1

INTRODUCTION

“A beautiful aircraft is the expression of the genius of a great engineer who is

also a great artist.”
Neville Shute,
British Aeronautical Engineer and Novelist,

When you look at aircraft, it is easy to observe that they have a number of
common features: wings, a tail with vertical and horizontal wing sections,
engines to propel them through the air, and a fuselage to carry passengers or
cargo. If, however, you take a more critical look beyond the gross features, you
also can see subtle, and sometimes not so subtle, differences. What are the
reasons for these differences? What was on the mind(S) of the designers that
caused them to configure the aircraft in this way?
Airplane design is both an art and a science. In that respect it is difficult to
learn by reading a book; rather, it must be experienced and practiced. However,
we can offer the following definition and then attempt to explain it. Airplane
design is the intellectual engineering process of creating on paper (or on a
computer screen) a flying machine to (1) meet certain specifications and
requirements established by potential users (or as perceived by the manufacturer)
and/or (2) pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology. An example of the
former is the design of most commercial transports, starting at least with the
Douglas DC-1 in 1932, which was designed to meet or exceed various
specifications by an airplane company. (The airline was TWA, named
Transcontinental and Western Air at that time.) An example of the latter is the
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design of the rocket-powered Bell X-1, the first airplane to exceed the speed of
sound in level or climbing flight (October 14, 1947). The design process is
indeed an intellectual activity, but a rather special one that is tempered by good
intuition developed via experience, by attention paid to successful airplane
designs that have been used in the past, and by (generally proprietary) design
procedures and databases (handbooks, etc.,) that are a part of every airplane
manufacturer.
The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace
engineering. As shown in the illustration, these include aerodynamics,
propulsion, light-weight structures and control.
Each of these areas involves parameters that govern the size, shape,
weight and performance of an aircraft. Although we generally try to seek
optimum in all these aspects, with an aircraft, this is practically impossible to
achieve. The reason is that in many cases, optimizing one characteristic degrades
another.
In most cases, the design objectives are not as focused. More often, the
nature of an aircraft design is compromise. That is, the goal is to balance the
different aspects of the total performance while trying to optimize a few (or one)
based on well-defined mission requirements.
There are many performance aspects that can be specified by the mission
requirements. These include:

• The aircraft purpose or mission profile;

• The type(s) and amount of payload;
• The cruise and maximum speeds;
• The normal cruise altitude;
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• The range or radius with normal payload;

• The endurance;
• The take-off distance at the maximum weight;
• The landing distance with 50 percent of the maximum fuel weight;
• The purchase cost;
• And other requirements considered important;

1.1Aircraft Purpose
The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose.
With this, it is often possible to place a design into a general category. Such
categories include combat aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general
aviation aircraft. These may also be further refined into subcategories based on
particular design objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or landing
distances, maximum speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful in
identifying any existing aircraft that might be used in making comparisons to a
proposed design.

With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft generally
comes from a military program office. For example, the mission specifications
for the X-29 pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977 request for proposals from
the U.S. Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory in which they were seeking a
research aircraft that would explore the forward swept wing concept and validate
studies that indicated such a design could provide better control and lift qualities
in extreme maneuvers.
With modern commercial aircraft, a proposal for a new design usually
comes as the response to internal studies that aim to project future market needs.
 4

For example, the specifications for the most recent Boeing commercial aircraft
(B-777) were based on the interest of commercial airlines to have a twin-engine
aircraft with a payload and range in between those of the existing B-767 and B-
747 aircraft.

Figure 1.1 X-29

Since it is not usually possible to optimize all of the performance aspects

in an aircraft, defining the purpose leads the way in setting which of these
aspects will be the “design drivers.” For example, with the B-777, two of the
prominent design drivers were range and payload.

1.2 Payload
The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s
mission. Standard payloads are passengers, cargo or ordnance. The first two are
considered non-expendable payload because they are expected to be transported
for the complete duration of the flight plan. Military ordnance is expendable
payload since at some point in the flight plan it permanently leaves the aircraft.
This includes bombs, rockets, missiles and ammunition for on-board guns.
For personal or small general aviation aircraft, the payload includes the pilot
as well as passengers and baggage. For business, commuter and commercial
aircraft, the payload does not include the flight or cabin crew, only the
passengers, baggage and cargo.
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1.3 Cruise and Maximum Speeds

The mission of an aircraft usually dictates its speed range. Propeller-driven
aircraft are usually designed to cruise at speeds between 150 to 300 knots. Jet
powered aircraft have higher cruise speeds that are normally specified in terms
of Mach number. The typical cruise Mach number for business and commercial
jet aircraft is from 0.8 to 0.85. This range of cruise speeds is close to optimum
for maximizing the combination of payload weight, range and speed. The few
supersonic commercial aircraft designs (1) have supersonic cruise speed as their
principle design driver and (2) sacrifice range and payload. The cruise Mach
number of the Concorde is 2.02. It will carry 100 passengers with a range of
3740 miles, which is considerably less than the aircraft of normal class, which
have high subsonic cruise speeds.
Modern military jet combat and attack aircraft usually have a flight plan that
involves efficient cruise at high subsonic Mach numbers. This is usually in the
range from Mach 0.85 to 0.90. The maximum speed is usually specified in the
context of an intercept portion of the flight plan. This has a Mach number that is
typically in the range of 2.0.

1.4 Normal Cruise Altitude

The cruise altitude is generally dictated by the cruise speed, propulsion
system and cabin pressurization. An aircraft with an un-pressurized cabin would
cruise no higher than 10,000 feet. With propeller-driven aircraft, turbo-charged
piston engines can maintain a constant horsepower up to an altitude of
approximately 20,000 feet. Higher altitudes are possible with turboprop aircraft,
such as the Piper Cheyenne, which have a maximum ceiling from 35,000 to
 6

41,000 feet. The decrease in air density with higher altitude lowers the drag, so
that for these aircraft, the cruise range increases with altitude.
` At higher subsonic Mach numbers, the turbo-jet engine gives the higher
efficiency. For subsonic turbo-jet aircraft, there is an optimum altitude where the
fuel consumption is a minimum. This occurs at approximately 36,000 feet.
Therefore, it is the best altitude for the most efficient, long range cruise of turbo-
jet-powered aircraft.

1.5 Range
The range is the furthest distance the aircraft can fly without refueling. In
a flight plan, range refers to the distance traveled during the cruise phase.The
choice of the range is one of the most important decisions because it has a large
(exponential) effect on the aircraft take-off weight. An aircraft that is intended to
fly across the United States (New York to Seattle) should have a minimum range
of 2500 nautical miles. A range of 3500 nautical miles would be necessary for
transatlantic flights from East coast U.S. cities to coastal cities in Western
Europe. Shorter range transports that are designed to fly between major cities in
a regional area (e.g., Los Angeles to San Francisco) should have a minimum
range of 500 nautical miles. Twice that range would allow an aircraft to fly non-
stop between most of the major cities along either coast of the United States.

1.6 Endurance
Endurance is the amount of time an aircraft can fly without refueling. With a
reconnaissance aircraft, endurance is one of the main design drivers. For a
commercial aircraft, a flight plan will include an endurance phase to allow for
time that night is spent in a holding pattern prior to landing. For operation within
 7

the continental United States commercial aircraft are required to be able to hold
for 45 minutes at normal cruise fuel consumption. For international operation,
the required hold time is 30 minutes.

1.7 Take-off Distance

The total take-off distance of the length of a runway needed to accelerate, lift
off, and climb to prescribe obstacle height. The obstacle height is 50 feet for
military and small civil aircraft, and 35 feet for commercial aircraft. The take-off
distance that is required to accomplish this depends on different factors in the
design such as the thrust to weight ratio, the maximum lift to weight ratio and the
surface of the air field that affects the rolling friction of the landing-gear wheels.

Table 1.1 Typical ranges for different types of aircraft.

Aircraft Type Range (nautical miles)

Personal/Utility 500-1000
Regional Turboprop 800-1200
Business Jets 1500-1800
Smaller Jet Transports 2500-3500
Larger Jet Transports 6500-7200

Different designs can fall into standard categories for take-off and landing.
A conventional take-off and landing (CTOL) aircraft has distance that is greater
than 1000 feet. A short take-off and landing (STOL) aircraft, such as the YC-15
in figure 1.2 can take off and land in under 1000 feet. Both of these would have a
ground roll portion during take-off and landing. A vertical take-off and landing
(VTOL) aircraft does not require a ground roll.
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Figure 1.2 YC-15

Personal and general aviation propeller-driven aircraft, which are intended

to operate out of smaller airports, need take-off distances of 1200 to 2000 feet.
Larger twin engine propeller commuter aircraft, which operate out of medium to
larger size airports, have take-off distances from 3000 to 5000 feet. Business and
smaller commercial jets have take-off distances of 5000 to 7500 feet. Larger
commercial jet transport aircraft require take0off distances from 8000 to 11000
feet. The take-off distance is a function of the altitude of the airport, although the
distance at sea level is usually specified. Table 1.2 lists the altitude and runway
lengths of some of the major airports in America.

1.8 Landing Distance

The landing distance consists of the length of the runway needed to
descend from a specified height of 50 feet, touchdown and break to a stop.
Factors that affect the landing distance are the maximum lift to weight and the
surface of the air field, which affects the landing-gear wheels’ braking friction
coefficient. The lift to weight ratio directly affects the slowest (stall) speed at
which the aircraft can fly. The landing touchdown speed is taken to be a small
percentage higher than the stall speed.
For commercial aircraft, in a worst case scenario, the landing distance is
determined with half of the fuel weight at take-off remaining and with an
 9

additional two-thirds distance to account for pilot variability. Even with these
measures, the landing distances are almost always less than the take-off
distances. Therefore, with regards to airports with available runway distances,
the limiting conditions will generally be set by take-off.

1.9 Purchase Cost

The purchase cost of an aircraft involves the cost incurred in the research,
development, test and evaluation (RDT&E) phase of the new aircraft design, and
the acquisition (A) or production cost of customer-ordered aircraft. The cost of
research and development is amortized over an initial fixed number of
production aircraft. Therefore, as the number of production aircraft used to
distribute this cost increases, the purchase cost per aircraft decreases. The
decision on the total number of aircraft to be produced is therefore an important
factor in establishing the purchase price. In some cases, this price and customer
competition may be the final arbiters that determine if a design is to be built.
The cost estimates are based on “cost estimating relationships” or CERs.
These are simple model equations that correlate a few important characteristics
of a larger group of aircraft with their cost. The primary characteristics on which
these are based are the weight of the structure of the aircraft, which is a fixed
percentage of the take-off weight, the maximum speed at best attitude, and the
production rate. From these, we expect that larger, heavier aircraft will cost more
than smaller, lighter aircraft.

1.10 Federal Aviation Regulations

Any aircraft design must consider standards and regulations that are set by
government associations. Civil aircraft designed, built and operated in the United
 10

States must satisfy the provisions of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs).
The FARs is continually being updated to incorporate additional requirements
that come about due to increased time and experience with existing aircraft.
Electronic listings of the FARs can be obtained through a World Wide Web link
to the Flight Standards Service of the U.S. Federal Aviation Association (FAA).
The exact link can be found through a search under the keyword FAA.
Sections of the FARs that are of particular interest to designers are Air
Worthiness Standards, General Operating and Flight Rules and Operations. Air
Worthiness Standards Part 23 and 25 in particular define different categories of
aircraft (for example, transport or commuter) based on such characteristics as
number of passengers and maximum take off weight.
These categories are important in making comparisons to other aircraft with
regard to flight performance, or other design drivers.

1.11 Design Process

The process of designing an aircraft and taking it to the point of a flight test
article consists of a sequence of steps, as illustrated in figure 1.3. It starts by
identifying a need or capability for a new aircraft that is brought about by (1) a
perceived market potential and (2) technological advances made through
research and development. The former will include a market-share forecast,
which attempts to examine factors that might impact future sales of a new
design. These factors include the need for a new design of a specific size and
performance, the number of competing designs, and the commonality of features
with existing aircraft. As a rule, a new design with competitive performance and
cost will have an equal share of new sales with existing competitors.
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Research, Development and Market Analysis

Mission Requirements

Conceptual Design

Requirements
No satisfied?

Yes

Preliminary Design

Stop
Final Evaluation

Go

Detailed Design

Test Article Fabrication

Flight Test
Figure 1.3 Design Process flow chart
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The needs and capabilities of a new aircraft that are determined in a market
survey go to define the mission requirements for a conceptual aircraft. These are
compiled in the form of a design proposal that includes (1) the motivation for
initiating a new design and (2) the “technology readiness” of new technology for
incorporation into a new design. It is essential that the mission requirements be
defined before the design can be started. Based on these, the most important
performance aspects or “design drivers” can be identified and optimized above
all others.
Following the design proposal, the next step is to produce a conceptual
design. The conceptual design develops the first general size and configuration
for a new aircraft. It involves the estimates of the weights and the choice of
aerodynamic characteristics that will be best suited to the mission requirements
stated in the design proposal.
The design will make estimates of the total drag and size the power plant. It
will determine the best airframe to accommodate the (1) payload and (2) wing
and engine placement. This conceptual design will locate principle weight
groups in order to satisfy static stability requirements. It will size control
surfaces to achieve a desired degree of maneuverability. Finally the conceptual
design will estimate the RDT&E and acquisition costs to develop one or more
test articles.
The conceptual design is driven by the mission requirements, which are
set in the design proposal. In some cases, these may not be attainable so that the
requirement may need to be relaxed in one or more areas. This is shown in the
iterative loop in the flow chart. When the mission requirements are satisfied, the
design moves to the next phase, which is the preliminary design.
The aircraft (i.e. system) design process includes four major phases: 1.
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Conceptual Design, 2. Preliminary Design, 3. Detail design, and 4. Test and

evaluation. The purpose of this chapter is to present the techniques and selection
processes in the aircraft conceptual design phase. Conceptual design is the first
and most important phase of the aircraft system design and development process.
It is an early and high level life cycle activity with potential to establish, commit,
and otherwise predetermine the function, form, cost, and development schedule
of the desired aircraft system. The identification of a problem and associated
definition of need provides a valid and appropriate starting point for design at the
conceptual level.

Figure 1.4 Design and manufacturing schedule

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PHASE:

It is the first step in the design process in response to a certain design goal
(requirements or exploration) Overall (fuzzy) shape, size, weight, performance
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of airplane configuration. Basic drivers are aerodynamics, propulsion, and

performance but not much, consideration for stability/control and cost.
The seven pivot points for conceptual design are,
✓
Requirements
✓
Initial weight estimate of the airplane
✓
Critical performance parameters
o Maximum lift coefficient
o Lift-to-drag ratio
o Wing loading

o Thrust-to-weight ratio
✓
Configuration layout (shape/size of the airplane on a drawing)
✓
Better weight estimate
✓
Performance analysis (does the airplane meet/exceed the req’ts?)
o …iterate steps 3 to 6…
✓ Optimization (is it the best design?)

The aircraft design process generally commences with the identification of a

“what” or “desire” for something and is based on a real (or perceived)
deficiency. As a result, a system requirement is defined along with the priority
for introduction, the date when the system capability is required for customer
use, and an estimate of the resources necessary for acquiring this new system.
To ensure a good start, a comprehensive statement of the problem should be
presented in specific qualitative and quantitative terms, in enough detail to
justify progressing to the new step. Need identification and formulation is
discussed in Chapter 2.
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As the name implies, the aircraft conceptual design phase is the aircraft design at
the concept level. At this stage, the general design requirements are entered in a
process to generate a satisfactory configuration. The primary tool in this stage of
design is the “selection”. Although there are variety of evaluation and analysis,
but there are not many calculations. The past design experience plays a crucial
role in the success of this phase. Hence, the members of conceptual design phase
team must be the most experienced engineers of the corporation. The details of
the advantages and disadvantages of each configuration are described in chapters
5 through 11.
The fundamental output of this phase is an approximate three-view of the
aircraft that represents the aircraft configuration. Section 3.2 concerns with
primary function and role for each aircraft component. The aircraft components
(e.g. wing, fuselage, tail, landing gear, and engine) configuration alternatives are
addressed in Section 3.3. Aircraft classifications from variety of aspects are
reviewed in Section 3.4. In Section 3.5, the principles of trade-off analysis to
determine the most satisfactory configuration are introduced. Section 3.6
examines the conceptual design optimization with an emphasis on the
application of the multidisciplinary design optimization technique.

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS OF AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS:

An aircraft comprised of several major components. It mainly includes
wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, fuselage, propulsion system, landing gear and
control surfaces. In order to make a decision about the configuration of each
aircraft component, the designer must be fully aware of the function of each
component. Each aircraft component has inter-relationships with other
components and interferes with the functions of other components.
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1. WING: The main function of the wing is to generate the aerodynamic

force of lift to keep the aircraft airborne. The wing tends to generate two
other unwanted aerodynamic productions: an aerodynamic drag force plus
an aerodynamic pitching moment. Furthermore, the wing is an essential
component in providing the aircraft lateral stability which is fundamentally
significant to flight safety. In almost all aircraft, the aileron is arranged to
be at the trailing edge of the outboard section. Hence, the wing is largely
influential in providing the aircraft lateral control.

2. FUSELAGE: The primary function of the fuselage is to accommodate the

payload which includes passengers, cargo, luggage, and other useful loads.
The fuselage is often a home for pilot and crewmembers, and most of the
times, fuel tanks and engine(s). Since the fuselage is providing a moment
arm to horizontal and vertical tail, it plays an influential role in longitudinal
and directional stability and control. If the fuselage is decided to be short, a
boom must be provided to allow for the tails to have the sufficient arm.

3. HORIZONTAL TAIL: The horizontal tail’s primary function is to

generate an aerodynamic force to longitudinally trim the aircraft.
Furthermore, the vertical tail is an essential component is providing the
aircraft longitudinal stability which is a fundamental requirement for flight
safety. In majority of the aircraft, the elevator is a movable part of the
horizontal tail, so longitudinal control and maneuverability is applied
through horizontal tail.
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4. VERTICAL TAIL: The vertical tail’s primary function is to generate an

aerodynamic force to directionally trim the aircraft. Furthermore, the
vertical tail is an essential component is providing the aircraft directional
stability which is a fundamental requirement for flight safety. In majority
of the aircraft, the rudder is a movable part of the vertical tail, so
directional control and maneuverability is applied through vertical tail.

5. ENGINE: The engine is the main component in the aircraft propulsion

system to generate the power and/or thrust. The aircraft requires a thrust
force to move forward (as in any other vehicle), so the engine primary
function is to generate the thrust. The fuel is considered to be a necessary
item of the propulsion system and it sometimes constitutes a large part of
aircraft weight. An aircraft without engine is not able to take-off
independently, but it is capable of gliding and landing, as are performed by
sailplanes and gliders.

6. LANDING GEAR: The primary function of the landing gear is to

facilitate take-off and landing operations. During take-off and landing
operations, the fuselage, wing, tail, and aircraft components are kept away
from the ground through the landing gear. The wheels of the landing gear
in land-based and ship-based aircraft also play a crucial role in safe
acceleration and deceleration of the aircraft. Rolling wheels as part of
landing gear allows the aircraft to accelerate without spending a
considerable amount of thrust to overcome the friction.
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Table 1.2 Aircraft major components and their functions

No Component Primary function Major areas of influence
1 Aircraft performance, longitudinal
Payload
Fuselage stability,
accommodations
lateral stability, cost
Aircraft performance, lateral
2 Wing Generation of lift
stability
Horizontal
3 Longitudinal stability Longitudinal trim and control
tail
4 Vertical tail Directional stability Directional trim and control, stealth
Aircraft performance, stealth, cost,
5 Engine Generation of thrust
control
6 Facilitate take-off
Landing gear Aircraft performance, stealth, cost
and landing
7 Control
Control Maneuverability, cost
surfaces

The above six components are assumed to be the fundamental components

of an air vehicle. However, there are other components in an aircraft that are not
assumed here as a major one. The roles of those components are described in the
later sections whenever they are mentioned. Table 1.1 illustrates a summary of
aircraft major components and their functions. This table also shows the
secondary roles and the major areas of influence of each aircraft component.
This table also shows the design requirements that are affected by each
component.
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Traditional aircraft configuration design attempts to achieve improved

performance and reduced operating costs by minimizing maximum takeoff
weight. From the point of view of an aircraft manufacturer, however, this method
does not guarantee the financial viability of an aircraft program. A better design
approach would take into account not only aircraft performance and
manufacturing cost, but also factors such as aircraft flying qualities, and systems
engineering criteria.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN PHASE:

Following is the Preliminary Design Phase where the selected concept(s)
is (are) looked into more detail. At this point a much larger number of designers
are involved and specialists start defining the characteristics of the aircraft.
Detailed analysis and simulations are carried out to finely tune the geometries,
while all sub-systems begin to be shaped. The aim of this phase is to completely
define the aircraft that is going to be manufactured and to ‘freeze’ its design. If
the previous phase has been successful, only minor and very limited changes will
be made at this stage to the layout of the aircraft. A large amount of people are
now allocated to the project. Specialists will carry out analysis and simulations
of their respective systems and even some testing can start taking place. Also
manufacturing and production planning will be carried out, starting from larger
sub-assemblies.

DETAIL DESIGN PHASE:

The final step of the design process is the Detail Design Phase during
which all components and parts are defined in all their details. It is also called as
Nut and Bolt design. It during this phase that all (or at least most of it)
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manufacturing documentation is produced. The number of people involved in

this phase can be extremely large and so are the costs. Only aircraft that have
been decided to be produced reach this phase. The tools adopted during the detail
design phase may not be very different, but they are of highest accuracy, in order
to precisely define every single aspect of each system. Therefore careful
simulations are performed also at this stage. Clearly it is now very hard to make
important changes to the layout of the aircraft. If any mistake was made during
the conceptual or preliminary design phase, the aircraft will have to either live
with it or in the worst case force the project to be cancelled.
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2. COMPARATIVE CONFIGURATION STUDY OF

DIFFERENT TYPES OF AIRPLANES

When the necessary aircraft components, to satisfy design requirements,

are identified and the list of major components is prepared, the step to select their
configurations begin. Each aircraft major component may have several
alternatives which all satisfy design requirements. However, each alternative
carry advantages and disadvantages by which design requirements are satisfied
at different levels. Since each design requirement has a unique weight, each
configuration alternative results in a different level of satisfaction. This section
reviews the configuration alternatives for each major component.

Table 2.1 Design constraints and requirements

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS AND
NO GROUP
CONSTRAINTS
Standard, non-
1 1. Standard, 2. Homebuilt (or garage-built)
standard
1. Military (MIL-STD), 2. Civil - Transport
2 General type (FAR4 25), 3. Civil - General Aviation or GA
(FAR 23), 4. Very Light Aircraft (VLA), …
1. Normal or non-aerobatic, 2. Utility or semi-
3 Maneuverability aerobatic, 3. Aerobatic or acrobatic, 4. Highly
maneuverable (e.g. Fighters and anti-missile
1. General purpose, 2. Hang glider, 3. Sailplane
4 GA mission or glider, 4. Agricultural, 5. Utility, 6.
Commuter, 7. Business, 8. Racer, 9. Sport, 10.
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Touring, 11. Trainer, 12. Maneuver, 13. Model

1. Fighter, 2. Bomber, 3. Attack, 4. Interceptor,
5. Reconnaissance, 6. Military transport, 7.
Patrol, 8. Maritime surveillance, 9. Military
trainer, 10. Stealth, 11. Tanker, 12. Close
5 Military mission
support, 13. Trainer, 14. Anti-submarine, 15.
Early warning, 16. Airborne command,
17.Communication relay, 18. Target, 19. Missile,
20. Rocket
1. Model (less than 13 kg, 2. Ultra light aircraft
(less than 300 kg), 3. Very light (less than 750
6 Weight kg), 4. Light (less than 5670 kg), 5. Medium
weight (less than 45000 kg), 6. Heavy or Jumbo
(above 45000 kg)
1. Short Take Off and landing (STOL) (runway
7 Take-off run less than 150 m), 2. Vertical Take Off and
landing (VTOL), 3. Regular

Table 2.2 Configuration parameters and their options

CONFIGURATION
ANO CONFIGURATION ALTERNATIVES
PARAMETER

1 Conventionality 1. Conventional, 2. Non-conventional

2 Power 1. Powered 2. Unpowered

1. Turbojet, 2. Turbofan, 3. Turboprop, 4.

3 Propulsion
Piston prop,
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1. Single engine, 2. Twin engine, 3.Multi-

4 Number of engine
engine

5 Engine and aircraft cg 1. Pusher, 2. Tractor

6 Engine installation 1. Fixed 2. Tilt-rotor

1. Under wing, 2. Inside wing, 3. Above

7 Engine location wing, 4. Above fuselage, 5. Beside
fuselage, 6. Inside fuselage

8 Number of wings 1. One-wing, 2. Biplane, 3. Tri-plane

1. Fixed-wing, 2. Rotary-wing (a.

9 Wing type
helicopter, b. gyrocopter)

1. Rectangular, 2.Tapered, 3. Swept, 4.

10 Wing geometry
Delta

11 Wing sweep 1. Fixed sweep angle, 2. Variable sweep

12 Wing placement 1. High wing, 2. Low wing, 3. Mid-wing

13 Wing installation 1. Cantilever, 2. Strut-braced

14 Tail or canard 1. Tail, 2. Canard, 3. Three-surfaces

1. Conventional, 2. T shape, 3. H shape, 4.

15 Tail type
V shape

1. Fixed and faired, 2. Fixed and un-faired

16 Landing gear
3. Retractable, 3. Partially retractable
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17 Landing gear type 1. Nose gear, 2. Tail gear, 3. Quadricycle

1. Single short fuselage, 2. Single long

18 Fuselage
fuselage, 3. Double long fuselage

19 Seating (in two-seat) 1. Side-by-side, 2. Tandem

Seating (in higher 1×n, 2. 2×n, 3. 3×n, …, 10×n. (n: number

20
number of passengers) of rows)

21 Cabin or Cockpit 1. Cabin, 2. Cockpit

Horizontal tail control 1. Tail and elevator, 2. All moving

22
surface horizontal tail

Vertical tail control 1. Vertical tail and rudder, 2. All moving

23
surface vertical tail

24 Wing control surfaces 1. Aileron and flap, 2. Flaperon

1. Conventional (elevator, aileron,

Wing-tail control
25 rudder), 2. Ruddervator, 3.Elevon, 4.
surfaces
Split rudder, 5. Thrust-vectored
1. Full metal, 2. Full composite, 3.
26 Material for structure Primary structure: metal, secondary
structure: composite
 25

3. LITERATURE SURVEY WITH REFERENCE TO THE

DESIGN WORK UNDER TAKEN.

Table 3.1 Literature Survey

TYPE OF CREW LENGTH WINGSPAN HEIGHT WING

AIRCRAFT (m) (m) (m) AREA
(m2)
F-15E 2 19.43 13.05 5.63 56.5
STRIKE
EAGLE
F-16 1 15.06 9.96 4.88 27.87
FIGHTING
FALCON
F-22A 1 18.92 13.56 5.08 78.04
RAPTOR
F-35A 1 15.67 10.7 4.33 42.74
LIGHTNING
II
MIG-27 1 17.08 13.97 5 37.35
SUKHOI 2 21.93 21.93 6.36 62
SU-30
MIG-29 1 17.32 11.36 4.73 38
HAL LCA 1 13.2 8.2 4.4 38.4
TEJAS
 26

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF PERFORMANCE DETAILS

WITH REFERENCE TO THE DESIGN WORK UNDER TAKEN.

Comparison of aircraft dimension, weight, power plant and aircraft performance

for different aircrafts.

LENGTH(m)
25

20

15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

FIG 4.1 Aircrafts vs Length

MAX TAKE OFF WEIGHT(kg)

40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

FIG 4.2 Aircrafts vs Max Take OFF Weight(kg)

 27

RANGE(km)
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

FIG 4.3 Aircrafts vs Range

WE/WO
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000

FIG 4.4 Aircrafts vs We/Wo

 28

5. ESTIMATION OF AIRCRAFT WEIGHT

The various weights acting in an airplane are,

Wpayoad (passenger, troops, cargo)
Wempty (manufactured weight of aircraft)
Wfuel (weight of fuel for destination + 6% of that)
Wcrew (pilot & cockpit members)
Wcrew:
In military transport, we are considering only two crew members (i.e) Pilot &
Co-pilot.We are taking each crew member weight as 100kg.
Wcrew = 100 Kg
Wpayload:

Wpayload = 4000 Kg
From graph,
We
Vs Wo
Wo

Wo = 13500 kg
W.K.T
Wo = Wf+Wp+We+Wc
Wf = Wo-Wp-We-Wc
= 13500-4000-7560-100
Wf = 1840 Kg
Wf/Wo = 0.14
 29

Fig 5.1 Mission Profile

Wf = Wo+W5
Wf/Wo = 1- W5/Wo
W5 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1
= × × × ×
W0 W4 W3 W2 W1 W0
V∞ L W0
Range = × × ln
C D W1
From here,
Range = 850 km
Velocity = 2205 Km/hr
Specific fuel consumption c = 0.62 /hour

2205 ∗ 103 W2
850 = × 5 × ln
0.62 W3
W3
= 0.95
W2
W0
= 0.98 ∗ 0.99 ∗ 0.7591 ∗ 0.95 ∗ 0.97
W5
Wf/Wo = 0.14
Wf/W5 = 0.17
 30

The following data where calculated,

Wo = 13500 kg
Wc = 100 kg
We = 6560 kg
Wp = 4000 kg
Range = 850 km
C = 0.6954
L/D = 5
Wf/Wo = 0.14
Wf = 1890 kg
 31

6. ESTIMATION OF CRITICAL PERFORMANCE

PARAMETERS

To estimate the Critical performance parameters like,

1. (CL) MAX
2. L/D
3. W/S
4. T/W
These parameters will be determined by such aspects as maximum speed,
range, ceiling, rate of climb, stalling speed, landing distance and take-off
distance.

6.1 CL(max) for Fighter Aircraft

Airfoil CL(max)
Root airfoil 1.8
Tip airfoil 1.8

(CL(max) )root + (CL(max)tip )

CL(max) = + (CL(max) )
2 flap
1.8+1.8
1.8 = + (CL(max) )
2 flap

(CL(max) ) = 1.8
flap

6.2 Wing Loading and Vstall

 32

From survey
W/S =3448.82
W 13500
S= =
W/S 255

S= 52.94 m2

W0
= 255 N/m2
S

1
L = ρVs2 Cl(max)
2

2wo
Vs=√
ρSC Lmax

Vs=38.11 m/s.

The value of wing loading calculated is justified below,

Ground roll :-
S = Sf +Sg +Sa
Vf2
R=
0.2g
For military aircraft Vf =1.15Vs
(1.15Vs )2 (1.15 ∗ 38.11)2
R= = = 9783.99 m
0.2g 0.2g
 33

Fig 6.1 Landing Performance

hf = R(1-cosөa)
өa= 3o
= 978.99(1-cos3)
hf = 1.34 m
15 − hf 15 − 1.34
Sa = =
tanϴa tan 3
Sa = 260.6 m
Sf =Sf=RSinϴa
= 978.99*sin3
Sf = 51.23 m
We know that
Sg= S-(Sa+Sf)
From survey S=1300 m
 34

So, Sg=980 m

But,

2 𝑊 𝑗 2 (𝑊 ⁄𝑆)
𝑆𝑔 = 𝑗𝑁√ ( )+
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆 𝑔𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 µ

2 𝑊 1.12 (𝑊 ⁄𝑆)
= 1.1 ∗ 3√ ( )+
1.225 ∗ 1.8 𝑆 9.81 ∗ 1.225 ∗ 1.8 ∗ 0.4

721.901 = 3.142√𝑊 ⁄𝑆 + 0.1398(𝑊 ⁄𝑆)

By trial and error method

(W/S)=3743.67 N/m2

Since (W/S)gr<(W/S)cal , taking (W/S)=3448.82 N/m2

Then,
𝑊𝑜 13500
𝑆= =
𝑊 ⁄𝑆 3448.82

S=3.9143 m
 35

6.3 Thrust to weight ratio:

Fig 6.2 Take off Performance

1.21 (𝑊 ⁄𝑆)
𝑆𝑔 =
𝑔𝜌∞ (𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) 𝑇𝑂 (𝑇⁄𝑊)
1.21 ∗ 3448.82
𝑆𝑔 =
9.81 ∗ 1.225 ∗ 21.8 ∗ (𝑇⁄𝑊)
Taking (CLmax)TO = 1.8

Take off distance = 1700 m

S=Sg+Sa
Sa = R Sinө
6.96𝑉𝑠𝑡2
𝑅=
𝑔

2 𝑊
𝑉𝑠𝑡 = √ ( )
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆

Vstall = 52.91 m/s

 36

6.96 ∗ 51.912
𝑅=
9.81
R = 2217.7
15
𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 (1 − )
𝑅
15
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 (1 − )
2217.7

𝜃 = 1.2256
Sa= R Sinө
= 2217.7 Sin 6.66
Sa = 257.20
From survey,
Take off distance =1700m
Sa+Sg=1700 m
Sg=1442.8 m

192.82
T⁄W =
1442.8
T/W = 0.13

The critical performance parameters are calculated as,

1. Maximum Lift Coefficient (C L)MAX = 1.8
2. Maximum Lift to Drag ratio [L/D]MAX = 5
3. Wing Loading [W/S] = 3448.82 N/m2
4. Power Loading [W/T] = 7.69 W/N
 37

7. CONFIGURATION LAYOUT

7.1 WING CONFIGURATION LAYOUT:

The configurations of wing are,

1. Monoplane: one wing plane.

2. Low wing: mounted near or below the bottom of the fuselage.
3. Mid wing: mounted approximately halfway up the fuselage.
4. High wing: mounted on the upper fuselage. When contrasted to the
shoulder wing, applies to a wing mounted on a projection (such as the
cabin roof) above the top of the main fuselage.
5. Biplane: two wing planes of similar size, stacked one above the other.
6. Tri plane: three planes stacked one above another. Tri planes enjoyed a
brief period of popularity during the First World War due to their
maneuverability, but were soon replaced by improved biplanes.

7. A tandem wing design has two wings, one behind the other: see Tail
planes and fore planes below.

Fig 7.1 Configuration of wing Layout

 38

Fig 7.2 various shapes of airplane wing

 39

Fig 7.3 Wings with different taper ratio

Fig 7.4 Mean Aerodynamic chord and aerodynamic center

 40

L 1
( ) =√
D max 4k CD0

Here CDo = 0.03

(L/D)max = 6.26
1
So, 4kCDo = 2
(L⁄D)
max

1
k= = 0.212
4 ∗ 0.122 ∗ 6.26 ∗ 6.26

Aspect ratio = 1/πek

Ostwald efficiency factor, from survey

e = 0.85
1
A. R =
π ∗ 0.85 ∗ 0.212
A.R = 3.48
Also A.R = b2/S
b2 = 8.25*251.73
b = 14.693 m
Tank capacity:
Wf = 1890
ρ = mass/volume
ρaviation fuel = 804 kg/m3
Therefore
mass 4486
Volume = =
ρ 804
Volume = 5.58 m3
 41

Here,
S
= [Ct × b⁄2] + [1⁄2 (Cr − Ct ) × b⁄2]
2

Since taper ratio λ=Ct/Cr = 0.5 (generally)

Then,
Ct = 0.5Cr
31.02 = 3.672(6.5Cr ) + 3.673Cr
27.541Cr = 31.02
Cr = 6.126 m
Then Ct = 1.32 m
Plotting graph for C̅ :
From graph;
Mean aerodynamic chord = C̅ = 2.3*2 = 4.9 m
 42

Fig 7.5
Mean Aerodynamic chord

We have chosen Delta wing because of the following,

Low-speed flight

The Eurofighter Typhoon has a canard delta wing configuration.

At low speeds a delta wing requires a high angle of attack to maintain lift. A
slender delta creates a characteristic vortex pattern over the upper surface which
enhances lift. Some types with intermediate sweep have been given retractable
"moustaches" or fixed leading-edge root extensions (LERX) to encourage vortex
formation.

As the angle of attack increases, the leading edge of the wing generates
a vortex which energises the flow on the upper surface of the wing, delaying
flow separation, and giving the delta a very high stall angle.[1] A normal wing
built for high speed use typically has undesirable characteristics at low speeds,
 43

but in this regime the delta gradually changes over to a mode of lift based on the
vortex it generates, a mode where it has smooth and stable flight characteristics.

7.1.1 FUEL TANK CONFIGURATION:

Volume =5.58 m3
= l*b*t
1. Root airfoil is 23014
Max.thickness of airfoil is at 14% of root chord
tairfoil = 0.878 m
tfueltank should be less than tairfoil
2. Front spar:
12% of Cr from leading edge
= 0.12*7.321
= 0.878
3. Rear spar:
60% of Cr from leading edge
= 0.6*6.126
= 3.0756

Volume = lf*bf*tf

5.58
lf = = 1.72 m
0.878 ∗ 3.678
 44

Fig 7.6 Fuel tank Configuration

7.2 FUSELAGE CONFIGURATION:

The fuselage configuration is as follows,

Fig 7.7 Warren Truss

 45

Fig 7.8 Monocoque structure

Fig 7.9 Semi monocoque structure

The main section of the fuselage also includes wing attachment points and
a firewall. On single-engine airplanes, the engine is usually attached to the
front of the fuselage. There is a fireproof partition between the rear of the
 46

engine and the cockpit or cabin to protect the pilot and passengers from
accidental engine fires. This partition is called a firewall and is usually made of
heat-resistant material such as stainless steel.

We have chosen Semi-monocoque structure because,

✓ The bulkheads, frame, stringers & longerons add strength & rigidity.
✓ All structural member aid in strength of fuselage, it doesn’t depend on only
few members.

Fuselage span – 8.22 m (from survey)

Fig 7.10 Fuselage length

7.3 EMPHENNAGE CONFIGURATION:

The tail of an airplane is called by various names, such as “empennage” and

“stabilizer.” The preferred term is “stabilizer,” because it is at least partially
descriptive of the component’s function. However, the stabilizer provides not
only stability but also some of the airplane’s control.The tail of an airplane is
designed to provide both stability and control of the airplane in pitch and yaw.
 47

There are many different forms an aircraft tail can take in meeting these dual
requirements of stability and control. Most tail designs have a horizontal wing
like structure and one or more vertical or near-vertical structures. Whenever
practical, these structures are identified as the horizontal and vertical stabilizers,
although some designs do not conveniently fit such a description.

The many types of airplane tail design include, but are by no means limited
to, the conventional, T-tail, cruciform-tail, dual-tail, triple-tail, V-tail, inverted
V-tail, inverted Y-tail, twin-tail, boom-tail, high boom-tail, and multiple-plane
tail designs.

We have chosen T-tail configuration,

A t-tail is an empennage configuration in which tail plane is mounted on top of

the fin.
Advantages:
✓ Tail plane is kept well out of distributed airflow behind wing & fuselage.
✓ Better pitch control
✓ For a military transport, the cargo can be loaded at backside through
fuselage. Thus this configuration provides space.
 48

Fig 7.11 Empennage configuration

 49

7.4 ENGINE CONFIGURATION:

Based on the requirement and the literature Survey we select the power
plant.

Fig 7.12 Engine Types

 50

Fig 7.13 Gas turbine engines

Position of engine:
✓ Engine mounted below the wing

Turbofan advantages:
✓ Quiet exhaust
✓ Less fuel consumption
✓ Shorter take off distance.

Thus for the above requirement we have chosen,

✓ Twin engine
✓ Turbofan (TF39-GE1-C1)
 51

7.5 LANDING GEAR SELECTION:

The design and positioning of the landing gear are determined by the
unique characteristics associated with each aircraft, i.e., geometry, weight, and
mission requirements. Given the weight and cg range of the aircraft, suitable
configurations are identified and reviewed to determine how well they match the
airframe structure, flotation, and operational requirements. The essential
features, e.g., the number and size
of tires and wheels, brakes, and shock absorption mechanism, must be selected in
accordance with industry and federal standards
The nose wheel tricycle undercarriage has long been the preferred
configuration for passenger transports. It leads to a nearly level fuselage and
consequently the cabin floor when the aircraft is on the ground. The most
attractive feature of this type of undercarriages is the improved stability during
braking and ground maneuvers. The positioning of the landing gear is based
primarily on stability considerations during taxiing, liftoff and touchdown, i.e.,
the aircraft should be in no danger of turning over on its side once it is on the
ground. Compliance with this requirement can be determined by examining the
takeoff/landing performance characteristics and the relationships between the
locations of the landing gear and the aircraft cg.
 52

Fig 7.14 Types of Landing gear

We have chosen,
Hydraulic retractable tricycle-type landing gear developed by HAL, which
envisages two single, inward-retracting main wheels and a steerable twin wheel
and a steerable twin forward-retractable nose gear .
 53

8. BALANCE AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY LOCATION:

From survey, fuselage span= 13.20m

Here Wt. = overall weight – fuel weight
= 13500-1890= 116101kg
Table 8.1 Location and Mass of aircraft components
Location from the Components Mass(kg)
nose
6% bf = 0.792m Crew + cockpit equipments 150
12% bf= 1.584m Main landing gear 240.26
25% bf= 3.3m Payload bay 1 1950
37% bf= 4.84m Fixed equipments 96.104
45% bf= 5.94m Fuselage Wt. + main landing 6006.5
gear
60% bf= 7.92m Payload bay 2 1950
93% bf= 12.276m Horizontal + vertical 720.78
stabilizer

For Referenc:

Fig 8.1 CG Location

 54

x'=Ct/2=0.6605
y'=(b/2)/2*((Ct+2Cr)/(Ct+Cr))=6.74.
Wing Cg = (x, y) = (3.92,2.83)

Mean aerodynamic centre = (x, y) = (1.065,4.9)

The mean aerodynamic centre (quarter chord point on the mean aerodynamic
chord) lies behind cg. Thus, the aircraft is longitudinally stable.
 55

9. THREE VIEW DIAGRAM OF THE AIRPLANE

Fig 9.1 Three view diagram

The 3-view diagram of the aircraft that has been designed to meet the proposed
requirements is drawn.
 56

10. MATERIAL SELECTION

Aircraft structures are basically unidirectional. This means that one

dimension, the length, is much larger than the others - width or height. For
example, the span of the wing and tail spars is much longer than their width and
depth; the ribs have a much larger chord length than height and/or width; a
whole wing has a span that is larger than its chords or thickness; and the fuselage
is much longer than it is wide or high. Even a propeller has a diameter much
larger than its blade width and thickness, etc.... For this simple reason, a designer
chooses to use unidirectional material when designing for an efficient strength to
weight structure.
Unidirectional materials are basically composed of thin, relatively flexible,
long fibers which are very strong in tension (like a thread, a rope, a stranded steel
wire cable, etc.)
An aircraft structure is also very close to a symmetrical structure. Those
mean the up and down loads are almost equal to each other. The tail loads may
be down or up depending on the pilot raising or dipping the nose of the aircraft
by pulling or pushing the pitch control; the rudder may be deflected to the right
as well as to the left (side loads on the fuselage). The gusts hitting the wing may
be positive or negative, giving the up or down loads which the occupant
experiences by being pushed down in the seat or hanging in the belt.
Because of these factors, the designer has to use a structural material that
can withstand both tension and compression. Unidirectional fibers may be
excellent in tension, but due to their small cross section, they have very little
inertia (we will explain inertia another time) and cannot take much compression.
They will escape the load by bucking away. As in the illustration, you cannot
 57

load a string, or wire, or chain in compression.

In order to make thin fibers strong in compression, they are "glued

together" with some kind of an "embedding". In this way we can take advantage
of their tension strength and are no longer penalized by their individual
compression weakness because, as a whole, they become compression resistant
as they help each other to not buckle away. The embedding is usually a lighter,
softer "resin" holding the fibers together and enabling them to take the required
compression loads. This is a very good structural material.

10.1 WOOD
Historically, wood has been used as the first unidirectional structural raw
material. They have to be tall and straight and their wood must be strong and
light. The dark bands (late wood) contain many fibers, whereas the light bands
(early wood) contain much more "resin". Thus the wider the dark bands, the
stronger and heavier the wood. If the dark bands are very narrow and the light
bands quite wide, the wood is light but not very strong. To get the most efficient
strength to weight ratio for wood we need a definite numbers of bands per inch.
Some of our aircraft structures are two-dimensional (length and width are
large with respect to thickness). Plywood is often used for such structures.
Several thin boards (foils) are glued together so that the fibers of the various
layers cross over at different angles (usually 90 degrees today years back you
could get them at 30 and 45 degrees as well). Plywood makes excellent "shear
webs" if the designer knows how to use plywood efficiently. (We will learn the
basis of stress analysis sometime later.)
Today good aircraft wood is very hard to come by. Instead of using one
 58

good board for our spars, we have to use laminations because large pieces of
wood are practically unavailable, and we no longer can trust the wood quality.

10.2 ALUMINUM ALLOYS

So, since wood may not be as available as it was before, we look at
another material which is strong, light and easily available at a reasonable price
(there's no point in discussing Titanium - it's simply too expensive). Aluminum
alloys are certainly one answer. We will discuss the properties of those alloys
which are used in light plane construction in more detail later. For the time being
we will look at aluminum as a construction material.

10.2.1 Extruded Aluminum Alloys:

Due to the manufacturing process for aluminum we get a unidirectional
material quite a bit stronger in the lengthwise direction than across. And even
better, it is not only strong in tension but also in compression. Comparing
extrusions to wood, the tension and compression characteristics are practically
the same for aluminum alloys so that the linear stress analysis applies. Wood, on
the other hand, has a tensile strength about twice as great as its compression
strength; accordingly, special stress analysis methods must be used and a good
understanding of wood under stress is essential if stress concentrations are to be
avoided!
Aluminum alloys, in thin sheets (.016 to .125 of an inch) provide an
excellent two dimensional material used extensively as shear webs - with or
without stiffeners - and also as tension/compression members when suitably
formed (bent). It is worthwhile to remember that aluminum is an artificial metal.
There is no aluminum ore in nature. Aluminum is manufactured by applying
 59

electric power to bauxite (aluminum oxide) to obtain the metal, which is then
mixed with various strength-giving additives. (In a later article, we will see
which additives are used, and why and how we can increase aluminum's strength
by cold work hardening or by tempering.) All the commonly used aluminum
alloys are available from the shelf of dealers. When requested with the purchase,
you can obtain a "mill test report" that guarantees the chemical and physical
properties as tested to accepted specifications.
As a rule of thumb, aluminum is three times heavier, but also three times
stronger than wood. Steel is again three times heavier and stronger than
aluminum.

10.3 STEEL
The next material to be considered for aircraft structure will thus be steel,
which has the same weight-to-strength ratio of wood or aluminum.Apart from
mild steel which is used for brackets needing little strength, we are mainly using
a chrome-molybdenum alloy called AISI 413ON or 4140. The common raw
materials available are tubes and sheet metal. Steel, due to its high density, is not
used as shear webs like aluminum sheets or plywood. Where we would need,
say.100" plywood, a .032 inch aluminum sheet would be required, but only a
.010 steel sheet would be required, which is just too thin to handle with any hope
of a nice finish. That is why a steel fuselage uses tubes also as diagonals to carry
the shear in compression or tension and the whole structure is then covered with
fabric (light weight) to give it the required aerodynamic shape or desired look. It
must be noted that this method involves two techniques: steel work and fabric
covering.
We will be discussing tubes and welded steel structures in more detail
 60

later and go now to "artificial wood" or composite structures.

10.4 COMPOSITE MATERIALS
The designer of composite aircraft simply uses fibers in the desired
direction exactly where and in the amount required. The fibersare embedded in
resin to hold them in place and provide the required support against buckling.
Instead of plywood or sheet metal which allows single curvature only, the
composite designer uses cloth where the fibers are laid in two directions .(the
woven thread and weft) also embedded in resin. This has the advantage of
freedom of shape in double curvature as required by optimum aerodynamic
shapes and for very appealing look (importance of esthetics).
Today's fibers (glass, nylon, Kevlar, carbon, whiskers or single crystal
fibers of various chemical compositions) are very strong, thus the structure
becomes very light. The drawback is very little stiffness. The structure needs
stiffening which is achieved either by the usual discreet stiffeners, -or more
elegantly with a sandwich structure: two layers of thin uni- or bi-directional
fibers are held apart by a lightweight core (foam or "honeycomb"). This allows
the designer to achieve the required inertia or stiffness.
From an engineering standpoint, this method is very attractive and
supported by many authorities because it allows new developments which are
required in case of war. But this method also has its drawbacks for
homebuilding: A mold is needed, and very strict quality control is a must for the
right amount of fibers and resin and for good adhesion between both to prevent
too "dry" or "wet" a structure. Also the curing of the resin is quite sensitive to
temperature, humidity and pressure. Finally, the resins are active chemicals
which will not only produce the well-known allergies but also the chemicals that
attack our body (especially the eyes and lungs) and they have the unfortunate
 61

property of being cumulatively damaging and the result (in particular

deterioration of the eye) shows up only years after initial contact.

10.5 HEAVY AIRCRAFT RAW MATERIALS

The focus of our article is our Table which gives typical values for a
variety of raw materials. Column 1 lists the standard materials which are easily
available at a reasonable cost. Some of the materials that fall along the borderline
between practical and impractical are:
1. Magnesium: An expensive material. Castings are the only readily available
forms. Special precaution must be taken when machining magnesium because
this metal burns when hot.
2. Titanium: A very expensive material. Very tough and difficult to machine.
3. Carbon Fibers: Still very expensive materials.
4. Kevlar Fibers: Very expensive and also critical to work with because it is hard
to "soak" in the resin.
A number of properties are important to the selection of materials for an
aircraft structure. The selection of the best material depends upon the
application. Factors to be considered include yield and ultimate strength,
stiffness, density, fracture toughness, fatigue, crack resistance, temperature
limits, producibility, repairability, cost and availability. The gust loads, landing
impact and vibrations of the engine and propeller cause fatigue failure which is
the single most common cause of aircraft material failure.
For most aerospace materials, creep is a problem only at the elevated
temperature. However some titanium plastics and composites will exhibit creep
at room temperatures.
 62

11. V-n DIAGRAM

Pilots are using several graphs and charts in their flight operations. Four
important envelopes are as follows:
1. Diagram of variations of aircraft lift coefficient versus Mach number (CL –
M)
2. Diagram of variations of airspeed versus altitude (V – h)
3. Diagram of variations of center of gravity versus aircraft weight (Xcg – W)
4. Diagram of variations of airspeed versus load factor (V – n)

One of the most important diagrams is referred to as flight envelope. This

envelope demonstrates the variations of airspeed versus load factor (V – n). One
of the primary reasons that this diagram is highly important is that, the maximum
load factor; that is extracted from this graph; is a reference number in aircraft
structural design. If the maximum load factor is under-calculated, the aircraft
cannot withstand flight load safely. For this reason, it is recommended to
structural engineers to recalculate the V-n diagram on their own as a safety factor

The load to the aircraft on the ground is naturally produced by the gravity
(i.e. 1 times g). But, there are other sources of load to the aircraft during flight;
one of which is the acceleration load. This load is usually normalized through
load factor (i.e. "n" times g). In another word, aircraft load is expressed as a
multiple of the standard acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 m/sec2 = 32.17
ft/sec2). Recall that we defined the load factor as the ratio between lift and
weight.
n=L/W
 63

Fig:11.1 Typical V-n diagram

Table 11.1: Load factor for various types of aircrafts

.
 64

MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPE

Maximum load factor nmax = 6.0096

Positive load factor (n) = 4.99x10-4

negative load factor (-n) =-2.21x10-4

cruise velocity vc =233.69m/s

corner velocity v* =109.71m/s

dive velocity vD =350.24

Table 11.2 Velocity and load factor

S.No Velocity (m/s) (Based on requirement) Positive ‘n’ Negative ‘n’

1 0 0 0

2 38.11 0.51 -0.11

3 50 1.01 -0.35

4 75 2.50 -0.8

5 109.71 5.10 -1.70

6 150 5.10 -1.70

7 233.69 5.10 -1.70

8 250 5.10 -1.70

9 300 5.10 -1.70

10 350.24 5.10 -1.70

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Therefore, At v* +n=5.10
-n=-1.70
At V stall +n=0.51
-n=-0.11

V-n Diagram
6

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-1

-2

-3

Series1 Series2

Fig 11.2 V-n Diagram

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12. DESIGNED SUMMARY

The specifications of the designed aircraft as follows:

S.No DESIGN PARAMETER MAGNITUDE UNIT

1. Cruising speed 850 Kph

2. Wing span 8.2 m

3. Aircraft Length 13.2 m

4. Wing area 38.4 m2

5. Height 4.4 m

6. Aspect ratio 7.55 (No unit)

7. Wing loading 255 Kg/m2

8. Empty weight 6560 Kg

9. Maximum take-off weight 13500 Kg

10. Pay load 4000 kg

11. No. of engines 1 (No unit)

12. Thrust power 89.8 kN

13. Range 850 km

14. Service ceiling 16000 m

15. Mach no. 2 (No unit)

16. Thrust/weight ratio 0.94 (No unit)

17. Gliding angle 4.23 o

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18. Seating capacity 1 (No unit)

19. Fuselage 13.20 m

20. Take-off distance 1700 m

21. Landing distance 1300 m

22. Rate of climb 1.298 × 10-3 m/s

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13. CONCLUSION

After all analysis and design the first part of the aircraft design project
has came for landing. The result of the output specifications tells about
features, advantages, disadvantages, future requirements and all amenities in
and about the aircraft.

Hence this fighter aircraft has been designed with various performance
and aerodynamic parameters which can carry a payload of 4000Kg. This
aircraft can fly at higher altitudes with maximum cruising speed without
caught in RADAR, because it is stealth which is invisible to RADAR. The
aircraft is installed with General Electric F404 which is a low by pass turbo
fan engine that can produce sufficient thrust to reach Supersonic speed at
altitude.

The engine will be equipped with afterburner and thrust vectoring so it

can escape from combat field quickly and highly maneuverability. Airfoil
has been selected with various consideration and calculations. NACA
63012A airfoil has been selected as per requirement. Since it is STOL with
TVC so it does not need long range take off distance. It can have more
combat radius because it have more fuel capacity with drop tanks.
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14. INNOVATIVE IDEA

• Our present reference aircraft is LCA Tejas which has span of 38 m

which runs through a landing distance of 1300 m .
• In order to reduce the landing distance of our aircraft, We have planned to
reduce the landing distance by increasing span.

2 𝑊 𝑗 2 (𝑊 ⁄𝑆)
𝑆𝑔 = 𝑗𝑁√ ( )+
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆 𝑔𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 µ

• From this formula, to reduce the landing distance, j is a constant value.

• Weight can be increased but it may result in high weight.
• Density can be reduced, but it is constant with altitude.
• Hence increase in span will decrease landing distance.
 70

REFERENCES

1. John D .Anderson, Jr., Aircraft performance and design, 2 nd ed.,McGraw-

Hill,New York,1998.

2. Dr. Jan Roskam., Airplane desin.,volume7,Roskam aviation and

engineering,Kanvas,1985.

3. Lioyd R. Jenkinson and Jim F. Marchman., Aircraft design projects for

engineering students, Butterworth-Heinemann, Burlington MA01803.

4. Darrol Stinton., Design of the Aeroplane, BSP Professional books,

london,1983.
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PROGRAMME OUTCOMES

Engineering Graduates will be able to,

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the
solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and
analyze complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions
using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex
engineering problems and design system components or processes that
meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public
health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
knowledge and research methods including design of experiments,
analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and
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the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering

practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and
demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering
activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such
as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply
these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest
context of technological change.

PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

A graduate of the Aeronautical Engineering program will

1. Develop deep working knowledge to solve complex problems in

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aerodynamics, propulsion, structures and flight mechanics

2. Demonstrate the problem-solving ability and hands-on skills to enter
careers in the design, manufacturing, testing, or maintenance of
aeronautical systems.
3. Be equipped to use CAE packages and simulation language skills to
solve practical, design and analysis problems.

COURSE OUTCOMES of AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT I (AE 6612)

On successful completion of the course students will be able to:

AE6612.1: Understand the concept of process of design phase
AE6612.2: Categories the various aircrafts and their functions.
AE6612.3: Design aircraft and demonstrate the performance of the design.
AE6612.4: Draft their aircraft on their own.

Correlation between Course Outcomes (Cos), Program Outcomes (POs) and

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs
POs PSOs
COs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3

AE6612.1 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 3

AE6612.2 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3

AE6612.3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3

AE6612.4 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2

Avg. 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3

1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)

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