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Short Notes For Interview

This document provides definitions and descriptions of various terms related to sugar processing. It discusses measurement techniques for properties like ash content, Brix, color, turbidity, and pH. It describes components of sugarcane like brix-free water. Key processes are summarized like defecation, juice heating, and fermentation. Charts provide target ranges for qualities of clear juice, syrup and liquors. Diagrams show the structures of glucose, fructose and sucrose and the inversion of sucrose.
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100% found this document useful (3 votes)
2K views15 pages

Short Notes For Interview

This document provides definitions and descriptions of various terms related to sugar processing. It discusses measurement techniques for properties like ash content, Brix, color, turbidity, and pH. It describes components of sugarcane like brix-free water. Key processes are summarized like defecation, juice heating, and fermentation. Charts provide target ranges for qualities of clear juice, syrup and liquors. Diagrams show the structures of glucose, fructose and sucrose and the inversion of sucrose.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Ash content

Solid residue determined gravimetrically after incineration in the presence of oxygen. In analysis of sugar
products, sulphuric acid is added to the sample, and this residue as sulphated ash heated to 525 °C is taken to be
a measure of the inorganic constituents. Sometimes determined indirectly by measurement of electrical
conductivity of the product in solution (see Conductivity ash).

Brix

Measure of dissolved solids in sugar liquor or syrup using a refractometer, otherwise referred to as
refractometric dry solids. Spindle Brix is determined using a hydrometer, but is now seldom used

Brix-free water

Water forming part of the cellulosic structure of the cane, and hence not part of the juice expressed in milling. It
cannot be separated from natural fiber by mechanical means but is driven off at elevated temperatures.

Colour

Attenuation index, determined by absorption of light under defined conditions. Generally measured using the
ICUMSA (International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis) method at 420 nm, and referred to
as ICUMSA units or IU.

ICUMSA of Clear Juice, Syrup, Raw Liquor & Fine Liquor:

Material Should Be Noted in DSML in Season 2014-15 in January


Clear Juice 20000-25000 12000-13000
Syrup 22000-27000 12000-13000
Raw Liquor 1000-1500 900-1100
Fine Liquor 400-600 500-600

Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of the degree to which the fluid loses its transparency due to the presence of suspended
particulates. It is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large number of individual particles that are
generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air.

Units of Turbidity

FNU (Formazin Nephelometric Unit) & NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit) are commonly used units of turbidity.
Both measure intensity of light scattered at 90 degree as a beam of light passes through a fluid sample. FNU is
measured with infrared light while NTU is measured with a white light.

Turbidity of Clear Juice & Fine Liquor:

Material Should Be Noted in DSML in Season 2014-15 in January


Clear Juice 1500-5000 4000-5500
Fine Liquor 50-80 90-125

Conductivity ash

Estimate of ash content by measurement of the conductivity of the solution.

Cush Cush

The stream of wet bagasse or bagacillo separated from raw juice by the juice screens.

Dissolved solids
All solute material which is in solution, including sucrose, monosaccharides, ash and other organic impurities.

Dry substance

A measure of total solids obtained from evaporating a solution or massecuite under vacuum to dryness. Also
referred to as total solids by drying or dry solids

Exhaustion

Applied to a massecuite, it represents the g of sucrose present in crystalline form per 100g of sucrose.

Invert sugar

Mixture of approximately equal parts of glucose and fructose (monosaccharides) resulting from the hydrolysis of
sucrose (inversion).

Polarization (or pol)

The apparent sucrose content expressed as a mass percent measured by the optical rotation of polarized light
passing through a sugar solution. This is accurate only for pure sucrose solutions.

Purity

The true purity is the sucrose content as a percent of the dry substance or dissolved solids content. The solids
consist of sugar plus nonsucrose components such as invert, ash, and colorants. Apparent purity is expressed as
polarization divided by refractometer Brix, multiplied by 100.

Reducing sugars

Generally referred to and/or interpreted as invert sugar, determined by measuring reducing substance content
by laboratory analysis.

Refractometric dry solids (RDS)

Measurement of total dissolved solids in a sugar liquor or syrup using a refractometer. For solutions containing
only sugar and water, % RDS = °Brix = % sugar by mass.

Safety factor

Number to indicate keeping quality of raw sugar, calculated from pol and moisture content (= moisture (g/100g
sugar) / (100 – pol)).

Solubility coefficient

Ratio of concentration of sucrose in impure saturated solution to the concentration in a pure sucrose solution
saturated at the same temperature (with concentration expressed as sucrose/water ratio).

Supersaturation

The degree to which the sucrose content in solution in greater than the sucrose content in a saturated solution.

Supersaturation coefficient

Calculated as the quotient formed by dividing the sugar/water ratio of the supersaturated solution by the
sugar/water ratio of a saturated solution under the same conditions (temperature and purity or
nonsucrose/water ratio). It shows whether the solution is unsaturated (<1), saturated (=1) or supersaturated
(>1).

Supersaturation, critical
Supersaturation at which nucleation begins spontaneously.

Suspended solids

Insoluble solids in juice or other liquid, removable by mechanical means.

Target purity

Equilibrium purity of final molasses, derived from a formula taking into account the effect of nonsucrose on its
exhaustibility. Sometimes referred to as expected molasses purity.

pH (potential of hydrogen, -log of H+):

It is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. Solutions with a high concentration of hydrogen
ions have a low pH and solutions with a low concentrations of H+ ions have a high pH.

pH of a solution depends on strength of acid/base and its concentration in solution.

Strength:

Strength of a solution is defined as the amount of the solute in gram present in one litre of the solution. It is
expressed as gL-1. Strength of solution is concentration of solution.

Acids or bases with strong bonds exist predominately as molecules in solutions and are called "weak" acids
or bases. Acids or bases with weak bonds easily dissociate into ions and are called "strong" acids or bases.

Glucose Structure:

Fructose Structure:

Sucrose Structure:
Sucrose Inversion:

Sucrose is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. By addition of an acid, the sucrose cleaves into its
components. This process is called inversion.

Fermentation:

The chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms, typically involving
effervescence and the giving off of heat is called fermentation.

Microorganisms turn organic compounds such as sugar into energy through oxidation. Most of the times, it
consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and water.

Viscosity:

Viscosity describes the internal friction of a moving fluid. A fluidwith large viscosity resists motion because its
molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular
makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion.

Units of Viscosity:

1 P = 0.1 Pa·s= 0.1 kg·m−1.s−1

1 cP = 1 mPa·s = 0.001 Pa·s = 0.001 N·s·m−2 = 0.001 kg·m−1.s−1

MILL HOUSE

Composition of Mix Juice:

 Brix 15°-18°
 Purity 80-87
 Reducing sugars 0.4—1.0%.
 Ash 0.4—0.7%
 CaO mgms/litre 600-800
 P2O5 mgms/litre 60-300
 N2 0.03-0.04%
 pH 5.2-5.4

(Page111, Kulkarni)

P2O5 in Mix Juice:

If the phosphate content is less than 200 to 300 ppm, it is beneficial to make additions of inorganic phosphate
(phosphoric acid, superphosphate etc) in mix juice.

Advantages of maintaining an optimum level of phosphate in juice are;


 Greater colloidal elimination
 Less calcium in clarified juice
 Faster mud floc formation with more rapid settling
 Better clarification with lighter coloured clarified juice

Disadvantages of too much phosphate addition are;

 Higher chemical costs


 Higher lime consumption
 Higher mud volume (higher filter mud sugar loss, i.e. addition of non-sugar is ultimately sugar loss on
removal of non-sugar)

(Page 224-225, Peter Rein)

JUICE HEATERS

Heat Exchanger:

It is a device for transferring heat from one medium to another.

Types of Heat Exchanger:

Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger


Direct Contact Heat Exchangers
Plate Heat Exchanger
Plate and Shell Heat Exchanger
Adiabatic Wheel Heat Exchanger
Plate Fin Heat Exchanger
Pillow Plate Heat Exchanger
Fluid Heat Exchanger
Waste Heat Recovery Unit
Dynamic Scraped Surface Heat Exchanger
Phase Change Heat Exchanger

Modes of Heat Transfer:

Conduction, Convection & Radiation

Factors Affecting Heat Transfer Coefficient:

Temperature difference between the two fluids (Juice & Vapour temperature difference)
Fluid flow rate (Juice velocity)
Properties of heat conducting material (Conductivity of SS tubes, thickness and diameter of tubes)
Surface Area (Heating surface area of heater or evaporator)
Fouling (Scale deposited on SS tubes)
Air & condensate removal (increase resistance due to layer formed in calandria)

Pressure Drop in Shell of Juice Heaters:

Pressure Drop in Calandria of Juice Heaters:

Required Heating Surface Area of Juice Heaters:

4.5-6.0 m2/tch for the normal battery (Page 462, Hugot)

6.5-7.0 m2/tch in modern plants (Page 164, Kulkarni)

DEFECATION
Reactions in Defecation for Clarification:

 Ca++& phosphate ion ----> phosphate intermediate ---->tricalcium phosphate


 Wax, gums, pectin& protein are denatured.
 At high pH, Amino acids react with reducing sugars to give increased colours.
 At high pH & temperature, reducing sugars are destroyed.
 At low pH & high temperature, sucrose is inverted.
 Inorganic acids of PO4-3, silicates, SO4-2 are partly precipitated.
 K+, Na+, Cl- remain unchanged.
 Major physical reactions for the formation of flocs are based on Ca3(PO4)2 and protein.

(Page 221, Peter Rein)

Defecated Juice % on Cane:

105 % on cane in balance of Al-Moiz

Baumé:

The Baumé scale is a pair of hydrometer scales developed by French pharmacist Antoine Baumé in 1768 to
measure density of various liquids. The unit of the Baumé scale has been notated variously as degrees Baumé,
B°, Bé° and simply Baumé. One scale measures the density of liquids heavier than water and the other, liquids
lighter than water. The Baumé of distilled water is 0. The API gravity scale is based on errors in early
implementations of the Baumé scale.

CaO % on Cane:

CaO usage rate (including lime used in cooling tower and scrubber water pH correction) is typically 0.6 to 1.2 kg
CaO per ton cane for simple defecation factories. (Page 225, Peter Rein)

Quantity of MOL:

At 10 Baume, 6.86 to 13.73 kg MOL per ton cane

Effects of Excess Liming:

An excess of liming should be avoided. All the lime used in excess (of the amount required to neutralize the acids
and precipitate impurities) has a destructive action upon reducing sugars, which are transformed into soluble
lime salts with increase the colour and viscosity of juice. Excess liming, upon heating, attacks reducing
substances to produce acids which may further invert sucrose.

(Page 115-116, Baikow)

CLARIFIER

Principle of Clarification in Juice Clarifier:

Removal of suspended solids from a liquid by gravity settling based on density difference.

Settling Rate in Juice Clarifier:

The speed of settling of an average juice is approximately 75 mm (3 in.) per minute, until the concentration of
the mud near the bottom has reached a maximum. Then the speed of settling diminishes rapidly and
approaches zero.

(Page 431, Hugot)

Optimum Velocity in Juice Clarifier:


V = 3-6 m/h perfect laminar flow
V = 6-12 m/h steady flow, giving excellent subsidation
V = 12-15 m/h irregularities begin, subsidation still possible
V = 15 m/h or more flow becomes turbulent, subsidation is no longer possible

(Page 438, Hugot)

Purity Rise in Juice Clarifier & its Reason:

Increase of Apparent Purity of Clarified Juice:

A rise of apparent purity in the juice after clarification is due to destruction of levulose (levorotatory sugar)
which polarizes to the left, leaving more stable dextrose (dextrorotatory sugar) which polarizes to the right. Its
polarization adds to the polarization of sucrose and results in a higher apparent purity. Also because of a
destruction of levulose and formation of acids the brix of juice decreases and this also increases apparent purity.

(Page 121, Baikow)

Stokes’ Law:

The force that retards a sphere moving through a viscous fluid is directly proportional to the velocity of the
sphere, the radius of the sphere, and the viscosity of the fluid

F=6πηRv

Clarity:

Clarification Effect:

Coagulation & Flocculation:

Rupture of Floc:

Nature of Flocculant Used in Juice Clarifier:

The most common flocculants used for juice clarification are partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide compounds
which are anionic types. Considering the anionic types, the partly hydrolysed polymers of acrylamide have a
repeating unit that forms a long chain of very high molecular mass.

In the flocculant composition, occasional –COOH or –COONa linkages occur instead of –CONH2 linkages in the
chain. This is measured as the degree of hydrolysis of the flocculant;

Degree of Hydrolysis = 100 y / (x+y) in %

where y is the fraction of –COOH group (or –COONa) linkages and x the fraction of –CONH2 linkages.

(Page 238, Peter Rein)

Clear Juice % on Cane:

108 % on cane (Material Balance of DSML by Dr. Boris)

100 % on cane (Material Balance of Al Moiz)

Juice Clarifier Area % on Cane:


0.22-0.33 m2/tch (Page 445, Hugot)

Juice Clarifier Volume % on Cane:

0.65-0.92 m3/tch (Page 445, Hugot)

Calcium Content in Clear Juice:

CaO content in clear juice should not exceed 400 mg/L. Its observed value during season was 700 to 1000 mg/L.

CaO content of clear juice is a function of;

1. CaO content of mixed juice


2. Organic acids present in the juice
3. Acids formed by decomposition of reducing sugar
4. Quantity of lime added

(Page 136, Kulkarni)

Quantity of Polyelectrolyte in Juice Clarifier:

3 to 4 ppm (Material Balance of DSML by Dr. Boris)

2 to 3 ppm (Page 238, Peter Rein)

Effects of Inadequate Dosing of Polyelectrolyte:

Excess Flocculant Dosing:

It can cause carryover and low sugar filterability.

(Page 238, Peter Rein)

VACUUM FILTER:

Filtrate % on Cane:

23.81 % (Material Balance of DSML by Dr. Boris)

Purity of Filtrate from Vacuum Filter:

Purity of Mix Juice 82.33


Purity of Clear Juice 83.56
Purity of Filtrate 80.49 (Material Balance of DSML by Dr. Boris)

A rule is quoted that the purity of the filtrate should not differ from that of the clear juice by more than 1.5
units.

(Page 484, Peter Rein)

Filtering Area % on Cane:

Minimum 0.3 m2/tch


Maximum 0.8 m2/tch

(Page 481, Hugot)

Bagacillo Required:

3 – 6 kg/t.c
(Page 489, Hugot)

Capacity of Vacuum Pump:

Quantity of Water % on Mud:

100 – 150 % on mud cake

(Page 483, Hugot)

Temperature and Pressure of Hot Water for Vacuum Filter:

Optimal Temperature 88 – 90 OC

Pressure 3 – 4 kg/cm2

(Page 484, Hugot)

Distance of Nozzle for Water Spray from Mud

30 – 40 cm

(Page 484, Hugot)

EVAPORATORS:

Effects of Syrup Brix, if exceed 70:

If syrup brix exceeds 70, steam economy is improved because more water is evaporated but it becomes more
difficult for the sugar boiler to obtain a regular grain.

(Page 628, Hugot)

Standard Chemical Cleaning of FFE:

At ICPL by BMA

Alkaline cleaning (10 % caustic soda + sodium carbonate) at 100 OC for 8 hr.
Acid cleaning (6 % formic acid) at 95 OC for 8 hr.

At Al-Moiz

Soda circulation (caustic soda 25 – 35 bags, soda ash 10 – 15 bags) at 100+ OC for 8 to 12 hr.
Acid circulation (formic acid 4 – 6 cane) at 90 OC for 2 hr.

Heat Transfer Coefficient for Robert and Falling Film Evaporator:

Empirical formula for Robert k = 440 x Temperature of Juice / Out Brix of Juice
Empirical formula for FFE k = 500 x Temperature of Juice / Average Brix of Juice

Units of k: W/m2K

Juice Circulation Flow per Unit Heating Surface Area in FFE:

Recommended Velocities of Steam/Vapours:

Steam/Vapour/Air Velocity (m/s)


Superheated Steam 40-65
Saturated Steam 25-30
Exhaust Steam 30-40
Bled Vapour 35-50
Vapour under Vacuum 50-80
Compressed Air 20-30
Air under Vacuum 12-18

(Page 1125, Hugot)

Required Heating Surface Area:

28 – 36 m2/tch (For quintuple effect)

(Page 609, Hugot)

Boiling Point Elevation:

Boiling point elevation is the phenomenon that occurs when the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) is increased
when another compound (solute) is added, such that the solution has a higher boiling point than the pure
solvent. Boiling point elevation occurs whenever a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent.

As the concentration of dissolved solids increase, the boiling temperature of the liquid rises above the
temperature of saturated vapour at the same pressure.

The degree of boiling point elevation is estimated by concentration.

Boiling Point Elevation = 2 Dissolved Solids % / (100 – Dissolved Solids)

(Page 271, Peter Rein)

Advantages and Disadvantages of FFE:

pH variation in Evaporators & its Reason:

PANS

Pans Capacity per tch:

For calandria batch pans in raw sugar manufacturing

Heating Surface 9 -10 m2/tch

Working Volume 1.6 m3/tch

(Page 669-670, Hugot)

Above figures are for batch pans.

In Al-Moiz-II (@ 8000TCD plus)

For calandria batch and continuous pans in raw as well as refine sugar manufacturing.

Heating Surface = (7x350) + 750 + (2x915) = 2450 +750 + 1830 = 5030 m2 (5030/8000 = 15.09 m2/tch)

Working Volume = (7x45) + 68 + (2x102) = 315 +68 + 204 = 587 m3 (587/8000 = 1.761 m3/tch)

(Recalculate surface area and volume from installed pans).

Graining Volume of Batch Pan:

This volume is also termed the footing volume. It is generally expressed in per cent of the working capacity of
the pan, and varies from 24 to 40%.

It is preferable not to go above 30% for the graining volume, or 35% as an extreme value.
(Page 646-647, Hugot)

Difference between Exhaustion &---------------- :

Crystal Size for A, B, C & R Massecuite:

In pan boiling operation the crystal length of about 1.0 mm in white sugar boiling is brought down to 0.2 mm.

(Kulkarni, Page 274)

C Massecuite 0.25 – 0.30 mm

B Massecuite 0.35 – 0.40 mm

A Massecuite 0.45 – 0.50 mm

Refined Massecuite 0.80 – 1.00 mm

(Hayat ur Raheem, Page 56)

Crystal Content % on Massecuite:

(Hugot, Page 694)

Molasses %age:

(Hugot, Page 671)

Purity Drop in Molasses:


(Hugot, Page 674)

Effects on Pan Boiling under Low Vacuum:

Vapours Required for Pans % on Cane:

26.7 % on cane (Material Balance of DSML by Dr. Boris)

Quantity of Massecuite Out from Continuous Pan:

Boiling Time of A, B, C & R Massecuite:

R Massecuite 2.0 hr (Material Balance of DSML by Dr. Boris)

(Peter Rein, Page 376)

Quantity of A, B & C Grain % on Massecuite:

Al-Moiz-I DSML by Boris

A. Grain % on massecuite 29.33 24.90

B. Grain % on massecuite 35.00 40.18

C. Grain % on massecuite 31.25 40.68

Quantity of Water for Washing % on Massecuite:

S/V of Pans:

Steam/vapour used S/V (m2/m3)


Live steam 3.9 – 4.6
Exhuast steam 4.9 – 6.6
Bled vapour 6.6 – 7.2

(Page 667, Hugot)

in Al-Moiz II

750/68 = 11.03 m2/m3 (for A continuous pan)

915/102 = 8.97 m2/m3 (for B & C continuous pan)

350/45 = 7.78 m2/m3 (for batch pan)


Massecuite Type Boiling Time (hr) S/V (m2/m3)
Refined sugars 2.0 9.8
Special white sugars 2.5 – 3.0 8.2
1st massecuites 3.0 – 4.0 5.9
Low-grade massecuites 4.0 – 8.0 4.9

(Page 668, Hugot)

Advantages & Disadvantages of Mechanical Circulator in Pans:

Comparison of batch and conti pan

(peter rein,387)

(Peter Rein, Page 384)

(Peter Rein, 320)

CODENSER
Volume of Condenser:

0.75 – 0.6 m3/1000 kg of vapour per hour

(Hugot, Page 858)

Cross Sectional Area of Condenser

0.16 m2/1000 kg of vapour per hour

(Hugot, Page 858)

Height of Condenser

4.50 m for a condenser without baffles

3.65 m for a condenser with 4 baffles

(Hugot, Page 857)

Required Injection Water:

55 – 58 ton/ton of vapour per hour

Temperature & Pressure of Injection Water:

Temperature 30 – 35 0C

Pressure 0.6 – 1.1 kg/cm2

Height of Barometric Column:

10.80 m

(Hugot, Page 882)

Diameter of Barometric Column

Take velocity of water falling downward 1 m/s, calculating the quantity of water diameter of barometric column
is calculated.

Length of Tail Pipe:

CRYSTALLIZER

Cooling (Retention) Time for A, B and C Massecuite:

Required Volume of Vertical Crystallizer:

Quantity of Water Required:

Temperature of Circulation Water in Vertical Crystallizer:

Temperature of Massecuite at Inlet & Outlet of Vertical Crystallizer:

REHEATER

Required Heating Surface Area of Reheater:

Temperature of Massecuite at Inlet & Outlet of Reheater:

Temperature of Water at Inlet & Outlet of Reheater:


CENTRIFUGES

Required Centrifuges % on Massecuite:

Temperature & Pressure of Water for Raw & Refine Centrifuges:

Magma & its Optimum Brix:

Aperture Size of Screen in Raw & Refine Centrifuges:

Time of Cycling for Refine Centrifuges:

Sugar Dryer and Bagging

Quantity of Air Required for Sugar Dryer:

Temperature, Moisture, Colour, Turbidity & Foreign Matter of Bagged Sugar:

Capacity of Sugar Dryer:

Capacity of Grader:

Spray pond (Page 404 Kulkarni)

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