Short Notes For Interview
Short Notes For Interview
Solid residue determined gravimetrically after incineration in the presence of oxygen. In analysis of sugar
products, sulphuric acid is added to the sample, and this residue as sulphated ash heated to 525 °C is taken to be
a measure of the inorganic constituents. Sometimes determined indirectly by measurement of electrical
conductivity of the product in solution (see Conductivity ash).
Brix
Measure of dissolved solids in sugar liquor or syrup using a refractometer, otherwise referred to as
refractometric dry solids. Spindle Brix is determined using a hydrometer, but is now seldom used
Brix-free water
Water forming part of the cellulosic structure of the cane, and hence not part of the juice expressed in milling. It
cannot be separated from natural fiber by mechanical means but is driven off at elevated temperatures.
Colour
Attenuation index, determined by absorption of light under defined conditions. Generally measured using the
ICUMSA (International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis) method at 420 nm, and referred to
as ICUMSA units or IU.
Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the degree to which the fluid loses its transparency due to the presence of suspended
particulates. It is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large number of individual particles that are
generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air.
Units of Turbidity
FNU (Formazin Nephelometric Unit) & NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit) are commonly used units of turbidity.
Both measure intensity of light scattered at 90 degree as a beam of light passes through a fluid sample. FNU is
measured with infrared light while NTU is measured with a white light.
Conductivity ash
Cush Cush
The stream of wet bagasse or bagacillo separated from raw juice by the juice screens.
Dissolved solids
All solute material which is in solution, including sucrose, monosaccharides, ash and other organic impurities.
Dry substance
A measure of total solids obtained from evaporating a solution or massecuite under vacuum to dryness. Also
referred to as total solids by drying or dry solids
Exhaustion
Applied to a massecuite, it represents the g of sucrose present in crystalline form per 100g of sucrose.
Invert sugar
Mixture of approximately equal parts of glucose and fructose (monosaccharides) resulting from the hydrolysis of
sucrose (inversion).
The apparent sucrose content expressed as a mass percent measured by the optical rotation of polarized light
passing through a sugar solution. This is accurate only for pure sucrose solutions.
Purity
The true purity is the sucrose content as a percent of the dry substance or dissolved solids content. The solids
consist of sugar plus nonsucrose components such as invert, ash, and colorants. Apparent purity is expressed as
polarization divided by refractometer Brix, multiplied by 100.
Reducing sugars
Generally referred to and/or interpreted as invert sugar, determined by measuring reducing substance content
by laboratory analysis.
Measurement of total dissolved solids in a sugar liquor or syrup using a refractometer. For solutions containing
only sugar and water, % RDS = °Brix = % sugar by mass.
Safety factor
Number to indicate keeping quality of raw sugar, calculated from pol and moisture content (= moisture (g/100g
sugar) / (100 – pol)).
Solubility coefficient
Ratio of concentration of sucrose in impure saturated solution to the concentration in a pure sucrose solution
saturated at the same temperature (with concentration expressed as sucrose/water ratio).
Supersaturation
The degree to which the sucrose content in solution in greater than the sucrose content in a saturated solution.
Supersaturation coefficient
Calculated as the quotient formed by dividing the sugar/water ratio of the supersaturated solution by the
sugar/water ratio of a saturated solution under the same conditions (temperature and purity or
nonsucrose/water ratio). It shows whether the solution is unsaturated (<1), saturated (=1) or supersaturated
(>1).
Supersaturation, critical
Supersaturation at which nucleation begins spontaneously.
Suspended solids
Target purity
Equilibrium purity of final molasses, derived from a formula taking into account the effect of nonsucrose on its
exhaustibility. Sometimes referred to as expected molasses purity.
It is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. Solutions with a high concentration of hydrogen
ions have a low pH and solutions with a low concentrations of H+ ions have a high pH.
Strength:
Strength of a solution is defined as the amount of the solute in gram present in one litre of the solution. It is
expressed as gL-1. Strength of solution is concentration of solution.
Acids or bases with strong bonds exist predominately as molecules in solutions and are called "weak" acids
or bases. Acids or bases with weak bonds easily dissociate into ions and are called "strong" acids or bases.
Glucose Structure:
Fructose Structure:
Sucrose Structure:
Sucrose Inversion:
Sucrose is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. By addition of an acid, the sucrose cleaves into its
components. This process is called inversion.
Fermentation:
The chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms, typically involving
effervescence and the giving off of heat is called fermentation.
Microorganisms turn organic compounds such as sugar into energy through oxidation. Most of the times, it
consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and water.
Viscosity:
Viscosity describes the internal friction of a moving fluid. A fluidwith large viscosity resists motion because its
molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular
makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion.
Units of Viscosity:
MILL HOUSE
Brix 15°-18°
Purity 80-87
Reducing sugars 0.4—1.0%.
Ash 0.4—0.7%
CaO mgms/litre 600-800
P2O5 mgms/litre 60-300
N2 0.03-0.04%
pH 5.2-5.4
(Page111, Kulkarni)
If the phosphate content is less than 200 to 300 ppm, it is beneficial to make additions of inorganic phosphate
(phosphoric acid, superphosphate etc) in mix juice.
JUICE HEATERS
Heat Exchanger:
Temperature difference between the two fluids (Juice & Vapour temperature difference)
Fluid flow rate (Juice velocity)
Properties of heat conducting material (Conductivity of SS tubes, thickness and diameter of tubes)
Surface Area (Heating surface area of heater or evaporator)
Fouling (Scale deposited on SS tubes)
Air & condensate removal (increase resistance due to layer formed in calandria)
DEFECATION
Reactions in Defecation for Clarification:
Baumé:
The Baumé scale is a pair of hydrometer scales developed by French pharmacist Antoine Baumé in 1768 to
measure density of various liquids. The unit of the Baumé scale has been notated variously as degrees Baumé,
B°, Bé° and simply Baumé. One scale measures the density of liquids heavier than water and the other, liquids
lighter than water. The Baumé of distilled water is 0. The API gravity scale is based on errors in early
implementations of the Baumé scale.
CaO % on Cane:
CaO usage rate (including lime used in cooling tower and scrubber water pH correction) is typically 0.6 to 1.2 kg
CaO per ton cane for simple defecation factories. (Page 225, Peter Rein)
Quantity of MOL:
An excess of liming should be avoided. All the lime used in excess (of the amount required to neutralize the acids
and precipitate impurities) has a destructive action upon reducing sugars, which are transformed into soluble
lime salts with increase the colour and viscosity of juice. Excess liming, upon heating, attacks reducing
substances to produce acids which may further invert sucrose.
CLARIFIER
Removal of suspended solids from a liquid by gravity settling based on density difference.
The speed of settling of an average juice is approximately 75 mm (3 in.) per minute, until the concentration of
the mud near the bottom has reached a maximum. Then the speed of settling diminishes rapidly and
approaches zero.
A rise of apparent purity in the juice after clarification is due to destruction of levulose (levorotatory sugar)
which polarizes to the left, leaving more stable dextrose (dextrorotatory sugar) which polarizes to the right. Its
polarization adds to the polarization of sucrose and results in a higher apparent purity. Also because of a
destruction of levulose and formation of acids the brix of juice decreases and this also increases apparent purity.
Stokes’ Law:
The force that retards a sphere moving through a viscous fluid is directly proportional to the velocity of the
sphere, the radius of the sphere, and the viscosity of the fluid
F=6πηRv
Clarity:
Clarification Effect:
Rupture of Floc:
The most common flocculants used for juice clarification are partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide compounds
which are anionic types. Considering the anionic types, the partly hydrolysed polymers of acrylamide have a
repeating unit that forms a long chain of very high molecular mass.
In the flocculant composition, occasional –COOH or –COONa linkages occur instead of –CONH2 linkages in the
chain. This is measured as the degree of hydrolysis of the flocculant;
where y is the fraction of –COOH group (or –COONa) linkages and x the fraction of –CONH2 linkages.
CaO content in clear juice should not exceed 400 mg/L. Its observed value during season was 700 to 1000 mg/L.
VACUUM FILTER:
Filtrate % on Cane:
A rule is quoted that the purity of the filtrate should not differ from that of the clear juice by more than 1.5
units.
Bagacillo Required:
3 – 6 kg/t.c
(Page 489, Hugot)
Optimal Temperature 88 – 90 OC
Pressure 3 – 4 kg/cm2
30 – 40 cm
EVAPORATORS:
If syrup brix exceeds 70, steam economy is improved because more water is evaporated but it becomes more
difficult for the sugar boiler to obtain a regular grain.
At ICPL by BMA
Alkaline cleaning (10 % caustic soda + sodium carbonate) at 100 OC for 8 hr.
Acid cleaning (6 % formic acid) at 95 OC for 8 hr.
At Al-Moiz
Soda circulation (caustic soda 25 – 35 bags, soda ash 10 – 15 bags) at 100+ OC for 8 to 12 hr.
Acid circulation (formic acid 4 – 6 cane) at 90 OC for 2 hr.
Empirical formula for Robert k = 440 x Temperature of Juice / Out Brix of Juice
Empirical formula for FFE k = 500 x Temperature of Juice / Average Brix of Juice
Units of k: W/m2K
Boiling point elevation is the phenomenon that occurs when the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) is increased
when another compound (solute) is added, such that the solution has a higher boiling point than the pure
solvent. Boiling point elevation occurs whenever a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent.
As the concentration of dissolved solids increase, the boiling temperature of the liquid rises above the
temperature of saturated vapour at the same pressure.
PANS
For calandria batch and continuous pans in raw as well as refine sugar manufacturing.
Heating Surface = (7x350) + 750 + (2x915) = 2450 +750 + 1830 = 5030 m2 (5030/8000 = 15.09 m2/tch)
Working Volume = (7x45) + 68 + (2x102) = 315 +68 + 204 = 587 m3 (587/8000 = 1.761 m3/tch)
This volume is also termed the footing volume. It is generally expressed in per cent of the working capacity of
the pan, and varies from 24 to 40%.
It is preferable not to go above 30% for the graining volume, or 35% as an extreme value.
(Page 646-647, Hugot)
In pan boiling operation the crystal length of about 1.0 mm in white sugar boiling is brought down to 0.2 mm.
Molasses %age:
S/V of Pans:
in Al-Moiz II
(peter rein,387)
CODENSER
Volume of Condenser:
Height of Condenser
Temperature 30 – 35 0C
10.80 m
Take velocity of water falling downward 1 m/s, calculating the quantity of water diameter of barometric column
is calculated.
CRYSTALLIZER
REHEATER
Capacity of Grader: