΢ΧΟΛΗ ΠΛΟΙΑΡΧΩΝ

ΠΣΤΧΙΑΚΗ ΕΡΓΑ΢ΙΑ

ΘΕΜΑ :

CONSTRUCTION OF LPG SHIPS

ΣΕΜΕΡΤΖΑΚΗΣ ΜΑΡΙΟΣ Α.Μ. 3252

΢φμβουλοσ καθηγήτρια:

Κα Ξενιτίδου Ζλλη
 Ν. ΜΗΧΑΝΙΩΝΑ 2014
ΑΚΑΔΗΜΙΑ ΕΜΠΟΡΙΚΟΤ ΝΑΤΣΙΚΟΤ

Α.Ε.Ν ΜΑΚΕΔΟΝΙΑ΢

ΕΠΙΒΛΕΠΩΝ ΚΑΘΘΓΘΣΘ΢: κ. ΞΕΝΙΣΙΔΟΤ ΕΛΛΘ

ΘΕΜΑ: CONSTRUCTION OF LPG SHIPS

ΣΟΤ ΢ΠΟΤΔΑ΢ΣΘ: ΢ΕΜΕΡΣΗΑΚΘ ΜΑΡΙΟΤ Α.Γ.Μ : 3252

Θμερομηνία ανάληψησ τησ εργαςίασ: 17/04/2013 Θμερομηνία παράδοςησ τησ

εργαςίασ: 02/12/2014

Α/Α Ονοματεπώνυμο Ειδικότητα Αξιολόγηςη Τπογραφή

ΤΣΟΥΛΗΣ ΝΙΚΟΛΑΟΣ ΠΛΟΙΑΡΧΟ΢

1 Δ/ΝΣΘ΢ ΢ΧΟΛΘ΢

ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗ ΦΙΛΟΛΟΓΙΑ
ΞΕΝΙΤΙΔΟΥ ΕΛΛΗ

2 Επιβλέπουςα
Καθηγήτρια

ΣΕΛΙΚΗ ΑΞΙΟΛΟΓΗ΢Η

Ο ΔΙΕΤΘΤΝΣΗ΢ ΢ΧΟΛΗ΢ :

1
 CONTENTS
ΙΝTRODUCTION……..………………………………………………………. …………...3

CHAPTER ONE…………………………………………………………………….……...4

i)HISTORY OF LPG CARRIERS CONSTRUCTION……………………………………..4

ii) CATEGORIES ON LPG CARRIER CONSTRUCTION METHODS……………..…...6

CHAPTER TWO……………………………………………………….………………….11

i)LPG SHIP CARGOES………………………………………………..………..………….11

ii)CARGO HANDLING………………………………………………….…….…..……….14

iii)CONTAINMENT SYSTEMS……………………………………….….…….……..……18

CHAPTER THREE…………………………………………………………..…………….24

i)SHIPS ARRANGEMENTS…………………………………………………..…….………24

ii)CARGO CONTAINMENT………………………………………………..……....………30

iii)MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION……………………………………...…………….31

CHAPTER FOUR

i)HAZARDS AND HEALTH EFFECTS ON LPG

CARRIERS………………………………..…….…………………………...………..……..35

BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………..…………………………………..……..40

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 INTRODUCTION

In this essay, there will be an examination ofthe construction of LPG ships.

First of all, there will be a reference to the history of LPG ship’s construction andthe
categories, on those ships construction methods, over time.The methods that are
preferred nowadays will be reported and so their advantages against older ones and the
needs that resulted us in these kind of methods.
After that, there will be a focus on LPG ships cargoes, cargo handling and their
containment systems.
To continue, there will be an examination to the rules & methods a classification society
uses in LPG ship building such us Germanischer Lloyd. There will be a detailed report
on the rules they set, as a classification society, on some of the important matters in LPG
Ships building and also their minimum standards.
Furthermore, we will study the hazards on LPG carriers and the health effects in some of
their cargoes.
Those will be the main subjects which this essay is about.

3
 A.CHAPTER ONE
i. HISTORY OF LPG CARRIERS
CONSTRUCTION
The first LNG carrier Methane Pioneer

(dwt5034
tons) left the Calcasieu River on the Louisiana Gulf coast on 25 January 1959. Carrying
the world's first ocean cargo of LNG, it sailed to the UK where the cargo was delivered.
Subsequent expansion of that trade has brought on a large expansion of the fleet to today
where giant LNG ships carrying up to 266,000 m3 are sailing worldwide. At the end of
2005, a total of 203 vessels have been built, of which 193 are still in service.
The success of the specially modified C1-M-AV1-type standard ship Normarti,
renamed The Methane Pioneer, caused the Gas Council and Conch International Methane
Ltd. to order two purpose built LNG carriers to be constructed: the Methane Princess and
the Methane Progress. The ships were fitted with Conch independent aluminum cargo
tanks and entered the Algerian LNG trade in 1964. These ships had a capacity of 27,000
cubic meters.
In the late 1960s opportunity arose to export LNG from Alaska to Japan, and in 1969 that
trade was initiated. Two ships, each with a capacity of 71,500 cubic meters, were built in
Sweden. In the early 1970s, the US Government encouraged US shipyards to build LNG

4
carriers, and a total of 16 LNG ships were built. The late 1970s and early 1980s brought
the prospect of Arctic LNG ships with a number of projects being studied.
With the increase in cargo capacity to approximately 143,000 cubic meters, new tank
designs were developed, from Moss Rosenberg to Technigaz Mark III and Gaztransport
No.96.
In recent years, the size and capacity of LNG carriers has increased greatly. Since 2005,
Qatargas has pioneered the development of two new classes of LNG carriers, referred to
as Q-Flex and Q-Max

Each ship has a cargo capacity of between 210,000 and 266,000 cubic meters and is
equipped with a re-liquefaction plant.

5
 ii. CATEGORIES ON LPG
CARRIER CONSTRUCTION
METHODS
Gas carriers range in capacity from the small pressurised tankers of between 500 and 6,000
m3 for shipment of propane, butane and the chemical gases at ambient temperature up to the
fully insulated or refrigerated seagoing tankers of over 100,000 m3 capacity for the transport
of LNG and LPG. Between those two distinct types is a third tanker type – semipressurised
gas carrier.

These very flexible tankers are able to carry many cargoes in a fully refrigerated condition at
atmospheric pressure or at temperatures corresponding to carriage pressure of between five
and nine bar. The movement of liquefied gases by waterways is now a mature industry,
served by a fleet of many tankers, a network of export and import terminals and a wealth of
knowledge and experience on the part of various people involved.

Gas carriers have certain features common with other tankers used for the carriage of bulk
liquids such as oil and chemical tankers.

A feature almost unique to the gas carrier is that the cargo is kept under positive pressure to
prevent air entering the cargo system. This means that only cargo liquid and cargo vapour are
present in the cargo tank and flammable atmospheres cannot develop.

Furthermore all gas carriers utilise closed cargo systems when loading or discharging, with
no venting of vapour being allowed to the atmosphere.

In the LNG trade, provision is always made for the use of a vapour return line between tanker
and shore to pass vapour displaced by the cargo transfer. In the LPG trade this is not always
the case as, under normal circumstances during loading, reliquefaction is used to retain
vapour on board. By these means cargo release to the atmosphere is virtually eliminated and
the risk of vapourignition is minimised.

Gas carriers are divided into two main groups.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Carriers, which are designed to carry mainly butane,
propane, butadiene, propylene, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) and are able to carry
anhydrous ammonia.

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Carriers, which are designed to carry liquefied natural gas
(which is mostly methane).

Gas carriers are classed in three types based on hazard potential:

6
i) type 1G, designed to carry the most hazardous cargoes

ii) type 2G and 2PG, designed to carry cargoes having a lesser degree of hazard

iii) type 3G, designed to carry cargoes of the least hazardous nature.

Gas carrier types

All gas cargoes are transported in liquid form (ie they are not carried as a gas in its vapour
form) and, because of their physical and chemical properties, they are carried either at:

- pressures greater than atmospheric, or at

- temperatures below ambient, or a combination of both.

Therefore, gas carriers are generally grouped as follows:

i) Fully Pressurised

ii) semi-pressurised and refrigerated

iii) fully refrigerated

Note. These grouping names are more prevalently used when discussing the classes and types
of LPG carriers rather than LNG carriers.

In principle, the design is ‘a box within a box that is separated by a void space’, similar in
effect to the principle of a flask. Gas Carriers can be split into two distinct groups. One is the
liquefied natural gas (LNG) carrier. The other is the liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) carrier.

LNG is mainly methane and ethane. LNG ships carry their cargo at -161°C, at a relative
density of approximately 0.600 with a volume contraction ratio of 1 in 600. LNG cargo is
carried at ambient pressure.

LPG is mainly propane and butane. LPG ships carry their cargo at -42°C, at a relative density
of approximately 0.500 with a volume contraction ratio of 1 in 300. LPG cargo may be
carried under pressure.

The cargo tank construction of LNG and LPG ships can be of (a) prismatic design (b)
membrane design or (c) spherical design. Materials used for these cargo tanks can be
aluminium, balsa wood, plywood, invar or nickel steel, stainless steel, with pearlite and
polyurethane foam.

Because of the demand for insulation at these extremely low cargo temperatures, the first cost
7
of these specialised ships are extremely high. A very high standard of workmanship is
required for the building of these types of vessel.

Their capacity ranges from 75000 to 138000m3 of gas, their LBPs up to 280 m and their Br.
Mld from 25 to 46 m. When fully loaded, their CB can be 0.660 up to 0.680 with service
speed in the range of 16–20.75 kt. They are fine-form vessels .

Gas carriers must comply with the standards set by the Gas Codes or national rules, and with
all safety and pollution requirements common to other tankers.

The safety features inherent in the tanker design requirements have helped considerably in
the safety of these tankers. Equipment requirements for gas carriers include temperature and
pressure monitoring, gas detection and cargo tank liquid level indicators, all of which are
provided with alarms and ancillary instrumentation. The variation of equipment as fitted can
make the gas carrier one of the most sophisticated tankers afloat today.

There is much variation in the design, construction and operation of gas carriers due to the
variety of cargoes carried and the number of cargo containment systems utilized. Cargo
containment systems may be of the independent tanks (pressurized, semi-pressurized or fully
refrigerated) or of the membrane type.

Fully pressurized tanks

The capacity of fully pressurized ships is usually less than 2000 m3 of propane,
butane, or anhydrous ammonia carried in two to six uninsulated horizontal cylindrical
pressure vessels arranged below or partly below deck. These independent tanks of
Type C are normally designed for working pressures up to 17.5 kg/cm2, which
corresponds to the vapor pressure of propane at 45 _C, the maximum ambient
temperature the vessel is likely to operate in. The tanks can be constructed from
ordinary grades of steel, are mounted in cradle-shaped foundations, and if below deck
are fitted with domes protruding through the deck to which are fitted all connections.
Wash bulkheads are fitted in very long tanks. The shape of the tanks generally
prevents good utilization of the underdeck space.

Semi-pressurized (or semi-refrigerated) tanks

8
The capacity of semi-pressurized ships ranges up to about 5000 m3, the cargoes
carried being similar to fully pressurized ships. The independent Type C tanks are
generally constructed of ordinary grades of steel suitable for a temperature of -5 oC
and are designed for a maximum pressure of about 8 kg/cm2. The outer surface of the
tank is insulated and refrigeration or reliquefication plant cools the cargo and
maintains the working pressure. Cargo tanks are often horizontal cylinders mounted
on two saddle supports and many designs incorporate bio-lobe tanks
to better utilize the underdeck space and improve payload.

Fully refrigerated tanks

The capacity of fully refrigerated ships ranges from 10,000 to 100,000 m3, the smaller
ships in the range being multi-product carriers whilst the larger vessels tend to be
single-product carriers on a permanent route. Tanks fall almost exclusively into the
prismatic, independent Type A category with tops sloped to reduce free surface and
bottom corners sloped to suit the bilge structure. In most cases they are subdivided
along the center line by a liquid-tight bulkhead that extends to the underside of the
dome projecting through the deck that is used for access and piping connections, etc.
The tanks sit on insulated bearing blocks so that surfaces are accessible for inspection
and are located by anti-roll and pitch keys in such a manner that expansion and
contraction can take place relative to the ships structure. Antiflotation chocks are
provided to prevent the tank floating off the bearings if the hold were flooded. Tanks
are constructed of a notch ductile steel for the normal minimum operating temperature
of _43 _C, the boiling point of propane.
The ship has a double hull extending over the bottom and bilge area, the secondary
barrier being provided by low-temperature (notch ductile) steel at the inner bottom,
sloping bilge tank, part side shell, and sloping bottom of topside tank. Transverse
bulkheads may be single- or double-plate (cofferdam) type between cargo holds.
Insulation can be either on the tank or the secondary barrier for this type of ship.

General arrangement of gas carriers

Gas carriers have a similar overall arrangement to tankers in that their machinery and
accommodation are aft and the cargo containment is spread over the rest of the ship to
forward where the forecastle is fitted.
Specific gravity of LPG cargoes can vary from 0.58 to 0.97, whilst LNG ships are
often designed for a cargo specific gravity of 0.5 so that a characteristic of LNG ships
in particular and most LPG ships is their low draft and high freeboards.
Water ballast cannot be carried in the cargo tanks so adequate provision is made for it within
the
double-hull spaces, double-bottom, bilge tank, and upper wing tank spaces.
The double-hull feature of LNG carriers and many LPG ships is a required safety
feature and the tanks of LPG ships that do not have this feature are required to be
a minimum distance inboard of the shell.
Fore end and aft end structure is similar to that for other ships. The cargo section is
transversely or longitudinally framed, depending primarily on size, in the same
manner as other cargo ships, the inner hull receiving special consideration where it is
required to support the containment system.
All gas ships have spaces around the tanks that are monitored for gas leaks and in
many ships these spaces are also inerted, an inert gas system being fitted aboard the

9
ship. Liquid gas cargoes are carried under positive pressure at all times so that no air
can enter the tanks and create a flammable mixture.
Liquefaction equipment is provided aboard LPG ships; ‘boil-off’ vapor from the
tanks due to any heat ingress is drawn into the liquefaction plant and returned to the
tank. Boil-off vapor from LNG ship tanks can be utilized as a boiler fuel in steam
ships, otherwise it is vented to atmosphere, although this is not permitted in many
ports, and several other solutions have been developed to overcome this problem.

10
 B. CHAPTER TWO
i. LPG ships cargoes
The Gas Codes, developed by International Maritime Organization apply to all gas carriers
regardless of size. There are three Gas Codes and these are described below.
Gas carriers built after June 1986 (the IGC Code)
The Code which applies to new gas carriers (built after 30 June 1986) is the International
Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk. In
brief, this Code is known as the IGC Code. The IGC Code, under amendments
to International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea(SOLAS), is mandatory for all new
ships. As proof that a ship complies with the Code, an International Certificate of Fitness for
the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk should be on board. In 1993, the IGC Code was
amended and the new rules came into effect on 1 July 1994. Ships on which construction
started on or after 1 October 1994 should apply the amended version of the Code but ships
built earlier may comply with previous editions of the IGC Code.
Gas carriers built between 1976 and 1986 (the GC Code) The regulations covering gas
carriers built after 1976 but before July 1986 are included in the Code for the Construction
and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk. It is known as the Gas Carrier
Code or GC Code in short. Since 1975, International Maritime OrganizationIMO has
approved four sets of amendments to the GC Code. The latest was adopted in June 1993. All
amendments are not necessarily agreed by every government. Although this Code is not
mandatory, many countries have implemented it into national law. Accordingly, most
charterers will expect such ships to meet with Code standards and, as proof of this, to have on
board a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk.
Gas carriers built before 1977 (the Existing Ship Code). The regulations covering gas
carriers built before 1977 are contained in the Code for Existing Ships Carrying Liquefied
Gases in Bulk. Its content is similar to the GC Code, though less extensive. The Existing Ship
Code was completed in 1976 after the GC Code had been written. It therefore summarises
current shipbuilding practice at that time. It remains as an International Maritime
OrganizationIMO recommendation for all gas carriers in this older fleet of ships. The Code is
not mandatory but is applied by some countries for ship registration and in other countries as
a necessary fulfilment prior to port entry. Accordingly, many ships of this age are required by
charterers to meet with Code standards and to have on board a Certificate of Fitness for the
Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk.

LPG is the name originally given by the oil industry to a mixture of petroleum
hydrocarbons, principally propane and butane and mixtures of the two. LPG is used as a
clean fuel for domestic and industrial purposes. These gases may be converted to the
liquid form and transported in one of three conditions:

11
1. Solely under pressure at ambient temperature
2. Fully refrigerated at their boiling point (_30 to _48 _C)
3. Semi-refrigerated at reduced temperature and elevated pressure.
A number of other gases with similar physical properties, such as ammonia,
propylene, and ethylene, are commonly shipped on LPG carriers. These gases are
liquefied and transported in the same conditions as LPG except ethylene, which boils
at a much lower temperature (_104 _C) and which is therefore carried in the fully
refrigerated or semi-refrigerated condition.

Information about the LPG:

Liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas), also referred to as
simply propane or butane, is a flammablemixture of hydrocarbon gases used as
a fuel in heating appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles.
It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant,
replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer. When
specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred to as autogas.
Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane (C3H8),
primarily butane (C4H10) and, most commonly, mixes including both propane and butane. In
winter, the mixes contain more propane, while in summer, they contain more butane.[1][2] In
theUnited States, primarily two grades of LPG are sold: commercial propane and HD-5.
These specifications are published by the Gas Processors Association (GPA)[3] and the
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM).[4] Propane/butane blends are also listed
in these specifications.
Propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons are usually also present in small
concentrations. HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG to 5%, and is
utilized as an autogas specification. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks
can be detected easily. The international standard is EN 589. In the United
States, tetrahydrothiophene (thiophane) or amyl mercaptan are also approved
odorants,[5] although neither is currently being utilized.
LPG is prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is almost entirely derived
from fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or
extracted from petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first
produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first commercial products appeared in
1912. It currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly
with no soot and very few sulfur emissions. As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water
pollutionhazards, but it can cause air pollution. LPG has a typical specific calorific value of
46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium
grade petrol (gasoline).[6] However, its energy density per volume unit of 26 MJ/L is lower

12
than either that of petrol or fuel oil, as its relative density is lower (about 0.5–0.58, compared
to 0.71–0.77 for gasoline).
As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at
normal temperatures and pressures and is usually supplied in pressurised steel vessels. They
are typically filled to 80–85% of their capacity to allow for thermal expansion of the
contained liquid. The ratio between the volumes of the vaporized gas and the liquefied gas
varies depending on composition, pressure, and temperature, but is typically around 250:1.
The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its vapour pressure, likewise varies
depending on composition and temperature; for example, it is approximately 220 kilopascals
(32 psi) for pure butane at 20 °C (68 °F), and approximately 2,200 kilopascals (320 psi) for
pure propane at 55 °C (131 °F). LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas, and thus will flow
along floors and tend to settle in low spots, such asbasements. There are two main dangers
from this. The first is a possible explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is within
the explosive limits and there is an ignition source. The second is suffocation due to LPG
displacing air, causing a decrease in oxygen concentration.

Comparison with natural gas

LPG is composed primarily of propane and butane§, while natural gas is composed of the
lighter methane and ethane. LPG, vaporised and at atmospheric pressure, has a
highercalorific value (94 MJ/m3 equivalent to 26.1kWh/m3) than natural gas (methane)
(38 MJ/m3 equivalent to 10.6 kWh/m3), which means that LPG cannot simply be substituted
for natural gas. In order to allow the use of the same burner controls and to provide for
similar combustion characteristics, LPG can be mixed with air to produce a synthetic natural
gas (SNG) that can be easily substituted. LPG/air mixing ratios average 60/40, though this is
widely variable based on the gases making up the LPG. The method for determining the
mixing ratios is by calculating the Wobbe index of the mix. Gases having the same Wobbe
index are held to be interchangeable.
LPG-based SNG is used in emergency backup systems for many public, industrial and
military installations, and many utilities use LPG peak shaving plants in times of high
demand to make up shortages in natural gas supplied to their distributions systems. LPG-
SNG installations are also used during initial gas system introductions, when the distribution
infrastructure is in place before gas supplies can be connected. Developing markets in India
and China (among others) use LPG-SNG systems to build up customer bases prior to
expanding existing natural gas systems.
LPG-based SNG or natural gas with localized storage and piping distribution network to the
house holds for catering to each cluster of 5000 domestic consumers can be planned under
initial phase of city gas network system. This would eliminate the last mile LPG cylinders
road transport which is a cause of traffic and safety hurdles in Indian cities. These localized
natural gas networks are successfully operating in Japan with feasibility to get connected to
wider networks in both villages and cities.

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 ii. Cargo handling
Handling LPG - Safety & operational matters

A liquefied gas is the liquid form of a substance which, at ambient temperature and at
atmospheric pressure, would be a gas.The same liquefied gas at the same temperature, in a
closed container, will always have the same pressure. Therefore, butane at the same
temperature has an identical pressure irrespective of whether the container is the tank of a gas
carrier, a simple gas cigarette lighter, a storage tank, or a domestic gas bottle All are
pressurised containers.

Most liquefied gases are hydrocarbons and the key property that makes hydrocarbons the
world’s primary energy source – combustibility – also makes them inherently hazardous.
Because these gases are handled in large quantities, it is imperative that all practical steps are
taken to minimize leakage and to limit all sources of ignition.

Gases are always liquefied for transportation in bulk simply because more cargo can be fitted
in a given volume. Typically, but dependent upon the product, 1 volume of liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) is equivalent to over 250 volumes of vapour and 1 volume of liquefied
natural gas (LNG) equivalent to 600 volumes of vapour.

Fig:Fully refrigerated LPG carrier at sea

The physical properties of a liquefied gas depend on its molecular structure. Some
compounds have the same molecular formula but a different arrangement within the
structure. These different compounds of the same basic substance are called ISOMERS for
example N-BUTANE x ISO-BUTANE.

The single most important physical property of a liquefied gas is its saturated vapour
pressure/temperature relationship. This property governs the design of the containment
system suitable for each cargo.

Escape of LPG on deck

Whether a spillage of liquid or a leak of vapour, the priorities of the Emergency Party are to:
a) Stop the flow of gas
b) Prevent ignition
c) Disperse the vapour cloud
The flow of gas from a source which is between two valves on the Emergency Shut Down

14
system will be limited. However, personnel advancing to close a valve manually close to the
source of a spillage or leak must:

a) Wear breathing apparatus and protective clothing.

b) Be protected by a massive water wall
Care must be taken to avoid cargo coming into contact with the skin.
Any leak of LPG will produce a rapidly expanding cloud of explosive vapour, which must be
prevented from coming into contact with a source of ignition. It is imperative therefore to
isolate any source of ignition and ensure that no vapours enter the accommodation. Early
consideration must be given to altering course and/or speed, and if necessary to stopping
ventilation fans. Personnel who have to leave the accommodation to close vent intakes must
wear breathing apparatus and protective clothing. If a vapour cloud approaches a known
source of ignition, consideration must be given to attempting to "bend" its path by putting up
a solid water wall.

The rate of dispersal of a vapour cloud will depend on climatic conditions. However, the use
of liberal quantities of water in spray form will increase the rate of vaporisation, and, in the
case of liquid spillage, reduce the risk of cold fractures of steel. Solid water jets must not be
used on liquid spills, as they will result in splashing of cold liquid. Fixed water sprays may
also assist in vapour dispersal if near enough to the cloud.

Sources of ignition

Smoking
There are frequently local regulations about smoking which must be rigidly observed.
Smoking may be permitted but only under controlled conditions at times and in places
specified by the Master. Personnel when working aboard the ship must not carry matches or
more particularly lighters, and the risk of doing so is to be impressed on all.

Portable Electrical Equipment.

Only approved Safety torches or hand lamps are to be used. Portable Electric Equipment self
contained or on extension cables are not to be used in a gas dangerous place or zone unless
the equipment is intrinsically safe.
Portable domestic radios, electronic calculators, tape recorders and other non-approved
battery equipment are not to be used in a gas dangerous place or zone.

Communication Equipment.
When berthed the ships normal communication equipment is not to be used unless certified
safe. Main radio transmitters are not to be used during cargo operations. This does not apply
to permanently and correctly installed VHF equipment or Satellite communication systems

Hot work, hammering, chipping and power tools

Before any hot work, hammering, chipping, or power tools including shot blasting are used
the responsible officer is to examine the area to be worked and satisfy himself that such work
can be safely undertaken and a hot work permit certificate issued. Non - sparking tools are
not to be used as they do not significantly reduce the risk of igniting a flammable vapour.
Aluminium paint is not to be smeared across steel. A heavy smear of aluminium on rusty,
steel if struck can cause an incandescent spark.

15
Ship to Shore Bonding
On some jetties this may be required but it is considered to be of minimal benefit. Cargo
hoses and loading arms are to be fitted with an insulating flange to ensure discontinuity
between ship and shore.

Auto - Ignition
The vapours from flammable liquids including fuel and lubricating oil may ignite if the liquid
comes into contact with any surface heated above the auto - ignition temperature e.g. steam
lines, exhaust manifolds, over heated equipment. Immediate steps are to be taken to rectify
any leakage and to remove any soaked rags on other material including lagging.

Static Electricity
Static Electricity can cause sparks capable of igniting a flammable gas. The cargo system of a
gas carrier is electrically bonded to the ships hull to prevent any build up of charges, bonding
connections must be maintained in good order.

Steam
A jet of steam may become charged in passing through a nozzle. Steam is not to be injected
into a tank compartment or piping system which may contain a flammable mixture.

Carbon Dioxide
Liquid Carbon Dioxide when released under pressure may form particles of solid carbon
dioxide these may become electrostatically charged. For this reason it must not be released
into tanks or spaces which contain flammable mixture.

Principles of refrigeration
Cold liquid refrigerant (Liquid Gas Cargo) is evaporated in an evaporator coil (Cargo tank)
which being cooler than its surroundings draws heat to provide the latent heat of vaporisation.
The cool vapour is drawn off by a compressor which raises both the pressure and the
temperature of the vapour and passes it to the condenser.

The pressure of the vapour having been increased the vapour now has a temperature of
condensation greater than the temperature of the condenser cooling fluid (sea water). The
vapour is condensed to a high pressure liquid and the sensible heat of desuperheating the
vapour together with the latent heat of condensation is removed via the condenser coolant
which is warmed up in the process.

The high pressure liquid then passes through an expansion valve to the low pressure side of
the cycle, in doing so flash evaporates to a mixture of cold liquid and vapour. The mixture
passes to the evaporator (cargo tank) to continue the cycle.

A typical LNG carrier has four to six tanks located along the center-line of the vessel.
Surrounding the tanks is a combination of ballast tanks, cofferdams and voids; in effect, this
gives the vessel a double-hull type design.

16
Inside each tank there are typically three submerged pumps. There are two main cargo pumps
which are used in cargo discharge operations and a much smaller pump which is referred to
as the spray pump. The spray pump is used for either pumping out liquid LNG to be used as
fuel (via a vaporizer), or for cooling down cargo tanks. It can also be used for "stripping" out
the last of the cargo in discharge operations. All of these pumps are contained within what is
known as the pump tower which hangs from the top of the tank and runs the entire depth of
the tank. The pump tower also contains the tank gauging system and the tank filling line, all
of which are located near the bottom of the tank.
In membrane-type vessels there is also an empty pipe with a spring-loaded foot valve that can
be opened by weight or pressure. This is the emergency pump tower. In the event both main
cargo pumps fail the top can be removed from this pipe and an emergency cargo pump
lowered down to the bottom of the pipe. The top is replaced on the column and then the pump
is allowed to push down on the foot valve and open it. The cargo can then be pumped out.
All cargo pumps discharge into a common pipe which runs along the deck of the vessel; it
branches off to either side of the vessel to the cargo manifolds, which are used for loading or
discharging.
All cargo tank vapour spaces are linked via a vapour header which runs parallel to the cargo
header. This also has connections to the sides of the ship next to the loading and discharging
manifolds.

17
 iii. Containment systems

Cargo Containment Systems in Liquefied Gas Carriers

A cargo containment system is the total arrangement for containing cargo including, where
fitted:
(1) A primary barrier (the cargo tank),
(2) Secondary barrier (if fitted),
(3) Associated thermal insulation,
(4) Any intervening spaces, and
(5) Adjacent structure, if necessary, for the support of these elements

For cargoes carried at temperatures between –10 degree C and -55 degree C, the ship’s hull
may act as the secondary barrier and in such cases it may be a boundary of the hold space.

The basic cargo tank types utilized on board gas carriers are in accordance with the list
below:-

Independent Type ‘A’: Some other types such as:

Independent Type ‘B’: Internal insulation Type ‘1’

Independent Type ‘C’: Internal insulation Type ‘2’

Membrane: Integral

Fig:Various type LNG carrier

Independent Tanks
Independent tanks are completely self-supporting and do not form part of the ship’s hull
structure. Moreover, they do not contribute to the hull strength of a ship. As defined in the
IGC Code, and depending mainly on the design pressure, there are three different types of
independent tanks for gas carriers: these are known as Type ‘A’, “B’ and ‘C’.

18
Fig:LNG carrier membrane gaz transport

Type ‘A’ Tanks

Type ‘A’ tanks are constructed primarily of flat surfaces. The maximum allowable tank
design pressure in the vapour space of for this type of system is 0.7 barg; this means cargoes
must be carried in a fully refrigerated condition at or near atmospheric pressure (normally
below 0.25 barg).

This type of tank as found on a fully refrigerated LPG carrier. This is a self-supporting
prismatic tank which requires conventional internal stiffening. In this example the tanks is
surrounded by a skin of foam insulation. Where perlite insulation is used, it would be found
filling the whole of the hold space.

The material used for Type ‘A’ tanks is not crack propagation resistant. Therefore, in order to
ensure safety, in the unlikely event of cargo tank leakage, a secondary containment system is
required. This secondary containment system is known as a secondary barrier and is a feature
of all ships with Type ‘A’ tanks capable of carrying cargoes below -10 degree C.

For a fully refrigerated LPG carrier (which will not carry cargoes below –55 degree C) the
secondary barrier must be a complete barrier capable of containing the whole tank volume at
a defined angle of heel and may form part of the ship’s full, as shown in the figure.

In general, it is this design approach which is adopted. By this means appropriate parts of the
ship’s hull are constructed of special steel capable of withstanding low temperatures. The
alternative is to build a separate secondary barrier around each cargo tank.

The IGC Code stipulates that a secondary barrier must be able to contain tank leakage for a
period of 15 days.

On such ships, the space between the cargo tank (sometimes referred to as the primary
barrier) and the secondary barrier is known as the hold space. When flammable cargoes are
being carried, these spaces must be filled with inert gas to prevent a flammable atmosphere
being created in the event of primary barrier leakage.

Type ‘B’ Tanks

Type ‘B’ tanks can be constructed of flat surfaces or they may be of the spherical type. This

19
type of containment system is the subject of much more detailed stress analysis compared to
Type ‘A’ systems. These controls must include an investigation of fatigue life and a crack
propagation analysis. The most common arrangement of Type ‘B’ tank is a spherical tank.
This tank is of the Kvaerner Moss design.

Because of the enhanced design factors, a Type ‘B’ tank requires only a partial secondary
barrier in the form of a drip tray. The Type ‘B’ spherical tank is almost exclusively applied to
LNG ships; seldom featuring in the LPG trade. A type ‘B’ tank, however, need not be
spherical.

There are Type ‘B’ tanks of prismatic shape in LNG service. The prismatic Type ‘B’ tank has
the benefit of maximizing ship-deck. Where the prismatic shape is used, the maximum design
vapour space pressure is, as for Type ‘A’ tanks, limited to 0.7 barg.

Fig:LNG carrier moss tanks

Type ‘C’ Tanks

Type ‘C’ tanks are normally spherical or cylindrical pressure vessels having design pressures
higher than 2 barg. The cylindrical vessels may be vertically or horizontally mounted. This
type of containment system is always used for semi-pressurized and fully pressurized gas
carriers.

In the case of the semi-pressurized ships it can also be used for fully refrigerated carriage,
provided appropriate low temperature steels are used in tank construction. Type ‘C’ tanks are
designed and built to conventional pressure vessel codes and, as a result, can be subjected to
accurate stress analysis. Furthermore, design stresses are kept low. Accordingly, no
secondary barrier is required for Type ‘C’ tanks and the hold space can be filled with either
inert gas or dry air.

In the case of a typical fully pressurized ship (where the cargo is carried at ambient
temperature), the tanks may be designed for a maximum working pressure of about 18 barg.
For a semi-pressurized ship the cargo tanks and associated equipment are designed for a
working pressure of approximately 5 to 7 barg and a vacuum of 0.5 barg. Typically, the tank
steels for the semi-pressurized ships are capable of withstanding carriage temperatures of -48

20
degree C for LPG or -104 degree C for ethylene. (Of course, an ethylene carrier may also be
used to transport LPG.)

Type ‘C’ tanks as fitted in a typical fully pressurized gas carrier. With such an arrangement
there is comparatively poor utilization of the hull volume; however, this can be improved by
using intersecting pressure vessels or bi-lobe type tanks which may be designed with a taper
at the forward end of the ship. This is a common arrangement in semi-pressurized ships.

Membrane Tanks (membrane – 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick)

The concept of the membrane containment system is based on a very thin primary barrier
(membrane – 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick) which is supported through the insulation. Such tanks are
not self-supporting like the independent tanks. An inner hull forms the load bearing structure.
Membrane containment systems must always be provided with a secondary barrier to ensure
the integrity of the total system in the event of primary barrier leakage.

The membrane is designed in such a way that thermal expansion or contraction is

compensated without over-stressing the membrane itself. There are two principal types of
membrane system in common use – both named after the companies who developed them
and both designed primarily for the carriage of LNG. These two companies have now
combined into one.

Fig:Membrane type lng carrier

Semi-Membrane Tanks

The semi-membrane concept is a variation of membrane tank system. The primary barrier is
much thicker than in the membrane system, having flat sides and large roundish corners. The
tank is self-supporting when empty but not in the loaded condition. In this condition the
liquid (hydrostatic) and vapour pressures acting on the primary barrier are transmitted
through the insulation to the inner hull as is the case with the membrane system. The corners
and edges are designed to accommodate expansion and contraction.

Although semi-membrane tanks were originally developed for the carriage of LNG, no
commercial-size LNG carrier has yet been built to this design. The system has, however,
been adopted for use in LPG ships and several Japanese-built fully refrigerated LPG carriers
have been delivered to this design.

21
Integral Tanks

Integral tanks form a structural part of the ship’s hull and are influenced by the same loads
which stress the hull structure. Integral tanks are not normally allowed for the carriage of
liquefied gas if the cargo temperature is below -10 degree C. Certain tanks on a limited
number of Japanese-built LPG carriers are of the integral type for the dedicated carriage of
full refrigerated butane.

Internal Insulation Tanks

Internally insulated cargo tanks are similar to integral tanks. They utilize insulation materials
to contain the cargo. The insulation is fixed inside ship’s inner hull or to an independent load-
bearing surface. The non-self-supporting system obviates the need for an independent tank
and permits the carriage of fully refrigerated cargoes at carriage temperatures as low as -55
degree C.

Internal insulation systems have been incorporated in a very limited number of fully
refrigerated LPG carriers but, to date, the concept has not proved satisfactory in service.

TGZ Mark III

This design is originally by Technigaz and it is of the membrane type. The membrane
consists of stainless steel with 'waffles' to absorb the thermal contraction when the tank is
cooled down. The primary barrier, made of corrugated stainless steel of about 1.2 mm
thickness is the one in direct contact with the cargo liquid (or vapour in empty tank
condition). This is followed by a primary insulation which in turn is covered by a secondary
barrier made of a material called "triplex" which is basically a metal foil sandwiched between
glasswool sheets and compressed together. This is again covered by a secondary insulation
which in turn is supported by the ship's hull structure from the outside.
So, going from the inside of the tank outwards, we haveLNG Primary barrier of 1.2 mm thick
corrugated/waffled Stainless Steel Primary Insulation (also called the inter-barrier space)
Secondary barrier of triplex membrane Secondary Insulation (also called the insulation space)
Ship's hull structure.
GT96
This is Gaz Transport's tank design. The tanks consists of a primary and secondary thin
membrane made of the material Invar which has almost no thermal contraction. The
insulation is made out of plywood boxes filled with perlite and continuously flushed with
nitrogen gas. The integrity of both membranes is permanently monitored by detection of
hydrocarbon in the nitrogen. An evolution is proposed by NG2, with the replacement of

22
nitrogen by argon as the flushed inert and insulation gas. Argon has a better insulation power
than nitrogen, which could save 10% of boil-off gas.
CS1

CS1 stands for Combined System Number One. It was designed by the now merged
Technigaz and GazTransport companies and consists of the best components of both MkIII
and No96 systems. The primary barrier is made of invar 0.7 mm, and secondary from
Triplex. The primary and secondary insulation consists of polyurethane foam panels.
Three vessels with CS1 technology have been built by one shipyard, but established
shipyards have decided to maintain production of the MKIII and NO96.

23
 C. CHAPTER THREE

Ship Arrangements
3.1 Segregation of the cargo area
3.1.1Hold spaces are to be segregated from machinery and boiler spaces, accommodation spaces,
service spaces and control stations, chain lockers, drinking and domestic water tanks and from stores.
Hold spaces should be located forward of machinery spaces of category A, other than those deemed
necessary by the Society for the safety or navigation of the ship.
3.1.2 Where cargo is carried in a cargo containment system not requiring a secondary barrier,
segregation of hold spaces from spaces referred to in 3.1.1 or spaces either below or outboard of the
hold spaces may be effected by cofferdams, fuel oil tanks, or a single gastight bulkhead of all welded
construction forming an A-60 class division. A gastight A-O class division is satisfactory if there is no
source of ignition or fire hazard in the adjoining spaces.
3.1.3 Where cargo is carried in a cargo containment system requiring a secondary barrier,
segregation of hold spaces from spaces referred to in 3.1.1 or spaces either below or outboard of the
hold spaces which contain a source of ignition or fire hazard is to be effected by cofferdams or fuel oil
tanks. If there is no source of ignition or fire hazard in the adjoining space, segregation may be by a
single A-O class division which is gas-tight.
3.1.4 When cargo is carried in a cargo containment system requiring a secondary barrier:
.1 at temperatures below – 10 °C, hold spaces are to be segregated from the sea by a double
bottom; and
.2 at temperatures below – 55 °C, the ship is also to have a longitudinal bulkhead forming side tanks.
3.1.5 Any piping system which may contain cargo or cargo vapour is:
.1 to be segregated from other piping systems, except where inter-connections are required for
cargo related operations, such as purging, gas freeing or inerting. In such cases precautions
are to be taken to ensure that cargo or cargo vapour cannot enter such other piping systems
through the interconnections;
.2 not to pass through any accommodation space, service space or control station or through a
machinery space other than a cargo pump room or cargo compressor space;
.3 to be connected into the cargo containment system directly from the open deck, except that
pipes installed in a vertical trunkway or equivalent may be used to traverse void spaces
above a cargo containment system and except that pipes for drainage, venting or purging may
traverse cofferdams;
.4 except for bow or stern loading and unloading arrangements in accordance with 3.8, and emergency
cargo jettisoning piping systems in accordance with 3.1.6, and except in
accordance with Section 16, to be located in the cargo area above the open deck; and
.5 except for thwartship shore connection piping not subject to internal pressure at sea or
emergency cargo jettisoning arrangements, to be located inboard of the transverse tank
location requirement of 2.6.1.
3.1.6 Any emergency cargo jettisoning piping system should comply with 3.1.5 as appropriate and
may be led aft externally to accommodation spaces, service spaces or control stations or machinery
spaces, but are not to pass through them. If an emergency cargo jettisoning piping system is
permanently installed a suitable means of isolation from the cargo piping is to be provided within the
cargo area.
3.1.7 Arrangements are to be made for sealing the weather decks in way of openings for cargo
containment systems.
3.1-0.1Hold spaces are to be separated from each other by single bulkheads. Due consideration is to
be given to the steel selection of the bulkheads considering the lowest temperature they may be
exposed to during service. Where cofferdams are used instead of single bulkheads, they may be used
as ballast tanks subject to special approval by the Society.
3.2 Accommodation, service and machinery spaces and control stations

24
3.2.1No accommodation space, service space or control station is to be located within the cargo area.
The bulkhead of accommodation spaces, service spaces or control stations which face the cargo area
is to be located so as to avoid the entry of gas from the hold space to such spaces through a single
failure of a deck or bulkhead on a ship having a containment system requiring a secondary barrier.
3.2.2 In order to guard against the danger of hazardous vapours, due consideration is to be given to
the location of air intakes and openings into machinery spaces, accommodation spaces, service
spaces and control stations in relation to cargo piping, cargo vent systems and machinery space
exhausts from gas burning arrangements.
3.2.3 Access through doors, gastight or otherwise, is not permitted from a gas safe space to a gas
dangerous space, except for access to service spaces forward of the cargo area through airlocks as per-
mitted by 3.6.1 when accommodation spaces are aft.
3.2.4 Entrances, air inlets and openings to accommodation spaces, service spaces, machinery
spaces and control stations shall not face the cargo area. They are to be located on the end bulkhead
not facing the cargo area or on the outboard side of the superstructure or deckhouse at a distance of at
least Lc/25 but not less than 3 m from the end of the superstructure or deckhouse facing the cargo
area. This distance, however, need not exceed 5 m. Windows and side scuttles facing the cargo area
and on the sides of the superstructures or deckhouses within the distance mentioned above are to be of
the fixed (non-opening) type. Wheelhouse windows may be non-fixed and wheelhouse doors may be
located within the above limits so long as they are so designed that a rapid and efficient gas and
vapour tightening of the wheelhouse can be ensured. For ships dedicated to the carriage of cargoes
which have neither flammable nor toxic hazards, the Society may approve relaxations from the above
requirements.
3.2.5 Side scuttles in the shell below the uppermost continuous deck and in the first tier of a
superstructure ordeckhousearetobeofthefixed(non-opening)type.
3.2.6 All air intakes and openings into the accommodation, service and control station spaces are
to be fitted with closing devices. For toxic gases they are to be operated from inside the space.
3.2-0.1Compliance with other relevant paragraphs of the Code and in particular with paragraphs 3.2.4,
3.8, 8.2.10 and 12.1.6 where applicable would also ensure compliance with this paragraph.
3.2-0.2Air outlets are subject to the same require-ments as air inlets and air intakes. This
interpretation also applies to paragraphs 3.2.2, 3.8.4and 8.2.10.
3.2-0.3 Doors facing the cargo area or located in prohibited zones in the sides are to be restricted to
stores for cargo-related and safety equipment, cargo control stations as well as decontamination
showers and eye wash.
3.2-0.4The requirement for fitting air intakes and openings with closing devices operable from inside
the space in ships intended to carry toxic products shall apply to spaces which are used for ships' radio
and main navigating equipment, cabins, mess rooms, toilets, hospitals, galleys, etc., but shall not
apply to engine room casings, deck stores, steering gear compartments, work shops etc. The
requirement does also not apply to forecastle stores and to cargo control rooms located within the
cargo areas. When internal closing is required, this shall include both ventilation intakes and outlets.
The closing devices shall give a reasonable degree of gas tightness. Ordinary steel fire-flaps without
gaskets/seals shall normally not be considered satisfactory.
3.2-0.5 Access to forecastle spaces containing sources of ignition may be permitted through doors
facingcargo area provided the doors are located outside hazardous areas as defined in IEC Publication
60092-502.
3.3 Cargo pump-rooms and cargo compressor rooms
3.3.1.1 Cargo pump rooms and cargo compressor rooms are to be situated above the weather deck and
located within the cargo area unless specially approved by GL. Cargo compressor rooms are to be
treated as cargo pump rooms for the purpose of fire protection according to Chapter 2 – Machinery
Instal-lations, Section 12(SOLAS regulation II-2/9.2.4).
3.3.1.2 When cargo pump rooms and cargo com-pressor rooms are permitted to be fitted above or
below the weather deck at the after end of the aftermost hold space or at the forward end of the
foremost hold space, the limits of the cargo area as defined in Section 1, C.1.6 are to be extended to
include the cargo pump rooms and cargo compressor rooms for the full breadth and depth of the ship
and deck areas above those spaces.
3.3.1.3 Where the limits of the cargo area are extended by 3.3.1.2, the bulkhead which separates the

25
cargo pump rooms and cargo compressor rooms from accommodation and service spaces, control
stations and machinery spaces of category A is to be so located as to avoid the entry of gas to these
spaces through a single failure of a deck or bulkhead.
3.3.2 Where pumps and compressors are driven by shafting passing through a bulkhead or deck,
gastight
seals with efficient lubrication or other means of ensuring the permanence of the gas seal are to be
fitted in way of the bulkhead or deck.
3.3.3 Arrangements of cargo pump rooms and cargo compressor rooms are to be such as to ensure
safe unrestricted access for personnel wearing protective clothing and breathing apparatus, and in the
event of injury to allow unconscious personnel to be removed. All valves necessary for cargo
handling are to be readily accessible to personnel wearing protective clothing. Suitable arrangements
shall be made to deal with drainage of pump and compressor
rooms. When cargo pump rooms or compressor rooms are permitted to be fitted at the after end of the
aftermost hold space the bulkhead which separates the cargo pump rooms or compressor rooms from
accommodation and service spaces and control stations and machinery spaces of category A are to be
so located as to avoid the entry of gas to these spaces through a single failure of a deck or bulkhead.
The same condition is also to be satisfied when cargo pump rooms and compressor rooms, fitted
within the cargo area, have a bulkhead in common with accommodation and service spaces,
control stations and machinery spaces of category A.
3.4 Cargo control rooms Any cargo control room is to be above the weather deck and may be located
in the cargo area. The cargo control room may be located within the accommodation, service or
control station spaces provided the following conditions are complied with:
.1 the cargo control room is a gas safe space and
.2.1 if the entrance complies with 3.2.4, the control room may have access to the spaces described
above;
.2.2 if the entrance does not comply with 3.2.4, the control room shall have no access to the spaces
described above and the boundaries to such spaces shall be insulated to "A-60" standard.
3.4.2 If the cargo control room is designed to be a gas safe space, instrumentation shall, as far as pos-
sible, be by indirect reading systems and shall in any case be designed to prevent any escape of gas
into the atmosphere of that space. Location of the gas detector within the cargo control room will not
violate the gas safe space if installed in accordance with 13.6.5.
3.4.3 If the cargo control room for ships carrying flammable products is a gas dangerous space,
sources of ignition are to be excluded. Consideration is to be paid to the safety characteristics of any
electrical installations.
3.5 Access to spaces in the cargo area
3.5.1 Visual inspection shall be possible of at least one side of the inner hull structure without the
removal of any fixed structure or fitting. If such a visual inspection, whether combined with those
inspections required in 3.5.2, 4.7.7 or 4.10.16 or not, is only possible at the outer face of the inner
hull, the inner hull shall not be a fuel-oil tank boundary wall.
3.5.2 Inspection of one side of any insulation in hold spaces shall be possible. If the integrity of the
insulation system can be verified by inspection of the outside of the hold space boundary when tanks
are at service temperature, inspection of one side of the insulation in the hold space need not be
required.
3.5.3 Arrangements for hold spaces, void spaces and other spaces that can be considered gas
dangerous and cargo tanks are to be such as to allow entry and inspection of any such space by
personnel wearing protective clothing and breathing apparatus and in the event of injury to allow
unconscious personnel to be removed from the space and to comply with the following:
.1 access is to be provided:
.1.1 to the cargo tanks direct from the open deck;
.1.2 through horizontal openings, hatches or manholes the dimensions of which are to be
sufficient to allow a person wearing a breathing apparatus to ascend or descend any ladder
without obstruction, and also to provide a clear opening to facilitate the hoisting of an injured
person from the bottom of the space. The minimum clear opening is to be not less than
600 mm by 600 mm and

26
.1.3 through vertical openings, or manholes providing passage through the length and breadth of the
space, the minimum clear opening of which is to be not less than 600 mm by 800 mm at a height of
not more than 600 mm from the bottom plating unless gratings or other footholds are provided.
.2 The dimensions referred to in 3.5.3.1.2 and .1.3 may be decreased if the ability to transverse
Where the surveyor does not require to passbetween the surface to be inspected and any
part of the structure, for visibility reasons the distance between the free edge of that
structural element and the surface to be inspected is to be at least 50 mm or half the
breadth of the structure's face plate, whichever is the larger
.3If for inspection of a curved surface the surveyor requires to pass between that surface and another
surface, flat or curved, to which no structural elements are fitted, the distance between both surfaces is
to be at least 380 mm.Where the surveyor does not require to pass between a curved surface and
another surface, a smaller distance than 380 mm may be accepted taking into account the shape of the
curved surface.
.4 If for inspection of an approximately flat surface the surveyor requires to pass between
two approximately flat and approximately parallel surfaces, to which no structural
elements are fitted, the distance between those surfaces are to be at least 600 mm
.5 The minimum distances between a cargo tank sump and adjacent double bottom structure in
way of a suction wells are not to be less than shown in Fig. 3.5. If there is no section well, the
distance between the cargo tank sump and the inner bottom is not to be less than 50 mm.
.6 The distance between a cargo tank dome and deck structures is not to be less than 150 mm
.7 If necessary for inspection fixed or portable staging is to be installed. This staging is not to
impair the distances required under .1 to .4.
.8If fixed or portable ventilation ducting has to be fitted in compliance with 12.2 such ducting
is not to impair the distances required under .1 to .4.
3.5-0.3
For the purpose of subparagraph 3.5.3.1.2 and .1.3 the following applies:
.1 The term "minimum clear opening of not less than 600 ×600 mm" means that such openings
mayhave corner radii up to 100 mm maximum.
.2 The term "minimum clear opening of not less than 600 ×800 mm
.3Circular access openings in type C cargo tanks are to have diameters of not less than 600 mm.
3.6 Airlocks
3.6.1 An airlock is permitted only between a gas dangerous zone on the open weather deck and a gas
safe space and is to consist of two steel doors substantially gastight spaced at least 1,5 m but not
more than 2,5 m apart.
3.6.2 The doors are to be self-closing and without any holding back arrangements.
3.6.3 An audible and visual alarm system to give a warning on both sides of the airlock is to be
provided to indicate if more than one door is moved from the closed position.
3.6.4 In ships carrying flammable products electrical equipment which is not of the certified safe
type in spaces protected by airlocks should be de-energized upon loss of over-pressure in the space
(see also 10.1.4). Electrical equipment which is not of the certified safe type for maneuvering,
anchoring and mooring equipment as well as the emergency fire pumps should not be located in
spaces to be protected by airlocks.
3.6-0.1The following means for monitoring overpressure in spaces protected by airlocks are
considered acceptable alternatives to differential pressure sensing devices in spaces having a
ventilation rate not less than 30 air changes per hour:
.1monitoring of current or power in the electrical supply to the ventilation motors; or
.2air flow sensors in the ventilation ducts.
In spaces where the ventilation rate is less than 30 air changes per hour and where one of the above
alternatives is fitted, in addition to the alarms required by 3.6.3, arrangements are to be made to de-
energize electrical equipment which is not of the certified safe type, if more than one airlock door is
moved from the closed position.
3.6.5 The airlock space is to be mechanicallyventilated from a gas safe space and maintained at an
over-pressure to the gas dangerous zone on the open weather deck.
3.6.6 The airlock space is to be monitored for cargo vapor.

27
3.6.7 Subject to the requirements of the International Convention on Load Lines, 1966, the door sill is
not to be less than 300 mm in height.
3.7 Bilge, ballast and fuel oil arrangements
3.7.1.1 Where cargo is carried in a cargo containment system not requiring a secondary barrier,
hold spaces are to be provided with suitable drainage arrangements not connected with the machinery
space. Means of detecting such leakage are to be provided.
3.7.1.2 Where there is a secondary barrier, suitable drainage arrangements for dealing with any
leakage into the hold or insulation spaces through adjacent ships structure are to be provided. The
suction is not to be led to pumps inside the machinery space. Means of detecting such leakage are to
be provided.
3.7.2 The hold orinterbarrier spaces of Type Aindependent tanks shall be provided with a drainage
system suitable for handling liquid cargo in the event of cargo tank leakage or rupture. Such
arrangements shall provide for the return of any cargo leakage to the liquid cargo piping. Such a
system shall be provided with removable spool pieces.
3.7.3 In case of internal insulation tanks, means of detecting leakage and drainage arrangements
arenot required for interbarrier spaces and spaces between the secondary barrier and the inner hull or
independent tank structure which are completely filled by insulation material complying with 4.9.7.2.
3.7.4 Ballast spaces, including wet duct keels used as ballast piping, fuel-oil tanks and gas-safe spaces
may be connected to pumps in the machinery spaces. Dry duct keels with ballast piping passing
through, may be connected to pumps in the machinery spaces, provided the connections are led
directly to the pumps and the discharge from the pumps lead directly overboard with no valves or
manifolds in either line which could connect the line from the duct keel to lines serving gas-safe
spaces. Pump vents shall not be open to machinery spaces.
3.8 Bow or stern loading and unloading arrangements
3.8.1Subject to the requirements of this Section, cargo piping may be arranged to permit bow or stern
loading and unloading.
3.8.1.1 Bow or stern loading and unloading lines which are led past accommodation spaces, service
spaces or control stations shall not be used for the transfer of products requiring a Type 1G ship. Bow
or stern loading and unloading lines shall not be used for the transfer of toxic products as specified in
C.37. unless specifically approved by GL.
3.8.2 Portable arrangements shall not be permitted.
3.8.3 In addition to the requirements of the following provisions apply to cargo piping and related
piping equipment:
.1 Cargo piping and related piping equipment outside the cargo area are to have only welded
connections. The piping outside the cargo area shall run on the open deck and shall be at least
760 mm in board except for thwart ships shore connection piping. Such piping shall be clearly
identified and fitted with a shut-off valve at its connection to the cargo piping system within
the cargo area. At this location, it shall also be capable of being separated by means of a
removable spool piece and blank flanges when not in use.
.2 The piping is to be full penetration but welded, and fully radiographed regardless of pipe
diameter and design temperature. Flange connections in the piping are only permitted within the cargo
area and at the shore connection.
.3 Arrangements are to be made to allow such piping to be purged and gas-freed after use.
When not in use, the spool pieces shall be removed and the pipe ends to be blank-flanged.
The vent pipes connected with the purge are to be located in the cargo area.
3.8.4 Entrances, air inlets and openings to accommodation spaces, service spaces, machinery
spaces and control stations shall not face the cargo shore connection location of bow or stern loading
and unloading arrangements. They shall be located on the outboard side of the superstructure or
distance of at least Lc/25 but not less than 3 m from the end of the superstructure or deckhouse facing
the cargo shore connection location of the bow or stern loading and unloading arrangements. This
distance, however, need not exceed 5 m. Side scuttles facing the shore connection location and on the
sides of the superstructure or deckhouse within the distance mentioned above shall be of the fixed
(non-opening) type. In addition, during the use of the bow or stern loading and
unloadingarrangements, all doors, ports and other openings on the corresponding superstructure or

28
decks and deck houses shall be closed. Where in case of small ships compliance with 3.2.4and this
paragraph is not possible, the Society may approve relaxations from the above requirements.
3.8.5 Deck openings and air inlets to spaces within distances of 10 m from the cargo shore connection
location shall be kept closed during the use of bow or stern loading or unloading arrangements.
3.8.6 Electrical equipment within a zone of 3 m from the cargo shore connection location.
3.8.7 Fire-fighting arrangements for the bow or stern loading and unloading areas are to be in
accordance with 11.3.1.3 and 11.4.7.
3.8.8 Means of communication between the cargo control station and the shore
e connection location shall be provided and, if necessary, certified safe. Cargo Containment
4.1 General
4.1.1 With regard to this Section reference is made to the Unified Requirements G1 and G2 of the
International Association of Classification Societies (IACS).
4.1.2
In addition to the definitions in Section 1, The definitions given in this Section apply throughout
this Chapter.
4.2 Definitions
4.2.1 Integral tanks
4.2.1.1 Integral tanks form a structural part of the ship's hull and are influenced in the same manner
and by the same loads which stress the adjacent hull structure.
4.2.1.2 The "design vapor pressure" P0 as defined in 4.2.6 is not normally to exceed 0,25 bar. If,
however, the hull scantlings are increased accordingly, P0 may be increased to a higher value but less
than 0,7 bar.
4.2.1.3 Integral tanks may be used for products pro-vided the boiling point of the cargo is not below
- 10 °C. A lower temperature may be accepted by the Society subject to special consideration.
4.2.2 Membrane tanks
4.2.2.1 Membrane tanks are non-self-supporting tanks which consist of a thin layer (membrane) sup-
ported through insulation by the adjacent hull structure. The membrane is designed in such a way that
thermal and other expansion or contraction is compensated for without undue stressing of the
membrane.
4.2.2.2 The design vapor pressure P0is not normally to exceed 0,25 bar. If, however, the hull scant-
lings are increased accordingly, and consideration is given, where appropriate, to the strength of the
sup-porting insulation, P0may be increased to a higher value but less than 0,7 bar.
4.2.2.3 The definition of membrane tanks does not exclude designs such as those in which non-
metallic membranes are used or in which membranes are included or incorporated in the insulation.
Such designs require, however, special consideration by the Society. In any case the thickness of the
membranes should normally not exceed 10 mm.
4.2.3 Semi-membrane tanks
4.2.3.1 Semi-membrane tanks are non-self-supporting tanks in the loadedcondition and consist of
a layer, parts of which are supported through insulation by the adjacent hull structure, whereas the
rounded parts of this layer connecting the above mentioned supported parts are designed also to
accommodate the thermal and other expansion or contraction.
4.2.3.2 The design vapor pressure P0is not normally to exceed 0,25 bar. If, however, the hull scant-
lings are increased accordingly, and consideration is given, where appropriate, to the strength of the
supporting insulation, P0may be increased to a higher value but less than 0,7 bar.
4.2.4 Independent tanks
4.2.4.1 Independent tanks are self-supporting; they do not form part of the ship's hull and are
notessential to the hull strength. There are three categories of independent tanks referred to in 4.2.4.2 -
4.2.4.4.
4.2.4.2 Type A independent tanksare tanks which are designed primarily using classical ship-
structural analysis procedures. Where such tanks are primarily constructed of plane surfaces (gravity
tanks), the design vapor pressure P0is to be less than 0,7 bar.
4.2.4.3 Type B independent tanksare tanks which are designed using model tests, refined analytical
tools and analysis methods to determine stress levels, fatigue life and crack propagation
characteristics. Where such tanks are primarily constructed of plane surfaces (gravity tanks) the
design vapor pressure P0is to be less than 0,7 bar.

29
4.2.4.4 Type C independent tanks(also referred to as pressure vessels) are tanks meeting pressure
vessel criteria and having a design vapor pressure P0However, the Society may allocate a tank
complying with the criterion of this sub-paragraph to type A or type B, dependent on the
configuration of the tank and the arrangement of its supports and attachments.
4.2-0.1If the carriage of products not covered by Section 19is intended, the relative density of which
exceeds 1,0, it is to be verified that the double amplitude of the primary membrane stress
created by the maximum dynamic pressure differential does not exceed the allowable double
amplitude of the dynamic membrane stress
4.3.2.2. In order to evaluate the maximum pressure differential pressure differentials are to be
evaluated over the full range of the acceleration ellipse.
4.2.5 Internal insulation tanks
4.2.5.1 Internal insulation tanks are non-self support-ing and consist of thermal insulation materials
which contribute to the cargo containment and are supported by the structure of the adjacent inner hull
or of an independent tank. The inner surface of the insulation is exposed to the cargo.
4.2.5.2 The two categories of internal insulation tanks are:
.1 Type 1 tanksare tanks in which the insulation or a combination of the insulation and one
or more liners function only as the primary barrier. The inner hull or an independent tank
structure should function as the secondary barrier when required.
.2 Type 2 tanksare tanks in which the insulation or a combination of the insulation and one
or more liners function as both the primary and thesecondary barrier and where these barriers
areclearly distinguishable. The term "liner" means a thin, non-self-supporting, metallic, non-metallic
or composite material which forms part of an internal insulation tank in order to enhance its fracture
resistance or other mechanical properties. A liner differs from a membrane in that it alone is not
intended to function as a liquid barrier.
4.2.5.3 Internal insulation tanks are to be of suitable materials enabling the cargo containment system
to be designed using model tests and refined analytical methods as required in 4.4.7
4.2.5.4 The design vapor pressure P0shall not normally exceed 0,25bar. If, however, the cargo
containment system is designed for a higher vapor pressure, P0 may be increased to such higher
value, but not exceeding 0,7 bar if the internal insulation tanks are supported by the inner hull
structure. However, a design vapor pressure of more than 0,7 bar may be accepted by the Society
provided the internal insulation tanks are supported by suitable independent tank structures.

Cargo Containment
I - Part 1GL 2008
4.2.6 Design vapor pressure
4.2.6.1 The design vapor pressure P0is the maximum gauge pressure at the top of the tank which has
been used in the design of the tank.
4.2.6.2 For cargo tanks where there is no temperature control and where the pressure of the cargo is
dictated only by the ambient temperature, P0is not to be less than the gauge vapor pressure of the
cargo at a temperature of 45 °C. However, lesser values of this temperature may be accepted by the
Society for ships operating in restricted areas or on voyages of restricted duration and account may be
taken in such cases of any insulation of the tanks. Conversely, higher values of this temperature may
be required for ships permanently operating in areas of high ambient temperature.
4.2.6.3 In all cases, including 4.2.6.2, Pis not to be less than MARVS.
4.2.6.4 Subject to special consideration by the Society and to the limitations given in 4.2.1to 4.2.5 for
the various tank types, avapor pressure higher than P0may be accepted in harbor conditions, where
dynamic loads are reduced.
4.2-0.2Higher vapor pressures in harbor conditions are to be specified in the operating instructions
for the ship's management.
4.2.7 Design temperature The design temperature for selection of materials is the minimum
temperature at which cargo may be loaded or transported in the cargo tanks. Provisions to the
satisfaction of the Society are to be made that the tank or cargo temperature cannot be lowered below

30
the design temperature.
4.3 Design loads
4.3.1 General
4.3.1.1 Tanks together with their supports and other fixtures are to be designed taking into account
proper combinations of the various loads listed hereafter:
– Internal pressure
– External pressure
– Dynamic loads due to the motion of the ship
– Thermal loads
– Sloshing loads
– Loads corresponding to ship deflection
– Tank and cargo weight with the corresponding reactions in way of supports
– Insulation weight
– Loads in way of towers and other attachments.
The extent to which these loads are to be considered depends on the type of tank, and is more fully
detailed in the following paragraphs.
4.3.1.2 Account is to be taken of the loads corresponding to the pressure test referred to in 4.10.
4.3.1.3 Account is to be taken of an increase of vapor pressure in harbor conditions referred to in
4.2.6.4.
4.3.1.4 The tanks are to be designed for the most unfavorable static heel angle within the range 0° to
30° without exceeding allowable stresses given in 4.5.1.
4.3.2 Internal pressure
4.3.2.1 The internal pressure Pin bar gauge resultingfrom the design vapor pressure P and the liquid
pressureP defined in 4.3.2.2, but not includingeffects of liquid sloshing Equivalent calculation
procedures may be applied.
4.3.2.2 The internal liquid pressures are those created by the resulting acceleration of the center of
gravity of the cargo due to the motions of the ship referred to in
4.3.4.1. The value of the internal liquid pressure Pgdresulting from combined effects of gravity and
dynamical accelerations. Dimensionless acceleration (i.e. relative to the acceleration of gravity),
resulting from gravitational and dynamical loads, in an arbitrary direction largest liquid height [m]
above the point where the pressure is to be determined measured from the tank shell in the direction .

Materials of Construction
6.1 General
6.1.1 With regard to this Section reference is made to the Unified Requirement W1 of the
International Association of Classification Societies (IACS).
6.1.2 This Section gives the requirements for plates, sections, pipes, forgings, castings and weildments
used in the construction of cargo tanks, cargo process pressure vessels, cargo and process piping,
secondary barriers and contiguous hull structures associated with the transportation of the products.
The requirements for rolled materials, forgings and castings are given in 6.2 and Tables 6.1to 6.5. The
requirements for weildments are given in 6.3.
6.1.3 The manufacture, testing, inspection and documentation are to be in accordance with the Rules
II - Materials and Welding, Part 1 – Metallic Materials, and the specific requirements given in this
Section.
6.1.4.1 Acceptance tests are to include Charpy V-notch toughness tests, unless otherwise specified by
the Society. The specified Charpy V-notch requirements are minimum average energy values for three
full size (10 mm ×10 mm) specimens and minimum single energy values for individual specimens.
Dimensions and tolerances of Charpy V-notch specimens are to be in accordance with the Rules II -
Materials and Welding, Part 1 – Metallic Materials. The testing and requirements for smaller than 5,0
mm size specimens are to be specially considered by the Society. Only one individual value may be
below the specified average value, provided it is not less than 70 % of that value.
6.1.4.2 In all cases, the largest size Charpy specimens possible for the material thickness shall be
machined with the specimens located as near as practicable to a point midway between the surface
and the center of the thickness and the length of the notch perpendicular to the surface, (see Fig. 6.1).

31
If the average value of the three initial Charpy V-notch specimens fails to meet the stated
requirements, or thevalue for more than one specimen is below the required average value, or when
the value for one specimen is below the minimum value permitted for a single specimen, three
additional specimens from the same material may be tested and the results combined with those
previously obtained to form a new average. If this new average complies with the requirements and if
no more than two individual results are lower than the required average and no more than one result
is lower than the required value for a single specimen, the piece or batch may be accepted. At the
discretion of the Society other types of toughness tests such as a drop weight test may be used. These
may be either in addition to or in lieu of the Charpy V-notch test.
6.1.5 Tensile strength, yield stress and elongation are to be approved by the Society. For carbon-
manganese steel and other materials with definitive yield points consideration is to be given to the
limitation of the yield to tensile ratio.
6.1.6 The bend test may be omitted as a material acceptance test, but is required for weld tests.
6.1.7 Materials with alternative chemical composition or mechanical properties may be accepted by
the Society.
6.1.8 Where post weldheat treatment is specified or required the properties of the base material are be
determined in the heat treated condition in accordance with the applicable Table of this Section and
the weld properties are to be determined in the heat treated condition in accordance with
6.3. In cases where a post weld heat treatment is applied, the test requirements may be modified at the
discretion of the Society.
6.1.9 Where reference is made in this Chapter to A, B, D, E, AH, DH and EH hull structural steels,
these steel grades are hull structural steels according to the Rules II - Materials and Welding, Part 1 –
Metallic Materials. Welding and non-destructive testing
6.3.1 General
The requirements of this Section are those generally employed for carbon, carbon-manganese, nickel
alloy and stainless steels, and may form the basis for acceptance testing of other material. At the
discretion of the Society impact testing of stainless steel and aluminumalloy weildments may be
omitted and other tests be specially required for any material.
6.3.2 Welding consumables
Welding consumables intended for welding of cargo tanks process pressure vessels and secondary
barriers are to be in accordance with the Rules II - Materials and Welding, Part 3 – Welding, unless
otherwise agreed with the Society. Deposited weld metal tests and butt weld tests are to be required
for all welding consumables, unless otherwise specially agreed with the Society. The results obtained
from tensile and Charpy V-notch impact tests are to be in accordance with the Rules II - Materials and
Welding, Part 3 – Welding. The chemical composition of the deposited weld metal is to be recorded
for information and approval.
6.3.3 Welding procedure tests for cargo tanks, process pressure vessels and secondary barriers
6.3.3.1 Welding procedure tests for cargo tanks, process pressure vessels and secondary barriers are
required for all butt welds and the test assemblies are to be representative of:
– each base material
– each type of consumable and welding process
– each welding position
For butt welds in plates, the test assemblies are to be so prepared that the rolling direction is parallel
to the direction of welding. The range of thickness qualified by each welding procedure test is to be
approved by the Society. Radiographic or ultrasonic testing may be performed at the option of the
manufacturer or the Society. Fillet welding procedure tests are to be in accordance with the Society's
practice. In such cases consumables are to be selected which exhibit satisfactory impact properties.
6.3.3.2 The following welding procedure tests are required from each test assembly:
.1 Cross-weld tensile tests
.2 Transverse bend tests:
These bend tests may be face, root or side bends at the discretion of the Society. How-ever,
longitudinal bend tests may be required in lieu of transverse bend tests in cases where the base
material and weld metal have different strength levels.
.3 One set of three Charpy V-notch impact tests is to be made generally at each of the following
locations, as shown in Figure 6.1: Centre line of the welds Fusion line (F.L.)

32
1 mm from the F.L.
3 mm from the F.L.
5 mm from the F.L.
.4 Macro section,micro section and hardness survey may also be required by the Society.
6.3.4 Test requirements
6.3.4.1 Tensile tests
Generally tensile strength is not to be less than the specified minimum tensile strength for the
appropriate parent materials. The Society may also require that the transverse weld tensile strength is
not to be less than the specified minimum tensile strength for the weld metal, where the weld metal
has a lower tensile strength than that of the parent metal. In every case, the position of fracture is to be
reported for information.
6.3.4.2 Bend tests
No fracture is acceptable after a 180° bend over a former of a diameter four times the thickness of the
test pieces, unless otherwise specially required by or agreed with the Society.
6.3.4.3 Charpy V-notch impact tests
Charpy tests are to be conducted at the temperature prescribed for the base material being joined. The
results of weld metal impact tests, minimum average energy (E), are to be not less than 27 J. The weld
metal requirements for sub size specimens and single energy values are to be in accordance with
6.1.4. The results of fusion line and heat affected zone impact tests are to have a minimum average
energy (E) in accordance with the transverse or longitudinal requirements of the base material,
whichever is applicable, and for sub sizespecimens, the minimum average energy (E) is to be
generally in accordance with 6.1.4. If the material thickness does not permit machining either full size
or standard specimens, the testing procedure and acceptance standards are to be approved by the
Society.
6.3.5 Welding procedure test for piping
Welding procedure tests for piping are to be carried out and are to be similar to those detailed for
cargo tanks in 6.3.3. Unless otherwise specially agreed with the Society, the test requirements are to
be in accordance with 6.3.4. Production weld tests
6.3.6.1 For all cargo tanks and process pressure vessels except integral and membrane tanks,
production tests are generally to be performed for approximately each 50 m of butt weld joints and are
to be representative of each welding position. For secondary barriers,
the same type production tests as required for primary tanks are to be performed except that the
number of tests may be reduced subject to agreement with the Society. Tests, other than those
specified in 6.3.6.2, .3 and .4 may be required for cargo tanks or secondary barriers at the discretion of
the Society.
6.3.6.2 The production tests for independent tanks types A and B and semi-membrane tanks are to
include the following tests:
.1 Bend tests, and where required for procedure tests one set of three Charpy V-notch tests is to
be made for each 50 m of weld. The specimens having the notch alternately located in the center of
the weld and in the heat affected zone (most critical location based on procedure qualification results).
For austenitic stainless steel, all notches are to be in the center of the weld.
.2 The test requirements are the same as the applicable test requirements listed in 6.3.4except
that impact tests that do not meet the prescribed energy requirements may still be accepted,
upon special consideration of the Society by passing a drop weight test. In such cases, two
drop weight specimens are to be tested for each set of Charpy specimens that failed and both
must show "no break" performance at the temperature at which the Charpy tests were conducted.
6.3.6.3 In addition to those tests listed in 6.3.6.2.1 for type C independent tank and process pressure
vessels, transverse weld tensile tests are required. The test requirements are listed in 6.3.4 except that
impact tests that do not meet the prescribed energy requirements may still be accepted upon special
consideration by the Society, by passing a drop weight test. In such cases, two drop weight specimens
are to be tested for each set of Charpy specimens that failed, and both must show "no break"
performance at the temperature at which the Charpy tests were conducted.
6.3.6.4 Production tests for integral and membrane tanks are to be specially agreed with the Society.
6.3.7 Non-destructive testing
6.3.7.1 For type A independent tanks and semi-membrane tanks where the design temperature is

33
- 20 °C or lower, and for independent tanks type B regardless of temperature, all full penetration butt
welds of the shell plating of cargo tanks are to be subjected to 100 % radiographic inspection.
.1 Where the design temperature is higher than - 20 °C, all full penetration butt welds in way
of intersections and at least 10 % of the remaining full penetration welds of tank structures are
to be subjected to radiographic inspection.
.2 In each case the remaining tank structure including the welding of stiffeners and other fittings and
attachments are to be examined by magnetic particle or dye penetrant methods as considered
necessary by the Society.
.3 All testing procedures and acceptance standards are to be approved by the Society. The Society
may accept an approved ultrasonic testing procedure in lieu of radiographic inspection, but may in
addition require supplementary inspection by radiography at selected locations. Further, the Society
may require ultrasonic testing in addition to normal radiographic inspection.
6.3.7.2 Inspection of independent tanks type C and process pressure vessels are to be carried out in
accordance with Section 4.10.9.
6.3.7.3 For integral and membrane tanks, special weld inspection proceduresand acceptance criteria
are to be submitted for approval by the Society.
6.3.7.4 The inspection and non-destructive testing of the inner hull or the independent tank structures
supporting internal insulation tanks is to take into account the design criteria as given in 4.4.7. The
schedule for inspection and non-destructive testing is to be to the satisfaction of the Society.
6.3.7.5 Inspection of piping is to be carried out in accordance with the requirements of .
6.3.7.6 The secondary barrier is to be radiographed as considered necessary by the Society. Where
theouter shell of the hull is part of the secondary barrier, all sheer strake butts and the intersections of
all butts and seams in the side shell are to be tested by radiography.

34
 CHAPTER FOUR

i. Hazards and health

effects on LPG
carriers
Hazards on gas carriers
Toxicity
Vinyl chloride commonly carried on gas carriers is a known as a human carcinogen,
particularly liver cancer. It is not only dangerous when inhaled but can also be absorbed by
the skin. Skin irritation and watering of the eyes indicate dangerous levels of VCM may be
present in the atmosphere. Caution must be exerted while dealing with such cargoes,
precautions such as use of Chemical suits Self-contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA's) and
gas tight goggles must be worn at all times to prevent exposure. Chlorine and ammonia are
other toxic cargoes carried.
Flammability
Almost all cargo vapors are flammable. When ignition occurs, it is not the liquid which burns
but the evolved vapor that burns. Flameless explosions which result out of cold cargo liquid
coming into sudden contact with water do not release much energy. Pool fires which are the
result of a leaked pool of cargo liquid catching fire and jet fires which are the result of the
leak catching fire are grave hazards. Flash fires occur when there is a leak and does not ignite
immediately but after the vapors travel some distance downwind and getting ignited and are
extremely dangerous. Vapor cloud explosions and Boiling liquid expanding vapor
explosion are the most grave flammability hazards on gas carriers.

Frostbite
The cargoes are carried at extremely low temperatures, from 0 °C to −163 °C, and
hence frostbite due to exposure of skin to the cold vapors or liquid is a very real hazard.
Asphyxia
Asphyxia occurs when the blood cannot take a sufficient supply of oxygen to the brain. A
person affected may experience headache, dizziness and inability to concentrate, followed by
loss of consciousness. In sufficient concentrations any vapor may cause asphyxiation,
whether toxic or not.

Seeing it in more detail:

Flammability and explosion
Combustion is a chemical reaction, initiated by a source of ignition, in which a flammable
vapor combines with oxygen in suitable proportions to produce carbon dioxide, water vapor
and heat. Under ideal conditions the reaction for propane can be written as follows:
C3 H8 + 502 Combustion 3CO2 + 4H2O + Heat
propane oxygen Ζ carbon water
dioxidevapor

Under certain circumstances when, for example, the oxygen supply to the source of fuel is
restricted, carbon monoxide or carbon can also be produced.
The three requirements for combustion to take place are fuel, oxygen and ignition. The
35
proportions of flammable vapor to oxygen or to air must be within the flammable limits.
The gases produced by combustion are heated by the combustion reaction. In open,
unconfined spaces the consequent expansion of these gases is unrestricted and the
combustion reaction may proceed smoothly without undue overpressures developing. If the
free expansion of the hot gases is restricted in any way, pressures will rise and the speed of
flame travel will increase, depending upon the degree of confinement encountered. Increased
flame speed in turn gives rise to more rapid increase in pressure with the result that damaging
overpressures may be produced and, even in the open, if the confinement resulting from
surrounding pipework, plant and buildings is sufficient, the combustion can take on the
nature of an explosion. In severely confined conditions, as within a building or ship's tank
where the expanding gases cannot be adequately relieved, the internal pressure and its rate of
increase may be such as to disrupt the containment. Here, the resultant explosion is not so
much directly due to high combustion rates and flame speed as to the violent expulsion of the
contained high pressure upon containmentrupture.

The boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) is a phenomenon associated with the
sudden and catastrophic failure of the pressurized containment of flammable liquids in the
presence of a surrounding fire. Such incidents have occurred with damaged rail tank car or
road tank vehicle pressure vessels subject to intense heat from surrounding fire. This heat has
increased the internal pressure and, particularly at that part of the vessel not wetted by liquid
product, the vessel's structure is weakened to the point of failure. The sudden release of the
vessel's contents to atmosphere and the immediate ignition of the resultant rapidly expanding
vapour cloud have produced destructive overpressures and heat radiation. There have been no
instances of this kind, nor are they likely to occur, with the pressure cargo tanks on liquefied
gas tankers where, by requirement, pressure relief valves are sized to cope with surrounding
fire, tanks are provided with water sprays and general design greatly minimizes the
possibilities of a surrounding fire occurring.

The term flammable range gives a measure of the proportions of flammable vapor to air
necessary for combustion to be possible. The flammable range is the range between the
minimum and maximum concentrations of vapor (per cent by volume) in air, which form a
flammable mixture. These terms are usually abbreviated to LFL (lower flammable limit) and
UFL (upper flammable limit). This concept is illustrated for propane in Figure 2.9.

All the liquefied gases, with the exception of chlorine, are flammable but the values of the
flammable range are variable and depend on the particular vapor.. The flammable range of a
particular vapor is broadened in the presence of oxygen in
excess of that normally in air; the lower flammable limit is not much affected whereas the
upper flammable limit is considerably raised. All flammable vapors exhibit this property and
as a result oxygen should not normally be introduced into an atmosphere where flammable
vapor’s exist. The oxygen cylinders associated with oxyacetylene burners and oxygen
resuscitators should only he introduced into hazardous areas under strictly controlled
conditions.

The flash point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which that liquid will evolve
sufficient vapor to form a flammable mixture with air. High vapor pressure liquids such as
liquefied gases have extremely low flash points. However, although liquefied
gases are never carried at temperatures below their flash point, the vapor spaces above such
cargoes are non-flammable since they are virtually 100 per cent rich with cargo vapor and are
thus far above the upper flammable limit. The auto-ignition temperature of a substance is the

36
temperature to which its vapor in air must be heated for it to ignite spontaneously. The auto-
ignition temperature is not related to the vapor pressure or to the flash point of the substance
and, since most ignition sources in practice are external flames or sparks, it is the flash point
rather than the auto-ignition characteristics of a substance which is generally used for the
flammability classification of hazardous materials. Nevertheless, in terms of the ignition of
escaping vapor by steam pipes or other hot surfaces, the auto-ignition temperature of vapors
of liquefied gases are worthy of note.

Should a liquefied gas be spilled in an open space, the liquid will rapidly evaporate to
produce a vapor cloud which will be gradually dispersed downwind. The vapour cloud or
plume would be flammable only over part of its downwind travel. The situation is illustrated
in general terms. The region B immediately adjacent to the spill area A would be
non-flammable because it is over-rich, i.e. it contains too low a percentage of oxygen to be
flammable. Region D would also be non-flammable because it is too lean, i.e. it contains too
little vapor to be flammable. The flammable zone would be between these two regions as
indicated by C.

Liquid ammonia is a colorless alkaline liquid with a pungent odor. The vapors of
ammonia are flammable and burn with a yellow flame forming water vapor and nitrogen,
however, the vapor in air requires a high concentration (16-25 per cent) to be flammable, has
a high ignition energy requirement (600 times that for propane) and burns with low
combustion energy. For these reasons the IMO Codes, while requiring full attention to the
avoidance of ignition sources, do not require flammable gas detection in the hold or
interbarrier spaces of carrying ships. Nevertheless, ammonia must always be regarded as a
flammable cargo.

Ammonia is also toxic and highly reactive. It can form explosive compounds with mercury,
chlorine, iodine, bromine, calcium, silver oxide and silver hypochlorite. Ammonia vapour is
extremely soluble in water and will be absorbed rapidly and exothermically to produce a
strongly alkaline solution of ammonium hydroxide. One volume of water will absorb
approximately 200 volumes of ammonia vapor. For this reason it is extremely undesirable to
introduce water into a tank containing ammonia vapor as this can result in a vacuum
condition rapidly developing within the tank.
Since ammonia is alkaline, ammonia vapor/air mixtures may cause stress corrosion. Because
of its highly reactive nature copper alloys, aluminum alloys, galvanized surfaces, polyvinyl
chloride, polyesters and Viton rubbers are unsuitable for ammonia service. Mild steel,
stainless steel, neoprene rubber and polythene are, however, suitable.

Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) is a colorless liquid with a characteristic sweet odor. It is
highly reactive, though not with water, and may polymerizein the presence of oxygen, heat
and light. Its vapors are both toxic and flammable. Aluminum alloys, copper, silver, mercury
and magnesium are unsuitable for vinyl chloride service. Steels are, however, chemically
compatible.

Ethylene oxide and propylene oxide are colorless liquids with an ether-like odor. They are
flammable, toxic and highly reactive. Both polymerize, ethylene oxide more readily than
propylene oxide, particularly in the presence of air or impurities. Both gases may react
dangerously with ammonia. Cast iron, mercury, aluminum alloys, copper and alloys of
copper, silver and its alloys, magnesium and some stainless steels are unsuitable for the

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handling of ethylene oxide. Mild steel and certain other stainless steels are suitable as
materials of construction for both ethylene and propylene oxides.

Chlorine is a yellow liquid, which evolves a green vapor. It has a pungent and irritating
odor. It is highly toxic but is non-flammable though it should be noted that chlorine can
support combustion of other flammable materials in much the same way as oxygen. It is
soluble in water forming a highly corrosive acid solution and can form dangerous reactions
with all the other liquefied gases. In the moist condition, because of its corrosivity, it is
difficult to contain. Dry chlorine is compatible with mild steel, stainless steel, monel and
copper. Chlorine is very soluble in caustic soda solution, which can be used to absorb
chlorine vapor.

Inherent Hazards/Potential Risks

The principal potential hazard with LP Gas is fire and explosion. This derives from its
inherent quality of high flammability and in extreme cases may combine with another
condition, i.e. high pressure, and lead to the BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor
Explosion) phenomenon. This is a type of explosion that can occur when a vessel containing
a pressurized liquid is ruptured due to high temperature and pressure. Such explosions can be
extremely hazardous. There are also hazards incidental to the various modes of transport for
distribution and use.

An additional potential hazard may arise at the point of use if ventilation is inadequate and
the products of combustion are not dispersed into the atmosphere. Carbon monoxide may be
produced and reach dangerous levels. LP Gas 'sniffing' i.e. the intentional inhalation of LP
Gas vapour seeking a narcotic effect can result in injury or in some cases, death.
The risk associated with such hazards (with the exception of sniffing) can be controlled using
available, proven technology, i.e. the safety equipment and procedures normally used by the
LP Gas industry.

Liquid LP Gas will cause cold burns if it comes into contact with the skin. Propane, with its
low boiling point is more hazardous in this respect than Butane which, in cold conditions, is
slower to vaporize and disperse. The eyes and body must be protected when handling all
liquefied products.

LP Gas vapor, being heavier than air, may, in the event of a leak, accumulate in confined
spaces and low-lying areas. The means of ventilation and meteorological conditions will
influence the movement and dispersion of the LP Gas vapor.
Any uncontrolled release of LP Gas is inherently hazardous. A liquid LP Gas leak is
considered more hazardous in that it will expand to vapor form with volume in excess of 200
times that of the original liquid volume leak. Being heavier than air, vapor will tend to lie, or
drift, close to the ground with a risk that it will find a source of ignition while it remains
within its flammable limits. The physical properties are given in the table shown earlier in
this section.

Liquid LP Gas has a high co-efficient of volumetric expansion and therefore cylinders and
tanks should never be completely filled. They should be filled with ullage (the unfilled space
in a container of liquid) to allow for liquid expansion caused by an increase in temperature.
The degree of ullage necessary will depend on the operating conditions, especially the
maximum expected operating temperature. This potential risk is further controlled by a
combination of safety devices and procedures and especially by control during product

38
transfer operations. This potential risk explains why cylinders and tanks should only be filled
under the supervision of competent persons and why illegal filling is dangerous because of
the risk of overfilling.

Because of its much higher vapor pressure, tanks and cylinders containing Propane need to be
stronger than those for Butane, and both should be protected against excessive pressure. This
potential risk is controlled by safety devices and by segregating the products or, where LP
Gas mixture is handled, ensuring that the Propane content does not exceed a specified upper
limit. In cold weather, a tank storing Butane may be subjected to negative pressure and must
be capable of withstanding this.

During the process of distribution, LP Gas will normally be transported in one or more
modes. There will be hazards associated with the transport mode and with the consequences
of traffic accidents and incidents. The risks will vary from country to country and with the
transport mode. The control of transport-related risks is discussed in Chapters 6 and 9.
The majority of consumers will use LP Gas as a fuel in an appliance. The installation
comprising the LP Gas supply and connection to the appliance may be simple or complex,
large or small. Hazard scenarios and risk at the point of use are discussed in Chapter 10.
The products of complete LP Gas combustion - mainly water and carbon dioxide - are not
inherently hazardous. Good installation practice specifies ventilation to supply the air
required for combustion and to vent the products of combustion. This minimizes risk by
preventing a build-up of carbon monoxide or a development of asphyxiating (i.e. oxygen-
deficient) conditions.
LP Gas is a clear odorless liquid and is not readily visible in its gaseous phase. In the event of
a leak it may be present, unseen, in hazardous concentrations. To minimize this risk, odorant
with a distinctive, persistent and unpleasant smell is added to LP Gas prior to distribution. In
special applications requiring odor-free LP Gas, such as aerosol propellant, or the chemical
industry, alternative safety measures are adopted such as the use of gas detectors.
Accumulation of LP Gas vapor may result in the development of an oxygen-deficient
atmosphere which carries a risk of asphyxiation. The visible cloud might be smaller or bigger
than the actual gas cloud, depending on humidity in the air. An explosive-meter should be
used to approach a gas cloud. No one should enter a gas cloud as the possible introduction of
an ignition source creates a hazardous zone and possible fatal area. No one should enter a
vessel which has been used for LP Gas storage without supervision and only when all
appropriate safety measures are in place and the area has been determined as gas free.

Minimizing risk in any operation must be one of the foremost goals. Guidelines such as these
allow for the management of LP Gas operations, and for its use, well within the parameters
for individual and societal risks acceptable in a modern, industrialized society.

39
  BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://www.liquefiedgascarrier.com/cargo-containment-systems.html

http://www.liquefiedgascarrier.com/construction-materials.html

http://www.liquefiedgascarrier.com/LPG.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LNG_carrier#Containment_systems

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_carrier#Cargoes_carried_on_gas_carriers

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas

http://www.gastechnology.org/Training/Documents/LNG17-proceedings/8-8-
Henry_Chung.pdf

http://www.marineinsight.com/misc/maritime-law/specifications-and-requirements-for-
lpg-and-lng-ships-to-sail-in-international-waters/

http://www.enautica.pt/publico/professores/baptista/NT_II/Gas_Familiarisation.pdf

http://www.gl-group.com/infoServices/rules/pdfs/gl_i-1-6_e.pdf

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