic inheritance of non-syndromic CHD are scarce. Over the past years,
genetic studies in both human patients and animal models have led to the identifica-
tion of a significant number of genes that are implicated in non-syndromic CHD
[10, 11]. The first monogenetic causes of CHD were found by linkage studies in
families with clear autosomal dominant inheritance of CHD [12, 13].
By using new DNA techniques such as whole exome sequencing, it was found
that damaging de novo gene mutations in genes mainly involved in chromatin remod-
eling may contribute to approximately 10 % of severe non-syndromic CHDs. These
de novo mutations occur during the formation of egg or sperm cells or early in
embryonic development. As these de novo mutations were found in patients with
severe and lethal CHD, it is not yet known what proportion of CHD in patients that
reach adulthood or childbearing age are due to de novo mutations. It is thought that
the majority of non-syndromic, nonfamilial CHD cannot be explained by a single-­
gene defect, and interacting genetic and nongenetic (environmental) factors may
contribute in these cases. This is also referred to as multifactorial inheritance.
Whereas recurrence risks can be given with confidence for CHD caused by single-­
gene mutations (see below), establishing recurrence risk in multifactorial diseases is
more complicated. This is because the number of genes contributing to the disease is
usually not known and the extent of environmental effects can vary substantially.
For this large group of non-syndromic CHD, empiric recurrence risk is still used
to predict the individual risk of CHD in offspring. In Table 4.1, empiric recurrence
risks for different types of CHD in offspring of both males and females are sum-
marized. It is of note that the studies used to establish these risks have limitations:
First, most studies have focused on the recurrence risk of CHD in siblings, and data
54 I. van de Laar and M. Wessels

Table 4.1  Recurrence risks for offspring of a father or mother with different types of CHD
Type of CHD Father with CHD Mother with CHD
Affected births/ Affected births/
Recurrence risk live births among Recurrence risk live births among
for offspring (%) offspring for offspring (%) offspring
TOF
Chin-Yee et al. 3.4 6/179 6.3 11/174
[14]
Burn et al. [15] 1.6 2/124 4.5 6/132
Nora [16] 1.5 2.5
Drenthen et al. [2] 3 6/202
APVC
Burn et al. [15] 0 0/10 5.9 1/17
Abnl connection
Burn et al. [15] 4.5 1/22 5.9 1/17
TGA
Burn et al. [15] 0 0/14 0 0/6
Drenthen et al. [2] 0.6 1/176
ccTGA (l-TGA)
Therrien et al. 3.7 1/27
[17]
Drenthen et al. [2] 3.6 1/28
AVSD
Burn et al. [15] 7.7 1/13 7.9 3/38
Nora [16] 1 14
Drenthen et al. [2] 8 7/88
AS
Nora [16] 5 18
Driscoll et al. [18] 1.2 3/251 1.4 1/72
Drenthen et al. [2] 4.1 5/121
PS
Nora [16] 2 6
Driscoll et al. [18] 1.7 3/176 3.9 8/205
Drenthen et al. [2] 2.8 3/164
ASD II
Nora [16] 1.5 6
Drenthen et al. [2] 2.1 6/291
VSD
Nora [16] 2.5 9.5
Driscoll et al. [18] 2.7 2/74
Drenthen et al. [2] 3 10/334 2.9 11/384
CoA
Nora [16] 2.5 4
Drenthen et al. [2] 4 10/251
Ebstein
Drenthen et al. [2] 4 5/126
Data from Refs. [2, 14–18]
4  Inheritance of Congenital Heart Disease 55

on recurrence risk in offspring of affected parents are scarce. Secondly, most papers
on this topic originate from the previous century, before many monogenic causes
and copy number variants were discovered, and little recent studies are available
[19]. Third of all, there are marked limitations of these studies since they are gener-
ally based on small numbers of probands and their offspring, and there is a consider-
able selection bias due to variations in survival patterns of different types of CHD
and selective referral of more severely affected patients to tertiary care centers. The
last reason that makes the recurrence risk number difficult to interpret is that miscar-
riage and abortion pregnancies are usually excluded which may result in an under-
estimation of the recurrence rate.
In general, it is stated that mothers with a CHD have a greater risk of CHD in the
offspring than fathers (Table 4.1). The ratio for affected offspring born to affected
mothers versus those born to affected fathers is about 2:5. In a national cohort study
based on a Swedish population registry, it was even stated that men with both com-
plex and simple CHD did not have an increased risk of having children with a CHD
[20]. However, this was not supported by other studies [16, 18]. The excess of mal-
formations in the offspring of affected women might be explained by the recogni-
tion that some of the key genes in cardiac development are imprinted. A maternal
copy of the gene is necessary for normal heart formation, and therefore a deleterious
allele of maternal origin would have a greater effect than those of paternal origin.

4.2.1.1 Diagnostics in Non-syndromic CHD

Traditional genetic testing involved Sanger sequencing of a number of genes in a
stepwise manner to try to identify the causal mutation. Currently, many genetic
laboratories have introduced next-generation sequencing (NGS) into service, which
changed the whole field of genetics. With NGS, or massive parallel sequencing,
millions of small DNA fragments can be sequenced at the same time, creating a
massive pool of data. Bioinformatic analyses are used to piece together these frag-
ments by mapping the individual reads to the human reference genome providing
accurate data on DNA variation. NGS can be used to sequence all 22,000 coding
genes (whole exome) or targeted to small numbers of individual genes (panels).
The contribution of the known CHD genes in adults with non-syndromic CHD
without a family history of CHD is small. In some countries, target NGS of a panel
of genes involved in CHD or whole exome sequencing (WES) is available. However,
its usefulness is a matter of debate since many variants of unknown significance
(VUS) will be found, and, in the absence of other affected family members, it is
challenging to assign causality with certainty to the found variants. The use of a
targeted NGS panel for genes involved in CHD might, at this point, be most useful
when a monogenetic cause is suspected, for instance, in the case of parental consan-
guinity or familial CHD [21, 22]. Parental consanguinity is associated with a two- to
threefold increased offspring risk of CHD. This is most likely due to the shared
genetic variants among parents fitting autosomal recessive inheritance [23, 24].
Traditional G-banding karyotyping has been widely used to look for large
(3–5 Mb) deletions or duplications of the genome (copy number variations, CNV)
in CHD patients. This technique is gradually being replaced by techniques with
56 I. van de Laar and M. Wessels

higher-resolution, chromosomal microarray testing. Several chromosomal microar-

ray platforms can be used for genome-wide CNV detection, including comparative
genomic hybridization (CGH) arrays and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
arrays. The resolution of these platforms has increased tremendously in the past
year to up to 5–10 Kb. With these new techniques, smaller deletions and duplica-
tions can be found that may be pathogenic, also in isolated CHD cases.
Although the yield of chromosomal microarray testing is higher in patients with
CHD and extracardiac anomalies, detection of CNVs by microarray testing can be
considered in all adults with non-syndromic CHD. The diagnostic yield for non-­
syndromic CHD is around 4 % [25, 26]. Some chromosomal microarray platforms
can also reveal regions of homozygosity, which might lead to the causal recessive
gene underlying the heart defect.
In order to estimate the recurrence risk in offspring of a CHD patient, it might be
useful to perform cardiac screening in family members. This is particularly true for
left ventricular outflow tract obstructions (LVOTOs), ranging from bicuspid aortic
valve to hypoplastic left heart syndrome. LVOTOs have been recognized as a group
of CHDs with “high heritability” [27, 28]. Therefore, it is advised to perform car-
diac screening of first-degree relatives (parents, siblings, and children) of patients
with LVOTO in order to better estimate the recurrence risk in offspring [29].

4.2.2 N
 on-syndromic CHD with a Significant Family History
of CHD

In familial non-syndromic CHD, the inheritance pattern can be autosomal dominant,

autosomal recessive, or X-linked recessive. A person affected by an autosomal domi-
nant condition has a 50 % chance of passing the mutated gene to each child. The
chance that a child will not inherit the mutated gene is also 50 %. In families with
autosomal dominant inheritance of CHD, reduced penetrance and variable expression
of CHD are observed. Reduced (or incomplete) penetrance refers to the proportion of
persons who are carrier of a mutation in a specific gene that do not exhibit signs and
symptoms of the genetic disorder. Variable expressivity refers to the range of signs
and symptoms that can occur in different patients with the same genetic condition. In
autosomal recessive inheritance, a mutation in both copies of a gene must be present
in order for the disease to develop. Someone who has a mutation in one copy of the
gene (but no symptoms) is called a carrier. X-linked recessive diseases usually occur
in males and are caused by a mutation in a single-­recessive gene on the X chromo-
some. Mothers can be carriers of the disease and may be mildly affected.
In the following paragraphs, we will summarize a subset of genes involved in
non-syndromic familial CHD, categorized in different subgroups of CHD. This list
is incomplete since new CHD genes are identified in a rapid pace. A nice recent
review of all non-syndromic and syndromic genes involved in CHD is given by
Lalani et al. [11].
4  Inheritance of Congenital Heart Disease 57

Septal Defects
The first single-gene mutation causing non-syndromic CHD was described in the
transcription factor gene NKX2.5 in families with inherited atrial septal defect
(ASD) and atrioventricular block [12]. Subsequently, mutations in GATA4 were
found in two kindreds with apparent non-syndromic septal defects [13]. Mutations
in the T-box gene TBX20 have been implicated in cardiomyopathy and septal defects
[30]. Recently, deleterious variants in MESP1 were identified in patients with ven-
tricular septal defects (VSD) or tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) [31]. Missense mutations
in CRELD1 are found in nearly 6 % of isolated atrioventricular septal defects
(AVSD) and AVSD associated with heterotaxy syndrome [32]. Septal defects are
also caused by mutations in several genes encoding for sarcomeric proteins like
ACTC1, MYH6, MYH7, and MYBPC3 [33].

 eft Ventricular Outflow Tract Obstruction (LVOTO)

L
In familial left ventricular outflow tract obstruction (LVOTO), including aortic valve
stenosis (AS), bicuspid aortic valve (BAV), coarctation of the aorta (CoA), and
hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS), Garg et al. initially described the first
pathogenic mutations in the NOTCH1 gene [34]. In the past years, a limited number
of NOTCH1 mutations were published in several small cohorts of LVOTO patients.
Recently, a large cohort of 428 LVOTO patients was screened for NOTCH1.
Pathogenic mutations in NOTCH1 occur in 1 % of sporadic LVOTO and in 7 % of
familial LVOTO patients [35]. Reduced penetrance occurs in many non-syndromic
CHD families, as is exemplified by families with NOTCH1 gene mutations; cardio-
vascular malformations are found in 75 % of NOTCH1 mutation carriers. Also
marked variable expressivity is seen in the NOTCH1 families described by Kerstjens
et al. as the spectrum of disease does not only involve left-sided heart defects but
also right-sided heart defects affecting the pulmonary valve, conotruncal disease
including pulmonary atresia, Fallot’s tetralogy and truncus arteriosus, thoracic aor-
tic aneurysm, and other CHDs, such as anomalous pulmonary venous return, ASD,
and VSD [35].
Other genes involved in non-syndromic LVOTO are GJA1, NKX2.5, GATA5,
SMAD6, MYH6, GATA4, GATA6, and MEF2C, but the number of patients with
mutations in these genes is low indicating that many genes need to be discov-
ered [36].

Conotruncal Defects
Homozygous deleterious mutations in the NKX2.6 gene have been associated with
persistent truncus arteriosus (PTA) and might be accompanied by an absent thymus
[37]. Also, mutations in GATA6 have been reported in PTA and TOF and can be
associated with pancreatic agenesis [38]. A minority of patients with TOF have a
mutation in the FOG2 gene [39]. Also, rare mutations in FOXH1, TDGF1, GDF1,
and THRAP2 cause isolated conotruncal defects.
58 I. van de Laar and M. Wessels

Laterality Defects
Laterality disorders refer to a broad group of disorders caused by the embryonic
disruption of normal left-right patterning, including situs inversus totalis and hetero-
taxy (or situs ambiguus). Situs inversus totalis is the mirror image reversal of all
visceral organs including the lungs, spleen, liver, and stomach, whereas heterotaxy is
the abnormal orientation of one or more organs along the LR axis. The CHDs com-
mon in laterality disorders include atrioventricular septal defects (AVSD), transposi-
tion of great arteries (TGA), double outlet right ventricle (DORV), abnormal systemic
and/or pulmonary venous connection, abnormal position of the heart (dextrocardia),
and isomerism of the atrial appendages. A marked proportion of patients with lateral-
ity disorders are born to consanguineous parents. Therefore, it is suggested that lat-
erality disorders are more often than other CHDs characterized by autosomal
recessive inheritance [40]. Also, X-linked recessive inheritance is more prevalent in
patients with laterality disorders [41]. Recently, recessive mutations in MMP21 were
identified in 5.9 % of non-syndromic heterotaxy cases [40]. Other recessive genes
involved in heterotaxy are CCDC11, WDR16, and GDF1 [42–44].
X-linked recessive inheritance of heterotaxy was first described by Gebbia et al.
who detected ZIC3 mutations in familial and sporadic heterotaxy patients [41].
ZIC3 mutations typically result in a variable phenotype ranging from situs abnor-
malities and heart defects to more syndromic heart defects involving additional
midline, gastrointestinal, urogenital, and/or central nervous system anomalies. ZIC3
mutations have also been found in both males (5.2 %) and females (1.8 %) with
isolated non-syndromic heterotaxy spectrum CHD such as TGA [45].
Heterozygous mutations in genes of the NODAL pathway, including NODAL,
LEFTY2, CFC1, TDGF1, ACVR2B, SESN1, and FOXH1 and other cilia-related
genes like NPHP4, are also involved in cardiac laterality defects [46, 47].

4.2.2.1 Diagnostics in Non-syndromic CHD with a Significant Family

History of CHD
In familial non-syndromic CHD, it was shown that massive parallel sequencing of a
panel of known cardiac genes increased the diagnostic value. In a cohort of families
with non-syndromic CHD, targeted NGS of 57 genes known to be involved in CHD
identified likely pathogenic mutations in 31 % of the families [21]. Jia et al. found
potential causative variants in less than half of the families (46 %) by using the same
technique [22]. However, even in familial non-syndromic CHD, it remains challeng-
ing to interpret the large number of identified variants. A chromosomal microarray is
also advised in familial non-syndromic CHD patients since small microdeletions or
duplications encompassing CHD genes can be the underlying cause [48].

4.2.3 Syndromic

CHD can occur in many genetic syndromes and have been found to be associated
with mutations in a variety of single genes associated with syndromic disease.
These monogenic syndromes with CHD are present in about 5 % of newborn
4  Inheritance of Congenital Heart Disease 59

Table 4.2  Syndromes to consider in different types of CHD

TOF 22q11 microdeletion syndrome, Alagille syndrome, CHARGE
syndrome
Interrupted aortic arch 22q11 microdeletion syndrome
Truncus arteriosus 22q11 microdeletion syndrome
LVOTO Jacobsen syndrome, Turner syndrome, Kabuki syndrome, Potocki-­
Lupski syndrome
PS Noonan syndrome, Mowat-Wilson syndrome
PPS Alagille syndrome, Williams syndrome
SVAS Williams syndrome
AVSD Down syndrome, CHARGE syndrome
VSD Holt-Oram syndrome
ASD Holt-Oram syndrome, Noonan syndrome, Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome
PDA Char syndrome, Mowat-Wilson syndrome

babies with CHD. For the carer who advises adults with CHD in the preconcep-
tional counseling setting, it is important to be aware of monogenic syndromic
conditions that might have very subtle characteristics, as these conditions often
have a high recurrence risk in the offspring of the patient. Some recognizable
syndromes with CHD as a major feature of the condition are discussed below. In
Table 4.2, different types of CHD and associated chromosomal causes and mono-
genic syndromes are listed.
Noonan syndrome, which is the most frequently observed syndrome in CHD
patients, is an autosomal dominant condition caused by mutations in the PTPN11
gene in approximately 40–60 % of patients. Also, other genes in the RAS-MAPK
signaling pathway, including SOS1, RAF1, KRAS, NRAS, MEK1/2, BRAF, CBL,
SHOC2, and RIT1, can cause Noonan syndrome and Noonan-like phenotypes [49].
CHD is present in about 70–80 % of Noonan patients, and the most frequently
reported CHDs are pulmonary stenosis with dysplastic leaflets, hypertrophic cardio-
myopathy, and secundum atrial septal defects. Some genotype-phenotype correla-
tions have been suggested, especially for cardiac anomalies [50]. Other clinical
features include dysmorphic features, short stature, pectus, and cryptorchism. In
most affected individuals, intelligence is within the normal range, with intelligence
quotient generally varying between 70 and 120.
Mutations in the TBX5 gene cause Holt-Oram syndrome. Individuals with Holt-­
Oram syndrome display great phenotypic variability with mild to severe limb
defects and various types of CHD, including atrial septal defects, ventricular septal
defects (especially muscular), and atrioventricular conduction defects. Congenital
heart defects are present in about 75 % of Holt-Oram patients. Individuals with
Holt-Oram syndrome have a normal intelligence.
Alagille syndrome is a disorder characterized by normal intelligence, liver dis-
ease, vertebral anomalies, dysmorphic features, and various types of CHD, includ-
ing peripheral pulmonary artery stenosis, pulmonary valve stenosis, and tetralogy
of Fallot [51]. In approximately 90 % of patients, a mutation in the JAG1 gene is
found. NOTCH2 mutations have been found in a minority of patients with Alagille
syndrome.
60 I. van de Laar and M. Wessels

Char syndrome is characterized by the triad of typical facial features (prominent

lips), patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), and aplasia or hypoplasia of the middle pha-
langes of the fifth fingers. It is caused by mutations in the TFAP2B gene. No intel-
lectual disability has been described in Char syndrome.
CHARGE syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by mutations in
the CHD7 gene. CHARGE is an acronym for a set of congenital anomalies com-
monly encountered in this syndrome. The letters stand for coloboma of the eye,
heart defects, atresia of the choanae, retardation of growth and/or development,
genital and/or urinary abnormalities, and ear abnormalities and deafness. Those fea-
tures are no longer used in making a diagnosis of CHARGE syndrome, but the name
of the syndrome is not changed. CHD occur in approximately 75 % of patients with
molecularly diagnosed CHARGE syndrome, and conotruncal defects and atrioven-
tricular septal defects are overrepresented [52].
Another rare syndrome involved in CHD patients is Kabuki syndrome which is
characterized by intellectual disability, peculiar facial gestalt, short stature, skeletal
and visceral abnormalities, cardiac anomalies, and immunological defects. It is
caused mainly by de novo mutations in the KMT2D and rarely by mutations in the
X-linked KDM6A gene. Approximately 40–50 % of individuals with Kabuki syn-
drome have CHD. Left-sided heart defects, especially coarctation of the aorta, are
strongly associated with Kabuki syndrome. Interestingly, de novo mutations in
KMT2D genes have also been associated with CHD, as previously mentioned [8].
Mowat-Wilson syndrome is characterized by intellectual disability and distinctive
facial features in association with variable structural congenital anomalies including
CHD, Hirschsprung disease, hypospadias, agenesis of the corpus callosum, short
stature, epilepsy, and microcephaly. Mowat-Wilson syndrome is caused by mutation
in the transcription factor ZEB2 [53]. In more than half of the patients, cardiac
defects are present which frequently involve the pulmonary arteries and/or valves.
Almost all abovementioned syndromes have an autosomal dominant inheritance
pattern with a 50 % risk for offspring. Some syndromes generally occur de novo
such as CHARGE, Mowat-Wilson, and Kabuki syndrome, and these patients rarely
reproduce. Other syndromes display marked variability and can be encountered
more frequently in adults with CHD such as Noonan syndrome.

4.2.4 C
 hromosomal Defects and Copy Number Variations
(CNVs)

4.2.4.1 Numeric Chromosomal Defects

Numeric chromosomal defects are known to be the underlying cause in about
10–12 % of newborn babies with CHD. At adult age, this percentage is lower
because many children with chromosomal defects die at a young age. Examples of
patients with a numeric chromosomal defect who reach adult age are patients with
trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) and monosomy X (Turner syndrome). In Down syn-
drome, the prevalence of CHD is about 50 %, and the most common defect is a
complete atrioventricular septal defect although other lesions like ASD, VSD, PDA,
4  Inheritance of Congenital Heart Disease 61

and TOF are also seen [54, 55]. Left-sided CHD is most frequently (about 30 %)
seen in Turner syndrome (45, X) [56, 57] including bicuspid aortic valve, aortic
valve stenosis, and coarctation of the aorta. Several studies of Turner patients have
shown aortopathy, including dilatation of the ascending aorta, aortic aneurysms, and
aortic dissection, supporting stringent cardiac follow-up for all individuals with
Turner syndrome [58, 59].
Most patients with Down or Turner syndrome are not reproductive; however,
when a mosaic pattern is present, they might be able to have children. The specific
karyotype should be considered when counseling adults with Down or Turner syn-
drome regarding reproduction and potential risks for offspring [60].

4.2.4.2 Copy Number Variants

With the introduction of chromosomal microarray testing, it became clear that CNVs
are overrepresented in patients with both syndromic and non-syndromic CHD [61,
62]. These CNVs vary in size and might contain genes involved in the heart develop-
ment. They account for approximately 15–20 % of all newborn babies with syn-
dromic CHD, but the diagnostic yield varies significantly between syndromic (18 %)
and non-syndromic CHD patients (4.3 %) [26, 63, 64]. Many large CNVs are unique
to a single CHD patient, but several are recurrent in CHD cohorts. To date, there are
over 40 clinically delineated deletion and duplication syndromes associated with
CHD. These CNVs can be classified in three groups: (I) CNVs associated with well-
described microdeletion syndromes, (II) CNVs that include genes known to be
involved in CHD, and (III) CNVs associated with a wide variety of other phenotypes
such as autism or intellectual disability, which may include CHD. This group of
CNVs often shows reduced penetrance and might be present in a healthy parent.
These CNVs are also called susceptibility loci.

Group I CNVs Associated with Well-Described Microdeletion Syndromes

The most frequent microdeletion syndrome associated with CHD is the 22q11.2
deletion syndrome which is due to a deletion of chromosome band 22q11.2 and
leads to haploinsufficiency of more than 30 genes including the transcription factor
TBX1 and CRKL gene, both implicated as the cause of CHD in this deletion syn-
drome [65]. About 75 % of individuals with 22q11.2 deletion have a CHD, typically
a conotruncal defects such as an interrupted aortic arch, truncus arteriosus, or tetral-
ogy of Fallot. It is advised to perform (targeted) microarray testing for 22q11.2
deletion in all newborns with a conotruncal defect.
Williams syndrome is caused by a deletion of chromosome band 7q11.2 includ-
ing the elastin gene. Haploinsufficiency of the elastin gene causes CHD in Williams
syndrome; most typically, patients have supravalvular aortic stenosis. About half of
the affected individuals with Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome (4p16.3 deletion) have a
CHD including ASD, PS, VSD, and PDA. Jacobsen syndrome is a condition that is
caused by the deletion of the terminal end of chromosome 11q and is also known as
the 11q terminal deletion syndrome. Half of the patients have CHD including ven-
tricular septal defects and left ventricular outflow tract obstructions, particularly
hypoplastic left heart syndrome.
62 I. van de Laar and M. Wessels

More recently described microdeletion/duplication syndromes include Kleefstra

syndrome and Potocki-Lupski syndrome. Kleefstra syndrome, which is caused by
microdeletion of 9q34.3, leads to EHMT1 disruption. CHD is reported in about
50 % of individuals with this syndrome including ASD, VSD, TOF, CoA, BAV, and
pulmonic stenosis [66, 67]. Duplication of the 17p11.2 region leads to Potocki-­
Lupski syndrome and this often leads to BAV and dilated aortas [68, 69].

Group II CNVs That Include Genes Known to Be Involved in Congenital

Heart Disease
The most frequent CNVs associated with CHD are duplications or deletions at chro-
mosome 1q21.1, encompassing the GJA5 gene, which occur in at least 1 % of
reported CHD cases [61]. Deletions of chromosome 8p23.1 are found in CHD
patients, and this microdeletion includes the GATA4 gene, involved mainly in famil-
ial septal defects as mentioned previously. Submicroscopic deletions of chromo-
some 6q24–25 include the TAB2 gene, which is involved in a variety of CHD [48,
70]. The NKX2.5 gene is deleted in patients with a deletion of chromosome 5q35
and causes ASD and AV conduction defect.

Group III CNV Susceptibility Loci

An example of a CNV susceptibility locus is the 16p11.2 deletion that includes the
region known as the “16p11.2 autism susceptibility locus.” CHD is reported occa-
sionally; however, no specific recurrent CHD is observed [71].
Also in patients with CNVs, there is a reduced reproductive fitness. Offspring of
patients with a microdeletion or duplication will have a 50 % chance of inheriting
the chromosomal abnormality.

4.2.5 Exposures

Exogenic risk factors for CHD have been grouped in maternal illnesses and mater-
nal exposures. Well-established maternal diseases that are known to be associated
with CHD include maternal insulin-dependent diabetes, phenylketonuria, and first-­
trimester rubella infection. Other risk factors might be maternal obesity and age.
Maternal use of retinoic acid in also a well-established risk factor but also the use of
alcohol, cigarettes, amphetamines, anticonvulsive drugs, hormones, lithium, and
some selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors increases the risk of having a child with
CHD. Some of these risk factors are a good target for intervention, and cessation of
the risk factor or treatment of the condition will clearly reduce the recurrence risk.

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Care During Pregnancy
5
Iris M. van Hagen and Jolien W. Roos-Hesselink

Abbreviations

DIC Disseminated intravascular coagulation

FDA Food and Drug Administration
LMWH Low-molecular-weight heparin
WHO World Health Organization

5.1 Introduction

Close follow-up of pregnant women with congenital heart disease is essential. In the
light of the increasing attention to maternal death and morbidity due to cardiovascu-
lar disease, several guidelines have paid attention to the topic [1, 2]. In 2011 a very
comprehensive statement was produced by the ESC working group [3], also dis-
cussing the cardiac evaluation throughout pregnancy. All recommendations are
based on level C evidence, and choices may be individualised based on clinical
experience. After the risk assessment during preconception counselling, evaluation
of clinical parameters during pregnancy provides information on the status of risk to
evolve cardiac deterioration.

I.M. van Hagen, MD (*) • J.W. Roos-Hesselink, MD, PhD

Department of Cardiology, Division of Adult Congenital Heart Disease,
Erasmus MC, University Medical Center,
POBox 2040, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 67

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_5
68 I.M. van Hagen and J.W. Roos-Hesselink

5.2 Clinical Follow-Up

Frequency of follow-up during pregnancy can be determined after the risk stratifica-
tion has been established before pregnancy using the modified World Health
Organization (WHO) classification. It consists of four classes: the risk of mortality
and morbidity is low in WHO class I, and the risk is extremely high in WHO class
IV, where pregnancy should be avoided. Women with WHO class I may have their
pregnancy care in a community hospital. However, although the risk of a cardiac
event in this group has been estimated at 0 % by two studies [4, 5], another has
shown an event rate of up to 7 % in women without atrial fibrillation or signs of
heart failure before pregnancy [6]. Consequently, it seems wise to evaluate the car-
diac status of these women at least once or twice during pregnancy. This can be
organised in the local hospital. In the case of deterioration of cardiac function, there
should be a low threshold for referral to a tertiary centre. Patients with WHO class
II and higher should be regularly seen in a tertiary centre. Their risk of a cardiac
event is mildly to moderately increased, and thus they should be seen at 12, 20 and
30 weeks of pregnancy. An echocardiography at 20 weeks is justified in most cases.
In some patients, additional follow-up visits are required, such as monitoring of
anticoagulation therapy in women with a mechanical valve. A multidisciplinary
team, including an obstetrician, cardiologist and anaesthetist, should formulate a
delivery plan between 20 and 30 weeks [3]. Table 5.1 shows a summary of follow-
­up recommendations for each WHO class.
At 20–25 weeks, a multidisciplinary team should evaluate the progress of each
patient. The team should consist of at least a cardiologist, an obstetrician and an
anaesthesiologist. Echocardiography or other examinations should be discussed. An
individualised labour plan should be made, taking into account the WHO classifica-
tion, as specified during preconception counselling. It should describe the planned
method and timing of delivery, whether there is a need for primary caesarean sec-
tion, induction, primary epidural anaesthesia and assisted vaginal delivery and the
need for postpartum prolonged admission. The delivery plan should be documented
electronically if possible and made easily available to all involved specialties.

5.3 Diagnostic Modalities

After taking a careful history and physical examination, an electrocardiogram

should be performed as a part of standard care. Heart rate increases by approxi-
mately 10–20 % during normal pregnancy [7]. Deviation towards a left axis is
observed, which can be explained by elevation of the diaphragm and increase in
ventricular mass and/or blood volume. Prominent Q waves may evolve in the infe-
rior leads in 50–68 %, and T-wave abnormalities have been described in 70–80 % of
pregnant women. These changes are also thought to be related to a physical shift in
the position of the heart. Alternatively, the increased workload of the pregnant heart
or the hormonal and serum electrolyte changes have been suggested to cause Q- and
T-wave deviations [8].
Table 5.1  Follow-up during pregnancy and delivery
Risk Diagnosis Practical implications for pregnancy Practical implications for delivery
mWHO I No to mild increased risk in morbidity Repaired simple lesion Follow-up by cardiologist in peripheral or tertiary centre: After uncomplicated pregnancy: as usual
compared to normal population ASD or VSD twice (end of first and end of second trimester) Otherwise, as class II
PDA
PAPVR
Mild valvular disease
Uncomplicated PDA

mWHO II Small increased risk of maternal mortality Unrepaired uncomplicated ASD or VSD Follow-up by expert cardiologist and obstetrician: Multidisciplinary team decides on plan:
and moderate increased risk in morbidity Repaired tetralogy of Fallot 12 weeks Timing of delivery
20 weeks + echocardiography Induction of delivery
5  Care During Pregnancy

30 weeks Mode of delivery:

Vaginal delivery (preferred)
Assisted delivery (vacuum or forceps)
Shortened second stage
mWHO II-III Mild systemic ventricular dysfunction Aortic disease with diameter >40 mm:
Anaesthetic approach
Repaired coarctation Echocardiography every 4–8 weeks (or MRI)
Native or tissue valve disease
Marfan (<40 mm) Postpartum in-hospital monitoring:
BAV (<45 mm) 24, 48 or 72 h, in case of moderate
increased risk of heart failure or arrhythmia
mWHO III Significantly increased risk of maternal Mechanical valve Regular intensive monitoring up to monthly
mortality and severe morbidity Systemic right ventricle
Fontan circulation
Unrepaired cyanotic heart disease
Other complex congenital heart disease
Marfan (40–45 mm)
BAV (45–50 mm)

mWHO IV Extremely high risk of maternal mortality Pulmonary arterial hypertension Pregnancy contraindicated, if pregnancy occurs: care as for class III
or severe morbidity Severe systemic ventricular dysfunction
Severe mitral stenosis
Severe symptomatic aortic stenosis
Marfan (>45 mm)
BAV (>50 mm)
Native severe coarctation

ASD atrial septal defect, BAV bicuspid aortic valve, PAPVR partial anomalous pulmonary venous return, PDA persistent ductus arteriosus, VSD ventricular
septal defect
69
70 I.M. van Hagen and J.W. Roos-Hesselink

Echocardiography is the basis of the evaluation of cardiac status during preg-

nancy, both routinely and in the event of a clinical deterioration. In any patient with
congenital heart disease, echocardiography should be performed at least once dur-
ing pregnancy. Ventricular and valvular function as well as ascending aorta dimen-
sions can be assessed and compared to pre-pregnancy values. Left ventricular
diastolic dimensions are known to increase approximately 7–12 % throughout preg-
nancy and to return to preconception values 6–12 months after pregnancy in healthy
women [9]. Systolic dimensions remain stable, allowing for the increment of stroke
volume. Maximum haemodynamic adaptation takes place beyond 20 weeks up to
the end of the second trimester [7], and routine echocardiographic follow-up during
pregnancy can therefore be planned between 20 and 24 weeks of gestation.
Transoesophageal echocardiography is relatively safe during pregnancy. It is in par-
ticular helpful in haemodynamically stable women with a mechanical valve pros-
thesis and suspected valve thrombosis to determine thrombus size and to guide
therapy [10].
Exercise testing during pregnancy has been studied and showed no adverse con-
sequences with regard to the fetal well-being measured by umbilical artery Doppler
indices and fetal heart rate [11]. Safety of exercise testing in women with estab-
lished congenital heart disease has not been studied. Therefore it is recommended
to not exceed a heart rate of 80 % of predicted maximum heart rate and a respiratory
exchange ratio of 1.0 in VO2max testing [3]. Dobutamine stress exercise should be
avoided, because of limited experience during pregnancy.
MRI is the preferred imaging modality in women with aortic disease in whom
aortic diameters need to be assessed during pregnancy and cannot be visualised using
echocardiography. In these cases, it is recommended to have an MRI performed
before pregnancy, for comparability of diameters. Gadolinium is not routinely used.
It readily passes the placental border and thus may enter the fetal circulation and is
excreted in the amniotic fluid through the fetal kidneys. The impact of the presence
of gadolinium in the amniotic fluid on the fetus is unclear but should be considered
harmful [12]. In individual cases, gadolinium use may be considered based on the
estimated risk-benefit ratio in favour of the benefits for the mother.
A supine position compresses the inferior vena cava, but not the aorta. A left lateral
position with a tilt of 30°, rather than 15°, relieves this compression at least partially
[13]. Position should be consistent from early pregnancy to delivery, because of the
large influence of position on cardiac haemodynamic parameters [14].
While survival of congenital heart disease patients has increased over the past
decades, the imaging burden of this population has similarly grown. The number of
tests per patients is partly associated with the disease complexity [15]. Also, utilisa-
tion rate of CT during pregnancy increased in the general population [16]. Cardiac
catheterisation, chest CT or nuclear imaging leads to a fetal exposure to low-dose
ionising radiation and should be avoided during pregnancy. But if a strong indication
exists and chest CT is performed, the risks of fetal damage are low. Fetal radiation
exposure below 50 mSv is associated with a negligible fetal risk. Chest CT leads to a
fetal exposure of approximately 0.01–3 mSv, depending on the target diagnosis. Only
abdominal CT and myocardial perfusion scans exceed 50 mSv [17]. CT imaging
5  Care During Pregnancy 71

should be performed in left lateral position, and to further decrease the fetal radiation
exposure rate, shielding may be considered, but decrease of exposure is limited and
clinically hardly relevant [18, 19]. Iodinated contrast agents cross the placenta and are
better avoided, although evidence of serious fetal harm is lacking [17].
Cardiac catheterisation may be needed in rare cases. In the case of fluoroscopy by
trans-radial approach, shielding causes double exposure to the patient [20]. To avoid
the use of fluoroscopy, an electroanatomical mapping system might be used to navigate
and perform intracardiac pressure measurements [21]. Fluoroscopy might be consid-
ered in cases of suspected mechanical valve thrombosis, with short exposure times. All
imaging modalities including clinical indications are summarised in Table 5.2.

5.4 Incidence and Timing of Events

Most simple types of congenital heart disease are associated with a low risk of
events during pregnancy, while women with complex lesions are at higher risk. In a
comprehensive literature review, complicated pregnancies were most often seen in
patients with a cyanotic heart disease, a Fontan circulation or a partial atrioventricu-
lar septal defect [22]. About 35–40 % of these pregnancies ended in a miscarriage,
compared to approximately 10 % in the general population. The highest risk of heart
failure, arrhythmia or cardiovascular mortality was found in patients with
Eisenmenger’s syndrome, cyanotic disease, Fontan circulation and partial atrioven-
tricular septal defect and patients with a transposition of the great arteries.
With a physiologic haemodynamic burden being present from the first weeks of
gestation and increasing towards the end of the second trimester [7], cardiac events
are likely to happen during the entire pregnancy. The contractions during labour are
an additional load, and therefore patients are also at risk of events during the peri-
partum period.

5.4.1 Heart Failure

Indeed, in a prospective study, heart failure occurred throughout pregnancy, but most
typically at the end of the second trimester and in the first week after delivery. In
women with congenital heart disease, the incidence of heart failure was 8 %, which is
much lower than the 19 % in pregnant women with valvular heart disease and 40 % in
women with a cardiomyopathy. Women with signs or symptoms of heart failure
before pregnancy and those with pulmonary hypertension are at highest risk [23].

5.4.2 Arrhythmia

In the absence of cardiac disease, pregnancy is very rarely complicated by arrhyth-

mias [24]. In patients with congenital heart disease outside pregnancy, mainly those
with multiple previous cardiac surgeries and those with a diminished ventricular
 72

Table 5.2  Imaging modalities and their implications during pregnancy in women with congenital heart disease
Disadvantages
Indication Considerations

Electrocardiography Physiologic changes: left axis deviation, prominent Q waves

inferior leads, T wave abnormalities
Part of standard evaluation Physiologic changes: increase of dimensions
Echocardiography

Cardiac MRI Routine if follow-up of aortic dimensions is Unknown effect of gadolinium to the fetus Left lateral position, avoid gadolinium
warranted and echocardiography is insufficient

Transoesophageal echocardiography Potential increase of intra-abdominal pressure Fetal monitoring in case of sedation

Exercise test Safety to fetus unknown Avoid dobutamin, max 80 % of predicted heart rate,
VO2max: respiratory exchange ratio max 1.0
Chest CT Only if it has clear clinical consequences, and Fetal radiation exposure: 0.01 - 1 mSva Consider to use shielding, avoid contrast agents, left lateral
potential benefit to the mother position
Catheterization Fetal radiation exposure: up to 0.074 mSva Preferably use electro-anatomic mapping system
(e.g. intracardiac pressure measurement)
Fluoroscopy Fetal radiation exposure: up to 0.244 mSv/mina Shielding, duration as short as possible
(e.g. mechanical valve evaluation)

a
Source: Colletti et al. [17]
CT computed tomography, MRI magnetic resonance imaging
I.M. van Hagen and J.W. Roos-Hesselink
5  Care During Pregnancy 73

function are at risk. During pregnancy, the risk of arrhythmias in women with con-
genital heart disease is generally low. The incidence of supraventricular arrhythmias
is estimated at 0.4–0.7 % [25, 26]. Ventricular arrhythmias occur in approximately
0.4–1.6 % in the presence of structural congenital heart disease [27, 28]. However, the
incidence is much higher in patients with inherited arrhythmic disease, up to 13 % in
women with previously diagnosed arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy
with an ICD, although this is not increased compared to outside pregnancy [29].

5.4.3 Valve Thrombosis

Hormonal changes cause a hypercoagulable state during pregnancy. Therefore,

patients with an increased risk of thrombosis, based on their underlying cardiac
disease, should receive adequate anticoagulation and be monitored intensively
throughout pregnancy. For instance, women with a mechanical valve prosthesis
deserve special attention, and close cooperation with a haematologist is advised.
Mechanical valve thrombosis is a hazardous complication that may occur in approx-
imately 5 % of pregnancies, with a mortality rate as high as 20 % [30]. Several
anticoagulant strategies for the prevention of valve thrombosis have been proposed,
but none have been proved to be superior. Specific time of risk is presumably when
a patient is switched to a different anticoagulant agent. Other patients at risk are
those with low flow mechanical valves such as a valve in the mitral position or in the
case of ventricular dysfunction, although studies are too small to statistically sub-
stantiate these theories.

5.4.4 Aortic Dissection

In line with the haemodynamic changes in pregnancy, the vessel wall integrity is both
influenced by different loading conditions and hormonal influences on the smooth
muscle cells and reticular fibres of the tunica media of the aortic wall. In women with
aortic disease such as Marfan syndrome, but presumably also in patients with Loeys-
Dietz or vascular-type Ehlers-Danlos, these changes result in an increased risk of aor-
tic dissection during pregnancy [31–34]. In Marfan syndrome, the incidence of aortic
dissection is approximately 4.5 % during pregnancy. An aortic dissection may occur
throughout the entire pregnancy and up to several weeks after delivery. Because of
this elevated risk, women with aortic disease and a dilated aorta should be seen every
4–8 weeks with imaging of the aorta (either echocardiography or MRI).

5.5 Medication During Pregnancy

The treatment of symptoms during pregnancy is limited by the potential fetal toxic-
ity of therapeutic agents. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) controls a data-
base of drugs and their potential harm to the fetus. Table 5.3 shows the FDA
 74

Table 5.3  FDA classification for drugs in pregnancy

FDA Human Animal
class studies studies Implication Cardiac examples
FDA A No risk No risk in human controlled studies
FDA B No controlled No risk No evidence of risk in human studies Sotalol, LMWH, unfractionated heparin, clopidogrel (no evidence
studies in humans), acetylsalicylic acid (low dose), nitrates,
hydrochlorothiazide, PDE5 inhibitors, prostanoids
No risk Risk
FDA C No controlled Risk Risk not ruled out Digoxin, other beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers,
studies clopidogrel, furosemide, most NOACs

FDA D Amiodarone, vitamin K antagonistsa ACE-inhibitors, ARBs,

Risk Positive evidence of risk in human studies atenolol
FDA X Risk of drug outweighs the potential benefit,
Statins, endothelin receptor antagonists, vitamin K antagonistsa
Risk contraindicated in pregnancy
FDA N FDA has not yet classified the drug Vernakalant

ARBs angiotensin II receptor blocker, FDA Food and Drug Administration, LMWH low molecular weight heparin, PDE5 inhibitors phosphodiesterase 5
inhibitors
a
Vitamin K antagonists are only classified FDA D in pregnant women with mechanical heart valves, who are at high risk of thromboembolism, and for whom
the benefits of COUMADIN may outweigh the risks. Otherwise FDA X
I.M. van Hagen and J.W. Roos-Hesselink
5  Care During Pregnancy 75

classification and an overview of cardiac medication. In each woman the balance

between maternal benefit and fetal risk of these drugs needs to be taken into account.
The physiologic haemodynamic changes of pregnancy alter the pharmacokinetics
and pharmacodynamics of drugs. The volume of distribution increases warranting a
higher dosage in some drugs to reach therapeutic levels, e.g. in the case of digoxin.
Many more complex influences of pregnancy on pharmacokinetics exist [35].
Overall, the absorption is reduced, and drug elimination is increased during preg-
nancy, generally leading to a lower level of plasma concentration. Close monitoring
of drug levels may be necessary during pregnancy, in particular for drugs with a low
therapeutic index (therapeutic-toxic dose ratio).

5.5.1 Anticoagulation in Patients with a Mechanical Valve

Several guidelines advise on anticoagulation strategies that are based mainly on small
cohort studies and expert opinion [3, 36]. None of the anticoagulation regimens used
worldwide seem to be superior, with the use of vitamin K antagonists leading to more
frequent fetal demise, while a higher rate of valve thrombosis may be encountered in
patients switched to (low molecular weight) heparin [30]. Patients should be changed
to low molecular weight or unfractionated heparin as soon as they become pregnant
and continue at least up to the end of the first trimester [3]. Strict control of either
through levels of anti-Xa (LMWH) [37–41] or APTT (unfractionated heparin) is war-
ranted. The guidelines advise treating women with vitamin K antagonists in the sec-
ond and third trimester. The period of switching to another anticoagulant agent might
put the patient at an increased risk of valve thrombosis, although this is not supported
by the evidence. It is recommended to use dual anticoagulation until the INR is at least
>2.5 during two consecutive measurements. In the case of a planned vaginal delivery,
they should be switched to a form of heparin again by 36 or 37 weeks. At 36 h before
planned labour, unfractionated heparin is the first choice of treatment as it can be
reversed more easily than LMWH. At 4–6 h before planned delivery, heparin should
be stopped temporarily and restarted 4–6 h after delivery [3, 36].

5.6 Cardiac Interventions During Pregnancy

5.6.1 Interventions for Arrhythmia

When pharmacological treatment fails or the arrhythmia is associated with haemo-

dynamic instability in women suffering from tachyarrhythmia, direct current car-
dioversion is the first choice therapy. It can be used safely in pregnancy, with
facilities for emergency delivery readily available [42]. It has been suggested that
direct current cardioversion might induce uterine contractions [43], although this
was described in the era of monophasic shock protocols [44]. Cardioversion should
be performed in left lateral position to relieve the inferior cava compression, and
fetal monitoring is advised.
76 I.M. van Hagen and J.W. Roos-Hesselink

In drug-resistant or recurrent tachyarrhythmias with haemodynamic compro-

mise, radio-frequency ablation can be considered. However, evidence on safety dur-
ing pregnancy is based only on a few case reports. The use of fluoroscopy can be
avoided in the presence of an electroanatomical mapping system, with a minimum
of radiation exposure [45].

5.6.2 Device Implantation

The indication for ICD implantation is the same as outside pregnancy [46].
Fluoroscopic guidance should be avoided if possible, for instance, using transo-
esophageal echocardiography or with reconstructed 3D geometry [47, 48]. Also,
temporary pacing or pacemaker implantation can be performed safely. Recently, the
use of (3D) electroanatomical reconstruction was reported with subsequent success-
ful pacemaker implantation in early pregnancy free of fluoroscopy [49].

5.6.3 Resuscitation

In principle, cardiopulmonary resuscitation is performed following the standard proce-

dures, except for some adjustments [50]. Basic life support should be performed with
manual left uterine displacement to relieve caval compression, specifically in the case
of an obvious gravid uterus. Fetal monitors are better removed, as the first goal is to
resuscitate the mother and monitoring of the fetus is less important. Intravenous access
should be achieved quickly, preferably above the diaphragm level during advanced
cardiovascular life support. After 4 min of resuscitation without return of spontaneous
circulation, immediate emergency caesarean section should be strongly considered and
ideally be performed within 5 min of onset. Table 5.4 presents possible contributing
factors which are summarised in acronym ‘BEAUCHOPS’ [51]. Next to a direct car-
diac cause, obstetric indirect causes of cardiac deterioration should be considered. Key
knowledge in the further treatment of a pregnant woman in shock is the fact that the
uterus, and thus the fetal circulation, is considered a nonvital organ during shock.

Table 5.4  Potential causes BEAUCHOPS

of cardiac arrest during
Bleeding/DIC
pregnancy
Embolism: coronary, pulmonary, amniotic
Anaesthetic complications
Uterine atony
Cardiac disease: MI, ischaemia, aortic dissection,
cardiomyopathy
Hypertension/preeclampsia/eclampsia
Others: differential diagnosis of standard ACLS guidelines
Placenta abruption/praevia
Sepsis
DIC disseminated intravascular coagulation
5  Care During Pregnancy 77

5.6.4 Percutaneous and Surgical Intervention

If a percutaneous procedure cannot be postponed until after delivery, then the pro-
cedure should be performed with limited exposure to fluoroscopy or guided by
echocardiography and preferably in the second trimester [3].
The potential benefits of any surgical intervention need to be carefully weighed
against the obvious fetal risks. Valve surgery or aortic surgery should be postponed
until after delivery whenever possible. The placental perfusion during surgery is
compromised, which causes an increased risk of fetal morbidity and mortality.
Surgery performed before delivery is associated with a fetal mortality of approxi-
mately 20–30 % [52–54]. Therefore, in the case of an indicated emergency surgery
and a viable fetus, it is recommended to perform emergency caesarean section
before cardiac surgery is carried out. Shorter cardiopulmonary bypass time and aor-
tic cross-clamping time are associated with a better fetal outcome and similar mater-
nal outcome [55]. In addition, normothermia, a higher pump flow and perfusion
pressure and left lateral position are recommended [3, 56]. The efficacy and safety
of the intra-aortic balloon pump during pregnancy need further investigation [57].

Key Messages
Every hospital providing tertiary care to pregnant women with cardiovascular
disease should constitute a multidisciplinary team of cardiologists, obstetri-
cians and anaesthesiologists with expertise in this field. This team should
preferably have a meeting on regular basis and be involved in the delivery
plan.
Follow-up of women with congenital heart disease can be based on their
WHO class, but may be individualised based on clinical parameters.
Echocardiography is the basis of cardiac evaluation during pregnancy.
Routine follow-up with MRI is advised to visualise the aorta in women with
aortic pathology, when aortic diameters cannot be measured with echocar-
diography. Other diagnostic modalities are generally preserved for patients
with potential deterioration of their cardiac function or should be postponed
until after delivery.
The most common complications during pregnancy in women with con-
genital heart disease are heart failure and arrhythmias. In 5 % of patients with
a mechanical valve, pregnancy is complicated by valve thrombosis. Women
with aortic pathology, such as Marfan syndrome or Loeys-Dietz syndrome,
are at increased risk of aortic dissection.
Medication during pregnancy should carefully be considered for their
potential fetotoxicity. Women with a mechanical valve need close and fre-
quent follow-up after the anticoagulant strategy has been determined.
Emergency cardiac surgery in the case of a viable fetus in situ is preferably
preceded by a caesarean section.
78 I.M. van Hagen and J.W. Roos-Hesselink

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The Management of Labour
and the Post-partum Period in CHD 6
Matt Cauldwell, Mark Cox, Roisin Monteiro,
and Mark R. Johnson

Abbreviations

ARBs Angiotensin receptor blockers

CFM Continuous fetal monitoring
CHD Congenital heart disease
CS Caesarean section
GA General anaesthesia
M/P Milk to plasma
PCC Preconception care
SVR Systemic vascular resistance

6.1 Introduction

Maternal mortality in developed countries is in the region of 1 per 10,000 births [1];
in emerging nations, the rate is 25 times higher [2]. These risks are greater in the
context of pre-existing heart disease, where the overall risk of dying during preg-
nancy is 1 %, 0.6 % in the developed and 3.4 % in the developing world [3]. Labour
is a critical time, when cardiac work is maximal and major changes in blood

M. Cauldwell, MD, PhD • M.R. Johnson, MD, PhD (*)

Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Institute of Reproductive and Developmental
Biology, Imperial College School of Medicine, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital,
369 Fulham Road, London SW10 9NH, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Cox, MD, PhD • R. Monteiro, MD, PhD
Anesthetic Department, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital,
369 Fulham Road, London SW10 9NH, UK
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 83
J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_6
84 M. Cauldwell et al.

volumes occur [4]. Timely and appropriate management decisions are essential as
women with heart disease can deteriorate rapidly [5]. Most problems can be antici-
pated in the antenatal period, making the formulation of the plan for delivery vitally
important. Decisions need to be individualised and based on the risks and benefits
of the mode of delivery in a given clinical situation.

6.2 Antenatal Care

The ideal provision of pregnancy care for women with CHD should begin with
preconception care (PCC), which should be delivered by both an obstetrician and
cardiologist. This then allows the individual with CHD to be fully informed and
aware of the impact that pregnancy is likely to have on their clinical status and any
potential complications they may encounter. As part of this consultation, it is help-
ful to advise women on aspects of pregnancy care that may be unique to them
because of their CHD and also how their care is likely to be delivered and co-­
ordinated throughout the 9 months of pregnancy. PCC is also an opportunity to
review and organise any outstanding investigations prior to pregnancy so as to pro-
vide the team who is delivering pregnancy care with complete and up-to-date clini-
cal data. PCC also permits an assessment of the patient’s own individual clinical
risk which in turn is likely to dictate how their care is delivered.

6.3 Clinical Management Plan for Delivery

1 . Place of birth
2. Mode of delivery
3. Induction of labour
4. First stage of labour monitoring, antibiotics, maternal monitoring, fetal monitor-
ing, ECG, SA02, arterial line, CVP
5. Second-stage time-assisted delivery
6. Third stage
7. Postdelivery

6.3.1 Place of Delivery

Early in the first trimester, women with CHD should meet their obstetrician and
cardiologist for a review of their clinical status, to discuss the schedule of antenatal
care, and the timing and mode of delivery. Women should be made aware that deliv-
ery within a hospital setting is recommended, on a consultant-led delivery suite/
labour ward, regardless of their underlying lesion. Although the exact level of care
required will be decided later in pregnancy for those individuals who are assessed
as having low-risk lesions (such as small left to right shunts or valvular regurgitation
with normal ventricular function), it may be appropriate to receive their obstetric
care in a local obstetric unit rather than in a specialist centre. Local care can be
6  The Management of Labour and the Post-partum Period in CHD 85

enhanced by a comprehensive cardiac assessment at PCC or early in the first trimes-

ter, so that any pertinent issues can be clarified and further investigations and fol-
low-­up arranged. If the local obstetric unit feels unable to care for these patients,
then their care should be transferred to specialist centres, which routinely manage
women with CHD.

6.3.2 Multidisciplinary Delivery Planning

Every woman with CHD should have a detailed delivery plan completed in the third
trimester. This delivery plan should follow from a joint co-ordinated assessment by
the obstetricians, cardiologists and anaesthetists. Within this plan there should be
clear written information regarding the proposed place of delivery; mode of deliv-
ery; the type of monitoring the patient needs to receive, which members of the
medical team need to be informed should any problems arise; the recommended
pain relief required; and the specific management of the second and third stage of
labour and postdelivery monitoring.

6.3.3 M
 ode of Delivery: Vaginal Delivery or Planned Caesarean
Section?

Rates of Caesarean section are much higher in women with CHD [6], reflecting
the desire to avoid an emergency Caesarean section in this group of patients. To
date, advice regarding the mode of delivery in women with congenital heart dis-
ease (CHD) has been based exclusively on expert opinion with little or no data to
guide clinicians. The recent paper based on the ROPAC dataset from over 1,200
deliveries showed that a planned Caesarean section did not confer any maternal
advantage when compared with attempted vaginal delivery [7]. In fact, comparing
planned vaginal delivery with planned Caesarean section showed that babies were
delivered earlier and were consequently of a lower birthweight, whilst maternal
outcomes were worse with higher maternal mortality and rates of heart failure.
This could reflect the fact that planned Caesareans were more common in women
with worse heart disease, but even when this was corrected for, the differences
remained, with higher rates of heart failure, lower birthweight and shorter gesta-
tion, suggesting that elective CS was associated with no maternal benefit and a
worse fetal outcome. Most importantly, from a maternal point of view, the out-
come of emergency CS performed in labour was no worse than for those having a
pre-labour elective CS. These data suggest that vaginal delivery can be attempted
in most women, with CS reserved for those with an obstetric indication. The ESC
guidelines suggest that women on oral anticoagulation in preterm labour and
patients with Marfan syndrome and an aortic diameter of greater than 45 mm
should be delivered by CS [8]. The current data suggest that attempted vaginal
delivery is safe in all others and that emergency CS carries no greater risk than
elective CS. More research, focussed on the outcome of labour in women with
severe heart disease, needs to be performed.
86 M. Cauldwell et al.

6.3.4 Timing of Delivery and Induction of Labour

A spontaneous onset of labour followed by a vaginal delivery is the best option for
women with CHD and, in the absence of obstetric factors (preterm ruptured mem-
branes, fetal growth restriction, pre-eclampsia); there are no data to support early
induction of labour. However, in the noncardiac population, induction of labour in
many groups has been shown to be safe and does not increase the rate of Caesarean
section before 40 weeks of gestation and to actually reduce CS rates after 40 weeks
[9, 10]. Perhaps more importantly, induction at 40 weeks reduces stillbirth rates by
around 50 % [11]. Consequently, in women with CHD who experience higher rates
of stillbirth, a policy to induce labour at 40 weeks may be beneficial and consistent
with improving pregnancy outcomes but currently has no evidence base. Should
induction of labour be required, then artificial rupture of membranes and oxytocin
infusion are preferred. If prostaglandins are required to promote cervical ripening,
caution should be used as there is the risk of uterine hyperstimulation, which may
then require emergency delivery. It may be preferable to consider mechanical meth-
ods of cervical ripening such as a Foley catheter or cervical laminaria.

6.3.5 First Stage of Labour

During labour in normal (noncardiac patients) women, cardiac output progressively

increases to reach a maximum in the second stage [12]. There are no equivalent data in
women with heart disease, and the data from Robson et al. are taken from women with-
out epidural anaesthesia and may therefore be a response to pain. Current recommenda-
tions are for women with CHD to have an early epidural to minimise pain and so the
increase in cardiac output, but there are no data to support this. In the non-pregnant state,
adverse cardiac events are infrequently associated with exercise. However, these data
are on the background of a normal cardiac workload, which is not the case in pregnancy
where the cardiac output is increased by up to 50 % from non-pregnant levels.
At the onset of the second stage, passive descent of the fetal head is permitted.
For women with an epidural, this increases the chance of a spontaneous vaginal
birth, reduces the overall time required for pushing and reduces the likelihood of an
assisted delivery [13]. An active second stage is considered to be appropriate for the
majority of women with CHD. Prior studies demonstrated a preference to replace
the active second stage with an immediate assisted delivery [14]. However, this is
currently only routinely recommended for patients with a dilated aorta [8]. More
recent data demonstrate that despite an active second stage, women with CHD are
still more likely to have an assisted vaginal delivery because of an imposed short-
ened stage [14]. At present there are no studies examining how the active second
stage should be managed in this group and whether a shortened second stage is
beneficial. Information regarding the recommended length of an active second stage
should be clearly documented in the patient’s labour plan.
6  The Management of Labour and the Post-partum Period in CHD 87

6.3.6 Third Stage of Labour

Present guidance recommends that women without heart disease may opt for a
physiological third stage if the risk of post-partum haemorrhage is deemed to be
low [15]. However, women with cardiac disease have a reported greater risk of
post-­partum haemorrhage, which may complicated up to a quarter of deliveries,
and so an “active” third stage of labour is recommended [16]. Obstetric haemor-
rhage should be avoided in this group because of the large associated fluid shifts at
delivery, which may be poorly tolerated in the parturient with cardiac disease.
Oxytocin is widely used to counter uterine atony, as first-line uterotonic agent for
the active management of the third stage of labour, as it shortens the length of the
third stage and reduces blood loss and the rate of post-partum haemorrhage [17]. A
UK postal survey of obstetricians and midwives found that Syntometrine was the
most commonly used agent for the active management of the third stage of labour
[18]. However, the use of ergometrine in women with cardiac disease is not advised
because of its marked hypertensive effect [19] and association with coronary artery
spam and myocardial ischaemia [20]. Furthermore, oxytocin is not without its own
side effects, most notably, vasodilatation of the subcutaneous vessels combined
with vasoconstriction in the splanchnic bed and coronary arteries as well as an
effect on cardiac receptors to increase heart rate [21], the overall effect being a
tachycardia and hypotension. These effects are dose related so the minimum effec-
tive dose of oxytocin is suggested. At present no studies have directly evaluated
different oxytocin regimens for the management of the third stage with reduced
rates of haemorrhage as a primary endpoint. Should second- or third-line agents be
required, misoprostol and Hemabate can be utilised for the treatment of post-par-
tum haemorrhage, but the former is associated with pyrexia and the latter with
marked gastrointestinal upset.

6.4 Antibiotic Prophylaxis

The overall incidence of infective endocarditis in pregnancy is extremely rare and

thought to be about 0.006 % [22]. There exists some variation in international guid-
ance, but the indications for patients to receive prophylaxis have certainly reduced
in recent years [23, 24]. In pregnancy, there is no specific guidance to advise which
women with CHD if any require antibiotic at the point of delivery. We therefore
suggest a pragmatic approach and to discuss this information with the patient in the
antenatal period. For women who feel strongly about receiving antibiotics at deliv-
ery, especially those with an artificial valve, we would agree that this is a reasonable
option. We further refer to the recent ESC guidelines on endocarditis [23].
Furthermore women having a Caesarean section should routinely be offered antibi-
otic prophylaxis prior to skin incision as this has been shown to reduce the risk of
maternal infection [25].
88 M. Cauldwell et al.

6.4.1 Monitoring in Labour

During labour, women should have both continuous fetal monitoring (CFM) and
maternal cardiac monitoring. Basic non-invasive monitoring should include an ECG
for the detection of maternal arrhythmia in labour. A 12-lead ECG can be performed
in the event of signs or symptoms of ischaemia. There are clear limitations of basic
non-invasive monitoring, and so regular medical review by an appropriately experi-
enced doctor monitoring is necessary. For women with high-risk cardiac lesions,
invasive cardiovascular may be prudent, usually in the form of an arterial and of
uncertain benefit line and occasionally a central venous line. A Swan-Ganz catheter
is rarely indicated. The need for these additional forms of monitoring should be
included in the antenatal delivery plan.

6.4.2 Obstetric Analgesia and Anaesthesia for Cardiac Patients

Anaesthetic involvement in the antenatal care of women with cardiac disease is

essential. Anaesthetists must be part of the team who assess these patients and mon-
itor them through their pregnancy. In more complex cases, anaesthetists will need
time to understand the patient’s cardiovascular physiology and how labour, anaes-
thetic and obstetric interventions might affect it. Plans for the timing and mode of
delivery, and how best to provide analgesia or anaesthesia for this, should be made
by a multidisciplinary team of anaesthetists, obstetricians and cardiologists. Even if
vaginal delivery is planned, emergency operative delivery may be indicated for
obstetric reasons, so an anaesthetic plan must be made for both the expected mode
of delivery and emergency intervention. The vast majority of women with cardiac
disease will have an anaesthetic intervention, either in the form of regional analge-
sia for labour or anaesthesia for operative delivery.

6.4.3 Labour Analgesia

Although women in labour can choose or decline a range of analgesic options, when
a woman with cardiac disease is in labour, epidural analgesia is usually recom-
mended. In addition to providing superior pain relief to other modes of analgesia,
epidural analgesia can attenuate the cardiovascular stresses of labour [26]. Cardiac
output increases by 50 % through pregnancy and may increase by a further 25 % dur-
ing the first stage of labour and by 40 % during the second stage, with further
increases during contractions [12]. This is mediated through increased venous return
and pain-related catecholamine release. An established early epidural before labour
pain should be recommended to all patients who may not cope with increased cardiac
demands; this has been shown to significantly reduce maternal catecholamine levels
which may lead to tachycardia, hypertension and ventricular stress [27]. Alternatively,
a low-dose combined spinal-epidural can be sited which affords quicker analgesia if
labour progression is advanced. Whichever technique is used, regional analgesia
6  The Management of Labour and the Post-partum Period in CHD 89

should be initiated carefully, allowing titration to effect with close haemodynamic

monitoring. An effective epidural can also be used to facilitate a passive second stage
if necessary or deliver anaesthesia if a surgical delivery is required.
Alternative options to epidural analgesia are available but do not carry the same
cardiovascular benefits for the cardiac patient as they cannot abolish pain and the asso-
ciated catecholamine release. Nitrous oxide and oxygen in a 50:50 mix (Entonox or
“gas and air”) provides very variable levels of analgesia [28]. Whilst readily accessible,
its use is limited by side effects such as nausea, vomiting and dizziness. Intramuscular
diamorphine and pethidine are commonly used parenteral opioids. They are readily
available, as they can be prescribed by midwives, but provide only moderate levels of
pain relief [29]. Cardiovascular benefits are not seen, and side effects include nausea,
sedation and respiratory depression. Hypercarbia associated with respiratory depres-
sion may exacerbate arrhythmias, myocardial ischaemia or pulmonary hypertension in
women at risk. Remifentanil patient-controlled intravenous analgesia is a more recent
technique. Remifentanil is an ultrashort-acting opiate with a half-life of 3 min. Whilst
it provides better analgesia than other opiates and Entonox, it is inferior to epidural
analgesia in terms of analgesia and therefore cardiovascular benefit [30]. It can result
in profound respiratory depression and can lead to reduced FHR variability so is usu-
ally offered only when epidural analgesia is contraindicated [31].

6.4.4 Delivery Anaesthesia

Anaesthetic options for delivery include general anaesthesia and regional tech-
niques. Providing anaesthesia by either technique can lead to more dramatic haemo-
dynamic changes than providing analgesia; consideration must be given to whether
invasive cardiovascular monitoring is necessary. For either technique, systemic
vasoconstrictors such as phenylephrine and ephedrine should be prepared to treat
reductions in blood pressure. Greater control may be obtained with a carefully
titrated infusion commenced at induction.

Regional techniques include:

• A single-shot spinal anaesthetic

• Catheter techniques, commonly epidural catheters or less commonly intrathecal
catheters
• A combination of the two (combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia)

The reduction in systemic vascular resistance (SVR) is a concern with regional

techniques in cardiac patients. Catheter techniques are therefore usually recommended
to allow a more gradual titration than that which can be achieved with a single-shot
technique. Regional anaesthetic techniques with a slower onset reduce cardiovascular
instability and have the added advantage that they can be abandoned if not tolerated.
The addition of an opiate is beneficial as it reduces the dose of local anaesthetic needed
and thus the haemodynamic consequences. Contraindications to neuraxial blockade
90 M. Cauldwell et al.

include concurrent anticoagulation, deranged platelet/clotting parameters, local or gen-

eralised sepsis and patient refusal. Further, neuraxial blockade should be used with
caution in patients with a fixed cardiac output such as stenotic valvular lesions and
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy as cardiac output cannot increase to compensate for the
reduction in SVR and reduced venous return is poorly tolerated.

6.4.5 General Anaesthesia

General anaesthesia (GA) carries a higher risk in pregnant compared to non-­

pregnant women. Concerns relate to:

• Intubation may be more challenging, with a difficult airway experienced in 1/224

obstetric patients and 1/2,000 in non-obstetric patients [32, 33].
• The risk of aspiration is increased due to raised intra-abdominal pressure,
reduced lower oesophageal sphincter tone and delayed gastric emptying.
• Oxygen desaturation may occur more quickly due to lower oxygen reserve and a
reduced functional residual capacity, coupled with increased oxygen
consumption.
• In addition, the fetus may be affected through the placental transfer of drugs.

There are also some concerns specific to cardiac patients. Induction of general
anaesthesia results in a drop in SVR, but this is not usually as precipitous as with
neuraxial blockade. GA drugs may, however, cause myocardial depression; this
includes the usual drugs used for induction and maintenance of anaesthesia in the
obstetric population, e.g. thiopental, propofol and volatile inhalational agents.
Anaesthetists may choose to deliver a “cardiac” anaesthetic, which tends to involve a
slower induction using drugs that are more cardiovascularly stable such as high doses
of opioids. This may result in a less responsive baby, so the neonatal team must be
informed of drugs used. Laryngoscopy and intubation may result in tachycardia and
raised pulmonary artery pressures; this may be attenuated by altering the anaesthetic
technique and using a short-acting opiate, beta blocker or intravenous lignocaine prior
to induction. Consideration must also be given to how the patient’s circulation will
cope with positive pressure ventilation and its effects on venous return, which is usu-
ally reduced in these circumstances. Nitrous oxide is often used as part of the mainte-
nance of anaesthesia in the obstetric population, but as it can increase pulmonary
vascular resistance, it should be avoided in patients with pulmonary hypertension.
For these reasons, GA is usually second choice to RA, reflected in the National
Obstetric Anaesthetic Database for 2012, which reported a rate of 7.6 % use of GA
for CS overall in the UK [34]. However, there has been little research looking into
the incidence of CS under GA in the cardiac population. A single-centre study
reported a rate of 27 % in 2003 [35], and anecdotal experience suggests that rates of
GA for CS in this group have decreased since then but remain higher than the non-
cardiac population. The higher rates of GA may be because the need for an urgent
CS or because of contraindications to RA, such as clotting abnormalities, which are
6  The Management of Labour and the Post-partum Period in CHD 91

more frequent in this group of women. In some patients with cardiac disease, anaes-
thetists prefer to avoid the more dramatic drop in SVR seen in regional anaesthesia.
For the highest-risk patients, GA allows rapid emergency investigation and inter-
vention, e.g. TOE or CPB if needed.

6.4.6 Postdelivery Care

Vigilant monitoring does not end with delivery; major cardiovascular changes occur
over 12–24 h following delivery. Uterine blood flow returns to the systemic circula-
tion, and the low resistance uteroplacental circulation is lost, meaning that this is a
high-risk time for patients susceptible to volume overload and heart failure.
Cardiovascular monitoring is therefore imperative during this period, especially for
women with a high risk of developing heart failure, for up to 48 h, usually in a high-­
dependency setting on the labour ward or in intensive care if the underlying cardiac
disease is more severe. Basic, non-invasive monitoring should be the baseline stan-
dard of care of all women with cardiac disease, including intermittent non-invasive
BP, continuous ECG monitoring and pulse oximetry. The need for invasive monitor-
ing should be dictated by the patient’s clinical status and evolving clinical picture.
Furthermore, regular and timely review should be made by the healthcare team to
ensure appropriate and timely intervention if needed. Some patients require specific
surveillance after delivery, for example, patients with an aortopathy and a history of
peripartum cardiomyopathy. Thought should be given to the implications for breast-
feeding of any drugs used.

6.4.7 Postdelivery Imaging

In certain cases, it may be wise to consider additional imaging prior to a patient’s

discharge. This is particularly true of women with aortopathy as they are a concern
regarding the risk of dissection. This appears to be greatest in the third trimester and
the post-partum period particularly for those with Marfan syndrome [36]. It is pos-
tulated that this greater risk of dissection may be due to increased cardiac output,
which peaks after delivery, following the uterine autotransfusion, but changes in
blood pressure and hormonal changes may also play a role. Aortic dissection can
have devastating consequences with high rates of maternal mortality of up to 30 %
[37]. Re-imaging of the aorta with echocardiography or MRI prior to discharge will
identify patients that have undergone an acute change in aortic dimensions and who
are therefore at greater risk of dissection in the puerperium.

6.4.8 Thromboprophylaxis

In the postnatal period, women are at greatest risk of venous thromboembolism

[38]. CHD alone is not an indication for thromboprophylaxis, but risk stratification
92 M. Cauldwell et al.

should be employed to determine which women require thromboprophylaxis and

for how long. Women with heart failure, after Fontan operation, and those with
cyanotic heart disease who are polycythaemic should be considered high risk for
thromboembolism and so should be treated. The Royal College of Obstetricians and
Gynaecologists has recently updated its guidance and provides risk assessment
tools [39].

6.4.9 Breastfeeding

Many women with cardiac disease will have been on medications prior to preg-
nancy some of which may have been stopped because of risks of teratogenicity. The
benefits of breastfeeding are well established, but a few drugs are contraindicated in
breastfeeding.

Beta Blockers  The majority of beta blockers are considered safe with breastfeed-
ing. However, the level of drug that is excreted into breast milk differs and will be
influenced by the milk to plasma (M/P) ratio. Nevertheless, the majority of studies
of beta blockers in breastfeeding demonstrate that despite the higher M/P levels of
agents such as metoprolol and nadolol, the dose delivered to the infant would have
no clinical effect; however, it may also be prudent to choose a beta blocker with a
lower M/P ratio if there is any suggestion of impaired renal or hepatic function in
the mother or infant.

ACE Inhibitors  There are limited data, but concern has been raised about severe
neonatal hypotension with these agents, particularly in premature infants.
Consequently, they should be used with caution and those with low availability in
breast milk, such as enalapril, captopril and quinapril chosen [40].

Calcium Channel Blockers  All calcium channel blockers pass into breast milk in
small amounts [41]; however, their use in breastfeeding is generally considered to
be safe.

Furosemide  Although excreted into breast milk, no adverse effects have been
reported with regard to breastfeeding.

ARBs  At present angiotensin receptor blockers are not recommended during preg-
nancy and breastfeeding because of insufficient data to support their use [42].

Anticoagulants  Warfarin is predominantly protein bound so only small amounts

are freely available in breast milk. Heparin, neither low molecular weight nor
unfractionated heparin, are detectable in breast milk because of their high molecular
weight. Currently there are no data published on the use of clopidogrel during
breastfeeding.
6  The Management of Labour and the Post-partum Period in CHD 93

6.4.10 Postnatal Review

All women with CHD should be offered a postnatal review jointly with their obste-
trician and cardiologists between 6 and 12 weeks after delivery. At this visit, women
should not only have a basic medical review but future pregnancies also discussed.
Women should be made aware that a short pregnancy interval of less than 18 months
may be associated with higher rates of preterm delivery. Furthermore, there is some
evidence that pregnancy may impair long-term functional status for some women
with CHD, and so discussions about future pregnancy need to be considered care-
fully. In the short term, at least women should be advised about the use of long-­
acting reversible contraceptive devices such as the Mirena IUD or progesterone
implants.

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 Part II
Specific Lesions
Pregnancy in Repaired Tetralogy
of Fallot 7
Sonya V. Babu-Narayan, Wei Li, and Anselm Uebing

Abbreviations

CMR Cardiovascular magnetic resonance

ECG Electrocardiogram
MAPCAs Major aortopulmonary collateral arteries
PR Pulmonary regurgitation
RA Right atrium
RPA Right pulmonary artery
RV Right ventricle
RVOT Right ventricular outflow tract
WHO World Health Organisation

S.V. Babu-Narayan, MB BS, BSc, PhD, FRCP (*)

Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit and Adult Congenital Heart Programme,
Royal Brompton Hospital, Sydney Street, London SW3 6NP, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
W. Li, MD, PhD
Department of Echocardiography and Adult Congenital Heart Programme,
Royal Brompton Hospital, London, UK
National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, UK
A. Uebing, MD, PhD
Adult Congenital Heart Programme, Royal Brompton Hospital, London, UK

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 99

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_7
100 S.V. Babu-Narayan et al.

Key Facts
Incidence: 400 per million live births, the most common, complex cyanotic
defect.
Inheritance: 3–5 % inheritance. Fifteen percent have DiGeorge syndrome due
to 22q11 deletion, which has 50 % inheritance.
Medication: ACE inhibitors, AT1 antagonists and some antiarrhythmic agents
are contraindicated during pregnancy.
World Health Organisation class: II (if otherwise well and uncomplicated).
Risks of pregnancy: maternal arrhythmia, heart failure, low birthweight.
Life expectancy: Depends on underlying anatomy and nature and timing of
previous interventions, excellent for those with uncomplicated anatomy,
early primary repair and good biventricular function.

Key Management
Preconception: Clinical assessment, BNP, 12-lead ECG, echocardiography, car-
diopulmonary exercise testing, cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR)
including to assess for residual pulmonary stenosis or consequent pulmonary
regurgitation, right and left ventricular function, QRS duration and objective
exercise capacity. Genetic testing to assess for DiGeorge syndrome.
Pregnancy: Each trimester with ECG and echo. Complicated patients, those
that have functional deterioration or develop symptoms will require closer
follow-up.
Labour: Vaginal delivery with early epidural anaesthesia and assisted delivery
for aortic root dilatation (>5.0 cm) and symptomatic heart failure. Continuous
ECG telemetry may be useful particularly if there is history of arrhythmia.
Post-partum: Observation for 12–24 h.

7.1 The Condition

7.1.1 Tetralogy of Fallot

Tetralogy of Fallot comprises a “tetrad” of an overriding aorta, ventricular septal

defect, pulmonary stenosis and right ventricular hypertrophy all explained ana-
tomically by anterocephalad deviation of the outlet ventricular septum. Congenital
heart disease is the most common birth defect and has a 0.8 % incidence [1].
Tetralogy of Fallot has an incidence of 421 per million [2] and is the underlying
cause of up to 10 % of cyanotic heart disease. Patients born in developed countries
7  Pregnancy in Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot 101

reaching childbearing age will have usually undergone surgical repair with closure
of the ventricular septal defect and relief of pulmonary stenosis with resection of
muscle bundles in the right ventricular outflow tract with or without more exten-
sive right ventricular outflow reconstruction. The anatomical spectrum varies from
double outlet right ventricle of Fallot type to Fallot with absent pulmonary valve or
pulmonary atresia with major aortopulmonary collateral arteries (MAPCAs).
Survival to 20 years and beyond is now excellent [3] since the advent of surgical
repair in the 1950s [4]. We can increasingly expect survival rates of 90 % and
above at 40 years post-repair [5]. For this reason, repaired tetralogy of Fallot con-
stitutes one of the most common conditions seen in adult congenital heart disease
outpatient care. At least 40 % of these patients are women and the population is
ever growing.

7.1.2 Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot

The emphasis of this chapter focuses on the most common patient within the adult
congenital heart disease population, namely, the woman with repaired tetralogy of
Fallot. Adult patients may have residual lesions such as residual ventricular septal
defect or pulmonary stenosis. More common than haemodynamically significant
residual native lesions perhaps is postoperative severe pulmonary regurgitation con-
sequent to adequate surgical relief of the native right ventricular obstruction at the
time of repair. Although most patients may wish to proceed with pregnancy, the
increased risk of maternal and neonatal complications warrants preconception
counselling. The risks of pregnancy depend on the status of the surgical repair.
Pregnancy is low risk for women who have no significant residual defects or post-
operative sequelae [6] and who have good ventricular function following repair of
tetralogy of Fallot (Fig. 7.1).

7.1.3 R
 epaired Tetralogy of Fallot with Significant Pulmonary
Regurgitation

Pulmonary regurgitation is a common consequence of repair of tetralogy of Fallot

in particular where more extensive right ventricular outflow and pulmonary artery
reconstruction were needed to relieve the original obstruction. It is generally well
tolerated by patients and may be asymptomatic from the cardiac viewpoint for
several decades. However, with time, pulmonary regurgitation results in right ven-
tricular dilatation, right heart dysfunction, arrhythmia, heart failure and death. In
the last 15 years, a lot of progress has been made regarding the timing of reopera-
tion or transcatheter intervention to replace the pulmonary valve. This is now
more commonly offered at an earlier stage, based on investigations and before
patients become symptomatic. The status of the right ventricle is a more important
arbiter of pregnancy-­related risk than the degree of pulmonary regurgitation
102 S.V. Babu-Narayan et al.

a b

RPA LPA

PA PA
AO AO

LV
RV RV

c d

AO AO

RV RV

Fig. 7.1  Underlying anatomy and common variations in nature of intervention for surgical repair
of tetralogy of Fallot. Image (a) depicts the underlying anatomical substrate of tetralogy of Fallot.
Anterocephalad deviation of the outlet septum (arrow) is the key anatomical feature leading to
subpulmonary stenosis, ventricular septal defect, aortic override and right ventricular hypertrophy.
Image (b) depicts a right-sided modified Blalock-Taussig shunt (arrow) from the right subclavian
artery to the right pulmonary artery. Image (c) depicts the use of a transannular patch (block arrow)
to augment the right ventricular outflow tract and main pulmonary artery (pulmonary valve annu-
lus level dotted line; dashed arrow). This is associated with pulmonary regurgitation in follow-up.
Image (d) depicts the use of a pulmonary artery patch (solid arrow) and a right ventricular outflow
tract patch (dashed arrow) allowing augmentation of the pulmonary artery and right ventricular
outflow tract whilst sparing the pulmonary valve (pulmonary valve annulus level marked by dotted
line). If outflow tract patching is avoidable, the patient can be spared right ventriculotomy (Adapted
from Babu-Narayan PhD thesis, University of London, Imperial College, 2010. Pathophysiology
and management of adults with repaired tetralogy of Fallot studied using cardiovascular magnetic
resonance)
7  Pregnancy in Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot 103

a b

Fig. 7.2  Cardiovascular magnetic resonance still frames in diastole (a) and systole (b) from a
four-chamber steady-state free precession cine showing severe right ventricular dilatation conse-
quent to severe pulmonary regurgitation late after repair of tetralogy of Fallot with functional
moderate tricuspid regurgitation and impaired systolic function. There is right atrial dilatation and
history of sustained clinical atrial arrhythmia. Using cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging,
accurate assessment of right as well as left ventricular volumes can be made without geometric
assumptions which can be particularly misleading in the context of the postoperative right ventri-
cle. In this case, the RV is dramatically dilated with indexed RV volume above 200 mL/m2 and
impaired right ventricular ejection fraction of 41 %

(Fig. 7.2). If both right and left ventricular functions are preserved, pregnancy is
likely to be well tolerated despite severe pulmonary regurgitation. However, the
risks of pregnancy are increased in the setting of pulmonary regurgitation with
right ventricular dilatation and dysfunction and associated clinical symptoms
(New York Heart Association class II or higher) [7]. As pregnancy results in an
increased circulating volume, this further compounds the right ventricle volume
overload. In some cases, irreversible cardiac remodelling can develop especially
during the late stage of pregnancy.
When planning pregnancy, a full assessment of the impact of any pulmonary
regurgitation should be made. If criteria are met for elective pulmonary valve
replacement, this may be preferable prior to embarking on pregnancy. The deci-
sion regarding indications for elective pulmonary valve replacement to treat
asymptomatic pulmonary regurgitation is individualised as for the patient not
planning pregnancy. Echocardiography is the routine test of choice for screening
patients with significant pulmonary regurgitation and right heart dilatation and for
assessing ventricular function (Figs. 7.3, 7.4). Cardiovascular magnetic resonance
imaging is used for accurate right ventricular volume and function assessment and
cardiopulmonary exercise testing for objective measure of exercise capacity, and
heart assessment also includes 12-lead electrocardiogram and chest x-ray for car-
diothoracic ratio. Pregnancy planning may bring forward detailed heart assess-
ment that culminates in recommendation that there are sufficient criteria to
warrant haemodynamic intervention prior to pregnancy. In the author’s institu-
tion, a recovery period of 6 months post-­operatively is recommended before then
attempting to conceive.
104 S.V. Babu-Narayan et al.

a b

c
d

Fig. 7.3  Echocardiography images are from a 28-year-old woman born with tetralogy of Fallot
and aortopulmonary window who underwent repair of aortopulmonary window at 8 weeks after
birth and repair of tetralogy of Fallot at age 4 years. She also had a history of transcatheter stent
insertion to the right pulmonary artery at 19 years old. Echocardiography images at 6 months after
delivery are shown. (a) Apical four-chamber view showing severely dilated and hypertrophied
right ventricle (RV) and dilated right atrium (RA). (b) Parasternal short axis view of the right ven-
tricular outflow tract (RVOT). Stent seen in RPA (arrow). (c) Colour Doppler showing a narrow jet
and turbulent flow in the stented right pulmonary artery (RPA). (d) Continuous wave Doppler
recording of flow across RPA with peak flow velocity 4.2 m/s and calculated peak gradient of
69 mmHg, suggesting severe RPA stenosis

7.1.4 R
 epaired Tetralogy of Fallot with Significant Residual
Pulmonary Stenosis

In general stenotic lesions are less well tolerated than regurgitant lesions. Doppler
flow velocity, hence calculated pressure gradient across the stenotic RVOT, will
7  Pregnancy in Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot 105

a b

c d

Fig. 7.4  Echo images of a 36-year-old patient at 13 weeks gestation. (a) Parasternal short axis
view showing aneurysmal dilatation of RVOT with mild infundibular narrowing and thickened
pulmonary valve. (b) Colour Doppler of RVOT showing a broad jet of regurgitation suggesting
severe pulmonary regurgitation (PR). (c) Apical four-chamber view showing severely dilated RV
and dilated RA. (d) Continuous wave Doppler recording of flow in the RVOT. The very short pul-
monary regurgitation duration suggests free PR

increase to double, or even triple baseline during pregnancy as the circulating

volume increases. Moderate stenosis before pregnancy is very likely to become
severe with pregnancy judged by pressure gradient on Doppler. Although patients
with mild to moderate right ventricular outflow tract obstruction may go through
pregnancy without major cardiovascular or obstetric complications, relief of right
ventricular outflow tract obstruction is indicated by a peak-to-peak gradient of
more than 50 mmHg or a peak-right ventricular pressure more than 75 mmHg and
should be performed prior to pregnancy. If pregnancy is already embarked on and
right ventricular function remains preserved, even severe right ventricular outflow
tract obstruction may be tolerated [8], but it may also be complicated by right
heart failure and the onset of atrial arrhythmia. If early right heart failure is pre-
cipitated by pregnancy, balloon valvuloplasty may need to be considered as part
of maternal care.
106 S.V. Babu-Narayan et al.

7.1.5 R
 epaired Tetralogy of Fallot with Aortic Dilatation
and Other Risk Factors

Aortic dilatation is prevalent in tetralogy of Fallot [9]. For those patients with
Caesarean section or more marked aortic dilatation, for example, with aortic dilatation
exceeding 50 mm, early epidural and assisted delivery may be advisable. Current
guidelines do not suggest intervention for aortic dilatation in the setting or repaired
tetralogy of Fallot below diameters of 55 mm [10]. Though aortopathy could poten-
tially complicate pregnancy management in repaired tetralogy of Fallot, acute aortic
dissection in the setting of repaired tetralogy of Fallot is extremely rare. To date
aortic dissection has only been described in four men all with significantly dilated
aortas greater than or equal to 55 mm.
Left ventricular dysfunction as for all patients considering pregnancy confers
additional risk. During pregnancy, mild LV dilatation and reduced ejection fraction
is a common finding for repaired congenital heart disease including repaired tetral-
ogy of Fallot. Pulmonary hypertension also confers additional risk. This can be
secondary to historic use of Waterston surgical shunt though this will become
increasingly rare in women with repaired tetralogy of Fallot of childbearing age; it
may rarely occur due to small pulmonary arteries in repaired tetralogy of Fallot.
Women with the native diagnosis for pulmonary atresia with ventricular septal
defect who had pulmonary blood supply via aortopulmonary collateral arteries are
discussed below.
For patients with co-morbidity due to coronary artery disease, obesity or diabetes
or for those requiring anticoagulation, specific recommendations for these should
be followed.

7.1.6 T
 etralogy of Fallot with MAPCAs and Other More Complex
Situations

Pulmonary atresia with ventricular septal defect and MAPCAs may be regarded
as an extreme variant of tetralogy of Fallot. There is absence of any direct con-
nection between the heart and the pulmonary arterial tree, a large VSD and two
ventricles. Blood reaches the pulmonary bed via a patent ductus arteriosus and
or major aortopulmonary collateral arteries. Those patients that have success-
fully undergone a biventricular repair surgical strategy with closure of the ven-
tricular septal defect and right ventricular outflow tract reconstruction with a
conduit are acyanotic. However, biventricular dysfunction especially diastolic
dysfunction is more prevalent than in patients with simple Fallot variant. Those
repaired patients that embark on pregnancy may be regarded similarly to other
repaired tetralogy of Fallot patients but with precise risks depending on the sta-
tus of the repair including the conduit function. However, remaining patients
that have more complex anatomy may remain cyanotic. The risks depend on
severity of cyanosis and degree of pulmonary hypertension (which can be sub-
segmental). In general, resting oxygen saturations less than 85 % are unlikely to
result in successful pregnancy.
7  Pregnancy in Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot 107

7.1.7 Unrepaired Tetralogy of Fallot

Clinical presentation with pregnancy and unrepaired tetralogy of Fallot is rare but
described [11]. Patients may present to specialist adult congenital heart disease ser-
vices already pregnant with less favourable haemodynamics. Late repair in adult-
hood of tetralogy of Fallot prior to embarking on pregnancy is preferable.

7.2 Pregnancy Outcome

Most pregnancy outcome studies are small or single centre or retrospective.

However, such data as exist suggest that for tetralogy of Fallot patients, most can
have successful uneventful pregnancies, but maternal cardiac complications occur
in 7–10 % [12], most commonly atrial arrhythmia (6–7 %) [12] and symptomatic
right heart failure (2–5 %) [12]. Adverse maternal cardiac events are associated with
severe pulmonary regurgitation combined with right ventricular dysfunction, par-
ticularly when these occur in combination with left ventricular dysfunction or pul-
monary hypertension [10]. In a study of pregnancy in women with repaired tetralogy
of Fallot which included 123 completed pregnancies in two centres, the use of car-
diac medications prior to pregnancy was the most important predictor of both
maternal cardiac events and of small-for-gestational-age babies [13].
Atrial arrhythmia is the most common pregnancy-related cardiac event in patients
with repaired tetralogy of Fallot [12, 14]. This is due to the increased circulating
volume, which exacerbates the risk of arrhythmia related to scarring caused by atri-
otomy at previous reparative surgery and by worsening existing chamber dilatation
and right ventricular dysfunction. Not surprisingly, a history of arrhythmia increases
the chance of recurrence [12, 15, 16].
Ventricular function and cyanosis during pregnancy are the major determinants
of outcome for patients with Fallot and pulmonary atresia [16], and careful surveil-
lance of both throughout pregnancy is needed. For the mother, cyanosis may pro-
gressively worsen in pregnancy with increasing right to left shunting further
reducing pulmonary blood flow and oxygenation. Furthermore, maternal complica-
tions related to cyanosis include thrombosis, bleeding diathesis, arrhythmia and
heart failure [17]. The risks of fetal complications are high and include fetal loss,
low birth weight and prematurity. For sicker patients, bed rest, oxygen therapy and
low molecular weight heparin may be required to address maternal oxygen con-
sumption and prevent thromboembolic complications.
Vaginal delivery remains desirable given the higher risk of haemorrhage, throm-
boembolic complications and infections post-Caesarean section. Antibiotic prophy-
laxis is prudent in labour and delivery.

7.2.1 Obstetric and Fetal Risks

The most common fetal complication is impaired fetal growth, with small for ges-
tational age occurring in 9, 19 and 35 % depending on series [12, 16, 19] with
108 S.V. Babu-Narayan et al.

pulmonary regurgitation a predisposing factor for low birthweight [18]. The use of
cardiac medications prior to pregnancy predicts small-for-gestational-age babies
[15]. This may reflect the severity of the condition and its associated negative effects
on placental blood flow as well as the direct effects of medication or a combination
of both [15]. Prematurity occurs in 6.3 % [13] to 18 % [16].
The risk of vertical transmission of congenital heart disease is 2–3 %, which is
two to three times that of the background general population risk of 0.8 %. Patients
with unrepaired tetralogy of Fallot and those with hypoplastic, disconnected or duc-
tal origin pulmonary arteries are even more likely to have low birthweight babies
[10]. Fetal mortality related to prematurity, intrauterine growth restriction and con-
genital heart defect recurrence is 2–6 % [16]. The risks of miscarriage, prematurity
and having a small-for-gestational-age baby are highest for the unrepaired patient
with tetralogy of Fallot or tetralogy of Fallot with pulmonary atresia and MAPCAs
and are predicted by resting oxygen saturations.

7.3 Care During Pregnancy and Labour

7.3.1 Management of Pregnancy in Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot

Patients with repaired tetralogy of Fallot are best managed by or with guidance from
a specialist heart disease and pregnancy clinical service. There, the multidisci-
plinary team (cardiologist with specific expertise in the care of women with heart
disease during pregnancy, an anaesthetist, obstetrician and midwife) will make an
individualised pregnancy and birth plan. All notes, including antenatal records,
results of up-to-date heart investigations and the delivery plan, should be available
to all caregivers. The frequency of outpatient review is adjusted according to the
individual’s cardiac lesion and functional status.
Fetal echocardiography should be offered in all cases at 13–16 weeks and or at
20–22 weeks according to local expertise and resource. If congenital heart disease
is identified, support including multidisciplinary case discussion involves fetal car-
diologists, paediatric cardiologists and surgeons and the adult congenital heart dis-
ease team to facilitate decision-making for the parents.
During pregnancy, periodic assessments should focus on clinical and or echocar-
diographic signs of right or left ventricular dysfunction and the exclusion of clinically
significant arrhythmia. All cardiac medications need to be reviewed, although most
contemporary female patients of childbearing age with repaired tetralogy of Fallot
will not be on cardiac medication. ACE inhibitors should be stopped before preg-
nancy, but beta blockers may be continued with close surveillance of fetal growth.
Where the volume overload related to pregnancy further complicates pre-­
pregnancy right ventricular dilatation, diuretics and other heart failure treatment such
as beta blockers may be indicated. Standard physical signs such as jugular venous
pulsation, mild ankle oedema and right ventricular heave are not necessarily dis-
criminating in later stages of pregnancy, and other investigations including chest
x-ray may be needed. Rarely, residual pulmonary valve and right ventricular outflow
7  Pregnancy in Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot 109

tract stenosis are problematic in pregnancy, and in these cases balloon dilatation and
stenting of the right ventricular outflow tract obstruction may warrant discussion.
For the woman with repaired tetralogy of Fallot, the ideal is to await spontaneous
onset of labour and aim for vaginal delivery with adequate and effective pain relief
unless obstetric complications indicate otherwise. Patients at high risk of cardiac com-
plications may need to plan tertiary-centre delivery where combined specialist care
for women with heart disease is available. However, this will not be necessary for
many women with repaired tetralogy of Fallot, for whom local general hospital ante-
natal and postnatal care is sufficient. Assisted delivery should be available to avoid a
prolonged second stage of labour where necessary. This is especially desirable in the
case of associated aortic dilatation to reduce maternal Valsalva efforts. The practice of
elective assisted delivery may however be associated with higher rates of post-partum
haemorrhage and 3rd-/4th-degree lacerations [19]. Although, for most patients, no
specific monitoring is required, continuous ECG is advised for those with a history of
arrhythmia. In the case of unrepaired tetralogy of Fallot or cyanotic pulmonary atre-
sia, invasive arterial monitoring may be warranted. The use of Oxytocin should also
be limited due to related vasodilatation and arterial hypotension.
In the case of Caesarean section for obstetric reasons, prophylactic antibiotics
should be given. In addition, a repaired tetralogy of Fallot patient with a residual
ventricular septal defect or previous endocarditis warrants prophylactic antibiotics,
independent of mode of delivery as significant bacteraemia is associated with deliv-
ery [20]. For those that present with fever, a high index of suspicion of endocarditis
should be maintained with repeated blood cultures performed.
For patients with Fallot with pulmonary atresia, close surveillance of ventricular
function and degree of cyanosis are needed, as these are the main mediators of an
adverse pregnancy outcome [12]. Patients with left ventricular diastolic dysfunction
may develop pulmonary oedema during labour and around the delivery period.
Close monitoring of haemodynamics with prompt treatment can prevent adverse
events. Follow-up for these patients needs to be more frequent.
Post-partum follow-up should be individualised; at a minimum low risk women
should have a 6-week follow-up. ACE inhibitors, if prescribed previously, are safe
to recommence during breastfeeding. From 6 months to 1 year, a new set of cardiac
investigations to reassess heart and circulatory status will be useful in particular for
those patients with pulmonary regurgitation and right heart dilatation where surveil-
lance needs to be re-established. This assessment will help inform frequency of
their on-going adult congenital heart disease follow-up.

7.4 Impact of Physiological Changes

7.4.1 I mpact of Pregnancy Adaptation in Repaired Tetralogy

of Fallot

Pregnancy-induced cardiac adaptations include initial arterial vasodilatation, fol-

lowed by a rapid increase in blood volume and cardiac output and a more gradual
110 S.V. Babu-Narayan et al.

increase in ventricular mass. These changes reverse over the subsequent 6 months
after pregnancy, but a major question is whether pregnancy is associated with a
progressive right ventricular dysfunction. A large retrospective data analysis includ-
ing available echocardiography showed that right ventricular size progressively
increased at follow-up in the subgroup of 16 pregnancy patients with repaired tetral-
ogy of Fallot to a degree not present in the 13 controls [21]. The series may have
included patients representative of an earlier era of less proactive elective treatment
of pulmonary regurgitation, but another retrospective series of 13 pregnancies in
women with tetralogy of Fallot investigated the serial changes in indexed right ven-
tricular volumes, documented with cardiovascular magnetic resonance, and demon-
strated an apparent accelerated progression of RV dilation. This increased
progression compared to matched controls (tetralogy of Fallot without pregnancy)
appeared to be driven by those women whose RV dilation was already at the current
threshold to merit elective pulmonary valve replacement [22].
Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction is a predictor of adverse outcome in
patients with repaired tetralogy of Fallot. In a small prospective data series, progres-
sion of diastolic dysfunction related to pregnancy was demonstrated in a cohort of
35 women including six with tetralogy of Fallot (one with severe aortic regurgita-
tion pre-pregnancy) [23]. Progressive aortic dilatation has been raised as a potential
concern but there are few data [10].

7.5 Preconception Counselling

For unrepaired patients or those at higher risk of thrombus formation, oestrogen-

containing contraceptives should be avoided. If patients are on regular cardiac med-
ications, specific instructions regarding stopping or continuing each drug during
planned conception and pregnancy should be given.
In some patients, tetralogy of Fallot is part of the DiGeorge syndrome (15 %) for
which genetic testing (22Q11 deletion) is available and should be offered to all
patients at the time of preconception counselling. The risk of recurrence of DiGeorge
syndrome is 50 %, but the risk of recurrence in its absence is around 3 % [24].
Maternal death is rare. Patients with significant left ventricular dysfunction or
severe pulmonary hypertension are those in whom pregnancy-associated risks are
high, and pregnancy therefore is inadvisable [10].

Conclusions
Pregnancy outcomes for asymptomatic women with repaired tetralogy of Fallot
are good, certainly for those cared for in recognised centres from where the
limited data available are derived. Nevertheless, a minority of contemporary
childbearing women with repaired tetralogy of Fallot may be at risk, and
patient-specific risk stratification is needed in all. Those presenting to antenatal
services without recent follow-up of their congenital heart disease, for exam-
ple, due to migration or loss to follow-up after childhood care, may be most at
risk of having entered pregnancy in a suboptimal cardiac condition. The most
7  Pregnancy in Repaired Tetralogy of Fallot 111

common maternal complications are arrhythmia and heart failure, both of

which usually respond to treatment. Pulmonary regurgitation, the most com-
mon adult sequelae of repair of tetralogy of Fallot, does not preclude preg-
nancy but is less well tolerated if associated with significant right ventricular
dilatation or dysfunction prior to pregnancy. Complications in pregnancy are
highest in those with associated significant pulmonary hypertension (discussed
elsewhere), pulmonary regurgitation with right ventricular dysfunction and or
left ventricular dysfunction. Registry data including patient phenotyping using
gold standard heart investigation at standard serial intervals remains vital to
define which subgroups of women are at risk of deterioration of ventricular
function due to pregnancy so that counselling and care can be further
individualised.

Acknowledgements  Sonya V. Babu-Narayan is supported by an Intermediate Clinical Research

Fellowship from the British Heart Foundation (FS/11/38/28864). This project was supported by
the NIHR Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit of Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS
Foundation Trust and Imperial College London. This report is an independent research by the
National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Unit Funding Scheme. The views
expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the
National Institute for Health Research or the Department of Health.

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AP, Vliegen HW, Yap SC, Moons P, Ebels T, van Veldhuisen DJ, ZAHARA Investigators
(2007) Outcome of pregnancy in women with congenital heart disease: a literature review.
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Transposition of the Great Arteries
8
Daniel Tobler and Matthias Greutmann

Abbreviations

BNP Brain natriuretic peptide

CHD Congenital heart disease
d-TGA D-loop transposition of the great arteries
FAC Fractional area change
LVOTO Left ventricular outflow tract obstruction
NR Not reported
NYHA New York Heart Association
TGA Transposition of the great arteries
VSDs Ventricular septal defects

D. Tobler, MD (*)
Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Basel,
Petersgraben 4, Basel CH-4031, Switzerland
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Greutmann, MD
University Heart Center, Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Zurich,
Raemistrasse 100, Zurich CH-8091, Switzerland
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 113
J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_8
114 D. Tobler and M. Greutmann

Key Facts of Preconception

Incidence: 0.3 per 1000 live births.
Inheritance: Not an elevated risk of congenital heart disease in the offspring.
Medication: ACE inhibitors, AT1 antagonists and some antiarrhythmic
agents are contraindicated during pregnancy and should be stopped or
replaced.
Typical WHO grade: After atrial repair operation: III (or IV in case of dimin-
ished ventricular function or other complications). After uncomplicated
arterial switch: II.
Risk of pregnancy: After atrial repair, atrial arrhythmias and heart failure;
after arterial switch, aortic dilatation.
Life expectancy: Clearly diminished after atrial repair and slightly diminished
after arterial switch.

Key Management
Preconception: Clinical assessment for signs of heart failure, ECG/Holter for
arrhythmia. Ventricular and valve function need to be assessed by echocar-
diography specifically in patients with the atrial repair left-to-right shunt due
to baffle leaks and should be actively sought. Screening for systemic and pul-
monary venous obstruction and, if relevant, preconception interventions
should be discussed. After arterial switch: careful aortic root assessment.
Cardiopulmonary exercise testing can be useful for predicting exercise intol-
erance during pregnancy. It may also detect silent ischaemia in patients after
the arterial switch repair. Cardiac MRI should be performed in patients with
subaortic RV dysfunction and neo-aortic root dilation as a baseline assess-
ment. Baseline elevated brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) can unmask patients
at risk for cardiac complications during pregnancy.
Pregnancy: Atrial repair, at least every trimester with ECG and echo. After
arterial switch: at least once at 20 weeks with echo. In patients with functional
deterioration, clinical signs of heart failure or arrhythmia or dilated neo-aortic
root dimensions, a closer follow-up is required.
Labour: Vaginal delivery is the preferred method. Caesarean section for
cardiac reason is reserved for those with aortic root dilatation (>4.5 cm) and
those with symptomatic heart failure at the onset of labour. Early epidural
anaesthesia or a low-dose combined spinal-epidural is suggested for most
women with atrial repair. Continuous telemetric monitoring is advised in
women at high risk for arrhythmias.
Postpartum: Atrial repair at least 48 h; arterial switch, at least 6 h.
8  Transposition of the Great Arteries 115

8.1 The Condition

8.1.1 A
 natomy, Surgical Techniques and Cardiac Outcomes
of d-TGA

D-loop transposition of the great arteries (d-TGA) is the second most frequent cya-
notic congenital heart defect with a prevalence of about 0.3 per 1000 live births [1]
and a male preponderance of 2:1. In d-TGA the atrial chambers are connected to
their morphologically appropriate ventricles (atrioventricular concordance),
whereas the aorta arises from the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery from the
left ventricle (ventriculo-arterial discordance). This anatomy leads to separated pul-
monary and systemic circulations in parallel: Deoxygenated blood returning to the
heart from the systemic circulation is pumped back to the systemic circulation by
the right ventricle, while oxygenated pulmonary venous blood is pumped back into
the lungs through the left ventricle (Fig. 8.1). Associated congenital cardiac lesions

Fig. 8.1 d-Transposition
of the great arteries with
intact ventricular septum
(Copyright © 2014 New
Media Center, University
of Basel. All Rights
Reserved)
116 D. Tobler and M. Greutmann

in d-TGA include ventricular septal defects (VSDs) in about 40–50 % and, less
commonly, left ventricular outflow tract obstruction and coarctation of the aorta.

8.1.1.1 Surgical Repair Techniques

Before surgical repair became available, d-TGA was a lethal condition with an
average life expectancy at birth of 0.65 years [2]. When open-heart surgery
became feasible in the mid-1950s, survival changed dramatically. In the contem-
porary era, d-TGA has become a well-treatable condition and survival to adult-
hood is the rule [3, 4].
The first widely used repair technique was the atrial switch operation (Senning
or Mustard procedure) with redirection of the venous blood flow at the atrial level
[5, 6]. By the late 1980s, the arterial switch operation (Jatene operation) with redi-
rection of blood flow at the level of the great arteries superseded the atrial switch
procedure [7]. For the small subset of patients with d-TGA, concomitant ventricular
septal defect and pulmonary stenosis, the Rastelli operation was and is an important
surgical option [8]. Although the atrial switch operation is no longer performed
today, the majority of patients who underwent this operation are still alive and there
remains a substantial cohort of women in the childbearing age. As a consequence,
all three repair techniques may be encountered in women of childbearing age.
Relevant aspects of physiology, long-term complications and pregnancy-specific
problems regarding these three types of repair will be discussed below.

(i) The atrial switch operation (the Senning and Mustard procedure): The princi-
ple of the atrial switch operation is illustrated in Fig. 8.2. Although technically
slightly different procedures, the physiological result after the Senning and the
Mustard operation is the same: redirection of systemic venous blood at the
atrial level by surgically created baffles. The atrial switch operation leaves the
morphological right ventricle as the systemic (subaortic) ventricle and the tri-
cuspid valve as the systemic atrioventricular valve.
(ii) The arterial switch operation (the Jatene procedure): The principle of the arte-
rial switch operation is illustrated in Fig. 8.3. The operation anatomically cor-
rects the transposed arteries by transection of the aorta and the pulmonary
artery above the valve level, reimplantation of the coronary arteries into the
neo-­aortic root and forward translocation of the pulmonary artery into its new
position anterior to the aorta. The benefit of the Jatene technique is that the
anatomic left ventricle is located in the systemic (subaortic) position and surgi-
cal manipulation of the atria is avoided. With refinement of the surgical tech-
nique, the arterial switch operation has become the standard procedure for
patients with d-TGA since the late 1980s/early 1990s. Therefore, the cohort of
women after the ASO of childbearing age is younger than the atrial switch
cohort, and data regarding pregnancy issues and outcomes in this novel adult
patient cohort are less robust.
(iii) The Rastelli operation: The Rastelli operation was introduced in 1969 to repair
patients with d-TGA with concomitant ventricular septal defect and obstruc-
tion to pulmonary outflow. The principle of the Rastelli operation is illustrated
8  Transposition of the Great Arteries 117

Fig. 8.2  Atrial switch

operation (Copyright ©
2014 New Media Center,
University of Basel. All
Rights Reserved)

in Fig. 8.4. After the Rastelli repair, the morphological left ventricle is estab-
lished in subaortic position, and the continuity between the subpulmonic right
ventricle and the pulmonary artery is created by implantation of a bioprosthetic
valved conduit.
Long-term outcomes of patients with repaired d-TGA are largely determined by
the type of repair and type and severity of residual haemodynamic lesions. The most
common long-term complications in patients after atrial switch repair are arrhyth-
mias (particularly atypical atrial flutter and sinus node dysfunction) and progressive
dysfunction of the subaortic right ventricle with or without progressive systemic
tricuspid valve regurgitation. Furthermore, baffle obstruction and baffle leaks as
well as pulmonary hypertension can occur. On average, this patient group has sub-
stantially reduced exercise capacity compared to the general population [9]. Cardiac
complications become more common as patients age. These patients have a reduced
life expectancy, which is important for pre-pregnancy counselling. There is however
118 D. Tobler and M. Greutmann

Fig. 8.3  Arterial switch

operation (Copyright ©
2014 New Media Center,
University of Basel. All
Rights Reserved)

a wide range in individual variation of disease courses. Long-term follow-up data

beyond the fifth decade of life is not yet available.

The majority of adult survivors after the arterial switch operation are still young,
and their outcome beyond the third decade of life is not yet known. To date, it seems
that subaortic ventricular dysfunction and arrhythmias are less common compared
to patients after the atrial switch operation [10–12]. The main reason for re-­
intervention is obstruction of the branch pulmonary arteries. Potential long-term
complications include neo-aortic root dilatation, neo-aortic valve regurgitation or
obstruction of the reimplanted coronary arteries [13, 14]. Survival to adulthood is
the rule but lifelong specialised follow-up remains mandatory.
In patients after the Rastelli repair, re-intervention due to deterioration of the
right ventricular-pulmonary artery conduit is inevitable. Subaortic left ventricular
8  Transposition of the Great Arteries 119

Fig. 8.4 Rastelli
operation (Copyright ©
2014 New Media Center,
University of Basel. All
Rights Reserved)

dysfunction and arrhythmias are relatively common. In the largest published series
on long-term outcomes after Rastelli repair, overall freedom from death and trans-
plantation was 52 % at 20 years [15]. In contrast, in the Canadian cohort, the esti-
mated survival at 17 years of follow-up was 89 % [16].

8.2 Pregnancy Outcome

Data regarding pregnancy outcomes in women with the atrial switch operation are
limited to several medium-sized and smaller retrospective case series [17–23].
Reports of pregnancy outcomes in women after the arterial switch operation and
Rastelli repair are sparse [24, 25]. Reported pregnancy outcomes of series of patients
with repaired d-TGA are summarised in Table 8.1 [26].
Table 8.1  Summary of pregnancy outcomes of women with repaired d-TGA
120

Arterial
Atrial switch switch Rastelli
Clarkson Genoni Drenthen Trigas Tobler Radford,
Study et al. et al. et al. Canobbio et al. Metz et al. et al. Cataldo et al. et al. Stafford
Publication year 1994 1999 2005 2006 2011 2014 2015 2010 2005
Number of women 9 11 28 40 10 34 21 9 6a
Number of pregnancies 15 13 69 70 21 60 34 17 12
Cardiac outcomes
Women with cardiac 0 9 61 45 14 (baffle NR 62 22 50 (LVOTO
complications (%) obstruction 100 % in
in 36 %) d-TGA)
Arrhythmia (%) 0 0 16 36 (no further 7 5 14 6 0
Heart failure (%) 0 9 3 specification) 7 6 0 0 0
Deteriorating NYHA class (%) 0 23 25 NR 12 14 0 NR
Obstetric and fetal outcomes
Hypertension-­associated 20 NR 13 17 7 2 NR NR NR
complications (%)
Miscarriages in first 13 15 25 14 29 18 NRb 23 41
trimester (%)
Live births (%) 80 77 71 77 67 73 NRb 76 50 (25 % in
d-TGA)
Live births at <35 weeks of 0 0 33 39 50 25 38 (<37 weeks) 0 16 (50 % in
gestation (%) d-TGA)
Number of infants with CHD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Modified from Roche [26]
CHD congenital heart disease, LVOTO left ventricular outflow tract obstruction, NYHA New York Heart Association, NR not reported, TGA transposition of the
great arteries
a
Three women with d-TGA, three women with other types of CHD
b
Report on completed pregnancies only
D. Tobler and M. Greutmann
8  Transposition of the Great Arteries 121

8.2.1 Cardiac Risks

Cardiac events during pregnancy and peripartum in women after the Mustard or
Senning operation include arrhythmias, heart failure and thromboembolic or cere-
brovascular events. In a meta-analysis of peer-reviewed literature, Drenthen et al.
reported pregnancy outcomes of 170 pregnancies in women after the atrial switch
operations. The most frequently encountered cardiac complication was arrhythmia
(15.6 %) followed by heart failure (10.8 %) [27].
The major concern of pregnancy in women after the atrial switch operation is the
fact that in two reported series, the risk of worsening subaortic ventricular function
during pregnancy was reported to be as high as 25 % of pregnancies, with no recov-
ery in the majority of cases [22, 28]. Although the mortality risk is small, pregnancy-­
related deaths have been reported [18, 29]. In a recent report from three tertiary care
centres, five life-threatening events occurred in 60 pregnancies (8 %), two of which
were cardiac arrest complicating delivery, with successful resuscitation [22]. In a
North American cohort of 14 pregnancies that resulted in live births, symptomatic
baffle obstruction was observed in five (36 %) pregnancies [21]. In three of these
five women, baffle obstruction became symptomatic in their second pregnancy. In
all instances, the superior limb of the systemic venous atrial baffle was affected.
There are limited data on the late effects of pregnancy on subaortic right ventri-
cle function. In a recently published series in women with the atrial switch opera-
tion, 21 women were followed after pregnancy and were compared with 15 women
affected by the same condition who had never had a pregnancy [23]. Follow-up
duration was 95 months in the pregnancy group. There were no differences in car-
diovascular events (62 % versus 53 %, P-value 0.7) or worsening systemic ventricu-
lar function (29 % versus 27 %, P-value 0.9), but worsening systemic tricuspid valve
regurgitation was significantly more common in the pregnancy group compared to
controls (52 % versus 0 %, P-value 0.001). Additionally, in 14 % of women in the
pregnancy group, there was worsening of the functional class during pregnancy,
which did not improve during follow-up. In contrast, no woman in the control group
had worsening of the function class during follow-up.
So far, pregnancy outcomes in women after the arterial switch operation have
been described in only one series [24]. The outcomes of 17 pregnancies in nine
women managed in two large tertiary care hospitals have been reported. Two women
developed cardiac complications during pregnancy; one woman with impaired left
ventricular systolic function had non-sustained ventricular tachycardia and one
woman with a mechanical systemic atrioventricular valve developed postpartum
valve thrombosis. A large proportion of women in this cohort had important residual
lesions that confer risk for adverse events in pregnancy, likely related to the fact that
these women had the arterial switch operation performed in the early surgical era.
With later modifications of the operative technique (i.e. the Lecompte manoeuvre),
contemporary cohorts of arterial switch patients may have less residual lesions,
which may positively impact their risk of pregnancy complications.
Pregnancy outcomes in women with the Rastelli operation have been reported in
one series of six women with a total of 12 pregnancies [25]. Three women had
122 D. Tobler and M. Greutmann

Rastelli repair for d-TGA and the remaining three women had other types of con-
genital heart disease. Remarkably, all three women with complex d-TGA developed
more severe subaortic obstruction during pregnancy, and further surgery was needed
during follow-up.

8.2.2 Obstetric and Fetal Risks

Some series report high rates of preeclampsia and pregnancy-induced hypertension

(Table  8.1). Other obstetric complications included premature rupture of mem-
branes and thromboembolic complications [17–20, 22]. In the reported series,
induction of labour was commonly utilised (up to 50 %). In most women with
repaired d-TGA, vaginal delivery with epidural anaesthesia is the preferred mode of
delivery. Caesarean section for cardiac reasons should be considered for women
with significant neo-aortic root dilatation after the arterial switch operation or
women after the atrial switch operation with severe symptomatic heart failure.
Premature deliveries are common in women with repaired d-TGA (25–50 % in
reported series). In the meta-analysis of Drenthen et al., premature delivery was
reported in 34 % of pregnancies. The reported reasons for premature delivery were
mainly obstetric (preterm premature rupture of membranes, severe preeclampsia,
placenta praevia with bleeding) [21]. The number of babies born small for gesta-
tional age was 19 % in the meta-analysis of Drenthen et al. Fetal risks may differ
substantially among cohorts of women with different types of repair, and there are
very little data on fetal risks in pregnancies of women after the Rastelli operation
and the arterial switch operation. In the only series of pregnancies after the arterial
switch, there was no preterm delivery and no fetal or neonatal death. In those with
birth weights available, the mean birth weight was 3.3 ± 0.5 kg. One child had a
birth weight that was small for its gestational age (2330 g, delivered at 38 weeks of
gestation). Perinatal mortality has been reported in two children of women with the
atrial switch operation [27]. Congenital heart disease in the offspring is rare (<1 %)
[27]. In all reported pregnancies of women with repaired d-TGA (n = 311), only one
newborn was described having congenital heart disease (Table 8.1).

8.3 Care During Pregnancy and Labour

All women with repaired d-TGA should have a cardiac assessment early in preg-
nancy (first trimester) to determine their baseline status. Serial follow-up during
pregnancy should include clinical assessment and serial transthoracic echocardiog-
raphy. In patients after the Mustard or Senning repair, quantitative assessment of
systolic right ventricular function is challenging. In our practice, for comparison of
serial measurements, we recommend to record the fractional area change (FAC),
lateral tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), lateral RV systolic
motion velocities by tissue Doppler and the rate of systolic RV pressure increase
(dP/dt). In a small series of ten women who underwent serial echocardiograms, dP/
8  Transposition of the Great Arteries 123

dt decreased during pregnancy with an average value of 1168 ± 156 mmHg/s before

pregnancy, compared with 859 ± 228 mmHg/s at week 28 of gestation, and was not
regained completely (dP/dt 1081 ± 109 mmHg/s) postpartum [21]. However, the
onset of functional deterioration or overt heart failure is not predictable by echocar-
diographic measurements, and most pregnancies in repaired TGA are tolerated even
in the setting of decreased systolic function of the subaortic RV [21, 22].
Echocardiographic follow-up should be performed at the time of peak haemody-
namic stress (28–32 weeks of gestation) as well as postpartum. In patients with
functional deterioration, clinical signs of heart failure or arrhythmia or dilated neo-­
aortic root dimensions, close follow-up during pregnancy is required. In symptom-
atic patients with functional deterioration, measurement of BNP or NT-Pro-BNP
might be useful to distinguish cardiac complications from other causes of similar
symptoms [35]. Increased BNP levels at 20 weeks of gestational age have been
shown to predict adverse cardiac events in pregnant women with CHD [36]. Women
with heart failure and arrhythmia during pregnancy should be treated according to
current guidelines for non-pregnant patients, respecting contraindications for some
drugs in pregnancy [31, 37].
A detailed delivery plan is mandatory in all patients with repaired d-TGA. A
multidisciplinary team approach is key for optimal peripartum care with the lowest
possible risk for the affected woman. In most women vaginal delivery is the pre-
ferred method of delivery [31, 38]. Caesarean section for cardiac reason is reserved
for those with marked aortic root dilatation (>4.5 cm) and those with symptomatic
heart failure at the onset of labour. Early epidural anaesthesia or a low-dose com-
bined spinal-epidural is suggested for most women with repaired d-TGA. The hae-
modynamic benefit is reduction of cardiac output peaks during labour which are
largely mediated by catecholamine surges due to pain and anxiety. Reduction in
catecholamine release may lead to reduction of arrhythmia risk, prothrombotic
effects and hypertension, which would be an added stress on the systemic ventricle.
In patients with progressive heart failure, progressive deterioration of ventricular
function or uncontrolled arrhythmia, early involvement of experienced obstetric
anaesthetists is important and, if required, the input of cardiac anaesthetists. If overt
heart failure occurs, patients should be admitted to a specialised centre, and precipi-
tating factors, such as infection or arrhythmias, should be actively sought and
excluded. Bed rest, supplemental oxygen and careful fluid balance with daily weight
measurements should be initiated. Careful administration of diuretics may be used
but with great caution to avoid overdiuresis which can reduce uteroplacental blood
flow. Caesarean section should be considered in women with overt heart failure and
haemodynamic instability. The timing of Caesarean section or induced delivery is
complex and needs individual consideration based on a multidisciplinary decision.
Patients at high risk for cardiac complications need early and extended in-hospital
surveillance ante- and postpartum. Continuous electrocardiographic monitoring can
be useful, especially in women at high risk for arrhythmias. Invasive monitoring is
not generally advised. In patients with residual shunts (i.e. baffle leaks), air- and
particulate-eliminating filters should be used on IV lines to avoid paradoxical embo-
lism, because during the profound haemodynamic shifts of labour and delivery,
124 D. Tobler and M. Greutmann

transient reversal of shunt may occur. However, if the delivery of large volumes or
radiopaque contrast is required, administration without bubble filters is required; on
these occasions, meticulous de-bubbling of IV lines is important.

8.4 Impact of Physiological Changes

Pregnancy, the time of labour and delivery and the postpartum period are associated
with profound haemodynamic changes. Plasma volume, stroke volume, cardiac out-
put and heart rate increase importantly. In women with repaired d-TGA, residual
haemodynamic lesions, arrhythmias or ventricular dysfunction may hamper the
normal adaptation of the cardiovascular system to the demands of pregnancy and so
precipitate cardiovascular complications.

8.5 Preconception Counselling

General aspects of preconception counselling in repaired d-TGA: Ideally, all women

with repaired d-TGA should have specialist preconception assessment and counsel-
ling. Counselling about effective use of contraception and potential risks of preg-
nancy should begin in adolescence. Educational strategies should be tailored to
strengthen the knowledge and appropriate use of contraception to avoid unplanned
pregnancies and to identify women at increased risk from oestrogen-containing
contraceptives. Education should include the maternal and fetal risks of pregnancy,
as well as long-term prognosis and risks of long-term complications of the underly-
ing heart defect and the potential impact of pregnancy on long-term outcomes. It
should also include information about risks of delayed pregnancies and the need for
family planning, particularly in women after an atrial switch repair. Only open and
detailed counselling and discussion of these risks will allow the affected woman
with d-TGA to make an informed decision about whether or not to proceed with a
high-risk pregnancy.
The method of contraception has to combine the highest efficacy and safety pro-
file. Women with residual intracardiac shunt lesions (e.g. women with baffle leaks
after the atrial switch repair) should avoid oestrogen-containing contraceptives [30].
Routine testing for residual intracardiac shunts may be considered in these women.
All women with repaired d-TGA need an up-to-date assessment before concep-
tion. Individual risk stratification is performed, and risk estimation is based on
residual lesions, ventricular function and functional status. Patients with more than
moderate impairment of subaortic ventricular function or severe tricuspid regurgita-
tion in the setting of a subaortic right ventricle should be advised against pregnancy
[31]. Pre-pregnancy assessment requires a review of the patient’s medication, as
some may be contraindicated in pregnancy (i.e. angiotensin-converting enzyme
inhibitors, angiotensin or aldosterone antagonists). Ideally, such drugs should be
stopped well before conception and, when indicated and possible, should be substi-
tuted by drugs compatible with pregnancy.
8  Transposition of the Great Arteries 125

Women with the atrial switch operation should be informed that pregnancy might
have an unfavourable long-term impact on subaortic ventricular function. RV func-
tion declines in some women during pregnancy, often without complete return to
baseline in the postpartum period [21]. Pregnancy might be potentially harmful in
the long term and may have an impact on functional status and cardiac morbidity. A
seldom-considered issue is that pregnancy increases the likelihood of HLA sensiti-
zation, which may return as an issue later in life in a woman being considered for
cardiac transplantation [32].
Apart from detailed discussions about maternal and fetal risks of pregnancy in
women with repaired d-TGA, pre-pregnancy counselling includes discussion about
timely family planning. Risk of pregnancy complications increases as patients age,
particularly in women with the atrial switch operation. While RV function was nor-
mal in 69 % after 14 years of follow-up, 10 years later only 6 % of the patients had
normal ventricular function (P < 0:0001) and 61 % of patients have moderate to
severe RV dysfunction [33]. As a consequence of progressive RV failure and
arrhythmia, the risk of premature death is already increasing in young adulthood
[34], irrespective of pregnancy risks. As the prognosis of the woman with a failing
systemic ventricle may interfere with the ability to raise children, discussions about
the prognosis and potential long-term complications should be offered to women
seeking advice for risks of pregnancy. It should also be emphasised that it is impor-
tant to offer these discussions not only to our female patients but also to our male
patients with repaired d-TGA when they contemplate to start a family.
Counselling about the risk of inheritance is another important aspect. Although
the risk is elevated in patients with CHD in general compared to parents without
CHD, inheritance risk seems to be low in parents with d-TGA. In the meta-analysis
of Drenthen et al., the CHD recurrence rate was 0.6 %, lower than reported in the
general population [27]. Nevertheless, we recommend offering fetal echocardiogra-
phy between 18 and 20 weeks of gestation for all women with d-TGA.

8.5.1 Specific Pre-pregnancy Testing

A thorough clinical assessment for signs of heart failure or arrhythmia should be

carried out. Ventricular and valve function needs to be assessed by comprehensive
transthoracic echocardiography in all patients with repaired d-TGA. Specifically, in
patients with the atrial switch operation, left-to-right shunt due to baffle leaks should
be actively sought by using agitated saline contrast echocardiography. Screening for
systemic and pulmonary venous obstruction is important, and if relevant, precon-
ception interventions should be discussed. In patients after the arterial switch repair,
there should be careful aortic root assessment as neo-aortic root dilatation is a fre-
quent finding in these patients. Conduit dysfunction (obstruction and regurgitation)
needs to be assessed in patients with the Rastelli repair. In patients with severe
conduit dysfunction, intervention might be necessary before the woman embarks on
pregnancy. Cardiopulmonary exercise testing may be a useful tool for predicting
exercise intolerance during pregnancy. It may also detect silent ischaemia in patients
126 D. Tobler and M. Greutmann

after the arterial switch repair. Cardiac MRI should be performed in patients with
subaortic RV dysfunction and neo-aortic root dilation as a baseline assessment.
Baseline elevated brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) can unmask patients at risk for
cardiac complications during pregnancy, and routine measurement should be con-
sidered in all patients with repaired d-TGA.

Acknowledgement  We wish to thank Prof. Jack M. Colman for the thorough review of the
manuscript.

References
1. van der Linde D et al (2011) Birth prevalence of congenital heart disease worldwide: a system-
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2. Liebman J, Cullum L, Belloc NB (1969) Natural history of transposition of the great arteries.
Anatomy and birth and death characteristics. Circulation 40(2):237–262
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arteries. Circulation 104(12 Suppl 1):I121–I126
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5. Senning A (1959) Surgical correction of transposition of the great vessels. Surgery
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6. Mustard WT (1964) Successful two-stage correction of transposition of the great vessels.
Surgery 55:469–472
7. Jatene AD et al (1976) Anatomic correction of transposition of the great vessels. J Thorac
Cardiovasc Surg 72(3):364–370
8. Rastelli GC, McGoon DC, Wallace RB (1969) Anatomic correction of transposition of the
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Surg 58(4):545–552
9. Kempny A et al (2012) Reference values for exercise limitations among adults with congenital
heart disease. Relation to activities of daily life – single centre experience and review of pub-
lished data. Eur Heart J 33(11):1386–1396
10. Tobler D et al (2010) Cardiac outcomes in young adult survivors of the arterial switch opera-
tion for transposition of the great arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol 56(1):58–64
11. Kempny A et al (2012) Outcome in adult patients after arterial switch operation for transposi-
tion of the great arteries. Int J Cardiol 10;167(6):2588–2593
12. Khairy P et al (2013) Cardiovascular outcomes after the arterial switch operation for

d-­transposition of the great arteries. Circulation 127(3):331–339
13. Losay J et al (2006) Aortic valve regurgitation after arterial switch operation for transposition
of the great arteries: incidence, risk factors, and outcome. J Am Coll Cardiol 47(10):
2057–2062
14. Schwartz ML et al (2004) Long-term predictors of aortic root dilation and aortic regurgitation
after arterial switch operation. Circulation 110(11 Suppl 1):II128–II132
15. Kreutzer C et al (2000) Twenty-five-year experience with rastelli repair for transposition of the
great arteries. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 120(2):211–223
16. Williams WG et al (2003) Outcomes of 829 neonates with complete transposition of the great
arteries 12–17 years after repair. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 24(1):1–9; discussion 9–10
17. Clarkson PM et al (1994) Outcome of pregnancy after the Mustard operation for transposition
of the great arteries with intact ventricular septum. J Am Coll Cardiol 24(1):190–193
18. Genoni M et al (1999) Pregnancy after atrial repair for transposition of the great arteries. Heart
81(3):276–277
8  Transposition of the Great Arteries 127

19. Drenthen W et al (2005) Risk of complications during pregnancy after Senning or Mustard
(atrial) repair of complete transposition of the great arteries. Eur Heart J 26(23):2588–2595
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arteries. Am J Cardiol 98(5):668–672
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Shunt Lesions
9
Antonia Pijuan-Domenech and Maria Goya

Abbreviations

ASD Atrial septal defect

AVSD Atrioventricular septal defect
CHD Congenital heart disease
C-section Caesarean section
IUGR Intrauterine growth retardation
LAVVR Left AV-valvular regurgitation
mWHO Modified World Health Organization
NYHA New York Heart Association
PAH Pulmonary arterial hypertension
PFO Persistent foramen ovale
ROPAC Registry of Pregnancy and Cardiac Disease
RS Risk score
VSD Ventricular septal defect

A. Pijuan-Domenech, MD (*)
Integrated Hospital Vall d’Hebron-Sant Pau Adult Congenital Heart Disease Unit,
Department of Cardiology, Hospital Universitari Vall d’Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Goya, MD, PhD
Maternal-Fetal Medicine Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital
Universitari Vall d’Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 129
J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_9
130 A. Pijuan-Domenech and M. Goya

Key Facts
Incidence: VSD, 2.5 per 1,000 live births, and ASD, 1.5 per 1,000 live births.
Inheritance: 5 %. Occasionally autosomal dominant inheritance (50 % Holt-­
Oram syndrome).
Medication: Change anticoagulation to LMWH and possibly antiarrhythmic
drugs; a beta-blocker is the first choice.
World Health Organization class: Corrected class I and uncorrected class II.
Risk of pregnancy: Atrial arrhythmias may occur and, in unrepaired lesions,
thromboembolic events (paradoxical).
Life expectancy: Normal.

Key Management
Preconception: ECG, echo and exercise test.
Pregnancy: Consider thromboprophylaxis in unrepaired lesions if additional
risk factors are present given risk of paradoxical embolism.
Labour: Vaginal delivery.
Postpartum: Consider thromboprophylaxis in unrepaired lesions.

9.1 The Condition

Despite increasing survival rates of adults with complex congenital heart disease
CHD [1], simple shunt lesions are still the most common (CHD) lesions in the
adult population [2]. Published data on pregnancy and CHD showed that atrial
septal defects (ASD) and ventricular septal defects (VSD) were the first and third,
respectively, most frequent lesions among pregnant patients with CHD [3]. In the
European Society of Cardiology Registry of Pregnancy and Cardiac Disease
(ROPAC), shunt lesions including ASD and VSD were also the most common car-
diac lesion observed [4].

9.2 Pregnancy Outcomes

9.2.1 Pre-tricuspidic Left-to-Right Shunts

Atrial septal defects: Atrial septal defect (ASD), in the past, could go unnoticed
until the first medical visit during pregnancy [5]. Due to the decline in systemic
resistance and reduction in left-to-right shunt, the risk of cardiac decompensation
remains low in comparison with other cardiac lesions even with a large left-to-right
shunt, provided that there is no pulmonary arterial hypertension. Very few cases of
urgent surgical or percutaneous treatment during pregnancy have been described [6].
9  Shunt Lesions 131

Closure of an ostium secundum ASD during pregnancy is not usually necessary, but
it is possible using transesophageal guidance [7].
The main cardiac complications described during pregnancy in patients with
unrepaired ASD are atrial arrhythmias and thromboembolic events [3]. Patients that
had ASD repaired as adult are still at risk of arrhythmias [8], particularly if the
repair is done after 30 years of age [9].
Risk factors for thrombosis should be evaluated carefully in patients with unre-
paired ASD during pregnancy. Thromboprophylaxis should be considered if addi-
tional risk factors are present, due to the risk of paradoxical embolism [10]. ESC
guidelines, based on those of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists,
consider the risk factors for venous thrombosis to be: maternal age greater than 35,
obesity (BMI>30), parity>3, smoking, the presence of severe varicose veins, pre-­
eclampsia, assisted reproductive therapy, prolonged labour, small for gestational
age, Caesarean section (C-section) and peripartum haemorrhage.
The rate of obstetric complications is higher in women with unrepaired
ASD. Several studies have clearly demonstrated that small for gestational age, pre-
maturity and fetal demise were significantly more common than in the general pop-
ulation [9, 11]. However, these figures are much better than in other CHD lesions in
which cardiac output is limited [3].
Atrial septal defects (ASD) that have been repaired during childhood are nor-
mally associated with excellent long-term survival rates, similar to the general pop-
ulation. It has been reported that pregnancy in these patients has a similar rate of
cardiac and obstetric complications as observed in healthy women. Consequently,
after a thorough initial evaluation (before or in early pregnancy), these patients do
not need to have intensive follow-up during pregnancy as long as they remain
asymptomatic [9].
Since the transmission rate is about 5.5 %, fetal assessment is recommended in
all patients. There are some conditions that are inherited in an autosomal dominant
fashion, such as an ASD associated with an atrioventricular conduction defect or
Holt-Oram syndrome; in these circumstances, genetic counselling prior to preg-
nancy should be performed [10].

9.2.1.1 Patent Foramen Ovale

In an asymptomatic woman, closure of a persistent foramen ovale (PFO) to prevent
paradoxical emboli during pregnancy is not necessary, despite the Valsalva manoeu-
vres performed during delivery. Twenty percent of the general population has a
PFO, and the incidence of transient ischemic attack occurs only in 5 out of 100,000
[12]. If asymptomatic PFO has been diagnosed, prevention of paradoxal embolus
should focus on preventing venous thrombosis. There is no indication for a
Caesarean section as the risk of thrombosis is higher than after a vaginal delivery.

9.2.1.2 ASD in the Setting with Other Congenital Heart Diseases

An ASD can be associated with other cardiac lesions. The haemodynamic impact of
an ASD can be completely different if other congenital heart lesions are present,
especially when right atrial pressure is elevated. Shunt reversal has been described
132 A. Pijuan-Domenech and M. Goya

in pregnant patients with a wide variety of lesions, like Ebstein’s anomaly of the
tricuspid valve [13] and in transposition of great arteries after atrial switch operation
[14]; volume overload can modify the direction of shunt during pregnancy, causing
a right-to-left shunt to appear or to worsen. Oxygen saturation should be routinely
checked in all pregnant women with congenital heart disease.

9.2.2 Post-tricuspid Left-to-Right Shunts

9.2.2.1 Ventricular Septal Defect

It is unlikely that an isolated ventricular septal defect (VSD) would go undiagnosed
until adulthood, but if a large VSD is diagnosed in adult life, pulmonary arterial
hypertension (PAH) will be present. In the rare setting of a moderate VSD with left
chamber dilatation, but without PAH, the risks of complications during pregnancy
are presumed to be moderate, similar to those with significant left valve
regurgitation.
No additional risk has been observed in women during pregnancy, with a small
VSD or a repaired VSD, if there is no pulmonary arterial hypertension. Small peri-
membranous VSDs (without left chamber dilatation) have a low risk of complica-
tions during pregnancy. Corrected VSDs have a good prognosis during pregnancy,
when left ventricular systolic function is preserved. However, at the time of precon-
ception or early pregnancy evaluation, it is important to exclude the presence of
pulmonary arterial hypertension and to confirm that left ventricular function is
preserved.
Regarding obstetric complications, there is one study that shows pre-eclampsia
being more frequent in women with unrepaired small VSD than in the general popu-
lation and another which suggested that small for gestational age and premature
delivery were also more prevalent in women with a repaired VSD than in the general
population [15]. In a large meta-analysis of complications during pregnancy in
patients with CHD, the patients with VSD showed a higher prevalence in pre-­
eclampsia and thromboembolic events than in general population, but no higher
incidence of cardiac decompensation or arrhythmias were observed [3].

9.2.2.2 Ductus Arteriosus

The diagnosis of patent ductus arteriosus is rarely overlooked until adulthood.
However, this may occur in a few possible clinical scenarios. The first is when a
small PDA exists with an insignificant left-to-right shunt, in which the risk of com-
plication is presumed to be very low. The second is when there is a large ductus with
irreversible pulmonary arterial hypertension and shunt reversal; in this scenario,
pregnancy carries a high risk of mortality [16]. A third possibility is when a moder-
ate PDA exists with left-to-right shunt and no pulmonary arterial hypertension, but
with left chamber enlargement; this is rare and there is no information in the litera-
ture. We presume that the risk of maternal complications is similar to the risk associ-
ated with aortic regurgitation. See Table 9.1.
 9  Shunt Lesions

Table 9.1  You can see mean key point in shunt lesions and pregnancy
Obstetric Risk of WHO
Cardiac complications complications Mode of delivery Puerperium transmission categories
Unrepaired ASD Atrial arrhythmias Prematurity Vaginal delivery Thromboprophylaxis 5 % 2
Thromboembolic event SGA Epidural
Repaired ASD NO General Vaginal delivery – 5 % 1
Atrial arrythmiasa population Epidural
Small VSD or NO Pre-eclampsia Vaginal delivery – 3 % 1
small PDA Epidural
Repaired AVSD Arrhythmia (10 %) Pre-eclampsia Vaginal delivery 24 h of maternal monitoring 8 % 2 or 3
Cardiac decompensation Preterm labour Epidural Thromboprophylaxis
(2 %) SGA [1]
Eisenmenger Right heart failure Preterm labour C-section Intensive care monitoring Depends on 4
syndrome Thrombosis Prematurity Multidisciplinary team type of CHD
Death (30 %) SGA involvement
SGA small for gestational age
a
IF ASD repaired in adult age
133
134 A. Pijuan-Domenech and M. Goya

9.2.2.3 Atrioventricular Septal Defects

Patients with repaired atrioventricular septal defects (AVSD) are a separate popula-
tion in terms of complications during pregnancy. In the large meta-analysis of preg-
nant patients with CHD [3], the risk of cardiac, obstetric, fetal and neonatal
complications was higher than in other shunt lesions. The majority of patients with
AVSD repaired in infancy are in excellent health and has a good New York Heart
Association (NYHA) class, but residual lesions, mainly left AV-valvular regurgita-
tion (LAVVR), are prevalent [17]. The risk of complications of an unrepaired partial
AVSD is presumed to be similar to an unrepaired ostium secundum ASD, if no
significant LAVVR is present. An unrepaired common AVSD in adult life is almost
always associated with irreversible pulmonary arterial hypertension, and pregnancy
in this situation carries a prohibitively high risk.
The most frequent cardiac complication observed during pregnancy in patients
with repaired AVSD is arrhythmia [3] The larger the left atrial dimensions in
relation to the degree of the LAVVR, then the greater the risk of arrhythmia,
while those with arrhythmias outside pregnancy are also at a higher risk of occur-
rence during pregnancy [18]. Heterotaxy is prevalent in newborns with AVSD
[19]. The risk of arrhythmias, both right and left atrial isomerism, is higher in
adult patients than in patients with usual atrial arrangement [20]. Other compli-
cations described are persistence of pregnancy-related NYHA class deterioration
as well as deterioration of pre-existing LAVVR [18]. Cardiac decompensation is
described in 1–2 % of pregnancies [3, 18], usually managed medically, with
urgent mitral valve replacement being exceptional in this setting. Obstetric and
fetal complications are also higher in this population, especially when a maternal
cardiac complication is present. Risk of transmission is described as high as 8 %
(Fig. 9.1).

9.3 Management of Shunt Lesions During Pregnancy

Patients with repaired ASD during infancy do not need multidisciplinary team fol-
low-­up, provided that there has been a good preconception assessment and patients
are in good condition without residual lesions, and pulmonary arterial hypertension
is ruled out. However, the risk of transmission of congenital heart disease is higher
than in the general population, and fetal echocardiography is recommended [21,
22]. See Fig. 9.1.
In contrast, patients with an ASD who had a late repair or whose ASD is unre-
paired, and those with an AVSD, whether repaired or not, need multidisciplinary
team follow-up.
Frequency of cardiac follow-up depends on residual lesions. In AVSD, cardiac
decompensation is possible. If LAVV regurgitation is significant, clinical and echo-
cardiographic close follow-up is required with frequent echocardiography. If sig-
nificant atrial arrhythmias are detected, then anticoagulation and rhythm or rate
control should be considered, depending on hemodynamic status; therapeutic low
9  Shunt Lesions 135

Fig. 9.1  You can see fetal echocardiography of an AVSD at 24 weeks (Courtesy of Dr Q Ferrer,
Department of Pediatric Cardiology and Fetal-Maternal Medicine Department)

molecular heparin should be given twice or three times per day and be monitored
with peak (3–4 h after injection) and trough anti-Xa levels. Metoprolol is the safest
beta-blocker for the fetus.
In the presence of an unrepaired ASD, there is a high risk of paradoxical embo-
lism; consequently, thromboprophylaxis should be given to all those with additional
risk factors. The need for thromboprophylaxis should be assessed antepartum, post-
partum and at any time the patient transitions from the outpatient to the inpatient
setting.
In left-to-right shunts, maternal deterioration is not frequent, and spontaneous
vaginal delivery is advised in most cases, with epidural anaesthesia. Cardiac indi-
cation of Caesarean section is rare in the setting of left-to-right shunt except if
pulmonary hypertension is present. Recommendations for care during delivery and
puerperium of a patient with repaired AVSD and significant LAVVR are showed in
Fig. 9.2.
Labour can be conducted with the mother in the left lateral position to avoid
inferior vena caval compression and maintain venous return. The second stage can
be assisted with forceps or vacuum extraction if necessary. Prolonged labour should
be avoided. In addition to fetal monitoring, maternal ECG monitoring should be
performed to detect any arrhythmia during labour and the puerperium.
136 A. Pijuan-Domenech and M. Goya

Mode of delivery:
Spontaneous vaginal delivery is indicated. C-section only due to obstetric reasons
Recommendations for first stage:
Maternal position: left lateral decubitus
Continuous ECG and 02 saturation monitoring, diuresis and fluid balance
Epidural anesthesia
Recommendations for second stage:
Shortage of expulsive using forceps
Puerperium:
Oxytocin to be administrated in perfusion during 1–2 h. Avoid bolus administration
Control in high dependence obstetric Unit during 24 h, continue to ECG monitoring, 02
saturation and fluid administration.
Start prophylactic low molecular heparin after 8 h of epidural catheter removal.

Fig. 9.2  You can see delivery plan of a patient with repaired AVSD and severe left atrioventricular
valve regurgitation

9.3.1 Management of Patients with Eisenmenger Syndrome

PAH accompanies large left-to-right shunts; pulmonary vascular obstructive disease

may develop in adults but occurs much later in pre-tricuspidic shunt than in high-­
pressure left-to-right shunts. In young women with unrepaired ostium secundum
ASD or sinus venosus, the rate of pulmonary arterial hypertension is presumed to be
low, around 5–10 % at maximum [23]. There is little information regarding cases of
adult presentation of unrepaired partial AVSD and the rate of associated pulmonary
arterial hypertension, but numbers are presumably similar to other pre-tricuspidic
lesions. Small restrictive VSDs and small PDAs will not have associated PAH. In
contrast, a large unrepaired VSD, a large PDA or unrepaired common AVSD at the
childbearing age have a high probability of irreversible pulmonary arterial hyper-
tension, shunt reversal and Eisenmenger syndrome.
For further information on haemodynamic impact of pregnancy in Eisenmenger
syndrome, see Chaps. 16 and 17.
If the patient with Eisenmenger syndrome decided to continue with the preg-
nancy, a multidisciplinary team should be involved during the whole pregnancy,
delivery and postpartum period. Due to low oxygen saturation, especially if below
85 %, a high risk of spontaneous abortion and fetal loss is present [24–26]. Maternal
risk of decompensation is high, despite oxygen supplementation and strict balance
of fluids [27]. Prostanoids (i.v. prostacyclin or inhaled iloprost) and inhibitors of
phosphodiesterase type 5 are used, since there is no evidence of teratogenicity in
animals. Endothelin receptor antagonists are generally avoided because of teratoge-
nicity seen in animal testing [28].
Obstetric and fetal complications are common, as limited cardiac output and low
oxygen saturation both contribute to placental insufficiency, causing intrauterine
growth retardation (IUGR) and the need for early delivery [3, 27]. Thromboprophylaxis
is usually prescribed, but full anticoagulation is controversial because of concerns
about bleeding [10]. Avoiding possible paradoxical embolism through the care of
peripheral lines and using air filters is wise during all admissions [29].
9  Shunt Lesions 137

The majority of cases are delivered by Caesarean section as heart failure is usu-
ally present during the third trimester, despite good cardiac function prior to preg-
nancy. This has a class IIa recommendation in the ESC guidelines [10]. A
multidisciplinary team involving an obstetrician, cardiologist and anaesthetist is
mandatory. During delivery, pain and anxiety should be avoided, as well as hypoten-
sion due to drug administration. Small incremental doses must be given if epidural
anaesthesia is used to avoid hypotension [30]. Invasive monitoring of systemic arte-
rial pressure and a central venous pressure is probably indicated in all cases. Nitric
oxide use may be helpful during anaesthesia.
During puerperium, there is an increase in venous return from the uterus and
inferior vena caval decompression, resulting in additional overload to the already
compromised right ventricle. For this reason, the puerperium is the highest risk
period for mortality in Eisenmenger syndrome. Maternal ICU stay will be manda-
tory for more than 48 h and hospitalisation of at least 1 week postpartum. Fifty
percent of mortality in pregnant patients with Eisenmenger syndrome has been
observed during the puerperium [31].

9.4 Impact of Physiological Changes

During pregnancy, left-to-right shunt lesions are considered to be low risk. This is
due to the decrease in systemic vascular resistance, which results in a reduced left-­
to-­right shunt, counterbalancing the increase in plasma volume and cardiac output,
provided there is no pulmonary arterial hypertension. Pulmonary pressures are pre-
sumed to stay at the basal level throughout pregnancy or even decrease to accom-
modate the increase in cardiac output during pregnancy [32]. This contrasts to the
situation of PAH with a right-to-left shunt where the physiological changes of
­pregnancy can be detrimental (please see the PAH-CDH chapter 17).

9.5 Preconception Counselling

9.5.1 General Advice for Shunt Patients

Several risk scores have been developed in order to predict cardiac complications in
patients with heart disease: the CARPREG risk score (RS) [33]; the modified World
Health Organization (mWHO) [10] classification, proposed by Thorne et al. [34]; and,
for CHD, the Khairy modified CARPREG RS (KRS) [35] and ZAHARA RS [36]. In
the general population [37] and also in congenital heart disease population [38],
mWHO has predicted complications with more accuracy than any other risk score.
In terms of shunts, the mWHO classification includes several categories: group
I, successfully repaired simple lesions, like atrial or ventricular septal defect or pat-
ent ductus arteriosus, where only a small risk of complications is expected, and
group II unoperated atrial or ventricular septal defect, where a small increase in
maternal mortality and a moderate increase in maternal morbidity are expected. In
138 A. Pijuan-Domenech and M. Goya

the same conditions, if there is associated pulmonary arterial hypertension, lesions

are considered group IV, and pregnancy is contraindicated due to a high risk of
morbidity and mortality [10].

9.5.2 Atrioventricular Septal Defects

In the ZAHARA risk score, the presence of left or right AV regurgitation in the set-
ting of repaired AVSD are risk factors to be added to the classical CARPREG risk
classification [36]. In mWHO classification, AVSD repaired is considered to be in
group II if no significant residual lesion is present [10] and higher (III) if residual
lesions are present. Complete unrepaired AVSD, associated to severe pulmonary
hypertension, is considered mWHO IV.

9.6 Contraception

In a repaired ASD/VSD with no residual lesions, none of the contraceptive options are
contraindicated. In the situation of an unrepaired ASD/VSD in the presence or absence
of PAH, the risk of thrombosis and paradoxical embolism precludes oestrogen-­based
contraceptives and limits the choice to progesterone-based contraceptives (high-dose
oral, implant or IUCD), which are effective and safe in this context.

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Aortic Stenosis
10
Stefan Orwat and Helmut Baumgartner

Abbreviations

AoV Aortic valve

AS Aortic stenosis
AVR Aortic valve replacement
CO Cardiac output
CW Continuous wave
ECG Electrocardiography
EF Ejection fraction
ET Exercise test
FU Follow-up
Hb Haemoglobin
HR Heart rate
MV Mitral valve
mWHO Modified World Health Organization
ROPAC Registry of Pregnancy and Cardiac Disease
SAX Short-axis view
SV Stroke volume
TTE Transthoracic echocardiography
VR Vascular resistance
WHO World Health Organization

S. Orwat, MD • H. Baumgartner, MD (*)

Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular
Heart Disease, University Hospital of Muenster, Münster, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 141

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_10
142 S. Orwat and H. Baumgartner

Key Facts of Preconception

Incidence: 0.2 per 1,000 live births
Inheritance: 8.0 % if the mother is affected and 3.8 % if the father is affected
Medication:
World Health Organization class: Severe symptomatic class IV, all other
forms of classes II–III. Aortic dilatation 45–50 mm, without valve dys-
function class III, with valve dysfunction or >50 mm class IV
Risk of pregnancy: Heart failure 6–30 %, some risk of arrhythmias
Life expectancy: Reduced with severe stenosis and dilatation of the aorta

Key Management
Preconception: ECG, echo and exercise test. Pregnancy is contraindicated in
severe symptomatic LVOTO.
Pregnancy: 12 and 20 weeks with ECG and echo, thereafter depending on the
severity of aortic stenosis, aortic dilatation and clinical status. Consider
reduced activity with severe stenosis; in refractory heart failure, balloon
valvuloplasty may be considered.
Labour: Vaginal delivery is appropriate unless aortic dilatation >45 mm or
heart failure is present.
Postpartum: Close monitoring for signs of heart failure and echo in selected
cases.

10.1 The Condition

Aortic stenosis (AS) is one of the most prevalent valvular diseases among young
women and is typically encountered in the form of a congenitally bicuspid
AS. Although the rate of progression of stenosis in this group is lower than in older
patients, severe AS can occur. Rheumatic AS is a major health issue in developing
countries and is usually associated with mitral valve disease. In addition to AS, women
with bicuspid valves may have an associated aortopathy with or without aortic dilata-
tion even in the absence of haemodynamically significant aortic stenosis. Left ven-
tricular outflow obstruction can be valvular but also supravalvular or subvalvular. The
pathophysiological consequences of fixed stenosis at any of these levels are the same.
Dynamic subvalvular stenosis (i.e. hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy) has to
be separated from these entities and behaves differently during pregnancy.
Some women still asymptomatic prior to pregnancy may become symptomatic
during pregnancy as a consequence of a limited ability to increase stroke volume
across the stenosis resulting in increasing filling pressures. In addition, the increased
heart rate and blood volume and the fall in the peripheral vascular resistance may
promote heart failure in this patient group.
10  Aortic Stenosis 143

These women may in particular develop dyspnoea on exertion but also angina.
Some circumstances seem to have an increased risk for acute decompensations. For
example, the raised cardiac output and the elevated heart rate may be linked with an
arrhythmia. In addition infection or anaemia may result in an acute decompensation
from a combination of an increasing valve gradient and a shortened diastolic filling
time.

10.2 Pregnancy Outcome

The risk of the mother with aortic stenosis during pregnancy depends on the severity
of stenosis, comorbidities and symptoms. Generally speaking, asymptomatic
women with mild or moderate aortic stenosis have a low risk and tolerate pregnancy
well. Consistent with the current guidelines on valvular heart disease, severe symp-
tomatic left ventricular outflow (independent on the location of obstruction) tract
obstruction is a contraindication for pregnancy, and women should have an aortic
valve replacement prior to pregnancy or should be advised against pregnancy [1, 2].
There are different studies that investigated the risk of pregnancy in women
with aortic stenosis. The group of Silversides et al. reported on 49 pregnancies in
women with congenital AS, of whom 59 % of patients had severe AS, and most of
them were asymptomatic before pregnancy. In three pregnancies, early cardiac
complications, including pulmonary oedema and atrial arrhythmias, occurred.
One of them with severe AS required urgent percutaneous aortic valvuloplasty at
12 weeks of gestation. Six pregnancies were associated with adverse fetal events,
which included prematurity, small for gestational age and neonatal respiratory
distress syndrome [3].
Another study in this field reported on 12 pregnancies with predominant AS
[4]. There was a higher incidence of maternal complications in women with more
than mild AS compared with their matched healthy controls. Congestive heart
failure was reported in 44 % of patients, arrhythmias in 25 % and hospitalizations
in 33 %. Fetal outcome was also affected by the presence of more than mild AS
with higher incidence of preterm birth, intrauterine growth retardation and low
birth weight [4].
In a recent study of the ROPAC group, we investigated maternal and fetal
adverse events in contemporary patients with moderate or severe AS based on a
prospective observational study of a large number of pregnancies in patients with
AS included in the Registry Of Pregnancy And Cardiac disease (ROPAC) [5]. Out
of 2,966 pregnancies, we identified 99 pregnancies in women with AS, who had at
least moderate AS (34 severe AS). No deaths were observed during pregnancy and
the first week after delivery. However, 20.8 % of women required hospitalisation
for cardiac reasons during pregnancy. This was significantly more common in
severe AS compared to moderate AS (35.3 % vs. 12.9 %; p = 0.02) and reached the
highest rate (42.1 %) in severe, symptomatic AS. Pregnancy was complicated by
heart failure in 6.7 % of asymptomatic and 26.3 % of symptomatic patients but
could be managed medically except for one patient who was symptomatic prior to
144 S. Orwat and H. Baumgartner

pregnancy and required balloon valvotomy. In addition, children of women with

severe AS had a significantly higher percentage of low birth weight compared to
women with moderate AS (35.0 % vs. 6.0 %; p = 0.006). We concluded from our
study that mortality in pregnant women with AS, including those with severe AS,
appears to be close to zero in the current era. In addition, symptomatic and severe
AS does, however, carry a substantial risk of heart failure and is associated with
high rates of hospitalisation for cardiac reasons although heart failure can nearly
always be managed medically.
There is only limited data on the risk or recurrent aortic valve disease in offspring
of parents with aortic stenosis. In one study it is described as 8.0 % if the mother is
affected and 3.8 % if the father is affected [6].

10.3 Management

The approach to women with aortic stenosis depends on the time of presentation
(e.g. prior to pregnancy or during pregnancy). We attempt to give an overview about
the management in the different phases (Fig. 10.1).

Preconception Severe sympt. AS

1 evaluation AVR
(TTE; ET; BNP)
AS not severe, no symptoms

Conception

3
FU (TTE) Medical therapy -
2 YES
EF , symptoms? effective?
NO
YES NO

Balloon valvuloplasty–
effective?
NO
YES
4
AVR
Delivery

Severe, sympt. AS AVR

5 FU

Fig. 10.1  Flow chart describing the management of women with aortic stenosis according to dif-
ferent phases (Phase 1–5). AVR aortic valve replacement, TTE transthoracic echocardiography, ET
exercise test, BNP brain natriuretic peptide, FU follow-up, EF ejection fraction
10  Aortic Stenosis 145

10.3.1 Phase 1: Preconception Evaluation

All women with known aortic stenosis should have preconception evaluation. This
evaluation should be done by an interdisciplinary team of obstetricians and cardi-
ologists and should include careful history and family history, physical examina-
tion, electrocardiography and echocardiography. To assess the functional state, an
exercise test in asymptomatic women may be helpful [7].

10.3.1.1  Echocardiography
Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is a safe and quick diagnostic tool and it is
mandatory for the diagnosis of aortic stenosis. It allows morphological assessment
of the valves and provides information on the aetiology of the disease. The morpho-
logical assessment of the aortic valve (AoV) is best performed in a parasternal
short-axis view (SAX) (Fig. 10.2a). Congenital AS is typically encountered in the
form of a bicuspid AoV. To establish the diagnosis, the valve has to be visualised in
the SAX in systole where the orifice has a characteristic “fish-mouth” appearance
(Fig. 10.2b).
In rheumatic valve disease, the valve is characterised by thickening at the edges
of the cusps and commissural fusion, and in most cases, also the mitral valve (MV)
is affected. The quantification of stenosis includes predominantly the measurement

a b

c d

Fig. 10.2 (a) Normal tricuspid aortic valve in short axis. (b) Bicuspid aortic valve in short axis.
(c) Transoesophageal echocardiography of a bicuspid aortic valve with typical “doming” of the
cusps. (d) TTE of a severe aortic stenosis
146 S. Orwat and H. Baumgartner

of transaortic jet velocities and gradients as well the calculation of the aortic valve
area, thus combining flow-dependent and relatively flow-independent variables.
The normal aortic valve area is in the range of 3–4 cm2. Under normal conditions
and also during pregnancy, the transvalvular flow has a peak flow velocity typically
<2 m/s. With increasing narrowing of the AoV orifice, the transaortic jet velocities
increase [1, 7]. Transaortic jet velocities are measured by recording of the maximal
transaortic flow signal using continuous wave (CW) Doppler, and gradients can be
derived from flow velocities using the simplified Bernoulli equation. The mean gra-
dient can be determined by averaging the instantaneous gradients over the entire
systole.
There are some pitfalls to watch for when measuring transaortic velocity and
gradients. For an accurate measurement of the transaortic jet velocity, the Doppler
beam needs to be aligned with the stenotic aortic jet. Alignment errors, which can
frequently occur in pregnant women with atypical heart position or congenital aor-
tic stenosis, lead to an underestimation of the true velocity and consequently of the
calculated gradients resulting in underestimation of AS severity. As a consequence,
a meticulous search of the highest transvalvular velocity is required. This necessi-
tates a comprehensive Doppler study that is not only limited to the apical window
but also includes right parasternal, suprasternal and sometimes (if possible in preg-
nant women) subcostal approaches using a small, dedicated CW Doppler transducer
(pencil probe). It is not unusual that significantly higher aortic jet velocities can be
recorded from these acoustic windows.
Transaortic jet velocities and gradients are highly flow dependent. In the pres-
ence of associated aortic regurgitation, high cardiac output states such as pregnancy,
anaemia, hyperthyroidism, or transaortic flow velocities will further increase.
Aortic valve area, calculated using the continuity equation, is a relatively –
although not entirely – flow-independent variable. Even if carefully performed, one
major limitation of this method remains the LVOT area calculation from its diame-
ter. Since the LVOT shape is rather elliptical than circular, this will result in flow
underestimation and therefore valve area underestimation [8, 9]. Any discrepancy in
the measurement of the LVOT diameter will be squared, leading to errors in the
calculation of the AVA.
Planimetry of the valve area, primarily by 2D TEE, has also been proposed.
However, the orifice of a stenotic aortic valve, especially in a doming bicuspid aor-
tic valve (Fig. 10.2c), frequently represents a complex three-dimensional structure
that cannot be reliably assessed with a planar 2D image.
As stenosis severity encompasses a continuous spectrum of disease, its assess-
ment needs to be viewed in a continuous way. In clinical practice, peak transaortic
jet velocities, mean gradients and valve areas (calculated by the continuity equa-
tion) should be estimated and the findings are ideally concordant (Table 10.1).
Classification of AS severity is not difficult when measurements of velocity, gra-
dient and valve area are concordant but becomes challenging when conflicting values
of these indices are found. Because pressure gradients are flow dependent, gradients
by itself may provide misleading information about the severity of aortic stenosis
during pregnancy. The situation of a peak velocity >4 m/s and mean gradient
10  Aortic Stenosis 147

Table 10.1  Quantification of aortic stenosis severity

Mild aortic Moderate aortic
stenosis stenosis Severe aortic stenosis
Peak aortic jet velocity (m/s) 2.5–2.9a 3.0–3.9a ≥4.0a
Mean gradient (mmHg) <20a 20–39a ≥40a
Aortic valve area (cm2) >1.5 1.0–1.5 ≤1.0
Indexed valve area (cm2/m2 ≤0.6 cm2/m2
BSA)
In the presence of normal transvalvular flow, not evaluated in pregnancy. According to current
a

ESC guidelines and AHA/ACC guidelines

>40 mmHg despite a valve area greater than 1.0 cm2 can be found in the presence of
a high transvalvular flow, especially in pregnancy. The increased heart rate during
pregnancy may also influence the peak and mean systolic gradients (as calculated
from the Bernoulli equation) but should not affect the calculated valve area as calcu-
lated by the continuity equation. Until now it is unclear which parameter during
pregnancy, gradient or valve orifice, describes best the haemodynamic situation.
The ascending aorta should be routinely assessed in women with AS since a dila-
tion of the ascending aorta is frequently observed especially in patients with bicus-
pid valves. The assessment is performed in a PLAX view at early systole and
includes measurements at the levels of the aortic annulus, the sinuses of Valsalva,
the sinotubular junction and the ascending aorta. In case of an aortic diameter
greater than 50 mm (or >27 mm/m2 BSA), surgery before pregnancy should be
considered [2].
Supravalvular AS is a rare congenital lesion (e.g. in Williams-Beuren syndrome)
in which the ascending aorta is narrowed. Subvalvular AS consists of a fixed
obstruction below the aortic valve level in the left ventricular outflow tract and can
be due to a thin fibrous membrane or a fibromuscular narrowing. Both forms are
fixed stenosis with similar pathophysiological consequences as in valvular stenosis.
Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy represents a dynamic obstruction of the
left ventricular outflow tract and is usually well tolerated during pregnancy [10, 11].

10.3.1.2  Other Tests

Exercise testing is recommended in asymptomatic patients before pregnancy to
confirm asymptomatic status and evaluate exercise tolerance, blood pressure
response and arrhythmias [2]. In addition, electrocardiography (ECG) is recom-
mended to exclude, among other findings, arrhythmias. To what extent an elevated
brain natriuretic peptide adds prognostic information in this setting remains unclear.

10.3.2 Pre-pregnancy Counselling/Risk Estimation

Pre-pregnancy counselling has to address how pregnancy may affect not just the
mother but also the fetus. This means women should be given information on
maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality associated with pregnancy. This allows
148 S. Orwat and H. Baumgartner

women to make an informed choice whether to accept the risk associated with
pregnancy.
Several risk scores for predicting cardiac complications in patients with acquired
or valvular heart disease have been proposed. They try to predict cardiac and obstet-
ric complications in different forms of heart disease and are therefore not specific
for women with aortic stenosis.
The CARPREG risk score is the most popular one [12]. It classifies the different
heart conditions in three risk categories [13]. To categorise these women, the study
identifies four predictors of primary cardiac events (each one point):

• Prior cardiac event (heart failure, transient ischaemic attack or stroke before
pregnancy) or arrhythmia
• Baseline NYHA class >II or cyanosis
• Left heart obstruction (mitral valve area <2 cm2, aortic valve area <1.5 cm2 or
peak left ventricular outflow tract gradient >30 mmHg by echocardiography)
• Reduced systemic ventricular systolic function (ejection fraction <40 %)

The estimated risk of a cardiac event in pregnancies with 0, 1 and >1 points was
reported to be 5 %, 27 % and 75 %, respectively.
The current European Heart Society guidelines have extended the modified
World Health Organization (mWHO) score to assess maternal risk. The score clas-
sifies patients in four categories indicating the risk of cardiovascular complications
and the consequences for management during pregnancy. Women in mWHO class I
have a low risk; class II, small risk of complications; and class III, significant risk of
complications. Women in class IV have such a high risk of morbidity and mortality
that they should be advised against pregnancy [2].
According to the modified WHO classification of maternal cardiovascular risk,
patients with severe symptomatic aortic stenosis are assigned to class IV, whereas
all other forms of aortic stenosis are assigned to classes II–III. Aortic dilatation
between 45 and 50 mm associated with a bicuspid aortic valve (without signifi-
cant dysfunction of the valve) is assigned to class III, aortic dilatation >50 mm to
class IV.
Patients with a low- or moderate-risk condition (WHO I–III) should be seen by
the end of the first trimester and a follow-up plan with time intervals for review and
investigations such as echocardiograms defined. The follow-up plan should be indi-
vidualised taking into account the severity of aortic stenosis, aortic dilatation and
clinical status of the patient.

10.3.3 Phase 2: Care During Pregnancy

As many general cardiologists or obstetricians will see only a few women with aor-
tic stenosis, referral to a specialist centre for counselling is advisable. Management
of pregnant patients with aortic stenosis should be ensured by experienced multidis-
ciplinary teams. The follow-up frequencies depend on the severity of stenosis with
10  Aortic Stenosis 149

at least monthly visits and echocardiographic assessments in patients with severe

stenosis.
Symptoms due to severe aortic stenosis such as dyspnoea, angina pectoris, dizzi-
ness or syncope on exertion usually become apparent in the second trimester or
early third trimester when the haemodynamic load on the heart significantly
increases. Onset of symptoms related to AS before this stage seems to be a poor
prognostic sign. It could be a diagnostic challenge to decide if shortness of breath is
related to an aggravation of aortic stenosis or just to physiological changes during
pregnancy [14].

10.3.4 Echocardiography During Pregnancy

TTE should be done regularly during pregnancy. The frequency depends on

­symptoms and severity of stenosis. Particular attention should be given to the
evaluation of left ventricular function, accompanying valvular lesions and changes
of aortic stenosis severity. In women with more than mild AS, an increase in pres-
sure gradients over the stenotic valve is usual [15]. In contrast to that, aortic valve
area, which is less flow dependent, should stay constant throughout pregnancy.
Concerning left ventricular function, ejection fraction should not show significant
changes unlike longitudinal strain, which decreases during normal pregnancy
[16]. Any drop in ejection fraction during pregnancy in women with AS should be
a warning sign.

10.3.5 Laboratory Assessment During Pregnancy

During pregnancy laboratory tests could be helpful. Troponin I is normally not ele-
vated in pregnancy in women without heart disease and could therefore indicate an
acute decompensation or myocardial ischaemia in women with aortic stenosis [17].
In many pregnant women with different heart diseases, an elevated B-type natri-
uretic peptide (BNP) level could be found. In a study by Tanous et al., BNP levels
<100 picograms per millilitre had a negative predictive value of 100 % for identify-
ing events during pregnancy. Although studies with pregnant women and aortic ste-
nosis do not exist, serial B-type natriuretic peptide levels may be helpful in predicting
outcome and in differentiating between pregnancy and aortic stenosis-related short-
ness of breath, thus diagnosing heart failure [18].

10.3.6 Phase 3: Treatment During Pregnancy

Symptomatic patients with severe AS should be advised to reduce their activity

which is in most cases the mainstay of antepartum care [19]. Some patients may
benefit from hospitalisation during the third trimester for bed rest and closer moni-
toring. These women should receive thromboprophylaxis with low molecular
150 S. Orwat and H. Baumgartner

weight heparin. In the case of persistent symptoms, medical treatment may be indi-
cated. If medical treatment, mainly with diuretics, is insufficient, invasive proce-
dures should be considered. Percutaneous aortic balloon valvuloplasty can be
considered during pregnancy as a palliative procedure, allowing delay of valve
replacement until after birth [20]. A higher success rate in non-calcified valves with
only minimal or absent regurgitation can be expected.
In case of persistent symptomatic severe AS after valvuloplasty or contraindica-
tion for valvuloplasty, cardiac surgery must be considered. High fetal mortality rates
are described for surgery between the 13th and 28th week [21]. Maternal mortality
seems to be comparable to that of non-pregnant women undergoing the same proce-
dure [21]. During cardiac surgery, the objectives for anaesthetic induction are to
maintain sinus rhythm, preload and cardiac contractility and to avoid decreased left
ventricular afterload.

10.3.7 Arrhythmias

The available literature on supraventricular arrhythmias in valvular heart disease

and pregnancy is limited to case series. The incidence described varies from 2 % to
17.5 % [22–24].
Maintenance of normal sinus rhythm is critical, as the atrial contraction may
account for up to 40 % of ventricular filling in this patient group [25]. A recent study
could show that left-sided lesions are a predictor of atrial fibrillation and/or atrial
flutter and that these arrhythmias are associated with higher rates of maternal mor-
tality and lower fetal birth weight [26]. In patients with atrial fibrillation, beta-­
blocker or a non-dihydropyridine for rate control should be administered [27].

10.3.8 Phase 4: Labour and Delivery

When women with AS remain asymptomatic during pregnancy, the final haemody-
namic challenge occurs during the time of delivery and the immediate postpartum
period. For women with aortic stenosis, this stage should be a team approach of
cardiologists, obstetricians and anaesthesiologists (“delivery team”). In asymptom-
atic women in good condition and normal cardiac function, spontaneous onset of
labour is appropriate and is preferable to induce labour [2]. Spontaneous labour is
commonly quicker and carries a higher chance of a successful delivery than induced
labour [28]. There is no consensus with regard to the recommended mode of deliv-
ery in symptomatic patients, but vaginal delivery carries a lower risk of complica-
tions for both the mother and fetus. Compared with Caesarean section, it causes
smaller shifts in blood volume, less haemorrhage, the absence of abdominal sur-
gery, decreased thrombogenic risk and fewer infections.
The hypertrophied ventricle that accompanies AS is sensitive to abrupt changes in
preload so vasodilation from anaesthetic agents or haemorrhage around the time of
10  Aortic Stenosis 151

labour and delivery can destabilise cardiac function more profoundly. To manage the
stress of labour, early epidural analgesia is important. Good regional analgesia helps
to avoid further increases in cardiac output associated with contractions. Caesarean
section should be reserved mainly for obstetric indications or in the case of aortic
problems or severe heart failure [2]. Nevertheless in some centres, Caesarean deliv-
ery is advocated for women with severe AS or acute heart failure [2].

10.3.9 Phase 5: After Delivery/Postpartum Period

Care should be given with intravenous bolus of oxytocin in the third stage of labour,
as it might cause a sudden fall in cardiac output, and controlled intravenous infusion
might be more appropriate [29].
The early postpartum period carries some potential risks. Uterine contraction
permanently returns some 500 ml of blood to the circulation, which can have a del-
eterious effect on patients with diminished left ventricular function or severe aortic
stenosis. After delivery, most haemodynamic changes are rapidly reversed in the
first 2 weeks with further normalisation towards preconception values after
3–12 months [29]. Several days of close monitoring for signs of heart failure and
echocardiographic examinations are recommended in selected cases [2].

10.4 The Impact of the Physiological Changes of Pregnancy

Several studies have extended our understanding of the haemodynamic changes

during pregnancy [16, 30, 31]. The increased cardiovascular demand in the set-
ting of pregnancy is accomplished by numerous haemodynamic changes (also
see Fig. 10.3):

• Increase in plasma volume (40 %)

• Increase in stroke volume
• Increase in heart rate
• Increase in cardiac output (30–50 %)
• Decrease in systemic vascular resistance
• Decrease in pulmonary vascular resistance
• Increase in lower-extremity venous pressure

Delivery and the postpartum period are associated with additional haemody-
namic changes, and adjustment to these changes can be problematic in the setting of
a fixed left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. It is well known that stenotic
lesions are less well tolerated and carry a higher pregnancy risk than regurgitant
valvular lesions as the increase in circulating blood volume aggravates the haemo-
dynamic consequences of the stenosis.
152 S. Orwat and H. Baumgartner

60

50

40

30 CO

20 SV

10
HR

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Hb
-10
VR
-20

-30

-40
first trimester second trimester third trimester

Fig. 10.3  Normal cardiovascular changes in pregnancy in women without aortic stenosis (Adapted
from [29, 32]). Heart rate (HR) increases steadily until the beginning of the third trimester, when
cardiac output (CO) and stroke volume (SV) reach a plateau at the beginning of the second trimester.
(Hb haemoglobin, VR vascular resistance)

Conclusion
In patients with AS, appropriate preconceptional patient evaluation and counsel-
ling are essential. Most women with a mild or moderate AS and normal left
ventricular ejection fraction tolerate pregnancy well. Severe AS is associated
with increased maternal morbidity and unfavourable fetal outcome, but maternal
mortality seems to be unlikely with appropriate patient care during pregnancy
and delivery in expert hands.

References
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heart disease (version 2012). Eur Heart J 33:2451–2496. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs109
2. European Society of Gynecology, Association for European Paediatric Cardiology, German
Society for Gender Medicine et al (2011) ESC Guidelines on the management of cardiovascu-
lar diseases during pregnancy: the Task Force on the Management of Cardiovascular Diseases
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Pregnancy in Hypertrophic
Cardiomyopathy 11
Michelle Michels

Abbreviations

ACE Angiotensin converting enzyme

ARBs Angiotensin receptor blockers
FDA Food and Drug Administration
G+ Genotype positive
HCM Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
ICD Implantable cardioverter defibrillator
LV Left ventricular
LVOT Left ventricular outflow tract
NYHA New York Heart Association
SCD Sudden cardiac death
VKA Vitamin K antagonist
WHO World Health Organization

Key Facts
Incidence and inheritance: Most common autosomal dominant inherited car-
diac disease. Affects 1/500 people.
World Health Organization class: Range from class I (for genotype-positive,
HCM-negative subjects) to class IV (severe, symptomatic LVOT obstruc-
tion or severe systolic LV dysfunction).

M. Michels, MD, PhD

Thoraxcenter, Center for Inherited Cardiovascular Diseases,
Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 155

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_11
156 M. Michels

Risk of pregnancy: Usually tolerated well and major complications limited to

high-risk and/or symptomatic women. Typically II–III.
Medication: Antiarrhythmic and anticoagulation medication may need to be
changed.
Life expectancy: Reduced in high-risk women with evidence of heart failure
and an increased risk of sudden death.

Key Management Principles

Preconception: Genetic counseling is indicated for both women and men. Full
risk assessment, functional status, echocardiography (specific assessment
of provocable LVOT obstruction), exercise testing, and Holter
monitoring.
Pregnancy: The frequency of follow-up determined by WHO class and family
history of sudden death. Fetal echo should be offered. Most common prob-
lems: LVOT obstruction, arrhythmias, and diastolic dysfunction.
Delivery: Vaginal delivery, monitoring determined by WHO grade.
Hemodynamic stability key, particularly in those with a provocable gradi-
ent. Avoid volume overload with ventricular dysfunction.
Postpartum: Close observation for 24–48 h.

11.1 The Condition

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common autosomal inherited car-

diac disease typically caused by mutations in cardiac sarcomere protein genes. It is
defined by an increased left ventricular (LV) wall thickness of 15 mm or more,
which is not solely explained by abnormal loading conditions. The prevalence in
adults is between 1/200 and 1/500 and disease penetrance is age related [1, 2].
HCM is characterized by great genetic and clinical heterogeneity; even in a fam-
ily with the same pathological mutation, the phenotype can vary widely (Fig. 11.1).
Currently, we know that the phenotype can vary from genotype-positive/HCM-­
negative (G+/HCM−) subjects at advanced age to patients first presenting with sud-
den death (SD) at young age (Patient A and D in Fig. 11.1) [3, 4]. The precise
proportion of the G+/HCM− subjects that will develop overt disease is currently
unknown, and while some patients remain asymptomatic throughout their lives, the
disease generally progresses slowly with time [5, 6]. The symptoms in HCM are
mainly caused by diastolic LV dysfunction, left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT)
obstruction, and supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias [3]. About a third of
the HCM patients will experience heart failure-related symptoms based on a signifi-
cant LVOT obstruction, caused by the hypertrophied septum and the systolic ante-
rior movement of the mitral valve in systole (Fig. 11.2). LVOT obstruction is thought
to be hemodynamically significant when the gradient exceeds 50 mmHg and is
11  Pregnancy in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy 157

a
+84 years +75 years
colorectal cancer
MYBPC3+

b c d
+64 years MyBPC3+ +37 years MyBPC3-
MyBPC3+ LVEF 30 % SD during training
SD while running

e f
MYBPC3+ MYBPC3+ MyBPC3- +28 years MyBPC3-
accident
MyBPC3-

Fig. 11.1  Pedigree of a HCM family showing extensive phenotypic heterogeneity. Family member A
= G+/HCM− at advanced age, noncardiac cause of death. Family member B = G+/HCM+ SD during
exercise. Family member C = G+/HCM+ severe systolic dysfunction. Family member D = index
patient of the family, first presentation with SD. Family member E and F = G+/HCM− (HCM hypertro-
phic cardiomyopathy, MYBPC3 myosin-binding protein C, G+ genotype positive, SD sudden death)

a b

Fig. 11.2  Parasternal long-axis echocardiography of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy patient. (a)

Diastolic frame: asterix interventricular septum; square left ventricular posterior wall; arrow
mitral valve. (b) Systolic frame: arrow systolic anterior movement of mitral valve
158 M. Michels

a b

Fig. 11.3  Provocation of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction (LVOT) with Valsalva. (a)
LVOT gradient 7 mmHg at rest. (b) LVOT gradient 80 mmHg during Valsalva

associated with sudden cardiac death (SCD) and heart failure-related complications
[7, 8]. While HCM may be associated with a normal life expectancy and stable
clinical course, about 5–15 % of patients progress to either the restrictive or the
dilated-hypokinetic stage of HCM with progression of heart failure-related symp-
toms, eventually leading to end-stage heart failure [4].
Both supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias are prevalent in HCM patients.
Atrial fibrillation is the most frequent, affecting more than 20 % of patients and associ-
ated with an unfavorable outcome [9]. In all HCM patients, it is important to estimate
the risk of SCD caused by ventricular arrhythmias and to select patients for prophy-
lactic implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) implantation. The implantation of
an ICD for secondary prevention is universally accepted [1, 10]. The selection of
patients for primary prevention of SCD with ICD implantation differs between Europe
and America. The recent European Society of Cardiology guidelines promote the use
of the HCM risk score, in which age, maximal wall thickness, LVOT gradient, left
atrial dimension, the presence of ventricular tachycardia on Holter monitoring, unex-
plained syncope, and family history are used to calculate the SCD risk. A high risk is
defined as the risk of SCD ≥6 % at 5 years, warranting ICD implantation [1, 8]. The
American guidelines favor evaluation of major risk factors (family history, maximal
wall thickness, unexplained syncope, the presence of ventricular tachycardia on
Holter monitoring, and an abnormal blood pressure response to exercise) to estimate
the SCD risk in order to select high-­risk patients [10].
Echocardiography is the cornerstone of diagnosis in HCM. It is important to
assess maximal LV wall thickness, LV systolic and diastolic function, left atrial
dimension, and the presence of LVOT obstruction both at rest and during provoca-
tion. LVOT obstruction is present at rest in about a third of the patients; this increases
to two thirds of the patients with exercise echocardiography [11]. By convention,
LVOT obstruction is defined as the presence of a LVOT gradient ≥30 mmHg. LVOT
gradient ≥50 mmHg is considered as threshold at which LVOT obstruction becomes
hemodynamically important and is generally accepted as the threshold for invasive
therapies in symptomatic HCM patients on optimal medical therapy [1, 12].
Provocation of LVOT obstruction with the Valsalva maneuver in different positions
(sitting, semi-supine, and in some cases standing) is recommended in all patients
(Fig.  11.3). Exercise echocardiography is recommended in symptomatic HCM
11  Pregnancy in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy 159

patients with LVOT gradients <50 mmHg after bedside manoeuvre. The presence
and magnitude of LVOT obstruction are important for the management of symp-
toms and the assessment of the SCD risk [1].

11.2 Pregnancy Outcomes

The most common causes of complications are caused by diastolic dysfunction of

the hypertrophied noncompliant LV, LVOT obstruction, and arrhythmias [13]. The
maternal mortality rate is very low and limited to those patients with HCM who
were significantly symptomatic before pregnancy, had significant impaired LV
function before pregnancy, and/or had high LVOT gradient [14]. Most women who
experience symptoms during pregnancy are already known with similar symptoms
before pregnancy [15]. In pregnant HCM patients, the New York Heart Association
(NYHA) class > II and the presence of LVOT obstruction are related with maternal
and neonatal events [14, 16, 17]. Patients known with structural heart disease and
arrhythmias are more likely to experience complaints during pregnancy [18].

11.3 Management

11.3.1 Antenatal Considerations

Current cardiac medication and its use during pregnancy should be discussed with
the patient, as some medications might need to be adjusted to prevent adverse fetal
events. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies drugs used during
pregnancy and breastfeeding from category A (=safest) to X (=known danger) [13].
The medications that are most widely used in HCM patient include beta-blockers,
calcium antagonists, disopyramide, amiodarone, diuretics, angiotensin-converting
enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), and vitamin K
antagonists (VKA). In HCM patients whose symptoms are controlled by beta-­
blockers, the medication should be continued during pregnancy (class IIa, level C
recommendation) [1]. The fetal events are usually not severe and manageable,
including growth retardation, neonatal bradycardia, and hypoglycemia. Monitoring
of fetal growth and of neonatal condition is recommended in all pregnant patients
on beta-blockers. The use of metoprolol (FDA class C) is preferred over atenolol
(FDA class D), because the latter has been associated with more growth retardation.
The calcium antagonists verapamil and diltiazem (both FDA class C) can be used
during pregnancy when their benefits outweigh the potential risk as it can cause AV
block in the fetus. Disopyramide (FDA class C) should be used with caution since
it can cause uterine contractions. Amiodarone (FDA class D) is used in HCM for
rhythm control in atrial fibrillation and for the treatment of ventricular arrhythmias.
Amiodarone can cause growth retardation, fetal thyroid toxicity, bradycardia, and
premature birth and should only be used when absolutely necessary. ACE inhibitors
and ARBs are contraindicated in women who are pregnant or wish to become preg-
nant, because of the teratogenic effects on the fetal kidney. Loop diuretics can be
160 M. Michels

used during pregnancy, but aldosterone antagonist should be avoided. All HCM
patients with atrial fibrillation have an indication for oral anticoagulants; the use of
the CHA2DS2-VASc score is not recommended to calculate the stroke risk (class I,
level C recommendation) [1]. In the first trimester, low molecular weight heparin is
recommended, because of the risk of embryopathy of VKA. In the second and third
trimester, VKA (FDA class D) is recommended. After the 36th week of gestation,
low molecular weight heparin is recommended because of the bleeding risk during
delivery. The new oral anticoagulants are contraindicated because of proven toxicity
in animals and lack of data in humans.

11.3.2 Follow-Up During Pregnancy

Development of heart failure symptoms is relatively uncommon during pregnancy,

occurring in <5 % of previously asymptomatic HCM patients and in 15 % of the
overall cohort. Clinical deterioration is twice as common in patients with LVOT
obstruction compared to those without [14]. Beta-blockers (metoprolol) should be
started in women who develop symptoms during pregnancy (class I, level C recom-
mendation). Loop diuretics may be necessary to limit fluid retention [1]. The 2011
ESC guidelines on the management of cardiovascular disease during pregnancy also
advise to consider beta-blockers in all HCM patients with more than mild LVOT
obstruction or a maximal wall thickness exceeding 15 mm, but this is not recom-
mended in the more recent ESC HCM guideline [1, 13]. The latter recommends
starting beta-blockers in women who develop symptoms during pregnancy [1].
Women with arrhythmias before pregnancy are more likely to experience arrhyth-
mias during pregnancy, but pregnancy alone does not seem to significantly increase
the risk of arrhythmia [16, 17]. Cardioversion for poorly tolerated atrial fibrillation
should be considered during pregnancy; this should be performed in centers with
the ability for cardiac monitoring and emergency caesarean section (class IIa, level
C recommendation) [1].
G+/HCM− women are in WHO class I and don’t need specific cardiac follow-up
during their pregnancy after HCM is excluded by ECG and echocardiography
before or shortly after conception.
Pregnant HCM patients who are in WHO class II are at low to moderate risk and
should be assessed each trimester. Those in WHO class III have a high risk of com-
plications and should be followed twice a month in specialized centers, by a multi-
disciplinary team. This team should consist of cardiologists, obstetricians, and
anesthesiologists in experienced maternal-fetal medicine units. HCM patients that
are in WHO class IV should be advised against pregnancy, but if they are pregnant
and don’t consider termination follow-up should be arranged according to those
women who are in class III [13].
During follow-up, special attention should be paid to symptoms and signs of
heart failure and arrhythmias, LV function, and LVOT obstruction. Echocardiography
should be performed each trimester and when new symptoms occur.
11  Pregnancy in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy 161

11.3.3 Management During Labor and Delivery

By the end of the second trimester, the multidisciplinary team should make a deliv-
ery plan. During labor cardiac output is increased by catecholamine-induced
increase in heart rate and stroke volume. Tachycardia will shorten the LV diastolic
filling period, decreasing preload and increasing LVOT obstruction. Venous return
is impaired by the performance of the Valsalva manoeuvre with maternal pushing
during labor and delivery and this might also increase LVOT obstruction. During
labor the patient should be positioned in a lateral decubitus position in order to
attenuate the hemodynamic impact of uterine contractions.
Substantial blood loss during delivery can lead to reduction of venous return and
a relative increase in LVOT obstruction. In a recent paper describing the association
of cardiomyopathy with adverse cardiac events during delivery, one fifth of the
HCM patients experienced either heart failure or arrhythmias at delivery [19].
Asymptomatic women with mild disease may go into spontaneous labor; for oth-
ers, a planned vaginal delivery is generally preferred (class I, level C recommenda-
tion) [1]. Compared to caesarean section, vaginal delivery is associated with less
blood loss and lower infection risk. A caesarean section in general should be per-
formed for obstetric indications. There is no consensus on absolute contraindica-
tions for vaginal delivery, but in HCM patients with severe LVOT obstruction,
severe heart failure, or preterm labor while on vitamin K antagonist, a caesarean
section should be considered [1, 13]. To avoid the provocation of significant LVOT
obstruction caused by maternal pushing during delivery, vaginal delivery may be
assisted by low forceps or vacuum extraction. In HCM patients with a high risk of
arrhythmias, monitoring of the heart rate and rhythm should be considered.
Epidural or spinal anesthesia should be used with caution, since vasodilatation
and hypotension can induce or increase preexistent LVOT obstruction. Single-shot
spinal anesthesia should be avoided [1, 13].
Post partum, the use of prostaglandins is acceptable, but oxytocin should only be
given as a slow infusion, to avoid hypotension and tachycardia [13].
In the case of severe blood loss or hypotension, fluids should be used for volume
replacement; inotropes are relatively contraindicated in HCM because of the poten-
tial induction or aggravation of LVOT obstruction. When necessary, pure alpha-­
antagonists like phenylephrine are preferred.
Clinical observation after delivery should be continued for 24–48 h because of
the increased risk of pulmonary edema due to fluid shifts post-delivery [1, 10, 13].

11.4 The Effect of Pregnancy Adaptations

The physiological changes during pregnancy are mostly tolerated well by asymptom-
atic or mildly symptomatic women with HCM. The hypertrophied LV can accommo-
date the rise in blood volume, cardiac output, and the reduction of systemic vascular
resistance and blood pressure without a significant rise in LV filling pressures.
162 M. Michels

11.5 Preconception Counseling

Since HCM is a hereditary disease in the fast majority of patients, genetic c­ ounseling
by a geneticist is recommended in HCM patients, and genetic testing is recom-
mended to enable cascade screening of their relatives (class I, level C recommenda-
tion) [1, 10, 13]. All HCM patients (men and women) should be informed about the
possibility of transferring the hereditary predisposition to their offspring. Children
of parents with HCM have an inheritance risk of 50 %, regardless of the gender of
the affected parent. Special attention should be paid to HCM patients and G+/
HCM− family members with questions about family planning regarding the risk of
transmission of the disease to their offspring. When the pathological mutation is
known, prenatal screening or preimplantation genetic testing is theoretically possi-
ble. These are not routinely performed due to phenotypic heterogeneity, age-related
disease manifestation, the availability of treatment options, and the fact that longev-
ity is maintained in these patients when viewed as a group [20].

11.5.1 Preconception Risk Assessment

In known HCM patients, the risk of pregnancy should ideally be assessed and dis-
cussed with the patient before conception. Alternatively, the risk assessment should
be performed early after conception. Different classifications and risk scores have
been developed to estimate maternal risk; most studies indicated the presence of
LVOT obstruction as a risk factor for maternal and neonatal events. The modified
World Health Organization (WHO) classification is the best available risk assess-
ment model for estimating cardiovascular risk and should be used to assess the risk
[1, 13, 21]. Risk assessment should include a detailed history (including NYHA
functional class), physical examination, electrocardiogram, echocardiography,
exercise testing, and Holter monitoring [22]. The echocardiography should focus on
LV function, LVOT obstruction in rest, and, after provocation, mitral regurgitation
and filling pressures. Exercise testing is used to assess functional capacity, heart rate
response, and exercise-induced arrhythmias. In pregnant women submaximal exer-
cise testing to reach 80 % of predicted maximal heart rate is recommended [13].
Holter monitoring (preferably for 48 h) is performed to evaluate the presence of
ventricular or supraventricular arrhythmias [1]. In Table 11.1, the modified WHO
classification and its applicability to HCM are described.
The clinical use of genetic testing has revealed a new subset within the HCM
spectrum: the G+/HCM− family members. The reported risk of adverse cardiac
events in G+/HCM− is very low, and in the largest study thus far, no SCD occurred
in mutation carriers without hypertrophy [23]. G+/HCM− subjects with normal
ECG and normal echocardiography are allowed to participate in competitive sports
[1, 24], and based on the current literature describing the virtual absence of any
cardiovascular events in G+/HCM− subjects, our HCM program considers G+/
HCM− subjects to be in WHO class I during pregnancy.
11  Pregnancy in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy 163

Table 11.1 Modified WHO classification of maternal cardiovascular risk: principles and

­application on HCM
Risk
class Risk of pregnancy Application to HCM
I No detectable increased risk of maternal Genotype-positive/HCM-­negative
mortality and no/mild risk of morbidity subjects
II Small increased risk of maternal mortality or Mild to moderate LVOTO
severe morbidity Asymptomatic with or without
medication
Normal or mild systolic LV
dysfunction
Well-controlled arrhythmia
III Significantly increased risk of maternal Severe LVOTO
mortality or severe morbidity Symptomatic with medication
Moderate LV dysfunction
Arrhythmias despite medication
IV Extremely high risk of maternal mortality or Severe symptomatic LVOTO
severe morbidity; pregnancy contraindicated Severe systolic LV dysfunction
Adapted from Elliott et al. [1]
WHO World Health Organization, HCM hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, LVOTO left ventricular
outflow tract obstruction, LV left ventricular

Asymptomatic HCM patients with mild to moderate LVOT obstruction with or

without medication, well-controlled arrhythmias, and maximal mildly reduced LV
dysfunction are in WHO class II. Those women with severe LVOT obstruction and
symptoms despite medical therapy, poorly controlled arrhythmias, or moderate LV
dysfunction are in WHO class III. A small minority of HCM patients, those with
end-stage disease with severe systolic LV dysfunction and those with severe symp-
tomatic LVOT obstruction, will be in WHO class IV. HCM patients with LVOT
obstruction who are in NYHA class III despite optimal medical therapy are candi-
dates for septal reduction therapy. After successful septal reduction therapy with
relief of the LVOT gradient and a significant reduction in symptomatology, patients
will move from WHO class IV to II or III, and pregnancy will be safer for both the
mother and baby ([1, 13], Table 11.1).

References
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management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J 35:2733–2779
2. Semsarian C, Ingles J, Maron MS et al (2015) New perspectives on the prevalence of hypertro-
phic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 65:1249–1254
3. Maron BJ, Ommen SR, Semsarian C et al (2014) Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: present and
future, with translation into contemporary cardiovascular medicine. J Am Coll Cardiol
64:83–99
4. Olivotto I, Cecchi F, Poggesi C et al (2012) Patterns of disease progression in hypertrophic
cardiomyopathy: an individualized approach to clinical staging. Circ Heart Fail 5:535–546
164 M. Michels

5. Jensen MK, Havndrup O, Christiaensen M, Andersen PS, Diness B, Axelsson A et al (2013)
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et al (2009) Diastolic abnormalities as the first feature of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in
Dutch myosin-binding protein C founder mutations. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2:58–64
7. Maron MS, Olivotto I, Betocchi et al (2003) Effect of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction
on clinical outcome in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl Med 348:295–303
8. O’Mahony C, Jichi F, Pavlou M et al (2014) A novel clinical risk prediction model for sudden
cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM risk-SCD). Eur Heart J 35:2010–2020
9. Guttmann OP, Rahman MS, O’Mahony C et al (2014) Atrial fibrillation and thromboembolism
in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: systematic review. Heart 100:465–472
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tance of the site and the extent of hypertrophy. A review. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 28:1–83
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diomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 40:1864–1869
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with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Heart 89:752–756
16. Siu SC, Sermer M, Colman JM et al (2001) Prospective multicenter study of pregnancy out-
comes in women with heart disease. Circulation 104(5):515–521
17. Drenthen W, Boersma E, Balci A et al (2010) Predictors of pregnancy complications in women
with congenital heart disease. Eur Heart J 31:2124–2132
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(2011) Systematic review of pregnancy in women with inherited cardiomyopathies. Eur
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Aortopathy
12
Julie De Backer, Laura Muiño-Mosquera,
and Laurent Demulier

Abbreviations

ACE Angiotensin converting enzyme

ART Assisted reproductive technologies
ASI Aortic size index
ASRM American Society for Reproductive Medicine
BAV Bicuspid aortic valve
BSA Body surface area
C- Caesarean
ESC European Society of Cardiology
FBN1 Fibrillin 1 gene
HTAD Heritable thoracic aortic disorders
IRAD International Registry of Aortic Dissections
IUGR Intrauterine growth retardation
LDS Loeys–Dietz syndrome
MAC Montalcino Aortic Consortium
MFS Marfan syndrome
PGD Preimplantation diagnosis
PND Prenatal diagnosis

J. De Backer, MD, PhD (*)

Department of Cardiology and Center for Medical Genetics,
Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Muiño-Mosquera, MD
Department of Pediatric Cardiology and Center for Medical Genetics,
Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
L. Demulier, MD
Department of Cardiology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 165

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_12
166 J. De Backer et al.

TAAD Thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissections

TAAs Thoracic aortic aneurysms
TAD Thoracic aortic dissection
TS Turner syndrome
vEDS Vascular Ehlers–Danlos syndrome
VSMC Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

Key Facts
Incidence: Aortic aneurysm occurs in 9 per 100,000 patient-years and acute
aortic dissection in 2.6–4.7 per 100,000 person-years.
Inheritance: Monogenetic aortic diseases are most commonly transmitted in
an autosomal dominant way. Multifactorial disorders, such as atheroscle-
rosis and hypertension, may also be involved.
Medication: ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers should be
stopped or changed to α methyldopa or beta-blockers.
World Health Organization class: II/III when the aortic root diameter is
<40 mm and class IV, when the aortic root diameter is >45 mm.
Risk of pregnancy: Elevated risk of dissection.
Life expectancy: Improved dramatically with appropriate follow-up and pro-
phylactic aortic root surgery for aortic dilatation, but it is still reduced. The
role of prophylactic surgery before pregnancy is uncertain.

Key Management
Preconception: Transthoracic echocardiography for assessment of valvular
function and aortic root diameters. CT or MRI of the aorta with prophylac-
tic surgery for women with Marfan syndrome and an aortic root diameter
>45 mm and for women with Loeys–Dietz syndrome and an aortic root
diameter >40 mm. Genetic counseling in all monogenetic aortopathies.
FU during pregnancy: Known gene mutation, but normal aortic diameters:
check at 20 weeks with echo. Known gene mutation and dilated aorta or
history of dissection four to eight weekly imaging of aorta during preg-
nancy and up to 6 months postpartum. CMR is safe after 12 weeks (gado-
linium contraindicated during pregnancy). Careful blood pressure
monitoring and aggressive treatment of hypertension are mandatory.
Delivery: Aortic diameter <40 mm or <20 mm/m2 in Turner syndrome: vagi-
nal; between 40 and 45 mm class IIa indication for vaginal delivery and IIb
for Caesarean (C-) section; aortic diameter >45 mm or >20 mm/m2 in
Turner syndrome: C-section.
Postpartum: Image of aorta before discharge and at 6 weeks post-delivery.
Increased risk until 6 months post-delivery; continue close surveillance
until then. Beta-blockers and calcium channel blockers can be used safely
during breastfeeding.
12 Aortopathy 167

12.1 The Condition

This chapter will cover disease related to aortic aneurysms and dissections. Aortic
coarctation and aortic valve disease (including bicuspid aortic valve ( BAV)) will be
covered elsewhere. For a correct understanding and interpretation of the disease, we
will start with a description of the normal aorta.

12.1.1 The Normal Aorta

The aorta (Fig. 12.1) is the largest artery of the body, extending from the aortic
valve to the bifurcation into the common iliac arteries. The aorta has two main
functions: a conduit function, distributing oxygenated blood to the systemic cir-
culation, and a pressure control function, regulating systemic vascular resistance
and cardiac output through baroreceptors located in the ascending aorta and aortic
arch. Through its elasticity, the aorta functions as a passive pump creating an
almost continuous peripheral blood flow, commonly known as “the Windkessel
effect” [1].
Anatomically, the aorta is subdivided into four major segments: the ascending
aorta – comprising the aortic root (including the annulus, sinuses of Valsalva, and
sinotubular junction) – and the tubular ascending aorta, the aortic arch (segment
of the aorta between the brachiocephalic artery and left subclavian artery), the
descending thoracic aorta (extending from the isthmus between the origin of the
left subclavian artery and ligamentum arteriosum to the diaphragm), and the
descending abdominal aorta (extending from the diaphragm to the iliac bifurca-
tion) [2] (Fig. 12.1).
Normal diameters of the aorta vary according to the location (tapering down
going from the ascending to the descending part) and according to the individual’s
gender and body surface area (BSA). Irrespective of BSA, women tend to have
smaller aortas than men [3, 4]. With age, the aortic diameter increases at all seg-
ments with an average increase of 1 mm per decade for the ascending and descend-
ing thoracic aorta [5].
The aortic wall is histologically composed of three layers: a thin inner tunica
intima lined by the endothelium; a thick tunica media characterized by smooth mus-
cle cells embedded in an extracellular matrix and concentric sheets of elastic and
collagen fibers, bordered by a lamina elastica interna and externa; and the outer
tunica adventitia containing mainly fibroblasts, collagen, vasa vasorum, and lym-
phatics [6].
The composition of the vessel wall varies according to the location: the
abdominal aortic wall consists of fewer elastic lamellae, contains less structural
proteins and has a lower elastin to collagen ratio when compared to the thoracic
aorta [7].
168 J. De Backer et al.

Brachiocephalic Left subclavian

artery Arch
artery

Tubular ascending
aorta
Descending thoracic
Sinotubular aorta
Ascending aorta
junction
Aortic root Sinuses
of Valsalva
Annulus
Diaphragm
Descending abdominal
aorta

Fig. 12.1  Aortic anatomy

12.1.2 The Diseased Aorta

Although more diseases are recognized, the two main conditions that we will con-
sider in the scope of this chapter include aortic aneurysm and aortic dissection/
rupture – the latter being consequences of preceding aortic aneurysm in many cases.
Aortic aneurysm is defined as a permanent localized or diffuse dilatation of the
aorta to at least 1.5 times its normal caliber and may affect the aortic root, tubular
ascending aorta, aortic arch, and descending thoracic or abdominal aorta [2, 8].
Since pregnancy-related aortopathy is most commonly located in the thoracic aortic
segments [9], we will further focus on thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissections
(TAAD).
Aortic aneurysms will only occasionally lead to symptoms, related to local pres-
sure, such as coughing, hoarseness, or swallowing difficulties. In most cases, how-
ever, thoracic aortic aneurysms (TAAs) will have an asymptomatic course and – if
left undiagnosed or untreated – they can lead to dissection, an acute life-threatening
event that is still associated with high mortality and morbidity rates. In thoracic
aortic dissection (TAD), blood is diverted from its usual location within the lumen
of the aorta into a false lumen within the media through a tear in the intima. The
dissection can subsequently propagate both proximal and distal to the tear, hence
affecting vital branching arteries and leading to coronary, cerebral, spinal, and/or
visceral ischemia. Several classification systems for TAD exist, of which the
Stanford classification is the most widely used. In Stanford type A dissection, the
ascending aorta is involved, whereas type B dissection is typically located distally
from the left subclavian artery. The distinction between both subtypes is relevant in
view of important differences in prognosis and management. In aortic rupture, the
12 Aortopathy 169

tear in the aortic wall extends through all vessel layers, leading to life-threatening
intrathoracic hemorrhage.
Due to its asymptomatic course, the exact incidence of thoracic aortic aneu-
rysms is largely unknown. A recent contemporary, prospective cohort study of
middle-­aged individuals in Sweden reported an incidence rate of 9 per 100,000
patient-­years (95 % CI 6.8–12.6) [10]. Estimating the incidence of acute aortic
dissection is somewhat easier and has been studied more widely, but one has to
bear in mind that a substantial proportion of aortic dissections may be left undiag-
nosed due to the high acute mortality rate of the disease. The incidence in the
general population ranges from 2.6 to 4.7 per 100,000 person-years [11, 12]. The
mortality rate associated with TAD reported a decade ago from the large
International Registry of Aortic Dissections (IRAD) indicated that without urgent
surgical intervention, type A dissection is associated with mortality rates as high
as 20 % by 24 h and 40 % by day 7 [13]. Type B aortic dissections generally have
a better outcome with a 30-day mortality rate of 10 %. Uncomplicated type B dis-
sections are conventionally treated medically, whereas complicated type B dissec-
tions are treated using endovascular techniques or open surgery – results being
comparable according to recent studies [14]. Despite advances in medical and
surgical treatment options, mortality rates remain high, as demonstrated in a more
recent prospective cohort study where the acute and in-hospital mortality was
39 % for aortic dissection and 41 % for ruptured TAD [10]. Women with aortic
dissection typically present at an older age compared to men and display a higher
hospital mortality and worse surgical outcome [15]. Etiological factors underly-
ing TAAD include conventional cardiovascular risk factors although the lack of
any significant association of TAA or AD with trends in smoking prevalence in a
recent epidemiological study may suggest a difference in etiology compared with
abdominal aortic aneurysms [8]. Differences in the pathogenesis of thoracic and
abdominal aortic aneurysms may result from differences in aortic structures, bio-
chemical properties, and origin of the vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) [16].
The underlying pathophysiology of TAAD has been widely studied, and many
new insights have emerged from the study of monogenetic aortic diseases. These
disease entities will be discussed in more detail below. Through human and mouse
studies of monogenetic aortic diseases, it is now increasingly clear that aneurysms
and dissections may result from alterations in structural, functional, and signal
transduction properties in the wall of the aorta. The ensemble of these processes is
referred to as altered mechanobiology and is illustrated in Fig. 12.2 and nicely
reviewed by Humphrey and colleagues [46]. Based on these concepts, it is easy to
conceive that dissections can be triggered by abnormalities in any of these pro-
cesses: altered mechanical factors (hypertension, increased cardiac output, increased
wall shear stress), alterations in structural components of the aortic wall (genetic
defects in components of the elastic fibers), alterations in the signaling pathway
(genetic defects in any component such as the TGFβ pathway), or altered signal
transduction (genetic defects in extracellular matrix components, intracellular
receptors, modulators).
170 J. De Backer et al.

Hormonal effects
on elastic fibers

Fibrillin-microfibril
Aorta Elastic fiber
d ce
se for
po al LTBP
Im nic
ha
ec
M Elastin
Mechanical force TGFβ

Molecular response p pp p Cell membrane

Integrins
Altered TGFβRI/2 complex Smad3
hemodynamics Adaptors p
Smad3 p p p SKI
ERK p38 JNK
VSMC Actin Myosin
Smad4
R-
sm p
ad
e S
c Extracellular mad
ed for 4
ns al matrix
Se nic Nucleus
Adaptive ha
ec
remodelling M
Contractile cytoskeleton Extracellular matrix TGFβ signalling
MYH11 FBN1 TGFBR1
ACTA2 COL3A1 TGFBR2
MYLK FBLN4 SMAD3
PRKG1 ELN SMAD4
FLNA MFAP5 TGFb2
TGF b3
SKI

Fig. 12.2  Concept of mechanobiology underlying homeostasis in the thoracic aorta and the pos-
sible effects of pregnancy. Mechanical force is sensed in the aortic wall and transmitted through the
extracellular matrix to the intracellular molecular level. The signal is sensed by the smooth muscle
cell contractile apparatus as well as by components of the TGFβ signaling pathway. Pregnancy
affects the mechanical stimulus on the one hand and the elastic fibers in the extracellular matrix on
the other hand. Alterations, either due to higher imposed forces (hypertension) or due to (genetic)
alterations in the various components required for proper sensing and/or transduction of the signal,
may lead to aneurysms/dissections. Genes involved in these pathways are listed at the bottom of
the figure and are reported in Table 12.1 with their respective disorders

12.2 Pregnancy Outcomes

Since the first report on pregnancy-related aortic dissection in 1944 [47], over 80
additional reports have been published, most of them being case reports. A limited
number of population-based studies and surgical series on the occurrence of aortic
dissection have also been published, but caution is warranted when interpreting
these results because of their heterogeneity with regard to design, study population,
and diseases under study (type A vs. type B dissection).
Although the estimated incidence of aortic dissection during pregnancy is rela-
tively low (0.05–1.39 per 100,000 person-years [48, 49] or 0.6 % per pregnancy
[15]), the high maternal mortality rates (between 21 and 53 %) account for the high
ranking in the list of maternal death causes [48, 50–52]. The reported figures show
some variation according to the country they are issued from. Aortic dissection
ranks first on the list of mortality causes in the UK and the Netherlands, but is only
the third cause of cardiovascular death in the French registry where three fatal dis-
sections are reported during the period of 2007–2009, two out of these three being
in women with Turner syndrome [53].
Table 12.1  Overview of the syndromic forms of H-TAD with their respective genes and main clinical features. Genes are grouped according to the categories
presented in Fig. 12.1
Disorder Gene(s) Main cardiovascular features Additional clinical features
ECM Marfan [17–20] FBN1 Aortic root aneurysm, aortic dissection, mitral Lens luxation, skeletal features (arachnodactylia,
associated valve prolapse, main pulmonary artery pectus deformity, scoliosis, flat feet, increased arm
12 Aortopathy

dilatation, ventricular dysfunction, arrhythmia span, dolichocephalia)

Vascular COL3A1 Arterial dissections, middle-sized artery Translucent skin, dystrophic scars, facial
Ehlers–Danlos [21] aneurysm characteristics
MFAP5 [22] MFAP5 Aortic root dilatation, atrial fibrillation, mitral Pectus deformities
valve prolapse
Cutis laxa FBLN4, ELN Arterial aneurysms and dissections, arterial Hyperlax skin and joints, lung emphysema,
syndromes [23, 24] tortuosity, arterial stenoses, BAV craniofacial anomalies, bone fragility
TGFβ Loeys–Dietz TGFBR1/TGFBR2 Aneurysms and dissections of the aorta and Bifid uvula/cleft palate, hypertelorism, marfanoid
associated [25, 26] middle-sized arteries, arterial tortuosity, mitral skeletal features
valve prolapse, congenital cardiac
malformations
Aneurysm– SMAD3 Aneurysms and dissections of the aorta and Osteoarthritis, hypertelorism, marfanoid skeletal
osteoarthritis middle-sized arteries, intracranial aneurysms, features
syndrome [27–30] visceral and iliac artery aneurysms, arterial
tortuosity, mitral valve prolapse, congenital
cardiac malformations
TGFB2 [31–33] TGFB2 Aortic root aneurysms and dissections, mitral Marfanoid skeletal features
valve prolapse, cerebrovascular disease
TGFB3 [34–36] TGFB3 Aortic root aneurysms Marfanoid skeletal features, hypertelorism, muscle
hypotonia, and congenital joint contractures
Shprintzen– SKI Mild aortic root dilatation, mitral valve Craniosynostosis, distinct craniofacial features,
Goldberg [37, 38] prolapse marfanoid skeletal features, mild-to-moderate
intellectual disability
Juvenile SMAD4 Aortic root aneurysms, mitral valve prolapse, Juvenile polyposis, periventricular nodular
polyposis [39] hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia heterotopia with seizures and joint hypermobility
171

(continued)
Table 12.1 (continued)
172

Disorder Gene(s) Main cardiovascular features Additional clinical features

Contractile EDS-PH [40] FLNA Aneurysms of the aorta, pulmonary artery, and Periventricular nodular heterotopia with seizures,
unit middle-sized arteries joint hypermobility
associated ACTA2 [41, 42] ACTA2 Thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissection, Livedo reticularis, iris flocculi
BAV, PDA, cerebrovascular disease, coronary
artery disease
PRKG1 [43] PRKG1 Aneurysms and dissection of the aorta and
middle-sized arteries, arterial tortuosity
MYH11 [41, 44] MYH11 PDA
MYLK [45] MYLK Thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissection Gastrointestinal tract involvement
BAV bicuspid aortic valve, PDA patent ductus arteriosus
J. De Backer et al.
12 Aortopathy 173

In women younger than 40 years of age, pregnancy has reportedly been associ-
ated with a significant increase in the risk for acute aortic dissection (with odds
ratios for pregnancy up to 23 in one study [49]. Other studies however could not
demonstrate a direct link between dissection and pregnancy [48]. A selective report-
ing bias may be invoked as a possible explanation for these discrepancies [54].
These data should be interpreted carefully, especially in women with underlying
conditions, until large prospective studies assessing all aspects of a direct link are
published. Data on aortic disease extracted from the large international registry on
the outcome of pregnancy in patients with congenital heart disease are expected to
be very valuable (the ROPAC study, see for more information at http://www.escar-
dio.org/Guidelines-&-Education/Trials-and-Registries/Observational-registries-­
programme/Registry-Of-Pregnancy-And-Cardiac-disease-ROPAC).
The risk for aortic dissection during pregnancy increases with gestational age,
with most of the events occurring during the third trimester (55–78 %) [51, 55]. The
majority of reported aortic dissections occurring during pregnancy (70 %) are type
A aortic dissections [9], although type B aortic dissections seem to be more com-
monly reported in women with Marfan syndrome (see below).
In addition to the hemodynamic and hormonal changes occurring during preg-
nancy, the process of labor imposes substantial stress on the aorta and, hence,
increases the risk for dissection. Uterine contractions, pain, stress, exertion, and
bleeding, all impose an extra demand on the cardiovascular system [56]. The correct
management of women at increased risk for dissection during labor in an experi-
enced fetomaternal unit is, therefore, mandatory [57]. Follow-up of the aortic diam-
eter and awareness of a possibly higher risk of aortic dissection should be considered
until 6 months postpartum [51].

12.2.1 Predisposing Conditions

Several diseases are associated with increased aortic vulnerability, and affected
women will therefore require special multidisciplinary care starting before preg-
nancy and extending well after delivery.

12.2.2 Heritable Thoracic Aortic Disorders: H-TAD

H-TAD is a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by the common denom-

inator of thoracic aortic disease (TAD) [58]. The presentation of aortic involvement
varies widely from an incidental finding on an imaging study to fatal aortic dissec-
tion. The term “heritable” does not necessarily imply that all these disorders have a
known genetic cause – despite significant advances in the genetic background of
TAD, many patients and families do not harbor mutations in the genes identified so
far. Based on the presence of additional clinical features in other organ systems,
H-TAD can be further subdivided into syndromic and nonsyndromic forms. The
spectrum of genes identified in these various clinical entities is highly variable.
174 J. De Backer et al.

Genes can be grouped in those encoding components of the extracellular matrix,

genes encoding components of the TGFβ signaling pathway, and genes encoding
components of the VSMC contractile apparatus. An overview of the clinical condi-
tions according to the currently known genetic defects with their respective typical
clinical characteristics is provided in Table 12.1. Nearly all genes listed in this table
can also be identified in patients with nonsyndromic forms of H-TAD.

12.2.3 Marfan Syndrome

Marfan syndrome (MFS) is the prototype of syndromic H-TAD. MFS is caused by

mutations in the fibrillin 1 gene (FBN1) and typically affects a myriad of organ
systems including the ocular, the skeletal, and the cardiovascular systems. The clini-
cal presentation is highly variable, both within and between families [17–19, 59].
When considering the cardiovascular system, aortic aneurysms and dissections are
the most common and life-threatening problems related to MFS. The risk for aortic
dissection in MFS is significantly increased to 170 per 100,000 individuals per year
(compared to 6 per 100,00 per year in the general population) [60]. Other cardiovas-
cular manifestations related to MFS include mitral valve prolapse, subclinical car-
diomyopathy, and arrhythmias [20, 61–65].
The intrinsic aortic wall fragility associated with MFS along with the hemody-
namic and hormonal changes occurring during pregnancy, as described above, gives
rise to a higher risk for (fatal) dissection and aortic rupture in pregnant MFS women.
Early publications, mostly case reports, on pregnancy in MFS showed a grim out-
come with more than half of the cases ending with (fatal) aortic dissection. Most of
the women in these earlier publications had preexistent severe cardiovascular dis-
ease, but based on these reports, patients were generally counseled against preg-
nancy [66]. A systematic assessment of pregnancy in MFS women was undertaken
for the first time in 1981. Pyeritz and colleagues reviewed pregnancy-related cardio-
vascular risks in 26 patients with MFS and compared these to non-MFS women.
Cardiovascular complications were not significantly different between both groups,
but MFS women showed a higher rate of spontaneous abortion. Although no aortic
diameters are reported in this study, the authors proposed an aortic root diameter of
40 mm before pregnancy as a threshold for stratifying women as having low risk
(1 %) or increased risk (10 %) for dissection. Since then this stratification has been
widely applied and debated in the literature [9, 67–71], but remains a reference
value in the current European guidelines for the management of cardiovascular dis-
eases during pregnancy [55]. In these guidelines the modified WHO classification is
applied to determine maternal risk, where MFS patients may fall under class II to
IV: women with no aortic dilation are classified as WHO II, women with an aortic
dilation between 40 and 45 mm are classified as WHO III, and women with an aortic
diameter above 45 mm are classified as WHO IV.
The risk of aortic complications in MFS is not only present during pregnancy and
delivery but also during the puerperium and even beyond pregnancy. Indeed the
concerns about the long-term effect of pregnancy on aortic root growth, the
12 Aortopathy 175

97 women
During 149 pregnancies
pregnancy

107 AoR
<40mm
42 AoR
5 AoR
≥40mm
repair1

1 type B dissection

2 type B
dissection2 1 type B dissection
2 moderate AR 1 type A dissection
1 severe AR3

Fig. 12.3  Cardiovascular outcome in MFS women during pregnancy (Data pooled from [72, 74–
76]). 1Two women with valve sparing surgery, three women with Bentall of which two after acute
type A dissection, and 2two women with previous type A dissection 3needing AoR replacement 6
months after pregnancy

incidence of dissection, and the need for elective aortic root replacement have been
raised and need further assessment [72, 73].
Between 1995 and 2013, four prospective trials addressing pregnancy-related
cardiovascular complications in MFS patients have been conducted – the main find-
ings on pregnancy outcome in these women are illustrated in Fig. 12.3. A total of 97
women undergoing 149 pregnancies have been followed prospectively. Forty-two
women in this combined cohort had an aortic root exceeding 40 mm prior to preg-
nancy, and five had undergone aortic root surgery prior to pregnancy [72, 74–76].
Three out of these four studies not only assessed the immediate effect of preg-
nancy but also looked at cardiovascular effects on the longer term [72, 74, 75]. A
significant aortic root growth associated with pregnancy was observed in only one
study (3 mm per pregnancy – interquartile range 0–7 mm). Aortic dissection was
reported in a small subset of five women (Fig. 12.3). Type B aortic dissection was
seen in four out of five cases. Although the latter observation warrants caution when
advising patients to undergo elective surgery prior to pregnancy, large-scale studies
are needed to confirm these findings. Also of note when interpreting these data is
that in older cohorts (two out of these four studies [74, 75]), patients with other,
more aggressive aortic disorders may have been included.
On the long-term adverse aortic outcome, defined as increased aortic root growth,
the need for aortic surgery and aortic dissection was observed in two studies [72,
74]. Increased aortic root growth seemed more pronounced when the initial aortic
176 J. De Backer et al.

root diameter equaled or exceeded 40 mm. Additionally, the study by Donnelly and
colleagues showed increased adverse aortic outcome (defined as a composite of
death, aortic dissection, the need for acute aortic surgery, and a severe symptomatic
aortic regurgitation) in the parous versus nulliparous group. In multivariate analysis
the initial aortic root diameter and the rate of aortic root growth during pregnancy
were the principal predictors of long-term adverse outcome [72].
Some aspects in the interpretation of these data need consideration:

1. Some women included in these studies may actually have a genetically different
diagnosis from MFS, as reflected by some unusual clinical features (carotid
artery dissection is an uncommon feature in MFS, and type B aortic dissection
occurs more frequently in other H-TAD entities).
2. The “comparison” group cannot be strictly considered a “control” group, because
of occult biases in why those patients may have elected not to have any
pregnancy.

Reports on pregnancy-related complications in MFS have obviously mainly

focused on the aorta, but other notable risks include cardiac arrhythmias and venous
thromboembolism (with respective OR of 10.64 and 5.25) and as reported in a
retrospective analysis in 339 deliveries to women with MFS [77].
Overall, these studies indicate that in women known with a diagnosis of MFS
and undergoing appropriate multidisciplinary care before, during, and after preg-
nancy, outcome of pregnancy on the short term is acceptable. Women contemplating
pregnancy should be properly counseled about the associated risks before
pregnancy.

12.2.4 Loeys–Dietz Syndrome

Loeys–Dietz syndrome (LDS) is caused by mutations in the genes encoding recep-

tors for TGFβ (TGFBR1 and TGFBR2) and is clinically characterized by more gen-
eralized aortic aneurysms and involvement of branching vessels in association with
some distinctive dysmorphic features (hypertelorism, bifid uvula) along with some
systemic features that show overlap with MFS (pectus deformities, scoliosis)[25].
The first retrospective study of 21 pregnancies reported four aortic dissections and
two uterine ruptures in patients with LDS. These women were not diagnosed with
LDS prior to pregnancy and, hence, did not receive proper management [26]. A
subsequent report by Attias and colleagues comparing patients with TGFBR2 muta-
tions to patients with FBN1 mutations did not find significant differences between
the two cohorts. Of the 39 pregnancies occurring among 17 women in the TGFBR2
cohort, one patient experienced sudden death in the immediate postpartum period
(no diagnosis was made at that time). No aortic complications were reported during
pregnancy or postpartum in the others. Among 87 women in the FBN1 cohort, 217
pregnancies occurred. Four of these patients presented with aortic dissection or
death during pregnancy (p = 1) [78].
12 Aortopathy 177

Prospective studies are currently ongoing, one of which is the data collection by
the Montalcino Aortic Consortium (MAC) – data on 316 pregnancies in 122 women
indicate that the risk for aortic dissection is low (five dissections reported) and
mainly occurred in women who were unaware of the diagnosis and hence did not
receive proper care at the time of their pregnancy. Women with more pronounced
systemic features seem to be at an increased risk (G. Jondeau et al. 2016 unpub-
lished data).

12.2.5 Aneurysm Osteoarthritis Syndrome

So far, no data on pregnancy-related complications in patients harboring mutations in

the SMAD3 gene have been reported. In 1 retrospective series of 23 pregnancies in 13
women harboring a mutation in the SMAD3 gene, no vascular complications or uter-
ine ruptures were reported. One patient suffered a postpartum hemorrhage [29]. As is
the case with LDS, prospective data collection is ongoing and results are awaited.

12.2.6 Vascular Ehlers–Danlos Syndrome

Patients with vascular Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (vEDS) are characterized by exten-

sive vascular fragility and may present arterial dissection without preceding dilata-
tion. Management is challenging since imaging studies may not predict events.
Results from a randomized trial with celiprolol showed a significant reduction in
vascular events in the treated group [79]. vEDS is caused by mutations in the
COL3A1 gene. Although the disease primarily affects major branching vessels of
the aorta, the aorta itself may also be involved. In addition to these vascular compli-
cations, vEDS patients are also at risk for developing uterine rupture during preg-
nancy. Initial reports mentioned increased maternal mortality per pregnancy, ranging
from 4.3 % to 25 % [21, 80, 81]. A more recent study, however, indicated that
women with previous pregnancies did not have increased long-term mortality when
compared to nulliparous women with vEDS [82]. The pregnancy-related death rate
observed in this study covering 256 pregnancies in vEDS was 5.3 %. Based on these
recent observations, counseling policies in women with vEDS have shifted from
strongly discouraging pregnancy to a more nuanced vision with careful prepreg-
nancy counseling of the couple addressing the risks as well as long-term prognosis
in vEDS. In case of an affected child, there is an increased risk for premature rup-
ture of the membranes due to their intrinsic fragility [83].

12.2.7 Other H-TADs

The outcome of pregnancy in women harboring mutations in the ACTA2 gene has
been reported in one study [84]. Fifty-three women having a total of 137 pregnan-
cies were included. Of these, eight had aortic dissections in the third trimester or the
178 J. De Backer et al.

postpartum period (6 % of pregnancies). Notably, one woman also had a myocardial
infarct during pregnancy that was independent of her aortic dissection, indicating
that patients with ACTA2 mutations are also prone to cardiovascular disease outside
the aorta. Assuming a population-based frequency of peripartum aortic dissections
of 0.6 %, the rate of peripartum aortic dissections in women with ACTA2 mutations
is significantly increased (8 out of 39; 20 %). Six of these reported dissections were
Stanford type A dissections; three were fatal. Three women had ascending aortic
dissections at diameters less that 5.0 cm (range 3.8–4.7 cm). Importantly, five out of
the six women presenting with aortic dissection had hypertension, either during or
before their pregnancy, indicating the importance of proper treatment.
In most of the other syndromic as well as in the vast majority of nonsyndromic
H-TAD entities, very little or no data specifically related to pregnancy are available,
and therefore, the recommendations are largely based on the knowledge obtained in
MFS.

12.2.8 Turner Syndrome

Turner syndrome (TS) is a genetic sex chromosome disorder affecting approxi-

mately 1 in 2,000 live-born females, resulting from complete or partial absence of
the X chromosome. The phenotype is highly variable and includes short stature,
dysmorphic features, cardiovascular malformations, premature ovarian failure, and
predisposition to autoimmune diseases. Different karyotype anomalies may lead to
development of the syndrome, with or without cell line mosaicism, explaining part
of the heterogeneity of clinical features. Monosomy X (45,X) has been associated
with an increased risk of cardiac congenital anomalies [85].
Congenital cardiovascular anomalies can be divided into two main categories:
aortic valve (mainly BAV) and thoracic vascular abnormalities (aortic coarctation
and other arch anomalies) [85, 86].
With increasing age, the importance and impact of acquired cardiovascular dis-
ease on morbidity and mortality in Turner patients increase exponentially. A signifi-
cant proportion will develop aortic dilation, ranging from 13 to 37 % in MRI studies,
depending on the age group and measurement level along the aorta [85, 87]. Due to
the short stature of Turner women, aortic diameters should be interpreted after cor-
rection for BSA. The BSA-normalized aortic diameter is termed aortic size index
(ASI). An ASI above 20 mm/m2 is considered abnormal [88]. Excess cardiovascular
mortality in TS is mainly due to ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease,
and aortic disease [85]. Aortic dissection is an important cause of early mortality,
affecting Turner women mostly during the third and fourth decade of life (median
age 35). The incidence is up to 100-fold increased compared to the general popula-
tion, with a lifelong risk estimated at 1.4 % [88, 89]. Stanford type A aortic dissec-
tion is seen in about two-third of cases, compared to one-third of type B. Risk
factors for aortic dissection in Turner patients are not well defined. The current
acknowledged risk markers are mainly based on case reports and a registry-based
surveys: aortic dilation, bicuspid aortic valve, aortic coarctation, karyotype 45,X,
12 Aortopathy 179

and hypertension [85, 90]. One prospective MRI-based study confirmed the predic-
tive value of aortic dilation, with a high dissection rate in those with an ASI above
25 mm/m2 [88].
More recently, pregnancy has been recognized as a predisposing condition for aortic
dissection in TS women, especially in the context of assisted reproductive technologies
(ART) [91]. This aspect is important given the low rate of spontaneous pregnancy in TS
women (2–7 %), mainly occurring in women with a mosaic karyotype [92, 93]. Most of
the other pregnancies in TS are achieved through oocyte donation. Pregnancy-associated
hypertensive disorders, including preeclampsia and gestational hypertension, are a
major concern after oocyte donation in the general population (general incidence
16–40 %). This figure may rise up to 35–38 % in TS women [94, 95].
Since the late 1990s, several worrying case reports have been published on unex-
pected acute aortic dissection in pregnant TS women with a high maternal mortality
rate (75 %) [94]. Aortic dissections occurred mainly during the third trimester and the
early postpartum period, probably associated with the higher hemodynamic impact
of pregnancy. Underlying congenital and acquired cardiovascular anomalies includ-
ing BAV, coarctation of the aorta, or aortic dilation were present in the majority of
published cases. However, aortic dissection may also occur in the absence of any of
these. Half of the affected patients were known to have hypertension. Following
these reports several national and international multicenter retrospective surveys
were conducted in ART centers to determine the pregnancy outcome after oocyte
donation in Turner patients, revealing an increased maternal mortality rate around
2 % related to acute aortic syndromes [94–96]. Strikingly, less than half of Turner
patients underwent cardiovascular screening before entering the OD program and
only a quarter of them received echocardiographic follow-up during pregnancy.

12.3 Management

Management of women at risk for aortic complications during pregnancy requires a

multidisciplinary approach at a tertiary center involving cardiologists, obstetricians,
anesthesiologists, and medical geneticists.
Management of patients known to have aortic disease mainly consists of strict
follow-up with aortic imaging, medical treatment aimed at reducing aortic wall
stress, and prophylactic aortic surgery when indicated. Essentially, these strategies
do not change in case of pregnancy, with the exception of the frequency of imaging
and adjustment of the medical treatment in some cases.
Adequate and timely diagnosis of predisposing conditions, as well as prepreg-
nancy counseling, and appropriate follow-up of patients at risk for an aortic event are
essential to prevent fatal maternal and fetal outcome. In this section, we will discuss
the different aspects of prevention of aortic dissection and rupture during pregnancy.
Strict and frequent follow-up of women with aortic aneurysms during pregnancy
is the cornerstone of prevention of aortic dissection. Women with known aortopathy
should be referred to a tertiary center for follow-up during pregnancy and manage-
ment of delivery [97]. Regular echocardiographic follow-up should be scheduled
180 J. De Backer et al.

every 4–8 weeks during pregnancy and up to 6 months’ postpartum. For those
women with a dilated distal ascending aorta, aortic arch, or descending aorta, fol-
low-­up with MRI without gadolinium is recommended during pregnancy [55].
Careful blood pressure monitoring and treatment of hypertension is mandatory in
all of these women.

12.3.1 Medical Treatment

No randomized drug trials in pregnant women with aortic disease has been per-
formed, and nor does it seem likely that one would ever be performed; hence, treat-
ment recommendations have been extrapolated from nonpregnant cohorts. Much, if
not most, evidence for medical treatment of aortic disease is derived from studies in
MFS. Finding a drug capable of arresting aortic root growth is considered the ulti-
mate goal in the medical management of aortic disease in MFS, and for a while,
hopes were raised for losartan, based on spectacular results in a mouse model for
MFS [98]. Unfortunately, similar results could not be reproduced in humans, as has
been demonstrated by several large-scale trials published recently [99–101]. Based
on these results, slowing the rate of growth is the best we can offer, and beta-­
blockade remains the mainstay of treatment in MFS. Losartan can be considered as
an alternative for those intolerant for beta-blockers, but not in pregnancy!
In the prospective studies of pregnancy in MFS, mentioned in more detail above,
the use of beta-blockers varied with about one-third of the patients being treated in
the studies from Rossiter, Donnelly, and Meijboom, and all but one patient receiving
treatment in the French study. That one patient not receiving treatment presented
with aortic dissection [72, 74–76]. These data provide the evidence that supports the
recommendation that beta-blockade should be used throughout pregnancy in
patients with aortic disease. Issues with birth defects occurring more frequently
with the use of certain beta-blockers (Table 12.2) led us to avoid those agents and
start or switch patients to either metoprolol or labetalol, but fetal growth restriction
has been demonstrated with the use of beta-blockers in MFS [72] as well as in
hypertension [102] and congenital heart disease [103], and, therefore, patients
should be counseled about this risk before conception. Celiprolol, used for the pre-
vention of vascular complications in vEDS, is not reported to affect fetal outcome
[104]. In women with ACTA2 mutations, blood pressure should be carefully moni-
tored, and treatment with beta-blockers considered [84].
An overview of the effect of drugs on pregnancy and lactation of the various
drugs mentioned is provided in Table 12.2.

12.3.2 Aortic Surgery

As is the case outside pregnancy, the operative risk associated with thoracic aortic
surgery is highly dependent on the setting, being much higher in emergency settings
when compared to elective procedures [105, 106]. In well-prepared circumstances,
12 Aortopathy 181

Table 12.2  Effect of drugs used during pregnancy in women with aortic disease
Risk cat. Placental
Drug (FDA) passage Breast milk passage Fetal risks
Atenolol D Yes Yes Suggested association with
Saver alternative hypospadias and retroperitoneal
recommended fibromatosis
IUGR
Fetal bradycardia
Bisoprolol C Yes Yes IUGR as a beta-blocker although
the use in pregnancy has not been
studied
Unknown long-term Fetal bradycardia
effect
Labetalol C Yes Yes Suggested association with
congenital anomalies
Compatible with IUGR
breastfeeding Fetal bradycardia
Metoprolol C Yes Yes Not teratogenic but causes fetal
loss at high doses
Compatible with No association with congenital
breastfeeding malformations
IUGR
Fetal bradycardia
Propranolol C Yes Yes Suggested association with
cardiovascular defects and
hypospadias
Compatible with IUGR
breastfeeding Fetal bradycardia, hypoglycemia,
polycythemia, thrombocytopenia,
and hyperbilirubinemia
Celiprolol NAa Yesb Yes Safety in humans has not been
established
Unknown effect Data from animal studies do not
indicate harmful direct or indirect
effectsc
FDA US Food and Drug Administration, IUGR intrauterine growth retardation
a
Currently not approved by the FDA. Under revision for treatment of vEDS
b
Kofahl Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993
c
www.medicines.org.uk

with optimal perioperative care, including both maternal and fetal monitoring, the
maternal risk may be reduced to a minimum [107], but the risk of fetal demise
remains high. Aortic surgery during pregnancy is not only associated with a high
fetal mortality but also with late neurological impairment in 3–6 % of the children
[108]; therefore, it should only be considered if medical treatment cannot control
progression of aortic dilation and/or the life of the mother is in danger. The optimal
period for surgery is between the 13th and 28th week of pregnancy. When the ges-
tational age reaches 28 weeks, it may be better to deliver the baby by C-section, and
arrange the aortic surgery afterwards [55].
182 J. De Backer et al.

12.3.3 Delivery

Delivery in women with aortic disease should take place at a tertiary center with a car-
diothoracic surgery unit available. The decision on the most appropriate location for the
delivery should be made on an individual basis. In a woman at high risk of complica-
tions, the delivery should be performed in the cardiothoracic operating room [97].
Cervical ripening using either prostaglandins or mechanical methods and induc-
tion of labor with oxytocin are relatively safe in most women with cardiac disease,
although there are no specific data on patients with aortic disease [103]. Vaginal
delivery is restricted to low-risk patients with an aortic diameter below 40 mm. To
reduce hemodynamic stress, adequate pain relief through epidural anesthesia is
required, the second stage of labor should be reduced, and vacuum extraction or a
low-forceps delivery may be required [109, 110]. Regarding epidural anesthesia,
prior scoliosis surgery and dural ectasia should be taken into account, especially in
MFS patients. Up to 70 % of patients with MFS have spinal deformations and should
be assessed by anesthetist in the combined clinic [111]. Higher doses of anesthetics
may be needed and extra care should be taken to avoid dural taps. If difficulties in
siting the epidural catheter are anticipated, then an elective C-section should be
considered [112]. A small retrospective study on the anesthetic management of MFS
women did not show that general anesthesia was superior to spinal/epidural anesthe-
sia. Vasoactive drugs (ephedrine, noradrenaline) as well as potentially hypertensive
drugs (e.g., Methergine) should be avoided [109]. Predelivery counseling by an
experienced anesthetist is strongly recommended in these patients [112]. There are
no large-scale trials on the optimal mode of delivery in women with aortic diameters
>40 mm. Expert consensus, as reported in the European guidelines, gives a class IIa
indication for vaginal delivery and IIb for C-section when the aorta is between 40 and
45 mm. C-section is recommended if the aortic diameter is >45 mm [55].

12.3.4 Breastfeeding and Postdelivery Care

The risk for aortic dissection remains increased up to 6 months after delivery, and
women should remain under strict surveillance during that period. Imaging of the
aorta 6 weeks after delivery is recommended. Beta-blockers, angiotensin-­converting
enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, and angiotensin receptor blockers can be used safely dur-
ing breastfeeding.

12.3.5 Obstetrical and Fetal Outcome

In addition to the cardiovascular risks associated with pregnancy in H-TAD and TS,
obstetric complications and impaired neonatal outcome also need to be taken into
account in the counseling and management of these patients.
Obstetric complications in patients with MFS are widely reported, mostly in ret-
rospective series. Initial reports on pregnancy in MFS patients by Pyeritz and
12 Aortopathy 183

colleagues described a higher rate of spontaneous abortion (21 %) and preterm labor
(12 %) when compared to controls [66]. The reported rate of spontaneous abortions
in MFS patients in subsequent studies varies between 12 and 18 %, which does not
seem to be much higher than the average population risk of 13 % [69, 75, 113, 114].
Preterm labor, related to premature rupture of membranes and cervical incompe-
tence, does appear to occur more frequently in MFS women in some studies, with
figures varying between 5 and 12 % [66, 113, 114] and an odds ratio of 2.15 reported
in one series [77]. Other studies however did not confirm an increased risk for pre-
term labor [70, 75], once again indicating the need for prospective large-scale trials.
Adverse neonatal outcomes are related to prematurity and fetal growth restric-
tions in 5–11 % of newborns [66, 70, 72, 113]. The latter observation was shown to
be associated with a higher rate of beta-blocker usage in the study by Donnelly and
colleagues (28 % vs. 7 %, p = 0.002) [72]. Similar observations with the use of beta-­
blockers during pregnancy have been reported in women with hypertension and
congenital heart disease and are thought to be related to a decreased mean arterial
blood pressure [102, 103, 115]. On the other hand, small-for-gestational-age babies
were reported with a higher frequency in one study in MFS patients that were not
treated with beta-blockers [70], indicating that factors other than the beta-blockers
could also contribute to this finding.
Reports on obstetric complications and fetal outcome in other H-TAD entities
are scarce. A higher incidence of fatal uterine rupture in patients with LDS and
vEDS has been reported in initial studies [21, 26], but this seemed to occur less
frequently in subsequent series of both diseases with two nonfatal uterine ruptures
in the large vEDS series reported by Murray [82] and no cases of uterine rupture in
the large series of 316 pregnancies in LDS by Jondeau (G. Jondeau et al. 2016
unpublished data). Women pregnant with a child affected with vEDS have a higher
risk of premature rupture of the membranes due to its intrinsic fragility [83].
Delivery through C-section is needed in the majority of TS pregnancies, due to
cephalopelvic disproportion or hypertensive complications. A recent study in three
Nordic countries showed reassuring data on neonatal outcome in singletons, with
reported incidences of low birthweight (8,8 %), preterm birth (8 %), and major birth
defects (3.8 %) comparable to conventional in vitro fertilization results. A nation-
wide French study including all ART centers however reported a higher percentage
of prematurity (38 %) [94]. Twin pregnancies seem to carry a higher risk, and there-
fore single embryo transfer is currently recommended. A review of the literature
found up to 36 % fetal death (spontaneous abortions or perinatal death) and 20 %
rate of malformations (either TS or Down syndrome) [92].

12.4 The Effect of Pregnancy Adaptations

Two major concerns arise when addressing the effect of pregnancy on the aorta:

1 . Growth of a known aneurysm

2. Risk of aortic dissection
184 J. De Backer et al.

The effect of pregnancy on the aorta is conventionally considered to be threefold

[116–118]:
(1) Due to the increased cardiac output required for adequate placental perfusion,
wall shear stress in the aorta will increase; (2) the hormonal changes inherent to
pregnancy and aimed at softening tissues in preparation for delivery will also affect
the elastic fibers in the aortic wall, leading to increased fragility; (3) in later stages
of pregnancy, compression of the lower aorta and iliac arteries by the uterus will
induce increased outflow resistance in the arterial tree.
The exact contribution and final impact of these changes on the aorta is however
not fully elucidated, and some features remain to be confirmed in the clinical set-
ting. For example, the impact of 17β-estradiol and progesterone has only been dem-
onstrated in vitro, showing an increase of elastin and fibrillin 1 and a decrease in
collagen deposition in aortic VSMC when exposed to these hormones [119]. Clinical
studies show contradictory results, and the effect of estrogens and progesterone on
arterial stiffness, especially during the third trimester, still needs to be clarified [120,
121]. What has been established is that the diameter of the aortic root increases
significantly (1.2 mm on average) over the course of normal pregnancy and remains
enlarged up to 6 weeks after pregnancy, even in normotensive women [122]. It is
assumed that while these effects are largely ignorable in healthy women, their
impact on an underlying diseased aorta may have severe consequences as is
reflected, for example, in an adverse immediate and long-­term aortic outcome in
patients with Marfan syndrome [72, 74] (see below).

12.5 Preconception Counseling

As already mentioned, pregnancy may increase the risk of aortic dissection and
progression of aortic disease in women with predisposing condition affecting the
aorta. Counseling of women with these disorders should tackle the cardiovascular
and obstetric risks associated with pregnancy and should also address the risk of
transmission of the disease to the offspring. Cardiovascular and genetic counseling
should take place during adolescence, ideally during the transition process from
pediatric to adult cardiology care.
The risk of aortic dissection and the advice towards pregnancy should be dis-
cussed on an individual basis. Since the aorta in most of these women will grow
over time, postponing pregnancy should be discouraged in some cases. A thorough
cardiovascular evaluation with careful measurement of aortic diameters prior to
pregnancy is recommended in all women with underlying aortic conditions. In addi-
tion to cardiac ultrasound, also evaluating valvular and myocardial function, we
recommend imaging of the entire aorta and branching vessels with CT or MRI scan
prior to pregnancy [55]. According to the ESC guidelines on the management of
pregnancy in women with congenital heart disease, an aortic root diameter above
45 mm in patients with MFS is considered as high risk for dissection during preg-
nancy, and therefore, these women should be strongly advised to avoid pregnancy
[55]. In addition to the aortic diameter, other factors including aortic growth rate
12 Aortopathy 185

prior to pregnancy and family history of dissection should be taken into account [9,
72]. In case of vEDS, pregnancy has been regarded as a high-risk situation both for
cardiovascular and obstetric complications, and therefore, women were counseled
against pregnancy. However, after the recent publication from Murray et al. in which
pregnancy in itself did not add further risk of death on the long term [82], the current
recommendation is to carefully discuss the risk pertaining to pregnancy as well as
the long-term outcome of the disease on an individual basis. The couple needs to be
informed of the fact that life expectancy in vEDS is significantly reduced, implying
that they may not see their child grow into adulthood. Women with TS should also
undergo detailed cardiovascular evaluation before pregnancy, independent of the
conception mode (with or without ART), the karyotype, or the presence of mosa-
icism. The check-up should also include accurate blood pressure measurement (ide-
ally by ambulatory blood pressure monitoring). As far as contraindications to
pregnancy in TS are concerned, the American Society for Reproductive Medicine
(ASRM) recommendations are the most stringent. Any significant cardiovascular
abnormality on MRI or an aortic dilation of more than 20 mm/m2 BSA are regarded
as absolute contraindications for attempting pregnancy [91]. They also state that all
TS patients should be encouraged to seek alternatives, such as gestational surrogacy
or adoption, as TS itself should be seen as a relative contraindication. The French
recommendations include the following listing of contraindications: history of aor-
tic surgery or aortic dissection, aortic dilation above 35 mm or 25 mm/m2 BSA, an
increase in aortic diameter of more than 10 % confirmed on MRI, and the presence
of aortic coarctation or uncontrolled hypertension despite treatment. Isolated BAV
(without aortic dilation) is not considered a contraindication but a risk factor [123].
The European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines on the management of car-
diovascular diseases during pregnancy acknowledge the increased risk for aortic
dissection in TS pregnancies and state that those with aortic dilation are at the high-
est risk [55].
Medical treatment needs to be adjusted prior to conception as some agents,
including ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers, can cause severe
embryopathy. Ideally, these agents would be switched to safer drugs in the precon-
ception clinic as stopping the treatment as soon as conception takes place risks
exposing the embryo to teratogenic agents. Beta-blockers are the most commonly
used drugs in this setting, but may not be entirely safe as their use has been associ-
ated with an increase in fetal malformations. Atenolol can cause fetal malforma-
tions and hypospadias if used during the first trimester and should therefore be
avoided. Other beta-blockers such as metoprolol, labetalol, and bisoprolol may be
used safely during pregnancy, although caution with regard to fetal growth is war-
ranted (see above, Table 12.2) [55].
The safety of prophylactic aortic root surgery is a matter of debate. Only five
cases in women with MFS have been reported so far. No long-term prospective tri-
als have taken place so far, and data from studies conducted in MFS patients indi-
cate that (type B) aortic dissection still occurred in the two women with prior aortic
root replacement (albeit in the setting of acute dissection) and that two women with
prior valve sparing aortic root replacement in an elective setting developed
186 J. De Backer et al.

significant aortic valve regurgitation through the course of their pregnancy [73].
According to the ESC guidelines on pregnancy, prophylactic aortic root surgery is
recommended in women with MFS when the aortic root diameter exceeds 45 mm;
the most recent Canadian guidelines on thoracic aortic disease recommend earlier
prepregnancy surgery at a diameter above 40 mm [55, 124]. This lower threshold is
also applied in patients with Loeys–Dietz syndrome. Clear guidelines for other
H-TAD entities are lacking, and the general recommendations are to perform sur-
gery at an aortic root diameter >45 mm. In women with Turner syndrome, an
indexed aortic diameter of 27 mm/m2 BSA is suggested as a threshold to consider
prophylactic surgery. It is obvious from these knowledge gaps and discrepancies
that there is a clear need for more prospective data in larger patient cohorts in order
to establish the indications and safety of prophylactic aortic root surgery.
Genetic counseling addressing the transmission risk of the disease depends on the
underlying condition. In this respect, an aspect that tends to be neglected in clinical
practice is that affected males can equally transmit the disease and should also
receive proper genetic counseling. MFS and most of the other H-TAD as well as
vEDS are transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait, resulting in a 50 % chance of
having an affected child. Inheritance of TS is less well studied. Spontaneous preg-
nancy occurs in only 2 % of the patients with TS [92]. Generally, a transmission risk
of 25 %, with a higher rate of spontaneous abortions due to monosomy Y, is quoted.
Currently, prenatal diagnosis (PND) and preimplantation diagnosis (PGD) can
be offered to those patients with a known mutation in most countries. A French
study indicated that a majority of MFS patients (74 %) was in favor of prenatal test-
ing. The opinion of caregivers varied, but most of them agreed that these issues
should be addressed in a multidisciplinary team [125].

12.6 Conclusion

In disorders associated with aortic fragility, pregnancy increases the risk of compli-
cations including increased aneurysmal growth, aortic regurgitation, and aortic dis-
section. Key to preventing these complications is the delivery of multidisciplinary
care by an experienced and knowledgeable team. Prior to pregnancy, appropriate
counseling should be given, including genetic counseling, and the cardiovascular
status of the patient examined, allowing treatment to be optimized and changed
where appropriate.
Data regarding risks, management, and treatment in aortic disease related to preg-
nancy are based on case studies and retrospective analyses; the data are often incon-
sistent possibly because the genetic basis of many of these disorders is only now
becoming clear, meaning that many of the earlier cohorts were heterogeneous.
Large prospective studies in well-defined cohorts are needed and efforts such as
the ROPAC study are therefore crucial and very welcome. Future research should be
focused on the above-mentioned key knowledge gaps in the pathophysiology, man-
agement, and treatment of pregnant patients with aortic disease, including but not
limited to:
12 Aortopathy 187

• Prospective assessment of aortic and obstetric outcome in well-defined homog-

enous cohorts of patients with different types of H-TAD and TS
• Study of the correlation between beta-blocker use and aortic outcome and fetal
growth in patients with various types of H-TAD
• Prospective assessment of the safety of prepregnancy aortic root replacement

Key Messages
• Pregnancy may increase the risk of aortic dissection in women with under-
lying aortic disease.
• Management of pregnancy in women with aortic disease requires a multi-
disciplinary approach, involving cardiologists, obstetricians, anesthetists,
and clinical geneticists.
• Individualized prepregnancy counseling on a case-by-case basis address-
ing cardiovascular and obstetric risks is essential.
• Genetic counseling addressing the transmission risk is equally important
(in women and men).
• Appropriate follow-up with cardiovascular imaging before and during
pregnancy is the cornerstone of prevention of aortic dissection in pregnant
women with aneurysms. Follow-up intervals depend on the underlying
condition and prepregnancy status and should also cover a 6-month post-
partum period.
• In patients with MFS, it is safe to consider pregnancy when the aortic
diameter is 40 mm or less.
• Medical treatment with beta-blockers during pregnancy should be encour-
aged in patients with MFS and in all other conditions if hypertension is
present. The patient should be informed about the potential fetal impact.
• Medical treatment with angiotensin receptor blockers and ACE inhibitor is
contraindicated during pregnancy.
• Recommendations regarding prophylactic aortic root surgery are inconsis-
tent. Surgical replacement before pregnancy is generally recommended if
the aortic root is above 45 mm in patients with MFS and above 27 mm/m2
in patients with TS. Lower thresholds of 400–45 mm may be considered in
women with LDS or in women with MFS and a positive family history for
dissection or a rapid growth rate. Very limited data regarding safety of
pregnancy after this procedure are available.
• In women with aortic diameters between 40 and 45 mm, delivery with
C-section should be considered, and in women with aortic diameters >45
mm, C-section is advised.
• In patients with short stature, thoracic aortic diameters must be evaluated
in relation to body surface area.
• Surgical treatment during pregnancy carries an important risk for the
mother and fetus and should only be performed in life-threatening circum-
stances. C-section is recommended after 28th week of pregnancy before
aortic surgical treatment.
188 J. De Backer et al.

Disclosures  J. De Backer holds a grant as Senior Clinical Investigator from the Fund for Scientific
Research (FWO), Flanders (Belgium). L. Muino Mosquera is supported by a doctoral fellowship
from the Special Research Fund (BOF) of the University of Ghent (Belgium).

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Aortic Coarctation
13
Margarita Brida and Gerhard-Paul Diller

Abbreviations

ACE Angiotensin-converting enzyme

MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
WHO World Health Organization

Key Facts
Incidence: 5–8 % of all congenital heart defects.
Inheritance: Multifactorial, overall 3 % risk.
Medication: ACE and AT1-antagonists replaced with α-methyldopa and
beta-blockers.
World Health Organization class: Repaired coarctation, WHO II–III; severe
native coarctation, WHO IV.
Risk of pregnancy: Hypertension occurs in 30 %. Pregnancy increases risk of
aortic complications.
Life expectancy: Reduced in native severe coarctation and nearly normal in
well repaired.

M. Brida, MD, PhD

Department of Cardiovascular Disease, University of Zagreb School of Medicine,
University Hospital Centre, Zagreb, Croatia
Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Disease, University Hospital Muenster,
Münster, Germany
G.-P. Diller, MD, PhD (*)
Department of Cardiovascular Disease, Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Disease,
University Hospital, Münster, Germany
Imperial College London, London, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 195

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_13
196 M. Brida and G.-P. Diller

Key Management
Preconception: Imaging (CT or cMR) to assess aortic structure and ECG,
echo and exercise test for ventricular function
Pregnancy: Normal aorta – 20 weeks with echo only. Abnormal: four to eight
weekly depending on the degree of abnormality. Aggressive treatment of
hypertension
Labour: Vaginal delivery, with an effective epidural. Caesarean section with
aortic dilatation of >45 mm
Postpartum: Maintenance of effective antihypertensive therapy and re-image
if structurally abnormal aorta prior to discharge

13.1 The Condition

Due to the greater availability of corrective surgery, we are seeing more pregnancies
in women with a repaired aortic coarctation (CoA). Those with a good repair are
generally low risk, but occasionally, we see pregnant women with an unrecognised
and therefore unrepaired “native” CoA; these women have a much higher risk
­during pregnancy. CoA is a complex cardiovascular disorder, involving not only a
circumscribed narrowing of the aorta but also a generalised arteriopathy. The nar-
rowing is typically located in the area of insertion of the ductus arteriosus, just
below the origin of left subclavian artery, and only in rare cases occurs in other parts
of the aorta. CoA is the fifth most common congenital heart defect and accounts for
5–8 % of all congenital heart defects. There is a male predominance, with a male to
female ratio of up to 2:1. CoA is often accompanied by other cardiac lesions, most
commonly a bicuspid aortic valve (up to 85 %), mitral valve abnormalities, ven-
tricular septal defects and may be part of a syndrome (Turner, Williams-Beuren or
Noonan syndromes [1–3]).
Patients with significant CoA exhibit signs early in life, while those remaining
undiagnosed until adulthood typically have milder forms and are often asymp-
tomatic. These patients may remain asymptomatic for a long time and sometimes
present for the first time in pregnancy [4, 5]. The classic presenting sign in adult
patients with CoA is arterial hypertension. Symptoms, if present, arise from arte-
rial hypertension proximal to the obstruction, in the upper body, and from hypo-
tension distal to the obstruction, in the abdomen and legs. Key symptoms are
headache, tinnitus, nosebleeds, dizziness, abdominal angina, cold feet, exertional
leg fatigue or claudication.

13.1.1 Native Coarctation

Occasionally, the diagnosis of CoA is made during pregnancy when previously

unknown hypertension is discovered. Arterial hypertension, especially systolic,
13  Aortic Coarctation 197

should alert medical practitioners to the possibility of CoA. Other key clinical find-
ings are isolated hypertension in the upper extremities, delayed and weak femoral
pulses, and palpable collateral arteries or a systolic murmur. In many cases, a diag-
nosis can be made with these findings. In everyday clinical practice, it is important
to measure blood pressure in both arms and to assess peripheral pulses in all four
limbs.
Key findings on examination in CoA include:

• A higher systolic blood pressure in the right arm compared with the right leg, but
similar diastolic blood pressure levels. Differences in pressures, however, depend
not only on the severity of the coarctation but also on the presence and the flow
through collaterals as well as on the cardiac output.
• Pulses are delayed and less intense over the right femoral artery compared with
the right radial or brachial artery. Also, the right and left brachial artery pulsa-
tions should be compared to determine if the coarctation is proximal (decreased
or absent left brachial pulsation), distal (no difference in brachial pulsations) or
distal with anomalous right subclavian artery after the coarctation (decreased or
absent right brachial pulsation) [15, 16].
• Ankle-brachial pressure index will show significantly lower systolic pressures in
legs when compared to the arms.
• Palpable collaterals may develop from subclavian, axillary, internal thoracic,
scapular and intercostal arteries and can occasionally be seen over the lateral
chest wall.
• A systolic murmur, sometimes associated with a thrill, is often present along the
left sternal border and the mid-back between the left scapula and spine. The
murmur radiates to the neck. A delayed-onset, continuous crescendo-­decrescendo
murmur can also sometimes be heard over the back due to the enlargement of the
collateral circulation. Moreover patient may have one additional murmur at the
upper right sternal border if bicuspid aortic valve is present with components of
stenosis or insufficiency [17].

Continuous wave Doppler echocardiography from a standard suprasternal posi-

tion is generally used to confirm the diagnosis. The most characteristic echocardio-
graphic sign of CoA is the presence of diastolic “runoff” phenomenon, in
combination with high peak systolic velocity (Fig. 13.1). However, factors such as
cross-­sectional area, length of the narrowed segment, presence of collateral circula-
tion, patent ductus arteriosus and cardiac output can influence the flow across the
descending aorta. As a consequence, maximum and mean Doppler ­echocardiographic
measurements are generally considered unreliable in determining the severity of
CoA. These parameters can underestimate the severity of the obstruction if signifi-
cant collateral vessels are present or alternatively overestimate the severity if there
is increased aortic stiffness [18, 19]. Alternatively, magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) is a non-invasive technique which is safe in pregnancy and can be used to
visualise the entire aorta (Fig. 13.2). It can assess (i) the anatomy of the aorta, par-
ticularly of the coarctation site (extent and degree of aortic narrowing), (ii) the
198 M. Brida and G.-P. Diller

Fig. 13.1  Example of a diastolic runoff or tailing phenomenon (arrow) in a patient with severe
aortic coarcation on transthoracic echocardiography from a standard suprasternal position

collateral circulation and, consequently, (iii) the hemodynamic impact of the

CoA. However, the use of gadolinium in pregnancy is currently contraindicated.
Computed tomography and cardiac catheterization are also generally avoided dur-
ing pregnancy due to radiation exposition.

13.2 Pregnancy Outcomes

Major complications during pregnancy are uncommon in the context of an uncor-

rected CoA, but can be fatal. Haemodynamic changes, hormonal alterations and
hypertension affect the aortic wall during pregnancy and increase the risk of aortic
rupture or dissection at the site of the narrowing or in the ascending aorta in patients
with coexisting bicuspid aortic valves. Maternal and neonatal mortalities are
reported to be 0–9 % and 8–19 %, respectively in previous series [20, 21].

13.2.1 Repaired Coarctation

While in the past patients who had undergone coarctation repair were considered to
be cured, it is now recognised that even a well-repaired CoA is frequently associ-
ated with premature morbidity and mortality. Surprisingly, despite improvements in
repair techniques, better medical management of hypertension, comorbidity sur-
veillance for cardiovascular disease and monitoring for aortic complications, this
seems to have had a limited impact on late mortality. In early studies, reporting in
1989, survival at 30 years was 72 %; a more recent study by Brown et al. reporting
13  Aortic Coarctation 199

Fig. 13.2 Magnetic
resonance imaging of
severe aortic coarctation
(arrow)

in 2013 showed an almost identical survival of 74 % during long-term follow-up

[27, 28]. Older age at the time of the initial repair (>20 years) has been associated
with decreased survival, but patients younger than 5 years at the time of the initial
operation had the greatest risk of reoperation, while patients older than 9 years had
a greater prevalence of residual hypertension [28]. As a consequence, lifelong fol-
low-­up care after CoA treatment is required, ideally on an annual basis. Patients
with a repaired CoA do not have impaired fertility. The largest study to date on the
outcome of pregnancy after repair of aortic coarctation showed that, overall, mater-
nal and neonatal outcome of pregnancy is excellent and without major cardiovascu-
lar complications. On the other hand, the rate of miscarriage and preeclampsia was
higher than experienced by the general population [29]. Women planning a family
should be thoroughly investigated before conception to exclude late problems
200 M. Brida and G.-P. Diller

including systemic hypertension, residual coarctation and re-coarctation and aortic

aneurysm formation. Also the physician should investigate for potential clinical
signs of premature coronary and cerebrovascular disease [30].

13.3 Management

When CoA is first diagnosed, the choice of treatment depends on the haemody-
namic impact of the coarctation, the patient’s symptoms, the degree of upper limb
arterial hypertension, the gestational age and the potential for fetal compromise due
to restricted uteroplacental perfusion. If there is only mild to moderate obstruction
and without signs of hypertension, no treatment is generally necessary. Regular
blood pressure monitoring is, however, indicated throughout pregnancy. Beta-­
blocker therapy should be initiated if the blood pressure is abnormal (e.g. above
130/90 mmHg before 20 weeks of gestation). It is important to maintain a good
balance between blood pressure control (vital for maternal wellbeing) and adequate
fetal perfusion and growth [22]. In the case of severe coarctation, treatment is chal-
lenging. Women who are in an early stage of pregnancy should be consulted about
the risks of further continuation of pregnancy and the availability of options such as
elective abortion. If blood pressure can be controlled with medication, it is generally
recommended to carry the pregnancy to term and aim for repair of the coarctation
after delivery [21, 22]. The biggest concern is that hypertension is refractory to drug
therapy and is accompanied by underperfusion of the placenta. If the blood pressure
cannot be adequately controlled by medication, intervention is recommended. Both
surgery and stent placement with the fetus in situ can be considered, and a multidis-
ciplinary team should make the decision. In the current ESC guidelines for the man-
agement of grown-up CHD, stenting has become the treatment of first choice in
adults and is adopted in many centres for native CoA with appropriate anatomy.
However there are limited data on CoA stenting in pregnancy [24, 25]. Potentially
teratogen exposure to radiation can be limited by performing the procedure with the
use of minimum radiation necessary and after the second trimester. Moreover, an
abdominal lead shielding can be used. Aneurysm formation and a higher rate of
reinterventions are associated with angioplasty, especially after ballooning in com-
parison to stenting [23, 24]. Surgery, on the other hand, seems to be associated with
increased fetal mortality, higher risk of dissection or aortic rupture when compared
to the non-pregnant state [46].

13.3.1 Systemic Hypertension

Hypertension is seen in more than 30 % of cases after CoA repair in early childhood
and in the absence of restenosis [31]. In general, pregnancy is tolerated well by
mother and fetus as long as hypertension is well controlled. Ambulatory blood
pressure monitoring (in the right arm) and exercise testing should be performed
before pregnancy, and regular blood pressure monitoring is important throughout
13  Aortic Coarctation 201

pregnancy due to the risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension. It is crucial to treat

persistent resting hypertension and it appears reasonable to treat women normoten-
sive at rest, but whose systolic blood pressure exceeds 200 mmHg at low levels of
exercise on treadmill testing, especially in pregnancy. This is because pregnancy –
with its increase in blood volume and cardiac output – can be regarded as a state of
mild to moderate exercise [32, 33]. Women with unrecognised and untreated hyper-
tension are at risk of developing superimposed preeclampsia with fetal growth
restriction, placental abruption, congestive heart failure and acute renal failure [34],
all of which may require preterm delivery. In every day clinical practice, blood pres-
sure should be measured in both arms. If the left subclavian artery has been used as
a part of the initial repair, then the left arm blood pressure may be falsely low. Blood
pressure monitoring should be placed on the right arm [15]. Antihypertensive treat-
ment in pregnancy generally consists of beta-blocker therapy while angiotensin-
converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin-receptor blockers are
contraindicated [35].

13.3.2 Residual Coarctation and Re-coarctation

Residual coarctation and re-coarctation can be seen after all known surgical tech-
niques (end-to-end anastomosis, prosthetic patch aortoplasty, subclavian flap aorto-
plasty) with the various incidence rates from 5 to 24 % [36–39]. In re-coarctation
gradients are usually small and pregnancy is well tolerated. Sometimes it can be
difficult to distinguish between restenosis and enhanced aortic stiffness. In this set-
ting analysing diastolic flow patterns at the isthmus and verifying high flow during
diastole, reflecting diastolic runoff, is the most important echocardiographic sign of
restenosis. Further, women who have a residual coarctation or re-coarctation are at
increased risk of developing systemic hypertension. On the other hand, if re-­
coarctation is significant, blood pressure in the lower part of the body can be reduced
and endanger the fetus. Regular monitoring of mothers’ blood pressure and fetal
growth is mandatory. Depending on the severity, re-coarctation should be managed
in the same as native coarctation [20, 32].

13.3.3 Aortic Aneurysm Formation

Late aneurysm formation has been reported after all types of CoA repair, but it
occurs most frequently after Dacron patch repair [27, 40]. Dacron patch aortoplasty
gained popularity in the mid-1960s because of its excellent haemodynamic result
and because it avoided sacrifice of intercostal arteries and minimised restenosis.
Due to the high incidence of late aneurysm formation, this technique has been aban-
doned. Nevertheless, we continue to see adult women of child-bearing age after
these procedures highlighting the need to obtain information about previous opera-
tion techniques in other to evaluate potential risk factors before pregnancy [41, 42].
Furthermore, late aneurysm formation in the ascending aorta, proximal to the
202 M. Brida and G.-P. Diller

surgical repair site, has also been noted as a late complication [43]. Aneurysm for-
mation can lead to aortic rupture and sudden death. Pregnancy appears to increase
the risk of aneurysm rupture. This might be due to hemodynamic, hormonal and
vascular changes [44]. The treatment decision depends on various factors, including
the size of the aneurysm, gestational age and type of procedure. Current ESC
Guidelines on the management of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy state
that depending of the aortic diameter, patients should be monitored by echocardiog-
raphy every 4–12 weeks while maintaining strict blood pressure control. Pre-
pregnancy surgical treatment is recommended when the ascending aorta is ≥45 mm.
During pregnancy prophylactic surgery should be considered if the aortic diameter
is ≥50 mm and increasing rapidly. When progressive dilatation occurs during preg-
nancy, before the fetus is viable, aortic repair with the fetus in utero can be consid-
ered. When the fetus is viable, caesarean delivery followed directly by aortic surgery
is recommended [45]. Caesarean delivery should be considered when the aortic
diameter exceeds 45 mm. A cardiac operation with cardiopulmonary bypass of a
gravid patient still remains a high-risk procedure, especially for the fetus. Maternal
mortality is similar to that of non-pregnant women but fetal mortality is 16–33 %
[46]. In the modern era, endovascular repair with stent graft could be a therapeutic
alternative (minimally invasive approach) in pregnant patients with late thoracic
aortic aneurysms after surgical repair of aortic coarctation [47–49]. However, to our
knowledge, there are no literature reports of endovascular stent grafting for aneu-
rysms in patients during pregnancy.

13.3.4 Timing and Mode of Delivery

Early discussion with the cardiologist, obstetrician and anaesthetist will facilitate
optimal planning for the management of pregnancy and delivery. It appears that vagi-
nal delivery with an effective epidural is the preferred method. It causes fewer and
less dramatic changes in haemodynamic parameters and is associated with lower risk
of maternal complications such as haemorrhage, infection and thrombosis. Vaginal
delivery has also shown neonatal benefits in terms of a later delivery and greater birth
weight [26]. During delivery, indication for antibiotic prophylaxis is controversial.
We do not generally advocate antibiotic prophylaxis at the time of delivery. However,
the only two cases of maternal death with coarctation and pregnancy in the UK mor-
tality statistics from 1997 to 1999 were associated with endocarditis [22].

13.3.5 Postnatal Period

In the puerperium other antihypertensive drugs, contraindicated during pregnancy,

can be considered. Caution is advised with beta-blocker therapy in mothers who are
breastfeeding since they can cause neonatal bradycardia and the excretion of par-
ticular beta-blockers should be discussed with the obstetricians. In patients with
severe aortic coarctation, repair should be planned early after delivery to avoid
unnecessary complications.
13  Aortic Coarctation 203

13.4 The Effect of Pregnancy Adaptations

During normal pregnancy, women experience profound hemodynamic, hormonal

and vascular changes. The first change is a profound fall in the peripheral vascular
resistance [8], which results in a gradual increase in plasma volume of almost 50 %
[6], heart rate by up to 20 % and cardiac output by 30–60 % [7]. During natural
labour, there is a further increase in cardiac output due to increases in both stroke
volume and heart rate and the phenomenon of autotransfusion during contractions,
whereby blood is returned to the systemic circulation from the uterus during con-
tractions [9]. The aorta itself also changes during normal human pregnancy, possi-
bly induced by the marked changes in maternal hemodynamic parameters and the
influence of local hormonal factors, particularly oestrogens, since the aortic wall
contains oestrogen receptors [10]. Structurally, there is a reduction in mucopolysac-
charides, multiplication and hypertrophy of smooth muscle cells and elastic fibre
changes in the aortic wall [11]. The aortic diameter increases by approximately 5 %
and the aorta becomes more compliant [12]. In pregnancy, these normal adaptive
changes could increase the risk of aortic complications in patient with pre-existing
arteriopathy [13, 14].

13.5 Preconception Counselling

Unrepaired, severe CoA is a high risk and considered to be World Health

Organization class IV. This indicates that there is an extremely high risk of maternal
mortality or morbidity and that pregnancy is generally contraindicated. Women
found to have severe CoA during pregnancy should be seen by an experienced
­multidisciplinary team for counselling. If they decide to continue with the preg-
nancy, they should be intensively monitored throughout pregnancy, childbirth and
the puerperium [45].

13.5.1 Risk of Recurrence of Congenital Heart Disease

An approximately 3 % incidence of congenital heart disease in the offspring has

been reported, and fetal echocardiography at 20 weeks gestation should be consid-
ered in women with known CoA [50].

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Ebstein Anomaly
14
Andrea Girnius, Gruschen Veldtman, Carri R. Warshak,
and Markus Schwerzmann

Abbreviations

EA Ebstein anomaly
NSAIDs Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
PPH Postpartum hemorrhage
ESC European Society of Cardiology
PPROM Preterm premature rupture of membranes

A. Girnius, MD, PhD

Department of Anesthesiology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, USA
G. Veldtman, MD, PhD
Department of Adolescent and Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Cincinnati Children’s
Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, USA
C.R. Warshak, MD, PhD
Department of Matero-Fetal Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, USA
M. Schwerzmann, MD (*)
University Hospital Inselspital, Center for Congenital Heart Disease, University of Bern,
Bern, Switzerland
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 207

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_14
208 A. Girnius et al.

Key Facts
Incidence: 1–5/20,000 live births.
Inheritance: 6 %, but occurs sporadically, related to maternal age and mater-
nal exposure to benzodiazepines or lithium therapy.
Medication: Change antiarrhythmic drugs; a beta-blocker as an alternative is
the first choice.
World Health Organization class: Class II or III.
Risk of pregnancy: Atrial arrhythmias, heart failure, thromboembolic events
(possibly paradoxical in the presence of a shunt).
Life expectancy: Reduced.

Key Management
Preconception: ECG, echo, exercise test; consider cMR.
Pregnancy: Careful detection of arrhythmias and cardiac failure; consider
thromboprophylaxis.
Labor: Vaginal delivery.
Postpartum: Consider thromboprophylaxis.

14.1 The Condition

Ebstein anomaly (EA) of the tricuspid valve was first described by Wilhelm Ebstein
in 1866 [1]. It has important hemodynamic implications, which impacts not only
symptoms and longevity but may also have important implications during preg-
nancy. An understanding of the EA-related cardiac abnormalities and their hemody-
namic consequences is necessary for prepregnancy counseling and adequate
perinatal care.

14.1.1  Anatomy and Physiology of Ebstein Anomaly

EA of the tricuspid valve is a rare (1–5/20,000 live births) congenital malformation

[2] characterized by a spectrum of myocardial malformations including varying
degrees of:

1. Failure of delamination of the tricuspid valve resulting in tricuspid valve regur-

gitation and leaflet abnormalities (muscularization, perforations, and/or tricuspid
valve stenosis). The echocardiographic hallmark of this malformation is an
excessive downward displacement of the hinge point of the septal and posterior
tricuspid leaflets (>8 mm/m2 of body surface area) below the mitral annular
plane (see Fig. 14.1) [1].
14  Ebstein Anomaly 209

Fig. 14.1  Echo picture

(four-chamber-view) of
typical EA with apical
displacement of the
tricuspid valve

AS
AS
S
P

‘atrialisation’

Rotation of orifice in 23 heart specimens Example of rotation of TV orifice toward RV outlet

Fig. 14.2  Anatomical and schematic depiction of the tricuspid valve in EA. With the kind permis-
sion of Dr. Siew Yen Ho, Cardiac Morphologist, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation
Trust

2. Right atrial and functional right ventricular dilation increases as tricuspid regur-
gitation worsens. During childhood, already these chambers may be severely
dilated giving rise to the term “wall-to-wall” heart.
3. Increasing degrees of anticlockwise rotation of the tricuspid valve (i.e., greater
severity) annulus toward the right ventricular outflow with the fulcrum being the
ventriculo-infundibular fold (see Fig. 14.2).
4. Right ventricular cardiomyopathy that includes myofibril loss and discontinuity
and scarring of the right ventricular free wall, resulting in right ventricular dila-
tion, thinning, and dysfunction.
210 A. Girnius et al.

5. Left ventricular cardiomyopathy, occurring in up to 18 % [3]. This cardiomyopa-

thy frequently resembles left ventricular non-compaction and occurs in combi-
nation with left heart structural abnormalities such as mitral valve prolapse and
dysplasia, ventricular septal defect, and bicuspid aortic valve [4].
6. Atrial level shunt, ranging in size and degree as well as direction of shunt.
7. Bronchopulmonary segmental hypoplasia, particularly in more severe forms,
and pulmonary vascular disease.
8. Altered and eventually diminished right atrial compliance, which dictates physi-
ologic responses to tricuspid regurgitation and right ventricular dysfunction.

EA must be distinguished from other forms of congenital tricuspid regurgitation

and/or right ventricular dilatation, such as an endocardial cushion defect, unguarded
tricuspid valve, tricuspid valve prolapse, right ventricular dysplasia, or tricuspid
valve dysplasia [5, 6].
The clinical presentation depends on the composite interaction of the above
pathophysiologic perturbations. Up to half of all affected fetuses die in utero or
shortly after birth because of right ventricular dysfunction, while other infants may
need early surgery [7]. In milder forms, EA may not present until later life as symp-
toms may first occur in adult life, mainly due to arrhythmias [8]. Right bundle
branch patterns due to infra-Hisian block are most often observed (up to 70 %), and
the extent of QRS duration correlates with the amount of right ventricular enlarge-
ment [9]. Other electrocardiographic and rhythm abnormalities include accessory
atrioventricular or atriofascicular pathways (in 25 %) of patients. These pathways
are frequently right sided and multiple. Supraventricular tachyarrhythmias (atrio-
ventricular reciprocating tachycardia, ectopic atrial tachycardia, and atrial fibrilla-
tion or flutter) are common and occur in 30–40 % of adults with this anomaly [10].

14.1.1.1  Atrial Level Shunts in EA

Atrial shunting is present in up to 80–90 % of EA patients [1]. The degree and
nature of shunting depends on the relative compliances of the downstream respec-
tive ventricles. It plays various roles during the natural history of the disease. During
early life, it may help to preserve cardiac output in the face of severe right heart
disease. Eventually, it may become the mechanism for symptomatic cyanosis with
exercise limitation and may be a vehicle for paradoxical embolism. As tricuspid
regurgitation worsens, the right atrium enlarges, and the initial atrial septal defect or
patent foramen ovale may be stretched providing a substrate for atrial level shunt-
ing. The decision to close the atrial shunt therefore needs to be taken with full
appreciation of the potential hemodynamic impact [11, 12]. Atrial shunt closure can
result in marked improvement in symptoms and volume unloading of the right ven-
tricle especially in the presence of a predominant left-to-right shunt. In patients with
right-to-left shunts, relief of cyanosis is very effective in improving symptoms.

14.1.1.2  Genetics
Most cases of EA occur sporadically [2]. Case-control studies have identified repro-
ductive (e.g., maternal age) and environmental risk factors (e.g., maternal exposure
14  Ebstein Anomaly 211

to benzodiazepines or lithium therapy) [1]. The genetic basis of isolated EA remains

unknown. Studies show that EA is a genetically heterogeneous defect, with sporadic
1p36 and 8p23.1 chromosomal deletions being the most commonly associated
imbalances in patients with syndromic EA [13]. Recent investigations have identi-
fied mutations in the gene MYH7, which encodes β-myosin heavy chain, in indi-
viduals with EA associated with left ventricular non-compaction [14].

14.1.1.3  Modified History

Medical therapy is used to relieve symptoms of right heart failure or to control
arrhythmias, but a substantial proportion of patients will require tricuspid valve
repair or replacement during their lifetime. The timing of surgical intervention
depends on symptoms, exercise performance, heart size, the occurrence of
arrhythmias, or the presence and consequences of interatrial shunting such as
paradoxical embolism [15]. Usually, the exercise capacity of adults with EA is
moderately impaired, comparable to the exercise capacity of adults with a ­systemic
right ventricle. In a recent single-center study, the mean peak VO2 in a cohort of
>300 EA patients with a mean age of 28 years was 22 ml/kg/min or 60 % of pre-
dicted [16].

14.2 Pregnancy Outcomes

The largest study investigating the outcome of pregnancies in mothers with EA

included 44 women with 111 pregnancies, resulting in 85 live births (76 %). The
majority of women (n = 34) had uncorrected EA. Sixteen women were cyanotic at
the time of pregnancy due to interatrial shunting; five women had documented
accessory conduction pathways. Twenty-three deliveries were premature, and there
were 19 spontaneous miscarriages (17 %), 7 therapeutic abortions, and 2 early neo-
natal deaths. There were no serious pregnancy-related maternal complications [17].
Patients with mild disease and little to no ventricular dysfunction tolerated preg-
nancy changes well. Patients with significant preexisting right or left heart dysfunc-
tion may experience more overt heart failure symptoms due to an inability to cope
with the increased volume and cardiac output demands of pregnancy.
In the EA cohort from the ZAHARA study, 2 of 22 pregnancies were compli-
cated by arrhythmias [18]. In case reports of pregnant women with EA, right heart
failure or arrhythmias were the most commonly observed complications [19, 20]. In
a recent literature review of pregnancy outcomes in CHD, including 127 completed
pregnancies (>20 weeks gestation) in women with EA, arrhythmias complicated
4 % and heart failure 3 % of pregnancies [21]. No pregnancy-related death occurred.
Overall, in the absence of maternal cyanosis or symptomatic arrhythmias prior to
pregnancy, pregnancy was well tolerated.
Although there is scarce data for women with EA specifically, increased rates of
adverse fetal outcomes have been observed in cohorts of women with diverse types
of heart disease [21–23]. In a retrospective cohort of 331 women with both congeni-
tal and acquired heart disease, Gelson et al. found that low cardiac output and
212 A. Girnius et al.

cyanosis are risk factors for adverse fetal outcomes [22]. In a large cohort, preg-
nancy completion rates in cyanotic women are <50 % [21]. The use of cardiac medi-
cations and mechanical prosthetic valve has also been proposed as risk factors for
adverse neonatal outcomes [18]. Cyanosis and the need of anticoagulation are not
uncommon among EA patients. In the Mayo EA cohort, the mean birth weight of
the infants born to cyanotic women was 2.5 kg, compared to 3.1 kg in acyanotic
women [17]. There was no difference in late survival between children from moth-
ers with cyanotic or non-cyanotic heart disease.
In a review by Drenthen et al., premature delivery was observed in 22 % of EA
pregnancies (vs. 10–12 % expected occurrence), and 12 % of babies were small for
gestational age (vs. 10 % of expected occurrence) [21]. None of the studies reported
fetal mortality (intrauterine death >20 weeks gestation), but there was a 2 % perina-
tal mortality (death within the first year of life). Overall, the risk of fetal or perinatal
mortality seems to be low.

14.3 Pregnancy Management

14.3.1 Coordinated Care

During pregnancy, EA patients should be evaluated by an ACHD cardiologist, a

maternal-fetal medicine specialist and an obstetric and/or cardiac anesthesiologist.
Involvement of other consultants may be necessary based on patient’s clinical pre-
sentation (i.e., critical care, cardiac surgery, hematology, etc.).

14.3.2  Frequency of Follow-Up

Frequency of follow-up is dictated by maternal cardiac status. Patients who are at

low risk (WHO class II) can be seen by a cardiologist every trimester. For women in
WHO class III, there is a higher risk of complications, and monthly or bimonthly
cardiology follow-up is recommended to assess for changes in their cardiac status
[24]. Arrhythmias, most commonly supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), may occur
at any point in pregnancy. The patient should be counseled on vagal maneuvers that
can potentially interrupt AV node-dependent arrhythmias. EA patients should also
look for and report signs of heart failure. Although these are often difficult to distin-
guish from normal changes of pregnancy, concerning signs include peripheral edema,
orthopnea, and rapidly progressive shortness of breath during exertion [24–26].

14.3.3  Fetal Echocardiography

Fetal echocardiography to screen for congenital heart disease is best done between
18 and 22 weeks gestation, when visualization of the heart and outflow tracts is
optimal.
14  Ebstein Anomaly 213

14.3.4  Management of Arrhythmias

For acute SVT, the initial recommended interventions in pregnancy are vagal
maneuvers and IV adenosine. These are expected to have little effect on the fetus, as
adenosine has an extremely short half-life and does not cross the placenta [27].
Additional interventions that may be considered include digoxin, beta-blockers, and
verapamil. In the presence of an accessory pathway, SVTs (atrial flutter or atrial
fibrillation) can lead to wide-complex tachycardias. In these circumstances, digoxin
and calcium channel blockers are contraindicated, since they may increase the ven-
tricular response rate by favoring conduction via the accessory pathway. For patients
with an accessory pathway and symptomatic arrhythmias (reentry tachycardias and
preexcited atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter), pharmacologic therapy to prevent fur-
ther arrhythmias and/or slowing the ventricular response rate is necessary. Flecainide
and propafenone possess favorable ­benefit/risk ratio. If the patient is hemodynami-
cally unstable, synchronized cardioversion is recommended. There is no change in
the recommended voltage in pregnancy, and the amount of electricity that reaches
the fetus is extremely small [24, 27, 28]. Catheter ablation during pregnancy should
only be considered for refractory and poorly tolerated cases of arrhythmia [27]. The
presence of an atrial arrhythmia longer than 48 h can increase risk for atrial clot, so
consideration should be given to anticoagulation in this situation [29].

14.3.5  Management of Progressive Heart Failure

Heart failure is one of the most common complications for women with heart
­disease during pregnancy [23, 25, 30, 31]. According to the available published
information on EA in pregnancy, overt heart failure occurred in only 3 % of patients
[21]. Ruys et al. looked retrospectively at heart failure during pregnancy in women
with both congenital and acquired heart disease. They found an overall 13 %
­incidence of heart failure, the majority of which occurred at the end of the second
trimester or in the peripartum period. Several parameters were associated with heart
failure, including NYHA class ≥III, WHO pregnancy class ≥III, preexisting cardio-
myopathy, preexisting pulmonary hypertension, and preexisting signs of heart fail-
ure [31]. Depressed subpulmonary ventricular function has been described as an
additional risk factor for heart failure during pregnancy [32]. Measurement of natri-
uretic peptides (pro-BNP or BNP) can be useful to risk stratify patients. Normal
levels of BNP (<100–128 pg/ml) at 20 weeks gestation have been found to have a
96–100 % negative predictive value for heart failure events associated with preg-
nancy. Patients with elevated BNP at 20 weeks gestation had a higher risk for heart
failure [32, 33]. Most available treatment agents for heart failure are acceptable for
the use during pregnancy, with the notable exception of ACE inhibitors and aldoste-
rone antagonists. Admission to a tertiary care center may be necessary for careful
management and titration of fluid status. In addition to bed rest and supplemental
oxygen, furosemide can be used for diuresis, and nitrates or hydralazine can be used
for afterload reduction. Inotropes can be considered if needed, although very little
214 A. Girnius et al.

is known about the use of these agents during pregnancy [25, 26]. If the patient is
placed on bed rest, consideration should be given to thromboembolic prophylaxis,
particularly in an EA patient with an interatrial shunt.

14.3.6  Management of Progressive Cyanosis

Patients with cyanosis are at elevated risk for maternal and fetal complications
­during pregnancy. The management of progressive cyanosis and hypoxemia revolves
around maintenance and improvement of oxygenation and oxygen-carrying capac-
ity. Supplemental oxygen may be considered, but, in the presence of an atrial right-­
to-­left shunt, it is unlikely to make a substantial difference [34]. Cardiac output
should be maintained by avoiding dehydration, ambulation as tolerated, and com-
pression stockings to optimize venous return. Hematocrit should be maintained in
the physiologic range to maximize oxygen-carrying capacity. Low hematocrit may
be due to iron deficiency and should be treated with iron supplementation. Elevated
hematocrit (>65 %) puts patients at risk of hyperviscosity syndrome, which can
decrease oxygen delivery. If signs of hyperviscosity syndrome are seen, such as
headache, lethargy, fatigue, dizziness, anorexia, or visual disturbances, hydration or
exchange transfusion can be considered as indicated [34, 35]. In severe refractory
cases, consideration can be given to percutaneous closure of the atrial septal defect.
There are currently no reports in the literature regarding the effects of defect closure
on pregnancy outcome in EA patients.

14.3.7  Mode and Timing of Delivery

In patients with EA, the largest available series show vaginal delivery to be safe [17, 20].
However, Caesarean delivery is still preferred for a select group of CHD patients, includ-
ing cyanotic patients receiving warfarin anticoagulation within 2 weeks of delivery [34].
Timing of delivery should be discussed as a multidisciplinary group. Women
with mild EA can be delivered at early term. In those with more significant compli-
cations, such as difficult to control arrhythmia, heart failure, or progressive cyano-
sis, the decision should be made on an individual basis, weighing the risks of
prematurity vs. the risks to the mother of continuing the pregnancy.

14.3.8  Anesthesia Management During Delivery

Anesthetic management during labor and delivery is a vital component to the care
of patients with EA. An obstetric anesthesiologist should be involved in the multi-
disciplinary planning prior to delivery in these patients. For vaginal delivery, early
epidural analgesia is typically recommended for patients of all disease severity
[24–26, 36]. Slow titration of local anesthetic and judicious fluid boluses before
epidural placement can minimize rapid decreases in preload that are often seen with
14  Ebstein Anomaly 215

neuraxial anesthesia. For Caesarean section, epidural anesthesia can be slowly

titrated to avoid hemodynamic disturbance while providing adequate anesthesia for
the procedure. General anesthesia, with careful attention to hemodynamics and oxy-
genation, is also an option; however, it is generally not preferred in obstetrics [34].

14.3.9  Monitoring During Labor and Delivery

Patients with EA are at an increased risk for arrhythmia independent of symptoms or

associated lesions. Therefore, they should be monitored on continuous telemetry dur-
ing labor, delivery, and the immediate postpartum period. Hemodynamic monitoring
during labor and delivery depends on the current status of each patient. Asymptomatic
patients with minor disease and no associated lesions may not need additional hemo-
dynamic monitoring. Patients with significant ventricular dysfunction, severe tricus-
pid regurgitation, heart failure, or cyanosis should have continuous pulse oximetry
throughout labor and delivery. In rare cases, invasive hemodynamic monitoring may
give useful additional information. Such monitoring may include invasive blood pres-
sure monitoring, central venous pressure monitoring, minimally invasive cardiac out-
put monitoring, and bioimpedance monitoring [26, 34, 37].

14.3.10  Specific Recommendations and Pitfalls

(i) Paradoxical embolism: Women with EA and an interatrial shunt are at risk for
paradoxical embolus. To help prevent air entrainment into an IV causing a
paradoxical embolus, air filters should be placed on all intravenous lines in
patients with a known shunt.
(ii) Preterm labor: Medications used for premature contractions include tocolytics
and drugs given to optimize neonatal outcome if premature labor progresses.
The classes of tocolytics currently in use include nonsteroidal anti-­inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs), calcium channel blockers, beta-agonists, and oxytocin antag-
onist atosiban (Europe only). Beta-agonists, such as terbutaline and hexopren-
aline, have significant maternal side effects including tachycardia and an
increased propensity for arrhythmias. These drugs should be avoided in EA
patients. NSAIDs, such as indomethacin, have few maternal side effects.
Commonly reported adverse effects include nausea, heartburn, and platelet
inhibition. The platelet inhibition is rarely clinically significant unless there is
another underlying bleeding disorder or therapeutic anticoagulation. They
should not be used in the cyanotic EA patient. NSAIDs can have significant
fetal side effects, including in utero constriction of the ductus arteriosus and
oligohydramnios. These drugs are not used beyond 32 weeks of pregnancy and
even before only under carefully monitoring of the ductus. Although calcium
channel blockers can generally be used safely, they should be used with cau-
tion in patients with severe tricuspid regurgitation or other preload-dependent
lesions, since the expected vasodilation will decrease preload [38]. Atosiban,
216 A. Girnius et al.

an oxytocin receptor antagonist, is approved for use in Europe but not in the
USA. It has been reported to cause pulmonary edema, hypotension, and tachy-
cardia/dysrhythmia on rare occasions, but is generally considered safe [34].
Given its limited use, safety in the setting of maternal cardiac disease is
unknown. Magnesium sulfate is commonly given in the setting of preterm
labor for fetal neuroprotection. It has been shown to decrease the incidence and
severity of cerebral palsy in premature infants [38]. At therapeutic levels, it can
cause lethargy and hypotonia. Supratherapeutic Mg levels can cause pulmo-
nary edema, cardiac arrhythmias, respiratory depression, and even cardiac
arrest. It should be used with extreme caution in EA patients. Corticosteroids,
given to improve fetal lung maturity when delivery is anticipated within
2 weeks at gestational ages of less than 34 weeks, can cause fluid retention.
They should be used with care in patients with heart failure or depressed ven-
tricular function. Potential fetal benefit of steroid administration should be
weighed against maternal risk in individual circumstances.
(iii) Induction of labor: Cervical ripening is usually the first step in inducing labor.
This is typically accomplished by vaginal application of a prostaglandin ana-
logue, such as misoprostol (prostaglandin E1) and dinoprostone (prostaglandin
E2). These agents can generally be used safely, although if there is excessive
systemic absorption, they can cause vasodilation, which can lead to hypoxia in
patients with a known shunt [34]. Pulse oximetry and blood pressure should be
monitored during the use of these medications in these patients. Oxytocin is
commonly given to augment uterine contraction strength during labor induc-
tion or during spontaneous labor. It is usually given as a continuous infusion at
rates starting at 0.5–6 mU/min; a maximum dose has not been published [39].
For patients with heart failure and risk of fluid overload, the preparation can be
concentrated to decrease fluid administered. When given with high volumes of
fluids, oxytocin can cause fluid retention and hyponatremia due to its structural
similarity to vasopressin [40]. Rapidly infused at rates of >2 units/min, oxyto-
cin can cause systemic vasodilation and hypotension. For cyanotic patients
with a right-to-left shunt, this may increase the degree of shunting. Although
not well studied, oxytocin may increase pulmonary artery pressures [41, 42]
and should therefore be used cautiously in patients with right heart dysfunction
or existing pulmonary hypertension.
(iv) Postpartum hemorrhage: Uterine atony is the most common cause of postpartum
hemorrhage (PPH). Therefore, the goal of pharmacological treatment of PPH is
to increase uterine muscle tone. Oxytocin is the first-line treatment for PPH. It is
more likely to be given rapidly this setting, so vigilance for the expected side
effects of hypotension and reflex tachycardia is warranted. Misoprostol may also
be administered for uterine atony. As with induction of labor, it can generally be
used safely in this setting. Other agents used for the treatment of postpartum
hemorrhage include methylergonovine (ergometrine in the UK) and carboprost
(synthetic prostaglandin F2α); both are administered via intramuscular injection.
Methylergonovine can cause arteriolar constriction and hypertension. It should
be avoided in patients with heart disease. Carboprost can cause bronchoconstric-
tion, especially in patients with a history of asthma. This can lead to increased
14  Ebstein Anomaly 217

pulmonary arterial pressures and increased hypoxemia, which would be espe-

cially detrimental to patients with an intracardiac shunt or right ventricular dys-
function and should be used under close observation.
(v) Infective endocarditis prophylaxis: EA patients with cyanosis or who have tri-
cuspid valve replacement or repair using prosthetic material and residual val-
vular regurgitation should be considered at increased risk for infective
endocarditis. Consideration of antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended in high-­
risk patients undergoing invasive dental procedures. However, vaginal delivery
and Caesarean section are not considered high-risk procedures, and antibiotic
prophylaxis is not recommended by the ESC or AHA/ACC unless the delivery
is associated with an infection [43, 44]. However, other sources consider infec-
tive endocarditis prophylaxis reasonable for delivery in high-risk patients,
including those with cyanosis [26, 34].

14.3.11  Postpartum Care

14.3.11.1  Monitoring
Where the patient will be recovered, postdelivery depends on the severity of her
cardiac disease and consequently the level of required monitoring in the context of
the logistics and capabilities of the institution. Patients who are NYHA class I
throughout their pregnancy and are at elevated risk for arrhythmia should be moni-
tored on cardiac telemetry. Patients with cyanosis or heart failure, or any other
patients requiring invasive monitoring, may be best observed in an ICU for recov-
ery. There is little evidence of the optimal duration of monitoring after delivery.
Decisions regarding duration of monitoring should be made on a case-by-case basis.
However, given the known increased cardiac demands for the first 24–48 h postpar-
tum, monitoring for this length of time is reasonable, as this would be the time
period at highest risk for cardiac complication. Patients with heart failure or cyano-
sis will likely require a longer duration of monitoring than patients with mild
disease.

14.3.12  Specific Precautions in the Postpartum Period

(i) Fluid management: Ideally, EA patients should be euvolemic during the post-
partum period. Patients with ventricular dysfunction, particularly left sided,
and/or heart failure and cyanosis should be judiciously managed and excessive
IV fluid replacement avoided. CVP monitoring may be a helpful adjunct guid-
ing fluid replacement. Blood loss from delivery and the postpartum period is
generally replaced with crystalloid, although colloid can also be used in patients
at high risk for volume overload and pulmonary edema, and if needed, gentle
diuresis can be undertaken.
(ii) Antithrombotic regimen: Patients continue to be at increased risk for thrombo-
embolic events in the postpartum period. Patients who are known to be at high
risk, including those with sustained atrial arrhythmia, severely depressed
218 A. Girnius et al.

ventricular function, or cyanosis, may already be receiving antithrombotic pro-

phylaxis or treatment. Patients who received anticoagulation (therapeutic or
prophylactic) are recommended to continue for at least 6 weeks postpartum
[45]. Women with a high risk for venous thromboembolism are also recom-
mended to wear graduated compression stockings in the postpartum period
[45]. Patients who had a Caesarean delivery or are immobile after delivery
should be considered for pharmacologic prophylaxis.

14.3.13  Discharge Plan

(i) Duration of stay in hospital: Postpartum hospital stay length varies by mode of
delivery, underlying maternal condition, and complications encountered dur-
ing delivery or in the postpartum period. For women with EA, a hospital stay
of at least 48 h is recommended to monitor for arrhythmia and other complica-
tions. Women with heart failure or cyanosis will likely have a longer postpar-
tum hospital stay, although the optimal length is unknown.
(ii) Review of cardiac medication: Before each patient’s discharge, their current
medications should be reviewed and updated as needed. Medications that were
changed during pregnancy because of known fetal risk can be restarted in the
postpartum period, but if the patient is breastfeeding, each medication should
be reviewed for safety and risk of neonatal transmission.
(iii) Follow-up plan: Patients who tolerated labor and delivery well without cardiac
complication should be seen for a routine postpartum visit after 6–8 weeks. If
the patient has known valvular disease, right or left heart dysfunction or cya-
nosis, an echo can be performed at 6–8 weeks postpartum as well. Further
follow-up should be based on the patient’s clinical condition.

14.4 Impact of Physiological Changes of Pregnancy

The effect of pregnancy on EA circulatory function depends heavily on the pre-

conception hemodynamic state of the EA patient. Tricuspid regurgitation may
worsen as the circulatory volume augments and cardiac chamber dilation occurs.
The clinical impact of this depends on preexisting right atrial compliance, which,
if already diminished, is likely to provoke congestive heart failure. Worsened tri-
cuspid regurgitation may also alter the degree of interatrial shunting. A greater
degree of tricuspid regurgitation in the face of poor right atrial compliance may
precipitate more right-to-left atrial shunting resulting in cyanosis [34]. Pregnancy
physiology may also affect the relative compliances of the ventricles through a
direct effect on the myocardium as well as through altered coupling of ventricle to
the distal vascular beds. The systemic vascular resistance is likely to be reduced,
in concert with greater stroke volume and cardiac output demands, altering the
systolic and importantly the diastolic properties of the left ventricle. Similarly, the
pulmonary vascular resistance may also diminish, albeit, to a lesser degree,
14  Ebstein Anomaly 219

altering coupling properties with the dysfunctional right ventricle. In a given

pregnancy with EA, the effects of the altered pregnancy physiology may be diffi-
cult to predict on atrial shunting as so many factors play a potential role. In gen-
eral, however, the decreased systemic vascular resistance and increased cardiac
output seen in pregnancy tend to increase the degree of right-to-left shunt, wors-
ening preexisting cyanosis.
Pregnancy is also a time of increased risk for arrhythmia [27]. Elevated adrener-
gic tone makes the myocardium more irritable and arrhythmogenic. In addition, the
increased plasma volume in pregnancy causes dilation of heart chambers, resulting
in unfavorable alteration in the refractoriness of the myocardium. This occurs
through stimulation of stretch-activated ion channels. There is likely a synergistic
effect through these pregnancy-induced phenomena and preexisting arrhythmia
substrates that occur in EA. The net result is a greater degree of arrhythmia
predisposition.

14.4.1  Interactions Between Pregnancy and EA Hemodynamics

in Women with Common Underlying Comorbidities

The prevalence of obesity is increasing internationally [19] as are the associated

cardiorespiratory problems such as obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). OSA is poten-
tially devastating in EA as its adverse effects on pulmonary vascular physiology and
autonomic tone may exacerbate EA circulatory dysfunction. Synergism may occur
through the mass effect of pregnancy and the heightened CO2 chemosensitivity to
precipitate cardiorespiratory symptoms. Obese women are also at increased risk for
hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (such as preeclampsia), diabetes, and thrombo-
embolic disease [20, 21].
During pregnancy, smoking is associated with adverse events, including intra-
uterine growth restriction (IUGR) and abnormal placentation [22]. Although no
direct interaction with cardiovascular physiology has been demonstrated, abnormal
placentation, smoking, and EA pathophysiology are likely in severe cases to act
synergistically in compromising fetal growth.
Preeclampsia complicates 2–8  % of pregnancies worldwide [23, 24].
Although it is fundamentally a microvascular disease of the placenta, it can have
profound effects on the cardiovascular system. Preeclampsia increases systemic
vascular resistance and potentially lowers cardiac output. Patients with severe
forms of EA, especially those with left ventricular dysfunction, may already
have a relatively low cardiac output. The further decrease seen in preeclampsia
may trigger clinical heart failure [25]. Renal dysfunction and proteinuria, asso-
ciated with cyanosis in EA, can complicate the diagnosis of preeclampsia.
Thrombocytopenia and coagulation abnormalities seen in preeclampsia may
also exacerbate preexisting coagulopathy of cyanotic heart disease, thereby
increasing the bleeding risk [17].
Antepartum hemorrhage is most commonly secondary to placental disorders
such as placenta previa and abruption. Postpartum hemorrhage, a common
220 A. Girnius et al.

complication of pregnancy, can be caused by uterine atony, lacerations, surgical

bleeding, and retained products of conception. The main physiologic concerns with
obstetric hemorrhage are loss of intravascular volume and appropriate function of
coagulation mechanisms. Patients with EA and cyanosis have a baseline increased
bleeding risk secondary to cyanosis-related abnormalities in the coagulation system
[26]. They are at higher risk for obstetrical hemorrhage, and it may be more difficult
to control the bleeding if hemorrhage does occur.
Patients with congenital heart disease have a higher incidence of spontaneous
preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM) and preterm labor [27–30]. The
course after PPROM depends on the gestational age and clinical situation, as well
as the risks and benefits to the patient. The patient may be managed expectantly or
have labor induced with the goal of delivery. The most significant risks associated
with expectant management in this population are the likelihood of prolonged
immobility and concomitant increase risk of thromboembolic events and the pro-
gressive risk of infection.

14.5 Preconception Counseling

14.5.1 Fertility

Historically, many women with EA were counseled not to become pregnant, so their
fertility status is unknown [17, 19, 20, 46, 47]. The fertility rate of EA women likely
depends on the presence and degree of cyanosis. Canobbio et al. found that acyanotic
women had similar menstrual patterns to control women [48]. On this basis, one would
suspect that the fertility of acyanotic women is preserved. In contrast, women with
cyanotic CHD are more likely to suffer from infertility. Indeed, in Canobbio et al.’s
study, cyanotic women had significantly delayed onset of menstruation and a higher
incidence of abnormal menstrual cycles, suggesting an abnormality in the hypothalamic-­
pituitary-ovarian axis [48]. It is reasonable to think that women with cyanotic heart
disease, including EA patients with right-to-left shunts, have an increased rate of infer-
tility. Women with more severe cyanosis (saturation <85 % and hemoglobin >20 g/l)
are also more likely to experience spontaneous early pregnancy losses [35].

14.5.2  Risk of  Transmission

Although the literature on EA heritability is limited, transmission rates are reported

to be 6 % if the mother is affected and 1 % if the father is affected. In a historical
study of 26 families with EA, no case of inheritance of this anomaly was found in
93 first-degree relatives [49]. In a report from the Mayo Clinic, the overall incidence
of CHD in 158 offspring of parents with EA was 4 % (6 of 158), with one case of
familial EA [17]. Consultation with a geneticist should be offered for a patient-­
specific discussion of risks and available testing options.
14  Ebstein Anomaly 221

Table 14.1  WHO classification of risk for pregnancy in cardiovascular disease

WHO class Description
I Risk no higher than general population
II Small increased risk of maternal morbidity and mortality
III Significant expected increased risk of maternal morbidity and mortality.
Expert cardiac and obstetric prepregnancy, antenatal and postnatal care
required
IV Pregnancy contraindicated; very high risk of maternal mortality or severe
morbidity. Termination should be discussed. If pregnancy continues, care as
for class III
Adapted from Thorne

14.5.3  EA Pregnancy Risk Scores

EA does not specifically appear in the WHO classification (see Table 14.1); how-
ever, patients can still be classified based on their individual manifestations of
EA. Cyanotic heart disease and “other complex congenital heart disease,” which
would likely encompass many manifestations of EA, are considered WHO class
III [50]. In their 2011 guidelines on the management of cardiovascular disease
during pregnancy, the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) considered women
with EA who did not have heart failure or cyanosis to be WHO class II, otherwise
as class III [24].

14.5.4  Recommended Preconception Counseling Workup

Ideally, EA women should be seen while contemplating pregnancy. This should

preferably be done by a maternal-fetal medicine specialist and an ACHD cardiolo-
gist. A thorough review of their cardiac and obstetric history should be obtained. A
comprehensive, cardiac-focused physical exam should be conducted, honing in on
signs and symptoms of chronic hypoxemia, congestive heart failure, arrhythmia,
and any evidence of other systemic manifestations of EA. A baseline ECG and
transthoracic echocardiogram should be obtained if they have not been done
recently. Functional capacity and systemic saturation at rest and during exercise
should be measured during cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Further testing, which
may include a cardiac MRI, will depend on the severity of disease and the current
cardiac status of each individual patient. Useful laboratory investigations include
hemoglobin to assess for anemia or erythrocytosis secondary to a shunt-related cya-
nosis, platelet count and prothrombin time to assess coagulation status, and blood
urea nitrogen and creatinine to assess renal function. In cyanotic patients, it may be
useful to obtain a baseline urine protein measurement. A medication review should
be undertaken, with particular attention to medications that should be avoided in
pregnancy.
222 A. Girnius et al.

14.5.5  Review of Cardiac Medication

Patients with EA will have varied medications based on the severity of the lesion, associ-
ated conditions, and baseline cardiac status. Common considerations for EA patients are
antiarrhythmic and heart failure medications. No antiarrhythmic drug has been shown
completely safe during the first trimester, so continuation of maintenance antiarrhyth-
mics during this time should be based on the frequency and tolerability of the underlying
arrhythmia. If treatment is needed, the lowest effective dose should be used [24].

14.5.6  Effects of Pregnancy on Long-Term Outcome

Scant EA-specific data exist on the long-term cardiac effects of pregnancy. Several
retrospective studies quantify long-term outcomes in women with CHD. A
questionnaire-­based study focused on functional status and ability to work and exer-
cise in 267 women. Median follow-up time was 11 years. Sixty-seven percent of
respondents were healthy and capable with a stable functional status. Thirty-three
percent had pregnancies complicated by decrease in NYHA class. Sixty-six percent
of those patients had recovered by the time of follow-up [51]. Others have studied
the occurrence of adverse cardiac events (death, arrhythmia, stroke, heart failure/
pulmonary edema) up to 5 years postpartum. Long-term cardiac event rates were
6.4–12 %. Patients with a cardiac event during pregnancy were significantly more
likely to have a long-term cardiac incident [52, 53]. Risk factors for long-term car-
diac events appear to be similar to those for peripartum cardiac events. The most
common long-term complications seen in EA patients were arrhythmias [52, 53]. It
is unknown if pregnancy altered the natural history of disease or if these arrhyth-
mias would have been observed without pregnancy. Nonetheless, for EA patients
with good prepregnancy functional status, there is a relatively low risk for long-term
postpartum complication. Patients with cyanosis or heart failure are likely at higher
risk for long-term complications, including worsening of functional status, given
their higher risk for cardiac events during pregnancy.

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Fontan
15
Margherita Ministeri and Michael A. Gatzoulis

Abbreviations

ACC American College of Cardiology

AHA American Heart Association
BP Blood pressure
CHD Congenital heart disease
CO Cardiac output
CPET Cardiopulmonary exercise test
CT Computed tomography
ECG Electrocardiogram
EF Ejection fraction
FC Fontan circulation
LMWH Low molecular weight heparin
MR Magnetic resonance
NYHA New York Heart Association
SVT Supraventricular tachycardia
TCPC Total cavopulmonary conversion

M. Ministeri, MD (*)
Adult Congenital Heart Centre and Centre for Pulmonary Hypertension,
Royal Brompton Hospital, London, UK
National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, UK
Division of Cardiology, Ferrarotto Hospital, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
M.A. Gatzoulis, MD, PhD, FACC, FESC
Adult Congenital Heart Centre and Centre for Pulmonary Hypertension,
Royal Brompton Hospital, London, UK
National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 225

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_15
226 M. Ministeri and M.A. Gatzoulis

Key Facts
Incidence: The Fontan operation is a palliative procedure for patients with
tricuspid atresia, double-inlet ventricle, double-outlet ventricle, pulmonary
atresia with intact septum and hypoplastic left heart syndrome, all rare
congenital lesions. About 5 % of all patients with congenital heart disease
need a Fontan operation.
Inheritance: Between 3 and 10 % of offspring.
Medication: Oral anticoagulation should be replaced by LMWH for at least
the first trimester.
World Health Organization class: III–IV.
Risk of pregnancy: 40 % risk of miscarriage. Risk of deterioration in ventricu-
lar function and increasing atrioventricular valve regurgitation. Elevation
in the right atrial pressure increases tachyarrhythmias.
Life expectancy: Clearly decreased. After successful surgery, 70–76 % are
alive at 25 years.

Key Management
Preconception: Physical examination, ECG, echo, BNP and CMR. Exercise
testing to assess increase cardiac output and oxygen saturation. Consider
the left/right heart catheterisation or CT scan. Arrhythmias, haemody-
namic lesions, anaemia and infection diagnosed and treated.
Pregnancy: Intensive monitoring in a tertiary, multidisciplinary environment.
Key to detect early signs of heart failure, arrhythmia, thromboembolic
complications and worsening cyanosis. Serial echocardiograms are needed.
Limit exercise and take adequate rest.
Labour: Vaginal delivery is preferable.
Postpartum: Infuse oxytocin at lowest effective dose. In-hospital observa-
tion for at least 48 h longer (1 week) where the risk of cardiac decom-
pensation is high.

15.1 The Condition

The Fontan operation was originally introduced, in 1971, as a palliative procedure

for patients with tricuspid atresia [1]. It has since been used extensively to provide
palliation for patients with several forms of congenital heart disease unsuitable for
biventricular circulation including double-inlet ventricle, double-outlet ventricle,
pulmonary atresia with intact septum and hypoplastic left heart syndrome. The vena
cava flow is directed to the pulmonary arteries bypassing the ventricle. Since the first
description, the Fontan procedure has evolved over the years, most notably with the
substitution of the right atrial to pulmonary artery anastomosis with cavopulmonary
15 Fontan 227

a b c

Fig. 15.1  Variations of Fontan operation. (a) The modified classic Fontan procedure: direct com-
munication between the right atrium and the pulmonary artery. (b) The total cavopulmonary con-
nection (TCPC) with an intra-atrial lateral tunnel: the blood from the inferior vena cava is directed
to the inferior portion of the right pulmonary artery, and the superior vena is directly connected to
the pulmonary artery via a Glenn shunt. There is a fenestration in the lateral tunnel allowing shunt-
ing from the Fontan to common atrium. (c) Total cavopulmonary connection (TCPC) with an
extracardiac conduit: the right atrium is excluded, the synthetic conduit is placed from the inferior
vena cava to the right pulmonary artery, and the superior vena cava is connected to the right pul-
monary artery via a Glenn shunt. This is the most widely used Fontan procedure

connections [2]. Whether achieved by direct atriopulmonary anastomoses or via

intra- or extracardiac total cavopulmonary connections, the objective of Fontan sur-
gery is to separate systemic from pulmonary circulations and reduce or abolish cya-
nosis (Fig. 15.1). In short, Fontan physiology consists of one functional ventricle that
generates systemic blood flow, with systemic venous return directed into the pulmo-
nary arteries. The pulmonary circulation is driven by the remaining kinetic energy
from the single ventricle output, the transpulmonary gradient (the difference between
mean central venous pressure and systemic ventricle end-diastolic pressure) and the
negative intrathoracic pressure created by inspiration. Therefore, the Fontan circula-
tion is volume dependent that requires an adequate preload and normal to low after-
load to maintain cardiac output.
The surgical progress resulted in significantly improved long-term survival (90 %
at 10 years, 83 % at 20 years, and 70–76 % at 25 years), and an increasing number
of women who have undergone the Fontan surgery in childhood are surviving into
adulthood; some of them become pregnant [3, 4]. While the growing body of litera-
ture is improving efforts to predict risk and provide evidence-based counselling,
data remain scarce for certain subtypes of congenital heart disease, including com-
plex congenital heart defects with Fontan palliation. In general, patients with Fontan
circulation can be hampered by various late complications that can perturb the deli-
cate physiologic balance that allows venous propulsion of blood flow through the
pulmonary circulation. Common long-term sequel includes severe right atrium dila-
tation, atrial bradyarrhythmias and tachyarrhythmias, thromboemboli, hepatic dys-
function, progressive ventricular dysfunction, atrioventricular valve regurgitation,
protein-losing enteropathy and worsening cyanosis from systemic venous collater-
alisation, pulmonary arteriovenous malformations and pulmonary vein compres-
sion. Based on the complexity of this patient population, historically women who
228 M. Ministeri and M.A. Gatzoulis

Table 15.1  Most common maternal and neonatal Maternal complications

complications in pregnant women with the Fontan Cardiac
circulation Arrhythmias, SVT
Heart failure
Thromboembolic episodes
Obstetric
Miscarriages
Premature rupture of membrane
Premature labour and delivery
Postpartum haemorrhage
Neonatal complications
Intrauterine growth retardation
Prematurity
Small for gestational age birthweight
SVT supraventricular tachycardia

had a Fontan operation were advised to refrain from pregnancy. Currently Fontan
circulation is not an absolute contraindication to pregnancy; however, risks must be
thoughtfully considered. In this setting, a multidisciplinary approach is clearly nec-
essary, including high-risk obstetric care, specialised cardiology assessment and
follow-up, genetic counselling and anaesthetic and neonatal care.

15.2 Pregnancy Outcome

15.2.1 Fetal Outcomes

In women with Fontan circulation, there is a higher risk of fetal and neonatal adverse
events (Tables 15.1 and 15.2). The fetus is at risk of miscarriage, intrauterine growth
retardation and prematurity. If the mother is cyanotic, this risk is even higher [5]. In
addition, maternal drug therapy may adversely affect the fetus; the most common of
these are oral anticoagulants [6] and beta-blockers [7]. The high incidence of miscar-
riage could be also the effect of ovarian dysfunction and pelvic venous hypertension.
The most common neonatal complications are prematurity and small for gestational
age birthweight [8–10]. Different causes may account for this: (a) obstetric compli-
cations such as premature rupture of membranes and preterm labour, (b) the limited
ability of the heart after a Fontan operation to increase cardiac output and cope with
the increased demands of pregnancy and delivery, and (c) the decreased placental
oxygen delivery and poor neonatal outcome in a cyanotic patient. In any case, prema-
ture delivery is a leading cause of infant morbidity and mortality. Growth of the fetus
should be monitored frequently throughout pregnancy.
Despite the severe complexity of mother’s heart condition, the overall incidence
of congenital heart disease (CHD) in the children is not high (5.6 % and 6.9 %,
respectively, in the French and Mayo Clinic series). Furthermore, when CHD
recurs, it does not need to be severe (overall one case with the single ventricle, one
with the left superior vena cava, one with the patent ductus arteriosus and one with
15 Fontan 229

Table 15.2  Key points in the management of pregnant women with the Fontan circulation
Preconception counselling
Offer a timely pre-pregnancy counselling in a joint clinic
Discuss reproductive health to prevent false perceptions and reveal reproductive disorders
Asses carefully maternal cardiac status (using clinical examination and full investigations)
Give information on fetal risk
Address and treat all reversible causes of failing FC and precipitating factors
Discuss about effective contraceptive methods in high-risk patients
Gestation period
Offer a close cardiovascular monitoring in a tertiary, multidisciplinary environment
Use medications with the lowest-risk profile for the fetus
Limit strenuous exercise and advise against lying flat to avoid aortocaval compression
Consider some form of antithrombotic therapy:
 Full anticoagulation with LMWH in higher thrombotic risk patients
 Prophylactic weight-adjusted LMWH or aspirin in the lower thrombotic risk patients
Offer a detailed fetal echocardiogram at 16–23 weeks’ gestation
Monitor growth of the fetus frequently throughout pregnancy
Offer early termination in cases of unintended/high-risk pregnancy
Delivery/postpartum period
Reserve Caesarean section for obstetric indications and for patients in severe heart failure
Prefer spinal-epidural anaesthesia with spontaneous ventilation to general anaesthesia
Maintain left lateral decubitus position to assure a good preload
Ensure good control of pain and anxiety during delivery using regional techniques, intravenous
pain medications and other non-pharmacological techniques
Assure maternal monitoring during labour and delivery including continuous ECG/BP
monitoring and pulse oximetry and occasionally invasive BP recording
Consider antibiotic prophylaxis at the time of delivery
If necessary to support systemic CO, use milrinone instead of ephedrine and phenylephrine
Assure adequate hydration and use of compression stockings to reduce the risk of thrombotic
events
Infuse oxytocin at the slowest effective dose to avoid significant vasodilation and hypotension
FC Fontan circulation, LMWH low molecular weight heparin, ECG electrocardiogram, BP blood
pressure, CO cardiac output

the membranous ventricular septal defect) [9, 10]. However, all pregnant patients
with Fontan circulation should be offered a detailed fetal echocardiogram at
16–23 weeks of gestation.

15.2.2 Maternal Outcomes

Maternal complications are low in a well-functioning Fontan patient. In the largest

series of pregnant women with Fontan operation published to date (59 pregnancies
in 37 patients from a multicentre French study [9]; 70 pregnancies in 19 patients
from the Mayo Clinic’s experience [10]), there have been no reported maternal
deaths; medical issues with earlier pregnancies were not always predictive of diffi-
culties with later pregnancies in the multiparous women. Although there is a risk of
maternal morbidity, most complications are treatable (Table 15.1).
230 M. Ministeri and M.A. Gatzoulis

15.2.3 Arrhythmias

The most common cardiac complication reported is a supraventricular arrhythmia. Past

medical history of arrhythmia was significantly predictive of atrial arrhythmia during
pregnancy, while no association was found with the type of palliation, although review
of the literature indicates that the type of Fontan palliation may play a role in arrhyth-
mia genesis during pregnancy [8]. The mechanism behind this complication involves
scar tissue formation in the right atrium, damage to the sinoatrial node during previous
atriotomy and exposure of the right atrium tissue to elevated pressures. In addition,
pregnancy increases plasma volumes, and elevated levels of oestrogen and progester-
one cause augmentation of adrenergic receptor activity. Atrial arrhythmias are consid-
ered to be a medical emergency and are notoriously resistant to pharmacological
therapy. Hence, electrical cardioversion is often required. In this case, the fetal heart
rate should be checked before and after for the risk of fetal bradycardias. However,
energies of up to 300 W/s have been used without affecting the fetus or inducing pre-
mature labour. Recurrent arrhythmias may be managed with catheter ablation using
CARTO navigation system without fluoroscopy in tertiary ACHD centres [11].

15.2.4 Heart Failure

Physiological changes related to pregnancy may worsen the mother’s functional

capacity and symptoms of heart failure [12], particularly those with morphological
right ventricles [13], who, when compared to patients with a left ventricle, are more
prone to failure. As a result, there is a high incidence of miscarriage, prematurity
and intrauterine fetal growth retardation. Depending on the woman’s clinical status,
in-patient bed rest, oxygen supplementation and medical treatment of arrhythmia
(diuretic, etc.) should be considered, especially during the third trimester.

15.2.5 Thromboembolism

Thromboembolic complications are possible in patients with the Fontan circulation.

However, in the largest series, the incidence was low, three cases in 59 pregnancies,
two during the antepartum period and one during the peripartum, and there were no
thromboembolic complications amongst 70 pregnancies from the French and
American experience [9, 10]. One can speculate, if these lower complication rates
may be at least in part due to the anticoagulation/antiplatelet therapy and the lower
thrombotic profile of TCPC, present in the majority of the younger pregnant women
with the Fontan circulation.

15.2.6 Obstetric Complications

Obstetric complications appear to be a major problem of pregnancy in the context

of Fontan palliation: miscarriages with higher rates observed in cyanotic patients,
15 Fontan 231

preterm rupture of membranes, premature labour and delivery between 26 and

33 weeks and postpartum haemorrhage are the most common complications.
Although these complications do not lead to maternal mortality, they pose a major
morbidity and mortality risk to the fetus.

15.3 Management

Patients with the Fontan circulation should be cared for in a tertiary, multidisci-
plinary environment where a 24 h service of experienced obstetricians, anaesthe-
tists, cardiologists, cardiac surgeons and neonatologists is available. Careful
planning for antenatal care and delivery is needed. According to cardiovascular
changes occurring in pregnancy, it is appropriate to consider three periods, each
with its own risks.

15.3.1 Pregnancy

The duration of gestation period is often reduced in women with a Fontan circula-
tion (between 26 and 36 weeks) due to preterm rupture of membranes, premature
labour and delivery [8–10]. Monitoring should focus on early signs of heart failure,
arrhythmia, thromboembolic complications and worsening cyanosis. Serial echo-
cardiograms are needed to assess overall ventricular size and function and valve
gradients and determine any changes, which may influence delivery plans. In this
phase, Fontan patients should limit strenuous exercise, obtain adequate rest and be
advised against lying flat during pregnancy to avoid aortocaval compression (rolling
from the supine to the left lateral position increases the stroke volume and cardiac
output). Depending on the individual’s clinical status, in-patient bed rest and oxy-
gen supplementation may be considered during the third trimester.

15.3.2 Labour and Delivery

The cardiovascular system is affected by pain, uterine contractions, medications,

maternal position and type of delivery. The timing and mode of delivery and anaes-
thesia may be selected according to the specific clinical scenario; in general it should
be agreed after a multidisciplinary case discussion including the patient. Vaginal
delivery is preferable because it is associated with less blood loss, less risk of infec-
tion and fewer thromboembolic events [14]. However, it should be undertaken at
institutions where there is considerable experience in neuraxial blockade and assisted
vaginal deliveries. It is important to ensure good control of pain and anxiety to mini-
mise any further increase in cardiac output. This is achieved using regional tech-
niques, intravenous pain medications and other non-pharmacological techniques
[15]. From a haemodynamic point of view, the uterine contractions result in a further
increase in cardiac output by up to 60 %, and after immediately delivery, stroke
232 M. Ministeri and M.A. Gatzoulis

volume increases due to autotransfusion of uterine blood and enhanced venous return
following relief of vena cava obstruction [7, 16].
There is no consensus regarding absolute contraindications to vaginal delivery,
but Caesarean section is reserved for obstetric indications and for patients in severe
heart failure [15]. Delivery by Caesarean section does provide the benefits of mini-
mising the deleterious cardiovascular effects caused by repeated Valsalva manoeu-
vres and the increases in positive intrathoracic pressure required to achieve a
vaginal delivery. Furthermore, a delivery should be scheduled at the time when
maximum clinical support is available, which is more difficult to arrange in the
case of an attempted vaginal delivery. Maternal monitoring during labour and
delivery is obviously necessary and usually includes continuous electrocardio-
graphic, blood pressure monitoring and pulse oximetry and occasionally invasive
blood pressure recording. It is important to avoid dehydration, which may reduce
central venous pressure and blood flow through the cavopulmonary connection to
the lungs. With adequate hydration in combination with the use of compression
stockings, it is also possible to minimise the risk of thrombotic events during
labour and delivery.

15.3.3 Postpartum

The immediate postpartum period is the third phase and also a potentially high-risk
period. It is characterised by further 30 % increase in cardiac output. Despite an
estimated 500–1,000 mL of blood lost during delivery, blood volume expands as a
consequence of the loss of the placental circulatory bed and the contracting uterus.
Hence, there is a risk of cardiac decompensation up to 1 week postpartum. Oxytocin
should be infused at the slowest effective dose in such patients because it can pro-
duce significant vasodilation and hypotension, which may result in devastating car-
diovascular consequences in single ventricle patients [17].

15.3.4 Medical Therapy

Patients with good function of the Fontan circulation usually do not need regular/
chronic medications, with the exception of anticoagulation/antiplatelet therapy.
However, if the patient with single ventricle physiology is optimised with cardiac
drugs, these medications should be continued throughout pregnancy, but the lowest
possible effective dose should be applied. The use of various cardiovascular drugs
during pregnancy has been recently and comprehensively reviewed [18–20]. With
the exception of heparin, almost all cardiovascular medications can be expected to
cross the placental barrier. Whenever possible, medications with the lowest-risk
profile should be used for the management of cardiac disease during pregnancy.
Commonly used cardiac medications that can have detrimental effects on the fetus
or neonate include warfarin, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angio-
tensin receptor blockers. Timing of exposure may be important, and risks and ben-
efits of the medications for the mother need to be considered.
15 Fontan 233

15.3.5 Infectious Endocarditis Prophylaxis

Due to lack of evidence that infective endocarditis is related to vaginal or Caesarean

section, antibiotic prophylaxis is not generally recommended by the American
Heart Association (AHA)/American College of Cardiology (ACC) or European
guidelines [20, 21]. Nevertheless, antibiotic prophylaxis is helpful at the time of
delivery for repaired single ventricle patients. These patients are considered to be at
risk because of the prosthetic material used in the procedure; further the presence of
a shunt increases the risk of a paradoxical septic embolism [17].

15.3.6 Anticoagulation

Patients with the Fontan operation are at increased risk of intracardiac thrombus for-
mation with a reported incidence ranging from 17 to 33 % [22, 23]. This risk is due to
a combination of factors, including the existence of prosthetic material, increased risk
of atrial arrhythmia and low cardiac output resulting in a low-flow prothrombotic state
[24]. In addition, there is evidence that single ventricle physiology is associated with
a baseline deficiency in anticoagulant factors, such as antithrombin III and proteins C
and S. However, this finding may be balanced by an equivalent deficiency in proco-
agulant factors [25]. Overall, there remains controversy regarding the need for routine
anticoagulation in all patients following Fontan surgery. Some groups, such as patients
with a history of thrombosis, low cardiac output, arrhythmias, atrial dilation and origi-
nal right atrium-pulmonary artery connection, are more routinely anticoagulated. A
randomised trial suggested that aspirin is as effective as coumadin in preventing
thrombotic events. However, despite full anticoagulation, thromboembolic events
may still occur in these patients [26]. As showed by Tomkiewicz-Pajak et al. patients
with a Fontan circulation, despite having significantly reduced platelet numbers, have
increased basal platelet activity, increased thrombogenesis, endothelial dysfunction
and evidence of systemic inflammation. Although these data support the use of anti-
platelet therapy in the same study, a significant proportion of aspirin-treated adults
with a Fontan circulation were resistant to aspirin, which may account for the inability
of aspirin to prevent thrombotic complications in these patients [27]. Pregnancy itself
intensifies the risk of venous thromboembolic complications, with an estimated eight-
fold increase, which rises to 11-fold during the peripartum period [28]. Therefore,
despite the lack of solid evidence, pregnant women with Fontan circulation should be
considered for some form of antithrombotic therapy, either full anticoagulation with
low molecular weight heparin in higher thrombotic risk patients, prophylactic weight-
adjusted low molecular weight heparin (owing to the teratogenic effects of coumadin)
or aspirin. The last can be used either in isolation or combined with anticoagulant
agents but should be stopped at 35 weeks of gestation.

15.3.7 Anaesthetic Management

The goal of any anaesthetic should be to balance the pulmonary and systemic blood
flow by preserving ventricular systolic function, minimising the cardiac depressant
234 M. Ministeri and M.A. Gatzoulis

effects of anaesthetic agents, keeping pulmonary vascular resistance low and main-
taining sinus rhythm, all of which are crucial in maintaining an adequate cardiac out-
put. Spontaneous ventilation is beneficial in that the negative intrathoracic pressure
created during inspiration augments blood flow to the lungs and thus improves oxy-
genation [29]. The use of low-dose epidural analgesia or sequential low-dose com-
bined spinal-epidural anaesthesia may therefore be preferred to general anaesthesia
since positive pressure ventilation may result in decreased preload and thus a decreased
cardiac output. A decrease in pulmonary vascular resistance is facilitated by providing
supplemental oxygen, keeping the PCO2 level normal to low normal, and preventing
and treating respiratory acidosis. Regional anaesthesia also provides the theoretical
benefit of avoiding the negative inotropic effects of most anaesthetic agents. If general
anaesthesia is necessary, in addition to the standard pregnancy precautions, the left
lateral decubitus position is crucial in maintaining preload in patients with single ven-
tricle physiology. Ventilatory parameters should keep peak airway pressures low in
order to decrease pulmonary vascular resistance and maintain oxygenation; spontane-
ous ventilation should be resumed as soon as possible. Haemodynamically stable
induction agents such as ketamine and etomidate also should be considered. When it
is necessary to support systemic cardiac output, milrinone, an inotrope and vasodila-
tor acting through increases in contractility and decreases in pulmonary vascular resis-
tance, may be the drug of choice in patients with single ventricle physiology, significant
baseline cyanosis, and a low cardiac output state [30]. The commonly used vasopres-
sors (ephedrine and phenylephrine) have disadvantages for patients with single ven-
tricle physiology, causing excessive tachycardia (which can cause decreased preload
and cardiac output) and increasing in pulmonary vascular resistance and systemic
vascular resistance, both of which may negatively affect cardiac output.
For either vaginal delivery or Caesarean section, it is advisable to monitor the
patients with a continuous ECG, have large-bore intravenous access and place an
arterial catheter for constant BP evaluation. For patients with decreased cardiac
function, reliable central access for vasoactive medications should be achieved with
a central catheter [31]. An echocardiogram assessing structure and ventricular func-
tion helps guide decisions and optimisation of cardiac function. It is important to
avoid hypovolaemia during the labour and postpartum period because it may reduce
central venous pressure and blood flow through the cavopulmonary connection to
the lungs. Sinus rhythm should be maintained with medications such as beta-­
blockers, channel blockers or DC cardioversion, if necessary, in a haemodynami-
cally unstable parturient.

15.4 Impact of Physiological Changes of Pregnancy

The first trimester of gestation is characterised by several changes in haemodynamic

parameters: (a) increase in total blood volume, plasma volume and red blood cell
volume; (b) increase in cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate; and (c) decrease
in systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance a consequence of hormonal influ-
ences and the later development of the high-flow, low-resistance maternal-placental
15 Fontan 235

circulation [7, 16]. At the end of gestation, i.e. third trimester, rapid growth of the
fetus and enlargement of the uterus result in haemodynamically significant compres-
sion of the inferior vena cava and a resultant drop in venous return to the heart and in
cardiac output especially in supine position [32]. These changes pose particular chal-
lenges to Fontan patients who are very sensitive to preload and thus at risk for
oedema, ascites and arrhythmias. Hence, frequent cardiac assessment should be in
place throughout pregnancy.

15.5 Preconception Counselling

The different biopsychological periods in a woman’s life, including menarche, sex-

uality, pregnancies, and menopause, are all interactively associated with the cardio-
vascular system [33]. The causal biologic pathway between the cardiac anomaly
and ovarian function has never been studied in depth and no prospective data are
available. Drenthen et al. reported on a series of 38 female patients with Fontan pal-
liation, whereas age at menarche was on average 14.6 years, which is significantly
higher than the 13.0–13.2 years found in the general population in the Netherlands
and Belgium. The incidence of primary amenorrhoea furthermore was particularly
high [8]. It has been hypothesised that in Fontan patients, abnormal menstrual pat-
terns represent recurrent anovulatory cycles, dysfunction of the hypopituitary-­
ovarian axis or disturbed uterine homeostasis due to chronic hypoxemia before the
palliation, chronic venous congestion or hyperviscosity [34]. In addition to the car-
diac defect itself, repeat surgical interventions during childhood might have inter-
fered with the complex physiologic processes involved in the ovarian cycle. Recent
data derived from a multicentre French study revealed that the infertility rate is high
in Fontan population compared to healthy women of the same age (6 %) [9]. These
data are consistent with the Mayo Clinic’s experience regarding 138 women with
available contraception/pregnancy data; there were 35 women with known pregnan-
cies amongst them but only 49/138 (36 %) patients with previous counselling against
pregnancy [10]. This may suggest possible difficulty of Fontan female patients in
becoming pregnant, independent of cardiac concerns, due to an underling infertility
problem.
Vigl et al. showed that women with complex or cyanotic cardiac anomalies expe-
rienced reproductive and sexuality disorders: amongst 536 adult female patients
with CHD, menarche was significantly delayed with increased risk of menstrual
irregularities and menstrual discomfort and increased or altered cardiac symptoms
during sexual activity [35]. It is difficult to ascertain how much of these reports
relate to biological-organic dysfunction or to psychosocial issues in the context of
chronic illness. Scars and cyanosis in adult patients with CHD as well as the fear of
physical overexertion increase self-consciousness and decrease body image, which
could account for the decreased levels of sexual activity in these patients [36, 37].
Although patients with CHD are physically limited by their condition, anxiety about
possible complications could also play a role. Reid et al. reported that women with
complex CHD, like Fontan patients, have the highest levels of concern regarding
236 M. Ministeri and M.A. Gatzoulis

their fertility and risk of genetic transmission of CHD, as well as concerns about
adverse effects of pregnancy on their own health [38].
These data emphasise the need to be particularly attentive to the discussion on
sexual health with female patients to prevent false perceptions. In addition, it is
important for the medical point of view to consider the clinical implications of
chronic anovulation, deciding whether they represent an underactivity of the hypo-
thalamic pituitary ovarian axis, and so cause a hypo-oestrogenic state with risks of
bone under-mineralisation or a polycystic ovarian situation, where high baseline
levels of oestrogen promote unopposed endometrial growth resulting in an
increased risk of endometrial hyperplasia, the formation of polyps, fibroids and
histologic atypia. In fact, menorrhagia after anovulatory cycles is a relevant cause
of iron-­deficiency anaemia. Furthermore, menorrhagia has been named a possible
prothrombotic condition in itself, increasing the risk of thrombotic events [39].
All Fontan women of reproductive age should undergo thorough evaluation
prior to becoming pregnant. This should be provided in a joint clinic by an obstetri-
cian with expertise in high-risk pregnancy and a cardiologist with special training
in adult congenital heart disease. This evaluation should focus first on identifying
and quantifying the risk to the mother. Second, it should address potential risks to
the fetus, including the risk of recurrence of congenital heart disease. Parental life
expectancy should be discussed, as also premature death, disability, or the need for
major surgery will obviously affect a couple’s ability to care for their child. This
consultation allows women to make an informed decision. Furthermore, the evalu-
ation prior to counselling may uncover an anatomical or functional problem that
should be addressed before pregnancy. These may include arrhythmias, decreased
systolic function of the systemic ventricle, cyanosis, heart failure, venous pathway
obstruction or leak, protein-losing enteropathy, etc. Hence, a preconception evalu-
ation should involve at a minimum a physical examination, electrocardiogram,
echocardiogram and blood tests. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging should also
be part of this evaluation because transthoracic echocardiography may provide
only limited information on ventricular function. Cardiopulmonary exercise test-
ing may be helpful to assess the woman’s ability to increase cardiac output and
preserve oxygen saturation during exercise. Further investigations should be con-
sidered on a case-by-case basis, but may include left/right heart catheterisation or
CT scan. All reversible causes of failing Fontan circulation (arrhythmias, haemo-
dynamic lesions) and precipitating factors such as anaemia should be sought and
treated, Fig. 15.2.
Pregnancy, with the increased blood volume and tendency for thrombosis, is a
risk for patients with Fontan circulation. This can result in deterioration in ventricu-
lar function and increasing atrioventricular valve regurgitation. The inevitable ele-
vation in the right atrial pressure predisposes to tachyarrhythmias and worsening of
cyanosis if a right-to-left shunt is present [40, 41]. There is no standardised risk
stratification system, which is able to distinguish between high-risk and low-risk
Fontan women during pregnancy. According to the risk assessment analysis of preg-
nant women with congenital and acquired heart disease proposed by Siu et al. it is
15 Fontan 237

Assess maternal risk during preconception counselling

Clinical examination, ECG, echocardiogram, blood tests, cardiac MR, CPET, heart catheterization, CT scan

• NYHA > II Reversible causes of failing the FC: • NYHA I or II

• Ventricle function, EF < 40% • Arrhythmias • Preserved ventricular systolic
• Cyanosis • Venous pathway obstruction function
• Pulmonary hypertension • Baffle leak • No cyanosis
• Arrhythmias Reversible cause of cyanosis: • No history of arrhythmias or
• Renal failure • Persistent interatrial Fontan related complications
• Liver failure communication or baffle leak
• Protein-losing enteropathy • Systemic venous collaterals

High risk Optimize the Fontan circulation Low risk

Discourage pregnancy
Close cardiovascular monitoring
throughout pregnancy, delivery
Effective methods of contraception and the postpartum

Consider
• Arrhythmias ablation
• Interventional therapies to
solve right to leaft shunt

Re-asses maternal risk after target therapies

Fig. 15.2  Proposed algorithm for maternal risk assessment during pregnancy in women with the
Fontan circulation (FC). ECG electrocardiogram, MR magnetic resonance, CPET cardiopulmo-
nary exercise test, CT computed tomography. EF ejection fraction

possible to recognise specific clinical situations that significantly increase the risk
of cardiac events during pregnancy [42, 43]:

• Fontan women with poor functional class before pregnancy (New York Heart
Association functional classification > II)
• Cyanosis
• Impaired systemic ventricular function (ejection fraction <40 %)
• Pulmonary hypertension
• Preconception history of adverse cardiac events such as symptomatic arrhyth-
mia, stroke, transient ischaemic attack and pulmonary oedema
• Other major complications related to Fontan physiology

In presence of one or more of these clinical circumstances, a woman should be

discouraged from becoming pregnant as there is a high risk of significant morbidity
238 M. Ministeri and M.A. Gatzoulis

or mortality. Effective methods of contraception should be discussed, and, in the

case of an unintended pregnancy, early termination should be offered. Combined
oral contraceptives should be avoided because of the prothrombotic effects of oes-
trogen. Depot injections of progestogen, or an intrauterine device impregnated with
progestogen, are highly effective and safe. Sterilisation should be considered for
women in whom pregnancy would carry a prohibitively high risk or when a couple
decide that they never want to have children. However, it is important to consider
the surgical risks associated with the procedure.
Women with Fontan palliation can have a much lower pregnancy-related risk if
they are functional class (NYHA) I or II, have preserved ventricular function, have
no cyanosis at rest or during exercise and have no history of arrhythmia. Although
in this scenario maternal mortality risk appears low, arrhythmias, heart failure and
thromboembolic events may still occur. All women should be aware, therefore, that
they will need close cardiovascular monitoring in a tertiary, multidisciplinary envi-
ronment throughout pregnancy, delivery and the postpartum.

15.5.1 Preconception Interventions to Reduce Cyanosis

In the absence of an atrial fenestration, patients with a Fontan circulation have

systemic arterial O2 saturation over 94 % and normal haemoglobin level [44].
Common causes of worsening hypoxemia include shunting through a persistent
interatrial communication or a baffle leak [45], systemic venous collaterals, pul-
monary arteriovenous malformations, progressive ventricular dysfunction with
or without atrioventricular valve regurgitation, pulmonary venous compression
[46] and pulmonary restrictive pathology. If a patient is cyanotic, she has a
greater chance of complications during pregnancy [47]. In their literature review
of 2,491 pregnancies in women with congenital heart disease, Drenthen et al.
reported that cyanotic patients (the single ventricle with cyanosis was not a sepa-
rate category) had a 40 % spontaneous abortion rate, 3 % developed arrhythmias,
14 % developed heart failure, and 3 % developed endocarditis. In contrast,
patients with cyanosis in the setting of Fontan had rates of spontaneous abortion
and dysrhythmias equal to 40 % and 16 %, respectively, but no episodes of heart
failure or endocarditis. Perinatal mortality was 3 % in the overall cyanotic group
and less than 1 % in the Fontan group [5]. Such findings reinforce the need to
prevent or minimise cyanosis. If cyanosis is the major concern in a woman with
good function of the Fontan circuit, closure of the right-­to-­left shunt secondary
to atrial fenestration or baffle leak before pregnancy should be undertaken to
improve the outcome of the pregnancy. Usually, the procedure can be performed
percutaneously with transcatheter umbrella devices or covered stents [45].
Obliteration of systemic venous collaterals or pulmonary arteriovenous malfor-
mations by detachable coils may also be considered, albeit often complicated by
high rates of recurrence [48].
15 Fontan 239

15.5.2 Total Cavopulmonary Conversion (TCPC)

Despite a higher incidence of arrhythmias and thromboembolic complications with

classical Fontan circuits, the desire to pursue pregnancy cannot currently be consid-
ered a sufficient indication for TCPC, given the associated surgical risks and resid-
ual poorly defined maternal and fetal complication rates.

15.5.3 Fertility Treatment

Therapeutic interventions to overcome infertility may carry risks, in particular

thromboembolic complications and fluid overload. During in vitro fertilisation, con-
trolled ovarian stimulation leads to multiple oocytes and supraphysiological levels
of oestrogens [49, 50]. The consequence is an increase in the procoagulant state
during pregnancy and the possibility of multiple pregnancies. Both of these condi-
tions can worsen the outcome of pregnancy in these women.

15.5.4 Termination of Pregnancy

Unplanned pregnancies in women with high risk of morbidity/mortality may require

termination as a therapeutic intervention. It should be performed as soon as the deci-
sion has been made because the risk of termination of pregnancy increases with
increasing gestational age. Ideally, in the first trimester, suction curettage under
local anaesthesia is the preferred method. Medical abortion with oral antiprogester-
ones and vaginally administered prostaglandins is probably contraindicated because
of the haemodynamic and other adverse effects (systemic vasodilation with hypo-
tension, increasing cyanosis, heavy bleeding and retention of products with infec-
tion) are unpredictable.

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Cyanotic Lesions
16
Matthias Greutmann and Daniel Tobler

Abbreviation

SpO2 Transcutaneous oxygen saturation

Key Facts
Incidence: The number of women with cyanotic heart defects in childbearing
age become increasingly rare. These women are however at high risk
­during pregnancy
Inheritance: 3–5 %, In the case of associaten with 22q11-microdeletion syn-
drome (autosomal dominant inheritance) the risk is much higher.
Medication: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin and aldo-
sterone antagonists are contraindicated.
World Health Organization class: III, but with pulmonary hypertension, IV.
Risk of pregnancy: Spontaneous abortion (50 %), maternal complications
(heart failure (18.9 %), arrhythmias (4.8 %), endocarditis (4.1 %) and
thromboembolic complications (3.6 %).
Life expectancy: Markedly reduced.

M. Greutmann, MD (*)
University Heart Center, Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Zurich,
Zurich, Switzerland
e-mail: [email protected]
D. Tobler, MD
Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Basel,
Basel, Switzerland
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 243

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_16
244 M. Greutmann and D. Tobler

Key Management
Preconception: Detailed review of diagnostic procedures, interventions and
previous complications. Echocardiography: valve and ventricular function,
estimate pulmonary artery pressure (if uncertain then cardiac catheterisa-
tion). If complex anatomy: CMR or CT. Exercise testing. Blood: BNP, full
blood count and iron stores.
Pregnancy: Intensive follow-up minimum of four weekly, resting oxygen
saturations, blood tests and echocardiography (at least twice). Iron defi-
ciency must be avoided
Labour: There are no data on mode of delivery. Careful multidisciplinary
delivery planning is important
Postpartum: At least 48 h. Meticulous thromboembolic prophylaxis and use
of air bubble filters for intravenous lines are mandatory.

16.1 The Condition

Cyanotic heart defects are a heterogeneous group of congenital heart defects with
an estimated incidence at birth of about 1.3/1,000 live births [1]. The natural his-
tory of cyanotic congenital heart defects is bleak, and without intervention, child-
hood mortality is high [2]. With the advent of surgical palliation and intracardiac
repair operations, the fate of patients born with cyanotic congenital heart defects
has changed dramatically. Currently almost all such patients undergo timely intra-
cardiac repair in childhood, alleviating cyanosis and allowing survival to adult-
hood in the large majority. Survival with non-cyanotic unrepaired shunt lesions is
better, but if left unrepaired, many patients with large shunts develop irreversible
pulmonary vascular disease and eventually Eisenmenger syndrome associated
with shunt reversal and right-to-left shunting leading to progressive cyanosis. In
developed countries, most shunt lesions are repaired in a timely manner, and the
number of patients who develop Eisenmenger syndrome is now exceedingly
small. Given these trends of early repair of shunt lesions and timely repair of
complex cyanotic defects, the number of adult survivors with cyanotic lesions is
decreasing in developed countries, particularly the number of young adults with
cyanotic lesions and hence the number of affected women of childbearing age
(Fig. 16.1) [3]. This decreasing number of adults with cyanotic defects is in sharp
contrast to the rapidly expanding cohorts of adult survivors with repaired defects
[4]. Adults with unrepaired cyanotic heart defects are a vulnerable patient group
with a high risk of morbidity and a markedly increased risk of premature death as
young adults [3].
16  Cyanotic Lesions 245

Fig. 16.1  Evolution of 60

numbers of adults with
unrepaired cyanotic heart 50

Number of patients
defects stratified for age
18–40 years and >40 years 40
followed at the Toronto
30 > 40 years
Congenital Cardiac Centre
for Adults between 1980 20 18-40 years
and 2009 (Modified from
Ref. [3] with permission) 10

0 Year
1989 1999 2009

Table 16.1  Types of cyanotic congenital heart defects in adults

Group 1: unrepaired cyanotic defects with obligatory right-to-left shunting
Pulmonary atresia with multicentric pulmonary perfusion
Unrepaired tetralogy of Fallot (in rare cases with only mild right ventricular outflow tract
obstruction at rest, the patient may not be cyanotic at rest)
Single ventricle physiology with obstructed pulmonary blood flow
Cyanotic defects after palliative shunt operations without intracardiac repair
Group 2: shunt lesions with resulting irreversible pulmonary hypertension
Eisenmenger syndrome caused by pre-tricuspid shunt lesions (e.g. atrial septal defects)
Eisenmenger syndrome caused by post-tricuspid shunt lesions (e.g. ventricular septal defects)
Eisenmenger syndrome caused by complex congenital heart defects (e.g. single ventricle
physiology with unobstructed lung perfusion)
Group 3: congenital cardiac lesions with facultative right-to-left shunting
Ebstein anomaly with interatrial communication
Congenitally corrected transposition of the great arteries associated with ventricular septal
defect and pulmonary stenosis (the degree of pulmonary stenosis determines shunt direction)
Group 4: repaired defects with residual lesions leading to right-to-left shunting
Fontan palliation for single ventricle physiology and residual fenestrations or veno-venous
collaterals
Patients after atrial switch repair for transposition of the great arteries and residual baffle leaks
Lesions associated with right ventricular diastolic dysfunction (restrictive right ventricular
physiology) and residual interatrial shunts

16.1.1 Types of Defects and Pathophysiology of Cyanotic Heart

Disease

Cyanotic congenital heart defects that may be encountered in women of childbearing

age are summarised in Table 16.1. In this chapter, specific problems pertinent to all
congenital cardiac conditions with cyanosis are discussed, but the focus will be on
women with unrepaired cyanotic defects with obligatory right-to-left shunting
(see Table 16.1 group 1 and Fig. 16.2). More detailed discussion of other lesions
potentially associated with cyanosis is found in other chapters (Chaps. 14, 15 and 17).
246 M. Greutmann and D. Tobler

a b c d

Fig. 16.2  Unrepaired cyanotic defects with obligatory right-to-left shunting (Copyright © 2014
New Media Center, University of Basel. All Rights Reserved). (a) Pulmonary atresia with multi-
centric pulmonary perfusion. (b) Unrepaired tetralogy of Fallot. (c) Tricuspid atresia with atrial
septal defect. (d) Tetralogy of Fallot, palliated with right-sided modified Blalock-Taussig shunt

16.1.2 General Aspects and Pathophysiology of Cyanotic

Congenital Heart Defects

All cyanotic congenital cardiac defects have in common that deoxygenated sys-
temic venous blood returning to the heart mixes with oxygenated pulmonary venous
blood before being ejected into the systemic circulation. Cyanosis is a manifestation
of arterial hypoxemia, which can be estimated by transcutaneous oxygen saturation
(SpO2). The degree of hypoxemia depends on the magnitude of right-to-left shunt-
ing, which is determined by the size of the shunt lesion (i.e. restrictive or non-­
restrictive ventricular septal defect), the amount of pulmonary blood flow and
cardiac output. While the size of the shunt lesion is typically fixed, cardiac output
and pulmonary blood flow are variable and depend on heart rate, stroke volumes of
the ventricles and the ratio of vascular resistance between systemic and pulmonary
circulations.

16.2 Pregnancy Outcomes

Risk assessment in women with cyanotic heart defects is a multidisciplinary and

multistep endeavour that has to take into account all cardiac and noncardiac aspects
impacting the individual [5]. Given the decreasing number of women with unre-
paired cyanotic heart defects in childbearing age, this patient group is underrepre-
sented in studies that investigated the outcome of women with congenital heart
disease in pregnancy [6–8]. Apart from case reports, only few studies have system-
atically addressed pregnancy outcomes in women with cyanotic heart defects. The
largest study, published in 1994, reported the outcome of 96 pregnancies in 44
women with cyanotic heart defects identified from two European centres [9].
16  Cyanotic Lesions 247

16.2.1 Maternal Outcome

The risk of cardiovascular complications during pregnancy in women with cyanotic

congenital heart defects is high, affecting about one third of such women [9, 10]. The
most common complication is heart failure, affecting 18.9 % of pregnancies, as reported
in the meta-analysis by Drenthen et al. [10]. Other common complications are arrhyth-
mias (4.8 %), endocarditis (4.1 %) and thromboembolic complications (3.6 %). In con-
trast to cardiovascular complications, obstetric complications seem not to be particularly
increased, apart from postpartum haemorrhage, which may be related to coagulation
abnormalities and thrombocytopenia, frequently observed in patients with long-stand-
ing cyanosis. Nonetheless, the occurrence of obstetric complications, such as hyperten-
sive disorders of pregnancy, pre-eclampsia or multiple pregnancies, increases the
haemodynamic load of pregnancy and thus increases the risk of maladaptation and
subsequently increases the risk of cardiovascular complications in vulnerable patients
[6, 7, 11, 12]. The increased risk of multiple pregnancies may be of particular impor-
tance in women seeking assisted fertilisation and underscores the need for optimal
multidisciplinary pre-pregnancy communication, counselling and planning.
The occurrence of cardiovascular complications, such as tachyarrhythmias dur-
ing pregnancy and peripartum may further impair the adaptive capacity of the car-
diovascular system and precipitate decompensation. The impact of pregnancy on
long-term outcomes in women with cyanotic heart defects is not well defined.
Pregnancy may, however, lead to worsening of functional capacity [9].

16.2.2 Fetal Outcomes

Based on data from lesion-specific outcome series and multicentre studies, the
risk of adverse fetal events is extremely high in women with unrepaired cyanotic
defects [6, 7, 9]. About half of pregnancies end in spontaneous abortion [9]. In
on-­going pregnancies beyond 20 weeks of gestation the risk of premature deliv-
ery is more than 40 % and two thirds of babies are born small for gestational age

100%
2
6%
80% 10
27%
Live Birth - at term
60%
Live Birth - premature 12 Live Births
Spontaneous abortion 40% 15
51%
Fetal Loss
16% Stillbirth 12
20%
1 p = 0.01
0%
≤ 85% 85-89% ≥ 90%
Oxygen saturation at rest

Fig. 16.3  Fetal outcomes. (Panel a) Proportion of live births, spontaneous abortion and stillbirths
among 96 pregnancies. (Panel b) Proportion of live births in relation to resting oxygen saturations
(Modified from Ref. [9])
248 M. Greutmann and D. Tobler

[10]. Prematurity can result from spontaneous premature labour but also from early,
induced delivery for maternal (cardiac) reasons. For women with cyanotic congeni-
tal heart defects, the risk of having a stillbirth is among the highest in all congenital
cardiac defects. The high rate of offspring outcomes is illustrated in Fig. 16.3a,
adapted from the study of Presbitero et al. [9]. As illustrated in Fig. 16.3b, the risk
of fetal complications is strongly predicted by the severity of cyanosis. The fact that
women with resting oxygen saturations below 85 % have a very low chance of deliv-
ering a viable offspring may have an important bearing on pregnancy counselling
and ­pre-pregnancy optimisation of the underlying cardiac condition.
Apart from the maternal cardiac condition, the risk for offspring events is also
determined by obstetric risk factors, such as maternal age, multiple gestations, his-
tory of premature delivery or rupture of membranes, incompetent cervix or antepar-
tum bleeding and placental abnormalities [13]. This underscores the need for a
multidisciplinary team approach not only during pregnancy but for pre-pregnancy
risk assessment and counselling as well.
The recurrence risk of isolated congenital heart defects in the offspring ranges on
average between 3 and 5 % [14]. There is however substantial variability in recur-
rence risk, depending on familial occurrence and type of defect [15, 16]. Some
congenital heart defects that may be encountered in women with unrepaired cya-
notic defects (i.e. pulmonary atresia or tetralogy of Fallot) are associated with the
22q11 microdeletion syndrome. The inheritance of the 22q11 microdeletion syn-
drome is autosomal dominant, and recurrence risk is thus 50 %, with a high risk of
congenital cardiac defects (particularly conotruncal defects) in the affected
offspring.

16.3 Management of Pregnancy

Pregnancies in women with cyanotic congenital heart defects are considered high-
risk pregnancies and thus should be managed by a dedicated experienced multidis-
ciplinary team at a tertiary care centre. For each pregnancy, a clear management and
follow-­up plan must be developed. The frequency of cardiologic and obstetric fol-
low-up visits during pregnancy must be individualised, but most women require
close follow-­up including frequent assessment of adequate fetal growth. Fetal out-
come is associated with uteroplacental blood flow characteristics, and recent evi-
dence suggests that uteroplacental blood flow is associated with maternal
haemodynamics in women with congenital heart disease [17]. The impact of
changes in uteroplacental blood flow on management decisions needs to be further
investigated but may provide an elegant option for additional monitoring maternal
haemodynamics [18]. In addition, all pregnant women with CHD should be offered
fetal echocardiography between 18 and 21 weeks of gestation.
Assessment at the time of cardiology visits usually includes thorough clinical
examination with serial measurements of resting oxygen saturations, blood work to
ensure adequate secondary erythrocytosis and adequate iron stores, as well as trans-
thoracic echocardiography at least at baseline and between 28 and 30 weeks of
16  Cyanotic Lesions 249

gestation at the haemodynamic peak of pregnancy. Depending on the clinical course,

symptoms and findings on clinical examination, echocardiography may be needed
more often.
The importance of patient education at each clinic visit cannot be overempha-
sised. Every woman who experiences novel or worsening symptoms during preg-
nancy (i.e. palpitations or increasing shortness of breath) should be encouraged to
seek prompt assessment by her specialised multidisciplinary team.
As women with unrepaired cyanotic heart defects have a high risk of paradoxical
systemic embolism, meticulous thromboembolic prophylaxis is mandatory at times
of increased risk, particularly in women requiring bed rest.

16.3.1 Management of Heart Failure in Pregnancy and Peripartum

Women with unrepaired cyanotic heart defects may be prone to develop heart
­failure, as many have diastolic ventricular dysfunction and may not tolerate the
increasing volume load of pregnancy. Serial measurements of natriuretic peptides
(Pro-BNP or BNP) may help in diagnosis and risk stratification of heart failure
­during pregnancy [19, 20].
In women with unrepaired cyanotic heart defects, heart failure may present with
worsening cyanosis, as shifts in the balance between systemic and pulmonary vas-
cular resistance may precipitate increased right-to-left shunting. For these women,
the mainstay of therapy is bed rest to reduce further exacerbation of cyanosis trig-
gered by physical activity.
If overt heart failure occurs, patients should be admitted to a specialised centre,
and precipitating factors, such as infection or arrhythmias, should be actively sought
and excluded. Bed rest, supplemental oxygen and careful fluid balance with daily
weight measurements should be initiated. Careful administration of diuretics may
be used but with caution to avoid overdiuresis which can reduce uteroplacental
blood flow.
In the case of refractory heart failure, delivery should be contemplated as soon as
the fetus is viable, or, in the case of persistent haemodynamic instability, irrespec-
tive of the duration of gestation. Antenatal steroids to improve fetal lung maturity
may lead to maternal fluid retention and worsening of heart failure.

16.3.2 Multidisciplinary Delivery Plan

There are no data on whether vaginal delivery or Caesarean section is superior in

women with cyanotic heart defects. Depending on the type of defect, myocardial
function and residual haemodynamic lesions, women with cyanotic heart defects
may have limited cardiovascular reserves to cope with the haemodynamic needs of
labour and delivery. Effective analgesia and assisted second stage of delivery can
effectively decrease the additional haemodynamic load of labour. Assisted delivery
may however be associated with a higher risk of postpartum haemorrhage and
250 M. Greutmann and D. Tobler

high-­degree lacerations [21]. The average blood loss during vaginal delivery of
500 ml counteracts the impact of autotransfusion from the contracting uterus at
stage 3 of delivery. Blood loss with Caesarean section is usually higher (on average
1,000 ml) which may be a disadvantage in women for whom (relative) anaemia may
be deleterious.
A multidisciplinary delivery plan, based on local experience, logistics and infra-
structure (e.g. possibilities for monitoring on labour ward), should be developed
early in all women with cyanotic heart defects. Given the high rate of premature
delivery, this detailed delivery plan must be available and easily accessible as soon
as the fetus is viable. Early involvement of experienced obstetric anaesthetists and,
if required, the input of cardiac anaesthetists are vital. Important aspects that need
to be covered by the delivery plan are summarised in Table 16.2. A schematic draw-
ing of the patient’s cardiac anatomy is always helpful and may be of critical impor-
tance if emergency central venous line or temporary pacemaker insertion is required
in women with unusual systemic venous anatomy. It is wise to ensure that air bubble
filters are easily available on the labour ward.
The issue regarding endocarditis prophylaxis remains controversial. Although
antibiotic prophylaxis for uncomplicated deliveries is not routinely recommended
in currently available guidelines, in the largest series assessing the outcome of cya-
notic defects in pregnancy, two women experienced endocarditis peripartum. Thus,
some experts advocate routine antibiotic prophylaxis for delivery in all women with
cyanotic heart defects [9, 22].

16.4 Impact of the Physiological Changes of Pregnancy

Depending on the type of cyanotic heart defect, the impact of pregnancy on oxygen
saturations may vary considerably. For example, in patients with large shunts at the
ventricular level and limited pulmonary blood flow, the pregnancy-associated
decrease in systemic vascular resistance may unfavourably impact the balance
between systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance enhancing right-to-left shunt-
ing and aggravating cyanosis. In contrast, in a woman after Fontan palliation with a
residual restrictive fenestration between the Fontan pathway and the systemic circu-
lation, the increase in cardiac output during pregnancy may decrease the proportion
of right-to-left shunting, and hence, oxygen saturations may even increase during
pregnancy.
An important compensatory mechanism to maintain oxygen carrying capacity in
patients with chronically decreased systemic arterial oxygen saturation is secondary
erythrocytosis. Many cyanotic patients have haemoglobin levels well above 200 g/l
(12.4 mmol/l). Hyperviscosity symptoms such as headaches, blurry vision and diz-
ziness are rare and usually respond well to hydration. Iron deficiency impedes this
important compensatory mechanism, actually increases blood viscosity at lower
levels of haemoglobin and must be avoided.
Patients with cyanotic heart defects are especially vulnerable to the complica-
tions of respiratory tract infection, and thus, its prevention by annual vaccination
16  Cyanotic Lesions 251

Table 16.2  Requirements for a comprehensive multidisciplinary delivery plan

Content of a comprehensive multidisciplinary delivery plan
1. Information on the underlying heart defect and current haemodynamics
☑ Exact cardiac diagnosis, previous surgical and interventional procedures
☑ Schematic drawing of the woman’s heart is mandatory as most have complex anatomy
☑ Previous cardiovascular complications
☑ Current cardiovascular findings and important residual lesions
2. Specific recommendations and pitfalls
☑ Use of air bubble filters for intravenous lines to reduce the risk of paradoxical embolism
☑ ( if the delivery of large volumes or radiopaque contrast is required, administration without
bubble filters is required – on these occasions, meticulous de-bubbling of IV lines is
important)
☑ Recommendations on type and dosage of thromboembolic prophylaxis
☑S  ite of blood pressure measurements in women with occlusion of arm arteries (i.e. after
previous classical Blalock-Taussig shunts)
3. Anticipated complications
☑ Type and expected timing of the occurrence
☑ Suggested management in the case of complications (e.g. arrhythmias, heart failure)
☑ Contact details of involved cardiologists in case of complications
☑L  ist of specific drugs that need to be immediately available on the labour ward. In the case of
drugs that are not commonly used on the labour ward (e.g. amiodarone), clear instructions
on how to prepare and use such drugs should be provided
4. Caution about obstetric drugs if adverse effects are expected
☑ Beta-mimetics (e.g. hexoprenaline) □ No restriction □ Caution □ Do not use
☑ Atosiban (oxytocin antagonist) □ No restriction □ Caution □ Do not use
☑ Misoprostol □ No restriction □ Caution □ Do not use
☑ Oxytocin □ No restriction □ Caution □ Do not use
☑ Prostaglandin F analogues □ No restriction □ Caution □ Do not use
5. Detailed list of medications
6. Allergies
7. Information on important obstetric issues
☑ Previous obstetric history and complications
☑ Estimated date of delivery
8. Recommendation for delivery
☑ Mode and timing of delivery (i.e. spontaneous delivery or induction at pre-specified date)
☑ Recommendation for anaesthesia during delivery
☑ Recommendation for rhythm monitoring during labour and delivery
☑R  ecommendation for type and duration of haemodynamic monitoring during labour and
delivery
9. Detailed plan for postpartum care
☑ Place of postpartum care (intensive care unit, cardiology ward, obstetric ward)
☑ Necessity and duration of rhythm monitoring postpartum
☑ Recommendation for type and duration of haemodynamic monitoring postpartum
☑ Recommendation for duration of postpartum stay in hospital (usually >72 h)
☑ Specific precautions and treatment recommendations (e.g. careful fluid balance)
☑ Recommendation for investigations postpartum (e.g. predischarge echocardiography)
10. Follow-up plan after discharge from hospital
Modified from Ref. [5] with permission
252 M. Greutmann and D. Tobler

against seasonal influenza and vaccination against pneumococcal disease is very

important in this patient group.

16.4.1 Haemodynamic Challenges of Pregnancy in Women

with Cyanotic Congenital Heart Defects

Pregnancy is associated with profound changes of the cardiovascular system starting

early in the course of pregnancy and plateauing at their peak around 30 weeks of gesta-
tion. Systemic vascular resistance decreases by more than 30 %; heart rate and stroke
volume increase resulting in an increase of cardiac output by about 50 %. The ability to
adapt to these cardiovascular demands of pregnancy may be markedly impaired in
women with cyanotic congenital heart defects. A greater decrease of systemic com-
pared to pulmonary vascular resistance may lead to a decrease in pulmonary blood
flow and worsening cyanosis during pregnancy. Many patients with long-standing cya-
notic heart defects suffer from myocardial dysfunction; in particular diastolic ventricu-
lar dysfunction is very common [23]. The volume load of pregnancy may thus lead to
exaggerated rises in ventricular filling pressure and precipitate heart failure.
Apart from the haemodynamic challenges of pregnancy, women with cyanotic
congenital heart defects also have an increased risk of paradoxical systemic throm-
boembolism, which may be further heightened by the pro-thrombotic state of preg-
nancy. Other complications not reserved to the time of pregnancy are an increased
risk of endocarditis, brain abscesses and, particularly in patients with pulmonary
hypertension, pulmonary haemorrhage.

16.5 Preconception Assessment and Counselling

16.5.1 Pre-pregnancy Assessment

Careful and comprehensive pre-pregnancy assessment not only allows estimation of

maternal and fetal risks, it is also an important opportunity to identify residual
lesions that can be improved or optimised to increasing the chance of a successful
pregnancy [5]. Conversely, it is an opportunity to define situations in which mater-
nal risk is very high and the likelihood of a live born fetus very low, such that preg-
nancy should not be further considered.
Pre-pregnancy assessment starts with a detailed chart review. Every effort should
be made to obtain previous notes from diagnostic procedures (i.e. cardiac catheteri-
sation reports) and previous interventions. Careful history taking may reveal previ-
ous complications (i.e. arrhythmias or heart failure) and allows the estimation of
exercise capacity. History taking is followed by a thorough clinical examination,
importantly with measurement of resting oxygen saturation.
Detailed cardiac imaging is key for risk assessment and usually starts with a com-
prehensive transthoracic echocardiography to assess valvular and ventricular func-
tion and to estimate pulmonary artery pressures. In patients with complex anatomy,
16  Cyanotic Lesions 253

cardiac magnetic resonance imaging or cardiac computed tomography may be help-

ful for delineation of the exact cardiac anatomy, particularly to visualise extra-­cardiac
structures, such as aortopulmonary collateral arteries or branch pulmonary arteries.
If pulmonary artery pressures cannot be adequately estimated by n­on-invasive
­imaging, cardiac catheterisation should be performed, as increased pulmonary artery
pressures may importantly increase maternal risks during a pregnancy [24].
Formal exercise testing (with measurement of transcutaneous oxygen saturation)
provides information about the woman’s exercise tolerance, heart rate and blood
pressure response and the extent of desaturation during exercise. Although no for-
mal study has assessed the impact of exercise parameters on pregnancy risks in
women with cyanotic congenital cardiac defects, this information is clearly useful
during individual risk assessment.
Blood work, including at least a full blood count and assessment of iron stores,
is mandatory to assure adequate secondary erythrocytosis. Iron deficiency with (rel-
ative) anaemia may be deleterious in patients with cyanotic congenital cardiac con-
ditions. The correction of any iron deficiency is mandatory in all women before
embarking on pregnancy.
Cyanotic congenital heart defects with long-standing chronic cyanosis should be
considered to be a systemic disease, involving not only the cardiovascular but also
many different organ systems. Systemic afflictions may include renal failure, gout,
gallstones and coagulation disorders. Directed by history taking, chart review and
physical examination, more extensive blood work or additional testing may be required.
One of the key questions of pre-pregnancy assessment in women with unrepaired
cyanotic defects is whether the patient’s physiology can be improved. This is par-
ticularly important in those women with oxygen saturations below 85 % in room air.
In such patients creation of surgical aortopulmonary shunts or dilatation/stenting of
existing shunts may improve pulmonary blood flow and hence oxygen saturation
and consequently may improve the chances of a successful pregnancy. We should,
however, be aware that such procedures are deemed to be high-risk procedures in
adults with cyanotic heart disease and the price paid for increasing pulmonary blood
flow in such patients is additional volume loading to the ventricles which may pre-
cipitate heart failure in patients with diastolic dysfunction. These aspects have to be
carefully discussed with the woman seeking advice regarding pregnancy.
Occasionally careful assessment may identify adult patients with cyanotic heart
defects that may still be amenable to intracardiac repair (i.e. patients with tetralogy
of Fallot, in whom the pulmonary circulation is protected by right ventricular out-
flow tract obstruction). This may be particularly important in women who have
immigrated from developing countries where programmes for paediatric heart sur-
gery may not have been available. If repair with alleviation of cyanosis is an option,
pregnancy should be delayed until surgical repair has been undertaken.
An important part of pre-pregnancy assessment and counselling is the education
of patients regarding potential cardiovascular complications (e.g. arrhythmias,
endocarditis), and appropriate behaviour should symptoms of such complications
occur. Regular dental care with the use of endocarditis prophylaxis should be
reinforced.
254 M. Greutmann and D. Tobler

Pre-pregnancy assessment requires a review of the patient’s medication, as some

may be contraindicated in pregnancy (i.e. angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors,
angiotensin or aldosterone antagonists). In patients requiring anticoagulation, careful
consideration of the most appropriate type(s) of drugs and management regimen is
required, depending on the individual risk of thromboembolic complications.

16.5.2 Preconception Counselling

Pre-pregnancy counselling is important, as only detailed discussions of all aspects

of maternal and fetal risks will allow the affected woman to make an informed deci-
sion. Importantly, in women with unrepaired cyanotic heart defects, pre-­pregnancy
counselling is a multidisciplinary task that should be provided by dedicated cardi-
ologists and obstetricians of a dedicated high-risk pregnancy programme and may
involve other specialists. Although detailed information on pregnancy risks is usu-
ally provided at the time when a patient wishes to become pregnant, it is important
to emphasise that general information on contraception and pregnancy risks should
be part of every routine clinic visit, starting in early adolescence.
Apart from detailed discussions about maternal and fetal risks of pregnancy, an
important aspect of comprehensive pre-pregnancy counselling includes discussions
about the potential impact of pregnancy on long-term outcomes of the underlying
heart defects. As the prognosis of the woman with cyanotic congenital heart defects
may interfere with the ability to raise children, discussions about the prognosis and
potential long-term complications should be offered to women seeking advice about
risks of pregnancy [25, 26]. Such discussions are difficult as the prognosis may be
uncertain and a number of barriers impair these discussions [26]. The discussion
about pregnancy risks may however be a good setting to explore the women’s
wishes to discuss these issues. It is well known that patient knowledge about long-­
term risks of the underlying heart defects is often inappropriate [27]. To abstain
from discussions about long-term prognosis of the underlying congenital heart
defect may impede informed decision making about family planning in affected
women. It should also be emphasised that it is important to offer these discussions
not only to our female patients but also to our male patients with cyanotic congenital
heart defects when they contemplate starting a family.
In all patients with congenital heart defects, including male patients, recurrence
risk should be discussed and counselling by a clinical geneticist should be offered.
Once a woman has made a decision whether or not to accept the risks of a preg-
nancy, it is important to plan future management. For women not wishing to become
pregnant, safe and effective contraception should be provided [28, 29]. When there is
no current but possible future pregnancy wish, the woman should be instructed to use
safe and effective contraception and, when she desires to embark on a pregnancy, to
visit her cardiologist for an up-to-date assessment of pregnancy risk and construction
of a pregnancy management plan before discontinuing her contraceptive.
For women, who wish to become pregnant, it is important to clearly define man-
agement during pregnancy and to provide obstetric assessment to ascertain
16  Cyanotic Lesions 255

up-to-date vaccination and initiation of appropriate prophylactic measures, such as

folic acid supplementation as well as recommendations for smoking cessation and
abstinence from alcohol.

Acknowledgements  We wish to thank Prof. Jack M. Colman for the thorough review of the
manuscript.

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Pulmonary Hypertension
17
Werner Budts

Abbreviations

BMPR2 Bone morphogenetic protein receptor type 2

CS Caesarean section
EIF2AK4 Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha kinase 4
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
LVEF Left ventricle ejection fraction
NYHA New York Heart Association
PAH Pulmonary arterial hypertension
PH Pulmonary hypertension
WHO World Health Organization

Key Facts
Incidence: 5–10 % of congenital heart disease patients.
Inheritance: Variable.
Medication: Advanced therapies (prostacyclin analogues, phosphodiesterase
inhibitors, and endothelin-receptor antagonists) are contraindicated during
pregnancy. However, sildenafil has been taken safely in severe PH.
World Health Organization class: IV.
Risk of pregnancy: High risk of severe right ventricular failure, cardiac arrest,
pulmonary embolism, endocarditis, and uncontrollable bleeding. High risk
of death in pregnancy and puerperium.
Life expectancy: Markedly shortened.

W. Budts, MD, PhD

Congenital and Structural Cardiology, University Hospitals Leuven,
Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, Catholic University Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 257
J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_17
258 W. Budts

Key Management
Preconception: Discourage pregnancy.
Pregnancy: If the pregnancy is unplanned, termination should be discussed
and performed in an experienced tertiary care center. Frequent visits are
required throughout pregnancy. Hospitalization during the third trimester
may facilitate management and a safer delivery.
Labor: Planned Caesarean delivery and vaginal delivery are favored over
emergency Caesarean delivery. During labor, delivery, and in the postpar-
tum period intensive monitoring is recommended (arterial and central
venous lines).
Postpartum: In-hospital monitoring for at least 2 weeks after delivery.

17.1 The Condition

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is defined as an increase in mean pulmonary artery

pressure ≥25 mmHg at rest as assessed by right heart catheterization [1].
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is characterized by the presence of pre-
capillary PH, defined as a pulmonary artery wedge pressure of ≤15 mmHg and a
pulmonary vascular resistance of >3 Wood units. Congenital heart disease is
mostly associated with PAH, although other types of PH occur in the adult popu-
lation. Table 17.1 summarizes the recently updated clinical classification of PH
[1, 2]. PAH associated with congenital heart disease is a very heterogeneous group
requiring the development of an additional clinical classification. (1) Eisenmenger’s
syndrome is characterized by a large intra- and/or extracardiac congenital heart
defect that starts with a systemic-to-pulmonary shunt. After a certain period of
time, the pulmonary vascular resistance starts to increase, pressures in the right
heart and pulmonary circulation elevate, and the shunt reverses to pulmonary-to-
systemic or becomes bidirectional. As a consequence, central cyanosis and sec-
ondary erythrocytosis occur and lead finally to multi-organ involvement. (2) PAH
might also occur with a prevalent systemic-to-pulmonary shunt. This occurs in the
context of moderate to large defects and a mildly to moderately increased pulmo-
nary vascular resistance. Cyanosis is not present at rest. Some of these defects are
considered to be correctable while others are not [3]. (3) PAH may be present in
patients who also have small, and therefore probably incidental, defects. The pul-
monary vascular resistance in these patients is disproportionately elevated given
the size of the defect and these patients are considered to suffer from idiopathic
pulmonary hypertension. (4) Finally, PAH might persist or even (re)-occur after
shunt closure [4].
Epidemiological data about PAH in congenital heart disease are scarce. However,
a European survey reported a PAH prevalence between 5 % and 10 % among
17  Pulmonary Hypertension 259

Table 17.1  Clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension

1. Pulmonary arterial hypertension
 1.1 Idiopathic
 1.2 Heritable
   1.2.1 BMPR2 mutation
   1.2.2 Other mutations
 1.3 Drugs and toxins induced
 1.4 Associated with:
   1.4.1 Connective tissue disease
   1.4.3 Portal hypertension
   1.4.4 Congenital heart disease
  1.4.5 Schistosomiasis
1’. Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease and/or pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis
 1’.1 Idiopathic
 1’.2 Heritable
   1’.2.1 EIF2AK4 mutation
   1’.2.2 Other mutations
 1’.3 Drugs, toxins, and radiation induced
 1’.4 Associated with:
   1’.4.1 Connective tissue disease
   1’.4.2 HIV infection
1”. Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn
2. Pulmonary hypertension due to left heart disease
 2.1 Left ventricular systolic dysfunction
 2.2 Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction
 2.3 Valvular disease obstruction and congenital cardiomyopathies
 2.4 Congenital/acquired left heart inflow/outflow tract
 2.5 Congenital/acquired pulmonary veins stenosis
3. Pulmonary hypertension due to lung diseases and/or hypoxia
 3.1 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
 3.2 Interstitial lung disease
 3.3 Other pulmonary diseases with mixed restrictive and obstructive pattern
 3.4 Sleep-disordered breathing
 3.5 Alveolar hypoventilation disorders
 3.6 Chronic exposure to high altitude
 3.7 Developmental lung diseases
4. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension and other pulmonary artery obstructions
 4.1 Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension
 4.2 Other pulmonary artery obstructions
  4.2.1 Angiosarcoma
   4.2.2 Other intravascular tumors
  4.2.3 Arteritis
   4.2.4 Congenital pulmonary arteries stenosis
   4.2.5 Parasites (hydatidosis)
5. Pulmonary hypertension with unclear and/or multifactorial mechanisms
 5.1 Hematological disorders: chronic hemolytic anemia, myeloproliferative disorders,
splenectomy
(continued)
260 W. Budts

Table 17.1 (continued)
 5.2 Systemic disorders: sarcoidosis, pulmonary histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis,
neurofibromatosis
 5.3 Metabolic disorders: glycogen storage disease, Gaucher disease, thyroid disorders
 5.4 Others: pulmonary tumor thrombotic microangiopathy, fibrosing mediastinitis, chronic
renal failure (with/without dialysis), segmental pulmonary hypertension
BMPR2 bone morphogenetic protein receptor, type 2, EIF2AK4 eukaryotic translation initiation
factor 2 alpha kinase 4, HIV human immunodeficiency virus

congenital heart disease patients [5]. In the Dutch CONCOR registry, a PAH preva-
lence of 3.2 % in congenital heart disease patients and of 100 per million in the
general population was found [6]. PAH prevalence increases with age, from 2.5 %
in those less than 30 years to 35 % in older people. However, it is unclear whether
the elevated pulmonary artery pressures diagnosed at older age can still be catego-
rized as precapillary. It is possible that in an aging population postcapillary PH
might play a more important role [4].

17.2 Pregnancy Outcome

Pregnancy in women with PAH is associated with high maternal morbidity and
mortality. In one of the oldest series of 44 well-documented cases with Eisenmenger’s
syndrome and 70 pregnancies, Gleicher et al. found a maternal mortality of 52 % in
1979 [7]. Twenty years later perinatal mortality decreased to 36 % [8], but has since
declined little as reported by Bédard et al. in 2009 who found that the maternal
mortality was still 28 % [9]. Remarkably, in this study none of the patients died dur-
ing the pregnancy, but all of them within the first months after the delivery [8, 9].
Causes of death were severe right ventricular failure, cardiac arrest, pulmonary
embolism, endocarditis, and uncontrollable bleeding (Fig. 17.1).
Pregnancy induces systemic vasodilation and increases cardiac output. In
patients with a persistent defect, the pulmonary-to-systemic shunt worsens and
more hypoxia occurs. This leads to further vasoconstriction and higher pulmonary
vascular resistance. Hemodynamic stress during labor and delivery induces more
CO2 retention and acidosis, which, in turn, acutely increases the pulmonary artery
pressures and precipitates refractory heart failure [9, 10]. The effect of pregnancy
on the cardiovascular system may persist for several months after delivery [11],
and it fits with the hypothesis that most severe complications occur shortly of
delivery. However, the prepregnancy severity of PH might be associated with out-
come. A more recent study from Katsuragi et al. suggested that women with mild
pulmonary arterial hypertension, who were more often NYHA class I or II in early
pregnancy, had a less marked increase in pulmonary artery pressures during preg-
nancy. Only a few people with mild PAH deteriorated from NYHA class II to class
17  Pulmonary Hypertension 261

P=0.047
iPAH
60 CHD-PAH
56 oPH

50

40
36
33
30
% 30 28

20
17

10

0
1997-’07 1978-’96

Fig. 17.1  Maternal mortality among pregnant women with pulmonary arterial hypertension: com-
parison between 1997 and 2007 and previous era (1978–1996) [9]

III/IV. Women with severe pulmonary hypertension delivered earlier than women

with mild pulmonary hypertension and no patients died in the mild form of pulmo-
nary arterial hypertension [12].
The neonatal outcome in PAH-congenital heart disease pregnancies is also com-
promised. Bedard et al. found a neonatal or fetal death of 7 % and a rate of fetal
growth restriction of 24 %. Premature delivery, defined as delivery before 37 weeks
of gestation, occurred in 86 % [9]. Earlier series report an even higher perinatal
mortality of 28.3 %, which was significantly associated with prematurity [7].

17.3 Pregnancy Management

The best management of a PAH patient with congenital heart disease is to discour-
age pregnancy. Remarkably, in 27 % of the PAH cases in pregnant women with
congenital heart disease, the diagnosis of PAH was first made during the
262 W. Budts

pregnancy [9]. There are currently no guidelines or recommendations relating to

the management of PAH in pregnant women. In the review from Bédard et al., the
current status of management is discussed [9]. In general, patients are hospital-
ized earlier (median 32 weeks of gestation, range 17–40), probably related to
complications occurring during pregnancy, the awareness of premature delivery,
and the choice for elective delivery by Caesarean section. Caesarean section is
electively planned in 31 % of the pregnant general heart disease population, but
seems not to have any advantage over planned vaginal delivery [13]. However,
one might suggest that Caesarean ­section is preferred in more complex heart dis-
eases [9]. Indeed, 72 % of cases were delivered by CS in the report of Bédard et al.
[9]. However, the hemodynamic impact of a vaginal delivery is held to be lower
than that of a Caesarean section. Less blood loss causes smaller volume shifts,
less clotting and bleeding disorders; moreover, a vaginal delivery is associated
with a lower risk of infection [14]. During delivery, the Valsalva manoeuvre
increases both heart rate and vascular resistance, both of which might increase the
workload on the right heart [15].
The anesthetic management is closely related to the mode of the delivery. Bédard
et al. found that in 31 % of cases, the Caesarean section was performed under gen-
eral anesthesia in PAH patients with congenital heart disease. This was associated
with a higher maternal mortality [9]. Although it is possible that more severe cases
had a general anesthetic accounting for the greater maternal mortality, an alternative
explanation would be that general anesthesia is not the best option since it might
disturb the balance between the pulmonary and systemic circulations by differen-
tially influencing the vascular resistance [16]. Pulmonary vascular resistance is
increased by hypoxia, hypercarbia, high hematocrit levels, positive pressure ventila-
tion, cold, metabolic acidosis, and alpha-adrenergic stimulation. The systemic vas-
cular resistance decreases by the use of vasodilators, spinal and epidural anesthesia,
deep general anesthesia, and hyperthermia. In case of a persistent shunt defect, the
pulmonary-to-systemic shunt might increase and lead to more pronounced systemic
desaturation. In the presence of PAH without a shunt defect, the increase of pulmo-
nary vascular resistance will aggravate the pressure load on the subpulmonary ven-
tricle and might induce acute heart failure. Moreover, all anesthetic agents depress
myocardial contractility [17]. The choice between epidural and general anesthesia
has to be left to an experienced anesthetist with sufficient expertise in the manage-
ment of complex congenital heart disease to find the best compromise in this highly
challenging situation [14].
Intensive monitoring is recommended for patients with PAH during labor, deliv-
ery, and in the postpartum period. An arterial line to measure blood pressure and
oxygen saturation and a central venous line to control right atrial pressures seem to
be useful in the peripartum period [18]. Acid–base status should be checked fre-
quently, since undetected acidosis can exacerbate pulmonary hypertension [18].
Bédard et al. noted the use of radial artery and/or central venous pressure catheter in
38 % and the use of a pulmonary artery catheter in 31 % of the cases [9]. However,
invasive pulmonary arterial pressure monitoring remains controversial and does not
17  Pulmonary Hypertension 263

seem to influence outcome in a positive or negative way [9]. Nevertheless, more

invasive monitoring is related to a higher risk for potential complications [19].
In-hospital monitoring is suggested for at least 2 weeks after delivery [18]. Indeed,
the effect of pregnancy on the cardiovascular system may persist for several months
after delivery [11].
The occurrence of thrombosis and/or pulmonary embolism raises the question
about the usefulness of thrombosis prophylaxis in PAH patients. Although oral
anticoagulation is the standard of care for patients with idiopathic PAH [1], throm-
boprophylaxis in idiopathic PAH was used in 52 % and 41 % during pregnancy
and after delivery, respectively [9]. These numbers were even lower in PAH
patients with congenital heart disease, 24 % received thromboprophylaxis during
pregnancy and 31 % after delivery [9]. This is probably explained by the contro-
versy that exists about the use of oral anticoagulants in PAH-congenital heart
disease patients [20]. This is especially so in patients with the Eisenmenger’s
syndrome, where the b­ alance between thrombosis and bleeding is very delicate
and explaining why severe bleeding is in the list of peripartum complications [21].
However, anti-­thromboembolic stockings or compression pumps can be used to
help prevent peripheral venous thrombosis with no adverse effects [18]. The ESC
guidelines on pregnancy suggest that in PAH associated with congenital cardiac
shunts and in the absence of significant hemoptysis, anticoagulant treatment
should be considered in the presence of pulmonary artery thrombosis or signs of
heart failure [22].
At least 50 % of pregnant women with PAH and congenital heart disease patients
receive advanced therapy for PAH [9]. Prostacyclin analogues, phosphodiesterase
inhibitors, and endothelin-receptor antagonists are proven to have a beneficial
effect on exercise performance and functional capacity [23–25], whereas inhaled
NO decreases pulmonary vascular resistance [26]. However, the number of case
reports and the series, in which advanced therapy was used, is too small to draw
conclusions on safety and efficiency for pregnant women and the fetus [27–32].
However, there tended to be a beneficial effect of advanced therapy on outcome,
but there may be a publication bias toward positive results. The guanylate cyclase
stimulator, riociguat [33], might cause fetal harm and was shown to have terato-
genic effects. Calcium channel blockers are mainly used in idiopathic pulmonary
arterial hypertension, but are relatively contraindicated in congenital heart disease
patients with PAH and a persistent shunt, as they might increase pulmonary-to-
systemic shunt by a decrease of systemic vascular resistance [20]. Although the
use of oxygen is controversial in adult patients with the Eisenmenger syndrome,
increased oxygen might lower pulmonary vascular resistance during labor and
delivery [34].
If an unplanned pregnancy occurs in a PAH-congenital heart disease patient,
termination should be discussed and performed in an experienced tertiary center
[22]. However, even when the pregnancy is stopped at this stage, maternal mortal-
ity rates of up to 7 % are reported [7]. Dilatation and curettage in the first trimester
is probably the procedure of choice, preferably with general anesthesia [18].
264 W. Budts

Women who opt to continue the pregnancy need to be referred to a tertiary center
urgently for follow-up and delivery by a multidisciplinary team with experienced
congenital cardiologists, experts in pulmonary hypertension, obstetricians, anes-
thetists, neonatologists, and experts in intensive care. Moreover, the psychological
stress of such a high-risk pregnancy should not be underestimated and support by
a psychological team beneficial. Frequent visits throughout pregnancy are recom-
mended, and hospitalization during the third trimester may facilitate management
and safer delivery [9].

17.4 The Effect of Pregnancy Adaptations

During pregnancy the plasma volume increases and peaks at about 50 % above base-
line early in the third trimester. The red blood cell mass increases by 20–30 % too
[35]. The extra volume might compromise the function of the right ventricle and
precipitate right heart failure since the higher pulmonary vascular resistance
increases right ventricular pressure and work. In addition, systemic vascular
­resistance decreases in normal pregnancy, and in patients with a persistent shunt
defect, this will result in a more pronounced pulmonary-to-systemic flow, which
will exacerbate the preexisting hypoxia and result in greater pulmonary vasocon-
striction. Once set in train, this sequence of events will lead to a self-perpetuating
deterioration in the patient’s clinical state.
The physiological changes in labor may also challenge the circulation of those
women with PAH and persisting shunt. Midwall et al. demonstrated that uterine
contractions are associated with a substantial decrease in the ratio of pulmonary-to-­
systemic blood flow [34]. Normally, uterine contractions cause an increase in car-
diac output and right ventricular pressures [36]; however, if this occurs when the
pulmonary vascular resistance does not decrease or remains fixed, more pulmonary-­
to-­systemic flow will occur. Also, when traction forceps were used during a uterine
contraction, the pulmonary flow decreased further [34]. Moreover, in late pregnancy
and during labor, the gravid uterus might compromise cardiac output by compres-
sion of the inferior vena cava in supine position. Some recommend delivery in the
lateral position to avoid compression of the inferior vena cava and maintain suffi-
cient systemic venous return [18]. Furthermore, at the time of labor and delivery,
acidosis and hypercarbia may further increase pulmonary vascular resistance. Any
hypovolemia resulting from blood loss or hypotension from a vasovagal response to
pain may result in insufficient cardiac output and sudden death [18]. On the other
hand, a temporary increase in venous return may occur immediately following
delivery due to relief of inferior vena cava pressure which at times results in a sub-
stantial rise in ventricular filling pressures, which might unbalance the shunt flow
[15]. Therefore, postpartum patients should continue to be monitored hemodynami-
cally for 24–48 h to detect any deterioration due to the postpartum increase in
venous return to the heart [15].
17  Pulmonary Hypertension 265

17.5 Preconception Counseling

Because of the high maternal and fetal mortality in women with PAH in the context
of congenital heart disease, pregnancy should be discouraged. The risks of severe
complications are unacceptably high. Unfortunately, this is not clear from all risk
score models. Currently, three predictive scoring models are used to estimate the
maternal risk for a pregnancy. In the model of the CARPREG study, cyanosis was
related to cardiac events, neonatal complications, and postpartum hemorrhage [37].
However, no Eisenmenger patients were included in the study so that cyanosis was
related to congenital heart defects with pulmonary-to-systemic shunts and normal
pulmonary artery pressures. Moreover, no relationship between PH and an adverse
pregnancy outcome was found. This does not mean that PH is not important in
determining outcome, but that the study sample size was too small to show any
significant association between PH and outcome. Consequently, the risk model
based on the CARPREG study cannot be used in the context of PAH. Similarly, the
risk model, based on the ZAHARA study [38], has the same problem. Only four
patients suffered from PH or Eisenmenger’s syndrome. In this study, cyanotic heart
disease was significantly associated with cardiac and neonatal complications, but
several of these patients underwent corrective surgery, or had a pulmonary-to-­
systemic shunt with presumably normal pulmonary artery pressures. Consequently,
as for the CARPREG study, the risk model based on the ZAHARA study cannot be
used in the context of PAH. In contrast, the modified World Health Organization
(WHO) risk classification includes contraindications for pregnancy that are not
present in the CARPREG and ZAHARA risk scores/predictors, including PAH
[39]. PAH is listed in WHO risk class IV: extremely high risk of maternal mortality
or severe morbidity and pregnancy contraindicated (Table 17.2) [22]. Importantly,
following this risk classification, the risk of maternal death is also to be considered
high even in the presence of mild pulmonary hypertension [39]. The risk probably
increases as pulmonary pressures rise. However, even moderate forms of pulmonary
vascular disease can worsen during pregnancy as a result of the decrease in systemic
vascular resistance and overload of the right ventricle, and there is no safe cutoff
value prompting the ESC guidelines to conclude: “Whether the risk is also high for
congenital patients after successful shunt closure with mildly elevated pulmonary
pressures is not well known, but these risks are probably lower and pregnancy can
be considered after a careful risk assessment” [22]. Therefore, it is the safest to rely
on the WHO risk classification when counseling a PAH patient for pregnancy. Balci
et al. concluded in their comparative study between risk scores that the WHO clas-
sification was the best available risk assessment model for estimating cardiovascu-
lar risk in pregnant women with CHD [40]. However, no offspring prediction
models seem to perform adequately [40] nor include PAH to predict neonatal events
(Table 17.3) [22]. Although cyanosis is also here used as predictor, it refers mainly
to the situation of congenital heart defects with pulmonary-to-systemic shunts and
normal pulmonary artery pressures [37].
266 W. Budts

Table 17.2  Conditions in which pregnancy risk is WHO IV (pregnancy contraindicated)

1. Pulmonary arterial hypertension of any cause
2. Severe systemic ventricular dysfunction (LVEF <30 %, NYHA III-IV)
3. Previous peripartum cardiomyopathy with any residual impairment of left ventricular
function
4. Severe mitral stenosis, severe symptomatic aortic stenosis
5. Marfan syndrome with aorta dilated >45 mm
6. Aortic dilatation >50 mm in aortic disease associated with bicuspid aortic valve
7. Native severe coarctation
WHO World Health Organization, LVEF left ventricle ejection fraction, NYHA New York Heart
Association

Table 17.3 Maternal 1. Baseline NYHA class > II or cyanosis

predictors of neonatal events 2. Maternal left heart obstruction
in women with heart disease 3. Smoking during pregnancy
4. Multiple gestation
5. Use of oral anticoagulants during pregnancy
6. Mechanical valve prosthesis

17.5.1 Contraception in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

and Congenital Heart Disease

Barrier methods such as condoms, diaphragms, and cervical caps give protection
against sexual transmittable diseases and do not have health risks, but their high
failure rate with typical use (15–30 %) makes them an inappropriate contraceptive
for women with PH [35].
Sterilization seems to be the best choice for women who should not become
pregnant and is rated WHO II for contraceptive method [41]. WHO risk for contra-
ceptive method by medical condition is summarized in Table 17.4. The safest surgi-
cal technique to sterilize patients with pulmonary vascular disease is probably the
mini-laparatomy or minimal laparascopy (with <200 ml CO2 and minimal increase
in intra-abdominal pressure) [41]. Indeed, during laparoscopic sterilization under
general anesthesia, the combination with positive pressure ventilation, abdominal
inflation with CO2, and intermittent head down tilt might decrease venous return
and negatively affects the circulation. Vagal reaction under local anesthesia must be
avoided because of the decrease in systemic vascular resistance, aggravating a
pulmonary-­to-systemic shunt. Finally, patients with a persistent shunt might have
an increased risk for paradoxical air embolism, not only from venous catheters but
also from the soluble CO2 used for inflation [41].
The use of contraceptive hormonal treatment and its WHO classification are
summarized in Table 17.5 [41]. Combined oral contraceptives (progestogen and
estrogen) are safe and very effective as contraception. However, the estrogen com-
ponent is responsible for an increased risk of arterial and venous thromboembolism
and is therefore unsuitable for patients with pulmonary-to-systemic shunts who are
17  Pulmonary Hypertension 267

Table 17.4  WHO risk classifications by medical condition for contraceptive methods [41]
WHO
Class Risk for contraceptive method by medical condition
I Condition with no restriction for the use of the contraceptive method Always
usable
II Condition where the advantages of the method generally outweigh the Broadly
risks usable
III Condition where the risks of the method usually outweigh the Caution in
advantages: alternatives are usually preferable. Exceptions if: (i) Patient use
accepts risks and rejects alternatives (ii) The risk of pregnancy is very
high and the only acceptable alternative methods are less effective
IV Condition where the method represents an unacceptable health risk Do not use
WHO World Health Organization

Table 17.5  World Health Contraception WHO classification

Organization class for
Combined contraceptives I
contraceptive methods in
Standard-dose progestogen-only pill Ia (IVb)
pulmonary arterial hyperten-
sion and Eisenmenger’s High-dose progestogen-only pill I (IIIb)
syndrome [41] Injectable progestogen I
Implantable progestogen I (IVb)
Hormone-releasing intrauterine device III–IV
a
Although safe, the limited efficacy of the progestogen-only pill
limits its use in women in whom pregnancy carries a particular
risk (PAH and Eisenmenger’s syndrome)
b
For patients treated with bosentan

at risk for paradoxical embolism and stroke (WHO IV). Combined non-oral contra-
ceptives (skin patch or vaginal ring) have the same potential side effects as the
combined oral contraceptives. Therefore, WHO IV is also recommended for the
non-oral forms in PAH patients with a persistent shunt. Progestogen-only methods
are not associated with increased risk for arterial or venous thrombosis [42].
Unfortunately, although the standard progestogen-only pills are very safe, contra-
ception is not always reliable; consequently, standard progestogen-only pills are not
recommended for patient with PAH or the Eisenmenger’s syndrome. In addition
standard progestogen-only pills are contraindicated for patients treated with bosen-
tan. Bosentan might reduce the efficacy of progestogen-only contraceptives.
However, high-dose progestogen-only pills are a more reliable form of contracep-
tion [41]. After systematic use of the injectable and implantable form, many women
become amenorrheic, which might be an advantage in cyanotic patients who suffer
from menorrhagia [41]. The hormone-releasing intrauterine device does not have
the risk of increased vaginal bleeding and pain, as seen in the copper devices.
However, implantation of this device is still categorized in the risk classification
WHO III-IV as 5 % of patients experience a vasovagal response that might lead to
cardiovascular collapse in patients with PAH and/or the Eisenmenger’s syndrome.
A skilled operator is recommended for this choice of contraceptive. There are no
data regarding the use of emergency contraception.
268 W. Budts

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Pulmonary Stenosis
18
Marianna Stamatelatou and Lorna Swann

Abbreviations

PS Pulmonary stenosis
DCRV Double-chambered RV
RVOT Right ventricular outflow tract
MPA Main pulmonary artery

Key Facts
Incidence: 0.5 per 1,000 births.
Inheritance: 3–5 %.
Medication: None
World Health Organization class: I–II.
Risk of pregnancy: low risk. Arrhythmias and heart failure may occur.
Poor RV function, severe pulmonary regurgitation, cyanosis or a history of
prior arrhythmia increase the risk.
Life expectancy: normal or nearly normal.

M. Stamatelatou, MD, MSc • L. Swann, MB, ChB, MD, FRCP (*)

Department of Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Royal Brompton Hospital, London, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 271

J.W. Roos-Hesselink, M.R. Johnson (eds.), Pregnancy and Congenital Heart
Disease, Congenital Heart Disease in Adolescents and Adults,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38913-4_18
272 M. Stamatelatou and L. Swann

Key Management
Preconception: If stenosis is at valve level and minor then ECG and echo are
usually sufficient. Otherwise a full assessment with MRI and exercise test-
ing is required.
Pregnancy: In simple mild valve stenosis review in early pregnancy and again
in the early third trimester.
Labour: vaginal delivery.
Post-partum: Routine unless complicated by cyanosis, arrhythmia or
RV dysfunction.

18.1 The Condition

Pulmonary stenosis (PS) is part of the spectrum of right heart obstructive lesions
and is usually defined as an obstructive lesion at the level of, or just above or below,
the pulmonary valve. Pulmonary stenosis demonstrates a wide spectrum of disease
severity, and therefore its clinical presentation varies from critical PS in the neonate
to the finding of mild PS in the older patient evaluated for an asymptomatic murmur.
Pulmonary stenosis is one of the more common forms of congenital heart disease,
and its prevalence does show some geographic variation with an increased inci-
dence in Asian populations [1].
There are many subtypes of pulmonary stenosis, but the classic PS valve is a
mobile, dome-shaped valve with a small opening orifice [2, 3]. Ten to 20 % of PS is
due to a dysplastic valve. In this setting the valve is trileaflet and thickened with myx-
omatous change in the leaflets [4]. These dysplastic valves are more frequently associ-
ated with inherited genetic syndromes such as Noonan syndrome [5]. Unicuspid and
bicuspid pulmonary valves are also uncommon and are often associated with more
complex lesions, such as tetralogy of Fallot which is described in Chap. 6 [6].

18.1.1 Other Forms of Pulmonary Stenosis

Subvalvular pulmonary stenosis includes infundibular PS and double-chambered

RV (DCRV). Infundibular stenosis can be primarily caused by discrete fibromus-
cular obstruction or hypertrophic myocardium. In the setting of severe valvular
pulmonary stenosis, reactive ventricular hypertrophy can cause a secondary infun-
dibular stenosis and a further dynamic right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT)
obstruction.
In double-chambered RV, the RV cavity is divided into a high-pressure inlet
part and a low-pressure outlet part by anomalous muscle bundles. This is often
associated with a ventricular septal defect, and the obstruction is usually progres-
sive [7, 8].
18  Pulmonary Stenosis 273

Supravalvar PS occurs above the valve in the main pulmonary artery (MPA),
bifurcation or pulmonary artery branches. It is described as part of several syn-
dromes including Williams syndrome and Alagille syndrome [9]. It is also a com-
mon finding in congenital rubella syndrome. Congenital supravalvar stenosis can be
caused by a discrete ridge or by a diffusely hypoplastic segment of the main pulmo-
nary artery. Pulmonary atresia is a different entity and will be discussed in relation
to tetralogy of Fallot.
Pulmonary stenosis is also commonly seen in relation to previous surgical inter-
vention. Previously “repaired” or replaced valves may become stenotic over time.
This includes any form of valved conduit between the heart and the pulmonary arter-
ies. On average a replaced pulmonary valve, which is almost always a tissue valve,
will be significantly dysfunctioning by 15 years post implantation. The principles of
assessing native and post-surgical pulmonary stenosis are essentially the same.
Post-repair supravalvar PS is also relatively common. Examples of this are ste-
nosis at the site of previous pulmonary artery banding or post arterial switch opera-
tion at the level of the distal anastomosis between the neo-pulmonary “root” and the
MPA.

18.1.2 Pathophysiology

The clinical consequences of pulmonary stenosis are directly related to the degree
of stenosis. Severe PS increases right ventricular afterload causing ventricular
hypertrophy and a reduced end systolic deformation of the RV [10]. Significant
elevation of RV systolic and diastolic pressures also leads to an increase in right
atrial pressure, right atrial stretch and a propensity towards atrial arrhythmia.
Increased right atrial pressures can also cause right to left shunting across an atrial
communication (such as a patent foramen ovale) and secondary tricuspid regurgita-
tion. In more complex lesions, the same is also true for shunts at ventricular level.
However this chapter will focus, in the main, on isolated PS.
Right ventricular dysfunction and overt right heart failure are a late finding in the
pathophysiology of PS. Even lifelong PS may not ever progress to cause frank heart
failure.
Overall the long-term outlook for patients with PS is excellent. Those with gra-
dients less than 20 mmHg rarely progress. In contrast those with gradients over
50 mmHg are likely to require intervention in later years [11]. Intervention, whether
catheter-based or surgical, is relatively straightforward and is expected to return the
patient to full health with no symptoms.

18.1.3 Clinical Presentation

A wide range of pulmonary stenosis may be present in women of childbearing age.

Many of these patients will have had little, or no, previous intervention.
274 M. Stamatelatou and L. Swann

The usual clinical findings in these patients include:

• An ejection click that decreases with inspiration (if valve mobile).

• An ejection systolic murmur at the upper left sternal border radiation through to
the back. During pregnancy the intensity of the murmur may increase as pulmo-
nary blood flow increases.
• A split-second sound.
• Occasionally a diastolic pulmonary regurgitation murmur (especially if previous
intervention).
• A fourth heart sound if severe stenosis is present.
• There may be signs of secondary tricuspid regurgitation or cyanosis if there are
associated complications. Cyanosis may only manifest itself on exercise and
should be actively looked for especially if there is the finding of unexplained
erythrocytosis.

The majority of patients with pulmonary stenosis are asymptomatic. Symptoms

usually only occur when there is loss of sinus rhythm or RV pressure exceeds
50 % of LV pressure. When symptoms do occur, they tend to be a slow progres-
sive onset of effort intolerance, breathlessness and fatigue. Palpitation is com-
mon. Cardiogenic ankle oedema is a rare but concerning symptom that requires
further assessment. Chest pain, syncope and even sudden death are rarely seen
but if present are thought to be driven by RV ischaemia and ventricular
arrhythmia.

18.1.4 Diagnostic Tools

The electrocardiogram is often normal, and ECG changes only occur when the RV
pressure is significantly elevated. Important stenosis is associated with evidence of
right atrial enlargement, right axis deviation and RV hypertrophy. In severe stenosis
there may be a pure R or Rs, or QR is the usual pattern in the right precordial leads,
and the R wave is usually greater than 20 mm (Fig. 18.1).

18.1.5 Echocardiography

Echocardiography is the diagnostic tool of choice (Fig. 18.2). It morphologically

classifies the different types and locations of PS, evaluates the hemodynamic impli-
cations and delineates coexisting lesions. Doppler echocardiography provides the
gradient across the obstruction, the presence and severity of pulmonary and tricus-
pid regurgitation and an estimate of the RV systolic pressure. Pressure gradients
depend on the amount of flow across PV, the RV function and the pulmonary artery
pressure. Care therefore needs to be taken in assessing the degree of stenosis. During
18  Pulmonary Stenosis 275

Fig. 18.1  12-lead ECG of a patient with significant pulmonary stenosis. There is a right bundle
branch block, evidence of RV hypertrophy and a slightly peaked P wave

Fig. 18.2  Echo Doppler of a patient with significant pulmonary stenosis. The peak gradient across
the valve is 78 mmHg with a mean gradient of 50 mmHg
276 M. Stamatelatou and L. Swann

Fig. 18.3  Angiogram of a

patient with severe A
pulmonary stenosis
pre-balloon angioplasty.
(a) Dilated main
B
pulmonary artery. (b)
Stenosis at the valve level.
(c) Secondary infundibular C
stenosis. (d) Hypertrophied
and trabeculated right
ventricle

pregnancy one would expect the pressure gradient to increase as flow increases. PS
is considered mild when the peak gradient across the obstruction is <36 mmHg
(peak velocity <3 m/s), moderate from 36 to 64 mmHg (peak velocity 3–4 m/s) and
severe when the gradient is >64 mmHg (peak velocity>4 m/s). These gradients are
often a little higher than invasive gradients but correlate well with catheter-based
measurements (Fig. 18.3) [12–14]. Although it has limitations, echo is highly effec-
tive in tracking RV function, RV hypertrophy and an estimate of RV volume. In
addition right atrial size and surrogates of RA pressure are easily measured and can
be followed throughout a pregnancy. The key to maternal outcome is RV function,
and caution should be exercised in simply relying on the pulmonary stenosis gradi-
ent to monitor antenatal progress. Indeed failure of the pressure gradient to rise is
not reassuring but may indicate issues regarding the RV function.

18.1.6 Other Diagnostic Tests

Clinical examination, ECG and echo are usually sufficient to assess a patient either
before or during a pregnancy. However, other diagnostics may be useful especially
in the more complex patients. Cardiac MRI provides additional information regard-
ing anatomy of the RVOT and pulmonary artery. It can determine the exact location
of PS and so can distinguish between PS at different levels. It is also the technique
of choice for quantifying pulmonary regurgitation and right heart volumes, mass
and function [15]. Neurohormones, such as N-terminal pro-BNP, may be useful in
pre-pregnancy risk stratification and, in high-risk patients, in tracking progress dur-
ing pregnancy [16]. Preconception cardiopulmonary exercise testing with
18  Pulmonary Stenosis 277

measurements of peak oxygen consumption is useful for assessing the impact of an

increased haemodynamic burden and in flagging those at increased risk of adverse
maternal events [17].

18.2 Pregnancy Outcomes

18.2.1 Maternal Outcomes

Isolated PS is rarely a significant impediment to a successful pregnancy. Hameed

et al. reported a small study of 17 pregnancies. The majority were asymptomatic
throughout pregnancy, and there were no important maternal complications, regard-
less of the severity of PS [24]. In a larger study of congenital heart disease pregnan-
cies, Drenthen et al. reported the outcomes of 148 women with pulmonary stenosis.
In this cohort three patients developed arrhythmia, one heart failure and three other
cardiovascular complications. In the total cohort of 1,802 pregnancies, a pulmonary
outflow tract gradient of greater than 50 mmHg was not associated with a significant
increase in risk. The presence of cyanosis or sub-pulmonary atrioventricular valve
regurgitation was, however, associated with an increased risk [20]. As mentioned
above severe PR is an independent predictor of complications especially if
RV-impaired function coexists.

18.2.2 Fetal Outcomes

In general fetal outcomes are very good. The only caveats to this would be if there
was significant cyanosis or very impaired maternal cardiac output. The recurrence
risk for isolated PS is low in the region of 2–3 %. However, in syndromic patients and
those with a dysplastic valve, genetic advice should be sought prior to conception as
some of these conditions have an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance.

18.3 Management

18.3.1 Antenatal Monitoring

In patients with mild isolated PS, antenatal care will be very similar to routine ante-
natal care. Patients should be offered fetal echocardiography although pulmonary
stenosis is often not detected until late in pregnancy or postdelivery. Patients with
more severe disease or adverse risk factors will require serial assessment by a spe-
cialist cardiac-obstetric team. Regular clinical examination, ECG and echo testing
will be required. The frequency of this will be proportionate to the degree of cardiac
impairment. During a pregnancy one would expect the Doppler echo gradient to
increase across the valve. Heart rate will start to rise from early in the first trimester,
and cyanosis may worsen as the systemic vascular resistance drops.
278 M. Stamatelatou and L. Swann

18.3.2 Interventions

Isolated PS at valve level is often responsive to balloon dilation. However it is rare

that this is required in pregnancy and should not be embarked upon lightly. An
increasing gradient per se is not a good indication for an invasive procedure that
may involve ionizing radiation and possible a general anaesthetic. Intervention
should be reserved for situations where delivery is not ideal (due to extreme pre-
maturity) and where there is evidence of decompensation. Worsening cyanosis,
ischaemia, chest pain and ventricular arrhythmias should trigger a discussion
regarding balloon dilatation. Pulmonary stenosis in association with impaired RV
function would also be concerning. Bed rest and low-dose diuretics may buy some
time when planning optimal care. If intervention is planned during pregnancy, an
obstetric team should be available in case the procedure triggers threatened pre-
term delivery. Techniques to minimize fetal morbidity associated with invasive
procedures are well recognized [23], and fetal monitoring should be clearly
documented.
In the very rare setting of the need for cardiac surgery during pregnancy, the women
should be fully counselled regarding the risk of fetal loss which is still in the region of
about 10 % despite protocols to optimal care and minimize fetal morbidity.

18.3.3 Delivery

In general mode and technique of delivery will be dictated by obstetric factors.

Chapter 6 outlines the generic principles. In patients who are at the more severe
end of the PS spectrum, especially those with associated lesions, delivery may
be challenging. Optimal right heart filling pressures need to be considered, and
there is a role for measuring the central venous pressure directly. Arrhythmias
should be treated promptly, and meticulous care should be taken regarding fluid
balance. Bleeding or drugs that cause marked venous dilatation may be poorly
tolerated. If there is marked RV hypertrophy, underfilling or prolonged pushing
during the second stage may destabilize the patient. In patients with significant
PS, slow incremental epidural anaesthesia can be used, but again care needs to
be taken to avoid a precipitous drop in the venous filling pressures. In patients
with an associated intracardiac shunt, such as a PFO or small atrial septal defect,
the degree of cyanosis will be dependent on the balance between the right heart
pressures and the left heart pressures. Increase in right heart pressures due to,
for example, a heart rate-related dynamic outflow tract gradient or a drop in left
heart pressures due to systemic vasodilatation will lead to increasing cyanosis.
In extreme cases this can lead to ventricular ischaemia and further worsening of
haemodynamics. There is also a risk of paradoxical embolism. In the absence of
previous valve surgery or complicating issues, antibiotics are not usually given
peri-delivery for endocarditis prevention. For the complex patients, a detailed
delivery plan should be agreed in advance with input from the multidisciplinary
cardiac-obstetric team.
18  Pulmonary Stenosis 279

18.4 Impact of Physiological Changes of Pregnancy

Due to the increase in cardiac output, the gradient over the pulmonary valve may
increase during pregnancy. Already during the first trimester, these changes may
occur with a peak around 26–28 weeks of pregnancy.

18.5 Preconception Counselling

Risk stratification should ideally be performed preconception. However it is not

uncommon for PS to be detected for the first time during pregnancy or for these
patients, who are generally very well, not to be under regular follow-up. The key
components determining outcome will be RV function and propensity towards
arrhythmia. The well-known risk stratification tools place mild PS in WHO Class I
(no detectable increased risk of mortality and no/mild increase in morbidity) [18].
The presence of cyanosis would increase this risk classification. The CARPREG
and ZAHARA scores would also place patients, who have not had rhythm issues, in
a low-risk group [19, 20]. Khairy et al. reported increased maternal risk associated
with impaired RV function and/or severe pulmonary regurgitation but not pulmo-
nary stenosis per se [21].
Patients should be counselled that arrhythmia may present for the first time during
pregnancy especially if the PS is severe and there is RA dilatation. In addition pro-
gressive effort intolerance may occur in those with high right-sided pressures. It
should be remembered that elevated right heart pressures due to PS are much more
benign than elevated pressures due to pulmonary vascular disease. Care should be
taken to exclude pulmonary hypertension when elevated RV pressures are detected
(Chap. 17). Risk increases when patients are symptomatic, have had prior arrhythmia,
have severe RV hypertrophy, have RV dysfunction or severe PR or have cyanosis. As
with other patients with congenital heart disease, preconception risk stratification and
counselling should be performed by an expert multidisciplinary team [22].

Conclusions
The majority of patients with pulmonary stenosis tolerate pregnancy very well.
Patients should however be risk stratified as soon as possible – ideally prior to
pregnancy. Those with risk factors require specialist multidisciplinary cardiac-
obstetric care.

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