Lia LAWYER’S ENGLISH LANGUAGE COURSEBOOK ee CRU aC tl [e ae LetoTHE LAWYER’S ENGLISH LANGUAGE COURSEBOOK Catherine Mason & Rosemary Atkins, Solicitor GLOBAL LEGAL ENGLISH LTDCONTENTS 1A The Legal Profession Working in taw Making a claim in the civil court Areas of law Vocabulary check Toles Foundation exam practice 1B The Legal Profession The importance of collocations The importance of prepositions Solicitors and barristers ‘Areas of law The register of letter writing Using your knowledge TOLES Higher exam practice 2A The Language of Banking ‘Annew bank account, Working ina bank Loans Vocabulary check TTOLES Foundation exam practice 2B The Language of Banking A bank account fn email from the bank ‘The language of contract The register of letter writing Usingyour knowledge TOLES Higher exam practice © Gatnerne Mason & Roeamany Stns 2007 9 10 13 19 20 23 23 24 25 29 a1 34 36 a a4 46 48 SL 52 55 55 58 2eaas 3A 3B is The Language of Contract Law A contract case More about precedent ‘The elements of a contract The end of an offer ‘What is consideration? Contract and statute Reading contract law Going to court Vocabulary check TOLES Foundation exam practice The Language of Contract Law _ Where does contract law come from? Reading a statute The elements of a contract Reading a contract case Offer and acceptance Consideration Contract faw in practice Starting a claim for breach of contract Using your knowledge TOLES Higher exam practice The Language of Employment Law Being an employer ‘An employment contract, How can an employment contract end? Acting for an employee ‘Acting for an employer ‘An employment case Vocabulary check TOLES Foundation exam practice 73 15 78 80 aL a2 85 ar 89 90 93 93 100 102 104 107 110 112 114 119 119 122 126 128 130 132 133 1344B The Language of Employment Law 137 6B Contracts (1) 218 Finding a job 437 Tre sifferent paris of a written contract 215 Working in employment law 140 Parties and recitals, 216 Some clauses from an employment Defined terns 219 Lie ais The key obligations 223 ‘An employment tribunal ur Detivery of goods and services 230 ‘An employment claim 151 Using your knowledge 235 Using your knowledge a TOLES Higher exam practice 237 TOLES Higher exam practice 137 7A The Language of Business Law 239 SA The Language of the Lawof Tort 16100 Sole traders 230 Wat i the law of tor? 161 Pode oe Types of tort 183 ‘partnership agreement 246 The duty of care 195 Limited lability partnerships 288 More about negligence 167 aloud: a A Tamous case in English avr cad Public and private limited companies 253 Vocabulary check 470 Incorporating a company 256 TOLES Foundation exer practice a7 Madey cna ; TOLES Foundation exam aractice 260 5B The Language of the Law of Tort 175 An introduction to the law of tort 175 7B The Language of Business Law 263 \What i tortious laity? a7 Incorporated and unineorporated businesses 263 Some categories of tort 420 iocltaase! The tr of negligence 182 Poteet oes The most famous tort case 14 The language of dating oes Using your knowledge 186 ‘The register of letter writing 272 TOLES Higher exam practice 18 olson: Bal Incorporating company 216 GA Understanding Contracts (1) 193 Paperwork 278 Tae a inalonael aa Shares and share capital 282 Understanding formal expressions 195 See ee eer nae Understanding technical words 199 ieee cere ade Understanding archaic toms 201 Using your knowledge Sia Understanding some common wards 204 pS em pence oa The svuctue of e contract 207 Vocabulary check 210 TOLES Foundaton exam practice 212 ated Mon & Roser Aline 20078 Modern Letter Writing 293 © 10A Understanding Contracts (2) 371 The layout ofa letter 293 Some more typical contract clauses amt Dates 298 Some important commercial vocabulary 373 Salutations 296 Termination clauses 315 Complimentary close 298 Intellectual property clauses 3m7 References, 299 Retention of tie clauses 379 Subject lines 300 Warranty, indemnity ard force The body of a letter 302 majeure clauses 380 Putting letter together a More about forve majeure clauses 382 The reg)ster of letter wring 304 Yocabulary check 385 srocohioneriie bee 308 TOLES Foundation exam practice 386 Typical sentences in legal letters 309 Letter writing cine 311 10B Understanding Contracts (2) 389 eee meee 315 Risk and tite 389 TOLES Higher exam practice 323 eee een ae Warranties and indemnities 399 9A The Language of Company Law 327 Term and termination 404 Who euns a compary? 327 Forwe majeure 408 Areas of compary law 329 Using your Knowedge 410 bas 331 TOLES Higher exam practioe 412 Company mestings 333 Company finance — a case study 337 Answer Key 415 Closing a company 339 agers rr Insolvent companies 342 fae ratte: ye Vocabulary check 344 TOLES Foundation Exam Practice 345 9B The Language of Company Law 349 People connected with a company 34g Working in company kaw 350 Directors 352 Company meetings 356 Insolvency 359 Who gets the assets? Using your knowiedge 364 TOLES Higher exam practice 366 1 Cathie Mason & Rossen kins 2007Acknowledgements ‘The publishers and authors would like to thank the Employment Tribunals Service for permission to reproduce the Claims Process Summary. Publisher's note ‘The following forms are © Crown copyright: Form 10: First directors and secretary and intended situation of registered office Nd Clalim form (CPR Part7) Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 ‘The Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 Balfour v Batfour (1919) Court of Appeal All images © Getty images Cover image Martin Barraud/200154574-002/Getty Images Interior images Peter Sherrard/AB23988/Getty Images Photodisc/E000159/Getty Images Simon Battensby/200376391/Getty Images Suzanne & Nick Geary/BC9729-001/Getty Images John Foxy71019301/Getty Images John Foxy71042734/Getty Images Antonio M Rosario/72797149/Getty Images Robert Clare/200368565-001,/Getty Images Lamber/Archive Photos/JK7237-001/Getty Images 72724417/Getty Images While every care has been taken to establish and acknowledge copyright and to contact the copyright ‘owners, the publisher tenders its apologies for any accidental infringement. This book is an English language teaching and studying resource. It is not intended to be used as a source Of legal information or advice.H PREFACE We know that as 2 legal professional today, you need up-to-date and accurate legal English in order to meet the challenges of work. This is because: ‘® you have to deal with English-speaking clients and lawyers more than any previous generation of lawyers © you are often expected to interpret or amend long commercial contracts drafted in English ‘© you receive letters and emails written in English on a daily basis. Legal English is a different language from general English. Just as lawyers in your own. country wnte in a different language from other people, so do English speaking lawyers. Sentences are often structured differently in legal English. The words lawyers use are often centunes old, and no longer commonly used in general English. New prepositions, need to be learned. When you read a commercial contract of read a letter there is new, {echnical vocabulary to understand on every page. The Lawyer's English Language Coursebook was written for legal professionals such as ‘you, with your needs al the heart of the book, and it gives you the material you need to study in an efficient and effective way. It is based upon our many years experience of teaching and working with lawyers, law students and legal translators from around the world. We are convinced that this book is the best study material available to you if you want to be professional and accurete in all you do in English at work. This coursebook is intended to be a complete course of preparation for the TOLES Foundation and Higher exams in legal English. We recommend that anyone planning. to take the TOLES Acvanced exam should use this book too, as the material in itis fundamental to any lawyers’ English language skills. Even if you do not intens to take a legal English exan, you can use this book as a complete course of self-study for legal English and it is recommenced to anyone who needs to use legal English at work. Each of the ten unis 's divided into section 4 (Foundation) and section 8 (Higher). We recommend that everyone should complete section A of each unit, to be sure from the start that you are familiar with the legal vocabulary it contains and are accurate in what you are doing. When you are confident that you know the material contained in Section A of each unit, you can proceed to build on your skills by completing the more complex exercises in section B. Each unit also contains some practice exercises for the TOLES exams. ‘You will see that the book contains boxes, clearly marked with a symbol @. These boxes oF ‘banks’ of information contain fanguage that you will need to memorise. Please do not be tempted to ignore these boxes. We assure you that if you memorise this information you will see a spectacular improvement in your logal English. We believe that no particular book or computer programme can ever be a substitute for ‘old-fashioned hard work, We hope that you enjoy using this book and we are confident that it will add quality ‘and accuracy to your legal English skills. Catherine Mason and Rosemary Atkins Cambridge 2007 © Cathew Macon & Reza Aine 2007The Legal Profession ae VO)THE LEGAL PROFESSION WORKING IN LAW Exercise 1 Look at this list of legal occupations. All of these people work in law. We call ail of the people who work In these jobs, ‘the legal profession’. Match the jobs with one of the descriptions. Solicitor Attorney Barrister Lawyer a This person is a lawyer who gives legal advice and opinions to solicitors. He or she passed the exams of the Bar Council of England & Wales at the end of his or her studies, b This person is a lawyer who gives legal advice to individuals and companies. He or she passed his Or her exams in the USA at the end of his or her studies and is usually a member of the American Bar Association, © This person is a lawyer who gives legal advice to individuals and companies. He or she passed the exams of the Law Society of England & Wales at the end of his or her studies. d_ This is the general job title that we use for people who work as a solicitor, barrister or attomey. Exercise 2 Read this text about working in law. The mest important words are in the key vocabulary below. Decide if the statements on the next page are true or false. Key vocabulary lawyer practise attorney judge qualified legal practice litigation advocacy right of audience appear There are two types of lawyer who practise in England. They are called barristers and solicitors. In the USA and most other countries, lawyers don’t make this distinction ~ a lawyer is simply known as an attomey at law, or an attorney. In both England and the USA, itis not possible to take a special exam to be a judge. If you decide that you want to be a judge, you must get a lot of experience as a lawyer frst, then apply to be @ Judge and wait to see if you are chosen. Most law students in England become solicitors. When they finish their university studies they do @ one-year legal practice course and then a two-year training contract with a law firm. After that, they are qualified solicitors. Many solicitors work for a legal practice, which is usualy a partnership of solicitors barristers Taw firm training contract acting for partnership represent pleading a case specialise solicitors clients who work together. Solicitors practise in many areas. of law, although each solicitor usually chooses to specialise in one particular area. They represent their clients both in and out of court. We often desoribe this as acting for a client. The process of ‘making a claim in the civil court is called litigation, Barristers are self-employed lawyers and don't work in partnerships in the way that solicitors do. They are specialists in advocacy, which is the skill of speaking for someone in court. We call this pleading a case. They also give opinions on areas Of law to solicitors and the solicitors’ clients. It is not just barristers who have the right of audience in Court. Solicitors are also allowed to represent their clients in court and many solicitors appear in court every day. Itis not true to say that a client always needs a barrister in court.q a There are two types of lawyer practising in England. True False b Last year | finished my training contract and | started working for a True False large international law firm. | am now a qualified lawyer. © Only barristers can speak on behalf of clients in court. Tue False d_ Many solicitors work together in partnerships but barristers don't. Tue False @ In the USA and England lawyers can take a special exam to be a judge. Tue False MAKING A CLAIM IN THE CIVIL COURT In the English and American legal systems we divide the law into two main areas. These are criminal law and civil law. This means that everything that is not a criminal matter is a civil matter. Exercise 1 Look at these situations and decide if the person needs a criminal lawyer or a civil lawyer. In other words, is it a criminal matter or a civil matter? a Mr Bellerby is opening a new factory. He needs to visit a lawyer to get a contract for all of his employees to criminal civil b Mrs Robson is thinking about what she wants to happen to her house and possessions after her death. She needs to visita lawyer to get the correct document, which is called a ‘will’ criminal civil © The police are taking Mr Dean to the police station because they say he stole a car. He needs a lawyer to come and visit him there to tell him what to do. criminal Help desk What do these words mean? criminal law ~ the law that punishes acts against a person or against property that people consider to be harmful to the whole community. The state prosecutes criminals. civil law ~ the law conceming the rights and duties of private individuals and companies rather then criminal matters. 10 d_ MrFlynn owns a restaurant. He has a contract with a company to deliver fruit and vegetables to his restaurant. The company didn't deliver them on the agreed date, so Mr Flynn lost money because he could not ‘open his restaurant that day. Mr Flynn needs. to see @ lawyer about asking the delivery ‘company to give him the money he lost. criminal civil MrAllen isa bank manager. The bank is saying that some money is missing. Mr Allen has a new car and expensive clothes. The police are coming to ask Mrr Allen some questions. He needs a lawyer immediately. al civil a matter — a subject or situation, e.g. a criminal, matter, a civil matter, ~2 legal document in which a person gives details of what they want to happen to their property after their death. to steal (stole) ~ to take something that belongs to someone else with the intention of keeping it.Exercise 2 Read the information below. It is about starting a claim in the civil court. Decide if the statements that follow are true or false. Starting a claim in the civil court When you are in dispute with another person sometimes it is necessary to start a claim in the civil court. We sometimes call this process ‘filing a claim’ or ‘issuing a claim’. Lawyers also say ‘starting proceedings’. We do not use the verb ‘to prosecute’ in civil law because that verb is only used in criminal Jaw. In England most civil claims are filed in the County Court. There are over 200 County Courts in England and Wales. Most cities and large towns have a County Court. ‘The person who starts the claim is called the claimant in the UK. This person was called the plaintiff until 1999, when there were new court rules in England to make everything easier for people to understand. However, in the USA the claimant is stil called the plaintif. In both England and the USA the other party is called the defendant. Acclaim form is the document that a claimant uses. to start legal action against the defendant. Starting @ claim means the same as starting proceedings. You can ‘prosecute’ someone in the civil court. © There are more than 200 County Courts in England and Wales. The word ‘plaintiff is not used in England any more but it is used in the USA. @ tis free to start a claim in the County Court. f There is a special court in a separate building for making small claims. Help desk What do these words mean? to be in dispute — to have a serious disagreement with another person. party to a court case - the claimant or the defendant. to owe money to someone ~ to have to pay someone for something that they have done for you or given to you. Cather Mason & Roeerany Atkins 2007 Why might a claimant start a claim? There are a lot of reasons, for example: ‘someone refuses to pay you money that they owe to you someone does a job for you, but they do it badly. We call this bad workmanship something that you paid for is not supplied to you something that you bought is not working properly. The claimant has to pay a sum of money, called @ ‘court fee, for the court to issue proceedings. In the claim form, the claimant must state the amount of his or her claim and request the defendant to pay all of the legal costs of the case. ‘Sometimes people talk about ‘the small claims. court’. They really mean the special procedure that exists at the County Court for smail claims. A small claim is a claim for a maximum amount of £5000. This amount will probably increase in the future. Tue False Tue False True False True False True False Tue False legal costs ~ the court fees and payment for the lawyers who are acting for the parties a procedure ~ a decided way of doing something, to prosecute — to take legal action against someone in the criminal court. u wonepunog/yt wnExercise 3 Here are some important expressions which lawyers use when they talk about starting a claim in the civil court. Complete the sentences by matching the first half of each sentence with the conect ending. («) To issue a claim means to... confirm that you have received the claim and a to say what you will do next. (1) a To pay a fee means to. ..Start a claim in the civil court. listen to the details of the claim and listen to b To serve a claim upon someone means to, what the claimant and the defendant say about their dispute. (2) ¢ To respond to a claim means to, pay the court an amount of money for issuing the claim. (3) d_ Tohear a case means to. can legally take a person's property when that person does not pay money that he or she owes. (4) @ To find in favour of someone means to... ..officially announce the result of the case. The f To give a judgment means to. judge may give the reasons for the decision. (5) ..send the claim to the defendant’s address To make an order means to. and make sure that he or she receives it. (6) decide that this person has won the case. (7) hi Abailiff is a person who... officially state what someone has to do, and how and when he or she must do it. (8) Exercise 4 Here are the steps in which a claim goes through the County Court. Fill the gaps with a word from Exercise 3. a The claimant a claim in the County Court. b The claimant will have to pay a . The amount depends on the amount of money that the claimant is claiming. © The court or the claimant's solicitor the claim upon the defendant. This means that they send it to the defendant's address and make sure that the defendant receives it. The defendant has 14 days from the day he or she receives the claim to toit. The defendant can admit the claim, which means to agree that the claim is right, and pay the money that the claimant wants, or the defendant can defend the claim, €. Ifthe defendant decides to defend the claim, a judge will the case in the County Court. The judge will ge his or her juckgment. The judge will in favour ofthe claimant or the defendant. g The parties must follow the terms of the that the judge makes and they must make sure that they obey any instructions about time limits. hh If the order says that the defendant must pay money to the claimant, then the claimant can use the services of a to collect that money if the defendant does not pay. 2 (© Catherine Mason & Rosemary Nine 2007AREAS OF LAW Exercise 1 In England and the USA there is an area of law called ‘the law of tort’. It is the law of civil responsibilty. (tis an area of civil law. Read this text about the law of tort. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. Key vocabulary © law of tort © carelessness © duty of care © committed ¢@ allegations ® negligence The law of tort says that everyone has a civil duty to be careful and not to hurt or harm another person, Lawyers call this civil duty ‘the duty of tare’, Sometimes people breach this duty of care. To breach means to break. Very often they breach the duty of care by accident but sometimes they do it deliberately. If someone hurts or harms another person because of a breach, we call this harmful action a tort. This means that some things that might be criminal in your legal system are a tort in. England and the USA. Look at the list of harmful actions below. In England and the USA they are usually torts. © Leaving the floor of a shop in a dangerous condition so that a customer falls and hurts her leg, # Saying something that is bad about someone, which isn't true. © Writing a negative story in a newspaper about someone, which isn't true. Playing loud music late every night, which disturbs your neighbours. This area of law is easier to understand by thinking ofa tort as being a type of civil wrong, Each of the torts listed above has a special name. The tort that happens most often is called negligence. Example question: What is the duty of care? © tort © damages @ to sue © grounds @nowin-nofee —_@ breach Negligence is when someone is not careful enough and this person’s carelessness hurts another person as a result. The person who is hurt is called ‘the injured person. When someone hurts you as a result of his or her actions, you need to consult a lawyer who specialises in the right area of tort. The lawyer will try to get you money from the careless person. This money is called ‘compensation’ or, more correctly, ‘damages’. Sometimes the lawyers can't agree on the amount of damages. When this happens, the injured person may decide to sue the person who has hurt them, Suing someone is a more informal way of saying starting proceedings against someone inva cil court. The claim form will state the claimant’s allegations against the defendant. An allegation is like an accusation. The claimant is stating that something happened, but the defendant has the opportunity to say that this is not tue. The reasons for going to court are called ‘the ‘grounds’. Tne grounds for an action in tort are that the defendant committed a tort. Sometimes a lawyer who specialises in the tort of negligence makes an agreement with a client. The agreement is that if the client does not win the case then he or she does not have to pay for the lawyer's services. This is called a ‘no win-no fee’ arrangement. Its allowed in the UK and the USA. Example answer: The duty of care is the obligation to be careful and not to hurt anyone. a How do iawyers say to ‘break’ a duty of care? Answer: In England and the USA, is the law of tort an area of eriminal or civil aw? ‘Answer: There are different types of tort. In general, what is a tort? Answer: (© caterne Mason & Rosemary Ahns 2007 wonepuneg/ yt aunUnit 18/Foundation d_ What is the name of the tort that @ person commits because he of she is careless and hurts someone else as a result of this carelessness? Answer: © What does suing mean? Answer: What is the correct name for the money that an injured person gets from the defendant in a successful action in ton? Answer: & What is the correct name for an arrangement where a client does not have to pay his or her lawyer if the client loses his or her action in tort? Answer: Exercise 2 Put a word from the key vocabulary in Exercise 1 into the following sentences. a lam the owner of the shop because there was water on the floor and | fell and hurt my back. bl ama lawyer who specialises in the tort of People are just not careful enough! At the moment | am acting for the injured person in more than 20 different cases. The machines in the clothing factory were old and dangerous and one of the employees injured his hhand. The employee sued the factory owners and got £5000 in s d_ In your claim form you accuse us of breaching our duty of care. We do not accept that your are true and we will defend your claim in court. Do you have a good reason for suing the owner of the hotel? What exactly are your for starting legal action? Exercise 3 Here is a list of some important areas of law. Read what the lawyers say on the next page. They are talking about the work they do. Match the lawyer with the correct area of law. law of contract £ employment law — company law family law — © land law hh immigration law 4 lawof tort 7 intellectual property law = € lawof equity and trusts J criminal taw 1“ © Catherine Maco & Rosemary Aine 2007David Tom Jennifer Alistair Sunitta Cory Kayleigh Michael Mary Polly "I work in New York. | deal with clients from other countries who want to come and live here. I help them to get permission trom the govemment to make their dream of living in the USA a reality.” ‘1am with a law firm in Manchester. | am now in the second year of my training contract. ‘At the moment | deal with clients who are buying or selling their house. It is my job to make sure everything is correct and that the sale is valid.’ ‘I work in a very exciting area of law here in Los Angeles. | meet alot of writers and musicians. and sometimes even people from movie studios! | protect their rights and make sure that no one can copy their work and make money from it without their permission.” ‘When I write the story of my life I will call my book, "Robbers, Murderers and Other Friends of Mine!” I work in Newcastle, which is in the north of England. I defend people who are in trouble with the police. They may even go to prison! It is my job to help them.’ | work in Sydney, Australia, | give advice to people who are unhappy living together and they want a divorce. Sometimes people argue about money or the care of the children. It's a difficult area of law and | feel very sympathetic towards my clients." “I work in Chicago. 'm quite famous on TV here in the USA. That's because Channel 10 show ry advertisement five times every day! | ask people to call me if they were hurt or were in an accident because somebody else wasn't careful enough. If people are not careful, then I'm afraid they will have to pay damages!’ “I work in Christchurch, New Zealand. Most of my clients have problems at work. | saw a lady this morning who is going to have a baby. When she told her boss that she was pregnant, he fired her from her job. That is not legal in New Zealand and I will help her to do something about it” “| work for a very big London law firm, Our clients are banks and other big businesses. Today |lam working on a merger agreement, which means that two companies are joining together to become one. Yesterday | advised a new client who wants to start an internet company on the different ways he can do it.” “tam based in Dublin, the capital city of Ireland. | see people or companies who want to make a legal agreement with another person or company. Today | am dealing with an agreement to deliver goods from Ireland to the USA. | have to check every word very carefully!” “Lwork in a very old and interesting area of law. Today | met a client who is 70 years old and has no family. When she dies, she wants to put all of her money into a special fund. Her two friends will use this money to help pay for a training school for actors and actresses from her home city here in Liverpool. | explained to her how to da that and | will draft the necessary legal documents for her.” Help desk What do these words mean? to deal with someone or something - to do business with someone or to take the correct action in an area of work ~ allowed by the law. — legally correct and acceptable. legal val to draft a document ~ to write a document. to have a right — (in intellectual property law) to have a legal interest in something; it's yours. robber ~ a person who steals money or property while using or threatening to use violence. {© Catherine Mason & Rasemary Ans 2007 a divorce ~ the legal ending of a marriage. ‘to merge — (in company law) when two companies join together to form one. to be based somewhere - to be established somewhere as the main place where you work or live. ‘Goods — things that are produced so that they can be sold. fund ~ an amount of money that a person or organisation keeps to pay for something in particular. wonepunoa/yt wnUnit 14/Foundation Exercise 4 Choose a word or phrase from the box to complete the sentences. © drafting criminal law © goods © the law of tort © the law of equity © valid intellectual © family taw and trusts siheastita property law merge ‘a Alawyer who deals with clients who are in trouble with the police is a specialist in b Last year my bank with a big German bank and they are now called EuropBank, | think they are the biggest bank in Europe now! © A lawyer who deals with clients who create new inventions such as medicines, machines or new artistic works such as books or music, is a specialist in I spent three hours this morning contract for my new client. | think the contract is ready for him to read and sign now. I want to put some of my money into a fund for the benefit of my grandchildren, which they will have when they reach the age of 18. | need to see a lawyer who is a specialist in Well, | am from London but | am Amsterdam at the moment because | am working for a Dutch company. & Alawyer who deals with clients who are divorcing or who have problems over the care of their children is a specialist in fh The company delivers all over the United States by rail and by truck i A lawyer who deals with people who breach their civil duty of care is a specialist in _ J That contract is not because your client has not signed it. Exercise 5 Look at the words and phrases in the box. All of the words are connected with specific areas of law. Put the words into the correct sentence to complete the definitions. unfair dismissal landlord capital redundancy lease of land and» maternity leave sick pay partnership buildings discriminate insolvent — torpation.et a! tenant conveyancing real estate business a Tobe means not having enough money to pay your debts. ba is the joining together of two or more things, such as companies, to form one single thing or company. cA is a person who pays rent to the owner of a house, a flat or an office in return for living there, or for using the building for business purposes, 16 © catnenne Mason & Rasemay kkns 200)a is the legal process involved in transferring the ownership of a house or land from the seller to the buyer. e To against someone means to behave differently towards that person, usually in the workplace, because of their age, sex or the colour of their skin. f iS a situation where someone loses his or her job for @ reason that isnot valid. € 5 money that an empioyer must pay to an employee when that employee is ll and cannot work. ha Is an agreement to allow someone to use land or buildings for @ fixed period of time in return for a payment of rent. 1 the is the establishment of a new business in a specific way. JA js a business which a minimum of two people own and control k is the time period when a woman is not at work before and after the birth of her baby. Her employer usually pays her for part or all of the time that she is away. 1 \s the total amount of money, property and other assets that a business has. m isa situation where someone loses his or her job because an employer no longer needs so many employees. nA sa person who owns a house, a flat or office and receives rent from someone for allowing them to live there, or use the building for business purposes. ° is a more formal way of saying land and buildings. Help desk What do these words mean? ‘ownership ~ to have onnership of @ property rent — the money that someone pays, usualy means that the property belongs to you. You ar very month, to use a flat, a house or an office | the owner of the property. ‘that belongs to someone else. ‘assets ~ things that a person or company OWNS. fixed - something that is fixed is certain and debts — sums of money that you owe. cannot be changed. Exercise 6 All of the words and phrases in Exercise 5 belong to either employment law, business law or land law. Put ‘each word or phrase under the correct area of law. Employment law Business law Land © catnenne Macon & Rosemary atkins 2007 Fa euhedaretasUnit 18/Foundation Exercise 7 Complete the following sentences by using the words from the employment law section. a My baby will arrive at the end of March so I will take six months” starting on 1 March. He sued his employer on the grounds of because the reason his employer gave for firing him was not valid, © Ifyou are ill and not able to work you should look at your contract to see if you can get tis against the law in England for an employer to against an employee because of his or her age. @ Many employees are worried about because a lot of businesses are closing in this area at the moment. Exercise 8 Complete the following sentences by using the words fiom the business law section. a The_ is the formal way of saying the way in which a new business is created, b The total of the business is valued at approximately £32 millon. © The business does not nave enough money to pay its debts and is, There will be a next year between two major British chemical companies. e My friend and I want to start a cleaning business together and we decided that the best thing to do is to create a Exercise 9 Complete the following sentences by using the words from the land law section. a Heisavery good He always pays the rent on time! b_ My sister works in the property department of her law firm, She acts for people who are buying and selling houses. She is a specialist in © We don’t own our hous somewhere else to live. we rent it The ‘ends in three months so we will have to find d Heisthe_ of fve houses in this area. He makes a lot of money every month from the rent. e The price of buy 2 house. in this part of the country increased @ lot last year. Its very expensive to 18 (© Caterine téason & Rosemary sikins 2007UNIT 4A VOCABULARY CHECK ‘These are the important words that you have studied in Unit 1A. You should make sure that you know these words before you go on to. Unit 4B. act for advocacy allegation appear attorney bailiff barrister to be based somewhere breach capital carelessness case civil law claimant client ‘company jaw conveyancing criminal law damages deal with debt defendant discriminate dispute divorce draft duty of care ‘employment law family law formation of a business goods grounds arm hear Immigration law insolvent intellectual property law ‘ssue judgment © catherine Mason & Rosemary Akers 2007 land law landlord law firm the law of contract the law of equity and trusts the law of tort lawyer lease legal legal costs legal practice litigation matemity leave matter merge negligence no win-no fee obligation owe to have ownership partnership party plaintitt plead a case practise procedure proceedings to be qualified teal estate redundancy represent respond tohave a right right of audience serve sick pay solicitor specialise sue tenant tort training contract unfair dismissal valid wil 19 wonepunes/vE anTOLES FOUNDATION EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Look at the sentences below. Each sentence contains a mistake. The mistake is either an incorrect word or a word that should not be there. Put a circle around the word. Do not circle more than one word for each sentence. There is an example at the beginning (+). Example cute Ure ts seo nanan sep Wie Bowens lawyers are known as attorneys. 1. When a student finishes his or her legal studies he or she has to make a two-year training contract with a law firm. 2 The law of tort says that everyone must to be careful and not harm other people. 3. I will start my training contract with the Taylor Wallis in September. 4. Ifwe issue a claim against you we will ask for a very high damages. 5 He breached the contract and | will prosecute him in the evil court, Exercise 2 Read the following article and decide ifthe statements under it are true or false. Write your answers in the ‘box below. There Is an example at the beginning (»). Sanjay Pritam is a partner with a law firm in Southampton in the south of England. Sanjay is a specialist in maritime law. He chose this area of law because of his family history. His father owns a ship. Sanjay’s father worked on this ship for his whole life. Sanjay worked with him for two years and then he started his, legal studies. Sanjay thinks this practical experience on a ship was very useful. English law influences most of the law that governs international maritime cases. For this reason, lawyers from all over the world contact Sanjay's office to ask him for his opinion, which he gives by phone or email. ‘When maritime lawyers are speaking informally they divide cases into two categories. They call them ‘dry’ cases and ‘wet’ cases. Dry cases involve problems with shipping contracts and wet cases involve problems at sea, such as ships that have accidents. Most of the cases that Sanjay deals with cannot be negotiated and end in litigation Example (+) Sanjay Pritam works in a family law practice. 1. Sanjay's father is also a lawyer. 2. Sanjay thinks it is good that he worked on a ship before he was a lawyer. 3. Sanjay usually travels to other countries to help lawyers who have questions about maritime law. 4 Amaritime case involving a breach of contract is informally called a ‘ary case’. 5 Most of Sanjay’s cases go to court because the parties cannot agree upon a solution. (W) FALSE ey @) 8) @ 5) 20 € Catheice Maton & Rosemary itis 2007Exercise 3 Here is a conversation between a lawyer and his client. The conversation is mixed up. Put the conversation In the correct order. Write your answers in the boxes numbered 2-9 below. There is an example at the beginning (+), which is the start of the conversation. (#) Good Morning Mr Rodriguez. Thank you for coming to see me. | understand that you would like to issue a claim in the County Court? a Three months is a long time. | agree that you should issue a claim. | will explain to you how it all works. ‘The first thing that we must do is to complete a claim form and file it at the County Court Yes, you will have to pay a fee. But if you win, the judge will usually order the defendant to pay back the fee. The next thing that happens after we file the claim is that the court will serve the claim form upon. the defendant. © Yes, that is correct. I think going to court is the only thing that | can do. | supply food to restaurants and cafés in Chatsworth. | have a contract with all of my customers. The contract states that a customer hhas 14 days to pay me from the date they receive a delivery. A customer who owns a café in town is ‘three months late in paying me. I would like to start proceedings against him. d_{ see, What information do you need to complete the claim form? He has 14 days to respond. In this case | hope your customer agrees that your claim is correct and that he will pay the money he owes you when he receives the claim. That is the best thing that can happen. f I noed the name and address of your customer. When we file the claim your customer will be called the defendant. | also need the details of your claim. I need to know when the defendant received the delivery from you and when he was supposed to pay you. Please bring me a copy of the contract so that | can check the part of it that talks about payment. How much money does he owe you? & And when he receives the claim how many days does he have to respond to it? £430. | can bring a copy of the contract to your office this aftemoon. What happens when we file the claim? Do I have to pay a court fee? aw [a fe |» [oe jo @ fe lo | © catherine Mason & Rosemary As 2007 a wonepureg/vt wunThe Legal rs LUT aa eT fetta ZigTHE LEGAL PROFESSION THE IMPORTANCE OF COLLOCATIONS Collocations are wards that form natural partnerships in English. For example, we say, “Merry Christmas!’ but ‘Happy New Year! Why can’t we say ‘Merry New Year’? It's because a native English speaker wouldn't expect these words to go together. They do not form a good collocation. Legal English is full of collocations. They might be: verb+noun adjective-+noun Do you accept liability? She made a fatal error. noun+verb adverb-+adjective ‘The gap has widened between them, ‘This is a highly contentious cispute. verb+adverb Could we please discuss this matter rationally? The key to learning accurate legal English is to have a good familiarity with collocation. Some nouns form 00d collocations with more than one verb, Some nouns form a good collocation with just one verb, The important thing is to start to notice accurate collocations and memorise them. For example: to draft a contract to write a contract Good collocation: to honour a contract to respect a contract to breach a contract to infringe a contract As you work through this book you will see many collocations. To help you notice and remember accurate collocations they have been put into a collocation bank for you. The symbol () means ‘memorise Collocation bank to draft a contract to honour a contract to breach a contract Exercise 1 Look at these sentences. They contain collocations that are in Unit 1A. Complete the sentences with the correct collocation from the four choices on the next page. a Solicitors are allowed to clients in count. mmercial lawyer and this is a criminal b Lam afraid | can't help you. | am a ct © What are the _ for your case? d twill my final law exams in June of next year. fe Myclient is, a new factory and he needs advice about the relevant health and safety regulations. sousa/ar wenUnit 18,/Highor a A represent B work for © stand for D advocate b A issue B matter © subject D point © A grounds B reasons © motives D basis dA pass B make © prepare D take eA starting B launching © opening D initiating THE IMPORTANCE OF PREPOSITIONS ‘AS you work through this book you will see many prepositions. To help you notice and remember accurate prepositions in a legal context they have been put into a preposition bank for you. The symbol (3) means ‘memorise’. Preposition bank » an attorney at law to send a cheque for an amount of money “My daughter is an attorey at law in Atlanta.’ ‘Please send a cheque for £2000, | © to work on something subject to something | Ym currently working on a merger agreement. "The goods are for sale at this price subject, to availability.” Exercise 1 Complete these sentences with a preposition that you saw in Unit 1A, a The judge awarded my client £20,000 | Stephen works for a lave firm damages. Manhattan. 'b- Suing someone is @ more informal way of saying e When you are dispute with someone starting proceedings someone. you can start a claim in the civil court. © Asmall claim is a claim maximum | f Could | take a look your of £5000. ‘employment contract? Exercise 2 Using the knowledge that you have about collocations and prepositions correct the language below. ‘My name is Luigj and | am a lawyer (a) at Milan. | work (b) into a big law firm. Today | am very busy. | am (©) writing a contract (d) to a new client. This aftemoon | am (e) speaking for a different client in court. It is.a (f) disrespect of contract case. I think we will win the case because our (g) reasons are very strong.” “My name is Luigi and | am a lawyer (a) Milan, | work (b) a big law firm. Today | am very busy. | am (¢) a contract (@) a new client. This afternoon | am © a different client in cour. Itis a ( of contract case. | think we will win the case because our (g) are very strong." 4 Ccatnrine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007SOLICITORS AND BARRISTERS Exercise 1 Diana Willams is @ lawyer. Today she is going to visit a schoo! in her town to talk to the students about a ‘career in law. Here are some of Diana's notes for her talk. In this section she is talking about the two separate professions that exist in England, solicitors and barristers. Fill in the gaps in the text with the correct word from the box below. partner judge audience qualify practices © associate partnerships court issued My notes for careers talk at Chatsworth Hill School. In England we have two different types of lawyer. One is known as a (a) and the ‘other is barrister. Both are called ‘lawyers’. This can be a litle confusing because in the USA every lawyer is usually known as an (b) An English law student has to decide at sometime during their university studies which type of lawyer that they would ike t0(c) __as. Most English law students decide to become a solicitor. These are the lawyers that a id) , the person who pays for the services of a lawyer, will usually meet first. Often the solicitor can help the client without the need for a barrister. ‘Most solicitors work in small private businesses, known as (e) , in what are called ‘High Street firms’. This phrase ‘High Street firm’ refers to a typical, small group of. solicitors working together in the type of offices that you can find on the major streets of any English town or city. Many law firms are set up as (f) Anew lawyer will usually work first as an (@) of the firm and gain some experience while being, paid a fixed salary before being offered the opportunity to become a (h) A typical High Street solicitor usually specialises in a particular area of law, such as family, employment or commercial law. Many people believe that solicitors cannot act for their clients in (i) but this is untrue. Thousands of solicitors appear in court every day, especially in the County Courts where most claims are () The second type of lawyer found in England is known as a barrister. Barristers are usually specialists in a very particular area of law. They give advice and opinions to solicitors and their clients. Barristers have the right of (k) (the right to be heard by a judge) in all of the courts in the land. Barristers often share offices, known by the traditional ‘name of chambers, although they all work alone as individuals because they are forbidden to work as partners. ‘After several years of experience, members of either profession may apply to preside over cases. and sit as a () - Within the English legal system a law student cannot take an exam to be a judge but has to wait to be appointed after some years of experience as a lawyer. (catmanns Nason & Rosemary thins 2007 2 aautn/at wunUnit 18/Higher © to qualify as a lavyer © to act for a client Collocation bank @ © to sit as a judge © to gain some experience © to Issue a claim © to take an exam Preposition bank © to be known as something “They are known as barristers." © to qualify as something ‘She qualified as a lawyer two years ago. © to go into partnership with someone “He is going to go into partnership with «© to specialise in something “Tom specialises in commercial litigation.” © to work infor a business: “He works in a lawfirm but she works for a bank.” © to preside over a case “The insurance case has started and Judge his brother.” Mortimer is presiding over it. Exercise 2 Look at the solicitors’ advertisements on the opposite page. Give the name and the telephone number of the firm of solicitors that | should call if | have the following legal problems. a | have reached the age of 50 and | am thinking about what | want to happen to my property after my death, b_ | want to begin a business importing electrical goods from one European Union country into another and | want to know what the rules are. ¢ |.ama woman who is angry that a man doing the same job in the factory where | work is paid more than | am. d_| ama visitor to England from the USA. | came to work in London 18 months ago, with the permission of the British authorities. However, | only had permission to be here for a year and now | am afraid because | have broken the law. Firm of solicitors Telephone number 6 ‘Cather Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007eae VERE eH il ACCIDENT? BLU TS og Someone been careless? NO WIN-NO FEE (Home and hospital visits) FREEPHONE 0500 652 1112 ‘Swanhouse Place, Chatsworth MARION KAYE Solicitors Professional, friendly, effective. r ! l ! 1 ! ! ' @ Business Law 1; ©@ Commercial Property I e@ Commercial Litigation 1 @ EU Law 1 e@ Insolvency ' @ Intellectual Property , @ Landlord and Tenant ! ! Il . Telephone: 0771 777 5454 Offices in London, Oxford and Chatsworth DUDE Seat icy CAAA cur Te Ae ace eee eur nid Deg eyo ecRcouy Cae re dec) Sowa) | Judy Barclay Solicitor NUMBER ONE FOR EMPLOYMENT LAW If you have a problem in any of the following areas call today for first class advice UNFAIR DISMISSAL / REDUNDANCY BULLYING / DISABILITY RIGHTS EQUAL PAY / DISCRIMINATION BREACH OF CONTRACT www judybarclay.co.uk 0774 3339989 25 Haymarket Lane, Chatsworth: Patel & Co, Solicitors SPECIALISTS IN IMMIGRATION LAW Including BUSINESS IMMIGRATION LAW & Work Permits Email: [email protected] Vel: 0771 333 2323 40 Royal Crescent, Chatsworth Call today! McCarthy Kyle & Co sts i all areas of Education law including: EDUCATION NEEDS / DYSLEXIA / ADMISSIONS AND EXCLUSIONS and NEGLIGENCE CLAIMS O77 6 8 Suffered from SOLICITORS’ NEGLIGENCE? Contact us now FREE initial consultation *NO WIN-NO FEE FREEPHONE 0500 542 542 Ast call for action Matthew Morrison Solicitors 51 Queen Anne Square, ChatsworthUnit 18/ Higher Exercise 3 Find a word in the advertisements that matches the following definitions. a. Not taking enough care over something that d_ An organisation that exists in order to collect, you are responsible for with the result that money, food or goods and give them to people mistakes are made or someone is hurt. who need them. The word is The word is bb The process of legally transferring the ownership The state of a business not having enough of land or buildings from one person to another. money to pay what it owes. The word is The word is. ‘© Asituation where someone has to leave their «fA person or company which pays rent to |b because they are no longer needed by another person to allow them to live in or use their employer. land or buildings. The word is The word is. Exercise 4 Say whether the following statements about the advertisements are true ar false. a. If invent a new type of water heater that | don't want anyone else Tue False to be able to copy, | should call 0771 777 5454. b if want to study law, | should call McCarthy Kyle & Co. Tue False © Matthew Morrison will always accept any client on a Te False no win-no fee basis. d_ The 1st Call Accident Centre specialises in the law of tort. Tue False @ Matthew Morrison deals with complaints about other solicitors, Tue False Collocation bank to make a vil a breach of contract to be made redundant » to import goods from another country to take care overiwith something ‘She imported her car from Belgium.’ ‘Please take care over/with that document because it is very important.” to import goods into a country | . ‘ / to deal with something or someone she imported her car into EngJand. i © imported ner car into Engen ‘Could you please deal with Mr Jones for me as | am busy this morning?" 28 Catherine Mason & Rosemary Aine 2AREAS OF LAW Exercise 1 Look at the words in the box and decide if they come from civil law or criminal law. a robbery criminal civil b contract criminal civil ¢ partnership criminal civil d prison criminal civil Exercise 2 Maritime law The law of tort Business and company law Contract law The law of equity & trusts The law that deals with the protection of the rights of inventors (who might invent a new ‘drug or machine) or artistes (who might write ‘a book or a song) b The law that deals with situations where someone has control of property for a period of time and must look efter it for the benefit of someone else. © The law that deals with events such as divorce and the custody of (the right to 1ook after) children, The law that deals with everything connected with information and how itis passed between people, especially by means of the Internet. @ The law that deals with land, including transferring the ownership of buildings or land from one person to another. aterne Mason & Rosemary hrs 2007 @ litigation criminal civil f sue criminal civil g business criminal civil h prosecute criminal civil Look at the categories of civil law and match them with the simple definitions provided below. 1. law Intellectual property law Family law Employment/labour law The law of real property/conveyancing ‘The law that deals with private agreements between people or companies and tries to make sure that no one suffers 3 loss if an ‘agreement is broken. The law that deals with every citizen’s responsibility not to harm other people in ‘any Way, even if itis not a contractual or criminal situation. ‘The law that deals with people’s rights, pay or conditions in the workpiace, ‘The law that deals with the way businesses are set up (created) and run (operated) and how they must work in relation to each ather and the general public. ‘The law that deals with everything connected with the see or ships. 2 sous ar anExercise 3 Look at the situations below and decide which area of civil aw is relevant. a Anna agreed to pay Paul £4000 to landscape —e._ Bill has been married to Ruth for 14 years. the garden at her new house. Paul has now However, he now wishes to leave Ruth and live finished the work but Anna says she is not with Jane. Bill and Ruth cannot decide how to satisfied with it and she has refuses to pay him. share their property between them. The area of law is The area of law is b Caroline and Susan want to start a business Phillip has received an offer to buy his house, together. They need a solicitor to draft an but there is a problem with the exact position of agreement for them about how they will share | the boundary. The buyers solicitor must check all the responsibilities of the business. | this before the contract is signed. The area of law is | The area of law is © Daniel wants his two-year old grandson, Wayne, g Elisabeth’s company transports goods from to have his house when he dies. However, if ‘South America to England by ship. However, Daniel dies before Wayne is 21 years old Daniel there was a bad storm at sea last week and wants his friend, Harty, to look after the house the ship carrying the goods sank off the coast until Wayne reaches 21 years old. of Franee. ‘The area of law is The area of law is 4 Emily has been in hospital and has been very Wh David has been using the Internet to send a lot ik after an operation. She thinks that the of private emails at work and his boss says that doctor was negjigent and that he has made this is an abuse of the time for which he is paid. her illness worse by his actions. She wants to David has been sent home from work on full pay claim damages. because his boss is investigating the situation The area of law is The area of law is Collocation bank © to pass information _@ to suffer a loss © to set up a business © to run a business, © to draft an agreement to claim damages | Preposition bank @ © to pass information between two people or | @ to be married te someone | ‘among a group of people “She has been married to Peter for | ‘Once the confidential information had seven years.” passed between the two of them, it was known among the whole group in the office @ to be on full pay in just a few days.” ‘The company suspended him from work on full pay.” 30 © Catherine Mason & Roseman Aens 2007THE REGISTER OF LETTER WRITING Exercise 1 Diana Wiliams has received this letter from @ student at the school where she gave her talk. The words that have been underlined are too informal. Complete the same letter on the next page by choosing a better word or phrase from those in the blue box. 6 The Gate Chatsworth CH1S 2MM Miss Diana Williams 24 April 20Xx Chester and Pelton, Solicitors 227 Gallowgate Chatsworth CHt NG Dear Miss Williams Your talk at Chatsworth Hill School last week ‘Thank you very much for the talk that you gave to our class on Tuesday. It was very interesting. | am thinking very seriously about becoming a lawyer and | hope that you can answer some questions about one or two things that were not included in your talk. {@) Inthe frst place, | am a little worried about the process of (b) using the civil court to start off a legal process. | am thinking of getting a claim form and some leaflets to try to find out more. if| go to the County Court in Chatsworth, will | be allowed to pick up a claim form just to look at? Also, could you tell me a little more about (¢) writing more complicated legal documents such as contracts? | am very nervous about this part of the work. My mother and father bought a new house recently and the solicitor who did the (d) real estate transfer of ownership seemed to do a lot of very difficult paperwork. What happens if | make a mistake? Can the client (e) start a case in the court if | give them (f) wrong advice? Also, you said that in the future there is going to be a lot of (g) discussing problems with someone who can helo find an agreement between clients instead of going to Court so often. This worties me a litle. Does it mean that there will be less work for lawyers and some firms may think about making people (h) out of work? (i) Last, you said that lawyers usually work in partnership and are rarely () lawyers who work alone. What will happen if! join a partnership about (k) getting the usual pay from my law firm when Lam il, of when | have a baby and | need to take (I) some time away from work to look after him or her? Thank you in advance for your help, Yours sincerely Er Sn Emma Soame a sauw/er wenUnit 18/Highor mediation sick pay Firstly redundant drafting Finally ® negligent issuing a claim maternity leave © conveyancing © sue 6 The Gate Chatsworth CH15 2MM 24 April 20XX Miss Diana Williams Chester and Pelton, Solicitors 227 Gallowgate Chatsworth CH 4NG Dear Miss Wiliams Your talk at Chatsworth Hill School last week Thank you very much for the talk that you gave to our class on Tuesday. It was very interesting. | am thinking very seriously about becoming a lawyer and | hope that you can answer some questions about one of two things that were not included in your talk. (a) am a litle worried about the process of (b) am thinking of getting a claim form and some leaflets to try to find out more. If. go to the County Court in Chatsworth, will | be allowed to pick up a claim form just to look at? Also, could you tell me a litle more about (c) more complicated legal documents such as contracts? | am very nervous about this part of the work. My mother and father bought a new house recently and the solicitor who did the (@) seemed to do a lot of very difficult paperwork. What happens it make a mistake? Can the client (e) if give them © advice? Also, you said that in the future there is going to be a lot of (g) | between clients instead of going to court so often. This worries me a little. Does ‘mean that there will be less work for lawyers and some firms may think about making people (h) ? @ , you said that lawyers usually work in partnership and are rarely 0 What will happen if I join a partnership about ky ‘or when I have a baby and I need to take (I) 2 Thank you in advance for your help. Yours sincerely ES Emma Soame ere Mason & Rowers kins 2007 32aq ustenine Exercise 1 Listen to this trainee lawyer speaking about his experience of working for a major law firm in London. Some words are missing from the text. Listen carefully and write the missing words in the box below. “My name is Rob Jones and I'm a trainee with a law firm. I've always wanted to be a (a) and | can't imagine doing any other job. | started working here at Taylor Wallis @ year ago. Taylor Walls is a global law firm with its headquarters in the City of London. | studied law ‘at Manchester University but | wanted to do my training contract in London because I'm interested in (b) law and banking and | think the best positions with the top law firms are here. | think my parents were disappointed that | didn’t become a (¢) and work in chambers ‘and wear a wig in court, but | wasn’t interested in that at all! With this law firm the two-year training contract is divided into four periods. Each six-month period is called a ‘seat’. My first seat was in the (d) department. That really just means dealing with companies and businesses. | was involved in meeting clients, (e)_ documents and took part in some very high value deals. Of course, | had lots of support from the experienced people working on my team (we call them the principals) but | was surprised at how much responsibilty they gave me, My second seat was in the property department. This involved (f) for clients who were buying and selling domestic and commercial property, much of it office buildings here in London. | was able to get some experience of (g) as well as a litle landlord and (h) law when we dealt with rentals. . Next | will be moving into the (I) property department. I'm really pleased about that as it covers quite a few different areas of law and can involve famous clients. At the moment the department is dealing with a breach of copyright case for a famous musician. | hope to stay with Taylor Wallis when | Q) asa lawyer next year. In fact, mm Jooking forward to being based in London for most of my legal career.” a t b g c h dg a aseeeaceeeeneaeeeeneee a e i © Catherine Mason & Remar tans 2007 seuty/aT wnUnit 18,/Higher USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE Coltocation review Complete these sentences with a collocation that you have seen. a You are 50 years old now Mr Johnson, you should really think about __ awl, Ifyou do not honour your side of the agreement that you have signed, I'm afraid | will have to sue you for of contract. © I have spent the last few hours a business partnership agreement for two new clients. _ | finished my training contract and started work two years ago, so I'm fairly new to the legal profession. When did you as a lawyer? Lam thinking of ‘a new business and | need some advice about how to start. f She has been her own business for several years now and she has been very successful g There are two separate professions who are allowed to law in England but in the USA they don’t make this distinction, h I'm afraid my client a very serious loss due to your olient’s actions. 1 We are starting proceedings immediately and we will be ciaiming of £10,000. J Lam going to ‘my law exams in June next year. Vocabulary review Complete these sentences with @ word that you have seen. ‘aA person who pays rent to a landlord is a b_ He has worked for that company for 20 years but business isn't good at the moment and they might have to make him © They went into last year, which means they own and run the business together. d_ She is an expert in procedures. She deals with companies that don’t have enough ‘money to pay their debts. @ She deals with __ It concems the buying and selling of land and houses and making sure the ownership of them is legally transferred f The process of two people talking about their legal problem with an independent person to help them agree on a solution is called Ifyou want to sue someone who hasn't been careful enough, the grounds for your case would probably be _ 4 (© Cathrine Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007| | fh The type of lawyer who works in chambers and pleads cases (usually in the higher courts) is known asa i Things that are produced in order to be sold are called J A lawyer in the USA is usually known by the general name of Preposition review Complete these sentences with the correct preposition. 1am working a very interesting merger project at the moment. b A landiord is a person who receives rent someone. © I'm afraid that this firm does not deal criminal lave. dam based ‘Stockholm at the moment. e In-your claim form you have made some very serious allegations my client, She imports goods __ Germany from China, € Which judge is presiding this case? hh We will lend you the money subject confirmation of the amount of your salary. Please send a cheque £20 to this address. Have you heard the news? Jennifer and Steven have gone partnership. (© cathanne Mason & Resear mks 2007 sous ae anTOLES HIGHER EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 There is @ word or phrase missing from the following sentences. For each sentence circle the word or phrase which best fits into the space from the options provided. Do not mark more than one answer for each sentence. There is an example at the beginning (+). Example If 2 person loses his or her job for a reason that is not valid itis called unfair (+) 1. Solicitors are allowed to (1) clients in court. 2. This isa criminal (2) , 80 | will have to refer you to a colleague who deals with criminal law. 3. I studied some landlord and (3) law when I was at university but | don’t remember it now. 4 Its legal in England and America for some lawyers to work on ano win-no (4) basis. 5 I don't think | will ever want to (5) a8 a judge because | enjoy my job as a solicitor. 6 | think itis fair that everyone gets (6) pay for doing the same job. 7 I have decided to specialise in land law so I expect to be doing a lot of (7) . 8. My law firm has a good reputation for handling (8) property cases, especially if computer software is copied without the designer's permission. 9 If lawyer is allowed to be heard in a particular court we say that he or she has right of @) 110 if you want the judge to award you damages from the defendant you will have to prove to the cour that you have (10) alos. ) A firing B redundancy © Gsmissat) D release ( A talk for B act for speak for D advocate for (2) A problem B topic ¢ subject D matter @ A renter B occupier © tenant D resident ” A payment B fee © salary D money © Ast B practise © arbitrate D rule © A same B equivalent C alike D equal @ A transferring B assigning € relocating D conveyancing @ A invention B creative C intellectual D original (9) A speaking B consultation C hearing D audience (10) A suffered B experienced Cc had D endured 36 caterExercise 2 Read the text below and think of the word that best fits each space. Use only one word in each space. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). Barristers at work Life as a barrister is prestigious but it can also be extremely stressful. Julia de Burca isa barrister in London. The first difficulty Julia had was to (+) as a barrister at all. Only 1200 or so law ‘students manage to pass the Bar Vocational Course in England and Wales every year. Only around 500 are awarded tenancy. In an average year approximately 1,500 students begin the course, so many do not make it. ‘The Bar Vocational Course is described as a bridge between the academic study of law and having to actually (1) law in the real world. Julia passed the course three years ago. Ina typical day Julia leaves her flat at 7.30am and arrives at (2) , the special name for a banister’ office, at 8.30am. Julia shares a building with 14 other barristers. However, they are not partners. Barristers are allowed to share office accommodation but they are not allowed to for 8) Every barrister is self-(4) If she is representing a client that day Julia travels directly to court. Speaking on behalf ofa client in court is called (5) a case. AS a barrister, Julia has the right of audience in court at every level. She isa confident (6) , which means that she is skilled at speaking in court. Julia is very successful in court, as she loves public speaking. She is also requited to do a lot of research and a lot of @ which means writing legal documents. On days when Julia is not in court she spends her time preparing cases and writing opinions. She usually leaves work at around 7.30pm, taking any work that is not finished with her. Juia often works long hours over the weekend, Julia is @ specialist in insolvency, so she advises clients who (8) money but for some reason they cannot pay. All of Julia's clients are companies. When a company Nas financial problems, Julia will advise the company if it can legally continue trading. She sometimes has to defend clients in court when legal (9), have been issued against them. If her client loses the case and the judge awards ao) ‘o the claimant then Julia will advise her client on what to do next. Example (+) qualify i QO _ o a __ @ a) @ ® @_ _ _ _ o __ _ __ © (oy (© Cathe Macon & Rotary Akers 2007 a vauim/ay wnUnit 18/ Higher 14 Ustening Exercise 3 Listen to the conversation between a lawyer and some students. Answer the questions below. 1 How long has Helen Reay been working as a solicitor? 2. What is the subject of Helen Reay’s university degree? 3. How long a period of study is the Post-Graduate Diploma in Law? 4 What reason does Helen Reay give for law firms employing lavryers whose fist degree is not in law? 5 What is the LLB? 6 What is advocacy? 7 When Helen Reay speaks about the Legal Practice Course she mentions four skills that are taught on the course. Two of the skills are drafting documents and advocacy. What are the other two? 8 One of the students names an area of study that she is not very good at. What is it? 9 Helen Reay says that getting a training contract with a law firm after university is @ competitive business. What reason does she give for that? 10 What is the roll of solicitors? 38 {© Cathrine Mazon & Rosemny athns 20071 catherine Mason & Rosemary Aine 2007 vous /at wenRA RA “AA BA THE LANGUAGE OF BANKING A NEW BANK ACCOUNT Exercise 1 Look at this advertisement. It is for a bank that would ike to find new customers. Look at the words that are highlighted in the advertisement. Without using a dictionary decide if each word is a verb, @ noun or an adjective. LD current withdraw. deposit Transfer bills overdraft GOLD ACCOUNT eligible a; Verb Noun a sopepunea/ve vnUnit 2A/Foundation Exercise 2 Here are the definitions of the words in Exercise 1. Put the correct word into each sentence to complete the definition. © eligible » withdraw deposit © balance current issue © statement » bill © overdraft a Your is the amount of money that you have got in your bank account. b To money means to put it into a bank account. cA account is @ bank account that you can use at any time. It is called a checking account in the USA. d Ifyou ‘a cheque it means you give a cheque to someone and you validate it by signing it. ean is the amount of money you can take out of the bank even though your account does not have that much money in it fA is @ demand for payment for goods or services you have received, BA is a payment that you have to make to a professional person to do something for you. h To money means to take money out of a bank account. 1 tfyou cash you move it electronically from one bank account to another. i tfyou are for something it means that you are the right kind of person to have something, for example, because you are the right ase ‘or you have enough money. kK Bank are payments that you have to make to the bank for using your bank account. 1 Abank is a document that your bank sends to you. It tells you when you deposited money, when you withdrew money and how much you have in the account at the moment. 2 CCatherie Meson & Rosemary Aine 2007Help desk What do these words mean? an applicant — a person who wants to ask for something like a job or a bank account. an ATM machine/the ATM network ~ the machines that give money to bank customers. (Automated Telling Machines). In the UK an ATM is called a cashpoint. an automated payment — a payment that your bank will make every week or every month without needing your permission to do it each time. straightforward — simple and easy to understand. subject to status ~ depending on your age or how much money you have, for example, chip and PIN — the system of security for using, cards which contain a microchip. You have to put your card into a machine and then enter ‘your secret Personal Identification Number (PIN). to validate something - to make something legally acceptable. Exercise 3 Alison Goldsmith wants to open an account with the bank. Here is part of a conversation she has on the telephone with one of the bank’s employees. Put the conversation in the correct order. There is an exam- ple which is the start of the conversation. ‘@ ‘| might be interested in that. What benefits does the GOLD account have?” b ‘Hi, My name is Alison Goldsmith and I'm interested in opening a current account.’ © ‘Well, you can check your balance online 24 hours a day. And it has free telephone banking. Another good thing is you will pay no charges to issue cheques or withdraw cash.’ d ‘Hello, Royal Chatsworth Bank. Caria speaking, how may | help you?” Exercise 4 @ “That sounds very good. I'm busy, so it would be very handy to be able to do my banking, on the Intemet. | don’t issue many cheques these days but I withdraw cash almost every day so doing that for free will save me quite a lot in bank charges.” f ‘Certainly madam. We have a few different ‘types of current account. Shall | give you some details about our GOLD account? And then we ‘can check to see if you are eligible for it.” ‘OK Ms Goldsmith. | need to ask you some questions. It won't take too long...” Jumbled words. Look at the definitions below. The letters of the words that belong with each definition are mixed up. Put the letters in the correct order to spell the words. The first letter of each word is there for you. Example: An amount of money paid into a bank account. CREDIT (DRICET) a An amount of money that goes out of a bank account, D (EBD!) b Aword for all the money that you receive from your salary or from other things. It could be every month or every year. (MIENOC) wopepunog/vz wuni i 5 i © A.word for all of the money you spend, It could be every month or every year. 9 ___ (Gsonauior) d_ Avverb which means that you give something (often money} to someone else for a period of time. They must give it back to you. b (DELN) @ Avverb which means that you take something (often money) from someone else for a period of, time. You must give it back to them. B. (ROBWoR) f To have to pay some money to someone else. O (WoE) & A general word for money which you owe to someone else. D. (BETD) fh The colour we say your bank account is in if you spend more money from your account than you have in it. B (EDR) The colour we say your bank account is in if it has some money in it. B (CLKBA) Exercise 5 Put the correct word from Exercise 4 into these sentences. a [have an overdraft facility of £200 on my bank account. It means | can go £200 into the b_ My account shows two {for yesterday. One is for a pair of shoes that | bought when | was shopping in London and the other one is for paying for a repair to my car. A total of £445 went out of my account. © [need to some money because | want to buy @ new computer and | don’t have enough money of my own. Iwill ask the bank to me £2000 so | can buy that computer. e Ihave ‘which add up to £500, because | have to pay back £200 to my parents and £300 to the bank, 1 £500 in total, £200 to my parents and £300 to the bank. | receive a salary of £975 each month. | also teach a French evening class twice a week, for £20 every class. My total monthly is £1135. hh There are just two showing on my bank statement. One is my salary and the other is, some money that my mum paid into my account for my birthday. | Idid some extra work last month and yesterday they paid me for it. My bank account is finally in the I'm very pleased that | don't have an overdraft any more. J To own a caris very expensive as you have to pay for petrol, insurance and road tax. | am trying to reduce my total 0 | decided to sell my car. “ © cate Mason & Rosemay Atans 2007Exercise 6 Alison Goldsmith opened an account yesterday with the Royal Chatsworth Bank. This moming she received this letter from the bank. Read the letter and decide which is the correct preposition from the two possibilities. Write your answers in the spaces below. The Royal Chatsworth Bank 1 St Joseph's Square Chatsworth CHL 20D 20 January 20%X Ms Alison Goldsmith 22 Bluebell Crescent Chatsworth CH3 7FL Dear Ms Goldsmith Your GOLD ACCOUNT with The Royal Chatsworth Bank | Thank you for opening an account () with/in the Royal Chatsworth Bank. Your GOLD account number is 0008786598, You will receive a debit card and a PIN number (a) atiwithin the next three days. You can change this PIN number (b) from/at any ATM machine. ‘As a GOLD account customer you are eligible (¢) for/to a wide range of services. These include: * Call into your local branch (address above) for free and friendly advice 9am — 5pm Monday to Friday | Larger branches open Saturday momings (see website for details) Check and print off your balance (@) to/at any of our ATMs View and print off your current statement online Make bank transfers online Order foreign currency (e) from/for any branch Very competitive overdrafts and loans with low interest. We hope you will be very happy (f) for/with your new GOLD account. If you have any complaints or suggestions about how we can improve our service to you please call into your branch or telephone us. Yours sincerely Nueasl Fore Michael Rose (Account manager) Answers Example («) with a b © a e f © catnenne Mason & Rosemary tks 2007 45Unit 2A/Foundation Exercise 7 After Alison read the letter she had the following questions. Match each question with the bank’s answers. Alison's questions © What is an account number? (+) What is a branch of a bank? (1) What is foreign currency? (2) What is an ATM machine? (3) What a debit card? (4) an overdraft? (5) Bank's answers @ ‘itis an amount of money that you owe to the bank because you withdraw more from your current account than you have in it.” b ‘itis a card that allows you to withdraw cash from your current account or pay for goods or services electronically by taking money out of your current account, © ‘itis an amount of money that you borrow from the bank for an agreed period of time.” d- ‘It means to move money electronically from. ‘one bank account into another bank account.’ @ ‘itis. a personal number that identifies your bank account. No one else has the same number, f ‘Each country has its own currency. It is the ‘money in coins and notes that people use in that country.” WORKING IN A BANK What is a loan? (6) ‘What does ‘print off your balance’ mean? (7) What does ‘make bank transfers’ ‘mean? (8) What is interest? (9) What is a PIN number? (10) ‘It means to look at how much money you have in your bank account and receive a piece of paper showing that amount. You can do this at the bank's ATM machines.” It is a local office or bureau of your bank.” It is @ machine that is often outside a bank. It will give you money from your current ‘account if you put in your debit card and then enter your PIN number.’ I is the amount of money that a bank charges you for a loan or overdraft. We also pay interest to you on any money you save at our bank.” ‘Itis your personal identification number. This allows you to use your debit card at any ATM, or to pay for things with your debit card. You ‘must never tell anyone else this number.’ Read the following text about working in a bank. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Then complete the exercises that follow. | Key Vocabulary © account manager © interest rates | business account credit card | © savings account © credit history 6 © defaulted on loans jentity theft herve Mason & Rosemary Ati 2007‘My name is Michael Rose and | am an account manager for the Royal Chatsworth Bank. This means that | am not the general manager of the bank but that ! have responsibility for looking after the bank accounts of certain customers, We like to have new customers at the bank. New customers make money for the bank. When people have a current account with us we can then offer them other things from our range of services. We can offer them other bank accounts, for ‘example. If customers have a business we can open a business account for them. Or, if they want to save money for the future or for their children, we can offer them a savings account. We offer good interest rates on all our savings accounts. For example, the interest rate on our ‘SmartSave account is 4-39. This means for every £100 that someone saves we pay interest of £430 each year. The bank also offers a credit card to customers \who are eligible. A credit card allows people to buy things and pay for them later. It doesn’t take their ‘money out of their bank account immediately in the same way a5 a debit card. This means that we have to be very careful before we issue a credit card to someone, People can create big debts quite Exercise 1 Answer the following questions using a full sentence. Example question Example answer: : What is Michael Rose's job? a Why does the bank like to have new customers? Answer Quickiy! One of the things we do is to check a customer's eredit history. If they have @ good history of paying for things on time we are happy to give them a credit card. If they defaulted on loans or credit agreements in the past then we will refuse them a credit card. If someone defauits on a loan it means that they don’t pay the money back and the bank might have to go to court to try to get its money. One of the biggest problems we have with credit and debit cards these days is identity theft. Have you heard about it? If someone has your address ‘and your credit card or debit card details they can use your money to buy things or even to take money out of your bank account. We have to tell all of our new customers to be careful. In fact, we give ‘our new business customers a free shredder when they open their account. A shredder is a machine that cuts documents into tiny pieces so that no one can read them. We recommend that all of our customers destroy or shred old bank statements, and credit card receipts rather than throw them away. A credit card receipt is the piece of paper that proves that you have paid for something with your card. Itis very dangerous to lose it or throw it away because it might fall into the wrongs hands.” Michael Rose is an account manager for the Royal Chatsworth Bank, bb What can the bank do for customers who have a business? Answer: © What interest rate does the bank offer on its SmartSave account? Answer: d_ When does a debit card take money out of someone's account? Answer: @ What does to default on @ loan mean? Answer: f Ifa stranger has your address and your credit card number what can they do? Answer: © cater Mason & Rosemary At 2007 a worepunog/yz nunUnit 28/ Foundation Exercise 2 Decide if these statements are true or false. Michael Rose is responsible for the accounts of all of the True False bank's customers. b Every customer of the bank is offered a credit card. Tue False People who have a bad record of paying back their debts won't be Tue False allowed to have a credit card from this bank. The bank offers to shred old bank statements for its customers. Tue False € Areceipt is the same thing as a bil. Tue False LOANS Exercise 1 The application. Alison Goldsmith decides to take out a loan. She has to give the following information ‘on the application form. Read the information in the box and answer the questions, Alison Goldsmith is 28 years old. She is single. She is a photographer. She moved to Chatsworth six months ago. She bought a house. She bought 22 Bluebell Crescent, Chatsworth. She would like to take out a loan. She would like to borrow £5000 from the Royal Chatsworth Bank. She Wants to apply for the loan by posting her application to the bank because her home computer is broken at the moment so she can't do it online. She knows that the loan agreement requires her to give the bank a guarantee that they will have their money back. This guarantee is her house. ‘Alison wants to pay the money back in equal monthly parts. ‘a What is the name of the borrower? b_ What is the name of the lender? ‘What security is the borrower giving the lender? d_ What is the address of the property offered as security? @ What is the marital status of the borrower? f What sum of money does the borrower wish to have? & Does the borrower wish to emaill her application to the bank? hh Does the borrower wish to pay the loan back ina single payment or does she want to pay by instalments? 6 (Catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007Exercise 2 The decision. The bank must look at Alison’s loan application and decide whether to fend her the money that she wants. Read the information in the box and answer the questions. ‘The Royal Chatsworth Bank looked at Alison’s loan application yesterday. They looked at the information she gave to them and they had to decide if she is a good customer and that itis safe to lend money to her. To do this they had to check her credit history. Alison gave the bank permission to look at her credit history when she completed her application form. The information Alison gave to the bank is confidential. The bank promised not to tell anyone her personal details, for example, her address or her income, ‘The bank said ‘yes’ to Alison’s loan application. She received a letter from the bank this morning to tell her this, together with a loan agreement. The loan is for 36 months. The letter tells Alison that ‘she must sign and return the loan agreement and then they vil put the money into her current account. She cannot change her mind after the money is in her account. a When did the bank process Alison's loan application? bb When did Alison authorise the bank to check her credit history? ‘© What did the bank promise not to disclose to anyone? Did the bank approve Alison's loan or refuse it? eHow did the bank notify Alison about their decision? f What did the bank enclose with their letter? & How long does Alison have to repay the loan? hh Can Alison cancel the loan after the bank credit the money to her account? Exercise 3 Complete the following sentences with the correct preposition. ‘aI want to buy 2 new car, but | don’t have enough money. | need to borrow £3000 the bank. b Ineedto apply __a loan of £2000, © Jam very pleased as the bank agreed to lend £1000 me so that | can buy a computer. d_I’s the end of the month and | only have £12.36 my account, I'm glad it's pay day tomorrow. 1 cathesne Mason & Rosemary ks 2007 4 onepunoa/yz wun,i 5 Problems in paying back a loan. There are two very important words connected with repayment problems. These are: © arrears (noun) Arrears means money that someone owes to ‘someone and they promised to pay it back by a ‘certain date but didn’t, For example, in January, Harry took out a loan and agreed to pay it back. in monthly instalments. Each instalment must be paid on the first day of every month. Each instal- ment is £100. if Harry doesn't pay on 1 February he has arrears of £100. If he doesn’t pay again on 4 March, he has arrears of £200. How are arrears different from debt? Debt is not necessarily a bad thing. Most people have debt. Arrears are always 2 bad thing, It means you are not paying back your debt on the agreed date. Exercise 4 to acerue (verb) Accrue means to grow or accumulate. We use the word accrue to talk about accumulating interest. In our example, if Harry did not pay his monthly instalments in February or March he now has arrears of £200. Interest is accruing on the arrears at a rate of 15%. Put the correct word from the box below into the following sentences. You can use each word more than once. © arrears © accrue © accruing © debt ‘a | owe money on two credit cards, | have a loan and | have an overdraft. | have a lot of, but | always make all of my payments on time. | couldn't make the repayment on my car purchase agreement last month as | don't have enough money. The car company sent me a letter yesterday to say that my account is £147 in I your loan account falls into make the missing payment immediately. dif you don’t make a payment immediately, interest will of 10%. Engish people have a lot of improve their houses. f Interest is the bank will write a letter to you and ask you to on the arrears at a rate because everyone borrows a lot to have holidays or to on your debt at the rate of 18%. Catering Meson & Rosumary Atkins 2007UNIT 2A VOCABULARY CHECK These are the important words that you have studied in Unit 2A. You should make sure that you know these words before you go on to Unit 28. account account manager accrue applicant apply approve a loan arrears ATM authorise automated payment balance ‘bank account bank statement bank transfer bill in the black borrow borrower branch business account cancel charges cheque chip and PIN competitive a credit credit card credit check credit history currency current account debit debit card debt default deposit disciose eligible enclose fee (© Catherine Maton & Rosemary ns 2007 identity thett income instalments, interest interest rate internet banking issue lend lender loan loan rate mail marital status notify. ‘open an account outgoings overdraft owe pay PIN number process property (house) queue receipt in the rea repay savings account security statement subject to sum telephone banking transfer validate withdraw wonepunog/yz WunUnit 2A/Foundation TOLES FOUNDATION EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Look at the groups of words below. In each group, three of the words belong to the same subject area but there is one word that does not belong. Put a circle around the word that is the odd one out. Do not circle ‘more than one answer for each sentence. There is an example at the beginning (+), on ae 8 ene chee) ceded @ A overdraft B loan © balance D goods 2) A borrower B litigation © balance D account @ AA branch B manager © statement D tort @ A credit Bowe © interest D grounds © A landlord B savings © outgoings D money Exercise 2 Read the following pairs of sentences. For each pair of sentences there are two possibilities, A or B. Decide which sentence uses the correct preposition. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). Example (#) (A) Your balance is the amount of money that you have in your bank account. (8) Your balance is the amount of money that you have at your bank account. 1. (A)I'm interested for opening a new bank account. (8) I'm interested in opening a new bank account. 2 (A) There is no arrangement fee for overdrafts over to £5000. (B) There is no arrangement fee for overdrafts up to £5000. 3 (A) Is my client eligible for @ loan? (8) Is my client eligible with a loan? 4 (A) [have an overdraft facility of £1000 on my bank account. (8) | have an overdraft facility to £4000 on my bank account. 5 (A) We charge interest on loans at a rate of 4.3% a year. (8) We charge interest in loans at a rate of 4.3% a year. wa a 2) @ (4) 5) 52 © catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007Exercise 3 Read this newspaper article about a case in court and answer the questions that follow. Answer each question using a full sentence. No points are awarded for answers that are not a full sentence. There is an example at the beginning. Chatsworth woman in bank victory. A woman from Chatsworth won case in court yesterday against her bank. Ell Moran (aged 35) took her bank to court claiming that the financial charges the bank makes to customers for unauthorised ‘overdrafts is not fair. Ella's account is with the Gien Royal Bank, which has its head office in Edinburgh. The | ‘bank has a sinall branch in Talbot Road, Chatsworth, which opened in 1988, Last year a government department called the Office of | Fair Trading began an investigation of all UK banks folloving thousands of complaints from customers. People complained that some UK bans were charging their customers more than $100 for going over thei agreed overdraft limit, The Office of Fair Trading will | push ts report later dhisyear, bt Ela Moran deeded to take legal ation before this report i available. Ella Moran, who works for a Chatsworth travel agency, | spoke to us outside the courtroom yesterday. She said 1 hope the Office of Fair Trading supports many other people, But vas too angry to wait for them to help me’. | fla ora’ ged over init ith he Glen Roa Bankwas £500, However, in March of this year Ella's pay aurived at her bank three days later than sual. This Example question: How old is Ella Moran? Example answer: Elia Moran is 35 years old. a Where is the head office of the Glen Royal Bank? inant Ella's overdraft accidentally reached 8560, a8 she dido’t know her pay was late and withdrew money from hher aecount, The bank charged her a penalty of SLI8. Ms Moran told us ‘I was very angry indeed. 1 think the amount the bank charges people is very uaa. I got out lof my old bankstatements and ithas happened befor, ‘Last year the bank charged! me 50 for going over my overdraft limit by just 1.75.1 decided to see a lawyer Ms Moran was represented in court by Chatsworth solicitor, Barty Henshall. He told us “This is a great victory for the consumer. It was not difficult, as the bank didn’t file a defence. The bank has two weeks to pay my client $565. That pays back the unfair charges to Ms Moran as well as covering legal costs. We are delighted with today’s result Legal experts say that other unhappy customers should do the same as Ms Moran and take legal action against their banks for unfair overdraft charges. Consumer law says that penalty charges must only cover the real administrative costo the bank and must not be used! 0 make a profit. Banks are profiting from unauthorised overdraft fees by an amazing $4.7 billion a year. This amount will reduce very quickly if more customers follow the example of Ela Moran, A spokesman for the Glen Royal Bank refused to comment on the judgment, b_ When did the Chatsworth branch of the Glen Royal Bank open? Why did thousands of bank customers in the UK complain to the Office of Fair Trading last year? d_ Why did Ella Moran take legal action before the Office of Fair Trading made its report? @ What was Ella Moran's agreed overdraft limit with the Glen Royal Bank? £ Why did Ella Moran's overdraft accidentally reach £560? Who acted for Ella Moran in court? Why did Ella Moran win her case very easily? i. Why did the bank have to pay £565 to Ella Moran? J What does consumer law say that banks must not use penalty charges for? © catherine Maton & Remar ers 2007 wonepunea yz wunBe rr ae Ua ortoTHE LANGUAGE OF BANKING A BANK ACCOUNT Alison Finch has recently moved to the town of Chatsworth. She has just opened a new current account with the local bank, the Royal Chatsworth Bank. Because her annual income is over £30,000 Alison is eligible for a GOLD account. This is a current account which offers some privileges. The bank has given a leaflet to Alison which explains the GOLD account. The front cover of the leaflet ‘appears below. Read the information it gives to customers and do the exercise on the next page. Welcome to your SERVICES @ Over 400 branches nationwide @ Convenient telephone banking @ Internet banking for quick and easy transactions © Competitive loan rates @ Instant decisions on loans @ Zero commission foreign currency © Free legal information helpline. USING YOUR NEW ACCOUNT @ Secure PIN number @ Easy paying-in facilities @ Withdrawal facility of up to £200 a day at ATM machines AC i 0 Tl | a; @ interest-free overdraft facility © Single card for debit payments and cash withdrawals @ Optional identity theft insurance © Automatic travel insurance when you buy travel tickets using your GOLD account card. Your Caring Bank Sa MacOy rT (eutilatn quent) SuUnit 28,/Higher Exercise 1 ‘A-customer has telephoned the bank to ask for more information about the leaflet. An employee of the bank is explaining it in more detail. For each of her statements below, find the phrase from the leaflet which matches it. Statement Example: "You are covered worldwide. You may claim up to £4 milion tovards the cost of emergency medical treatment abroad and the cost of retuming you home. ‘We have a very straightforward, easy to use website. You can check your balance 24 hours a day and print off your current statement.” ‘All calls will be charged at local rates wherever you ring from in Engjand and Wales. Our staff are there to speak to you whenever you need to." “This number will be sent to you when you open ‘your account. If you want to change it you can do 0 at any branch of at one of our ATM machines.’ ‘This service provides information only. Please note that it cannot cover your legal costs or represent you in court.’ “If you wish to go into the red by more than this ‘amount please contact us for details of our interest rates for GOLD account customers.’ “Borrowing for any reason, from buying a car to consolidating all of your debts, is quick and easy. ‘You will have a decision within 15 minutes of making your application and if you are successful ‘the money will be available to you the same day.” Preposition bank © to open an account with a bank “I have two accounts with the Bank of Scotland.” to be eligible for something “You are not eligible for this type of account {as you don’t earn enough.” © to make a withdrawal from a bank account ‘I withdrew £400 from my account this ‘moming.” © to be covered by an insurance policy ‘if | am ill when | am abroad the bill will be covered by my insurance.” Phrase from leaflet Automatic travel insurance when you buy travel tickets using your GOLD account card. © to make a telephone call from a certain number or place Hello, | am calling from Chatsworth.” @ to have a decision within a certain period ‘Vil let you know my answer within the next week. to go Into the red “My account has gone into the red by £48 because | had to pay my gas bill and didn’t have enough money in my account.’Collocation bank © to open a bank © to withdraw money @ to be covered by © arrange of services account from a fen an insurance policy. +5 make an @ tocover yourlegal = 9°e0un! © aloan application —_—_ application for costs eto consshtate a literest ratate) something | « loan rate(s) your de | Exercise 2 10 minute crossword. This crossword contains words that you have seen in unit 2A. Complete as much of the crossword as you can in 10 minutes to see how many of the words you can remember. Some of the words may have changed their form. For example, if you learned the verb to withdraw in unit 2A, you may need the noun withdrawal to complete the crossword. Across 2 a borrower dges not make the repayments as agrees ‘when he or she takes Out a foan, the bank will eventually ‘deem that borrower to be in a 7. (need a loan. However, | want Borrow money as hoaoly a posable. wil compare 3 ‘offered by my bank with other High Street Banks Before | ‘make an application (8, 4) Net ary poopl py thing by writing a these days, as most people prefer to pay by direct debit ® 8.1 took £100 out of my account yesterday. | made this ‘at an ATM machine (10) 10. The total amount of money that @ person receives in a month from salary and other things. The opposite of ‘outgoings (6) 41..The amount of money that you have in your bank ‘account is formally known as your (7) 43. How much maney are you planning on e bank to buy a new car? (3) 4. In-order to process your loan | need to ask about ‘Aro you married, single or ‘rom Broad) Catharine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007 Down 1. If run out of money towards the end of the month I usualy put any purchases need o make on my 3-Tampledced toll you that your loan application nas been ‘and the money willbe in your account to¢ay (8) 4. Please note that you are in arrears on your loan and Interest is lay by day (®). 5. If you wOUld Tike to Know more about the bank's special oifers to new customers, please make an appointment (0 ‘speak to someone at your local 6) 6. The bank's customers recawve a every month ghng deals ofa activity on thelr Gurtantaccoum (9) Tam repaying my loan in equal monthly (11) 42. The opposite of borrower (8) 37 sowmnyez wenUnit 28 Higher AN EMAIL FROM THE BANK Exercise 1 Alison Finch has received this email from her bank. It talks about the problem of identity theft. Some of the words in the text are underlined. Match the underlined word or phrase with the definitions provided. @ x | 2 7/8 oh oeel font Fat ons |e woe [ia [et ——_Peww] ago conmans Tape istlecheuries Die Cosl [EL MaSinp EW Sinatwe fasion DeCusatis & ifsomeone (+) seas yur ety thoy can use te commit tau. Anyane whe has your parsnal bang deals ana your arass ‘an @)obtan mane), b) gods rss your ram A Stange can easily run up huge des your rae, ‘There are tho main ways in hh someone an sts! your ety ‘+ by mating contact wth you sr pretending to be fom 2c imate organiatin. They then tick ou it ing them your tale “by tang documents nat you have tran 2. hy may take ther a your rth To protect yousel: ‘be ex caetl i you Ino (0) 2 prporty whore others may hav acess to your mal + fyouthinkyourmal i gong missing, contac he Roya Mal customer cask + your paste cores ae lst or tle cane! them meet + chac your (bank statements a Saon as you get hem. ther isan unfaritar (h) ansston,eal us at ance + not ge you personal deta to anyone wr coracts ou by phone, even they) suman to be fr the bank rte police + donot tow awoy complete ils ) cea, bank steements 0 debleret coe ss, USE A SHREDDER, Underlined words from the email Definitions (00 stl means toe -~-Stop Something or to make something void. (1) ..document a customer receives from a bank giving to oblain means to.. \__detalis of payments in and out of their account. (2) » Rats take something that belongs to someone else. © to be legitimate means to be... --piece of business. (3) 2 property is a... -claim or to declare that something is true. (4) @ to cancel means to... «Get possession of something. (5) f Bien, piece of paper that proves that | have paid for something. (6) © a bank statement is 8. building (for example, a house). (7) ha transaction is a. things that are made to be sold. (8) 1 to purport means to. fal, genuine, lawful. (9) ja receipt is a... --l00k at the details of something and make sure they are correct. (10) 58 © Catherine Mason & Rosomary kine 2007(= usTENine Exercise 1 Alison Finch has decided to apply for a loan with the Royal Chatsworth Bank. Listen to her interview with her account manager and complete this page of Alison's application form. = LOAN APPLICATION ie ‘Thank you for choosing to apply for loan with the Royal Chatsworth Bank ‘To apply online you need: * To have a regular income and be aged 18 or over * To have a bank account in Engkind or Wales that can pay direct debits * To be a permanent resident of England and Wales SECTION 1: LOAN DETAILS Purpose of the loan: Loan amount Repayment period: SECTION 2: APPLICANT DETAILS Title: Surname: Forename: Date of birth: Email address Number of dependant children: Marital status: ‘Type of application: (single or joint) Have you been known by any other name (ine. maiden name) in the last 5 years? YES/NO. SECTION 3: CURRENT ADDRESS DETAILS House name/number: Post code: Residential status: (tenant or owner) Time at current address: (years and months) Home telephone: Mobile telephone number: © Catnerine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007 59 seudin/az wnJ THE LANGUAGE OF CONTRACT Here is an extract from a loan agreement. itis a small part of the contract that Alison Finch has with her bank to use online banking services. 1. SECURITY MEASURES 1a 1.2 13 The Customer is responsible for acting in accordance with all security procedures and. for making sure that any other Users you have authorised also (a) with all security procedures. The Customer must take all reasonable steps to keep their Password secret and ‘must not (b) it to anyone else including family members, Bank staff or anyone on our 24-hour helpdesk. If the Customer or any User authorised by the Customer thinks that a Password is, known to someone else they must (¢) the Bank immediately. The Bank will temporarily (d) the Customer's use of the Online Service until a new Password has been created. The Bank will try to resume a Customer's use of the Online Service as soon as we possibly can, | 2, CARRYING OUT YOUR INSTRUCTIONS 21 The Customer can (e) other Users to use the Online Service. The Bank does not need to get further authorisation or confirmation from the Customer. The Customer will not be liable for instruction(s) from themselves or a User under the following circumstances: @ the instruction(s) are received after the Customer has informed us that the Password is, known to someone else the instruction(s) were given as a result of some breach of security that the Bank does not (f) to the Customer or a User | ‘© The security codes have been breached due to the actions or negligence of 23 24 2.5 the Bank. ‘The Customer will be liable for instructions in all other cases. Once the Customer or a User has given an instruction itis not possible to ® or otherwise withdraw it. If circumstances should occur where the Bank (h) it reasonable to try to reverse or othenwise (1) invalid an instruction then the Customer will pay any related costs ‘The Bank may not be able to Gj) a transaction immediately. If you need to be sure that an instruction has reached us or the time when itis carried out is particularly important the Customer should call the 24-hour number which was provided with their account details. _! 60 ay Nine 2007Exercise 1 You will see that some of the words in the agreement start with a capital letter. This is because they are defined terms. They are words that are given a precise definition at the beginning of the agreement. Match these defined terms from the agreement with the definitions given below. Customer Password User Bank Online Service Definitions a means the secret word or combination of a word and a number known only to @ user which is used to confirm their identity and which gives access to the service. b means the system that allovis customers to give instructions about their bank account using their computer. © means you, the client, the person who holds the account with the bank. a means any other person you may have given permission to use the service. e means the organisation registered as ‘The Royal Chatsworth Bank’ Exercise 2 ‘Now complete the extract from the loan agreement with one of the following words. inform ‘suspend comply attribute process cancel deems render disclose authorise catherine Naan & Rosemany Atkins 2007 a segiy/az wnUnit 28/ Higher Exercise 3 Read the loan agreement again and find the relevant clause or clauses that deal with the following situations. ‘aA customer has telephoned the bank to say that he has lost his wallet in central London and the wallet contained his password. Money is transferred out of the customer's account four hours later. ‘The customer says that the bank is liable for this. Relevant clause? b A.customer buys some music CDs online and then decides the same day that he doesn’t want to buy them atter all. The customer calls the bank to cancel payment but the bank says that it's not possible, The customer then demands that the bank refunds £30 for the unwanted CDs. Relevant clause? © Acustomer wants a payment to be made urgently to pay for some goods she wants to buy for her business. She authorises payment for the goods online, confident that payment will be made quickly because the system has always been fast before. Unfortunately the seller of the goods doesn't receive the payment on time and sells the goods to someone else. The customer is furious and demands ‘compensation from the bank. Relevant clause? | Collocation bank © to hold an account with a bank © to take steps to do something © to render something invalid [ ee re ee » = @ | © a combination of two or more things to be authorised by someone to do something | | ‘The password for my email account is a ‘Lam authorised by my head office to give combination of letters and numbers.’ you a few more days to pay.’ information that is known to a person 10 be liable for something ‘Was the information known to anyone ‘We will not be liable for any car that is left in else except you? the car park of the bank. | © to be registered as a particular under the circumstances company name ‘Ym afraid that under the circumstances we ‘Her company is registered as Mitchell will have to refuse you the loan.’ Holdings plc.” 10 attribute something to someone to bohave in accordance with something, | attribute the success of the bank to our “The bank's legal department must draft customer care service the contract in accordance with English banking law. interest accrues on a debt or loan ‘1am writing to inform you that interest is, accruing on your overdraft at the rate of 18%. 6 Catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007THE REGISTER OF LETTER WRITING Exercise 1 Alison Finch has received this letter from her bank. Unfortunately, she hasn’t made all of her foan repayments. The words that are underlined in the letter are (00 informal. Complete the same letter on the next page by choosing a better word or phrase from those in the blue box. The Royal Chatsworth Bank 1. St Joseph's Square Chatsworth CH 20D 20th May 20Xx Ms Alison Finch 99 Belle Vue Avenue Chatsworth CHS 9QJ Dear Ms Finch ‘Your loan account: Ref FIN/790R/000932RCB | am writing to (a) tell you that your loan account with this bank, account number as. provided above, has (b) got late in its payments, AAs you were aware when you (¢) got this loan for £5000 in January of this year you agreed to pay back the total amount over a period of 36 months in monthly (a) parts of £186.11 by direct debit from your current account. The bank has been unable to (e) get your monthly payment for the last two months as there have been insufficient funds in your current account. Please note that interest is (f) growing on this outstanding amount and that the rate of interest (g) demanded by the bank on this outstanding amount is higher than our (h) normal rate. Despite a letter to you earlier this month | see that we have received no (i) answer from you. if we do not hear from you within seven days of the date of this letter you will be deemed by the bank to be G) not going to pay at all. The bank will then follow its usual recovery procedures through out legal department. Yours sincerely Nicrasll Fer Michael Rose (Account manager) iUnit 26, Higher oo accruing response ‘took out fallen into in default inform standard SAPO, charged collect instalments ‘The Royal Chatsworth Bank 1 St Joseph's Square Chatsworth CH1 20D 20th May 20xx Ms Alison Finch 39 Belle Yue Avenue Chatsworth CHS 9QJ Dear Ms Finch Your loan account: Ref FIN/790R/000932RCB lam writing to (a) you that your loan account with this bank, account number as provided above, has (b) ‘As you were aware when you (¢) this loan for £5000 in January of this year you agreed to pay back the total amount over a period of 86 months in monthly id) of £186.11 by direct debit from your current account. The bank has been unable to (e) your monthly payment for the last two months as there have been insufficient funds in your current account. Please note that interest is (f) on this outstanding amount and that the rate of interest (g) by the bank on this outstanding amount is higher than our (h) rate. Despite a letter to you earlier this month | see that we have received no (i) from you. if we do not hear from you within seven days of the date of this letter you will be deemed by the bank to be (j) . The bank will then follow its usual recovery procedures through our legal department. Yours sincerely Neha es, Michael Rose (Account manager)USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE Collocation review Complete these sentences with a collocation that you have seen a Ifyou need a new bank account | suggest you ‘one with the Royal Chatsworth Bank, as itis a very efficient and reliable organisation. b What of interest does your bank charge its customers for a business start-up loan? © Ihave an application fora loan but | don't know at the moment if my application has been successful. d_ I must go to an ATM machine immediately to ‘some money. At the moment | have nothing in my wallet! e When! am at the ATM machine | will how much money | have in there at the moment. the balance of my account as I am not sure f My bank offers a very wide of services, including telephone banking. g The legal helpline that my bank provides will give me advice but it will not my legal costs, hI have a lot of debts and | am thinking of over a long period of time. them into one large loan that | can pay off My bank does not always a transaction immediately and | have to call the bank if | ‘want to make sure that something has been done. it a loan two years ago but | fell into arrears when | became unemployed. Vocabulary review Complete these sentences with a word that you have seen, a Mybank has over 500 in cities and towns all over England, b_ I need to ask my bank if| can have an facility on my bank account. I need some ‘extta money for a few months but | don’t want a loan. © Ifyou use internet banking itis important that you never tell anyone your or else that person could access your account ontine. The bank all customers’ use of online banking for a few hours yesterday but the service resumed after two hours, [am in arrears with my loan payments and interest is ‘on the outstanding amount. Lam repaying my loan in of £250 per month. & Ifyou do not repay your loan as agreed, the bank can decide that you are in which means that the bank thinks you do not intend to repay the money that you owe. h My bank a very high rate of interest on arrears. © catherme Mason & Roseman Aes 2007 65 souny/az wenUnit 28/Higher i My bank account went into the {or a while last year but | paid the money back Quickly as | hate being in debt. J My bank sends me a to my home address every month. This document tells me what has gone into my bank account and what has been paid out. Preposition review Complete these sentences with the conect preposition. ‘a Last year | opened an account Uoyds Bank. b Yesterday | withdrew £100 _____ the ATM machine on Cambridge High Street. © My bank has written to me to say that | am not eligible aloan. Whats your date birth and what is your marital status? eHow long have you been your current address? f 1am authorised ‘my company to withdraw cash for my expenses. g 1am paying a very high rate interest on my loan and | am thinking of transferring my business to another bank. ham paying back my loan a period of five years. i lfwe do not hear from you seven days we will deem you to be in default. J The bank wil follow its usual recovery procedures: our legal department. 66 (© Cathenne Résson& Rosemary Akins 2007TOLES HIGHER EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Read the text below and think of the word that best fits each space. Use only one word in each space. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). The services offered by banks Current accounts Most banks offer customers a range of current accounts to choose from. A customer enters into a contract with the bank and must agree to the bank's terms and conditions that regulate their particular current. account. Most people need a current account for day-to-day transactions such as paying bills or « money from a cash machine. In many countries, the majority of people have their salary paid directly into the bank and they pay their bills by automated payment. There are usually no bank charges for transactions if your account is in (1) However, if you have an overdraft your account can be described as being ‘in the (2) (a5 opposed to ‘in the black’) and the bank may charge you for services such as paying bills. As well as offering current account facilities, most banks offer various other services to their customers. Loans When bank customers want to (3) out a loan, they need to find a borrowing arrangement that suits both their circumstances and their budget. Loans are usually repaid over a specified period of time, by paying @ certain amount each month. Some banks allow a borrower to delay the first repayment for a few ‘months, although after that the loan will have to be paid in equal monthly (4) over the agreed period of time. Any customer who chooses this option involving a ‘repayment holiday’ at the beginning of the repayment period should be aware that the bank charges (5) (on the loan from the day that the bank deposits the money borrowed into the customer's account. If a customer already has a current ‘account with the bank, the application process is easy. He or she can usually apply for the loan online, or call into the local (6) of the bank and speak to one of the staff who works there. Travel money When you travel abroad you will usually need to change your money into a different (7)__ 7 The exception is travellers who are from those European Union countries who are able to use the Euro in several member states. Before choosing @ bank or a bureau de change to exchange your money, itis a .g00d idea to check the exchange (8) as it may vary a great deal between different banks and, you can lose money if you don’t shop around for a good deal. Internet banking Internet banking gives you access to your account 24 hours a day. You can use it whenever you want to check your (9) , Which is the amount of money that you have in your account. You can also use it to make bank (20) online if you need to move money from one account into another. Most customers regard internet banking as being secure and easy to use. Example (+) withdrawing | i) © ee | ) ® @ ® lw (40) (© Cathe Mazon & Rosemary Akrs 2007 “or sevsiaaz wnUnit 28, Higher Exercise 2 Read the following extract from an agreement. The missing words are in the list below. For each gap choose the word which best fits into the space from the options provided. Use each option only once. White your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (»). FROM THE TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF AN OVERORAFT AGREEMENT 1. This overdraft will not be (+) by any charge. 2. Charges for using an authorised overdraft: | © The Bank will not charge interest if your overdraft does not (1) £100. © The Bank will charge 4.26% per month on an overdraft balance above £100. This gives an equivalent annual rate of 16.22%, Interest is (2) daily on the overdraft balance. 3. Charges for going over an agreed limit: © The Bank will charge you £12 if you become overdrawn without agreeing it with us first or if you go over the limit that you have agreed with us. We will charge you this amount each day your overdraft increases by £10 or more, We will do this up to a (3) of £100 each month. © The Bank will charge you a higher rate of interest when you become overdrawn without our ‘agreement. We will charge you the Unauthorised Overdraft Rate. This is (4) 2.20% per month, 4 Iisa condition of this overdraft that you make regular payments into your account. We may request full or partial repayment of your overdraft at any time. You can cancel this overdraft at any time but if you do so you must return any money you (5) us. (Aa) secured (8) currently (0) owe (A) calculated (©) exceed (©) maximum (2) AA aw (2) 3) @) ©) 68 © Catherne Mason & RosaExercise 3 Read the following sentences that have a preposition missing from them. For each sentence circle the preposition which best fits into the space from the options provided. Put a circle around the correct answer on the answer sheet. There is an example at the beginning (+). Do not mark more than one answer for each sentence. Example With this bank account you will pay no cherges («)___ the UK to issue cheques. 1 How much money do you have (1) your bank account at the moment? 2 She has not made a payment on her loan account this month so this morning she received a letter 2 her bank 3. Ihave just opened a new savings account (3) the Royal Chatsworth Bank. 4 Ifyou make a call to the bank, all calls are charged (4) local charge rates. 5 fl cannot make the repayments on my loan because | am ill and cannot work, will | be covered ©) my insurance policy? 6 My account went (6) the red by £200 last month. 7 Could you let me know (7) Tuesday if | will be able to borrow that amount as | want to go ahead and rent premises for my new business. 8 Ifyou use intemet banking you should make sure that your password isn't known (8) anyone else. 9 I'matraid that (@)__ the circumstances your insurance policy does not cover you for the missed payments. 10 Interest accrued (10) her savings at a very high rate. kon @in> © er Dor Cc) Aat B with C in Don @ A from Bto C of Din @ Aof Bin © on D with 4 Aat B with © through Don © A for Bin © with Dby © Ain B into © over Don oH) A for Bat C in D by ® At B with Cas Dat ® Aon Bat © under D for (10) A with, Bon Cat Dito sosn/az wnUnit 28, Hiner «c Listening Exercise 4 Listen to the interview between a radio presenter and an actress. Decide if the following statements are true or false. 41 Julie Barrie lives in London. 2. Julie Barrie saved half of the money that she made from her first job and she spent the other half. 3 Julie Barrie had to go into her bank for money because ATMs were not invented in the 1970s. 4. Julie Bantie’s rent was about £16 a week when she was a drama student. 5 Julie Barrie's overdraft limit was £41 when she was a drama student. 6 Julie Barrie needed £250 as a deposit to buy her house. 7 Julie Barrie's morgage was at a fixed-rate of approximatley 5% for the first five years. 8 Julie Barrie says that she owns four houses in total. 9 Julie Barrie says that she has no credit cards at all because the interest rates on them are too high. 10 Julie Barrie says that she doesn't like her son to carry casi in case he is mugged. True or false? (a (2) @) @) 5) —__ _ © (7) \® 1@ (40) © cathecne Mason & Rosemary Ans 2007© catherine Mason & Rostmay Akins 2007 n sous /az wonThe Pen of ener Law eT EES ed)THE LANGUAGE OF CONTRACT LAW A CONTRACT CASE Exercise 1 Diana Wiliams is a lawyer. Today she has a new client. Diana's notes from the meeting with her new client are below. Look at the headings in the blue box below. Read Diana's notes and give each paragraph the correct heading. General information What | need to do Client details Facts of the case New client notes Name: Charlotte Hewittson ‘Address: Chatsworth School of English, Braeburn House, Chatsworth, CH3 2S) Telephone: 0771 883567 ‘Appointment: 10 July, 2pm b Charlotte Hewittson has a language school in Chatsworth. Her school teaches English to foreign students, On the last Thursday of every month Charlotte takes her students for a day in London. They visit attractions like Madam Tussaud's and Buckingham Palace and they eat lunch in Hyde Park. Charlotte uses a local bus company to take her students to London. ‘The name of the bus company is Chatsworth Cit Travel. Charlotte fist used this bus company sik years ago. She trusts them and has a good working relationship with them, However, Charlotte never signs a contract with them. She always books the bus by phone, « On 2 June Charlotte telephoned the bus company to book the bus as usual for the last ‘Thursday of the month. Unfortunately it was lunchtime and no one was in the office. Charlotte left a message on the answering machine to make her usual booking. The bus company secretary called Charlotte back, but Charlotte was teaching her class. The secretary left a message for Charlotte. The message was, ‘We are very sorry Charlotte, but we can’t give you a bus on the last Thursday of this month. We will send one on Friday instead. Call us back immediately if this is not OK. If you don't call us our driver will be there on Friday’ Charlotte needed a bus for Thursday, not Friday, So, she used another bus company. She forgot to call Chatsworth CitiTravel to say that Friday was no good. The bus arrived on Friday morning. Now Chatsworth CitiTravel wants the cost of hiring the bus. This is £360. a | need to adhise Chartotte about paying CitiTravel the £360 that they are demanding from her. [My advice depends on Charlotte's situation with CitiTravel. If she has a contract with them she is obliged to pay. If there is no contract with them then there is no obligation to pay. Ceaterine Mason & Rosemary Akers 200 2 wonepunos/ve wunUnit 24/Foundation Exercise 2 Read the information in Exercise 1 again and decide if the following statements are true or false. Charlotte takes her students to London every Thursday. True False b Charlotte's students are not English. True False © Charlotte signed a contract with the bus company six years ago. True False d_ Charlotte agreed to use a CitiTravel bus on Friday instead of Thursday. Tue False fe The cost of hiring the CitiTravel bus is £360. Tue False Before you look at the next exercise decide if Charlotte has made a contract with Chatsworth CitiTravel, Yes No Maybe Exercise 3 Diana Williams's opinion about Charlotte's legal problem is in the box in Exercise 4. You will need the following words to complete the text. Match each word with the definition provided. (#) Offer means... —— 1.8 person who makes an offer. (1) ~ ~ 4 decision of a judge in an earlier case that other judges ‘must follow if the circumstances of the situation are the same or similar. (2) a. Acceptance means. b Offeror means. € proposal, the terms of which are certain. © Precedent means. that you must do something, It is necessary to do it. (3) d- Case means... ..2 legal agreement made between two or more parties. (4) .an unconditional agreement to what is proposed by the 8 ‘Contract heat ae ‘other party, (5) f Obliged means... ..2 set of arguments in a situation that might become legal or is already legal in nature. (6) Help desk What do these words mean? unconditional — absolute, without any doubts or parties - the people who have entered into a suggestions of change. contract or the people involved in a dispute. no good — an informal way of saying not suitable | ornot acceptable. "Exercise 4 Here is what Diana thinks about Charlotte's legal problem. Complete the text using the highlighted words from Exercise 3. Diana’s opinion Does Chariotte have a (a) with Chatsworth CitiTravel? In some legal systems around the world the answer is ‘Yes’ and in some it is ‘No’. Many lawyers will say its difficult to reach a definite conclusion, According to English law, Charlotte probably does not have a contract with the bus company. Because she has no contract with the bus company she is not (b) to pay the £360, What are my grounds for concluding that Charlotte has probably not made @ contract with CitiTraver? | Because there is a (¢) in English law that says (d) of an (e) cannot be made by silence. Acceptance must be actively communicated to the 0 In this (g) Therefore there is no contract. MORE ABOUT PRECEDENT Charlotte did not accept the bus company’s offer. We can say that Charlotte does not have a contract because there is a precedent case in Engfish law that says that acceptance of an offer cannot be made by silence. To make a contract Charlotte needed to call CitiTravel and accept their offer. Exercise 1 You are now going to read more about precedent. The most important words are in the key vocabulary. Read the text below. Decide if the statements on the next page are true or false. Key vocabulary © precedent © common law © courts of first instance _@ ratio decidendi Precedent comes from what is called the common law. The common law is one of the main sources of law in England and the USA, The common law developed after the year 1066, when the whole of England developed the same body of laws instead of each area having its own lacal laws ~ that is why itis called ‘common’. The common law covers both criminal and civil court decisions. [As judges’ decisions were written down, often described as ‘recorded’, in law reports that were common to the whole country, the idea of precedent developed. This means that when a judge decides the result of a particular case he or she must pay attention to the principles of law that ‘come from an earlier case dealing with the same or Gather Mason & Roseray Atkins 2007 © recorded © obiter dictum © binding © distinguishable similar points. In this way, a statement of law can become binding upon later judges and can became the law for everyone to follow. When does a particular decision, or pronouncement, by a judge become binding upan later judges? There are two important deciding factor 41. Judges in courts at the lowest level of decision- making, often called courts of first instance, do not normally create binding precedents. Itis the higher courts that issue binding rulings and the lower courts must follow them, 2. The pronouncement must form what is called the ratio decidendi of the case. This is Latin for ‘the reasoning behind the decision’. This is the part of 6 wonepunea/ve wunthe judge’s words that provides the legal reasoning for his or her decision. Everything else the judge ayS is called obiter dictum. Obiter dictum is. something that is not really necessary for the legal basis for the decision. Only the ratio decidendi Is binding. A later judge dealing with a similar case must decide which precedents are binding. He or she may decide that a precedent suggested by a lawyer is either: relevant to the case before him or her, or distinguishable from the present case, which means that the case is so different that the precedent does not apply in this particular situation. Many counties use a codified system. However, many people believe that the common law is more practical than a codified system because it was developed from real life situations that were presented to the courts, Common law and civil law mean exactly the same thing. Tue False b Recorded can mean written as well as recorded on disk. Tue False © Alljudges can make new precedents. Tue False Everything a judge says forms part of the precedent. Tue False e Sometimes a judge will say that a precedent suggested by a lawyer Tue False is not relevant. Help desk What do these words mean? a source of law ~ a place where law comes from, for example, a civil code. a principle of law ~ an accepted idea that forms part of the law. a body of laws ~ a collection of laws. All of them together. a factor — something that is important to consider when making a decision. a pronouncement ~ an old-fashioned word ‘meaning a judge's words at the end of a case giving his or her decision. relevant - of significance or importance to a Particular situation. Exercise 2 Choose one of the words or phrases from the key vocabulary in Exercise 1 to complete these sentences. 2a In England and the USA much of the law is based on the decisions made by judges. This source of law is called the law. 'b_ A judge's decision that forms the law for future cases is known as a ©The important part of a judge's pronouncement when he or she gives a decision in a precedent case is. Not the obiter dictum but the d_ Once a precedent is established it forms part of the law and is upon lower cours. e@ The lower c uns in the English system are called counts of frst 6 Catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007Exercise 3 Diana Willams is sending a short letter to Charlotte Hewittson about her case. The letter is in the wrong order. Put the parts of the letter into the coreet order. There is an example at the beginning, which is the start of the letter. Williams & Co 1 Dublin Square. Chatsworth CHA 10x Mrs C Hewittson 14. July 20% Chatsworth School of English Braeburn House Chatsworth CHS 28) (a) As | explained to you, the relevant precedent says that acceptance of an offer cannot be made by silence and you have told me that you did not call them. | will write to CitiTravel today on your behalf and make our opinion on this matter clear to them. (b) | enclose my account for your attention and hope that this matter is now at an end. If you have any further questions please do not hesitate to contact me. (©) Diana Williams (d) Your dispute with Chatsworth CitiTravel (e) | am pleased to confirm to you the advice that I gave you when you visited my office. In my opinion, you did not form a contract with CitiTravel as you did not accept their offer to provide you with a bus on Friday 28 June. (f) Thank you very much for coming to see me yesterday in connection with the above matter. if) Dear Ms Hewittson (h) My advice is then to do nothing more about this matter and wait to see if CitiTravel respond to our letter. i Yours sincerely D Won Me 2 ro) (4) 6) © iia) @) © Help desk What do these words mean? account - when the word is used in this way it means a bill or an invoice that someone must pay. Catherine Maton & Rosemary Aine 2007 n wonepunoa/ve 180Unit 3A/Foundation THE ELEMENTS OF A CONTRACT Ivis @ general principle of English and American contract law that all of the necessary elements must be present to make a contract. An element is a fundamental part of something, This is true of all contracts, both written and unvaitten. Exercise 1 Read the story below and decide if you think the two people concerned, Charles and Maria, have a contract. In the space provided, write why you think this situation is contractual/non-contractual. Think about the elements of a contract in your country. Maria is Charles's girlfriend, The relationship started eight months ago. Charles asks Maria if she Would like to go to Italy with him for a skiing holiday. Maria agrees. Charles pays for the holiday on his credit card. The cost is £2500 in total. However, a week before the holiday Maria meets Will. She calls Charles and explains that she is now Will's girifriend and she doesn't want the holiday. Charles is very angry. He demands £1250 from Maria and says she has to pay. She says she thinks the holiday was a present from him. Charles says the holiday was not a present because Maria has a great job and makes more money than him. | Do they have a contract? WhyWhy not? My reasons: We will return to this question later to check your conclusion. First, we need to look at the vocabulary that Yyou need to be able to talk about the elements of a contract according to English and American law. Exercise 2 The English courts have an objective test to decide if a contract exists in a particular situation or not. The ‘court iooks for a list of things that are the necessary elements of a contract. Look at the words in the box and circle those that you think might be one of the elements according to English law. Then look at the explanation on the next page to see if you are correct. subject offer motivation proposal object topic acceptance value consideration receipt intention price 8 Catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007‘The elements of an English contract are from the common law. They might be different from the elements of a contract in other countries. The elements of an English contract are: © offer © acceptance © consideration « intention. The other words in the blue box are not elements of a contract according to the common law. However, they are all words that lawyers from civil code systems sometimes use. If you use the other words in the box you may have to explain what you mean to a lawyer from the common law system. Exercise 3 Read the information below about the elements of a contract. Complete the text below by writing the correct element of a contract after its description. To form a binding contract according to English law, four elements must be present. © The first of these is where one of the parties makes a proposal to the other party. The proposal is on absolutely certain terms. For example, ‘I will sell you my car cleaning business on 4 January for £20,000’. This proposal is called an (a) © In order to make the contract valid, the parties must exchange something, Each of them must give something to the other, such as money, work or goods. In the above example one party exchanges a car cleaning business in retum for £20,000. Each gives something to the other. If one party promises the other a gift (in retum for nothing) then in a situation like this the parties do not usually have a contract. So, another element of a contract is (b) © The courts look at the relationship between the two parties. The courts decide if the parties really want to make things legally binding in this particular situation or not. If | agree to do some work for my mother or my father did | really mean to make the agreement legal? Did | have (c) 2 © Itis absolutely necessary that @ person accepting an offer does not change the terms of the original offer. For example, if { say, ‘ will buy your car cleaning business. But not for £20,000 as you ask. | will give you £15,000", then there is no binding contract because there was no (d) Go back to your reasons for deciding whether or not Charles and Maria have a contract. Gan you see all four elements? What do you think a judge from your country would say? It is one of those cases where itis ifficult 1 give a definite answer. My notes: © Cather Mason & Roseman Aine 2007 cy wonepunog ve wanTHE END OF AN OFFER ‘Sometimes a contract cannot be made because the offer comes to an end before it can be accepted. In other words, the offer is no longer open to acceptance. Lawyers refer to the people who make and receive the offer as follows: © The person who makes an offer is called the offeror. ‘© The person who receives the offer is called the offeree. Exercise 1 Jumbled words. In each of the situations described below the letters of one of the words are mixed up. Put the letters in the correct order to spell the words. The first letter of each word is there for you. Then give the name of the offeror and the offeree in each situation. ‘a David Jackson has a new job. When he starts work the company, DDS Furniture Ltd, offers him shares in the company at a special, cheap price. A year after he starts the job he decides to accept the offer to buy the shares. His employer tells him he cannot accept the offer. This is because the offer has, L (ELPDAS). It means too much time has passed. The offeror is The offeree is b Julie Smith buys a new computer. She advertises her old one for sale for £50. Alex Harrison calls and suggests paying Julie £30. Julie refuses. Alex then suggests £40 but Julie refuses. Julie says the reason is that Alex made a © (TREUNOC-ORFFE). The legal effect is to cancel the original offer. The offeror is _ The offeree is ¢ Jamie Hammond decides to sell his ear to Ben Wardle, Ben says, ‘No thank you’. The offer was R___(CJEDETER). The legal effect is to cancel the offer. The offeror is The offeree is d_ Mia Thomas decides to sell her house. She offers the house for sale at a price of £190,000. Andrea Stewart decides to buy it. However, before Andrea can accept the offer, Mia changes her mind and decides to keep the house. The offer is R (KVDREEO) o” in other words, Mia withdraws. the offer. The offeror is The offeree is Py (© Catharine Mason & Rosemary tans 2007WHAT IS CONSIDERATION? Exercise 1 Read the following text. It is about consideration in contract law. Choose the correct word from the text to complete the sentences below. Offer and acceptance are not enough to make a contract. There also needs to be two other elements. They are: intention to create a legal relationship, and consideration ‘What is consideration? Consideration is what one arty promises to give to, or promises to do for, the other party. Both parties need to provide consideration to make a contract valid. There are many precedents in English law where judges decide what is good consideration and what is not. Consideration is usually one of the following things: © a promise to do something 2 promise not to do something in the future (sometimes called forbearance) ‘goods services money. A promise of a gift or of a free service does not usually create a contractual situation according to English law. This is because one of the parties has nat provided consideration. To make a contract, both parties must give something or do something for the other in a kind of exchange. A lawyer escribes this by saying that consideration must be reciprocal. It must travel in both directions. If consideration is @ good thing for a party and is Positive in nature, we say that he or she has gained a benefit. Receiving a payment of money would be an example of this. However, sometimes the consideration provided is negative in nature. Let's imagine an employee agrees in his or her employment contract not to start a business for two years after the contract terminates. He or she has Promised not to do something in the future. We say that this party has suffered a detriment. | promise to tidy a friend’s garden because she is ill {don’t want to be paid. However, | am busy and | don't tidy the garden for her. Is our agreement a contract? No, it isn’t. Why not? It is not a contract because one of the parties to the agreement has not provided cansideration. Consideration is a fundamental principle of Engfish contract law. a As well as offer, acceptance and consideration, the parties to a contract need to have to create a legal relationship. b To make a legally binding contract both parties must consideration. © To find out wnat is good consideration for a contract | need to check the relevant to see what judges say about it. dA promise not to do something in the future can be good consideration for a contract. Lawyers usually call this e Both parties to the contract must provide consideration, in other words it must be f If receive something positive under the contract | gain a & Ifllose something under the contract | suffer a herne Mason & Rosemary Ans 204 a onepunog ve wenUnit 28/Foundation Exercise 2 —£ Look in the grid below and find the following words. The words can be found in acceptance offeror source consideration detriment case binging obiter revoke precedent ratio benefit contract intend offer factor e|[nJoj/rJelelejeytayalyefte rfuftfefrfef[rjo[t]tclale pE;P{[TIA;[N{[C]E)E}]K/T]Ala ofrfe{n{[o[r{[c{tfvfcfc]x FlnJre[refifeve];r{[sfofr]r Flaf[t[e]nfecfofuve}tsalxfr ej/c{w{r{[efofelei[nyifule R[«[alc{[ajlo|[n|{[mfe][t]lo]es ofefiftfefe[rtr[o[rle]rfs Thefif[m[le]n]{[tfefifrfelfn ceftfifrfufrlalrt]{r{ale|o rfe[n[efof[r{virfa]ft]{ri[a ofn{[sfifofe[r{[alt]i fo fn uf Ric r{n[rfcfafs]r{r alt] ifofz][s[cfaleli[rtfe CONTRACT AND STATUTE Exercise 1 Much moder contract law comes from statute. You are going to read about statute. Read the text and write the highlighted words in the text next to the meanings given on the next page. The common law is one source of contract law. Another is statute. A statute is a law made by Parliament. We can say that judges make the common law but Parliament creates statutes. A statute passes through three stages: © The House of Commons ‘This is the most powerful of Parliament's two chambers. These chambers are usually known as Houses. The House of Commons has 639 members, who are elected when the whole country votes in a general election. These members of the House are called MPs. A statute Ccaherme Mason & Rosemary Ans 2007begins in this House. The House of Commons has only 427 seats. When itis full a lot of people have to stand! © The House of Lords This is Parliament's second chamber. Its main function is to check new laws, which were proposed in the House of Commons. The House of Lords has 675 members who come from a variety of backgrounds. This House does not have the power to stop a proposed statute from becoming law, but it can slow it down. Some members of this House are not elected. These ‘members get their seats from the monarch (the King or Queen) on the advice of the Prime Minister. © The Monarchy ‘The monarch has to give permission before a new statute becomes law. This is because the King or Queen is the Head of State. This permission is called giving the ‘Royal Assent’. However, the monarch always accepts the advice of his or her government. In fact, the monarch does not even have the full text of the proposed statute, only the title of it. The last monarch to reject a proposed statute was Queen Anne, who died in 1715, There are three words for the law made by Parliament. They refer to the same thing. They are: © Statute. This is often called statutory law © Acts of Parliament © Legistation. This is the collective word for all statutes. Example: The law that comes from the decisions of judges and is based on precedent. Common law a The main law-making body in England. bb Members of Parliament. ¢ Alaw made in Parliament. 1d Chosen by the people to be a political representative. @ Aword meaning all of the laws made by Parliament. f Asystem of choosing new Members of Parliament. All of the people have a vote. Exercise 2 Read the text about statute carefully and decide if the following statements are true or false. ‘@ Astatute is the same thing as an Act of Parliament. b Astatute always starts in the House of Lords. Members of the House of Commons are elected but some members of the House of Lords are not. d__ The King or Queen often stop a new statute if they disagree with it © Legislation is another word for a single statute, True False True False True False Tue False Tue False aExercise 3 Look at this very short text. It is about a statute. Look at the words that are highlighted in the text. Without using a dictionary decide if each word is a verb or a noun. ‘The Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 (UCTA) is an example of a statute that deals with contract law, It covers transactions between people. ‘This statute places some restrictions upon the contract terms people can agree to. One particular part of it deals with the ways in which people that are selling something can limit their liability for negligence. Verb Noun Exercise 4 Here are the definitions of the highlighted words in Exercise 3. Put the correct word into each sentence to complete the definition. aA is a piece of business, such as buying or selling something. b To something is to deal with, or include something. cA is a limit that is put on something. difyou have for something it means that you have legal responsibilty for it e The of @ contract are its contents. It means the conditions and duties that you agree to perform when you enter into the contract. f To 4 restriction upon someone is to put limits upon what they are allowed to do. Exercise 5 Using the words ‘term’ and ‘terms’, These can be confusing words because they can have more than one meaning when lawyers use them. Read the explanation about the meaning of these words. in the sentences opposite, decide which of the four options you need to complete the sentence. Then identity which meaning of the word is the correct one. Terms Term 1. terms: All of the duties and conditions 1. term: A single duty or condition contained in a contained in a contract. contract. It is sometimes called a provision. Example sentence: She explained the terms Example sentence: There is a term in this of the contract to her client. contract that forbids you to sell goods in. Australia or New Zealand. 2. terms: Words and expressions, Example sentence: A laviyer sometimes uses 2 term: The duration of a contract. legal terms that his client might not Example sentence: The term of this contract understand i one year from the date of signing a © Caterine Mason &Example: The _term_ of this contract is one year, commencing on the date of signature. (_term 2 a Some of the any more. ( b Fortheentire information to any third party.(__— © There is usually a Contract in case of disputes. ( ) 1d When you sign a contract you agree to all of the Help desk What do these words mean? third party — someone who is not one of the ‘two main parties involved in a contract or a particular situation. Jurisdiction — legal power over a geographical area or people. READING CONTRACT LAW Exercise 1 Used in this letter are very old-fashioned and lawyers don't really use them of this contract the Employee shall not disclose any confidential in most commercial contracts dealing with the jurisdiction of the that it contains. ( i condition — something that you have to do in order for something else to happen. entire — complete or whole. disclose — tell. You are now going to read more about contract law. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Decide if the statements on the next page are true or false. Key vocabulary contrary © under duress comply with contract under seal enforceable © donation sum void consent capacity to contract voluntarily deed party in breach injured party © discharged breach In general, businesses are free to enter into whatever contracts they agree between themselves. However, business contracts must not be contrary to (against) case law or to Acts of Parliament such as the Unfair Contract Terms Act. If the contents of a contract, usually called the terms and conditions, do not comply with the law, meaning they don’t follow the law correctly, then a judge will probably decide that the contract is void. Void means ‘empty’ It is not an enforceable contract. It is not a contract that a court will recognise as valid. It is @ general rule that both parties to the contract ‘must have capacity to contract. This means that when @ person signs a contract they must be: old enough to consent (say yes) to it; and hot mentally ill; and not drunk or using drugs. Itis another general rule that both parties must enter into the contract voluntarily. This means that they must have signed it freely and not under duress (pressure). 85, wonepunog/¥e wnA contract may be: © written; or © oral (spoken); or © inthe form of a deed. ‘A deed is sometimes called 2 contract under seal, It is @ special contract that is legal even though one of the parties has not provided consideration. A promise of a gift or donation for example, can be a valid contract if the agreement takes the form of a Acts of Parliament conceming contract law are to protect the public and they do not affect businesses at all b fa contract is void it will not be enforceable by a court. © If sign a contract after drinking a whole bottle of wine and three beers the contract might not be valid. d__ In very special circumstances it is possible to have a contract where deed. An oral contract is binding according to English law. Even if @ contract involves a large sum of money, itis still valid if itis not written. When a contract comes to an end we say that the contract is discharged. If the contract is discharged because one of the parties does not fulfil their obligations it is called @ breach. if one party breaches the contract the injured party can sue the party in breach. The injured party is the claimant and the party in breach is the defendant. one of the parties does not provide consideration. e The injured party and the party in breach are the same person. Exercise 2 True False True False True False True False True False Choose a word or phrase from the key vocabulary in Exercise 1. to complete the sentences below. a You are only 16 years old so you do not have to contract. b Acontract that is valid even though one of the parties has not provided consideration usually takes the form of a contract under © We made an oral contract and even though it involves a very large not need to be in writing to be valid. d_ There are various ways in which a contract can be ‘or breach. @ Ifa contract is binding then itis You did not fulfil your obligations under this contract and as the sue you for breach. & Did you sign the contract, One of the terms of this contract is not vali, i If | promise to make @ the agreement takes the form of a deed. J Any private agreement must of money it does including performance of all duties bya court. I have the right to or was it signed under duress? to the Sale of Goods Act and the term is therefore to @ person or an organisation itis a legally binding contract if vith all relevant law, including Acts of Parliament. Catherre Maton & Rosemary Mhns 2007GOING TO COURT The following exercises are about a dispute. This dispute is about a breach of contract. Exercise 1 Read the facts and decide if the statements that follow are true or false. John Oliver is the owner of a car business called Oliver's Auto. John Oliver sells second-hand (used) cars in Chatsworth. Many of the cars that John Oliver sells previously belonged to a taxi company. Two months ago, John Oliver sold a car to a woman named Susan Hicks. Susan Hicks paid for the car by cheque. The cost was £1000. The car was not a good one. It stopped working twice in the first week that Susan bought it. Susan was angjy and went to John Oliver's office. Susan asked John Oliver to give her a different car. He refused. Susan telephoned her bank and cancelled the cheque. John Oliver did not receive any money. The car is at Susan's house. The car will not stat. ‘Susan telephoned John Oliver last week and said he can collect his broken car any time he wants to. John Oliver refused, He decided to sue Susan Hicks for breach of contract on the grounds that she did not pay him. Yesterday Susan received a claim from Chatsworth County Court, which is the local civil court. John Oliver is claiming £1000 from her for the car, plus a court fee of £60. His total claim is £1060. ‘a John Oliver owns a taxi business in Chatsworth. True False Susan Hicks did not pay in cash for the car she bought from John Oliver. True False ‘© Susan Hicks telephoned John Oiiver to ask him for a different car. Tue False d__John Oliver collected the car from Susan's house last week. True False @ John Oliver is not claiming any interest on the £1000 he says Susan True False owes to him. Exercise 2 ‘Susan now receives a claim from Chatsworth County Court. There are some words in the claim form that she does not understand. Her questions are below. Match her questions with the correct answer. a What is 2 claimant? It means to start an action against someone in the civil court. (1) b What is defendant? Itis something that you sufer as a direct resut of the breach of contract. (2) © What does sue mean? It is something that you suffer as an indirect result of the breach of contract. (3) d_ What does defective mean? Its the person who starts the legal action. (4) © Whatis direct loss? Its the person who the claimant is making a Claim against. (5) f What is consequential loss? It means faulty — not working correctiy. (6) © Camere Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007 a7 wonepunog/¥e 1Unit 3A/Foundation Exercise 3 Use the highlighted words from Exercise 2 to complete these sentences. a | must retum the goods that you delivered to my shop yesterday as they are ail and | cannot sell things that do not work property. b_ Mr Wilkes breached the contract because he delivered the goods two weeks late. As an immediate result of this | suffered a___—___loss of £2000 because | could not sell the goods to the: buyer who was waiting for them. € You must pay what you owe me at once or I will you in the County Court. ‘d_ When the claim form was served upon the he decided to pay the money that he owed to the claimant, @ The loss that you suffered as a breach of the contract was not a direct result of the breach. A court will say that this is loss. f Several people owe money to my business and as a result | am the in three different cases in the County Court. 88 (© Catherine Nscon & Rosemary Atkins 2007UNIT 3A VOCABULARY CHECK These are the important words that you have studied in Unit 3A. You should make sure that you know these words before you go on to Unit 3B. acceptance Act of Partiament benefit binding body of laws breach capacity case claimant common law comply concition consent consequential loss consideration contract contract under seal contrary courts of fist instance cover deed defective defendant detriment direct loss sischarged disclose alispute distinguishable donation duress uy elected enforceable entire factor forbid general election House of Commons House of Lords © Catherine Mason & Roserary Rkins 2007 injured party intention issue jurisdiction legislation liability Member of Parliament (MP) monarchy obiter dictum obliged offer offeree offeror parties Party in breach place precedent principle of taw pronouncement propose ratio decidendi reciprocal recorded relevant restrictions revoke senior court source of law statute sue sum term terms third party transaction unconditionally valid void voluntarily wonepunoa/ye wnTOLES FOUNDATION EXAM PRACTICE 3 = Exercise 1 = Lookat the groups of words below. In each group, three ofthe words belong tothe same subject area but 5 there is one word that does not belong. Puta circle around the word that is the odd one out. Do not circle Spree tian ane. cnsher tor bach Seieree: There ean ararndle-attia beshiviha « A offer B acceptance binding) D consideration @ A common law —_B precedent © ratio decidendi statute @ A revoked B rejected © factor D lapsed ® AMP B obiter dictum election D Pariament @ A donation B deed © contract under seal duress @ A sue B claimant © defendant D legislation Exercise 2 Read the following pairs of sentences. For each pair of sentences there are two possibilities, A or B, Decide which sentence uses the correct preposition. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). Example (#) (A) Contracts must not be contrary to Acts of Parliament. (8) Contracts must not be contrary at Acts of Parliament. 1. (A) A precedent is binding upon later cases that are the same or similar in nature. (B) A precedent is binding to later cases that are the same or similar in nature. 2. (A) The lowest courts are called courts for first instance. (8) The lowest courts are called courts of first instance. 3. (A) The company offered David some shares on a special price. (B) The company offered David some shares at a special price. 4 (A) Forbearance is a promise nat to do something in the future. (B) Forbearance is a promise not to do something at the future. 5 (A) The contract is not valid because Mr Jackson signed it against duress. (B) The contract is not valid because Mr Jackson signed it under duress. A w |@ 3) 4) 3) 90 Catherine Mason & Rosemoy Aikne 2007Exercise 3 Look at this list of words. They are all nouns. Put the correct word into the following sentences. White your answers in the boxes numbered 1 - 10 below. There is an example at the beginning (+). (AA) loss. (c) sum (F) term () lability (A) capacity (D) detriment (G) consent () dispute (8) donation (E) factor (H) offer Example (+) A direct («) Is something that the injured party suffers as a direct result of a breach of contract. 1. The boy is only 14 years old so according to English law he does not have (1) to contract. 2. When the parties to a contract exchange consideration they must gain a benefit or suffer a (2). 3 The (3)___of Peter's employment contract is six months, 4 Aperson’s age is one important (4) _that decides whether or not a person has capacity to contract. 5 In the UK the common law says that acceptance of an (5)__cannot be made by silence. 6 In Engiand a promise of making a (6) or giving someone a gift is not usually an enforceable promise because one of the parties has not provided consideration. 7 In some countries it is possible for one party to a contract to limit his or her (7) for negligence under that contract. 8 To ghe your (8) to something means to give your permission for something to happen. 9 Theresa) between Mr Greene and Mr Cox. Mr Greene issued a claim last week. 10 My client claims the (10) of £5000 in damages. (AA cry 2) @ (4) © 6 a i) 9) (10) CCaharn Maton & Rosorany Atkins 2007 1 onepunos/ve wuntem Brier) Unit 3B/HigherTHE LANGUAGE OF CONTRACT LAW WHERE DOES CONTRACT LAW COME FROM? Exercise 1 Jack Winter and Shelley Hirst are first-year law students at the University of Chatsworth. Their studies will begin with contract law. The head of the law faculty has asked first-year students to read a book called ‘An Introduction to English Contract Law’ before they come to their first lecture. The first section of the ‘book that Jack and Shelley have to read is about the sources of English law. This page is on the subject of statute. Fill the gaps in the text with a word or phrase from the box below. © amendments © drafted © into force © rejects © administrative © MP formality © legislation © approves © elected An Introduction to English Contract Law Chapter 1: Sources of English lav {In England there is no civil code. English contract law is therefore not codified. Instead we derive from two main sources, which are statute (law made by Parliament) and ease law (aw made by nr Law idge Statute § states also calle an Act of Parliament. In England, statues have been the most common source of ‘new contract law since the 17th century. A new statute passes through three st ‘Stage 1: proposal is made for a new law. A proposal can come from either a government department or an individual (a) This stands for ‘Member of Parliament f the proposal comes from a government department, then itll usually be (b) bya lawyer in the Civil Service. The Givi Service is the organisation which manages the governments (€) afais. This proposal for a new Act of Parliament has tobe drafted, sometimes called “drawn up it accurately states the government’ intentions and it must be as unambiguous as possible in the Janguage that it uses. Instructions as to what isto be included in the propos are given tothe Ci Service by the government department responsible for it. When the proposal is drafted and published, it is then referred to as ‘a Bill’. private member's Bill is Bill pu forward for consideration by an individual MP. Relatively few private members’ Bills become law as compared to those introduced by the government. Bills debated in the House of Commons. If the House of Commons (a) ‘Bill, which it does by taking a vote, then it is passed on to the next stage. Stage 2: The House of Lords now debate the Bill The members ofthe House of Lords can suggest ©@__tothe Bill and if they do so, it will go back to the Commons for its consideration of the proposed changes, The power of the House of Lords is limited and a Bill can become law even if the House of Lords (0 it This is because the role of the House of Lord i to advise and to make suggestions rather than to formufate it. The process reflects the fact thatthe House of Commons is democratically (®) body and the House of Lords is not. When «Bill as passed through the House of Lords i goes on tothe Final stage. Stage 3: The monarch (the King or the Queen) gives the royal approval tothe Bil. This is called the Royal assent. This i actually only a (h) is the monarch does not even see the fll text of the Bill. Once the Royal Assent is given toa Bil, the new Act of Parliament will come (0, cn the date stated in the Act itself, or at midnight on the day tha the Royal Assent is received. AT of the statutes created by Parliament are known collectively as (j) 93 soya wnUnit 38, Mier Anote about the USA ‘The process is very similar in the United States. In the USA a new Bill has to be passed by Congfess. Cor Ingress Is constituted of two chambers. These are the House of Representatives and the Senate. Both chambers must approve the Bill. It then needs the signature of the President to become law. Exercise 2 The second page of the book that Jack and Shelley have to read contains information on the subject of case law. Fil the gaps in the text with a word from the box below. © binding © judgment © distinguish © precedent © judge © instance © guidance ‘© common Case law Case law comes from judges. It is also known by two other names. These * The (a) law, and (6) ade tae Ifa judge makes a decision on point of aw that has never been considered in court before, the judge's mn ean become a statement of law. In the English legal system this statement forms the lw for the future. Itis called a (©) em of precedent is that the legal reasons for past decisions must be clear, For this reason, a (d) given, or handed down’, at the end of a case includes the judge’s reasoning in giving his or her decision. In other words, as well as giving a summary of the facts ofthe case, a judge will also explain the principle of law he or she used in coming to the decision ‘These reasons for deciding the case are known as the ‘ratio decidendi’ and this is what creates the precedent for future judges to follow. The rest of what the judge says is known asthe ‘biter dicta’ and judges in future cases do not have to follow it, can be problematic for nwyers to separate the ratio decidendi from the obiter dicta because the judgment does not contain any (e) sto which is which, An important principle of th ‘There are two important factors in deciding whether a judge’s decision becomes (f ‘upon future cases, meaning that there is an obligation to follow it: * The decision that forms the precedent must have come from a court senior to the court hearing the later case. Judges at the lower levels of decision-making. often called courts of first @ do not generally issue binding precedents * The facts ofthe later case must be similar enough tothe facts ofthe precedent case. A judge can decide thatthe material facts of the case before him or her are sufficiently different to allow him or her to | wy) between this later case and the precedent. Itis also possible fora court ina later case to decide thatthe precedent created by an earlier case should no longer be the controlling law and a new precedent is set. This is called overruling. However, the later court must be of higher level than the original court. The House of Lord, which isthe highest court in the URsistem, can overrule its own earlier decisions. Aer the House of Lords, decisions can be overruled by the European courts ‘Caselaw and statute are where most English law and certainly most English contract la come from. To find out more o to read some cases you can visit the lay reports website at www.lawreports.co.uk ‘Tofind out more about statute or to real some modern statutes from the UK you can visit the website of | the Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI) at www.opsi.gov.uk © Cathenne Mason & Rosemary Ans 2007ti ® © a source of law © to suggest an amendment © to issue a new precedent © to draft a Bill © tomake a decision © to decide a case © to draw up a Bill © to form a new law © tomake a proposal/suggestion © to debate a Bil © to hand down a judgment Preposition bank @ © a source of law to come into force ‘Leg(slation is the UK's most important “The new Act of Parliament will come into source of law.” force at midnight tonight.” © tobe drafted by a lawyer © a precedent is binding on/upon lower courts “Tris Bill was drafted by @ lawyer in the “A precedent from 1908 is binding upon Cv Service, the court in this type of situation.” © to put an idea forward for consideration © to be made by someone or something ‘This idea was put forward for consideration “This decision was made by a judge in 1985." by the Department of Health.” © to pass through a stage (that is one of © to suggest an amendment to something several stages) “The House of Lords is suggesting two “The proposal for @ new Education Actis still significant amendments to this Bill” passing through the early stages. Exercise 3 Here is @ short text about statute. Complete the gaps in the text with the correct preposition rom the box below. © for © through © into eto eon © of eas © from The UK does not have a civil code. Its laws therefore come (a) alternative sources. Unti the 17th century, the common law was the most important source (b) law. After that, Acts of Parliament, otherwise known (c) statutes, became the primary source of law. Bill is the name given to a proposal for a new statute. A Bill is put forward (d) Pariiament’s consideration by an MP or by a government department. A Bill has to pass e) several stages before it becomes law. The first of these stages is usually the House of Commons, A vote is taken ¢f) the Bill and if itis approved it will pass to the House of Lords. The House of Lords can suggest amendments (g) the Bill but it cannot prevent the Bill from becoming law. The final stage is the Royal Assent. After this, the new Act of Parliament can ‘come (h) force. © cathenre Mason & Roseman athins 2007 95 sous sae won,READING A STATUTE You are now going to read part of a statute that deals with contract law. The complete statute has ten sections and is six pages long. This is part of Section 1, which forms the first page of the statute. It deals with the rights of people who are not one of the parties to a contract but who may have rights under that contract in certain circumstances. ELIZABETH Il eat Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 1999 CHAPTER 31 An Act to make provision for the enforcement of contractual terms by third parties, [1th November 1999] the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and }Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, as follows:— B FrENACTED by the Queen’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with 1.—(1) Subject to the provisions ofthis Act, person who is not party Right ofthis to Scontaet (a “third party") may nhs own right eforee aterm of the pit oes } (a) the contract expressly provides that he may, or (b) subject to subsection (2), the term purports to confer a benefit ‘on him, (2) Subsection (1)(b) does not apply ifon a proper construction of the contract it appears that the parties did not intend the term to be ‘enforceable by the third party. (3) The third party must be expressly identified in the contract by ‘name, asa member of a class or as answering a particular description but need not be in existence when the contract is entered into, (4) This section does not confer a right on a third party to enforce a term of a contract otherwise than subject to and in accordance with any other relevant terms of the contract (3) For the purpose of exercising his right to enforce a term of the contract, there shall be available to the third party any remedy that would hhave been available to him in an action for breach of contract if he had | been a party to the contract (and the rules relating to damages, injunctions, specific performance and other relief shall apply accordingly)Exercise 1 Read the page from the statute, Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, on the previous page. Some of the words and expressions used in the statute are explained below to help you. a contract provision is a term contained in a contract. a third party to a contract is a person who has not signed the contract but may be affected by it. to enforce a term is to make sure that the term is obeyed. known as a remedy, to the injured party if the term or contract is breached, to be a member of a class js to be a member of an identifiable group of people. a remedy for breach of contract is a solution provided to an injured party in cases of breach. It is sometimes called ‘relief. The remedy is usually damages but there are other solutions, or relief, available at the discretion of the court to expressly confer a right or a benefit upon ‘someone is to write in @ contract that @ person definitely has that right or benefit. ‘an injunction is a court order that orders the party in breach to stop behaving in a way that breaches the contract. Itis generally an order to stop doing something, the construction of a contract is the interpretation of it. The verb is to construe, meaning to interpret. an enforceable term or an enforceable contract is a term or a contract that @ court will recognise as valid and will gve a solution, specific performance is a order from the court that obliges the party in breach to do what they promised to do under the terms of the contract. Match each explanation below with the correct subsection of the statute. The statute has five subsections, which are clearly numbered 1-5. a This subsection says that a third party may not enforce a right if a correct interpretation of the contract concludes that the parties did not actually intend that the third party should be able to enforce that right, This describes subsection b This subsection says that the third party who wishes to enforce a right must be clearly named in the contract or be a member of a group of people that is clearly named in the contract. This section also says that the third party does not need to exist at the time the contract is made. This gives rights to third parties such as unborn children or future husbands or wives of the contracting parties. This describes subsection © This subsection says that a third party can enforce a right if the contract clearly states that he or she may do so. This section also says that if a contract term clearly gives a benefit to a third party, then he or she can enforce that term, This describes subsection d_ This subsection says that if a term is enforced the court can give the third party any of the usual remedies available to any person who brings a claim for breach of contract. This section also says that the normal rules of law that apply to remedies will apply in the normal way to third party claims. ‘This describes subsection @ This subsection says that if@ third party wishes to enforce a contract term he or she can only do so ‘subject to any other term in the contract that is relevant. This means that the parties to the contract ‘ean limit or place conditions on the third party's right. There may be another term for example, that says that any dispute must be resolved by mediation. The third party would have to comply with this term when enforcing his or her right. This describes subsection 2 2007 7 soya wnUnit 38,/Highor You are now going to read two short extracts from another statute. They are from The Unfair Contract Terms Act (UCTA) 1977. In this statute, Parliament states what is acceptable to include in a contract and what is not acceptable. This part of the contract deals with the situation where one of the parties tries to limit his or her fiabilty for a breach of duty. Exercise 2 Here is @ summary of a short extract from UCTA, followed by the extract itself. The summary says the same thing 4 the statute, but it uses less complicated language. Read the summary to help you understand the meaning of the extract from the statute, and then complete the extract by choosing a phrase from the blue box below. ‘Summary of paragraph 16 (subsection 2) of UCTA This subsection says that, in a contract, one of the partes attempts to prevent or limit his or her liability for breach of duty of care in situations connected with doing business or using a building for business purposes, then: the term will always be void if one of the parties tres to prevent or limit his or her liability for death or injury of the other party; and in any situation except death or injury, the term will be void if it was unfair or unreasonable to allow it in the contract. Extract from UCTA 16.1 Where a term of @ contract (a) or restrict liability for breach of duty ) any business or from the (¢) used for business purposes of the occupier, that term: 16.1.1 shall be (@) where such exclusion or restriction is in respect of death or personal injury; 16.1.2 shall, in any other case, (e) if t was not fair and reasonable tof) in the contract. © Void in any case © purports to exclude © occupation of any premises © have no effect © arising in the course of © incorporate the term Exercise 3 (On the next page fs another extract from the same statute, The Unfair Contract Terms Act. Below, you can see a summary of this extract. Choose a preposition fiom the blue box and put itn the correct gap in the extract. ‘Summary of paragraph 16 (subsection 3) of UCTA | If according to subsection 4 (the part of this statute that you have already read), a term of a contract is void, then itis not important whether the person who signed the contract knew about thet term. Knowing about a term, or even agreeing to that term does not necessarily mean that the person who signed the contract agjeed to take any risk. 98 © Catenne Mason & Rosemary Ars 2007Extract from UCTA 16.3 Where (a) subsection 1 (b) ___, a term of a contract is void and has no | effect, the fact that a person agreed (¢) ‘or was aware (d) the term | shall not (e) itself be suficient evidence that he knowingly and voluntarily | assumed any risk. © of eto © above © under © of THE ELEMENTS OF A CONTRACT Exercise 1 Jack Winter went to his first lecture on contract law at the University of Chatsworth this moming. He Jeared something about how a contract is formed. Look at Jack's lecture notes below and give each paragraph a heading from the box. © Intention to create a © Consideration © Offer pega! retationsty: © Acceptance Lecture notes on contract ‘There are basic elements to every contract. In English law we usually need four essential things (elements) to make a legal contract. In each country around the world the list of elements needed to make a contract will be different. In English law there are four elements. If all four elements are present, a contract is formed. If one or more of them is missing then there is no valid contract. Generally in English law, there can be no contract unless this exists. It is the name given to what the parties exchange under the contract. Itis usually money, goods or services. b | | The four elements of a contract | cs sca aS ie ci gs fl ci wok ce | make a contract on very certain terms. The person who makes this statement wants it to be legally | | binding when the other party agrees to it. c The courts judge this objectively. The English case of Smith v Hughes (1871) tells us thatthe important | thing is not a party's real purpose or aim but how a reasonable person would look at the situation. The | precedent cases tellus that parties who are in business are usually considered to have this but that parties who make an agreement in a domestic or social situation usually do not. a | Itcan be defined as, ‘a final and clear agreement to terms that have been offered’ Catneane Maton & Roce Ans 2007 99 sous /ae wen.Unit 38,/Highor READING A CONTRACT CASE Jack and Shelley are leaning about case law. Their textbook gives them an example of an important case in English contract law. Itis a case on intention, one of the four elements of a contract. tis a precedent case from the year 1919, concerning whether or not a husband and wife can form an oral contract. The ciaimant is referred to as ‘the plaintiff because the case is an old one. The extract is an example of the ratio of a common law contract case. The ratio is the legal reasoning that forms the law for the future. The first part of the text below is explanatory notes. The case begins with the words of the judge, Lord Justice Atkin. Exercise 1 Read this extract from the case very carefully and answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. BALFOUR V BALFOUR Court of Appeal (1919) (4) The defendant was a civil servant based in Ceylon. In November 1915 he came to England with the plaintiff. his wife. They stayed in England until August 1916, when the husband's boliday period ended and be returned to Ceylon. The plaintif{on ber doctor's advice, stayed in England. The bushand, before leaving, promised to give the plaintiff £30 4 month until she returned to Ceylon. Later the bushand wrote saying that it would be better if they remained apart. The plaintiff sued on the promise 1 pay ber £304 month, (2) Sayjant J gave judgment forthe plaintifl holding that the busband was under an obligation fo support bis wife and the parties bad legally contracted that the extent of the obligation should be £30 a nuontb. The husband appealed. (3) ATKIN IJ ...... itis necessary to remember that there are agreements between. partes, which do not result in contracts within the meaning ofthat term in our lw. The ‘ordinary example is where two parties agree to take a walk together, or where there i an offeror acceptance of hospitality. Nobody would suggest in ordinary circurnstances that those agreements result in what we know as a contract, ane! one ofthe most usta forms, of agreement, which does not constitute a contract appears to me to be the arrangements, le between husband and wife which are m: (4) To my mind, those agreements, or many of them, do not result in contracts at al even though they may be what as between other partes would constitute consideration for the agreement, Nevertheless, they are not contracts, and they are not contracts because the parties did not intend that they should be attended by legal consequences, To my mind it would be of the worst possible example to hold that agreements such as this resulted in legal obligations, which could be enforeed in the courts (5) The common law does not regulate the form of agreements between spouses. Their promises are not sealed with seals and sealing was, Their consideration is really that natural love and affection which counts for so lite in these cold courts, 00 © Catherine Mason & Resemary Ans 2a In which court was this case heard? bb What was Mr Balfour's occupation at the time of the case? Why did the claimant not return to Ceylon with her husband? ‘What did the judge in the court of first instance decide? What was the name of the judge in the Court of Appeal? Exercise 2 In each paragraph ofthe case find a word that matches the definitions provided for you. Paragraph (1) Paragraph (4) a. A.word meaning started legal action. d_ Aword meaning to decide in a legal way. The word is The word is Paragraph (2) Paragraph (5) b_ Aword meaning the amount of something. @ An old-fashioned word, meaning husbands The word is anaes The word is Paragraph (3) © Amore formal word that means ‘word!’ The word is Exercise 3 ‘Say whether the following statements about the case are true or false. a The judge says that it is possible to have agreements that are True False not contracts. b The judge says that accepting an offer to have @ meal with someone, True False. for example, is usually a contract. © The judge says that what is consideration between other parties might Tue False not be consideration between spouses. The judge says that there is generally no contract when a husband Tue False ‘and wife make an agreement because they don’t mean it to be a legal agreement. Caner Nason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 101 sous /ae anUnit 30, Highor Collocation bank claimant/defendant © to give judgment for the © the extent of an obligation _© to constitute consideration Preposition bank © to do something on someone's advice “On my solicitor's advice | decided not to sue.” © to continue to do something until a certain date “Your husband will be obliged to continue to support your children until they have all finished their education.” @ to sue on a promise “She sued him on his promise to deliver the goods on time.” OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE «© to give judgment for the claimant/defendant ‘Tm sony but the judge gave judgment for the other side." © to be under & legal obligation "You are under a legal obligation to cany ‘out your obligations.” © an agreement between two parties ‘There was a clear agreement between us that you would provide half of the finance for this project.” Jack and Shelley are doing their homework. The subject is offer and acceptance in contract law. Offer and acceptance are two of the essential elements of @ contract. Jack and Shelley have decided to do half of the homework each. Exercise 1 Look at Shelley's homework. It is about the ways in which an offer can come to an end before acceptance | can take place. Match the words or phrases in the list with the statements that follow. How can an offer come to an end? «revocation © rejection counter-offer lapse of time death of the offeror or offeree ‘Susan Clarke offers to sell Holly Quinn two tickets to a music festival. The price is £100 for each | ticket, There are five ways in which this offer can come to an end. These are: | a ‘Ill give you £85 instead of £100 for each ticket.” The word/phrase is 102 © Catherine Mason & Rosemary Ars 2007b "You know those tickets you offered to sell to me four months ago? I've decided to take them.” The word/phrase is ‘Ive changed my mind. The offer is no longer open. I've decided to go to the festival myself.” ‘The word/phrase is ‘I know Susan offered to sell some tickets to you but I'm afraid she has passed away.” The wordiphrase is @ ‘No thank you. The price is much too high. Forget it.” ‘The word/phrase is In all of these situations no contract can be formed because the offer has come to an end and therefore it cannot be accepted. This means that two of the elements that are essential to the formation of a contract are missing. Exercise 2 Look at Jack’s homework. It is about how acceptance of an offer must be communicated. Match the statements of law in this list with the situations below. How must acceptance of an offer be communicated? Holly Quinn agrees to buy two tickets to a music festival from Susan Clarke. To make her acceptance of the offer legally binding, how must the offer be accepted? 1. The acceptance must be made to the offeror and not to anyone else unless the offeror has authorised it. 2 The acceptance must be communicated. Acceptance cannot be by silence. 3 The acceptance must be actually heard or received in writing to be effective, 4 It the offer specifies a method of acceptance you must accept it using @ method that is no less. effective than the method specified. 5 Arrequest for more information is not the same as a counter-offer and will not have the effect of rejecting the original offer. If any of these situations arise then there has been no acceptance and therefore there is no contract between the parties. a. ‘My offer clearly said that acceptance must be by sms text message or email. | did not receive your letter of acceptance by post until after I'd sold the goods to someone else.’ The relevant statement of law is b ‘You told my brother that you wanted to buy the tickets but you didn't tell me. I'm afraid he was not in a position to accept this.” ‘The relevant statement of law is © "You say that you accepted my offer by email. It never arrived. The relevant statement of law is continued Cabenne Mason & Roseman Atkins 2007 103 souan/ae wonUnit 38, Higher Why is it important to understand consideration? It is important because consideratio d ‘In answer to your question, the tickets offered for sale are for the lower stand on the right-hand side of the stadium.” The relevant statement of law is @ ‘Ifyou do not hear from me by five o'clock tomorrow please assume that | want to go ahead and buy the tickets.” The relevant statement of law is CONSIDERATION is not just an academic part of law. The word ‘consideration’ will appear in contracts that you will have to understand or translate. Look for example, at this clause from a contract between a writer and a flm company. The company is buying the rights to make the writer's book into a film. In consideration of the rights granted under this Agreement the Media Company shall pay to the ‘Author the Licence Fee as follows: 1.4 £25,000 upon signature of this Agreement 1.2 £25,000 upon the first DVD release of the film to the public in the UK This is a good example of how the word consideration is used in contracts. Exercise 1 As part of her homework, Shelley must write a short essay about consideration in contract law. Complete her essay by putting a word from the box into the gaps. © contrary © consent @ terms © detriment © unqualified © suffer © profit © reason © reciprocal © donations The final element of @ contract is consideration. An English case from 1875, Currie v Misa, gave definition of consideration which is still used today in the contract law of England, the USA and Canada. The judge in that case defined consideration as: “some right, interest, (a) or benefit accruing to the one party or some forbearance, (b) loss or responsibilty given, suffered or undertaken by the other.” In other words, the parties must gain some benefit from what is exchanged or (¢) ‘some loss. Consideration is usually goods, money, work or services but it can be other things. In a very simple example, if | sell my gardening business to you for £50,000, my consideration is the business and your consideration is the money. Motive is not the same as consideration. Your motive for contracting is your personal @) for contracting. It may not coincide with the consideration you are giving, or receiving, as part of the contract. Under contract law, there is no contract if there is no consideration. Its one of the four necessary continued 104 © Catherine Maron & Rosemary Aline 2007| elements of a contract. The consideration must be (e) ; with both parties providing consideration. The consideration cannot be an act or a thing which is illegal, immoral or to public policy. Ifa certain act is punishable by some law, then it is described as illegal. An example would be a contract to employ an (g) pilot to fly a plane. | There is one type of contrat that isan exception tothe requirement of consideration and tha is a deed, whichis also sometimes known as a contract under seal. Mary years ag, people entering into @ contract would put hot wax on the Bottom of the paper and press a family rng into. This ‘seal was a sign of (h) tothe () of the contract. In modern times, deeds are used mostly in contracts that involve land, If @ contract is a deed, then no consideration is required. This means that if, for example, () to charity are made under seal, they are valid contracts, even though there is no valid consideration. Exercise 2 The clause below is from a contract. It deals with consideration. Complete the contract clause by putting the words from the blue box below into the correct gap. In (a) of all of the Services (b) by ALT Services Ltd the Company shall pay the (€) of £10,000 subject to the (@) of the Services and satisfactory completion of work. © provided © consideration » provision » sum | Collocation bank © to do your homework © to make a counter-offer © tobe contrary to public eicrewkeenoiien elude Policy or to the law in © to revoke an offer to gain a benefit Cael | © toreject an offer © to suffer a loss | © to buy tickets to/for an event © todo something by @ particular time in | ‘We want to look after our new client very Toe finite | well. Let’s get him some tickets to the opera.’ “We need to have this document ready by | ‘ive o'clock, @ to accept something by post/email | sent the cheque bry post.” © to enter into a contract or agreement | “You should not have entered into this loan | © to put something in writing agreement unless you were sure you could | “tyou have evidence in veiting it will help make the repayments." | uso persuade the judge.” | © to make a donation te charity © a case/new law from a particular year ‘She made @ donation to a charity for ‘In defence of my client I cited a case homeless people when she won the lottery. from 1995. Preposition bank Oo 105 sovsin ae wn,(= ustenine S Exercise 1 Today Jack and Shelley are going to a contract law lecture. Listen to the lecture and answer these questions. a Do contracts involving large amounts of money need to be in writing in order to be valid? b_ In which Amenican state was Pennzoil based? In the example case of Pennzoil buying Getty Oil there was no written contract. How did they agree the deal? dA few weeks after Getty Oil had agreed to sell to Pennzoil, another company announced that it had bought Getty Oil, What was the name of the other company? eHow much money was Pennzoil awarded by the court in damages? What type of cantract does the lecturer say that her students will most often encounter in their careers as lawyers? & What used to be necessary in order to make a deed valid? h_ What type of contract does the lecturer say must take the form of a deed? i Which does the lecturer say is more common, bilateral or unilateral contracts? J Is. reward contract bilateral or unilateral? 106 © catherine Mason & Rosernry Ars 2007CONTRACT LAW IN PRACTICE Exercise 1 Look at this letter taken from @ newspaper. The letter Is from the newspaper's legal problem page. Complete the gaps in the /etter with the correct preposition. Choose the preposition from the box below. $ © cathe eto over of in for © from © into eat © through © against The Chatsworth Herald www.chalsworthherald.co.1k Legal corner Ed Samuelson, Chatsworth lawyer, answers YOUR legal problems. Dear Ed | bought a new ited kitchen from a company called Simply Ktchensin Chatsworth (a)___June. The total cost of the kitchen was. just (b) £810,000. 1 was fitted on 8 July. The kitchen included a fridge that was built (©) the system, The fridge broke down in early September and I contacted Simply Kitchens to ask (@)___a new one, The manager said that I had no eight (©)___a new one and that 1 had to wat for an engineer to look ()_the fridge. The manager told me I would have to wait atleast two weeks for an engineer because the fridge was one (@) «batch that did not work property ‘The engineer came on 21 September, He told me that two parts of the fridge, the thermostat and the fan, were defective. He replaced them. Itis now 22 November and I have just retumed (h)_ a tvosveek holiday in Goa. When T got home 1 found that the fridge had broken down again. All of the food in it was bad and the smell when Teame ()___ the front door of my house ‘was terible, The manager ofthe Chatsworth branch ‘of Simply Kitchens has told me that I must wait for the engineer to visit me again, He also says the ‘company has no complaints department, What can Ido? Can I make a claim )___ the company? Stephen Blakely, Rose Terrace, Chatswort Exercise 2 Here is Ed Samuelson’s answer to Stephen's letter. Complete the gaps in the letter with the correct preposition. eas eof © with © for Ed says Dear Stephen Try writingaleter (@)___the Chatsworth branch asking fora new fridge. If that doesn’t work, SUE them! The manager (b)__ Simply Kitchens admitted that he had originally supplied you (€)____ defective goods, so you have a case (@)____ the company for breach of contract. You bought the fridge (€)__part of afited from e by © against © to kitchen and you therefore have what the law calls ‘a contract for work and materials’ with Simply hitchens. ‘This means that your legal rights asa consumer are covered (D_the Sale and Supply of Goods Net 1982, The supplier i aso responsible (@___ consequential loss arising (h) the defects in the fridge. So, you can claim compensation for the spoiled food as well! Mason & Rosemary Ang 2007 107Unit 28, Migher Exercise 3 Stephen Blakely has followed Eas advice and he has written this letter to the manager of Simply Kitchens. ‘The words that have been underlined are too informal. Replace these words by choosing the correct word or phrase from the blue box below. Write your answers in the box on the next page. There is an example at the beginning (). (+) Mr Russell © inconvenience © notice breach grounds ‘as soon as possible issue proceedings are aware admitted replacement compensation : _ — | | AT Rose Terrace | High Bennington | Chatsworth CHS 5PG Mr David Russell 29 Novernber 20xx Simply Kitchens Lta Unit 55, Green Lane Industrial Estate Chatsworth 25 48D Dear (+) Mr Davie Russell Fitted Kitchen, supplied by Simply Kitchens Ltd, June 20XX In June of this year | purchased a new kitchen from your company for a total price of, £10,345. The fridge that you supplied was defective. As you (a) know very well, | have had Numerous difficulties in trying to get this fridge replaced. This letter is (b) waming of my intention to begin legal action if the problem is not rectified immediately The kitchen was fitted in June and the fridge broke down for the first time just three months. later, on 5 September. When | contacted your office | was advised that | should wait for an engineer to repair the fridge, as I had no right to a (€) new one. During that conversation you (@) said itwas true that the fridge was one of a batch that was defective and that | would have to wait two weeks (without having the facility of a fridge) as your engineer was so busy. Now the fridge has broken down for a second time, which has caused me both expense and () personal trouble. | am not prepared to wait for @ second visit from an engineer and request that you supply me with a new fridge immediately. | have taken legal advice and | am advised that | have (f) reasons to make a claim against your company based on (g) dishonour of contract. | understand that as a consumer | am covered by the Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1982. Ifit is necessary to (h) start a legal action in Chatsworth County Court | shall claim for the cost of the fridge and | will also include in the amount of the claim () money for the ‘consequential oss of spoiled food, which amounts to approximately £150. {ook forward to hearing rom you () very quickly. Yours sincerely Stl Stephen Blakely = 2007() Mr Russell b Collocation bank to announce the acquisition of a company contract to create a legally binding contract ‘to be awarded damages Preposition bank a contract between two companies “There was an oral contract between the ‘two oil companies.” to be awarded an amount of money in damages “The judge awarded us $10,000 in damages.” in exchange for something “I gave him my car in exchange for his van.” 10 give notice of something “In his letter he gave us notice of his intention to sue us.’ © cathorne Mason & Rosomary A the performance of 2 to fail to perform your Guties under a contract to rectify a problem to grant someone a right to do something to be covered bya particular law a bateh of goods | 10 buy goods from someone "We buy most of our electrical goods from King Electries.” to supply someone with a replacement ‘When my car broke down last month my | insurance company supplied me with a replacement.” to sue someone on the grounds of something ‘We sued them on the grounds of breach of contract.’ 109 seven /ge wn,Unit 38 / Higher STARTING A CLAIM FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT Stephen Biakely has received no answer to his letter to the manager of Simply Kitchens. He has decided ‘0 follow Ed Samuelson’s advice and sue the company. On the nest page you will see the first page of a claim form. This is the form that a claimant needs to fill in to start a claim in court. Stephen Blakely has decided to make the claim without the help of a solicitor. Exercise 1 The information below is for the claim form. There are some words missing from part of the information. Fill the gaps with an appropriate word so that the information for the claim form is completed. The first letter of each word is provided for you. a0 ‘The value of the claim is £650. The claimant's name and address is: Stephen Blakely 47 Rose Terrace High Bennington Chatsworth CHS 5PG. 6QZ070C2 is the claim number. ‘The brief details of the claim are as follows: The defendant (a) © to fita kitchen in June of this year. The defendant admits ‘that the fridge that was supplied as part of the kitchen was (b) d . ‘The fridge has broken down twice and the defendant refuses to supply a new one. The ciaim is to(@)¢__the cost of a second company supplying and fitting a new fridge and for ‘the cost of food that was spoiled during the (d) d with the defendant. The court fee is £70. 14 December 20XX is the issue date. There is no solicitor’s fee. The defendant's name and address is: ‘Simply Kitchens Lid (registered office) Unit 7 Fratton Park Industral Estate High Boidon Bradford BRAO 1DD £720 is the total amount,Exercise 2 The information in Exercise 1 needs to be put onto the claim form below. Decide where the information needs to go and then complete the ciaim form for Stephen. Inthe Claim Form - Claim No. SE Issuedate Chima SEAL Defendans) Brief details of claim Value Defendant £ nese Amountelaimed sie Cour foe Solicitor seosts Tel amount © Catering tan & Roserny Ais 2007 sous /ae wenighor Unit 38, USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE Collocation review Complete these sentences with a collocation that you have seen. a. would like to ‘one or two amendments to the document that you have sent tome. b_ In England a statute has to pass through three before it becomes law, © If'a judge makes a decision it may become on other courts of the same level and (on lower courts, Your olient has to perform her duties under the contract and therefore we will start legal action. @ Case law is also sometimes known as the law. f To make an enforceable contract both parties must consideration. & The judge down his decision at four o’clock this afternoon. In which court is your case being this morning? 1 The judge damages of £5000. i We wish to against the decision of the court of first instance. Vocabulary review Complete these sentences with a word that you have seen. a My offer to you was made months ago and you can no longer accept due to __of time. baA -offer suggests altemative terms and has the effect of cancelling the original offer. © An contract is a spoken agreement. d_ Another name for an Act of Parliament is a - fe When a contract is being formed, the two parties are known as the and the offeree. The judge in the Court of Appeal the decision of the court of first instance and reversed the result of the case. & Consideration must be , meaning that if only one party provides it there is no contract. fh The opposite of benefit is i Most contracts involve both parties making a promise and they are therefore described as and not unilateral J Acontract that must be in a written form in order to be legally valid is called a sometimes known as a contract under seal. 12 Catherine Mason & Rosemary thins 2007Preposition review Complete these sentences with the correct preposition. sous iae wn a Please put your complaints writing and send them to our manager. b In England and the USA much of the law is made Judges due to the common law system. © You are a legal obligation to sell the house now that you have signed the contract of sale. d_ We all need to stay in the office _ 8pm to finish this important project. e The new Bill has passed the debate stage and the members of the House of Commons will vate on it next week. f The construction company was sued its promise to finish building the hotel by December as it wasn't finished until the following July. lamacting my barrister’s advice and not taking my claim any further. The agreement Charles and Michael was made two years ago. iI didn’t email my acceptance to you, as my server was down. | sent it post instead, J I have forgotten the name of an important contract case and | will need to look it up in the law library. Iremember it is the year 1995. Ccatmenne Ntson & Roseman Ans 2007 usUnit 38, Migher TOLES HIGHER EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 There is a word or phrase missing from the following sentences. For each sentence, circle the word which best fits into the space from the options provided. Do not mark more than one answer for each sentence. There is an example at the beginning (+). Example In the English legal system a precedent is (*) upon similar future cases, 1. The case you mention from 1976 is very similar to the current case but | think it is possible to a between them, 2 The claimant was (2) damages of £100,000, 3 The decision of the first judge was (3) by the judges in the Court of Appeal 4 Anoffercan come to an end due to (4) of time. It means that too much time has passed since the offer was made. 5 When a person who makes an offer withdraws it before it can be accepted we can say that the offer has been (5) 6 According to English contract law, acceptance must be (6) and cannot be by silence. 7 Consideration in contract law requires the parties to gain a benefit or suffer a (7) 8 When a lawyer refers to the (8) he or she puts upon a contract term it is. a more formal way of referring to his or interpretation or understanding of that term. 9 Specific (9) isan order from a court that tells a party in breach to carry out his or her obligations under a contract, 10 According to English contract law consideration must be (10) . which means that both parties must give of receive something and not just one of them. Cy A enforceable B unavoidable D obligatory @ A differ B distinguish © separate D discriminate @ A ordered B handed © awarded D granted @ A overruled B annulled © refused D rejected 4 A conclusion B ending © lopse D disappearance ® AA revoked B cancelled © negated D invalidated © A said B contributed ¢ given D communicated @ A difficulty B detriment ¢ injury D disadvantage ® A meaning, B elucidation © version D construction ® A action B execution © performance completion (20) A reciprocal B joint © common D shared ne e 1 Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007Exercise 2 Read the text below and think of the word that best fits each space. Use only one word in each space. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning, (). The elements of a contract A contract is an agreement between two or more people or companies who are known as the (x) to the contract. However, in order for a contract to be recognised as legally (1) upon the parties, certain conditions must be met. According to English law there is no requirement that @ contract is in Q) in order for it to be valid. Many high-value contracts are made orally. What is important is that the agreement contains the four essential elements of a contract. These are: 23 to create a legal relationship © Offer © Acceptance © Consideration ‘An offer is an indication from one person that he or she is prepared to contract with one or more other people on (4) which are certain. This means that the most important provisions of the agreement such as price, quality and date must be fixed. If, for example, an offer is made and the (5) (the person to whom the offer is made) suggests changes to that offer then no contract will have been formed. ‘This is because the effect of any suggested change to an original offer is to cancel it. The offer will no longer be open to acceptance because a (6) -offer has been made. There are also some important rules governing acceptance. There are for example, several common law o , which are decisions taken by judges in previous cases, that tell us that acceptance can be ‘made by conduct but thet it cannot be made by silence. There are other rules about acceptance by post or ‘email. These objective rules tell us when acceptance is considered to have been received by the offeror when a particular means of acceptance, for example, email, is used. Acceptance cannot, as we have already stated, contain any suggested changes to the original offer. Acceptance must be absolute. According to English faw (8) ‘must be exchanged by the parties in order to form a binding contract. This means that there has to be something of value passing in both directions between the parties. The (9) __ to this is where the parties agree to form a contract despite the absence of this normally vital ‘element. This requites the parties to sign a special document known as @ (10) _. Its sometimes. also known as a contract under seal Example (+) parties @ © 2) m 3) @ @ @ ©) (10) Catherine ttason & Roseman Akins 2007 us soa wenListening c Unit 38, Higher Liston fe smiar gon by proto av oo sides Dei te owing stator ar true or false. 41 The professor asked her students to read 285 pages of contract law for homework (2. The law students at this seminar have already studied some of the elements of a contract. 3. MrBrowa's events called ‘Save the Planet Day’ 4. MrBrown decides to hold the event in two parks in London and Manchester. 5 Mr Brown promises the manager of Selifast UK an extra £1000 if he can persuade the Ethical Food Company to attend his event, 6 In the case of Stilk v Myrick the captain of the ship offered the men on board his ship a bonus if they ‘would sail the ship safely back to England. 7 The case of Stik v Myrick is from 1890. 8 The claimant in the case of Stilk v Myrick was one of the sailors. 9 The claimant won in the case of Stilk v Myrick. 10 The professor thinks that a court would oblige Mr Brown to pay Selifast UK the extra £1000 based on the case of Willams v Roffey. True or false? (ry 2) 3) @ ©) © @” 8 @ (20) | ue ® Catherine Meson & Resemany Ans 2007© cathe Mason & Rosary ins 2007 urThe Language of Employment Law Uae VE TCE)THE LANGUAGE OF EMPLOYMENT LAW BEING AN EMPLOYER Exercise 1 Read this text about being an employer. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Answrer the questions that follow using a full sentence. Key vocabulary employer secretary ‘employees admin work staff payroll © manager part-time “My name is Peter Connolly and | am an employer in the town of Chatsworth. This means that | have a business and | pay people to work for me. | am the owner of two shoe shops and | employ a total of 12 ‘employees. Another word for a group of employees: is staff. Some of my staff work in the shops end some of them work in the office. Our office is situated above one of the shops. | employ an office manager and a secretary in the office. A manager has control of the office. A secretary is a person who helps the office manager with his or her work. These two people are my office staff and they deal with all of the admin work connected with the shaps. “Admin work’ is short for administrative work. For example, the office staff order goods to sell in the shops and they also pay the invoices we receive salary full-time pay remuneration wages invoices order suppliers. ‘rom suppliers. Another duty of the office statis to deal with the payroll. The payroll isa lst of people who work for the business. The payroll snows me who works for the business and what remuneration each person receives from me each month. Remuneration isa formal word meaning ‘payment My employees receive a salary. A salary is an amount of money that an employee receives each month. Employees who receive payment every week usually refer to this money as wages rather than salary. Both salary and wages are sometimes called pay’. Some of my employees work full-time and some of them work part-time. My full-time staft ‘work for 35 hours a week and my part-time staff work for 15 hours a week.” ‘a What type of shops does Peter Connolly own in Chatsworth? Answer: b_ How many staff does Peter Connolly employ? Answer: ¢ How many staff work in the office of the business? Answer: d_ What information does the payroll show Peter Connolly? Answer: @ What does remuneration mean? Answer: f Are Peter Connolly's staff paid weekly or monthly? Answer: g How many hours a week do Peter Connolly's fulltime staff work? Answer: no onepumeg/ye annUnit 4A/Foundation Exercise 2 Peter Connolly needs a new employee to work as a sales assistant in one of his shops. He decided to put an advertisement in his local newspaper. The most important words from the advertisement are in the key vocabulary. Put the correct word from the key vocabulary into the sentences below the advertisement to complete each definition. | Key vocabulary | © team © track record © maternity leave © covering letter © well-motivated © wide range ev. © closing date | © applicant © temporary ‘An exciting opportunity to be part of our great sales team! THE CHATSWORTH SHOE BOX is looking for a well-motivated sales assistant to work in our busy town centre shop. The successful applicant must be prepared to work 35 hours a week (full-time) and should have a 00d track record in the retail industry. He or she will have a wide range of duties including serving members of the public and window-dressing, The position is a temporary one for 12 ‘months to cover maternity leave. Apply by sending your C.V. and a covering letter to: Mr Peter Connolly ‘The Chatsworth Shoe Box 10 Portugal Place, Chatsworth CH1 18D. ‘The closing date for applications is 25 August. aa person is someone who is ambitious and wants to work hard. b A period of is the time that a woman is away from work before and after the birth of her baby. cA is a document that tells an employer about a person's previous experience of ‘work and what qualifications that person has. This document is called a ‘resume’ in the USA. ada is an informal name for a group of people who work together. eA of duties means a variety of different duties. Something that is is only fora limited period of time. It is the opposite of permanent. g An is a person who asks to have something, especialy a job. ha is the name of the letter that a person sends with a job application, i The for ajob application isthe last date that the employer will accept an application from someone, J Aperson who has a in a particular job has previous experience of doing that job. 120 ve Mason & Rosernay Atkins 2007Help desk What do these words mean? a sales assistant — a person who sells goods or _window-dressing — preparing a shop window services in a shop. jn an attractive way so that the public are ter buying things ft hop. the retail industry ~the industry involved in Herested 7 Buying things from the shop buying goods and selling them to the public. Exercise 3 Peter Connolly received this letter today from someone who is interested in the job at his shop. Read the letter and decide in each case which is the correct preposition from the two possibilities. Write your answers in the spaces below. | 6 Kenton Road Chatsworth CH6 20D | Mobile: 07779 34500 Email: [email protected] | Mr Peter Connolly 20 August 20K The Chatsworth Shoe Box 110 Portugal Place Chatsworth CH 18D — Mr Connolly Job (+) as/of a full-time sales assistant | would like to apply (a) torfor the job ofa full-time sales assistant at the Chatsworth Shoe Box a advertised (b) infat Thursday's Chatsworth Herald. Please find enciosed a copy of my C.V. My previous jobs include two years as a sales assistant in the footwear department. (©) atiwithin Selfridges on Oxford Street, London. This gave me experience of dealing with customers, a8 well as basic cashier skils and a good knowledge of the shoe retail industry. | have good communication skills and also speak basic Spanish and Italian, which may be useful when dealing with customers whose first language is not English. | am an enthusiastic worker and enjoy working as part of a team. | returned (d) to/in Chatsworth a week ago after a year of travelling around Europe and | am free to start work immediately. | would welcome the opportunity to discuss the sales position with you on the telephone or at interview. | can be contacted on my mobile phone or by email (please see details (0) on/at the top of ths letter. | look forward to hearing (f) from/of you. Yours sincerely Rw Andrea Farrell Answers, Example (x) asa b ec a e f © Catnasne Macon & Rosemary Ars 20 aaa wonepuned ive wunUnit 4A/Foundation Exercise 4 Read Andrea Farrell's letter again. Find a word in the letter to complete the following sentences. a To for something, such as a job, means to ask if you can have that job. b When | say ‘please find my C.V. it means that | have put my C.¥. in the envelope together with my covering letter. cA is @ person who deals with the money that a shop or a business has in its cash register at the end of every day. 4 Your are the things that you can do well, especially in relation to your job. e Hyou are about something, it means that you lke that actvty and you enjoy doing it. f Iryouare to start work, It means that you are avaltable to begin working immediately. g An is the chance to do something. h ita is available with a particular company it means that the company has a job for which it needs an employee. | Help desk What do these words mean? | communication skills ~ a person's abilityto cash register ~ the machine into which a shop speak and listen to other people in an effective or some other business puts the money when a ‘way. The opposite of good communication skills customer pays for something. Also called ‘a til’ is poor communication skills. AN EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT There are two very important words connected with talking about any contract. These are: © clause (noun): a clause is a section of the contract. A clause usually has a number, for example, clause 1 of the contract. Sometimes a clause is divided into further sections, for example, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, ete. © provision (noun): a provision is a term contained in a contract. All of the terms and conditions of a contract are called the provisions of the contract. Lawyers often use the verb ‘to provide’, for example, “Clause 1 of the contract provides that the employee is entitled to four weeks’ holiday every year’. This, means that is it an obligation of the employer to give the employee four weeks’ holiday. Exercise 1 Here are the titles of some clauses that you will find in an employment contract. Lawyers usually call them | ‘clause headings’. On the next page are descriptions of what each clause deals with. Match the headings of the clauses with the descriptions provided. «© Term of the contract © Holidays © Pension © Job title © Sick pay © Confidentiality | © Working hours © Grievance procedure © Non-competition © Remuneration f Disciplinary procedure Termination 12 Catrane Mason & Rosemary Aine 2007a. This clause deals with the payment that the employee will receive in return for working for the employer. The clause heading is b_ This clause deals with the employee's obligation not to tell anyone about certain information that belongs to the employer. ‘The clause heading is © This clause deals with the period of time that the contract will be valid. The clause heading is This clause deals with the amount of time that the employee is obliged to work every week or month. ‘The clause heading is @ This clause deals with what the employer must do if he or she is unhappy with the way that the employee is behaving at work. ‘The clause heading is f This clause deals with the arrangements for the employee to have money in his or her old age. ‘The clause heading is g This clause gives the name of the employee's job. ‘The clause heading is This clause deals with the time that the employee is allowed to stay away from work to rest and relax and stil receive his or her pay. ‘The clause heading is i This clause deals with the ways in which the contract of employment can end. The clause heading is J This clause deals with what an employee must do if he or she is unhappy at work and wants to complain to the employer. The clause heading is k This clause deals with the employee's obligation after the contract of employment ends not to start the same business or work for a rival of the employer for a certain period of time. ‘The clause heading is This clause deals with the money that an employer must pay to an employee when the employee is ill and cannot work, The clause heading is Help desk What do these words mean? a rival — a person or an organisation that is in procedure ~ the accepted or correct way of || the same business a5 you and is in competition doing something. with you for the same customers or clients. 1 Cather Macon & Roser Akins 2007 123 a/v Hn uopepuUnit 4A /Foundation Exercise 2 ‘Anew employee has some questions about her employment contract. Complete each question using the correct word from the box below. © hours © term © sick pay © salary © provisions ® title © holiday ® terminate ‘a What does the of the contract mean? It means the duration of the contract. b What are the of a contract? They are all of the terms and conditions contained in the contract. © What is my job__ 2? Itis assistant manager. d What are my of employment? Monday to Friday, 9am to 5.30pm. What will my annual be? £25,000 a year. f Howmanyweeks’ can | have? You are entitled to four weeks a year, in addition to public holidays. & Am entitled to when I am ill? Yes. But you must provide us with a medical centficate. How much notice must | give if | want to the contract? Four weeks. We use that time to find a new employee who can begin work at the time that you leave us. Exercise 3 Here are the clause headings from Exercise 1 again. Below are some very short extracts from an employment contract. Match the correct heading from the blue box with each extract. Term of the contract Holidays Pension © Job title Sick pay © Confidentiality Working hours Grievance procedure Non-competition Remuneration Disciplinary procedure Termination a ‘Fora period of 12 months after the termination of this agreement the Employee agrees that he or she will not start a business that is the same or similar to the Employer's business.” The clause is b ‘The Employer shall pay the Employee a salary of £21,000 a year.’ The clause is 124“if you have @ complaint relating to your employment you should follow the procedure attached to this contract in order to inform your manager about your complaint.” The clause is The clause is “The Employer agrees to employ the Employee in the position of sales assistant.” ‘On the first day of your absence from work you must inform your manager. If you are absent for more than seven days you must provide your manager with a medical certificate signed by your doctor.” The clause is f ‘This contract is for a duration of 12 months. ‘absence — when somebody is not in the place where you expect that person to be, such as at ‘school or at work, then it is described as an ‘absence. The adjective is ‘absent’. fund — an amount of money that a person or an ‘organisation keeps for a particular purpose. tt ‘can be to pay for something special, such as a college fund to pay for education, or it can be a ‘way of saving money to spend in the future, such. ‘as a pension fund. material — important, significant, The clause is & ‘Employees who wish to contribute to the Fund may do so until the age of 65 years.” The clause is "The Employee is entitled to 25 days per year in addition to public holidays.” The clause is “The Employee shall not during the term of his or her employment disclose any material information relating to his or her employment to any third party.” The clause is “A summary of the rules and procedures that the Employer must follow in relation to difficulties with the Employee's performance in the workplace is attached to this contract. The clause is k ‘The Employee is required to work Mondays to Fridays between 8.30am and 5.30pm, with one hour for lunch.” The clause is 1 The Employer may end this agreement by giving four weeks" written notice to the Employee.” The clause is Help desk What do these words mean? public holiday — a day that the government says is a holiday for everyone in the country. The important public holidays in the UK are Christmas Day and New Year's Day. In the USA 4 July is also a public holiday. notice ~ a warning period. When you give notice to someone you tell that person that something. is going to happen in the future. contribute — to give money towards something. This is often because you want to, and not because itis an obligation. 1235Unit 4A/Foundation HOW CAN AN EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT END? Read this information about the ways that an employment contract can end and then do the exercises that follow. Resignation The employee resigns from his ar her job. This means that the employee informs the employer that he or she will stop working for the employer's business. This might be because the employee wants to work for a new empioyer. The employee must usually tell the employer in writing that he or she wishes to resign. This is called a letter of resignation. The employee will usually work a notice period of pernaps two weeks or four weeks. This means, for example, that an employee who wishes to stop work on 1. July must give his or her employer a letter of resignation on 3 June. Resigning is known informally as “handing in your notice’. Retirement The employee retires from work. This means the employee leaves his or her job with the intention not to ‘work again because he o she is a certain age. In many countties the age of retirement is 65 years old. However, some employees choose to take early retirement if they have enough money. When an employee retires they must live on the money they receive from their pension. Most people in the UK have a state pension, which they receive from the government. When they are working they pay some money to the government each month to pay for their pension. In the UK this is called a National Insurance contribution. Some people also have a private pension plan. This is because they want more money than the state pension gives them, Redundancy ‘The employee is made redundant. This means that an employee leaves his or her job because the employer does not need them. This might be because business is nat good for the employer or because the business is closing. The employee usually receives a redundancy payment. This is an amount of ‘money that the employer pays to the employee as a final payment. The amount of money that the ‘employee receives sometimes depends on the number of years that he or she worked for the employer, The employer sometimes offers the employee training for a new career as part of the redundancy deal. Training means leaming the skills necessary to do a different job. Dismissal The employer dismisses the employee. The employee is dismissed. This means that the employer is unhappy with the performance or behaviour of the employee and tells him or her that they no longer have a job. This might be, for example, because the employee is not doing the job well or because the employee is always late for work. Dismissal is known informally as ‘being fired’ in the USA and as ‘being sacked’ in the UK. Employment law states that the employer must follow a certain procedure of warning, ‘the employee before this can happen. However, the employer is not obliged to follow this procedure \when the employee is guilty of gross misconduct. Gross misconduct is very bad behaviour, such as stealing money from the employer. A fixed-term contract ends The employee stops working for the employer or leaves the company because his or her contract was for a specific periad of time, which has ended. For example, | agree to work in an office for six months. My contract is a fixed-term contract for six months. At the end of the six-month period | stop working for that employer. 126 Catnenne Maton & Rosemary kins 2007Exercise 1 Choose @ word from the previous page to complete these sentences about resignation. a To means to tell your employer that you intend to stop working for him or her. b The correct way to resign is usually to give your employer a letter of © When an employee resigns he or she must usually work a period of several weeks. _ In the UK the informal way to say ‘resigning’ is to say in your notice. Exercise 2 Choose a word from the previous page to complete these sentences about retirement. a To from work means to stop working with the intention that you will not work again. b Some people choose to take early and stop working at the age of 45 or 50 years old, for example. ‘© When 2 person retires they usually live on the money from a d Aprivate pension is @ way of saving extra money for old age in case the money from the government is not enough. Exercise 3 Choose a word from the previous page to complete these sentences about redundancy. ‘a When an employee is made itis usually because the employer no longer needs 50 many workers. b is a great problem in western Europe and the USA at the moment. This is because many goods and services are cheaper to produce in other countries. © The final payment that an empioyer pays to an employee can be a very large amount of money. This is called a final redundancy and sometimes depends on the number of years that the employee worked for the employer. When John lost his job at the car factory he was offered a course in computer skills to help him find a new job. Exercise 4 Choose @ word from the previous page to complete these sentences about dismissal. a. The printing company Jason because he did some printing for his friend and he did not ask his friend to pay for it. 'b {dismissed an empioyee for gross last year because she telephoned me to say that she was ill but really she was on holiday in Spain. © My employer did not follow the correct when he dismissed me. My lawyer says that | can make a claim against my employer because he breached employment law. d_The informal word for dismissed in the USA is ‘fred’ and in the UK itis i © Catnenne Mason & Resemay Ate 2007 wrExercise 5 Choose a word from the previous page to complete these sentences about the end of a fixed-term contract. a lam the company at the end of the month because my contract ends on 34 July. b My contract with the airline is for a ¢ We cannot employ you after March. Your contract is for @ specific fends on 34 March. d_ Your contract will be for a fixed, 12 Exercise 6 term of 12 months so | leave next April Complete these sentences with the correct preposition. a Susan resigned b wrote a letter © How much money will you have to live dL was fired because | was always late fe Resigning from work is sometimes known informally as ‘handing, f Two employees were guilty & My contract of employment is of time and it term. her job last week. resignation and gave it to my employer yesterday. when you retire? work, your notice’ gfoss misconduct and they were sacked immediately. aterm of 18 months. Last week | informed my employer that | intend to stop working for her 30 September. 1 Your empioyer will pay you a redundancy payment. J The amount of money you receive as a redundancy payment depends the number of years you worked for your employer before you were made redundant, ACTING FOR AN EMPLOYEE Exercise 1 £10,000. Emma Lucas is an employment lawyer in Chatsworth. Read what she says about representing employees jn employment cases. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. On the next page you will see some questions and answers. Match each question with the correct answer. | Key vocabulary I | © grievance © consult | © procedure © tribunal | © constructive © grounds | dismissal ‘When | represent an employee it is usually because he or she has @ grievance against an ‘employer. A grievance is a complaint. The law says that employers must listen to grievances and help the employee. Unfortunately some employers 128 © discrimination © bullying © disability © unfair dismissal © harassment © appraisal do not do this. Employees often come to me because the employer has not followed the correct procedure for dealing with a grievance, When an employee leaves a job because the employer does not listen to a grievance, the law Cathe Mason & Roseray Atkins 2007says that it is not fair. Sometimes employees. consult me because although the employer followed the correct grievance procedure, the employee feels they were not treated in a fair way. The employee has the right to make a claim against the employer in a special employment court called a tribunal. Most towns and cities in the UK have a Tribunal Office where an employee can file a claim. When an employee makes a claim to a tribunal he or she must state the ‘grounds for the claim. Here are some of the reasons that employees give to a tribuns Discrimination, To discriminate against someone at work means to act towards that person in a different, more negative way from other employees. Employees often claim that they had a bad experience at work because of their age, their sex, the colour of their skin, their nationality, or because they have some physical or mental disability © Harassment. To harass someone means to act towards someone in a way that makes that What is a grievance? (1) What is a procedure? (2) What is an employment tribunal? (3) What does discrimination mean? (4) person feel uncomfortable or distressed. ‘Sometimes it is the employer who harasses the employee. Sometimes it is other employees who do it. In this case the employer has a duty to stop the harassment. If the employer does not stop the harassment and the employee leaves. work, it is constructive dismissal. The employee can make a claim against the employer if this happens. Harassment is sometimes called bullying in the workplace. In Europe the word ‘mobbing’ is sometimes used. This word is not used in the UK. Unfair dismissal. if an employer unfairly cismisses an employee, it means that the employer fred the employee without a good reason. Most employers do what is called an appraisal of an employee's performance every year. An appraisal is an evaluation or a judgment of how the employee is doing, fan employee gets two or three bad appraisals the employer ‘might not want to continue employing that person. The problem is, employees often think their appraisal was unfair.” ‘What does harassment mean? (5) What is constructive dismissal? (6) ‘What is unfair dismissal? (7) What is an appraisal? (8) a tis. special court. It hears employment cases. It is less formal than a normal court but it has its own rules, which people must obey. b__Itiswhen an employee leaves a job because he or she is very unhappy and the employer is doing nothing to help the situation. € It means treating someone in a different way at work. It may be because that person is a woman or has a disability, for example. d__ tis the accepted, correct way of doing something. e tis. type of assessment of someone's performance, especially at work. f _Itis when an employer fires an employee, and the employee thinks that there was not a good reason for it. & __Itmeans behaving in a way that makes someone feel very unhappy or uncomfortable. h itis a complaint. © Catena kason & Rosemary aks 2007 129 uopepunes/vp snUnit 4A/Foundation Exercise 2 Complete these sentences with a word or phrase from the key vacabulary in Exercise 1. a_ lam sure my employer treats me badly because | am a foreigner. My lawyer says that I can sue my ‘employer on the grounds of b_ I was the only woman in my office. The men working there made jokes about me all of the time and said that my job was only to make coffee for them. | stopped working there because it was horrible and ‘my employer didn’t help me. The grounds for my claim were dismissal. © Ihave made a claim against my employer. The case will be heard next month by an employment. @ thadan from my employer last week. It was very good. My employer said that | ‘am a good employee and | work well with others. Lam making a claim for dismissal. My employer sacked me last month and the ‘only reason was that my employer's daughter wanted to have my job. ACTING FOR AN EMPLOYER Exercise 4 The employment lawyer, Emma Lucas, is going to talk about acting for an employer. Before you read what Emma says, complete the definitions of the words below by matching the first half of each sentence with the correct ending. (») Non-contentious work is. .a meeting where a group of people learn and talk oS, about a new subject. (1) a Legislation is... work that does not involve any kind of dispute or argument between people. b_ Regulations are... .all of the laws passed by a government or an organisation such as the European Union. (2) -.@ statement that someone has done something, © Aseminaris... wrong. However, itis not proven. (3) -.-to keep part of someone's salary 2s a punishment # Rauviotcerelsin because that person did something wrong, (4) .an organisation of workers who unite for better Contentious work is... pay and working conditions. (5) ..tules that a person or a country must obey. (6) f Analllegation is... work that @ lawyer does that involves a dispute or an argument between people. (7) To dock pay means... ..a duty to take care and not to harm anyone by your actions. (8) To be fired on-the-spot means... that an employee is dismissed immediately and without any warning, The more formal way of saying i Atrade union is.. fired on-the-spot is to say that the employer dismissed the employee ‘summarily. (9) J Astrike is... + situation where a group of employees stop working for a period of time because of a disagreement with an employer. (10) 130 catherine Mason & Rose 5 his 2007Exercise 2 Here is what Emma Lucas says about acting for an employer. Choose a word or phrase from the box below to complete the text. onepanog/ye awn © docked © legislation © on-the-spot © seminars © contentious e allegations —_—@ regulations —e strike © duty of care trade union ‘Acting for an employer is very different from acting for an employee. Often my job is doing non-contentious work. Non-contentious means that the employer is not involved in a dispute with anyone. It means doing ‘work such as drafting contracts of employment or giving employers some advice about the latest @) . There are many (b) that employers need to know about. A lot of these come from the European Union. Itis very important that employers comply with employment law. This means that employers must follow employment law. To inform employers about new legislation my law firms holds (¢) . These are meetings where groups of employers receive information from our law firm about how new laws will affect them. The employers can ask us questions if they are not sure about anything, A lot of new regulations are about health and safety issues. For example, an employer has a@ to employees and to any people who visit the employer's premises. In this situation, the duty of care is a duty to make sure that no employee or visitor is harmed. This includes things like making sure that employees have the proper training to do their job correctly and safely. It also includes making sure that machinery or office equipment is safe. ‘Sometimes | have to do (e) work, This is because an employee makes a claim against ‘my client, the employer. Some employees make very serious (f) and it is my job to defend my client at an employment tribunal. Sometimes the employee's claim is valid and the employer must pay compensation. Last month | advised an employer who (@) an employee's pay a8 a punishment because the employee was always late for work. This means that the employer kept part of the employee's pay. | explained to the employer that he is not allowed to do this. A tribunal would support the employee in this situation. Another employer fired an employee (h) for being late. This means he dismissed the employee immediately and without waming. Again, | explained that this, is not legal, In that case, the employee's (i) became involved. This is an organisation of people who work in the same job or profession who help each other when a member has a problem like this. An employer has to be careful because when a trade union is involved it could lead to a @ This is a situation where a group of employees stop working because one of them ora group of them have a grievance against the employer.” © Catesne Mason Rosary Ans 2007 11Unit 4A/ Foundation AN EMPLOYMENT CASE Exercise 1 Julie Murphy is an employee. She is making a claim against her employer at an employment tribunal. Read the information in the box and answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. “My name is Julie Murphy. Today | am at an employment tribunal. | an the ctaimant. | am making a ‘claim against my former employer. | must use the word ‘former’ because he is no longer my employer. My former employer has an estate agency in the town of Chatsworth. An estate agent sells houses. His name is Keith Penhaligon. | worked for Mr Penhaligon as a receptionist in his office for four years. My | job was to welcome people who came into the office and give them information about property that | was for sale. | liked my job. Iwas a good employee. | was never late for work. | had a good relationship ‘with my colleagues. During the four years that | worked there | only had two days’ absence. Six months ago Mr Penhaligon said that he needed an assistant manager. He advertised the vacant position in the local newspaper. The advertisement said that candidates for the job should be ‘young and ambitious and with previous experience of working for an estate agent’. | am 27 years old, very ambitious and | have experience. | applied for the job. 15 other people also applied for the job. Mr Penhaligon refused to interview me for the job. He explained that it was a waste of his time to discuss my C.V. and talk about the job. He told me this was because | got married a year ago. He said that he was afraid | would have @ baby very soon and would need lots of time away from work, He said he would prefer to employ an older woman or a man. | stopped working for Mr Penhaligon immediately. | am very angry. | am making a claim on the grounds of discrimination.” ‘a What type of business does Julie Murphy's former employer have? Answer: bb What was Julie Murphy's job? Answer: © Did Julie Murphy have a good relationship with the other people in her office? Answer: d_ How many days did Julie Murphy have avray from work? Answer: @ Where did Mr Penhaligon advertise the job of assistant manager? Answer: What was the total number of candidates for the job of assistant manager? Answer: & What did Mr Penhaligon refuse to do? Answer: h Who would Mr Penhaligon prefer to employ as assistant manager? Answer: 1 How does Julie Murphy feel about Mr Penhaligon’s decision? Answer: J. What are the grounds for Julie Murphy's claim? Answer: 132 Ccamerne Maton & Rosemary Atine 200 asUNIT 4A VOCABULARY CHECK These are the important words you have studied in Unit 44. You should make sure that you know these words before you go on to Unit 4B. absence absent applicant: apply appraisal bullying candidate cashier clause closing date confidentiality constructive dismissal contentious covering letter CN. disability disciplinary discriminate discrimination dismiss dismissal dismissed dock employee employer estate agent fired fixed-term contract former fulltime grievance goss misconduct harass harassment eniew Job title made redundant manager maternity leave © catherine Mazon & Rosary Atins 2007 misconduct nnon-competition rnon-contentious notice period ‘on-the-spot, part-time pay payroll pension procedure provide that provision redundancy redundant regulations remuneration resign resignation retire retirement sacked salary seoretary seminar sick pay staff strike team temporary term termination ‘rack record trade union tribunal unfair dismissal vacant position wages wwell-motivated wide range 133 onepunog/ye wnUnit 48/Foundation TOLES FOUNDATION EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Look at the sentences below. Each sentence contains @ mistake. The mistake is elther an incorrect word or a word that should not be there. Put a circle around the word. Do not circle more than one word for each sentence. There is an example at the beginning (+). Example (+) The telephone company employs thousands oftaffS) 1. Your skls are the things that you can do good. Your employer did not make the correct procedure when he dismissed you. 2 3 Could you please confirm me that you agree to pay my client for his work? 4 Marco explained me at our meeting that his company dismissed him because he is a foreigner. 5 | would like to discuss about my salary for next year. Exercise 2 Read the text below. There are ten words missing from the text. in the spaces below, write the missing words. The first letter of each word has been provided for you. There is an example at the beginning (2). DISMISSING AN EMPLOYEE FOR GROSS MISCONDUCT Gross misconduct is (+) that is completely unacceptable. When an employee is guilty of gross misconduct the law does not expect an employer to tolerate it. The employer can usually dismiss the employee without giving him or her any warning. lawyer would describe this as dismissing the employee without (1) When an employee is dismissed on the (2) of gross misconduct he or she might file a (3) against the employer in a special court called an employment tribunal. The tribunal will take several @ into account when deciding if the employer acted fairly. One of the most important things that {an employer must do is make sure that the correct disciplinary (5) is followed. Even in cases of very serious misconduct the employer should! ‘© Inform the employee in (6) what the problem is, as well as speaking to him or her about it. This normally takes the form of a letter. © Allow the employee a face-to-face meeting to discuss the misconduct. The employer must tell the ‘employee that he or she is entitled to a have a (7) Union representative or some other witness present at that meeting, © Allow the employee to (8) against the decision if he or she is dismissed. Employers must follow these rules. It is very dangerous to dismiss an employee on-the-(9) This means asking the employee to leave immediately without having a proper investigation. If an employer does this, then the employee will almost certainly (10) for damages and he or she is very likely to win. (9) behaviour on @ w Q@ ¢ mit @ ¢ - @ _ @) @ s © p (10) s Po © Cotrerine Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007Exercise 3 Read the text below. It is from a contract. Some of the words in the text are underlined. The meanings of these words appear in the list below, but they are not in the same order. Match the underlined words in the text with the correct meanings by writing the letters (A, B,C, etc) in the list below. There is an example at the beginning (+). FROM AN EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT 2. The (AA) Term of this Agreement shall commence on 1 December 20XX and shall continue until 30 November 20XX unless terminated by either (A) party in accordance with the (B) terms of this Agreement, 3. The Employer agrees that (C) remuneration shall be paid into the Employee's bank account on, the 25th day of each calendar month. 4, The Employee shall (D) be entitled to normal remuneration during sickness (E) absence for a maximum of six weeks in any period of 12 months. 5. The Employee shall be entitled to (F) contribute to the Employer's (G) pension scheme. 6. The Employer may (H) terminate this Agreement without notice ifthe Employee shall at any time: © Be guilty of gross (I misconduct. © U) Disclose confidential information which has detrimentally affected the interests of the Employer. (AA | te drtin ote contact. The ped of me for whch the ontet va bad or unacceptable behaviour tell, reveal end, the dues ana condtons contained in a contract to have the right to something | || paren or company who sign a conract 2 period of time a person is away from the place they are expected to be 10 give because you choose to give and not because you must, | money that person receives after he or she stops working, payment | 1 Caherre Mason & Rosemary Aine 2007 135 wwonepunog yy wnThe Language of Employment Law UUitiae eal tgTHE LANGUAGE OF EMPLOYMENT LAW FINDING A JOB Exercise 1 On the next page you can see some advertisements from the jobs section of a newspaper. In the box below are some words that are used in the advertisements. Match the words in the box with the meanings provided below. remuneration recruitment absence ‘temporary training grievance track record legislation ‘a The collective name given to all of the laws that have been passed by Parliament and which are enforced by the courts. The word is b Something that an employee complains about to their employer. The word is © Non-attendance at work. The word is Payment. The word is @ The process of leaming the skills needed to do a particular job. The word is f The opposite of permanent. For a limited period of time only. The word is & A person's past behaviour and attendance that show how well he or she has done their job. The word is h The process of finding employees to work for a particular organisation or company. The word is Exercise 2 Find a word in the advertisements on the next page that matches the following meanings. a To produce or create something, The word is, (from the Chatsworth and Gatford Bank advertisement) b A group of things that are different but are of the same general type. The word is (fom the Chatsworth United Football Club advertisement) © Apperson who has formally asked to have a particular job. The word is, (from the David Ross & Co advertisement) d_ Something that is absolutely necessary. The word is (fiom the Homefast UK Estate Agency advertisement) sherine Méson & Rosa oor 137 site,4B/Higher ‘If you want to join a winning team come and talk to us.’ ‘Tue CHATSWORTH AND GatFORD BANK Branch manager Competitive salary + benefits Do you have a proven track record in financial sales? Can you motivate a team to maximise the commercial potential of your branch? You could have found the career you ate looking for. ‘The Chatsworth and Gatford Bank is looking for a branch manager for its Gaford branch Kyou hhave excellent management skills and are confident of your ability o generate new business ‘opportunities we want to hear from you. To find out more and apply, email your GY. 10 AliMakepeace(@ cagh.co.uk or call 0771 652 9090, (closing date 31 March) CHATSWORTH UNITED FOOTBALL CLUB Require a personal assistant to join us within the catering department. You will be responsible to the department manager for ‘a wide range of duties including recruitment and selection of new kitchen land dining room employees + performance and absence management of employees « disciplinary and grievance procedures You should be able to demonstrate an up-to-date knowledge of all of the above and be familiar with current employment legislation, Should you wish to be considered for this position please send a C.V. and your current remuneration to Pamela Howard, Chatsworth United Football Club, Old Highgate, Chatsworth, CH1 286. Closing date: 1 Api 138 David Ross & Co Solicitors COTA La Peres Pe oe yaa i east e U eee nee a teem ea Cee eee Renee) Pee CMe nee neg Eee eee oe Se the telephone and other relevant tasks as Ce MU Run oe See aug a ese ee ae en oc Deda oak For an informal discussion please contact Pes Teuk Lae aeRO Cerny ge GARY Qe oat) requires an Assistant Valuer ANEW POSITION FOR A CONFIDENT AND MOTIVATED PERSON This is a sales role focusing upon advising clients who are thinking of selling thelr home. Good knowledge of the property selling process is needed, ideally from previous experience of estate agency or property-related employment. However, training can be provided to the right person if they have no previous experience. Full driving licence essentialExercise 3 Read the advertisements and decide if the following statements are true or false. a Alegal receptionist is required at David Ross & Co because the True False receptionist they have at the moment is going to have a baby. b Aperson needs previous experience of working as an estate agent to be Te False considered for the job at Homefast UK Estate Agency. © The job at the Chatsworth and Gatford Bank offers other advantages, Tue False (maybe things like a company car or medical insurance), as well a8 @ good salary. I can apply forthe job at Chatsworth United Football Club until the True False end of April. @ The job at David Ross & Co is usually done by one employee from Monday True-—‘alse to Wednesday and by a different employee from Thursday to Friday. Exercise 4 Look at the advertisements again. Complete the following sentences with the correct preposition. a |heard ‘Stephen Brown yesterday. He sent me a postcard. He is working in Sydney for a year. b You can contact me Chatsworth 877 9940. ¢ Do you have up-to-date knowledge Gisciplinary and grievance procedures? 6 Do you have any experience of dealing with people the telephone? € My contract of employment says that | have to deal with any task relevant to my job required Collocation bank © to have previous experience © to generate new business. @ to forward a C.V. to ‘someone © to apply for a job © to join a department Preposition bank © to have a track record in a particular area © 10 be familiar with something “She has a strong track record in “Ate you familiar with recent employment financial sales. legislation?” | © tobe confident affin something © to have experience of a particular job | ‘1am confident of my ability to ‘Lhave five years’ experience of working as | | increase sales.’ a receptionist.” | | | © to work withinvin a department of an ® to focus on/upon something. | stganisation ‘In this company we have a strong focus “Anew assistant manager is needed within upon client satisfaction.” | the accounts department. Catherine Mason & Rosersr Atkins 2007 139 sovsn/ay wnUnit 48/ Higher WORKING IN EMPLOYMENT LAW Exercise 1 Paul Hollingsworth is a partner in the law firm Freeman Smith. He works in the employment department. Today Paul Hollingsworth is speaking to a group of trainee lanyers and giving them his opinion about working as @ solicitor in employment law. Fill the gaps in the text with a word from the box below. employers confidential judgments complying nal governed ‘Its extremely difficult to describe a typical case in employment law because there is a Jot of variety For example, the nature of the work means that ‘you have to deal with contentious work, such as acting for a client at an employment @ , and non-contentious work, such as drafting @ contract of employment. 1 decided to specialise in employment law because the work is varied and interesting. Cases are usually of avery sensitive nature and are therefore highly (b) sometimes requiring very careful handling, | act for both employers and employees, although to be honest, itis usually an employer who is more likely to be able to afford legal (c) However, itis an area of law, perhaps second only to family law, where a client's emotions are involved. To work in employment law you need to be able to cope with that, and to understand that clients feel very strongly about the issues concerned. Employment law covers the rights of workers and the obligations of (d) In the UK these rights and obligations come from the following main sources: « Acts of Parliament, which give rise to © rights and obligations Employment contracts, which give rise to contractual rights and obligations. This area is largely (f by the ‘common law and there is @ large body of law created by earlier decisions European Union legislation and 0 representation data statutory safety legislation paternity © from the European Court of Justice I have been with this firm for 42 years and in that time | have dealt with all aspects of employment law. These include: © drafting contracts of employment advising employers on (h) with new Acts of Parliament health and (i) issues at work © advising on all aspects of discrimination at work © advising on family related issues such as maternity and @) advising on pension rights ®_prtection acting on behalf of clients at employment tribunals. rights itis fairto say that employment law has required an increasing number of lawyers over the last few years, largely because employees are a lot more aware of the'r rights than they used to be. Also, there has been lot of new (I) some of it from the European Union, so we have to keep ‘employers completely up-to-date with the law. | think it’s true to say that employers feel slightly under fre at the moment. By that | mean that employers feel they are being attacked by the law, while employees are protected by it. Employing people isa tricky business these days and employers must get good advice every step of the way.” Cathet 2 2007Exercise 2 In Exercise 1, Paul Hollingsworth gave a list of different aspects of employment law that he has dealt with during his 12 years at his law fim, Match the statements below with the correct aspect of employment law ‘mentioned by Paul Example statement: ‘A new statute will come into force next year concerning smoking in the workplace. The purpose of this seminar is to make employers here in Chatsworth aware of their duties in this area.’ Aspect of law: advising employers on complying with new Acts of Parliament a ‘Asan employee you are entitled to 52 weeks’ leave after the birth of your child regardless of the number of hours you work or the length of your service with your current employer. However, you must ‘Gwe the correct period of notice.” b ‘Your claim for unfair dismissal has been filed and your employer now has 28 days in which to respond to your allegations.” ¢ ‘The information thet your compeny holds on its computers is an asset of the business. We can advise ‘you on how to safeguard it; something that most companies are doing these days.” d_ ‘Your employees will receive money from the government when they retire because they paid National Insurance contributions while they were working, However, as an employer you can help your ‘employees by contributing toa private retirement fund for each of them.” © ‘In ciause 410, which deals with termination, | have stated the minimum notice period that your ‘employees must give you if they wish to end their employment with you.’ f ‘Itis important as employers to bear in mind that you have a duty of care to visitors to your premises as well as to your employees.” 8 ‘Under current legisiation, a woman has the right to equal pay if she does the same job as @ man.’ Exercise 3 Read Paul Hollingsworth’s view of working as an employment lawyer in Exercise 1 again and answer the ollowing questions using a full sentence. ‘Why does Paul say that itis so difficult to describe a typical employment case? b_ Why did Paul choose to practise in the area of employment law? © Cane Mason & Rosemary ars 2007 141 sounniay wnUnit 48, Migher © Why doos Paul say that an employer is more likely to use his services than an employee? 4. Paul says that an employment lawyer needs some of the same skils as a family lanyer. Why is that? eHow does Paul describe the rights of workers and obligations of employers that arise from Acts of Parliament? f How long has Paul been working for Freeman Smith? Paul says that more employment lawyers have been needed in recent years, partly because of more legislation from Europe. What other reason does he give for the increase in the number of employment lawyers? fh Who does Paul say feels unhappy about current employment law ~ employees or employers? Collocation bank © highly confidential ‘© to comply with a tie lew statute or the law © to keep up-to-date with © to be entitled to leave/holiday Preposition bank © to work in employment law ‘Jane has worked in employment law for five years.” © to cope with a problem “Solicitors in this area of law have to cope with some very emotional clients.” © to advise someone on a particular issue ‘This moming | advised members of the local Chamber of Commerce on employers’ duties regarding maternity leave.” © to increase in number over a few years “Employment lawyers have greatly increased in number over the last few years.” to hold information on a computer “All of our clients’ contact details are held ‘on our computer.” to contribute to something “My employer contributes every month to my private pension plan.’ to end your employment with a company ‘I gve notice that | will end my employment with the Royal Chatsworth Bank on 30 April” under legislation “Under current legislation, employers are: ot allowed to discriminate on the grounds of an employee's age.’ waz sherne Mason & Rosemary Ais 2007(= ustenine Exercise 1 This morning Paul Hollingsworth of the law fim Freeman Smith, is giving a talk t0 a group of clients. The clients are all employers in the town of Chatsworth. Paul is going to talk about 8 new Act of Parliament that will affect the way in which employers advertise job vacancies. Listen carefully and write the missing words in the box on the next page. “Good moming, ladies and gentleman. First of all, thank you very much for coming along to this breakfast seminar at Freeman Smith this morning, You are all very welcome. My name is Paul Hollingsworth and as most of you know, I'm a partner in the emplayment law department here at Freeman Smith, The subject of this morning's talk is the Age Discrimination Act, a new Act of Parliament that came into @) a few days ago on 1 October, This new legislation will affect all of you ‘as employers and one of the key messages that | have for you today is the importance of complying with it in order to avoid being taken to employment tribunals by unhappy employees. From now on you should be very aware of how you treat employees with regard to their age. The new regulations will have an impact on every aspect of a company’s employment policies including pay and benefits, (b) , dismissal, redundanoy and retirement and even training opportunities. ‘it might surprise you to learn that one of the most important areas for you to consider as employers Is the language that you use in advertising job vacancies. When you are looking for new © you have to be very aware of the words you use in any newspaper or Internet advertisement as well as in any internal memo you might write advertising a new or vacant position within the company. To use another country’s experiences as @ guide for us here in the UK, our neighbours in the Republic of Ireland introduced legislation six years ago to prevent employers discriminating against employees on the grounds of age. Our research on how things have worked out in Ireland is, Interesting. It tells us that most claims in tribunals have been based on discriminatory advertising rather than discrimination in the workplace. In other words, too many employers are using discriminatory language in the (d) process. So what do you need to be aware of when you advertise a job? Well, first you should remember not to use certain words in your advert that suggest you only want, people of a certain age. You might for example, face legal action from older people if you advertise for a ‘young, dynamic (e) * to fill a position in your company. These words ‘young’ ‘and ‘dynamic’ have been interpreted as automatically excluding older people, On the other hand, be careful of words such as ‘senior’, ‘mature’ or ‘well-experienced’ as they could be seen as excluding younger people from applying. AAs well as being careful about the words that you use, you also need to be careful about making general statements in job adverts. For example, requiring that all (f) fora Particular job have a degree if itis not really necessary to do so might be seen as discriminating, ‘against older people. This is because younger people are more likely to have had the benefit of a University education. Just to make local employers here in Chatsworth fully aware of the situation, | have with me a copy of Thursday's edition of our local newspaper, the Chatsworth Herald. As you all know, the Herald carries 2 jobs vacant section every Thursday. it might come as a shock to you to discover that approximately 25% of all of the adverts in the newspaper this week breach the new legistation. That means that all of these advertisers are open to claims from potential employees who might feel that they have been discriminated against on the grounds of age. continued ‘canenne Mason & Rosemary thins 2007 3 seusin/ay wnUnit 40, Higher Now let's move on to employees who are (g) working for you. A case was, brought against an employer in Ireland last year by a female employee aged 61. Her name is Brenda Flanagan, Brenda worked in the accounts department of a large chemical company and there is a normal retirement age of 65 for people in her position. This particular lady did not wish to retire at 65 and intended to make @ request to continue working when she received notice of her retirement. The employer arranged a (h) training course for everyone in Brenda's department on a new sofware package that they are going to use. The employer told Brenda that she would not be trained because she was retiring soon and it wasn’t worth spending the money on training her. Brenda took legal action against her employer immediately. Another age-() case was brought on quite different grounds. Michael, aged 55, worked in an office where most of the rest of the staff are aged 25 to 40. Everyone in the office, including the manager, often met for drinks on Friday evenings but they didn’t ask Michael to join ‘them, Michael discovered that they discussed work issues on those nights out and he felt Undervalued and excluded. In both cases above, Brenda and Michael were successful at tribunals. Both successfully argued that ‘they had suffered from age discrimination at work. I cannot stress to you strongly enough how important itis to be aware of the new regulations and not to suffer () because of compensation payments to employees. | I nave prepared a fect sheet for you to collect at the end of the seminar but we will now have a question and answer session based on the new legislation. Thank you’ a t b g c h id i e j SOME CLAUSES FROM AN EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT A typical employment contract will contain clauses dealing with: the term of the contract and the starting date non-competition ® the job title and job description confidentiality and data protection © hours of employment © pension arrangements @ salary and expenses © collective agreements/agreements with trade unions © holiday entitlement termination © sick pay entitlement ‘address for notices to be served ® discipline and grievance procedures governing law/urisdiction 144 Ccathenne Mason & Rosary thins 2007Here are three clauses from a contract of employment, They deal with salary, expenses and termination of ‘the contract. Look at the contract and complete the exercises that follow. 5. PAYMENT ‘The Company agrees that all remuneration payable (a) this contract (b) employment shall be paid (¢) the Employee's bank aceount (d) the last Friday of each month. (e) the event of a public holiday falling on a Friday the payment will be made on the following Monday. | 6. EXPENSES | In addition to the (a) specified above in clause 5 the Employee is entitled to | be (b) bby the Employer for all costs (¢) in the performance of f his/her duties in (@) with the terms of this agreement and with the rules and practices of the Employer's business which are at the time in (e) 7. TERMINATION ‘The Employer may terminate this agreement without any period of notice or payment if the Employee at any time: 7.1 is guilty of serious misconduct or neglect or any other conduct in respect of the Employee's employment or personal life which may seriously adversely affect the interests of the Employer 7.2 is convicted of a criminal offence other than an offence under road traffic legislation in the UK or abroad for which a penaity other than a term of imprisonment is imposed 7.3 becomes the subject of a bankruptey order 7.4 is diagnosed as mentally il or becomes a patient for the purposes of the Mental Health Act 1983, 7.5 is guilty of any material breach of the provisions of this agreement or any neglect in carrying out his or her duties under the terms of this agreement. Such termination will be without prejudice to any other rights of the Employer against the Employee. Exercise 1 Look at clause 5 of the employment contract above. It deals with payment of the employee. Complete the clause by using one of the prepositions in the box below. into of under In on Exercise 2 Look at clause 6 of the employment contract above. It deals with expenses that the employer must pay back to the employee. Complete the clause by using one of the words in the box below. reimbursed accordance remuneration incurred force © Caterne Mason & Rosemary Abas 2007 145 sovsuay wn,Unit 45, Higher Exercise 3 Look at clause 7 of the employment contract. It deals with the circumstances in which the employer can terminate the contract without giving any waming to the employee. Match the words that are highlighted in the clause with the meanings below. a. The terms and conditions contained in a contract. Answer: b Afailure to do something when it is your duty todo it. Answer: © Except, with the exception of. Answer: d_ Negatively, badly. Answer: Bad or dishonest behaviour. Answer: f Forced upon you. You have no choice about it. Answer: & Having no effect on something. Answer: fh Regarding or concerning. Answer: 1 To be found guilty of a criminal act. Answer: J. Inthis context, it means the person that something happens to. Answer: Exercise 4 Read the three clauses again and decide if the following statements are true or false. ‘a The employee must collect his or her pay from the company office onthe True —sFallse last Friday of each month. b_ If New Year's Day is on a Friday the employee will be paid on the True False following Monday. Ifthe employee makes a negative statement about the company’s Tue False products when he is at a party with his friends he could possibly be dismissed. Ifthe employee is stopped by the police for driving too fast and she Te False receives a fine of £200 she could possibly be dismissed. e If the employee cannot pay his debts and a court has issued an order True False to say that he is insolvent he can be dismissed immediately. location bank to ineur a cost or an expense © to be eonvieted of a crime material breach to adversely affect to impose a penalty on something someone 146 © Cathet Mason & Rosary Siking 2007Preposition bank «to be reimbursed by someone © tobe in force “I was reimbursed by my employer for my “There are rules in force as to where train fare to London.” employees are allowed to smoke cigarettes at work.” «© in respect of something. “My employer wrote to me last week in © to be the subject of something respect of my redundancy payment. “Iwas the subject of an investigation into @ breach of confidentiality when | worked for © under the terms of an agreement the government.” “Under the terms of your contract you are entitled to five weeks’ holiday.” AN EMPLOYMENT TRIBUNAL Employment cases in the UK are heard in Employment Tribunal Offices. An employment tribunal is not as formal as a court but it must follow the correct rules of procedure in the same way as a normal court. Employment tribunals have the power to make decisions but there is @ period where the parties are encouraged to reach an agreement before a case is heard. On the next page you can see a diagram summarising the process of making a claim at an employment tribunal Exercise 1 ‘The diagram on the next page uses some important collocations to describe the process of making a claim at an employment tribunal. Using the diagram to help you, complete the sentences below using a verb or a phrasal verb. First of all a dispute b The parties should then try to the dispute. If the parties cannot agree then the claimant should advice from a professional. The tribunal will the claim if itis presented on the correct form. The tribunal will then hearing to examine the facts of the case. f The tribunal will finally a judgment. Exercise 2 The diagram contains some formal words and phrases. Find the words or phrases in the diagram that match the meanings provide below. ‘a Approcess in which the two parties to a dispute are brought together in order to try to find a solution. Megiation is an example of this. b The formal answer to a claim. © Anorder issued by the court which says that the claimant has won the case because the respondent failed to file a response to the claim. d_The process in which the parties to the dispute agree on the conduct of the case, for example agreeing whether expert evidence is needed, what documents must be disclosed to each side and the time allowed for this, etc. © cathenne Mason & Rosemary ans 2007 ar soya ap wen,Unit 48, Higher Claim process summary Dispute arises 1 Try to sort it out Estimated e Claim not G Send claim to a 3S tribunal office = ——«ecepted and oO I $ OD Claim accepted, ° ££ ‘sent to the respondent and 2 conataton tans Claimnotg Resp acoeptedand pted returned & adhere osued * case Management 1 ing held 26 weeks Employment Tribunals Printed with permission ofthe Employment Tribunal Office Exercise 3 Look at the diagram again and say whether the following statements are true or false. 148 The first thing an employee who is in dispute with his or her employer should do is file a claim with an employment tribunal. The ‘defendant’ is known as a ‘respondent’ in a case at an employment tribunal. The respondent has just three days to respond to the claim. If the respondent does not respond to the claim then the tribunal can rule in favour of the claimant without a hearing, ‘The entire process takes about 30 weeks from start to finish. True Tue Tue True True cathe Maton & Rosary kins 200 False False False False FalseExercise 4 Maggie Redman is an employee of a business in Chatsworth. She is involved in a serious dispute with her ‘employer. Maggie has some questions about employment tribunals. Complete her questions with a word from the box below. with, How do When Can Winat exactly do employment tribunals ? b Where can | find a full lst of the categories of complaints that employment tribunals deal e the staff at an employment tribunal office give me legal advice? a long does the tribunal office give my employer to respond to my inital letter of complaint before I can bring a claim? ° understand that | have three months in which to make a complaint about my employer. does the three-month period begin? Exercise 5 On the next page is a leaflet that Maggie Redman has picked up from her local tribunal office in Chatsworth, The information needed to answer Maggie's questions from Exercise 4 is contained in the leaflet. Answer Maggie's questions using @ full sentence. Each sentence has been started for you. a An employment tribunal b You can find © The staff at d_ The tribunal office ee @ The three-month period Catrine Mason & Rosemary tins 2007 149 seuamiay wnUnit 48 Higher What does the Chatsworth Employment Tribunal do? Employment tribunals hear cases and make decisions on matters connected with employment, Employment matters include cases in the areas of discrimination at work, unfair dismissal, breaches of health and safety regulations and a range of claims dealing with payments relating to wages and redundancy Ifyou want a full list of the complaints that employment tribunals deal with, you can collect a full jurisdiction list from the Chatsworth Tribunal Office or download the list from our website. Further information The staff at this tribunal office can answer general enquities and give you information about how the tribunal system works. They cannot give you legal advice or advise you as to whether your claim will be successful. If you need help with your claim you can contact a solicitor, or seek help from your trade union if you are a member. Information needed to make a claim form provided by an employment tribunal office. You must tell us: © your name and address. the name and address of the respondent that you are making a claim against the details of your complaint. Please note that before making a claim you should write to the respondent and Bive details of your complaint. You should then allow the respondent 28 days to reply before bringing your claim to a tribunal office. How much time do | have to make a claim? In most cases you have three months to make your claim. This time limit is very strict and if you wait longer than three months the tribunal may not be able to deal with your claim. The three months begins with the date your employment ended or when the event that you are complaining about took place. In exceptional circumstances more time may be given. For example, if you were in hospital at the time that your claim should have been made. Where to send your claim ‘Your claim must meet certain conditions before it can be accepted. It must be submitted to the tribunal on the correct You can send your claim to the Chatsworth Tribunal Office or you can complete the online version on our website. Exercise 6 Look at the leaflet again. in each of the examples below, tick the box which uses the correct collocation. “ 150 listen to a case Y) hear a case ‘employment matters |__| unjust dismissal seek help do a claim __| bring a claim draft a claim form employment affairs unfair dismissal search for help complete a claim form 3 & Rosemary Akins 2001AN EMPLOYMENT CLAIM Exercise 1 Ifyou want to make a claim at an employment tribunal you must check that the nature of your claim is covered by the tribunal's jurisdiction list. On the next page you will see ten types of claim that are covered by the jurisdiction list. (of complaint. Anna Kingston David Cainley Arthur Bentley Simon Cole Brian Hedley Jack Walsh Deborah Clark Alex Harmon Dan Beale Maggie Redman Look at the employees’ complaints below, Match each employee with the correct type ‘1am a machine operator in a factory in Chatsworth. | have worked here for two years. | have just discovered that a man who works here is paid £2 an hour more than | am for doing exactly the same jod as me." “I work in the office of a publishing company. | had to attend a disciplinary meeting last month because | was accused of using the Intemet to ook at football websites during paid working hours, | was dismissed at the end of that meeting. | was extremely angry because my employer refused to allow my trade union representative to attend the disciplinary meeting with me. ‘Lam 88 years old. | work for a travel agency. Last month our manager resigned and the job of branch manager became available. Despite the fact that | have 20 years’ experience of this type of work, a younger man in my office was promoted over me. The area manager actually told me afterwards that although they were impressed by me at my interview they thought that | was too old to handle the new technology that the ‘company were planning to introduce over the next few years. | feel that this is extremely unfair.” ‘Lam 45 years old. | applied for a job working in a petrol station in Chatsworth. The job advertisement said applicants should be ‘young and dynamic’. | was not selected for interview, despite lots of previous experience of doing similar jobs. | believe the ‘employer only wanted people who were younger than me.” ‘Lam 19 years old. | work for @ sole trader who runs a gardening business. Last month | decided to take out 2 loan and the bank asked for my last three months' pay slips. My ‘employer pays me in cash at the end of every day and refuses to give me pay slips. Without proof thet | ean money I can’t get a loan.’ ‘1am 23 years old. | do seasonal work for a local fruit grower near Chatsworth and | pick fruit for eight hours every day. The law says that my employer must pay me at least £5.35 an hour but my employer only pays £3 an hour.’ | worked in the office at a local brewery. My employer needed to reduce the number of ‘administrative staff last month because there wasn't enough work for everyone. Two of Us in the office, my colleague Jane and |, have young. children and we only work 20 hours a week in comparison to the other employees who work 37 hours a week. The boss made Jane and | redundant, although we had actually been there longer than some other employees.” 1am 411 years old and | have worked for all of my working life in a factory that produces. furniture. The factory is due to close in two months and we will all be made redundant. Its really difficult to get a new job at my age but to make matters worse my employer refused to let me have a moming off to go for an interview.” I work for an advertising agency based here in Chatsworth. My employment contract, Clearly states that | will be paid on 26th of each month but my employer always pays me later than that. | have had a few financial troubles as a result. ‘used to work as a manager of a restaurant business until | resigned last July. | didn’t want to resign but when my employers found out that | was expecting a baby they treated me very badly and | didn't fee! that I could stay.” © Caterine Mason & Rosemany Abs 2007 ast symjay wnUnit 4B) Higher diction list a You have suffered a detriment or have been dismissed as a result of your employer's refusal to allow you to be accompanied at a disciplinary/grievance hearing, Employee name: You have a complaint based upon breach of contract. Employee name: You have @ complaint based upon a discriminatory advertisement. Employee name: 4. You have suffered discrimination in the workplace on the grounds of age. Employee name: ‘@ Your employer has failed to provide equal pay for equal work. Employee name: 1 Your employer has failed to allow time off to seek work during a redundancy situation. Employee name: & Your employer has failed to provide a written pay statement. Employee name: h You have sutfered a detriment or have been dismissed on the grounds of pregnancy. Employee name: i. Youhave suffered a detriment or have been dismissed as a result of your employer's failure to pay the minimum wage. Employee name: j You have suffered less favourable treatment or have been dismissed as a result of being a part-time employee rather than a full-time employee. Employee name: Collocation bank © unfair dismissal to meet certain conditions to attend a meeting to seek help a strict time limit Preposition bank to be promoted over someone "Sandra has worked here for seven years ow and three people have been promoted ‘comparison to/with workers who make cars ‘over her.” in other countries.’ to have time off work to be paid in cash ‘Thad a jot of time off work last year due to ‘Many illegal workers are paid in cash.” family problems.” 152 catherre Maco to be made redundant © In comparison to/with something/someone ‘We are paid well in this country inExercise 2 Read the newspaper story on the next page. It is a story about a hearing at an employment tribunal. Fill the gaps in the text with a word from the box below. » suspended resigned dismissal © hearing © admitted © earings © awarded © alleged © manager © distressed Exercise 3 Read the newspaper story again and answer the following questions using a full sentence. a What was Maggie Redman’s job at Casa? b What was Maggie Redman’s yearly salary at Casa? © Who were the owners of Casa? ‘d_ How long had Maggie Redman been working at Casa when she discovered she was going to have a baby? Was Michael Roeder sympathetic towards Maggie Redman when she told him that she was pregnant? f What reason did Maggje Redman give for being unable to work efficiently after her conversation with Michael Roeder? When Maggie Redman returned to work, how did Mr and Mrs Roeder financially punish her for alleged offences such as making late payments to suppliers? hh Was Maggie Redman fired from her job at Casa? 1 What were Maggie Redman’s grounds for bringing a case against her employers? J What did the tribunal award to Maggie Redman when it upheld her complaints? Ceaherne Mason & Rosemary Atins 2007 153 sowsin/ay wnUnit 48, Higher 158 The Chatsworth Herald www: chatswortbberald.ca.uk page 12 ‘Tribunal cules in favour of manager suspended from top restaurant Woman asked to choose between her baby and her job wins £60,000 for constructive dismissal A Chatsworth woman who was asked by her employers to choose between her unborn baby anc her job was (a) 260,000 in damages at a twibunal today ‘Maggie Redman, aged 29, originally from Manchester, had worked as (b) al the fashionable restaurant ‘Casa’ in Beaumont Street, Chatsworth for jst two months when she informed her employers, restaurant owners ‘Michael and Sarah Roeder that she was going 10 havea baby. She was initially (©) from her $30,000-2-year post, but returned to the restaurant to resume work last May, the tribunal ‘vas tol. Miss Redman claimed she was then forced out by a campaign of harassment Miss Redman told the tribunal that she had informed her employer Sarah Roeder as soon as she knew that she was expecting baby. Miss Rediman described Mrs Roeder’ response to her news as “brutal. Sarah Roeder yesterday @ to saying, ‘Ifyou keep this baby, [don't think we can keep you. We have put ‘everything we have into this business and we have to prioritise it above everything else’. According to ‘Miss Redman, who is unmarried, Michael Roeder approached her later on the same morning and asked her how strong her relationship was with Glenn Taylor, the father of her child. Miss Redman told the tribunal, “Michael was furious ‘when he heart my news. He asked me deeply personal questions about my relationship with my pariner and encouraged me not to continue with my pregnancy. | was shocked beyond belief by his attitude and was too (e) by the conversation to work efficiently fbr the rest ofthe day, Michael's response to my distraught condition was to suspend me on the spot. had no choice except to go home. eft work that day cat Lam’, Although Mr and Nirs Roeder suspencded Miss Realman from her post that day, she later returned to work. She eventually 0 last July after being given ‘what she termed “an inaccurate, negative work appraisal that portrayed me as liar and an ‘opportunist’. During the three-tay tribunal 2) 3s Redman tok of being verbally abused by the Roedors and of having her salary docked for (h) offences that she had not committed, such as ailing wo file | important invoices andl making fate payments to suppliers. After today’s judgment, Miss Redman told the Chatsworth Herald “The Roeders made my life a misery when | worked for them and for many months afer. They suggested to me and to other staff that I came to work at Casa with deliberate plan to take highly-paid post an then have a baby immediately to take advantage of statutory ‘maternity rights. Nothing could be further from the truth Atthe tribunal Miss Redman alleged constructive and unfair (i aswell as sexual discrimination, Her claims were upheld, resulting in damages of 860.000 for harassment, sextal discrimination and lost Gj) Asa | result, the Roeders, who have since sold Casa, now face financial ruin, They were not available for comment after the tribunal today © Cather Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE Collocation review Complete these sentences with a collocation that you have seen. ‘a Please do not disclose this information to anyone, as itis confidential. b Ifyou ‘any expenses on your training course in London the company will eimburse you upon your retum. © Do you have any experience of working in a bank? We are ideally looking for someone who won't need very much training. d Ihave for a job with a major law firm but I'm not sure that | will be selected for interview, as there is sure to be a lat of competition. @ tis vital to up-to-date with changes in employment law because employers have to ‘comply with many duties and obligations. f Employees have been affected by the bad economic situation that we have at the moment and many people have lost their jobs as a result. & The employee's dishonest behaviour amounted to a breach of his employment ‘contract and he was dismissed immediately. hh Ifyou have been of a serious criminal offence in the past you are not eligible for a job in the police force. i Ihave t0 @ pension fund for 30 years and | hope | will have enough in it to be able to retire at the age of 50. J The European Union penalties upon member countries that breach its employment legislation, Vocabulary review Complete these sentences with a word that you have seen. a. The successful for this challenging post will have experience of financial sales and be a good leader of staff. b Mothers of new babies are entitied to 52 weeks’ maternity. according to current legislation. © The clause of this contract explains the circumstances in which the employer can bring the contract to an end without notice to the employee. d_She was fired from her job without good reason and she is bringing a claim against her employer for unfair © Employers are not allowed to against employees on the grounds of age, sex or religion. © Cathrine Mason & Rosemary Athine 2007 155 soya ay wenUnit 48 Higher f fyou are ill and you are away from work your employer is obliged to pay you pay fora certain number of weeks. Inthe UK, special courts known as deal with employment cases. h Employers are obliged to give pay to men and women if they are doing the same job. i The work of an employment lawyer that does not involve any kind of dispute is known as non ‘work, J There is ¢ lot of health and legislation these days, which is designed to keep ‘employees safe from harm when they are at work. Preposition review Complete these sentences with the correct preposition, a Ave you familiar ‘the latest European Union legislation on sexual discrimination? b- We hold all of our confidential information ‘a computer at our head office. © Iwas reimbursed the company accountant for all of the expenses that! incurred in the month of July. | give notice that | will end my employment Harrods on 23 April of this year. © The Employee's salary willbe paid directly _—_ his or her bank account on the last day of each month, f the terms of his employment contract he must give four weeks’ notice if he wants to terminate his employment. Employment tribunals hear cases relating a wide range of complaints. fh Lwish to make a claim my employer on the grounds of breach of contract. i 1am very angry because | thought | would be made a manager at my company this year but a younger ‘man was promoted me. J Iwas not able to go to an interview for @ new job because it was at two o'clock and my current ‘employer refused to give me the aftemaon 156 © catnene Mason & Reeemary Aine 2007TOLES HIGHER EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Read the contract clause below. The missing prepositions are in the list below. For each gap choose the preposition which best fits into the space from the options provided. Use each option only once. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (»). FROM A CONTRACT OF EMPLOYMENT ] 7. HOLIDAYS 7.1 All of the Employee's holiday dates shall be agreed with the human resources department of the Company a minimum («) six weeks (4) advance of holiday being taken. 7.2 The Company shall be entitled to require the Employee to work any public holiday including Christmas Day if any such holiday falls (2) a day on which the Employee would normally be required to work. ‘The Company and the Employee agree as follows: | 7.3 In the event that the Employee leaves the Company he or she shall be entitled to pay in lieu @ any holiday entitlement that may have accumulated, 7.4 In the event that the Employee leaves the Company and he or she has received paid holiday in excess of holiday entitlement the Company is entitled to deduct any overpayment (4) any other sums due (5) ‘the Employee from the Company. (AA) of (A) upon (B) from (©) in (0) of © to (A) AA @ 2 ® @ © E ustening Exercise 2 Listen to this conversation between a lawyer and his client. Decide ifthe following statements are true or false. Mr Winter had already filed a claim against his former employer before his visit to the lawyer. Mr Winter was employed as an office worker in Birmingham. Mr Winter was dismissed two weeks ago. Mr Winter was injured by a woman when he tried to stop her fighting with her husband, Mr Winter has now completely recovered from the injury he sustained to his ear. Mr Winter suffered no broken bones in the attack upon him, Mr Winter’s supervisor was very sympathetic about his medical problems. Mr Winter’s supervisor telephoned him to say she intended to file a defence to his claim. Mr Winter has only worked for six weeks since the attack upon him, 10 The lawyer thinks that Mr Winter's ciaim wil be unsuccessful. rs True or false? @ 2) @ (4) | 3) © a @ @) (10) Ccatrenne Aas & Roseman ater 187 sexsi ay a0Unit 48, Higher Exercise 3 Look at the letter below. A lawyer has written it on behaif of his client. Parts of the letter are written in an inappropriate way. They are underlined. Rewrite the underlined words in a more appropriate way. There is an example at the beginning (+). MoKay, Browne & Co 414 Cardogan Square Liverpool 11 38Q 17 July 20x Mr Fergus Keane General Manager Carlton Engineering Unit 33, Broome Industrial Park Liverpool L23 SCH Dear (+) Fergus Keane Esquire Our client: Neil Hoffmann | (2) write about your letter of 14 July 20XX, sent to Mr Neil Hoffman at his home address, 44 Willow Gardens, Merton, Liverpool. Mr Hoffman has (2) talked to McKay, Browne & Co and | will be representing him (3) about this problem. | am instructed by Mr Hoffmann that (4) opposite to what you now claim, he was not informed at any stage of the company’s official (6) process to complain, nor was he offered an interview at your head office on the afternoon of Monday 2 July. ‘Mr Hoffmann insists that he was involved in a heated argument with his supervisor Mr Kevin Radelife, on the moming of 2 July and was subsequently asked to leave the company’s (6) buildings by you in your capacity as General Manager. Mr Hoffmann then received notification that his employment contract had been terminated without notice on the grounds of his (7) terrible behaviour by a letter dated 3 July. >My client insists that the (8) argument he had with Mr Radoliffe on 2 July was one of several similar incidents and that his repeated attempts to speak to someone in authority in order to make a formal complaint were not taken seriously. | have advised my client that he has excellent grounds to make a claim against Cariton Engineering for (9) unjust firing. | have instructions to issue proceedings against you if we do not receive reasonable proposals for settlement of this matter within (40) two weeks after the date written on this letter. Yours sincerely SQ Brendan Lambton Parner 158 © catnanne Mason & Roseman Atkins 2007(*) Mr Keane cy (2) @ @ © oo (a) 8 @ (20) [© catnerine Mason & Rosemary Aine 2007 159 sowie wn~ SUM Rrra) eae Unit 5A/FoundationTHE LAW OF TORT WHAT IS THE LAW OF TORT? Exercise 1 Read this information about the law of tort. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Decide if the statements that follow are true or false. Key vocabulary wrong » damage harm ® liable The law of tort deals with civil wrongs. A wrong is something that causes harm or damage to another person. The words ‘harm’ and ‘damage’ have the same meaning. A person who suffers harm or damage is hurt in some way. This hurt might be physical in nature, but it might be some other type of hurt, such as causing someone to lose money. This area of law is based on the following principle. In situations where I cause harm to another person, | may be liable to compensate him or her for that harm, even in situations when: {do not have a contract with that person and | did not commit a criminal act against that person. Let's say that | am shopping in a large supermarket and an employee of the supermarket washed the floor five minutes ago. The floor is not completely dry. I do not know this. There is na sign to warn me that the floor is wet. | slip on the floor and hurt my back. | have to go to hospital and | cannot go to work for a month, This isa situation where I need. to make a claim based on the principles of the law compensate negligence intention conduct of tort. | am hurt physically and | have perhaps lost money, all because of someone else's conduct. Conduct is a more formal word that means behaviour. The law of tort says that | must not harm another person either because | choose to harm him or her, or because | was not careful enough. In other words, | am liable for any harm that | cause to another person either from having intention to cause harm, or from negligence. How is this area of law different from criminal law or contract law? The answer to this question is that ‘there is a lot of averiap between the law of tort, contract law and criminal law. Overlap means that these areas of law include some things that are the same. However, an important difference between the law of tort and criminal aw is that the main purpose of the lawv of tort is to compensate people \who suffer hatm and not to punish the people who caused this harm. An important difference between ‘the law of tort and contract law is that the law of ‘ort makes us liable to people with whom we have no previous relationship. a The law of tort aims to compensate people for different types of harm True False and not just physical harm. bb must have a contract with someone to make a claim against that True False person under the law of tort. ¢ I can only make a claim against someone under the law of tort if that Tue False person hurt me intentionally d__ The main purpose of the law of tort is to punish people who cause harm. True False to others. eI can be liable for my actions under the law of tort to someone who was True False a complete stranger to me before my conduct hurt that person. Yasan & Rosemary Ans 200 161 uonepunes/ys 380Unit SA/Foundation Holnaee What do these words mean? ‘a principle of law — an established idea that is to slip — to fall because of stepping in something Used as the basis for a particular area of law. _that is wet or icy. Exercise 2 Use the correct words from the key vocabulary in Exercise 1. to complete the following sentences. ‘a The main idea of the law of tort is not to punish people who do something wrong but to people who suffer because of someone else's conduct. b lam for the harm that | cause to other people, which means that | have legal responsibility for causing that harm. ¢ Inssituations when | deliberately harm another person, | have to harm that person. in situations when | harm another person because I was not careful enough, the law says that the person can make a claim against me based upon my fe The word means the same as the word ‘harm’. The word ‘damages’, however, is not ‘the plural of this word. Damiages means financial compensation for harm or damage suffered. Exercise 3 Read this short text that gives you more information about the law of tort. Answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. Conduct that causes harm to another person is referred to as a tort. We can describe a person's conduct by saying that he or she is guilty of a civil wrong, We can also say that he or she has committed a tort. ‘Several different types of tort exist in English law. Lawyers refer to the different types of tort as categories of tort or as the heads of tort. f someone harms me | can bring an action in tort. This means that I can sue that person on the grounds that | have suffered harm. if | am successful in this action, | will receive a remedy from him or her. A remedy is something that compensates me for my loss or that stops the harm ‘from happening again. The usual remedy for a tort is damages. The person who is guilty of harming, another person is referred to as a tortfeasor. a What is a tort? Answer: b What are the heads of tort? Answer: What does to ‘bring an action in tort’ mean? Answer: d_ Whatis a remedy? Answer: ‘@ What is the usual remedy for a tort? Answer: f What name do lawyers give to the person who commits a tor’? Answer: 162TYPES OF TORT Exercise 1 Read this information about the different types of tort that exist in English law. In each case, decide which is the correct preposition from the two possibilities. Write your answers in the spaces below. There are several heads (+) ofito tort in English If want to bring an action (b) againstito a law. The most important heads are: tortfeasor, that person's conduct must usually fit Negigence (©) onjinto one of the heads. However, some areas of tort are constantly developing. As society Trespass to land changes, the conduct that we regard (d) tofas Nuisance ‘unacceptable or harmful changes too. Trespass to the person Lawyers usually divide the heads (e) into/to two Defamation categories. These are torts that cause harm to people and torts that cause harm to land. We will look at the nature of these torts in Exercises. 3 and 4 below. To ‘trespass’ is a general word that means to interfere (a) to/with something or someone, or to do something that causes harm. Example (s) of a b a e Exercise 2 Read Exercise 1 again and answer the following questions using a full sentence. ‘a What does the verb to ‘trespass’ mean? Answer: bb What are the two types of trespass? Answer: © Does the law of tort always stay exactly the same? Answer: d_ What two categories do lawyers usually divide the heads of tort into? Answer: Exercise 3 Read this information about the heads of tort that involve causing harm to people. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Complete the sentences that follow with the corect word from the hey vocabulary. Key vocabulary anoenitt libel negligence trespass to the battery false imprisonment —_ © duty of care person defamation slander & RosemotyAtins 2007 163Unit 5A/Foundation There are three main torts that cause harm to people. © Trespass to the person means to harm someone in a physical way. To make someone afraid that | will physically hurt them is the tort of assault. To actually hurt someone in a physical way is the tort of battery. To keep someone in a certain place without that person's permission is the tort of false imprisonment. All of these torts ‘are known as trespass to the person. © Defamation occurs when someone makes Defamation comes in twa forms. The tort of libel is publishing the statement in a permanent form, for example, writing it in 2 book. The tort of stander refers to a statement in a form that is, ot permanent, for example, saying something in ordinary conversation, Negligence occurs when you cause harm to another person because you were not careful enough. The law of tort says that in situations where you can anticipate that your conduct is likely to cause harm to another person then you have a duty to be careful. Lawyers refer to this duty as the duty of care. Negligence is the most. ‘common ground for claimants bringing an action in tort, negative statement about another person which harms that person’s reputation. In other words, it means saying or waiting something negative about someone, so that ather people think in a more negative way about that person. a Julia runs a café in the town centre. Last week one of Julia's customers bumt his hand when he touched a very hot plate. Julia did not wam the customer that the plate was hot. He claims that Julia was not careful enough and that he will sue Julia on the grounds of b Julia's solicitor explained to her that as the owner of a café she has @ to all of her customers. This means that she has a duty to make sure that her customers do not suffer any ‘harm in her café. © Mary was shopping in a large department store last week. A shop assistant says that she saw Mary take a necklace from the shop without paying. The manager of the shop kept Mary in an office for 45 minutes until the police arrived. The manager did not allow Maty to leave. The police discovered that Maty paid for the necklace. Mary sued the store on the grounds of d_ Gary was playing football on Saturday. Gary shouted at his friend named Bill on the other football team. He shouted, ‘I am going to kill you!’ This is not the tort of , 85 Bill did not really believe that Gary intended to cause him physical harm in this situation. @ Last year Paul was successful when he sued the police on the grounds of Paul was taking part in a political demonstration when a policeman kicked him and pushed him for no reason, The head of tort that includes false imprisonment, assault and battery is & The head of tort that includes libel and slander is| David Boyle was at a party last night. David could not find his wallet, which contained £200. David accused George Lee of stealing his wallet. David said that George was ‘a typical thief’, and everyone at the party heard this. David ater found his wallet, which he had left at home. George might sue David fn the grounds of i The actress Crystal Benn is suing a major newspaper on the grounds of ‘ The newspaper published a story that said Crystal takes illegal drugs and the story was not true. 164 © Catherne Mason & Rosemary tans 200Exercise 4 Read this information about torts that cause harm to land. Fill the gaps in the text with the correct words from the box below. objects Claimants ‘committed enjoy There are two main torts that cause harm to land. Trespass to land means to go onto someone's land without that person’s (a) Con the land or it might mean staying there permanently. Trespass to land also __ on another person’s land without that person’s permission. ance means to interfere with a person’s enjoyment of his or her own land. This means that every being in his or her own home or on his or her own land mean (b) includes placing (¢) N individual has a right to (d) without anyone spoiling that experience. (e) orepuno4/¥s sn permission factory grounds walking This might who might not be successful in an action for trespass to land often use this tort as a basis for legal action. Let's say I have some beautiful trees in my garden. Near my house is a small (f) involved in a manufacturing activity that uses strong chemicals. These chemicals smell very bad, but in addition to this, the fumes from the chemicals. kill the trees in my garden. The factory owner has not (g) the tort of trespass to land. However, his conduct might give me the right to take action against him on the (h) of nuisance. THE DUTY OF CARE Exercise 1 Read this information about the duty of care in the tort of negligence. The mast important words are in the key vocabulary below. Complete the sentences that follow by matching the first half of each sentence with the correct ending. Key vocabulary negligence duty of care acts omissions Inthe UK and the USA most cases in tort are based upon the tort of negligence. In order to bring a successful claim against someone for negligence, the claimant must prove that the defendant was in breach of his or her duty of care. The duty of care is the duty to make sure that my conduct does not harm anyone. However, the law is a litle more complicated than this. The law of tort says, for example, that | am. liable for the things that | do, and also the things that | don't do, In other words, | can be liable for harming another person because of my actions and | can also be liable because | fail to do something that a omit foreseeable objective subjective reasonable person would do under the circumstances. A lawyer will say that | am liable for my acts and also for my omissions. Omissions are the things that I do not do. For example, when doctors give patients medicine to treat an iliness, and that medicine is dangerous if people drink alcohol at the same time, the doctors must wam their patients. f the doctors do not wam the patients, then the doctors omit to tell the patients ‘something important and that omission can cause harm to the patients. Both statute and the common lav contain rules about the situations in which people are liable for their acts and their omissions. Do I have a duty of care to everyone under all circumstances? The answer to this is ‘no’. Itis an established common law principle that | am only liable in certain situations. The main limit upon my continued 185i liabiity to others is that the harm that I cause to anotner person must be ‘reasonably foreseeable’. Foreseeable means that the results of my conduct are predictable. For example, a gas company is doing some work in the street. The men doing the work dig a deep hole. The men then go home at the end of the day. They do not put a sign anywhere to war people that the hole is there and they do not provide a light. A man falls into the hole at night- time and breaks his leg. Was the result of the gas company’s omission reasonably foreseeable? The answer to this is ‘yes'. A reasonable person can anticipate the results of conduct such as this. a Negligence is... b The duty of careis... © Actsare. Omissions are... not to do thet particular thing. (1) predictable. Something that | anticipate ight happen as a result of my conduct. (2) things that | actively do. (3) influenced by your own, personal feelings {and opinions when you have to decide something. (4) not being careful enough. It is similar in meaning to ‘carelessness’. (5) Exercise 2 How do we know if something is reasonably foreseeable? The test is objective and not subjective. It does not really matter what the defendant says that he or she was thinking at the time of the harmful conduct. The common law provides many principles that come from hundreds of cases about what is foreseeable and what is not foreseeable. All of these factors must be considered when we ask the question ‘Is the defendant in breach of the duty of care?” € Toomit to do something means . f Reasonably Foreseeable means... & Objective means... hh Subjective means. the duty not to harm other people. However, this duty is limited depending upon the situation in which the harm is caused. (6) not influenced by your own feelings when you have to decide something. (7) ‘things that | do not do. (8) Read the information in Exercise 1 again and decide if the following statements are true or false. a Negligence is the tort that most legal action under the law of tort is Tre False based upon. bam not liable for omissions under the law of tort Tre False © Allof the rules about liability under the law of tort come from the Te False ‘common law. 1d Ido not owe @ duty of care to everyone under all circumstances. Te False. Adefendant can always escape liability by saying that he did not Te False personally foresee the harm that the claimant suffered. 168 € catreine Maso & Rosemary Ans 2007Exercise 3 Complete the following sentences with the correct prepositions. Inthe UK the majority of cases are based b_ 1am bringing a claim against my doctor ¢ An omission is a failure to do what a reasonable person would do circumstances. d_ Lam only liable for breaching my duty of care to people the tort of negligence. negligence. the same certain situations, The test to decide if something is reasonably foreseeable or not is an objective test, which means it does ot matter what the defendant was thinking MORE ABOUT NEGLIGENCE Exercise 1 the time when he or she caused the harm. Read this information about some of the general principles of the tort of negligence. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Match the questions that follow this information with the answers that are provided. | Key vocabulary © deterrent © remote damage | @ redress © proof of damage The rules in the law of tort conceming negligence aim to compensate anyone who suffers harm. However, these rules have another purpose. They aim to act as a deterrent against negligent conduct. A deterrent is something that persuades a Person not to behave in a particular way. For example, the idea of prison may act as a deterrent toa person who considers committing a criminal ‘act. The principles of the tort of negligence are designed to act as a deterrent against negligent conduct. Negligent conduct is behaviour that might lead to harm. However, when a person is gully of negligent conduct then it may be necessary to make a claim against that person. A court will look at the evidence and decide if the claimant is entitled to redress. The verb ‘to redress’ means to correct something that is unfair, usually by putting the claimant back in the position that he or she was in before the negligent conduct happened. The noun ‘tedress’ has a very similar meaning to compensation. Redress usually takes the form of damages. Lawyers often, talk about being ‘entitled to redress’. This means © catnarine Mason & Rosemary Ati 2007 © actionable perse _» compensation © negligent conduct © damages being entitled to receive compensation or damages. Lawyers do not say ‘entitled to a redress’. [As we already know, a court first of all considers whether or not the defendant owed a duty of care to the claimant. If there is no duty of care, then there is no claim. Then the court considers whether Cr not that duty of care was breached. If there was a breach, was the harm that the claimant suffered reasonably foreseeable? If the harm was not reasonably foreseeable then a lawyer will describe it as remote damage. The claimant is not usually entitled to redress for remote damage. Some torts requite proof of damage. In other words, the claimant must prove that the defendant's conduct caused harm. However, some torts, such as libel, are actionable per se. If conduct is actionable per se, it means that the claimant does not need to provide proof of damage. The phrase ‘per se’ is Latin. In English, per se means ‘by itself’. The fact that the defendant committed the tort is enough for the claimant to be entitled to redress, 167 is wn zUnit SA/Foundation a What is a deterrent? b What is negligent conduct? © What does redress mean? It means the same as compensation. (1) It means that the claimant can make a Claim for the thing that happened without any evidence of actual harm. (2) Its evidence that the claimant actually suffered real harm, such as physical harm oF loss of money. (3) A FAMOUS CASE IN ENGLISH LAW Exercise 1 What is remote damage? © What is proof of damage? f What does it mean if something is actionable per se? Itis something that is designed to make people not do a particular thing or not behave in a particular way. (4) Its careless behaviour that is likely to cause harm to another person. (5) Itis damage that the defendant could not reasonably foresee. (6) Read this information about a famous case from the Jaw of tort in England. Answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. The ‘McLibel’ case On 15 February 2008, the longest case in English legal history came to an end. The case lasted for an ‘amazing nine years and six months, the longest case in either criminal or cil legal history. There were 313 days of legal argument in court and 20,000 pages of court transcripts, which are the documents that record what happened in court. 130 witnesses gave oral evidence to the court. This ‘case was based upon the law of tort. The case was famous all over the world because of the nickname that people gave to it. This nickname vas ‘the McLibel case’. The claimant in the MeLibe! case was of course, McDonald's, the chain of fast food restaurants. The case was so famous that the word ‘MicLibel’ now appears in some respected Englisn dictionaries, The facts of the case are as follows. The defendants in this case, Helen Steel and David Morris, belonged toa group of people who were worried about the environment and about the way that certain large corporations were behaving in relation to the environment. The group decided that the best way to tell the public about this was to give out leaflets containing information about the problem. In 1990, Helen and David stood outside several McDonald's restaurants in London. They gave leafiets to people 168 \who were in the area. The ttle ofthe leaflets was ‘What's wrong with McDonald’: Everything they didn’t want you to know. The problem was that the leaflets contained some very controversial claims. For example, the leaflet said that MeDonal’'s was partly to blame for the destruction of the rainforests. It also claimed that, McDonald's’ food was unhealthy and eating too much of this food could give people health problems later in life, In 1990 McDonald's issued a claim against Helen and David on the grounds of libel. The company did ot need proof of damage, as libel is actionable per se. The libel trial started in 1994. There was no Judgment until three years later. Helen and David ‘were found to be guilty of libel. In 1999 Helen and David appealed, but again they were ordered to pay ‘damages to McDonald's. Helen and David refused to pay the damages. They decided instead to appeal to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. Two baristers from England represented Helen and David in Strasbourg. ‘The Strasbourg court made a decision that changed English law. The court decided that the Engjsh cours followed the correct procedure but that nevertheless,‘the trial in England was unfair. This was mainly so well prepared. The court also ruled that Helen and because Helen and David were poor compared toa David's right to free expression was violated. big corporation such as McDonala's, which meant that they could not pay for an expensive legal team. ‘Asa result ofthis, Helen and David's defence was not ‘The court awarded Helen and David damages of nearly £47,000. A FAMOUS CASE IN ENGLISH LAW Exercise 1 Read this information about a famous case from the lav of tort in England. Answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. The ‘McLibel’ case ‘a How long did the ‘Mclibel' case last? Answer: b_ Who was the claimant in this case? Answer: Who were the two defendants in this case? Answer: d_ What global issue were Helen and David worried about? Answer: eHow did Helen and David tell the public about their worries? Answer: What claim did Helen and David make concerning McDonald's and the environment? Answer: & Why did McDonald’s not need proof of damage? Answer: hh What was the decision of the court of first instance? Answer: \Why did the European Court decide that Helen and David's defence was not so well prepared as MeDonald's’ claim? Answer: J. What other nuling did the European Court of Human Rights give in this case? Answer: © Catherine Mason & Rossman Ans 2007 169 onepunes/vs amUnit 5A/Foundation UNIT 5A VOCABULARY CHECK These are the important words that you have studied in Unit 5A. You should make sure that you know these words before you go on to Unit 58. act actionable assault battery ‘compensate ‘compensation conduct damage damages defamation deterrent duty of care false imprisonment foreseeable harm heads of tort intention liable libel negligence negligent nuisance objective omission omit overlap per se principle of law proof redress remedy remote slander subjective tort tortfeasor trespass wrong, 170 © catherine Nason & Rosemary Ati 2007TOLES FOUNDATION EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Here is a conversation between a lawyer and his client. The conversation is mixed up. Put the conversation in the correct order. Write your answers in the boxes numbered 2-9 below. There is an example at the beginning (+), which is the start of the conversation. (+) Good morning Mr Decker. Thank you for coming to see me today. | understand that you have a complaint about a newspaper story concerning you and your family published on 5 September. ‘a. That's good news. I'm glad that I'm entitled to do something about this. And I'm certainly sure that this story damaged my reputation. But what does sue mean? Will the person who wrote this story go to prison? Is that the same as compensation? © That would be the grounds if the untrue story about you was spoken and not written. In this situation however, we have good grounds for a defamation claim based upon libel. No. In England this type of thing is not a criminal matter. It is what we calla tor. It's a type of civil ‘wrong, The punishment for the person who published the story wil almost certainly be that he or she has to pay you damages. Really? | thought the grounds would be slander. f Yes, that's correct. The story was in a London newspaper on 5 September and again in a magazine called ‘Celebrity Gossip’ on 7 September. My wife is very upset about it. We're trying to make sure that ur children do not see the story, but itis difficult. Because I'm a professional footballer, my family are often in the newspapers and millions of people seem to be interested in our personal lives. & Yes, itis. Both are a payment of money that the court considers will compensate you for the harm that the story did to your reputation. In this case the story was in written form, so we will sue them on the ‘grounds of libel. fh I see. | understand that protecting your family is very important to you. As a professional sportsman, people are naturally interested in what you do. However, no one is allowed to say or write anything untrue about you that causes damage to your reputation. When this happens, you have the right to sue. Me 2 @ (4) ©) © m @) @ Ccainenne Mason & Rosemary Atins 2007 amUnit $A/Foundation Exercise 2 Read the text below. There are ten words missing from the text. in the spaces below, write the missing ‘words, The first letter of each word has been provided for you. There is an example at the beginning (+). ‘THE LAW OF TORT The law of tort compensates people who suffer a civil wrong, The formal name for a civil wrong is a ) Several different categories of tort exist under English law. Lawyers refer to these categories as ‘the (1) of tort’. These divide easily into two main types. They are torts relating to people and torts relating to land ‘The tort that deals with being on another person's land without his or her permission is known as the tort of Q) to land. This tort also includes placing objects on anather person's land without that person's permission. The second tort relating to land is the tort of (3) - This is the tort of interfering with ‘someone's enjoyment of his or her own land. The usual complaints from claimants in this area are noise, pollution or bad smells, All of these are unacceptable when they last for @ long period of time. ‘The second category of tort deals with a person's (4) that causes harm to another person. Most ‘cases in this area are on the grounds that the defendant was negjigent. The unacceptable behaviour can be an act or an omission. An omission is a (5) to do something that a normal, reasonable person ‘would do under the same circumstances. However, the law places a limitation upon liability for negligent acts or omissions. The law says that a person only owes a duty of (6) to another person in situations where it was reasonably (7) that the act or omission would cause harm. The law of tort is concemed with the idea of redress more than with the idea of punishment. The main aim of the law of tort is to (8) the injured party. In cases where the defendant has liability for causing harm, the law offers the claimant a (9) This means the claimant receives a solution for the wrong, that he or she suffered. In 2 case involving tort, the defendant, who is referred to by the formal name of a (10) wil Usually have to pay damages to the claimant if he or she is guilty of causing harm. (tort aon @ © Qt mf @ on @ c _ @)e Or © f (10) t im © Catherine Mason & Rosematy Alans 2007Exercise 3 Read the following article and decide if the statements under it are true or false. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). Colleen Corr is Irish. At the moment she lives in London. Colleen is a lawyer. She works in a bank. She ‘works in the bank's legal department as a case manager. The bank that Colleen works for has a contract ‘with a large catering firm to provide a restaurant service for all members of bank staff. Anyone who works for the bank can either eat in the restaurant or buy @ meal from the restaurant to take away and eat at his, or her desk, In December of last year, Colleen bought a salad in a plastic container from the restaurant and because ‘she was busy, she took the salad to her desk to eat while she continued to work. As she was eating, Colleen bit a hard object that was in the salad. The object was @ small stone. Colleen broke a tooth as a result of biting the stone. Colleen had to visit the dentist and the bill was £630. Colleen complained to the catering company but the manager of the catering company says that it accepts no liability for Colleen’s injury. Colleen is now suing the catering company on the grounds of negligence. She is claiming the cost of visiting the dentist and an additional amount of £100 for her pain and suffering, Example (#) Colleen Corr is not English. 1. Colleen Corr works as the general manager of a bank. 2 The bank has a contract with a catering company to provide food for bank employees. 3 Colleen was eating in the bank's restaurant when she damaged her tooth. 4 Colleen is not suing her employer for negligence. 5 The total amount that Colleen is claiming is £730. (TRUE (4) Q) 3) @) o \Cererine Mason & Roseman Ati 2007 173 wonepunes/ys sunte ats eer Cy i oe Law of Tort Unit 5B/HigherTHE LAW OF TORT AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LAW OF TORT Exercise 1 ‘Ann Edington is a professor in the law department at the University of Chatsworth. She is giving a lecture to the first-year law students on the subject of the law of tort. Here are Ann's notes for her lecture. Fill n the «gaps in the text with a word from the box below. remedy damages deterrent redress care wronged proof breached Lecture notes ~ an introduction to tort The word ‘tort’ comes from the latin term ‘tortus’, which means ‘twisted’. From there it sme to mean ‘wrong’, as the word continues to be used in French. In English, the word ‘tort’ Is only used as a technical term by lawyers. The law of tort is the law that deals with civil wrongs. Some law textbooks describe the law of tort as ‘the law of wrongs’ What is the purpose of this area of law? Many lavyers describe this as the most disorganised area of law. It has even been described as ‘the dustbin of law’, meaning that i is the place where all of the problems that other areas of law cannot deal with will eventually arrive. However, the principal purpose of the law of tort is to provide a (a) to those vwho have been (b) by others. Some of these wrongs might be covered by criminal law or by contract law as well as by the law of tort, but some might not be. However, people are not liable for wrongs to others in every situation in life. Let’s say that, person A harms person 8 in some way. Is person B entitled to what lawyers call (c)____"? Itis certainly not automatic that person B can make a claim against person A according to the law of tort. It depends on the type of harm that has been caused land under what circumstances. The law of tort is based upon principles that have developed ‘over many years. These principles explain what lawyers refer to as ‘tortious liability’. This is where one person or organisation has duty in the eyes of the law not to harm another in any way. This duty is called a duty of (d) To make a successful claim against someone according to the law of tort, you must first of all establish that: the person who has harmed you owed a duty of care to you, and the duty of care was (e) In some cases you also need to provide the court with (f) of harm, but in other cases just proving that the duty of care was breached is enough. The main objective of the law of tort is not to punish the wrongdoer, bi injured party, This compensation usually takes the form of a paymer to compensate the of money that is referred to as (g) Let's say that person A is driving dangerously and causes harm to person B by crashing into his car. In this example, person A has an automatic duty of care not to harm anyone in this way and that duty has been breached. A court might ‘award damages to cover the cost of buying a new car. It might also award damages for any continued ‘ sera Akers 2007 175 sousqu/as wonUnit S8/Higher other expenses that person B has (h) , Such as loss of eamings if he is unable 0 go to work. The court also might add a certain amount of damages to the sum awarded {or things that are difficult to measure, such as person B's pain and suffering. The phrase moral damage is not used in English to describe this kind of suffering. We usually describe it as ‘pain and suffering’ or ‘emotional () Some lawyers think that the law of tort also acts as a () in that people think twice before behaving in a way that could lead to harm, Exercise 2 Complete the sentences below with the correct words from the box in Exercise 1. a. My client was seriously by the story that you printed about her in your magazine and she is considering legal action against you. b According to English law you have a duty of to every citizen not to harm them in any way. The grounds of our claim against you are that you have your duty of care to my client. d_ The court awarded my client in the amount of £15,000 in her libel case against Gossip magazine. fe The judge said that he hoped the amount awarded would act as a to any journalists in future who are thinking about publishing a story that might not be true. Libel does not require that any damage has occurred as a result of the tort. itis actionable in court per se. & My client admits that his conduct was a breach of the duty of care that he owes to your client. He also ‘acknowledges that your client ig entitled to some kind of ; probably in the form of damages, to compensate her for her loss. hi My client has expenses totalling £8,500 as a result of your client's negligent driving. This amount includes my clients loss of eamings for the period in question. 1 We will be claiming damages totalling £12,000, which includes an amount to cover the emotional that my client has suffered as a result of your breach of duty. J Your client was at fauit in this situation and the law will provide my client with a ifyou do not settle the matter out of court. 176 Cataxne Nason & Rosemary Akins 2007Collocation bank to provide a remedy to award damages loss of earnings: 0 be entitled to damages to incur expenses to act as a deterrent Preposition bank to be entitled to something “My client is entitled to redress.” tobe liable for something “You are liable for the results of your breach of duty of care.” to have a duty to another person "You have an automatic duty to every other citizen not to cause them harm because of your conduct.” to depend on something "The amount of damages awarded will depend on the amount of earnings you have lost.” » to cause harm to someone. “Your client's negligent conduct was the ‘cause of the harm to my client.” |e under certain circumstances ‘Under the circumstances your client is at fault.’ WHAT IS TORTIOUS LIABILITY? Exercise 1 ‘Ann Edington’s second tecture on the law of tort is about tortious lability. Here are the notes that Ann has prepared for her lecture. Read what Ann is planning to say to her students about tortious lability and decide whether the statements that follow are true or false. Lecture notes - tortious liability Itis very difficult to give an exact definition of what tortious liability is. Lawyers and academic ‘writers do not seem to be able to find a clear definition upon which they agree completely. In general, itis liability for harm that is caused to another person due to a breach of a duty of care. Let us now look at some important aspects of tortious liability. ‘Some tortious llabity arises from the common law and some from statute. All citizens within a particular jurisdiction have a duty of care automatically imposed upon them by the law of tort. In this way, itis very different from contract law, in which the parties to a contract assume their obligations voluntarily. For example, the law of tort in England imposes an automatic duty upon every citizen not to go onto anyone else’s land ‘without his or her permission. There is no need for any two individuals to agree privately upon this. The parties concemed may not have had any contact with each other at all before the tort of trespass to land is committed. In this respect, it is much the same as in criminal law. ‘The law of tort will impose liability where a person has acted in a certain way, or failed to act in @ certain way ifthe law requires it. This means that liability in the law of tort can. arise as @ result of either an act or an omission. continued a7 saunas wn.Unit S8,/Migher ® It is also possible according to the law of tort to be liable for the acts or omissions of another person with whom you have a certain relationship. An employer, for example, can sometimes be held liable for the acts or omissions of his or her employees. This type of liability is called vicarious liability. Most of the tort claims that are brought are based on fault. This means thet the defendant has done something wrong. This fault can consist of having an intention to commit a wrong, but negligence is often enough to establish fault. Some torts are based on what lawyers call ‘strict liability’. This means that there is liability in certain situations independent of any fault. The defendant in ary situation, known as. the tortfeasor, willbe liable even though harm to the cleimant happened without intention or negligence. For example, let's say a defendant keeps something on his or her land that is dangerous, such as a harmful chemical. The chemical escapes, due to no fault of the defendant, and causes harm to neighbours. This is called a breach of a strict duty. The defendant is liable even though he or she is not at fault. © Most torts require proof of damage suffered. In addition, that damage must not be too remote as a consequence of the defendant's behaviour. However, some torts do not require proof of actual damage. Libel is an example of this. f | write something about someone that is not true, that person does not need proof of damage to bring an action against me under the law of tort. According to English law the liability that arises in the law of tort comes Tue False from both statute and the common law. b_Itis possible to bring a case against someone under the law of tort Tue False without having any kind of private agreement or contract with that person. € [tis impossible to be liable under the law of tort because you haven't Tue False done something. d _Itis impossible to be liable for the actions of another person under the Tue False law of tort. € tis not always necessary to be guilty of some fault to be liable for a tort. Tue False Exercise 2 Look at Ann Edington’s fecture notes on tortious liability again. Find the words or phrases in the notes that match each of the following meanings. a ‘The duty that every citizen owes to every other citizen, according. to the law of tort. The word or phrase is, The name for the general responsibilty for harm caused to other people according to the law of tort. The word or phrase is The tort of entering onto someone else's land or property without that person's permission. a8 Ccatrenne Mason & Rosemary Ans 2007The word or phrase is d_ Aword that means a failure to do something that itis your duty to do. soyaa/as wn The word or phrase is fe The name of the particular responsibilty that one person might have for another person’s acts or omissions according to the law of tort. The word or phrase is f Alack of proper care or not fulfilling a duty that it is your obligation to fulfil which results in harm to another. The word or phrase is & The name of the particular responsibilty that every citizen owes to every other citizen regardless of whether he or she is guilty of any intention or negligence when causing harm. The word or phrase is hy Aperson who has breached the duty of care and has caused harm to another person as a result of that breach. ‘The word or phrase is ‘Aword meaning ‘distant’ or “far away’. The word or phrase is J. Apublished statement that is not true and which damages someone's reputation as a result of being published. The word or phrase is Collocation bank © to impose a duty of care © to assume an obligation © to be held liable for upon someone voluntarily something © to commit a tort © remote damage © to owe someone a duty Preposition bank o © to arise from the common law or statute © the tort of trespass to land “Many of the principles of the law of tort ‘Going onto someone's land without their arise from the common la\ permission is known as trespass to land.” © a duty imposed upon someone © to have proof of something “Statute imposes a duty upon you "Some torts are actionable without proof concerning your liability for any products of damage.” that you sell to the public.” © Catan Mason & Rosemary ais 2007 19Unit 58, Higher SOME CATEGORIES OF TORT Exercise 1 Several different types of tort exist in the UK and the USA. Some of these categories of tort are listed in the box below, together with areas of liability avising under the law of tort. Match each type of tort or area of liability with the situations that follow. occupier's liability (1) defamation (5) vicarious liability (2) product liability (3) trespass to land (7) nuisance (4) false imprisonment (8) @ ‘Lown a factory where bread and cakes are manufactured. | did not provide my workers with the | special gloves that they need when they are taking things out of the ovens. One of my workers has | suffered very serious bums to his hands and arms as a result.” | b_‘Myneighbour has started to keep animals in her garden. She has some hens and a small pig. The noise and the smell are terrible.” © ‘1 own a company that transports goods by lory. Last week one of my drivers was in a petrol station during his working hours. He lita cigarette and threw away a lighted match, which caused an explosion.” d_ ‘| bought my son a toy from a company on the Internet. The toy is a battery-operated train. When the train was switched on the batteries became extremely hot and my son bumt his hand when he was playing with it.” © ‘1own a magazine that contains a lot of gossip about celebrities. Last month my magazine printed a story that said a local footballer here in Chatsworth had kept some money raised at a charity event for homeless people. | now know that the story was completely untrue.’ f ‘I study geography at the University of Chatsworth. Last week the whole class had very bad results on a test. The professor was furious. He locked the door of the lecture room and he refused to let anyone out of the room until he had finished speaking to us. He kept us there for one hour after our usual time.” & _‘Iwent into @ bar last week with some fiends and | sipped on some beer that was on the floor. When | fell I cut my hand on some broken glass. Another customer in the bar told me that a man had dropped a bottle of beer there about 20 minutes earlier. The bar staff had been told that there was beer and broken glass on the floor, but they had been too busy to clean it up." hh ‘My neighbour walks across my land as a shortcut to the shops. I have been asking him to stop doing this for months now, but he doesn't listen to me.” 180 © caterine Mason & Roseman Aine 2007iq < ustenine S Exercise 1 Listen to this professor who is giving her students a lecture. It is an introduction to the law of tort. Listen to the lecture and answer the following questions. soyauuas wn, ‘a The professor says that some people give the law of tort a different name. What is it? Answer 1b What is the meaning of the word ‘redress’? Answer: What do the majority of claimants want when they bring an action to court under the law of tort? Answer: The professor says that damages are one form of redress that the courts can offer to an injured party. What is the other remedy that she mentions? Answer: eHow does the professor define the tort of nuisance? Answer: What does the professor say is the correct term for a person’s liability in the law of tort? Answer: & The professor mentions an automatic duty that the law imposes upon everyone. What is the name of this duty? Answer: fh The professor mentions two ways in which a person has a duty under the law of tort not to harm another. One duty is not to harm a person physically. What is the other duty that she mentions? Answer: ‘The professor mentions that the law of tort and the law of contract overlap in some ways. She gives an example of a company supplying something to a group of consumers that wil lead to concurrent liability in tort and criminal law, In the professor's example, what did the company supply to the consumers? Answer: J. How does the professor say that some legal commentators have described the law of tort? Answer: Catharine Mason & Rosemay Atkins 2007 1sUnit SB /Migher THE TORT OF NEGLIGENCE Exercise 1 ‘Most tort cases in England and the USA are based upon the tort of negtigence. Read the following text about the tort of negligence. Fill the gaps in the text with a verb from the blue box. © do © contribute © expect © owe Under what circumstances is a person or ‘organisation guilty of the tort of negligence? Unfortunately, the definition of the legal term ‘negligence’ varies according to which book or legal dictionary you are reading, The legal term ‘negligence’ has a much more complex meaning than the general English meaning of the word. However, most lawyers (a) Upon the idea that in order to establish negligence in a particular situation we must (b) three fundamental questions. These are: © Did the defendant (e) the claimant a duty of care? «© Was that duty of care breached? « Did the defendant's breach cause, or materially @ to, the damage suffered by the claimant? Ifthe answer to all three questions is ‘yes’, then the defendant has been negligent in the legal sense of the word. To whom do | owe a duty of care? The case law in this area is complicated. However, there is a principle of English law that says that | owe a duty of care to anyone in situations where it is reasonably foreseeable that my act or omission ‘might cause harm to another person. In other words, it is a defence to an allegation of negligence tole) that no reasonable person would have anticipated that my act or omission would cause harm. ‘Assuming that | can reasonably anticipate the result of my act or omission, what standard of care does © ask © agree © argue © establish the law (f) from me? How do | know when | have breached my duty of care? To answer ‘this question, most English law students are asked ‘to remember the general principle of negligence provided by a judge named Alderson in the case of Biyth v Birmingham Waterworks (1856). The judge said ‘Negligence is the omission to (g) something which a reasonable man, guided upon those considerations which ordinarily regulate the conduct of human affairs, would do, or doing something which a prudent and reasonable man would not do.” ‘Again, the question of whether or not | have breached my duty of care has been decided by an objective test. What would an ordinary, reasonable person do under the same circumstances? Finally, in order to firmly (h) negligence, the claimant must demonstrate that the negligent act of the defendant was the main cause of the damage complained of. A court will often ask: © Was the chain of causation broken at any time? © Would the harm that the claimant suffered have happened anyway, even if the defendant had not acted in @ particular way? © Even where there is a clear chain of causation, was the damage too remote, in other words, not reasonably foreseeable by the defendant? In conclusion, establishing that someone has been negligent is not as straightforward as the general public might imagine. Collocation bank © tw establish negigence © to suffer damage a2 © reasonably foreseeable © to allege negligence © the cause of damage © a chain of causation © catmenne Mason & Rosemary Atins 2007Preposition bank seysias wn toactina way » foreseeable by someone “Your client acted in a particular way thet “The damage was reasonably foreseeable caused harm to my client." by your cient.” © in order to do something to be guilty of something | “In order to establish negligence we must “The defendant was guity of committing show that the defendant breached his duty this tor.” of care to you.” Exercise 2 Read the text in Exercise 4 again and decide ifthe following statements are true or fase. ‘a The legal meaning of the word ‘negligence’ is more complicated than the True—sFallse general, dictionary meaning as the public would understand it b According to English law, | owe a duty of care to all other citizens in True False ail situations, ¢ The test of whether or not one person owes another person a duty of True False care is an objective one. d__ The definition of negligence in this text from the year 1856 comes from Tue False the common law. @ In cases where there is a clear chain of causation between the Tue False defendant's conduct and the claimant's harm, the defendant wil always be guilty of negligence. Exercise 3 Complete the following sentences on the subject of negligence with a preposition from the box below e by © under oat © upon © of Do we agree the fact that your client owed my client a duty of care? b We must ask ourselves what a reasonable person would have done those circumstances. © The defendant did not take reasonable care when using dangerous chemicals and so he is guilty behaving negligently. The damage caused to the claimant was not reasonably foreseeable the defendant. e \what point do you think that the chain of causation was broken? ‘caine Mason & Roseman Atkins 2007 183Unit 5B, Higher THE MOST FAMOUS TORT CASE Exercise 1 Read this text about a very famous case in the law of tort and answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. ‘There is a particular case that almost every lawyer in every common law system in the world is familiar with. This is the famous case of Donoghue v ‘Stevenson. The facts of the case are as follows: On 26 August 1928, Mrs May Donoghue of Glasgow left her home to make the short journey into Paisley, a neighbouring town. Upon arriving in Paisley, Mrs Donoghue met a friend at Minchella’s café at 1 Wellmeadow Street. Her friend ordered and paid for a pear, an ice-cream and a bottle of, ginger beer, which is a drink that was very popular at that time. In doing so they began the events that would change legal history forever. The ginger beer was manufactured by Mr David Stevenson of Paisley. It came in what was described as an ‘opaque’ bottle, so unfortunately no one was able to see what was in the bottle until the contents were poured out. The café’s proprietor, Mr Francis Minchella, poured part of the ginger beer onto Mrs Donoghue's ice cream to make what is known as ‘an ice cream float’. Mrs Donoghue apparently began to eat with enthusiasm. What happened next was the basis for the entire case, Itis said that when Mrs Donoghue's friend was pouring out the rest of the contents of the bottle into a glass, he or she saw floating out of the bottle what seemed to be the partly decomposed remains of a snail. Mrs Donoghue ciaimed she was ‘made ill by what she had seen. Certainly, she had ‘medical treatment from her doctor three days later for gastro-enteritis, and again three weeks later, on 416 September 1928, at the Glasgow Royal a Where was Mrs Donoghue from? Answer Infirmary. She also claimed that she had suffered from ‘nervous shock’ If it had been Mrs Donoghue's mysterious friend, (he or she was never named), rather than Mrs Donoghue herself who had suffered the effects of the ginger beer, then the legal world would probably have heard nothing about it. The friend could have sued Mr Minchella because there was a contract of sale between them, of which Mr Minchella was clearly in breach. However, there was no contractual relationship between Mr Minchella and Mrs Donoghue. The only person she could possibly sue was David Stevenson, the manufacturer of the ginger beer. The question was, on what grounds? Mrs Donoghue was advised by a remarkable solicitor, Walter Leechman, of Leechman and Co, Glasgow. Mr Leechman decided to proceed with Mrs Donoghue's case, even though there was no legal precedent for such an action. The basis of the claim was simple. Itwas that any manufacturer of a product intended for human consumption must be liable to the consumer for any damage resulting from a lack of reasonable care to ensure that the product is fit for consumption. The case proceeded through vanous appeals to the highest court in the land, the House of Lords. The Lords decided in favour of Mrs Donoghue, and so it happened that a new precedent was established and a lady who said she was ‘not worth five pounds in all the world’ became the reason why, these days, millions of pounds and dollars have been won by claimants based on the tort of negligence. b What was the address of the café where the incident happened? Answer: © Why was no one able to see the contents of the bottle of ginger beer before it was poured out? Answer: d_ What did Mrs Donoghue claim to have found in her bottle of ginger beer? Answer: 188 © Catherne Meson & Reseminy Akins 2007e What physical iliness was Mrs Donoghue treated for soon after her visit to the café? Answer: f What was the name of the hospital where Mrs Donoghue was treated? Answer: & What second serious effect did Mrs Donoghue claim the incident had caused? Answer: h Why could Mrs Donoghue ’s friend have sued Mr Minchella if he or she had drunk the ginger beer? Answer: i Why was it so surprising that Mr Leechman decided to take this case to court? Answer: J. This case established that a duty of care exists in English and Scottish law between manufacturers and which other general group of people? Answer '© camenne Mason & Rosemary Ans 2007 185 sous ias wnUSING YOUR KNOWLEDGE Collocation review Complete these sentences with a collocation that you have seen. a. The judge the claimant damages of £12,000, b_ As my olient has been unable to work, she will be making a claim based on her. of earings. This amounts to £3,500. © Some legal professionats think that the law of tort as a deterrent in that it makes people think very hard about the consequences of their actions and may stop some people from doing potentially damaging things. The law a duty of care on all employers to make sure that their employees work in a safe environment, fe The judge decided that the defendant a duty of care to the claimant and that the defendant had breached that duty. f Each party to a contract his or her obligations voluntarily, but in the law of tort obligations exist whether people want to have them or not. & Inorder to that there has been negligence, the claimant must first satisfy the court that the duty of care has been breached. h Myclient damage to her health as a result of your client's negligence. i Myclient could not have anticipated the result of her conduct and we deny that the harm that she caused was reasonably J. Myclient’s conduct was not the direct cause of the damage to your client's financial loss, as the of causation was broken by several other events, Vocabulary review Complete these sentences with a word that you have seen. a English speakers do not use the phrase ‘moral damage’ to describe claimant's suffering but describe this type of suffering as emotional, b The name of the general liability that people have according, to the law of tort is Habit. © The name of the liability that one person might have for the acts and omissions of another person is called liability. d_ The name of the liability that requires no proof of harm but is actionable per se is known as Taboilty @ The person or organisation that has committed a tort is formally known as a f The tort of interfering with someone's enjoyment of his or her land by, for example, making a lot of noise is known as 186 © Catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007& Ubel and siander are collectively known as the tort of, The tort of going onto someone's land without his or her permission is known as to land. sowsiaas wn 1 The usual that is available to the claimant in tort cases is an award of damages, ‘which must be paid by the defendant. j__ Ifthe damage caused to the claimant by the defendant's conduct was not reasonably foreseeable then a court might describe this as damage. Preposition review Complete these sentences with the correct preposition. a Each citizen within a particular jurisdiction is liable any breach of his or her duty of care. b Ifyou cause harm someone as a result of a breach of the duty of care then you will probably be ordered to pay damages to that person. © The amount of damages that you have to pay will be dependant the circumstances of the case. d_ My clients entitled redress for the harm that she has suffered. Many of the principles of the modem law of tort arose the facts of the case of Donoghue v Stevenson. 1 Many of the obligations that we have under the law of tort are imposed upon us statute. € Dowe agree the fact that your client was liable for this accident? hh There was no break in the chain causation and your client was directly responsible for my clients loss. 1 Mrs Donoghue met her friend at a café the town of Paisley. J When Mrs Donoghue's case went to court there was no legal precedent such an action. © Catherine Mason & Resarary Atins 2007 187Unit SB, Higher TOLES HIGHER EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 There is @ word or phrase missing from the following sentences. For each sentence circle the word which best fits into the space from the options provided. Do not mark more than one answer for each sentence. There is an example at the beginning (+). Example As well 2s compensating people who have suffered a loss, the law of tort is intended to act as a ” to harmful conduct, 1 According to English law, each citizen has a duty of (1) to other citizens under certain circumstances. 2. The liability that people have under the law of tort in situations where no proof of damage is required, is known as (2) liability. 3. The main objective of the law of tort is to compensate the (3) party for the harm that he or she has suffered 4 The phrase ‘emotional (4) ” is used by lawyers in England to describe a client's mental pain and suffering. 5 People have no choice as to whether to accept liability under the law of tort, as the law (5) this liability upon them. 6 In negligence cases, a claimant will only be compensated for harm that is reasonably (6) by. ‘the defendant. 7 In some negligence cases the claimant is refused a remedy on the grounds that the harm he or she has suffered is too (7) 8 The lability that people have in the law of tort in situations where one person can be liable for the acts, and (8) of another is known as vicarious liability. 9 The act of going onto someone's land without their permission is known as the tort of (9) 10 The tort of defamation has two forms, which are slander and (10) aw A carefuiness, B caution © care D watchfulness @ A absolute B total © definite D strict ® A injured B damaged © defective D hurt 4 A damage B misery © torture D distress © A puts B imposes © forces D compels © A anticipated B foreseeable © probable D predictable co) A distant B isolated © far D remote ® A errors B failures © omissions D oversights ® A intrusion B trespass € invasion D disturbance (10) A criticism B falsehood © libel D fiction 188 Ccathenne Mason & Rosamay Atkins 2007Exercise 2 Read the following sentences that have @ preposition missing from them. For each sentence circle the preposition that best fs into the space from the options provided below. Do not mark more than one answer for each sentence. There is an example at the beginning (+). Example My client was seriously harmed by your conduct and he is entitled to sue you (+) the grounds of negligence, 1. The court awarded damages to the hotel (1) the amount of £10,000 after the magazine published @ defamatory story about events that happened in its kitchen. 2 The grounds of our claim (2) your client are that your client's story in the Daily Journal ‘amounted to defamation. ‘My client will be claiming for his loss (3) _ earnings for the entire period that he could not work, In some cases an employer is liable (4) his employees’ acts and omissions. ‘A manufacturer of goods is liable (5) the consumer for the safety of those goods. ‘My client has suffered emotional distress (6) a result of your client's conduct. Noare The amount of damages that you are awarded will depend (7) the amount of harm that you have suffered. 8 An omission isa failure to act (8) a certain way. 9 The law of tort says that you have a duty (2) ‘ther people. 10 Several of my neighbours walk (10) my land as a shortcut and | would like them to stop. ©) AG@n) B for © with Dto w A for Bon cin D into @) A with B against © of Dio 8 A from B to cin D of 4 Ato B with C by D for 6 Ato B with C by D for © A with B for Cas D for ” A by Bon C into Dio ® Ain B for cto Don ° A for B with ct Dy (20) A across Bto cin D against Cather Mason & Roseray Ans 2007 189 sou jas wnUnit 58, Higher 14 Ustening Exercise 3 Listen to this conversation between a lawyer and her client. Decide if the folowing statements are true or false, 1A friend of Mr Kelly recommended Miss Armstrong because she has a good reputation in defamation cases. 2. Mr Kelly and his wife have moved to France to escape from the terrible rumours about his life. 3. FriendsAgain.com is a website where old schoo! friends can chat. 4 Most of Mr Kelly's pupils were French and German. 5. Gary Hetherington’s father was angry with Mr Kelly when Gary was expelled from the school 6 Mr kelly has emailed the untrue comments from the website to Miss Armstrong. 7. Mr Kelly was dismissed from his job at St Bemadette’s school. 8 Jim Murray was libelled on the same website as Mr Kelly. 9 The defendant in the case that Jim Murray brought in 2002 is now also a teacher. 10 If Mr Kelly wins damages from Gary Hetherington he is going to use the money to pay for a holiday. True or false? w 2 @) 4) © © @ 8) @ (10) 190Caterne Mason & Rosemary tins 2007 sonata as anThee Cees Unit 6A/FoundationUNDERSTANDING CONTRACTS 1 THE STYLE OF WRITTEN CONTRACTS Exercise 1 punoa/y9 sen Read this text about the style of English that lawyers use in contracts. Answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. ‘The English of contracts Lawyers in most countries use different and more dificult language to draft contracts from the language that they use every day. This is certainly true within the English legal system. However, when you know in what ways the language of contracts is different, you can look at the language very carefully and understand it more easily. Here is @ list of what makes the English of contracts different from normal English Lawyers use very long sentences when they draft contracts. A typical sentence in a contract can be 100 words or more. Often these very long sentences have no punctuation. This sometimes makes it difficult to understand what the sentences mean, ‘Sentences in contracts have an unusual structure. Sometimes legal writing doesn’t use words in the same way as general English. ‘Sometimes verbs, nouns and adjectives are put ina sentence in a different order from normal. © Lawyers often use too many words. A lawyer ‘might use 20 words to write something that he or she could write with five words. Contracts contain words that people don’t use any more because they are so old-fashioned. For example, there are English words that you will find in a play like Romeo and Juliet or in a contract, but nowhere else. Contracts also contain very formal words that no one really uses in general English. Lawyers use long lists of synonyms in contracts. This is because when a lawyer drafts a contract, he or she thinks about the fact that a judge will interpret the contract if there is a dispute. In codified legal systems words have a clear definition. However, in the common law system Judges have interpreted words in different ways, Lawyers use lists of synonyms to make sure that there is no possibility of misinterpretation. Lawyers like to use the passive voice. The Passive is more difficult than the active. Contracts contain technical words that are part Of the language of the law or part of a particular area of business. It is necessary for a lawyer to Use these words, All of these things produce a style of writing that is very unusual, even to a native English speaker. The language that lawyers use in contracts is so different from general English that some people say itis not real English at all, but a language only for lawyers, called ‘legalese’. There is a movement in England away from legalese. Lawyers are now encouraged to write in a more modern, understandable style called ‘plain English’. This is 00d news for international lawyers. Is the English of contracts easier or more difficult than general English? Answer b_ How long can a typical sentence sometimes be in a contract written in English? Answer: ¢ Do lawyers use words in the same order as in general English when they draft contracts? Answer: d_ Why do lawyers use long lists of synonyms when they draft contracts? Answer: continued 193Unit 6A/ Foundation @ What is the name that people give to the style of writing that lawyers use? Answer: f What is the name of the style of writing that modern lawyers are encouraged to use? Answer: Help desk What do these words mean? punctuation ~ the marks that people use to divide writing into different sections. Examples of punctuation are commas and full stops. sentence structure ~ the way in which a sentence is organised. word order — the order of something is what ‘comes first, second, third, etc. in different languages the verb, noun and adjective may be ina different order in a sentence. Exercise 2 synonym ~ a word that has the same meaning or almost the same meaning as another word. For example, ‘small’ and ‘litle’ are synonyms in English. the passive ~ a sentence that uses the passive is a sentence that has as its subject the person or thing to which an action is done. An example of the passive is ‘the contract was signed by the client’. In the active you would say “the client signed the contract’ In the blue box are some examples of words or phrases that lawyers often use in contracts. They are ‘examples of the more difficult words that lawyers use. You will need to understand these words to do Exercise 3. Match the words or phrases with the definitions below. in the event of (1) terminated (2) forthwith (3) extent (4) a anarea of land b amount or level © payment for something that is lost or damaged have the right to something 194 territory (5) entitled to (6) ‘compensation (7) manner (8) e ended f if something happens & immediately hh the method or way of doing something Catherine Mason & Rosemary Aine 2007Exercise 3 Here are three examples of a lawyer's witing. All three examples are extracts from contracts. A client asks his lawyer what each extract means. Use Exercise 2 10 help you to match each piece of wnlting with the explanation given by the iavyer below. You do not need to understand every single word to do this exercise. wonepuneg yo wen Extracts from contracts a Inthe event of the death of the Supplier the rights and obligations under this Agreement shall be terminated forthwith. b Inthe event that any property of the Contractor is lost or damaged in the course of transportation then the Contractor shall be entitied to compensation from the Company. © The Company shall allow the Distributor to have full and complete control over the manner and the extent of the exaloitation and advertisement of the Product in the Territory. The lawyer's explanations “If any of your property is lost or damaged on the journey then the company will pay for it.” (1) “You will have complete control of the advertising of the product in the area of the world that we agreed.” (2) “Ifyou die then this contract will end immediately.” (3) Help desk What do these words mean? ‘a supplier ~ a person or company that provides a contractor ~ a person or company that makes ‘a particular product or service. a legal agreement to provide goods or services to another person or compan a right ~ a legal entitlement to do or to one pees ean: have something. a distributor ~ a person or a company that supplies goods in a particular area, often to property ~ a person's possessions or general hn on behalf of another person or company. things that they own. Property is different from real property, which means land. an obligation — a legal duty to do or not to do something. UNDERSTANDING FORMAL EXPRESSIONS Exercise 1 Lawyers sometimes use expressions that are very formal when they draft contracts. Here is a list of formal expressions that you wil often see in contracts. Choose the more modern word or expression from the blue ‘box om the next page to match the following expressions. © “in the near future’ © “until such time as © ‘at the present time’ © ‘on the part of ® ‘in the event of © ‘due to the fact that’ © ‘during such time as ‘not less than’ e Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007 195now at least ® because © by © while ‘soon ‘inthe near future’ means @ ‘until such time as’ means _ b ‘at the present time’ means f ‘on the part of means ¢ ‘inthe event of means & ‘due to the fact that’ means ‘during such time as’ means fh ‘not less than’ means. Exercise 2 The following sentences use the formal expressions in Exercise 1. Below each sentence there is an alternative sentence that coniains the same information. Complete the alternative sentences with a more modern word or expression from the blue box in Exercise 1. a During such as time as this contract is in effect the parties agree to the following terms. this contract is in effect the parties agree to the following terms. bin the event of breach the party in breach must provide a remedy within seven days. there is a breach of contract the party in breach must provide a remedy within seven days. ¢ This contract will continue until such time as one of the parties terminates it by giving four weeks’ Notice in writing, This contract will continue one of the parties terminates it by giving four weeks’ notice in writing. due to the fact that there was fire at the premises of Forum Marketing Ltd we cannot hold our meeting there next week. there was a fire at the premises of Forum Marketing Ltd we cannot hold our meeting there next week. e The meeting cannot take place on Wednesday but itis important that we have it in the near future. ‘The meeting cannot take place on Wednesday but itis important that we have it We cannot consider employing any more people at the present time, as we do not have enough work for them, We cannot consider employing any more people , 88 we do not have enough work for them. Due to some very hard work on the part of employees the new business was very profitable in its first year of trading. Due to some very hard work employees the new business was very profitable in its first year of trading. h A party who wishes to terminate this contract must give not less than four weeks’ notice in writing. A party who wishes to terminate this contract must give four weeks’ notice in writing, 196 Cemnenne Mason & Rosemary Aine 2007Help desk What do these words mean? in effect — in operation or in force. Valid. trading - operating as a business. notice — warning that something is going to hhappen in the future. Exercise 3 to take place — to happen, to oceur. a remedy ~ a solution for @ breach of contract to make sure that the innocent party does not suffer from the breach, There are two important formal expressions that lawyers often use in contracts. These are: notwithstanding Notwithstanding means despite or in spite of something. For example, ‘The new law concerning the protection of the environment will come into force next year, notwithstanding a huge amount of ‘opposition to it from industry’ inasmuch as Inasmuch as means that what you are saying in the rest of your sentence is true only in a limited way or to a certain extent, For example, ‘Caroline is good lawyer inasmuch as she usually gets a good result in court. However, she is not very good at keeping up to date with important work’ Use the correct expression, ‘notwithstanding’ or ‘inasmuch as’, in the following sentences. ‘Some good has come from my uncle's death, charity in his will, b | agree to sign this contract deliver the goods to me on the due date. © She was employed by one of the top law firms in London he left a lot of money to a children’s the fact that | have some doubts about your ability to her lack of experience. d_ The judge in the Court of Appeal held that the court of first instance made a mistake inadmissible evidence was taken into consideration. Help desk What do these words mean? to come into force — to begin to have legal effect. opposition to something ~ strong disagreement to something. a top law firm — one of the most successful and well-known law firms. lack of experience — only a litle experience of something. inadmissible evidence ~ evidence that for some reason cannot be presented in court 197Unit 68/Foundation Exercise 4 Here are some more formal words that are very common in contracts. They are followed by a preposition. It is @ good idea to leam the word together with the preposition. Match the words with the definitions. a ‘prior to’ means... ---depending on (1) 'b ‘subject to’ means... «involved in, doing (2) ¢ ‘engaged in’ means... named, called, mentioned (3) ‘inclusive of means... before (4) € ‘referred to’ means... including (5) Exercise 5 Put a word and its preposition from Exercise 4 into these sentences. a. Is the price of the goods tax? In this contract we will define you as ‘the Company’ in the defined terms section and that is how you wll be ___every time you are mentioned later in the document. ¢ He worked in an office for many years but now he is ___tunning his own business in London. d_ You haven't always worked here. What did you do __ working for this law firm? This holiday is offered at the price stated in our advertisement ___ availabilty. We have a limited number of places available. Help desk What do these words mean? to define — to say exactly what a word means, _ running ~ operating. defined terms section ~ the section of a availability ~ how many/much of a product that contract where the parties agree exactly what a company has that it can sell particular words mean when those words appear in the contract. 198 caterie Mason &UNDERSTANDING TECHNICAL WORDS When a lawyer drafts @ contract he or she will often use words that are very technical. In order to understand contracts you need to know the meaning of these technical words. Exercise 1 Here are some words that are very common in contracts. They are all connected with buying and selling goods, Match the words with the definitions. outlet (1) retailer (2) defective (3) a amount (of money) b not working propery, faulty © alist of goods or services that you have received, showing how much you have to pay for them Exercise 2 invoice (4) manufacture (5) ‘sum (6) 2 person or company who sells goods to the public a shop or company through which goods are sold f make or produce goods to sell Complete these sentences with a word from the list in Exercise 1. ‘a He is a very successful businessman. He has a chain of more than 20 shops in cities and towns all over the south of England, including a large b_ Have you received our delivery. ¢ We will have to retum the computer to you because it is, when we installed it, it wouldn't work propery. in London. ? It states that you must pay for the goods within 28 days of It looked fine in the box but d Mary is renting @ factory unit on an industrial park. She has @ new business that invoNes the ‘of products for beauty salons. £20,000 is a very large advice before you decide to go ahead. f That supermarket chain is the biggest food Help desk What do these words mean? to invest — to put money into a business or put itinto a bank account in order to make a profit go ahead — continue. Ccenerne Misson & Rosemary Atkins 2007 to invest in a new business. | think you need to get legal in the United States. to install — to put a machine in the place that ‘you want to use it and connect it to a power supply s0 that itis ready to use. 199Unit 6A/Foundation Exercise 3 Jumbled words, Look at the definitions below. They are all definitions of formal words. The letters of the words that belong with each definition are mixed up. Put the letters in the corect order to spell the words. The first letter of each word is there for you. Example: A word meaning te (RATTEINEM) ig Such as a contract. TERMINATE end something, especially somethin a Aword that has the same meaning as duration. Lawyers use it to talk about the period for which a contract is valid. T (MRET) b Two words that mean to wam someone that something is about to happen. Often it means to warn someone that @ contract is about to end. G N (GVIE_ NITECO) © Avery formal word meaning the ending of something. E (EXPRITIONA) 4 Anoun that means obtaining or getting something, (MENTCUREORP) @ A formal word that means an accumulated total. A (AGATEREGG) f A formal word that means to promise to do something. U TAKEUDERN) Aword that means to suffer something or to place yourself in a bad situation by your own actions with the result that you receive a punishment. (CURNI) Exercise 4 ‘Choose the correct word from Exercise 3 to complete these sentences. This offer will come to an end at the of four weeks of the date of this letter. After that date it will not be possible to buy goods at this special price. bb The machinery that you hire under this contract willbe available to you for not longer than an of 12 weeks. Ifyou wish to continue to hire the machinery after that you must Sign @ new agreement with us. © The seller must to insure the goods during transportation before we agree to buy them. Julia Davies signed the contract, as she was responsible for obtaining office supplies for the government department. @ In writing this letter | formally that | will end my employment with this company on 2 May. f The of this agreement is six months from the date of the parties signing it. & She will probably a fine because she left her car in a no-parking zone, 200 " rosea 7UNDERSTANDING ARCHAIC TERMS ‘An archaic term is a word that people don't use in everyday speech because it is so old. However, lawyers sometimes use archaic terms in international contracts. This means that lawyers sometimes use English words that you can find in the plays of Shakespeare but that you will never hear people using in ‘ordinary speech. wonepuneg/y9 480 ‘An important group of archaic words are those that begin with ‘here’, (for example, herein, hereby) and with ‘there’, (for example, thereon, therein). The text below will ell you something about these ‘here’ and ‘there’ words. Exercise 4 Here is some important advice about understanding and using certain wards that often appear in intemational contracts. Choose a word from the box below to complete the text. legal » archaic hereinafter mentioned clause preposition delete ‘thereon There are words that some lawyers use that are not part of modern English language. Language specialists describe these words as (a) , meaning that they are no longer in common use. These are rot technical, (b) ‘words, but words from general English. Some lawyers believe using these archaic words makes a document more serious. The more modem view is that they only make a document look old-fashioned. ‘The general advice these days from all modem legal writers and law firms is not to use them. Very often you can (e) them without it having any effect on the meaning of the document at all. However, you will see these words in some documents so you need to understand them. ‘There is a particular category of archaic words that are very common in contracts. These are words starting with ‘here’ or ‘there’, followed by a (d) Examples would be words like ‘herein’ or ‘thereon’. ‘The ‘here’ words usually mean ‘in this document’ or, in @ contract, it could mean ‘in this (e) ‘The ‘there’ words refer to something that the writer (f) before now. For example: © ‘The persons (6) named’, This means ‘the people named later in this document’. “The sum of money borrowed and the interest thereon shall be repaid in full on 5 June’ The word ‘(h) here means ‘on the sum of money borrowed’. ‘Some lawyers argue that these archaic words are more exact or precise than modem English. Modem language specialists and many leading law firms say that this is not true and for this reason archaic words are falling out of use in the UK. (ethene aso & Roseman Atins 2007 201Unit 6A/Foundation Exercise 2 Look at the definitions of the archaic terms below. Complete the sentences that follow with one of the archaic terms from the list. You will need to use each word only once. © Hereby ~ by means of this documentwith these words/with this action. “Ihereby accept your offer.” © Herein — in this document. “The price named herein is final and non-negotiable.” © Hereinafter ~ starting from this time/later in this document. “ATL Electrics ple, hereinafter known as “the Company".” © Heretofore - earlier in this document/previously/before the time of writing. ‘The property heretofore known as Downing House is renamed Appleby House.’ © Hereunder ~ in a later part of this document/under the terms of this agreement. "The terms and conditions are listed hereunder. ‘a Royal Airlines Limited, b The Author guarantees to the Publisher that the Work is company or individual. (previously) © In consideration of the sum of £10,000, receipt of which the Seller (by means of this document) Any products referred to ‘for them in full. (in this document) Incase of dispute between the parties, any arbitration conducted referred to as ‘RAL’. Vater in this document) unpublished by any other acknowledges. remain the property of the Supplier until the Customer pays will be conducted by Arbitrators Direct of London. (under the terms of this contract) Help desk What do these words mean? in common use ~ something that people use often, | to delete something - to remove something from a piece of writing. a category ~ a group of things that are of the same kind. a leading law firm ~ one of the most important law firms, non-negotiable ~ can't be changed, fixed. 202 to fall out of use — if something falls out of use it means that people don’t use it any more, to acknowledge receipt — to confirm that you have received something, in full - completely. arbitration ~ the process of a third party settling an argument or a legal problem without the matter going to court conducted ~ done, carried out, Ccatherne Mason & Rosemary AtExercise 3 Look at the definitions of some more archaic terms below. Complete the sentences that follow with one of the archaie terms from the lst. You will need to use each word only ance. wonepunes v9 80. © Thereby — as a result of this or that action. “Your client signed the contract and thereby entered into a binding agreement.’ © Therein ~ in or into a particular place or thing/in thav/in there. “The rented property and the furniture contained therein.” © Thereon — on it/on there/on what | have just mentioned, “The amount borrowed and the interest due thereon must be repaid by 10 March 2010." © Thereinafter — later in that place or thingjlater in what | have just mentioned. “We were defined in that contract as the Company and we were known as the Company thereinafter.” © Thereto — to it, to the thing that | have just mentioned. “AL the meeting we will discuss Mrs Jones’ will and all matters related thereto.’ ‘a He sold the company and became a millionaire. (as a result of that action) b Lenclose a copy af the contract. Please return it to me together with any amendments (to the contract I have just mentioned) © The owner of the land and any person who wishes to claim an interest should contact this firm of solicitors as soon as possible. (in the iand that I have just mentioned) d_ The defamatory story in the newspaper refers to my client in the first paragraph and refers to her another four times in total. later in the thing that | have just mentioned) @ The Buyer agrees to insure the painting and to pay any import tax due upon delivery to the UK. (on that particular thing) Exercise 4 There are certain archaic words that lawyers use in contracts to mean ‘mentioned in an earlier part of this document’. These words are: © ‘said © ‘aforesaid’ ® “aforementioned” © ‘the same" Look at this typical example. The relevant parts of the sentences are highlighted. ‘The contract between the claimant and the defendant was signed in August. Said contract was for the supply of goods.” In this example the word ‘said’ is used to mean ‘the contract that | have already mentioned’. The lawyer could have used the other words in the list to do the same. Alternatively, he or she could have just said ‘It’ or The contract’ “The contract between the claimant and the defendant was signed in August. It was for the supoly of goods. continued Ceamerne Mason & Roseray Atkins 2007 203Unit 6A/ Foundation \When you see one of these archaic words in a contract you must look back in the document to find the noun that it refers to, Sometimes you are lucky and the noun that is being described is near the archaic ‘word, as in our example, However, sometimes the noun and the archaic word are far apart and that makes things more difficult Look at the following examples. They are all from the terms and conditions of sale of a contract. In each example you will see one of the archaic words from the previous page. In each example underline the word or words that the archaic word refers to. ‘a Payment must be made upon delivery of the goods. The exception is where payment by invoice has been agreed. In the event of payment by invoice payment must be made within 30 days of receipt of the same, b Where a specific delivery date has been agreed and aforesaid cannot be met the Buyer will have the option to receive a full refund. ¢ The goods shall be inspected by the Buyer upon delivery. All goods come with a delivery note. In the event that goods cannot be examined by the Buyer the aforementioned document shall be marked ‘not examined! d_ Any defective goods must be returned to the Supplier. Said goods must be correctly packaged. Help desk What do these words mean? comments ~ things that are written or said ‘about someone or something, exception — something that is not included in a general rule. packaged ~ put into the correct box, bag or Container for transporting or selling, meet (met) an obligation ~ to fulfil an obligation. To do what you promised to do. refund — the money that you get back from a shop or a supplier when you retum goods. option ~ a choice. UNDERSTANDING SOME COMMON WORDS Exercise 1 Look at the words and phrases in the blue box. They are all connected with a specific type of contract. Use the correct word to complete each definition on the next page. In transit (On board Staff hirer invention trademark 208 Carriage Copyright patent Import duty Premises ownera are the buildings that a business uses. isthe legal right for someone such as a writer or a singer to publish his or her own ‘work and to be sure that no one can copy or exploit it without permission. £ i = ° isa type of tax that you have to pay when you bring certain goods into a country. q is moving goods from one place to another. e are all of the people who work for 2 particular business or organisation. fA is a symbol such as a word or a picture that a company puts onto its products to distinguish it from the products of its competitors. gA 's an official document. The document protects a new invention, such as a new medicine or a new machine from being copied or exploited. h means in the process of being transported from one place to another. iA sa person or organisation that pays money to someone to use something for a certain period of time. i An 's something new that someone has made or designed for the first time. k means placed on a plane, ship, lorry or a train. 1 An is a person or organisation that has the legal right to possess something, It belongs to them. Exercise 2 Here are the words again. Each of the words and phrases in Exercise 1 are connected with a specific type of contract. Sort the words into the correct type of contract under the headings below. Acontract for the hire Acontract for the transport A contract concerning a of a hotel for a company’s of goods by ship company’s intellectual conference property rights Catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007 205Unit 6A/Foundtion Exercise 3 Put the correct word or phrase from the contract for the hire of a hotel for a company’s conference into the following sentences. a The __ b The © The hotel d_ There are over 200 Exercise 4 of the hotel bought it last year from a large hotel chain. of the hotel conference room wants to book the room for three days in June. are very big. In fact, itis probably the biggest hotel in the city. working in the hotel. Put the correct word or phrase fiom the contract for the transport of goods by ship into the following sentences. a The goods were put b The cost of, is £600. © The buyer agrees to pay any ‘amive in Australia The goods are Exercise 5 the ship in Liverpool and the buyer will unioad them in Sydney. that the customs authorities demand when the goods . They are on a ship somewhere between England and Australia. Put the correct word or phrase from the contract concerning a company’s intellectual property rights into the following sentences. a The computer was a new b The publishing company and not the author has If you invent something new it is important to register a in the twentieth century. in the book. . You will get a document that protects your right to produce and sell your invention. d The ‘around them. Help desk What do these words mean? a conference ~ a large meeting where people discuss important matters, especially business matters, a hotel chain ~ a group of hotels thet all have the same owner. to book something ~ to say that you want to reserve something to Use in the future such as a car of @ hotel room, 206 of the Victoria Bennett Jeans Company is the letters VB with a gold circle ‘customs authorities — a government department that collects tax on goods that people bring into the country. ‘an author ~ a person who writes books. intellectual property tights ~ a person’s nghts in ‘something that they have invented or created. No one else has the right to make, sell, copy or expioit the invention or creation without permission. Catherine Mason & RosaTHE STRUCTURE OF A CONTRACT Read the following text about the structure of a contract. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Then complete the exercises that follow. Key vocabulary drafts delivery of parties goods/services » key obligations; © drafting checklist duties template A contract has a logical structure, Some lawyers say that a well-written contract is like a story because it explains the agreement from the: beginning to the end ina way that a reader can clearly understand. When a modern lawyer drafts, a contract he or she is following a tradition that has developed over many years, Let’s look at the first half of a commercial contract. Most commercial contracts begin with the following sections the parties ~ the people or companies who are entering into the contract the recitals ~ the background to the contract ‘and the reason(s) why the parties are entering into the contract, the definitions section — how certain words ‘must be interpreted when they are used in the contract the key obligations/duties ~ the most important things that each party agrees to do the delivery of goods/services ~ the time when, the key obligations will be carried out and where they will be carried out Help desk What do these words mean? a key obligation ~ an important obligation. carried out ~ done, performed. a blank page ~ a page with no writing on it. precedent recitals bankjlibrary definitions section © to draft ‘from precedent scratch’ However, alauyer who is drafting a contract doesn’t often begin with a blank page. A lawyer would call this to draft ‘from seratch’. Most modem contracts are not drafted from seratch but are based on a precedent. A precedent is an existing contract that a lawyer can use as a model for drafting another, similar agreement. A precedent also acts as useful drafting checklist to make sure thet everything necessary is included. Most law firms have a precedent bank or precedent library as Part of the word processing facility on the company ‘computer, or they rely on an encyclopaedia of precedents. The precedents are regularly updated, particularly when the relevant law changes. A precedent can also be referred to as a template, but this is a more general word for something that you can copy. It is not so specific to contract law as, a ‘precedent’. Remember, a contract precedent should not be confused with the other meaning of the word precedent, which is the decision of @ judge in common law that is used as a general principle of law. current — existing now, ‘a checklist ~ 2 list to help you make sure that | everything necessary is done. 207 wopepunos/ve vnExercise 1 Here are some questions about the words in the key vocabulary. Match the questions with the answers provided. ‘a Whatis a contract precedent? They are the people or companies who are entering into the agreement. (1) bh Whatdoon ‘to:deaft; mean?’ It is a model contract that already exists. A lawyer ccan use it when he or she has to draft a similar © Who are the parties to a contract? sconttact. (2) Because it specifies the exact meanings of words. 1d What does the recitals section of a Both parties (and maybe a court) must be sure how contract contain? particular words are interpreted in the contract. (3) Itis another word meaning ‘to writ’. (2) Why does a contract contain a definitions: A section? It means to write a contract from the very beginning. without the help of a precedent. (5) f What does to draft a contract ‘from seratch’ mean? The decision of a judge that forms part of the ‘common law. (6) & What is the other meaning of the word This part of the contract contains background precedent? information and explains why the parties are entering into the contract. (7) Exercise 2 Here is a list of different sections that you wil find in the first haif of a commercial contract. Match each section of the contract with the correct extract below. the delivery of the key the parties: ‘the definitions/ goods/services obligations the recitals defined terms ‘Goods’ means any goods or services that are ordered from ABC Printing Ltd and includes any materials incorporated in them, This is from b This Agreement is made on this fifth day of March 20x% between ALT ELECTRICS Ltd and PARSONS MANUFACTURING Lta This is from 208 Ccatenne Mason & Rasemary At© The Work will be carried out on 5 May 20XX at the Buyer's address. This is from (4) The Buyer owns a shop. (2) The Supplier is an experienced electrician. (3) The Buyer's shop is in need of electrical modemisation and repair. (4) The Supplier will carry out the electrical modemisation and repair to the shop upon the conditions set out in this agreement. This is from, @ In consideration of the sum of £5000 the Supplier agrees to carry out the Work listed in Schedule A of this Agreement according to current UK standards as specified by the relevant legislation. This is from Help desk What do these words mean? incorporated in ~ included in. relevant legislation — the part af the general law of a country that the parties to a contract tb Conny someting: out —"% ao something: must obey in a particular situation. set out ~ written or stated. Exercise 3 Put a word from the text about the structure of a contract in Exercise 1 into these sentences. ‘a The people or companies who are entering into an agreement are called the to the agreement. b Lawyers rarely have to draft a contract from as they usually have a precedent that they can use as a template. © The section of a contract that gives the background to the contract and the reasons why the parties are entering into the agreement is called the d_ Most law firms have a collection of precedents that they refer to as a precedent ora precedent library. @ The section of the contract that deals with of goods or services usually states exactly when the key obligations will be carried out. € Cathrine Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 209Unit 6A/Foundation UNIT 6A VOCABULARY CHECK These are the important words that you have studied in Unit 64. You should make sure that you know these words before you go on to Unit 6B. aforementioned aforesaid aggregate arbitration archaic term availability carriage clause ‘compensation contractor ‘copyright defective defined terms definition delivery distributor draft ‘engaged in entitled to expiration extent forthwith, from scratch Bye notice hereby herein hereinafter heretofore hereunder hirer import duty in effect in full in transit inadmissible inasmuch as inclusive of incur Invoice key obligations 210 manufacture non-negotiable notwithstanding obligation on board option outlet patent parties precedent premises prior to procure procurement property real property recitals referred to refund remedy for breach retailer said same subject to. sum supplier take place template term terminated territory thereby therein thereinatter thereon thereto trademark trading undertake © Cathe Mason & Rosary Akins 2007TOLES FOUNDATION EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Read the following pairs of sentences. For each pair of sentences there are two possibilities, A or B. Decide which sentence uses the correct preposition. Write your answers in the box below. There is an ‘example at the beginning (+). Example (+) (A) The Company shall not be responsible for any of the Agent's costs and expenses. {B) The Company shail not be responsible to any of the Agent's costs and expenses. 1 (A) All prices stated in the Agreement are inclusive of tax. (B) All prices stated in the Agreement are inclusive with tax. 2 (A) The Company is engaged at the business of manufacturing electrical goods, (B) The Company is engaged in the business of manufacturing electrical goods 3 (A) The Buyer agrees to pay interest of any outstanding payment. (B) The Buyer agrees to pay interest on any outstanding payment. 4 (A) The Company will pay the Employee's expenses subject to the Employee providing valid receipts. (8) The Company will pay the Employee's expenses subject on the Employee providing valid receipts. 5 (A) JHS Manufacturing, hereinafter referred to as ‘the Company’ (8) JHS Manufacturing, hereinafter referred in as ‘the Company’. (A a 2) @ (4) ©) Exercise 2 Look at this list of words. They are all nouns. Put the correct word into the following sentences. Write your answers in the boxes numbered 1-10 below. There is an example at the beginning (+). (AA) distributor (C)_ invoice (F) copyright term (A) recitals () expiration (G) precedent J) duty (8) outlet () remedy (H) premises Example (®) A person or company that supplies goods in a particular geographical area is often referred to in a contract as a (+) 1 AQ) \s an existing contract that a lawyer can use as a mode! when drawing up a new contract. 2. Many written contracts refer to a (2) {or a breach. This is a solution that the party in breach can offer to the injured party to compensate him or her for the effect of the breach 3 An) is an itemised bill. Many contracts state what the penalty will be if tis not paid on time. 4 The (4) section of a contract provides the background to the contract. It states why the parties are entering into the agreement. 5 A contract will often use the formal word (5) to describe commercial land and bulidings. 6 Contracts that deal with the export or import of goods usually have a clause that states which party will be liable for any import (6) when the goods arrive in a foreign country. Cathrine Mason & Rosemy Akins 2007 au wonepenog/vo wunUnit 6A/Foundation 7 In contracts where creative work such as artwork or writing is sold, itis important to state which of the parties owns (7) in the work. 8 A place that sells goods to the public is often referred to in a contract as a retail (8) 9 The (9) of a period of time is a very formal way of saying the end of that period of time. 10 The duration of a contract is usually referred to as the (10) of the contract. (AA w (2) 3 (4) 6) 6 i) @ co) (10) Exercise 3 Read the text below. It is from a contract. Some of the words in the text are underlined. The meanings of these words appear in the list below, but they are not in the same order. Match the underlined words in the text with the correct meanings by writing the letters (A, B, C, etc.) in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). FROM A PAYMENT CLAUSE 1.4 _ In (AA) consideration of the Goods (A) furnished under this (B) Agreement the Buyer agrees to pay the Seller the (C) sum stated in Schedule 4 to this Agreement. 1.2 Save as may be (D) set out in this Agreement the Buyer shall make payment in (E) sterling within 14 days of (F) recgiot of invoice. | 2.3. Interest shall (G) accrue on (H) overdue payments at the rate of §.5% per annum above the base rate from time to time of The Royal Bank (|) in the event that payment is not received on the U) due date. (an | wate presen underih ented n tonge for someving enuoe rtm vectig written, specified the currency of the United Kingdom; pounds aque naw sonng mune ear _— provided late if a2 © Catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007© cane Maton & Rosemary atins 2007 23 ‘worepuno4 yo wnUT era ore ( a Ua) 7 TgUNDERSTANDING CONTRACTS 1 THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A WRITTEN CONTRACT Exercise 1 Here are six headings that are used by lawyers to describe different parts of a contract. Match the descriptions below with the correct heading. the detvery of the key the jets, shes wees soods/services obligations the recttals ‘sonic a The part of a contract that sets out the most important things that the parties have agreed to do under the contract. The heading is b The part of a contract that gives the background information to the contract. It often states why the parties are entering into an agreement. The heading is ¢ The part of the contract that gives a precise explanation of how the parties will interpret certain words used in the contract. The heading is An extra document that is attached to the contract giving information that is too detailed to be included in the body of the contract. The heading is @ The part of the contract containing the names of the people or companies who are entering into the contract. The heading is f The part of the contract that gives a specific time and date for when certain obligations must be carried out. It might also specify where these obligations will be carried out. The heading is UK lawyers often refer to the parts of a contract as clauses. For example, ‘I would like to suggest some ‘amendments to clause 4 of this contract’. However, there are other words that lawyers often use in the same way: section paragraph article Internationally, lawyers use the words as synonyms - they all have the same meaning. ‘Can | draw your attention to section 57 If we can just look at paragraph 5 for a moment® ‘you wouldn't mind looking at clause 5' Let's look at article 5 215Unit 68 / Higher PARTIES AND RECITALS ‘You need to know about... Parties A contract will always name the parties to the agreement. It is necessary to identify the parties so that ‘everyone concerned is sure who the agreement is between. The addresses of the parties are usually included. This is important in case you want to serve a notice on the other party. With a company itis usual to give the address of its registered office, which is often not the same as the business address. Recitals Most contracts include a recitals section, although many lawyers say itis not absolutely necessary. The recitals give the background information to the contract. It is useful because it usually Says why the parties are entering into the contract. The recitals often start with the word WHEREAS and in some contracts every sentenee in the recitals will begin with the word WHEREAS. It is a very old-fashioned word meaning something like ‘Taking the following facts into consideration’ or ‘The situation is as follows’. Exercise 1 Read the following extract from a contract. Complete each gap with the correct word from the blue box below. This AGREEMENT is made on this third day of April 20XX. between CLADDAGH FURNITURE & DECOR Ltd a company incorporated in Ireland under number 1000576. having its registered office at 30 King Charles Crescent, Galway City, Republic of Ireland hereinafter (a) toas ‘the Supplier’, (b) ALL THINGS IRISH Ltd a company incorporated in England under number 2297103 having its, | registered office at 1. Montgomery Square, Birmingham, England hereinafter referred to as ‘the © RECITALS WHEREAS the Supplier is (d) in the manufacture and distribution of handmade furniture ‘and various other household goods for sale and distribution to retailers WHEREAS the Buyer is a (e) who operates a chain of retail outlets around the UK and ‘wishes to purchase a selection of fumiture and other goods from the Supplier for sale to the public Via said outlets WHEREAS the Supplier agrees to supply specified furniture and other goods to the Buyer ) to the terms and conditions set out in this Agreement. © referred subject retailer » engaged and Buyer a6 Ccatrene Mason & Rosemary Athins 2007Exercise 2 A client has telephoned you to ask for an explanation of some of the words in the extract in Exercise 1. ‘Match the highlighted word or phrase with the definitions provided. (+) Incorporated means. .-people or companies who sell things in their shops directly to the public. (1) a Hereinafter means. written. (2) b Manutscture:means,.. -runs or manages @ business. (3) © Retailers are... ..a number of shops or offices run by the same business or company. (4) Operates means... 40 be formed into a registered company. Achainis a... . later in this document. (5) f Outlets are... .-lo make or produce something. (6) ie somewhere where goods or services are sold, & Said means. such as shops. (7) h Set out means... .«already mentioned. (8) Exercise 3 Here is another introduction to a contract. It is very similar to the example that you saw in Exercise 1. Fill each gap in the text with the correct preposition from the blue box below. This AGREEMENT is made (a) this eleventh day of August 20XK between COMPUHIRE Ltd a company incorporated (bb) England under number 9998113 having its | registered office (e) '55 Maple Court Lane, Manchester, England hereinafter referred to as ‘the Owner’ and ONLINE COUNTRY GIFTS Ltd a company incorporated in England under number 7890123 having | its registered office at 60 Vale Arbour, Birmingham, England hereinafter referred to as ‘the Hirer’ RECITALS, WHEREAS the Owner is engaged in the hire and maintenance (d) office computer systems to online business operations, | WHEREAS the Hirer is @ business which operates an online gift purchasing facility for use © ‘the general public WHEREAS the Owner agrees to supply specified computer hire and maintenance services to the Hirer subject (f the terms and concitions set out in this Agreement on of at to in by a7Unit 68,/tigner Exercise 4 Complete the following intraduction to a contract using the information from the blue box. © DATE: 19/07/20xx PARTIES: BPP Distribution Ltd (known as the Distributor), company number 3456789 and ‘The English Educational Press Ltd (known as the Publisher), company number 6789012 This AGREEMENT is made on this (a) day of (b) 20XK between © ‘a company incorporated in England under number @ having its registered office at 15 Regent Street, Liverpool, England hereinafter referred to as ‘the Distributor’ and (e) ‘@ company incorporated in England under number (f) having its registered office at Princess Diana House, York, England hereinafter referred to as ‘the (g) RECITALS WHEREAS the Distributor is engaged in the distribution of academic and educational textbooks for sale and distribution to schools, universities and other educational establishments. WHEREAS the Publisher produces academic and educational textbooks for use in educational establishments within the United Kingcom. WHEREAS the Distributor agrees to distribute specified titles to educational establishments subject to the terms and conditions set out in this Agreement. Exercise 5 Complete the following sentences with @ word or words that you have seen in Exercises 1-4. | ‘The company was incorporated in 2006 and has its office at 10 Admiralty Square, London, The Distributor agrees to the terms and conditions in this agreement. COMPUHIRE is known as ‘the Owner’ He runs @ of 15 retail outlets in the south of England. In the recitals section of a contract you often see at least one sentence beginning with the word The Hirer is __ in the business of the distribution of educational textbooks. Collocation bank + © to serve notice/a notice ——«® toenterinto.a.contract. —«* torun/operateabusiness | on someone © to carry out an obligation _® to be engaged in a particular | © the terms and conditions business/occupation © to make an agreement ‘set out in an agreement er | 218 1 Catherine Mason & Rosary Athine 2007Preposition bank the parties to an agreementicontract to enter into a contract “Who are the parties to this contract?” “Did you enter into this contract voluntarily?” subject to terms and conditions an agreement between two parties “The Company agrees to supply the Buyer “This agreement is between the Publisher with goods subject to the terms and and the Distributor.” conditions set out in this Agreement. 7 ‘to draw someone’s attention to something ‘toisuggest an amendment toa document ‘Can | draw your attention to what you said ‘suggest an amendment to clause 6." in your email?” DEFINED TERMS ‘You need to know about This section of a contract usually comes after the parties and recitals. However, some contracts have this section at the end of the agreement. The purpose of this section of a contract is to give a precise definition of important words as they are used in that particular contract. It is important because the parties need to know for sure what words mean. For example, look at this very precise definition of the word ‘Goods. “Goods' shall mean any goods or services that are the subject of the contract and shall include ‘components and any part(s) of components supplied and any materials incorporated in them.” ‘You will see that its different from the normal dictionary definition. That is because the parties have agreed on the meaning of the word ‘Goods’ in this particular contract. ‘Aword or expression that has been defined is called a defined term. Often, a defined term is only one ‘word, for example ‘Goods’. However, a defined term may be made up of more than one word, for example, “Final Repayment Date’. In the definitions section, each word of the defined term must be given a capital letter, as in our example. Then, every time a defined term is used in the contract it also starts with & capital letter. This is to remind anyone reading the contract that these words are defined and have a special meaning. The first time a defined word is used itis put in inverted commas like this, ‘Goods’ means... After the first time the defined term is used without inverted commas. The section of the contract that begins after the recitals often begins with the words ‘Now itis agreed as follows’ or ‘It is hereby agreed’. This means that the definitions section is the start of the legally binding part of the agreement. Exercise 1 In the blue box there are four defined terns from a contract. Match each defined term with its definition below. ‘Company’ (1) ‘Contract’ (3) ‘Buyer’ (2) "Goods’ (4) a the agreement dated 5 March 2007 entered © —_any goods/services that are the subject of into between the Company and the Buyer to this contract and shall include components ‘supply goods/services to the Buyer. and any part(s) of components supplied and any materials incorporated in them. b the person/company or the person’s/company’s servants or agents THE ANNE HARTIS COOKIE COMPANY LTD, purchasing goods/services from of 25 Station Lane, Cuthbert Road, Durham the Company. DHA5 BHK. - 219 syst /a9 wn,Unit 6B, Higher Exercise 2 Exercise 1 contained the following definition: Buyer’ means the persor/company or the person’s/company's servants or agents purchasing. goods/services from the Company ‘What do the words ‘servant’ or ‘agent’ mean when used in this way? In the case of Malcolm v University of Oxford (2002) the Court of Appeal spoke about the meaning of these two words From Malcolm v University of Oxford (2002) “The term “servant” means an employee under a contract of service. The term “agent” means a person entrusted with the fulfilment of a role or performance of a task on behalf of his principal, usually involving or affecting the legal relations of the principal with a third party.” Here is a simplified version of the judge’s explanation. Complete the explanation of what ‘servant’ and ‘agent’ mean by fling the gaps in the text with @ word from the box below. The word! (a) * * means an employee who has a contract of employment with your company. ‘A good example of the legal meaning of the word ‘servant’ would be a ‘servant’ of a university. This would include any (b) who has a contract to work for the university but not, for example, 2 visiting © who was paid a fee to give a talk to the students, The word (d) means @ person who the party to the contract, known as the @ ~or the master, trusts to act on his behalf when dealing with a third party. professor principal servant agent employee Exercise 3 Here is the definitions section from another contract. Fill each gap with the correct preposition from the blue box below. @) these terms and conditions the following words shall have the following meanings: | ‘the Supplier’ means Peterson Electrics Ltd trading under the title appearing on any invoice (b) the Goods ‘the Goods’ means any product, articles or things supplied by or subject to negotiations for supply © the Supplier (a) the Buyer ‘the Buyer’ means any corporate entity, firm or person to whom the Supplier supplies or co) whom the Supplier enters negotiations for the supply (f) Goods. In for to of by with, 220 ee Mason &Exercise 4 Look at this information from the definitions section of another contract. The information refers to how certain words in the contract will be interpreted. This is common to many commercial contracts. Match ‘each piece of information with the correct explanation given below. In these conditions, unless a contrary intention appears: reference to the singular includes a reference to the plural and vice versa a b reference to a gender includes a reference to the opposite gender ao that word also means she/her/woman. (1) If the contract refers to one of something, such 28 a component of a machine, that ‘word includes components ~ the contract doesn't need to use both words each time that term is used. (2) || Ifthe word he/himyman is used in this contract, reference to a party includes a reference to its servants and agents headings are used for the purpose of reference only and do not form part of these conditions. The title of a contract clause, for example, payment terms or termination is not included ‘as part of the terms and conditions of the contract. (3) Every time one of the parties to the contract is mentioned, for example, the Company, the name of that party will be understood to include all of that party's employees. (4) Collocation bank © to provide a precise definition of a word Preposition bank © to be the subject of a contract ‘Goods shall mean the goods that are the subject of any contract between the parties.” © to refer to something ‘Where the masculine is referred to in this, contract it shall include the feminine.’ © to supply goods/services to someone “Our company supplies electricity to the London area.” © to be a person who is under a contract of employmentiservice ‘He is under a contract of employment to a big recording company in Los Angeles for the next six months.” © to work for a company or organisation “I work for an international law firm in Hong Kong.” Deathoine to act on behalf of someone else ‘Any servant or agent who is authorised to ‘act on behalf of the principal.” to trade under a particular name “That company went out of business last year but they are now trading under a new name.’ goods/services supplied by a company “Any goods supplied by your company must ‘meet European Union safety regulations.” to be subject to something “The price of the Goods is not subject to negotiation.” to be entrusted with doing something or dealing with a person ‘1am entrusting you with a very important new client.” soya a9 wnUnit OB, Higher Exercise 5 Look ar the text below. Itis from the definitions section of a procurement contract. Procurement contracts are usually used by govemments or large corporations to buy the things that they need from outside companies. Read the text and explain the meaning of the underlined words or phrases. You can use one word or @ short sentence. There is an example at the beginning. Terms and conditions of purchase | DEFINITIONS 11.4. ‘Buyer’ shall mean the United Kingdom Department of Health, their servants or («) agents. 1.2 ‘Seller’ shall mean the person, firm or company (a) issued with an Order and any (b) servants, agents or authorised sub-contractors of any such person, firm or company. 4.3 ‘Order’ shall mean a purchase order as may be varied by a Change Order. 4.4 ‘Change Order’ shall mean an order varying or cancelling an Order as described in clause 4 (©) hereof. 4.5 ‘Work’ shall mean any equipment, goods or services or part thereof to be provided under the Order. 4.6 ‘Price’ shall mean all (d) sums payable to the Seller for performance of the Work. L,7 ‘Intellectual Property Rights’ shall mean all copyright, all other rights in relation to registered and unregistered trademarks, inventions and all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific and artistic (e) fields. (#) Agents are the people who are authorised to act on behalf of a principal. The principal is one of the parties to the contract. Exercise 6 Complete the following sentences with a word or words that you nave seen In Exercises 1-5. ‘a_In these conditions, unless a intention appears, a reference to the singular includes a reference to the plural b Any reference to the Company shall include all authorised sub-contractors, or agents, of the Company. © Throughout this agreement such as ‘NOTICE’ or ‘TERMINATION’ are for reference only and do not form part of the contract. 222 Cathrine Mason & Rosemary Ans 2007d_ An agent usually works on behalf of one of the parties to the contract. This party is known as the agent's fe She is an expert in her chosen of law, which is the protection of intellectual property rights. THE KEY OBLIGATIONS You need to know about.. After the recitals and the defined terms there are clauses giving @ detailed description of what each party promises to do. This part of the contract could be a short paragraph or it could be several pages and contain a very exact description. Depending on the type of contract itis, it might contain diagrams, drawings or graphs to explain the nature of the obligations more clearly. Additional information like this may be included here, although it is usually contained in attachments to the contract known as schedules. Exercise 1 Here is the first clause trom the key obligations section of a contract. It is a contract between a wine importing company and an exclusive hotel. The company wants to hold its New Year party for 1000, employees at the hotel. Match the underlined words from the clause with the meanings below. | In consideration of the sum stated in paragraph 1 of the Schedule hereto to be paid by the Hirer to | the Over, the Hirer is hereby authorised to enter upon and use for the purpose only of holding a private social function between the hours and on the date set aut in paragraph 2 of the Schedule hereto, the following rooms of the London Bridge Hotel together with the right of access thereto by |__ the usual routes. The said rooms are hereinafter known as ‘the hired Premises’: | ©The King Henry Vill Ballroom (i) The Thames Cocktail Lounge (i) The Westminster View Bar. A person who pays money in exchange for permission to use something for a certain period of time, The word or phrase is, b_ Adocument attached to a contract. It forms part of the contract and contains specific information ‘about what the parties are agreeing to do. The word or phrase is © Written or stated. The word or phrase is: dA building or a part of a building that is used for something in particular. The word or phrase is @ An amount of money. The word or phrase is continued Catherine Veson 8 Roseman Nine 2007 223 sowsi/a9 unUnit 6B, Higher f What the parties exchange under the contract, such as goods, services or money. The word or phrase is Tothis contract. The word or phrase is h By this contract. The word or phrase is 1 Later in this document. The word or phrase is Exercise 2 Here is the clause again. Read it carefully using your answers from Exercise 1 to help you to understand it. Answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. In consideration of the sum stated in paragraph 4 of the Schedule hereto to be paid by the Hirer to the Owner, the Hirer is hereby authorised to enter upon and use for the purpose only of holding | private social function between the hours and on the date set out in paragraph 2 of the Schedule hereto, the following rooms of the London Bridge Hotel together with the right of access thereto by | the usual routes. The said rooms are hereinafter known as ‘the Hired Premises’: (The King Henry Vil Ballroom | (id) The Trames Cocktail Lounge (ii) The Westminster View Bar. | ‘@ Why do the names of the parties have a capital letter whenever they are used in this contract? b What term has been gven to the wine importing company in the definitions section of this contract? © What term has been given to the hotel in the definitions section of this contract? | Where should the Hirer look to find out how much the hire of the rooms in the hotel will cost? ‘@ What else does the Hirer have the right to use in addition to the three rooms that it has hired? f What term is used to describe the three rooms in later clauses of this contract? 224 ‘cattine Mason & Rosemary Ars 2007Collocation bank © to hold a party or an event somewhere Preposition bank consideration of something ‘In consideration of the sum specified in ‘Schedule A." © to get to 2 place by a certain route ‘I get to London by the Mi. Motorway.” } | © im exchange for something ‘will ge you £1000 in exchange for your car.” | _———————— Exercise 3 to agree to do something/exchange ‘something under @ contract, “You agreed to buy my car under the terms of our contract.” to do something between certain hours or days “You may use these rooms between 8pm and 2am,” Here are four short clauses from the same contract, Two of the clauses are obligations of the Owner and ‘two are obligations of the Hirer. Put the clauses under the correct heading below. to ensure that during the aforesaid period of occupation the Hired Premises shall be heated and lighted by means of existing or additional heating and lighting apparatus. b to deposit with the manager at least seven days prior to the execution of this agreement the sum of £1000 to be applied in case of any damage to the Hired Premises howsoever caused, © at the expiration of the period of occupation to remove any property including that belonging to any servants or agents and to leave the Hired Premises in a clean and orderly condition. d_ to have available on the Hired Premises adequate staff to serve the needs of the ocoupiers of the Hired Premises. The Hirer undertakes as follows The Owner undertakes as follows savsini99 wnExercise 4 Here are the clauses again. Match the highlighted words from the clauses with the definitions below. to ensure that during the aforesaid period of occupation the Hired Premises shall be heated and lighted by means of existing or additional heating and lighting apparatus. to deposit with the manager at least 7 days prior to the execution of this agreement the sum of £1000 to be applied in case of any damage to the Hired Premises howsoever caused. at the expiration of the period of occupation to remove any property including that belonging to any servants or agents and to leave the Hired Premises in a clean and orderly condition © to have available on the Hired Premises adequate staff to serve the needs of the occupiers of the Hired Premises. a inany way usec ‘The word is The word is b_performancerthe parties carrying out their e@ end ligati obligations “Therwontik The word is f leave, put, give ready mentioned © already mentione rie word The word is Exercise 5 ‘Look at this clause from a contract. It is from @ contract between a business that offers @ computer consultancy service and its customers. Read the clause and find the words that have the same meaning as the words listed below. ‘SERVICES PROVIDED BY TECH1 CONSULTING | During the Term of this Agreement TECH Consulting shall at the request of the Customer provide the following services for the aggregate number of hours specified in Schedule A: 1. provide a remote diagnosis service during Office Hours 2 visit the Customer's Premises to diagnose the exact nature and cause of malfunctions land advise as to the repair or replacement of defective equipment 3. advise as to the choice and procurement of new equipment inclusive of software 4 provide additional services at the extra charges specified in Schedule B 5 be available 350 days per annum and to notify the Customer in writing of any period of unavailability greater than 3 days, a duration obtaining or purchase b total @ year © faulty 228 Cathrine Mason & Rosemary Ate 2007Exercise 6 The contract clause in Exercise 5 contains eight words/names that are included in the defined terms | section of the contract. Look at the clause carefully and the list the words that are defined terms. | a e b f © a a h Exercise 7 Here is another clause from the same contract. There are some prepositions missing. Read the clause ‘carefully and fill each gap with the correct preposition. CUSTOMER'S OBLIGATIONS During the Term (a) this Agreement the Customer shall 1 make available to TECH1 Consulting free of any charge whatsoever any operating manuals, program information or any other technical information required (b) TECHt Consulting to perform its duties under this Agreement 2. provide TECH Consulting with adequate working space and facilities to enable it to carry out its duties under this Agreement without charge to TECH Consulting 3. where possible to provide TECH Consulting with staff familiar (e) the Customer's programs databases and computer records in order to co-operate in the diagnosis of any malfunction or fault in the system. © catherine Mason & Rosemary Ang 2007 2ar eens ee:Unit 6B / Higher Exercise 8 Here are the two schedules mentioned in the contract. Some of the words are missing, Fill each gap in the schedules with the correct word from the blue box below. © payable © reviewed © Included © Overnight © increase © Additional SCHEDULE A ~ MONTHLY CHARGES: The initial monthly charge for this contract is £450 (a) ‘monthly in advance. The charge table below will be (b) annually. 30 days’ notice of any (© ___ in charges will be given. Monty Charge | £450 | £500 | £550 £600 | 2650 | £700 | £750 £900 | £850 | @ tos | 8 | 9 | 2 | a | a2 | aa | as | a5 | 26 SCHEDULE 8 - (e) CHARGES onsite | istHour Office Hours 08:00t018:00 | £120 On-Site Adctoral Hows | Office Hours 08:00t0 18:00 | £80 On-Site 1st Hour Outof Office Hous | Week days £150 on-site Additonal Hous | Outof Offce Hows | Week days £75 On-Site 41st Hour Weekend Friday 18:04 £150 Monday 07:59 on-site Additional Hous | Weekend Friday 18:01, £120 Monday 07:59 Early Moming | Telephone Support | per30 minutes | 06:00t00:800 | £40 ‘fice Hous | Telephone Support | ist30minutes | OBOLto18:00 | £25 Office Hous | Telephone Suppor | per addtional o8:00to 18:00 | £20 30 minutes Evening Telephone Support | per3O minutes | 18:01t021:00 | £40 (| Telephone Suppor | per30minutes | 24:00%005:50 | £80 Weekend Telephone Support | per 30 minutes 18:00 to 20:59 £40 | | Collocation bank defective equipment or goods 228 ‘cahenne Mason & Rooemary Ane 2007Preposition bank «© to do something by certain means | © tobe on the premises ‘My house is heated by means of “How many people work on the premises?" solar power.’ © to be inclusive of something © to have/perform duties under an ‘Is this price inclusive of tax?” agreemenVcontract “Under the terms of this agreement you are © to do something in writing blige to give 14 days’ notice of termination. ‘Either party may terminate this contract by giving 14 days’ notice in writing,” © during/throughout the term of an agreement © the be the hirer of something ‘During the Term of this agreement the “The Hirer of the equipment must pay Hirer will pay £450 per month,” fa deposit.” «© to advise/enquire as to the reason for © pay for something in advance something I paid for the hotel conference room three “Can | enquire as to your reasons for months in advance.” starting litigation?” Exercise 9 Here is another example of some key obligations from a contract. It is a contract between a company and a builder who is going to do some maintenance work on the company’s offices. Fill each gap in the clauses with the correct preposition from the blue box below. 1 COMMENCEMENT AND DURATION | () The Builder shall commence the Building Work (a) 25 April 20XX. (i) The Builder shall complete the Building Work (b) 20 December 20XX at the very latest or suffer the late completion penalty stated in Schedule B hereto. 2. THE BUILDING WORK The Builder will carry out the Building Work specified in Schedule A hereto. 3. PRICE AND PAYMENT ARRANGEMENTS. (i) The Company shall pay the Builder the sum agreed in Schedule B hereto. | (i) The Builder shall invoice the Company (e) the end (@) every quarterly period (e) the Date of Commencement.(f) no event shall any payment be made prior to the Date of Commencement. | (ii). The Company shail pay the Builder the amounts invoiced (g) 30 days of receipt of the Builder's invoice. within © of © after ein on eat © Catherine Mazen & Rosey Akins 2007 229 i iUnit 6B Higher Exercise 10 Complete the following sentences with a word or words that you have seen in Exercises 1 ~ 9. a During the of this agreement the Customer shall pay £500 per month to the Company. 'b The building specifications for the Work are listed in A hereto. ein of the sum stated in clause 8 below the Hirer is hereby authorised to use the Premises between 8pm and 1am. | am returning the goods to you because none of them work property. Every computer that you provided is e Please the sum of £300 at least seven days prior to the execution of this agreement. The sum is retumable if there is no damage to the premises at the end of the agreement. DELIVERY OF GOODS OR SERVICES You need to know about... The agreed date of delivery of the goods or services in the contract is important for several reasons. These reasons include: « the date sets a deaatine for performance of contractual obligations. If one of the parties does not keep to the agreed date he or she willbe in breach of contract @ the date sometimes decides when the legal ownership of goods passes from the seller to the buyer © the date of delivery of the goods or services sometimes decides when the seller/supplier gets paid The delivery clause include: © When the goods or services will be delivered © When they will be supplied (ifit is necessary to state it) and perhaps © What will happen if the delivery clause is breached for any reason. To make sure that the other party knows that the date/time of delivery is extremely important many business and commercial contracts contain a phrase like this: ‘Time of delivery shall be of the essence in this agreement.” If something is ‘of the essence’ it is of the greatest importance. Exercise 1 Here is a clause dealing with delivery. There are some words missing from the clause. Fill each gap in the clause with the correct word from the four choices on the opposite page. The (*)___agee that all dates (a)_in this Agreement regarding delivery, completion and payment are @ (b) part of the Agreement. Failure by either party to (e) with the dates shall amount to a fundamental breach of this Agreement, In the (d)_that either party agrees t0 @ later date this will not entitle the defaulting party to consider that any subsequent date may also be delayed and such dates will remain of the (e)_in this Agreement. 230 Ccaherine Mason & Rosemary Ans 2007D people a A said B made © specified D written b A significant B principal © material D huge e ‘A comply B obey ¢ fulfil D meet a A case B situation © event D occasion e A importance B key © essence D meaning Exercise 2 Here is another clause dealing with delivery. It is from a shipping contract to transport goods from Ireland to England. Read the clause carefully and answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. One of the terms used in the clause is explained below to help you. 5. The carriage and transport of the Goods specified in Schedule 1 to this Agreement shall be free ‘on board which shall mean that all costs of any nature whatsoever incurred in placing the Goods upon the Queen Of The Liffey shall be borne by the Seller. The Seller acknowledges that it will be liable for any and all export duty. Until such time as the Goods are loaded on board all property rights, risks and liabilities shall remain with the Seller. ® free on board is a term known as an ‘Incoterm’. An Incoterm is a term used in intemational trade contracts and its meaning is intemationally agreed. The term ‘free on board’ is only used in contracts for shipping, it means that the seller of the goods is liable for them until the moment the goods pass over the rail of the ship when they are heing loaded. From the moment the goods pass over the rail they become the buyer's liability a. Where in the contract wil | find the list of goods that are being sold under this agreement? bb What is the name of the ship that is carrying the goods from Ireland to Engjand? © Who is responsible for the cost of transporting the goods from the factory where they are made to the ship? d_ Who is liable for any taxes that must be paid when the goods leave Ireland? Ifthe goods are dropped and some are broken when they are being removed from a lorry to be loaded onto the ship who wil surfer the loss? continued © Catering Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 21 soysia/a9 wnUnit 65 Higher f If goods are dropped and some are broken a few moments after they are loaded onto the ship who will suffer the loss? Exercise 3 This clause also deals with delivery. However, it does not use the tem ‘free on board’. Fill each gap in the clause with the correct word from the blue box below. () The (a) shall only accept (b) for non-delivery of any item listed in the delivery note and/or damage to the Goods caused in transit provided that written, ) is provided to the Seller within 7 days of (@) of the Goods by the Customer, (il) The Seller shall at its sole (e) repair or replace the Goods lost or damaged prior to (f) to the Customer, © Seller © option © delivery liability © notice © receipt Exercise 4 Here is another clause dealing with delivery. Fill each gap in the clause with the correct preposition from | the blue box below. | ‘The delivery date provided (a) the Seller is (b) guidance only / and is subject to final confirmation by the Seller. Delivery times and/or dates shall not be © the essence of the Agreement. The Seller shall not be liable for any loss or damage (¢) the Buyer arising (e) late delivery or failure to deliver. The Buyer shall notify the Seller in writing (f} 14 days of delivery of any claim in respect of deficit or damage in respect of the Goods that form the delivery. © from © for eto © within g © by 2232 © caterine Mason & Rosemary Ans 2007Exercise 5 Here is another clause dealing with delivery. Fill each gap in the clause with a phrase from the blue box. 1. The Company shall (a) of transit including shipping costs, import/export duties, storage, customs duties, security checks and any other cost (b) compliance with the laws of any county. 2) the Company faifs to deliver the Goods in accordance with the terms of this, Agreement the Customer shall have the right to terminate this Agreement forthwith in writing ‘and no further obligations shall (d) the Customer. In the event that this ‘Agreement is terminated on the grounds of non-delivery the Company shall be liable to the Customer for all direct loss (e) asa result. 3. The Company will replace free of charge any Goods proved to the satisfaction of the Company to have been damaged in transit provided that the Customer provides notification in writing of any such damage within (f) of the Goods. © cover the costs © which arises from © In the event that © be binding upon © 48 hours of receipt, © incurred by the Customer Exercise 6 Complete the following sentences with a word that you have seen in Exercises 1 ~ 5. ‘a Any costs incurred in the transport of the Goods will be by the Seller. b_ The Seller acknowledges that it will be for any and all export duty. © The Seller shall at its sole repair or replace Goods lost or damaged prior to delivery to the Customer. The carriage and transport of the Goods by ship shall be free on @ The Seller shall replace free of charge any Goods damaged in provided that the Customer provides notification of any such damage in writing within three working days of receipt. ‘crane Moson& Rosemary Aine 2007 233 soysin a9 enUnit 68, Higher Collocation bank © to set a deadline © 8 specified date ‘© to perform an obligation tobear a cost, © to keep toan agreement —_® to ineura cost. © to be in breach of contract © to comply with laws/regulations/rules © to load goods onto a ship/plane/lorry Preposition bank © failure by either party to do something ° “Failure by either party to comply with this clause will result in termination of the contract.” © to agree to something “The parties agree to the following terms ‘and conditions.” © transport of goods “Transport of all Goods specified in Schedule A will be by rail.” © the costs incurred in doing something “Any costs incurred in importing the Goods will be borne by the Customer.” ‘© to be liable for something “The Supplier will not be liable for any loss caused by late delivery of the Goods.” to be on board a ship “The Goods will be transported on board The Pride of Norway.” damage caused to goods in transit ‘The Company will be liable for any damage caused to Goods in transit.’ to be for guidance ‘This information does not form part of the contract but is for guidance only.” arising from an event “The Company willbe liable for any direct loss arising from late delivery.” t0 do something within a certain time period “The Customer shall notify the Company of any damage to Goods within 48 hours of delivery.” ® Catherine Mason & Roseman Atkins 2007USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE Collocation review Complete these sentences with a collocation that you have seen. ‘a The Owner agrees to supply Equipment to the Hirer subject to the terms and conditions. in this Agreement. b Acommercial contract will usually provide one of the parties with en address at which any notices must be upon the other party. © Each party should think very carefully before Into a contract, as it will give rise to binding duties and obligations. d_ Your client failed to his obligations under the contract, in that he did not do as he promised, @ The electrical goods that you provided to my client did not work properly. As the whole batch of goods was , my client returned them to you without delay. f My boss has a very strict deadline to finish this work. He wants it on his desk by 5pm. & Does this agreement with contract law in your country? Or is it contrary to the lav in some way? In clause 11 of this contract your client expressly agrees to the cost of any duty that Is required when the goods arrive in the USA, i Myclient has significant costs in transporting the goods to you, which he did not agree to do in the contract. My client requests that you reimburse these costs immediately. J We have been informed that when the goods were being onto the lorry at our factory, some of them were damaged. Please return these goods to us and we will replace them at once. Vocabulary review Complete these sentences with a word that you have seen. a The section of a contract provides the general background to the contract. Often each sentence in this section begins with the word ‘WHEREAS’. baA {sa person or company that sells goods directly to the public. © You may see the word * * in-a very formal contract. It does not have the usual, dictionary definition. When used in a formal contract, this word means ‘employee’. dan is someone that the other party to the contract, known as a ‘principal, authorises to act on his or her behalf. @ The money, goods or services that the patties exchange under a contract is referred to in the contract by the term © Catnene Mason & Rosemay Atkins 2007 235 a9 wf When a written contract refers to the of the agreement it means the duration of the agreement. & In contracts where one party is providing a service to the other, there is often a reference to the number of haurs or days for which the service will last. This is a more formal way of referring to the total number. h The vero to isa more formal word that means ‘to obtain’ or ‘to get’. {If goods are described as being in itt means that the goods are in the process of being moved from one place to another. J When a contract uses the phrase ‘time is of the +, ftmeans that the time agreed for doing something under the contract is extremely important. Preposition review Complete these sentences with the correct preposition. This Agreement is made this twentieth day of September 20XX. b_ The Owner agrees to hire the Equipment to the Hirer subject the terms and ‘conditions set out in the Agreement © Who are the parties this contract? d_ Where the masculine is referred in this contract it shall include the feminine. | work a law frm that is based in London. What name does your company trade & Anagent acts behalf of his or her principal. fh Use of the Equipment is limited and may not be used 8pm and Spm each evening for maintenance reasons. i the terms of this Agreement the Hirer agrees to pay £600 per month to the Owner. J The costs for the Work are specified ‘Schedule 4 hereto. 236 (caer Mason & Rosemary Atuns 2007- TOLES HIGHER EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Read the following contract clause. The missing words are in the list below. For each gap choose the word which best fits into the space from the options provided. Use each option only once. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). FROM A CLAUSE DEALING WITH THE DELIVERY OF GOODS 3.1 The Seller shall only accept (+) for non-delivery of any item listed on the delivery | note and/or damage caused to Goods in (1) if the Customer provides written 2 of any such non-delivery and/or damage to the Seller within 7 days of (3) of the Goods. | 3.2 _ In the event that the Seller accepts liability under clause 3.1 it shall at its sole option, repair or (4) the Goods concemed which are proved to the Seller's satisfaction to have been lost or damaged (5) to delivery to the Customer. (AA) liability (8) transit (0) receipt (A) replace (©) prior (©) notice “AR cy 2 @ @ © Exercise 2 Read the following contract clause. The missing prepositions are in the list below. For each gap choose the preposition which best fits into the space from the options provided. Use each option only once. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). FROM A DEFINITIONS SECTION }o this Ageement, the following terms and expressions shall have the following meanings: ‘the Company’ shall mean ARJ Computer Technology Ltd, which may from time to time act (yy an authorised Agent. “the Buyer shall mean the person, frm, compary or other organisation who or which has agreed (2) purchase Equipment (3) the Company. ‘a Contract’ shall mean a contract (4) the sale and purchase of Equipment between the | Company and the Buyer “Equipment” shall mean all items manufactured or supplied (5) the Company including ‘without limitation, instruments, computers, printers, and accessories/spare parts, (AA) In (®) through (0) to (a) by (©) from (©) for (*) AA, a Q 8 @ 6) Catherine Meson & Rosemy Atkins 2007 237 soystn/a9 wnThe Language of Business Law are VerTHE LANGUAGE OF BUSINESS LAW SOLE TRADERS Exercise 1 Marie Stephens works fora focal magazine in Chatsworth. The name of the magazine is Business Today. Marie is writing an article about the different ways in which people can start a new business. Marie vent to the local advice centre to get some information about being a sole trader. The advice centre gave her this leaflet, which explains the main points. Look at the words that are highlighted in the leaflet. Without using a dictionary decide if each word or phrase is a verb/phrasal verb, a noun/compound noun or an adjective. Sole Trader Being a sole trader is the simplest way to set up and run a business and does not involve paying any registration fees. Keeping records and accounts is straightforward and you keep all of the profit. But you are liable for any debts that your business runs up, which can make this a risky option for businesses that need a lot of investment. This also means your home or other assets may be at risk if your business runs into trouble. Setting up ‘You need to register as self-employed with the authority which collects tax (HM Revenue & Customs). Running your business © You make all of the decisions on how to manage your business. © You use your own money or assets to start the business, or borrow money from a bank or another lender. Records and accounts © You send an annual self-assessment form to HM Revenue & Customs. You must keep records showing yaur business income and expenses. Profits You will Keep all the profit you make. Tax As you are self-employed your profits are taxed as income. You will pay income tax on this income. Verb/phrasal verb Noun/compound noun ‘Adjective Catherine Mason & Rosemmy Akins 2007 238 uonepunos ve anUnit 7A/Foundation Help desk What do these words mean? to run a business to have control of a records and accounts ~ written details of all business and decide how you manage it. your business activities, especially the financial details of the income and outgoings of the a self-assessment form ~ a form that you complete and send to the tax authority. You give all of your financial details and calculate the amount _at risk ~ this means to be in a situation where Of tax that you must pay. You do this yourself, something unpleasant may happen. business, ‘to run up a debt — to create a debt because you to run into trouble ~ to experience difficulties borrowed money or bought something on credit, (often financial) that you did not expect. risky —a word to describe an activity or action _income tax - the amount of your income that that is dangerous or that may fail. ‘you have to pay to the government in tax. Exercise 2 Here are the definitions of the words in Exercise 1. Fill each gap with the correct word from the box to complete the definitions. sole trader liable assets annual set up ‘option register ‘expenses profit investment manage self-employed / a An is one of the available choices from several possibilities. » Your are the money that you must spend on the day-to-day costs of | the business. © An is the amount of money that someone puts into a business with the aim of making that business successful and getting more money back. d To ‘something means to start something or to create something, especially a business. eA 's a person who owns and runs an unregistered business by himself or herself. f Tobe ‘means not to have a boss. You organise your own work and people pay you for the goods or services that you provide. You are responsible for paying tax on the money you receive. & Your is the amount of money you get from selling something or providing a service to someone, after you deduct the costs of making that thing or providing that service. h Your are things that you own and which have a financial value, for example your house, your car or the money that you have in the bank. i Tobe for something means that you are legally responsible for that thing. 240 © Catherine Mason & Roosmary Ane 2007i To as something means to put your name on an offical list for a particular purpose. k To 2 business means to have control of how you run that business. nepunes/ ys WHA 1 an event is something that happens once every year. Exercise 3 Marie Stephens talks to Eddie Anning, who is a car mechanic. Marie wants some information about working as @ sole trader. Match Marie's questions with Eddie's answers to complete the conversation between Marie and Eddie. The first one is done for you as an example. ‘© How did you finance your business when you set it up? (2) © Is the business profitable? (2) © Did you have to register your business anywhere? (3) Can you tell me about your background? ® Did you get any professional advice from anyone? (4) © What sort of business did you form? (5) Example: Can you tell me about your background? | did my apprenticeship with Bugler Cars. An apprenticeship is a period of training. After that | worked for Bugler for four years to get some experience. Then | decided that | could do the job on my own, so I set up my own business. a 2 \'ma sole trader. | wanted a business that I could manage myself without a lot of complicated rules and regulations. That's why | chose to be a sole trader. b 2 No. | didn’t want to use lawyers or accountants because they cost so much. But | went to the: local advice centre and they gave me some help at the beginning, e 2 No. But | had to tell the tax authonties what I was doing, of course. | have to send them an annual self-assessment form. q 2 | invested all of my savings and I took out a loan from the bank. ° 2 The first year was really hard. | ran up a big overdraft because | had to pay the rent and other expenses. | didn’t get much work in the first year. But | continued with it and things got better during the second year. This is my third year and finally my income is more than my expenses. Cathrine Nason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 2Unit 7A/Foundation PARTNERSHIPS Exercise 1 ‘Marie Stephens wants to write about partnerships in her magazine article. She found an Intemet site called WorkforYourself.com and printed out the information she found on this site about partnerships. Read the information that Marie has printed out and decide in each case which is the correct preposition from the two possibilities. ‘tou WorkforYourselt.comvpartrerships/tml Advantages of partnerships: © Two or more people can set up (+) with/in business together. © This means that you may have more money to invest (a) in/for the business, © Partnerships are easy to set up and flexible to run, © Partners share the risks, costs and responsibilities (b) to/of running a business, Disadvantages of partnerships: © Problems can ocour when there are disputes (¢) between/to partners. © Partners have unlimited liability (d) to/for the debts of the business. © Partners have joint and several liability (e) for/with the partnership debts. Our advice: @ It's @ good idea to draw up a written partnership agreement, which clearly states how the partners will run the partnership and how the partners will share the profits. You should use a solicitor to do this. Answers. Example (*) in a Exercise 2 ‘Match each of the following questions with the correct answer. What does to invest mean? (1) What does unlimited liability mean? (4) What does flexible mean? (2) ‘What does joint and several liability mean? (5) What does a dispute mean? (3) What does to draw up mean? (6) ‘a tis another word that means a disagreement. It means to put money into a business, because you hope that you will get more b It means to write. Another verb that lawyers money back in the future. often use is to draft f This means that partners are responsible both © This means there is no restriction to your individually and together as a group. In a responsibilty. You might lose your home or situation where the partnership owes money other personal assets if things go wrong. to someone, that person can demand repayment of all that money from any of the dit means that something can change easily partners individually, or he or she can ask to adapt to different situations. Not fixed. each partner to pay a part of that money. 22 Catherne Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007Exercise 3 Marie went to visit a lavyer who specialises in setting up partnerships. The lawyer explained a litte more about partnerships. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Read the text and answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. Key vocabulary trade under © loss © capital © proportion > contribute © drawings “My name is Francesca Rodd and | draw up lots of partnership agreements for new businesses. It's not compulsory to have @ partnership agreement but | always advise my clients to have one. | meet my clients and | ask them lots of questions about the partnership. First | need information about the partners and what name the partnership will trade under. That means the name that the partnership, will use for its business. | also need details of the capital of the partnership. The capital is all the money, property and assets that the partnership has. Each partner has to decide haw much money he or she is going to contribute to the partnership. Contribute means the same as invest. Then | ask my clients about the profits of the partnership. Often the partners share the profits of the partnership equally, but sometimes partners get cifferent shares of the profits depending on how ‘much of the capital they contributed or how much work they do in the partnership. If the partnership makes a loss, which is the opposite of a profit, the losses are usually divided in the same proportion 2s the profits. Also, I need to know what amount of drawings each partner can have. Drawings is an advance payment of a partner's share of the profits. Each partner usually takes, or to use the correct term ‘draws’, this money out of the partnership bank ‘account for his or her own use each month, rather than having to wait until the end of the year before: receiving a share of the profits. management notice period retire expel resign » dissolved | have to know about the duties of each partner and any special responsibilities they have. | also ask about the management of the business, which is the way the partnership is run on a day-to-day basis. Partners must decide who has the authority to sign cheques for the partnership, pey bills, buy things for the partnership, ete. My clients and | also talk about what will happen ‘when partners leave the partnership, either because they retire or resign. In general, retirement is when @ partner leaves the partnership because he or she reaches a certain age, for example 65 years old. Resignation is when a partner decides to leave for some other reason. The partners must decide on the notice period for resignation, in other words how many weeks’ or months’ waming a partner has to give to the other partners before he or she actually leaves the partnership. I know it's horrible to think about things going ‘wrong, but partners have to think about the reasons to expel a partner. To expel someone means to force that person to leave the partnership because he or she has done something really bad. Last, it's sensible to state the circumstances in which the Partnership can be dissolved, or in other words, the partnership can end, Having a partnership ‘agreement helps the partners to think carefully about the partnership from the beginning.” If people want to set up a partnership, what does Francesca Rodd advise them to have? b What does to contribute money to the partnership mean? ¢ How do partners usually divide losses? Cather Mason & Roserary Atkins 2007 243 yaepunog/ vz venUnit 7A/Foundation d_ How often do partners usually draw money out of the partnership bank account for their own use? fe Francesca mentions two ways that a partner can voluntarily leave the partnership. One is retirement. What is the other? f Whats a notice period? & What does to expel someone mean? fh What does to dissolve a partnership mean? Exercise 4 Read the text again and decide if these statements are true or false. a Every partnership must have a partnership agreement. Tue False b_ Allof the partners always have to contribute the same amount of True False ‘money to set up the partnership. © The partners usually pay for losses in the same proportion as they Tue False receive the profits. d__The partners should decide who is responsible for the management Te False of the partnership, @ Retire is the same thing as resign. Tue False f Expelis the same thing as resign. Tue False Exercise 5 Complete the following sentences with the correct words from the key vocabulary in Exercise 3. The partners agreed that they can each take out £600 every month as b When they set up the partnership, Mr Hicks decided to £5000 and Mrs. Pearson agreed to invest £3500. © | prepared your accounts and you will see that the partnership did not perform well last year. it made a of £15,000. I want to leave the partnership. What must | give to the other partners? @ My birthday is in September and I will be 65 years old. | will then from the partnership. 26 Catherine Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007One of the partners often takes cocaine and other illegal drugs. This is a breach of the partnership ‘agreement and provides clear grounds for the other partners to him from the partnership. & | must tell my partners that | want to from the partnership. | went on holiday to Spain and met a man | wish to marry. | will move to Spain and join him in his business. h The total of the partnership is £405,000. i Each partner has definite duties. For example, | am responsible for the computer system and Mr Brown 's the partner responsible for the day-to-day of the business. J The business was unsuccessful and the partners. the partnership last year. The partnership will the name of Fast Flowers. 1 As each partner contributed different amounts of money to the business, the partners agreed to share the profits in the same as the amounts that they invested, Exercise 6 {tis possible to have different types of partner. Look at the definitions of three types of partner below. The fetters of the words that match each definition are mixed up. Put the letters in the correct order to spell the words. The frst letter of each word is there for you. a Apartner who receives a share of the partnership profits and has the right to take part in the management of the partnership, AnE ___(TIQUEY) partner 'b_Apartner who receives a fixed amount of money each year, called a salary, paid in monthly instalments. This partner does not receive any more of the profits. AS. (DRASALIE} partner © Apartner who contributes capital to the partnership but does not take part in the management of the business. He or she receives a share of the partnership profits. This partner is also known as a dormant partner or a silent partner. AS ___(GEESPILN) partner Exercise 7 For each for the following people, decide which type of partner he or she is. a Sarah: ‘ma partner. | specialise in employment law. The law firm offered me this position as this is the area of law that the firm wants to develop, but they want to see how good my work really is. 'm happy with that as I'm earning goad money each month.’ b Ken: ‘lama partner. | do not work full-time or make decisions for the partnership, but | expect to receive a large share of the profits. This is because | contributed most of the capital When we started this law firm.’ Partner. | set up the partnership with two other people. We have {ull control of the management of the business and we share all the profits of the business.’ snetng Meson & Rosemary Akins 2007 245 wonepunoy/ve wunA PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT Francesca Rodd has a detailed checklist to remind her about what she has to discuss with her clients ‘when drawing up a new partnership agreement. Here are some of the points on the checklist: © Names of partners ® Partnership name © Share of profits/losses Capital contribution of partners © Drawings Cheque signing arrangements » Period of notice for resignation © Retirement age Exercise 1 ‘These are some of the questions that Francesca asks her clients. The missing words are below each question. Put the words in the correct place to complete the question. a What, the of partner? eis = name seach —* full b What name under? = will trade © the © partnership © How will each contribute the partnership? © much © partner © capital © to d How the partners profits or the = losses © the = wilt © share e How each partner's be? © much © monthly © will © drawings Who have partnership cheques? © will = sign 6 to © authority & How notice for resignation be? © period = long —® the © will hh What the 2 * be = wilt © age © retirement 246 Catherine Macon & Rosemary Aine 2007Exercise 2 Francesca meets two new clients who want fo set up @ partnership. Read what they say and then complete Francesca's checklist below. ‘Ym Samantha Sully and this is my friend Kate Mace. We're both beauty therapists. We went to college together in Shoredon and worked together at Faces Beauty Salon, so we know each other | _ wel. we wanto:set up our oun besiuy eto in chatawah, cae! Revtalan, We want ts maa‘a lot of money and give up work when we are 55. Of course, | suppose one of us may meet the man | ef our creas and go ove in usta, 30 we may nee to eave he panes bere we reach our retirement age — you never know! We agree that it’s OK to leave the partnership if you tell the | other partner three months in advance. We'l share everything 50:50. We'll both put in £2500 in ‘the partnership so we can buy some equipment but we don’t need much more than that. We each | want tobe able to take £500 each month ftom the partnership account. Either of us can sign cheques otherwise it will be difficult if one of us is away on holiday when we have to pay a bill.” Checklist for a new partnership a Names of partners: b_ Partnership name: © Capital contribution of each partner: d_ Share of profits/losses: Drawings: Cheque signing arrangements: Period of notice for resignatior zm Retirement age: Help desk ‘What do these words mean? a beauty therapist ~ a person who is qualified 50:50 ~ half for each person. {to do beauty work, usually in 2 salon. otherwise — if not. This word is often used give up —to stop doing something. when there will be a bad resutt if something happens, or you do not do something. ‘Go now, but la = conta inet ‘otherwise you will miss your train, ctr Mason & Rosemary athins 2007 287 wonepunogyve eni LIMITED LIABILITY PARTNERSHIPS Exercise 1 Marie Stephens then talked to Francesca Rodd about Francesca's law firm, Hedgsons. Marie asked if Hedgsons law firm is a partnership. Read what Francesca says. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Put the correct word or expression from the key vocabulary into the sentences that follow. Key vocabulary | © limited tiabitity legal entity | © personal assets © member “Hedgsons law firm is a partnership, but itis different ‘fom the partnership that | told you about earlier. Our law firm is what is called a limited liability partnership. In a traditional partnership each Partner hes unlimited liability for the partnership debts. But in a limited liability partnership that is not ‘true. As the name suggests, the partners have limited liability for the debts of the business. That means that if the partnership owes a lot of money to ‘someone but cannot pay, a partner will not have to Use his or her own money to pay that debt. In other ‘words, a partner's personal assets are not at risk. Personal assets are the things that someone owns, for example, a car, @ house, and the money that he ‘or she has in the bank. A limited liability partnership Uses the capital of the partnership to pay the debts of the partnership. When people want to set up a limited liability partnership, they must register it with our central registry of companies. The name of a limited tiabilty partnership must end with the abbreviation LLP. ‘When someone registers a limited liability partnership, it becomes what is known as an incorporated business. This means that the business is registered in its own name and has its own legal personality. We say that itis a legal entity. In other words, @ limited liability partnership is a legal person like you or |. incorporated business © limited tiabitity partnership A limited liability partnership has to supply its financial details and certain information about its partners to the registry of companies. Anyone can look at this information. In this way a limited ability partnership is different from a traditional partnership. Information about a traditional partnership is secret, but information about a limited lability partnership is not. A limited liability partnership must also follow more rules and regulations than a tracitional partnership. A limited liability partnership is taxed in the same. way as a traditional partnership. Each partner, or member as we call them, must pay income tax on his or her share of the profits. A limited liability partnership usually has a deed of Partnership, which is similar to the partnership ‘agreement in a traditional partnership. The deed of partnership contains details of the amount of ‘money that each member will contribute to the partnership, each member's duties and what happens if a partner leaves the business. A limited liability partnership is becoming a popular choice in situations where two or more people wish to set up a business together. This business structure is very populer at the moment, especially with people who set up @ new law firm.’ ‘a My name is Grace Harmen. | am a partner of Finneson & Edge LLP. LLP is the abbreviation for blown house, @ car, and some jewellery. These things that belong to me are formally known as my ¢ If things go wrong with the partnership, | won't lose any of my own money or belongings because | have the protection of 4d Alimited liability partnership is an register of companies and it exists as a separate legal person. Its name appears on the central @ | ama legal person, but an incorporated business is called a f Ina limited liability partnership, a partner is also called a 248 of the partnership.Exercise 2 ‘Complete the following sentences with the correct preposition. You can find the prepositions in Exercise 1. a The members have limited liability the debts of the business. Ifyou have limited liability, it means that your personal assets are not risk. Every year the partnership has to supply financial details the central registry of companies. _ | have to pay income tax my share of the profits of the business. In many ways a limited liability partnership is similar, a traditional partnership. f The members each contributed £6000 the partnership. COMPANIES Exercise 1 Marie Stephens wants some information about companies. She went to a seminar at @ law firm called Taylor Wallis. A solicitor called Greg Herrison is talking about companies. Read what Greg says. The most important words are in the Key vocabulary below. Complete the definitions of the words contained in the key vocabulary by matching the first half of each sentence with the correct ending. J Key vocabulary | © incorporate © shareholders | 6 founders © hole | © members © share ‘When a person starts a new company, he or she ‘must be very careful to comply with the rules. When lawyers talk about setting up a new company they se the expression ‘to incorporate a company’. That means to set up and register a new company in the proper way. If you want to incorporate a company in England, you must regjster the company with Companies House, which is the central registry of companies. You cannot start to trade in the company's name until the company appears on the official regjster of companies. Every company has its ‘own fle at Companies House and anyone can ook at the fle tofind out information about the company. The people who set up a company are often called the founders of the company. When the founders set up a company and register it with Companies House, the company is known as an incorporated business. This means that the company has its own separate legal personality. Another name that means the same as legal personality is ‘legal entity’. Sole traders and traditional partnerships are unincorporated businesses and do not have their ‘own legal personality. If someone wants to sue @ company, perhaps because it did not fulfl its © catherine Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 © share capital © invest © nominal value © return © issue © dividend obligations, the claimant names the company as. the defendant, because a company is a legal entity. On the other hand, if someone wants to sue a sole trader, the claimant names the owner of the business as the defendant. The owners of a company are called the members. Another name for members is shareholders. ‘Shareholders can be people or companies. They ‘own, or *hold’ a share or shares in the company. A share is a part of the company’s share capital. When we talk about share capital, we mean the ‘amount and value of shares that the members hold. Let's say that a company has a share capital of £1000 and that this is divided into 1000 shares. In this example, each share has the value of £1. We call this the nominal value of each share. All the shares in a particular company have the same nominal value. When the founders set up a ‘company, they decide upon the nominal value of the shares for that company. When someone buys shares in a company, the ‘company will issue the shares to him or her. To issue a share means to officially give that share to continued 249 wonepunos ve mnUnit 7A/Foundation person and register his or her name in the ‘company’s register of shareholders. The shareholder receives a share certificate from the ‘company giving details of the share or shares thet he or she owns. Why do people want to invest their money in a company and buy shares? The answer is that they hope to get some money back in retum for allowing, the company use their money. We call this ‘a return on an investment’. If he company performs well during a year and makes a profit, then the company may decide to pay a part of that profit to To incorporate a business means. b The founders of a company are. © The members are... d_ The shareholders are... @ Ashare is. f Tohold a share means... & Share capital refers to. The nominal value of a share is. 1 To Issue a share to someone means... J To invest money in a company means. Kk Areturn on an investment is... 1 Adividend is. Exercise 2 the shareholders. This payment is called a dividend. if the company performs badly and makes a loss, the company will not pay a dividend to its shareholders. Ifa company does really badly and becomes insolvent, that company may have to stop trading, But the shareholders will not have to pay the debts of the company, because the shareholders have the protection of limited liability. This means the shareholders may lose the money that they invested in the company, but their personal assets are not at risk.” to own a share. (1) the people or companies which own shares in the company. (2) ..2 payment of the company’s profits to its shareholders. (3) .the people who create the company. (4) .-to put money into company by buying shares in ‘the company. (5) the same as the members. They are the owners of the company. (6) {0 set up the business and register it as @ ‘company. (7) to officially give that share to someone so that he or she becomes the owner of that share. (8) .the value of shares that the shareholders own. (9) one of the equal parts of the company's capital. (10) .the money that someone receives from their investment. (11) .the fixed value of each share. (12) Read what Greg Harrison says again and answer the following questions using a full sentence. a What does to incorporate a company mean? Answer: b Where are all compani in England registered? Answer: 250 © catnenne Mason & Rosemay fons 2007© When can a new company begin to trade in the company’s name? Answer: d_ What is another name for a legal personality? Answer: e What are the people called who own a company? Answer: f What is a dividend? Answer: & In general, why won't a shareholder have to use his or her own money to pay the debts of the company? Answer: Exercise 3 Decide if the following statements are true or false. a Allof the information about a company at Companies House is available True False to the public. bb Each company has its own legal personality. True False ¢ A traditional partnership is a legal entity. True False d__ Ifyou want to sue a company, you must name the shareholders as True False the defendants. @ A.company issues share certificates to its members. True False f Shareholders always receive a dividend each year. True False Help desk What do these words mean? to comply with ~ to follow (the rules), to obey, to name someone — to write that person's or to abide by. ‘company’s name on a document. to trade ~ to do business with another person _to become insolvent ~ to be unable to pay your ‘or company. debts at the time when you must pay them. Ccatnenne Man & Rosana Atkins 2007 251 wonepunog/ ve wenExercise 4 Greg Harrison now talks in more detail about the different sorts of share values and share capital valves. Read what Greg says and match each of the questions in the biue box with the correct answer below. ‘When you set up @ company, you decide on the ‘amount of share capital and what the nominal value of each share is. The nominal value is a fixed value, that doesn’t change. The nominal value has ‘two other names. These are the par value and the face value. All three names have the same meaning. When you set up a company, you also have to decide on the maximum amount of share capital that the company can have. This is called the company’s authorised share capital ‘A company doesn’t have to issue all of its authorised share capital as soon as itis Incorporated. The company can issue some shares, leaving other shares unissued. At the time when. ‘the company is incorporated, it issues some shares to the first shareholders. The company can then ‘issue more shares ata later date. The issued share capital is the value of the shares that the What is the market value? (1) What is the nominal value? (2) What is the premium? (3) This the amount of money that someone must pay to the company when he or she buys @ share. b This is the amount of money that someone pays in excess of the nominal value. ¢ This is the maximum total value of shares, ‘expressed in nominal terms, that the ‘company is allowed to issue. Exercise 5 company has issued to shareholders. The issued share capital and the authorised share capital are expressed in the nominal value of the shares, and not the actual value of those shares, Let's say that a company has an authorised share capital of £1000. There are 1000 shares, each having a value of £1. Now let's say that the company issues 500 of these shares. In this case, the nominal value of each share is £:1 and the issued share capital is £500. | want to buy some shares in the ‘company. | pay £5 for each of my shares. The nominal value of each share is £1, but the actual amount that | pay is £5. This is called the market value of the share. The market value in this ‘example is higher than the nominal value. The difference between the market value and the nominal value is called the premium. In this ‘example, the premium is £4." What is authorised share capital? (4) What is issued share capital? (5) d_Thisis the value of shares, expressed in nominal terms, that the company nas actually issued to its shareholders. © Thisis the value that the people who set up the company decided to fix for all of the shares of the company. It is easier to understand if you think of it as the official value, not the actual value. Kevin Hooper buys some shares in a company called Onephone ple. The share certificate says that the shares are £1 each. Kevin pays £4 for each share to Onephone ple. Complete the following sentences by writing the correct figure in each gap. a The market value of each share is b The nominal value of each share is © The premium on each share is 252 aerine Mason & Roserany Atkins 2007PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIMITED COMPANIES Exercise 1 ‘Marie Stephens wants to include some information about companies in her magazine article, She looks at the website of law firm, Taylor Wallis. She prints off the following information about private limited companies ‘and public limited companies. The most important words are in the Key vocabulary below. Read the Jnformation and decide if the statements that follow are true or false. Key vocabulary private limited company stockbroker public limited company single-member company wow. taylorwails.co. uk/companies Public and private limited companies There are several different types of company in England, but the most common are the private limited company and the public limited company. The name of a private limited ‘company must end with ‘itd’ or ‘limited’ and a public limited company's name must end with ‘pic’. This means that when you look at a company’s name you can see immediately what type of company iti, A private limited company cannot offer shares in the company to members of the public, but a public limited company can do this. Some people use the services of a stockbroker to buy and sell shares. A stockbroker is someone who buys and sells shares on behalf of his or her clients. A stockbroker only deals in shares of public limited companies. The law does not allow people to trade in shares of private limited companies through a stockbroker. A private limited company can have any number of shareholders. However, it is very common to have @ private limited company with just one shareholder. If a company has just one shareholder, the company is called a single-member company. A oubiic limited company must have a minimum of two shareholders, but usually has a lot more. Another big difference between the two types of company is the amount of share capital that the Companies must have in order to incorporate and register them. Someone may register a private limited company with a very small amount of share capital, maybe only £41. However, to register a public limited company it must have a substantial amount of share capital. This amount is decided by law. At the moment the minimum amount required is £50,000. a There are only two types of company in England. Tue False b_ Acompany which has the name of Lexton Metals Ltd is a private Te False. limited company. © A stockbroker buys and sells shares in private limited companies on Tue False behalf of his or her clients. d__Asingle-member company has just one shareholder. Tue False © A public limited company can be a singje- member company. Tue False f A public limited company must have a share capital of atleast £50,000 «Tue ‘False. at the time when someone registers it 253 wopepunes/ve wenUnit 7A/Foundation Help desk What do these words mean? common - usual, happens frequently to trade ~ to do business, to buy and sell. to offer shares — to invite people to buy shares to incorporate a company — to form a in the company. registered company. to deal — to trade, to buy and sell, substantial — significant, large. Exercise 2 Anew client named Mr Patel telephoned Greg Harrison, the solicitor from Taylor Wallis. Mr Patel wants some advice about setting up a new business. However, Greg was not in his office and so Mr Patel left Greg a voicemail message. When Greg retumed he listened to the message and made the following notes. Read the notes and from your knowledge of the different types of business structure, decide which of them ‘Mr Pate! can choose to set up. Telephone attendance: Date: 16 March 20% Name: Raj Patel (RP) Address: 2 Cheryholt Road, Chatsworth, CH3 6GH Telephone: 0771 669624 Mobile: 047987 5463471 Details RP wants to set up a business. At the moment RP is working alone, but his brother will probably Want to join the business at some time in the future. The business supplies computers and software to small businesses and advises the businesses on operating the systems. RP has capital of £25,000 to start the business. RP owns his house, but wants to make sure that if everything goes wrong, he will not lose the house. RP is married and has three children. RP wants advice on what sort of business he should set up. a. Sole trader Yes No b Partnership Yes No © Limited liability partnership Yes No Private limited company Yes No @ Public limited company Yes No ‘The next exercise gives you the answer to what type of business RP should set up. 258 cathExercise 3 Greg is writing to Mr Patel. Put the parts of the letter in the right order by writing your answers in the boxes numbered 2-10 below. There is an example at the beginning, which is the start of the letter. Taylor Wallis 2 Main Street Chatsworth CH 2FH | Mr R Patel 416 March 20x 2 Chentyhott Road Chatsworth Ref: GH 408RP CHS GH {@) Setting up as 2 sole trader is certainly the easiest type of business. A sole trader is self employed and this type of business does not have to be registered or comply with complicated rules, other than the obligation to pay tax. (b) | look forward to hearing from you. (c) | understand from this message that you wish to set up a business which supplies computers and software to small businesses and you would like some advice on what is the most appropriate structure for this new business. (@) Dear Mr Patel New computer consultancy business (€) Therefore, in view of the fact that you are investing @ substantial amount of money into the business, and more particularly that you wish your personal assets to be as safe as possible, | think the best option is for you to incorporate a private limited company. Your brother will be able to join the company at a later date. (f) However, the main disadvantage is that as a sole trader you will have unlimited liability forall the debts of the business if it does not succeed in the way in winieh you hope. This means that you may have to sell your personal assets to pay the debts of the business. (8) | vill be very pleased to explain the procedure of incorporating a company to you. Please telephone me to arrange a convenient time to meet. (h) Thank you for your telephone message regarding the formation of a new business. (@ Yours sincerely Gig fim Greg Harison @) As you are the only person involved in the business at present, there are two options avaliable to you. One is to operate as a sole trader and the other is to incorporate a private limited company. Let me give you a little more detail about each option. ad (2) 3) 4) 6) © ” @ 9) (0) ‘Canon Mason & Rosemary thins 207 255Unit 7A/Foundation INCORPORATING A COMPANY Exercise 1 Marie Stephens is finishing her magazine article. She wants to know how to set up a company. She found the following information about this on Taylor Wallis’s website. The most important phrases are in the key vocabulary below. Put the correct phrases from the key vocabulary into the sentences on the next page. J Key vocabulary ‘© memorandum of association © off-the-shelf company © annual return © certificate of incorporation | © articles of association wn. taylorwalis.co.ukinew companies Incorporating a company ‘There are two very important documents that every company has. These are the memorandum. of association and the articles of association. The memorandum of association sets out the ‘essential information about the company. The articles of association contain the intemal rules. that the company and its shareholders must follow. These rules include, for example, notice periods for holding company meetings and procedures for selling company shares. The articles of association is a long and complicated document. IF you want to set up a compary, you may choose to incorporate a completely new company. You need to draft the memorandum and articles of association for your company. You should ‘ask your solicitor to do this. He or she will probably use a standard document as a model and then make any changes to the model that are necessary for your company. Your solicitor will file the memorandum and articles of association at Companies House, together with the other necessary documents. You must then wait until Companies House issues a certificate of incorporation. When you receive this certificate, wich proves that the company is properly registered, your company can then start to trade under the company name. Your other option is to buy an off-the-shelf company from a company formation agent. & ‘company formation agent is a person or company which incorporates new companies and then sells each company to people who want to buy one. You can think of an off-the-shelf ‘company as an empty company, which is set up and ready to trade. An off-the-shelf ‘company is also called a shelf company. With an off-the-shelf company, the company formation agent fled the memorandum and articles of association when he or she incorporated the company. The company has a certificate of incomoration and so it can start trading under the company name immediately. After the company is registered, it has its own file at Companies House. Every year the ‘company has to send a document celled an annual return to Companies House. This ives up-to-date information about the company including details ofits share capital and shareholders. The company also has to submit its financial accounts to Companies House. It has to send a profit and loss account and a balance sheet. These two documents give information on whether the company is making a profit or a loss. if a company makes a profit, it must pay corporation tax on that profit. All of the information at Companies House is available to the public, so anyone can see it. For more details contact Greg Harrison at [email protected] 256 | | |‘a We want to start trading as quickly as possible so we decided to buy an company. b_ Ifyou want to see the rules of the company you must look at the won epur © Thisis the company's - You must keep it safe as this shows that the company is properly set up and can trade in the company’s name, d The is one of documents that every company has. This document contains the essential information about the company. @ Tofind the mast recent information about the company, you should look at the last that the company sent to Companies House. Help desk What do these words mean? to submit ~ to present, to send or provide balance sheet ~ a statement of a company’s something (usually a document or some financial position. It shows the assets of the information) that is required, ‘company and its liabilities (debts). profit and loss account - this document shows corporation tax ~ when a company makes @ the income and expenses of the business, profit, the company has to pay part of that profit usually for the period of one year. to the government in tax. sential ~ fundamental, necessary. Exercise 2 Jumbled words. The memorandum of association always contains the following information. Look at the explanations below. The letters of the words that match each explanation are mixed up. Put the letters in the correct order to spell the words. The first letter of each word is there for you. a The title of the company. © N (ANYPCOM MENA) b The place where people will send all official letters and legal notices to. Lots of people think of it as the legal seat of the company. R. o (RISTREEDGE COFFIE) © The purpose of the company. 9 _ (TOBJECS) d_ A declaration about the responsibilty of the shareholders. S o (MENTETATS FO ILILIBTAY) @ The maximum amount that the company is allowed to issue in shares to shareholders. s c (HERAS PITCALA) {The first shareholders of the company. ___ (SCRIBSUBERS) © Cathesne Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007 287Unit 7A/Foundation Exercise 3 Put the correct word or expression from Exercise 2 into the sentences below. a. Rose Ferries and Sara Bell are the people who are taking the first shares in Herlink Ltd. They are called the b_ | want to issue a claim against Pearsons Ltd. | will serve the claim form on the company at the company’s The ‘and the address of the company's registered office must appear on all invoices that the company sends to people. _ Ifyou want to find out the purpose of a company, you should look at the clause in the company's memorandum of association. e The of the company is £10,000 divided into 10,000 shares of £1 each. f The will say if the members’ responsibility is limited or unlimited. 258 © Cather Mason & Rosemay Aine 2007UNIT 7A VOCABULARY CHECK These are the important words that you have studied in Unit 7A. You should make sure that you know these words before you go on to Unit 7B. annual annual return articles of association assets atrisk authorised share capital balance sheet copital certificate of incorporation contribute corporation tax dispute dissolved dividend dormant partner draw draw up drawings egal perinee expel expenses flexible founder Income tax incomorate incorporated business invest investment issue issued share capital Joint and several lability legal entity legal personality liable limited liability limited liability partnership loss manage management © cathemne Mason & Rosemary Ars 2007 market value member memorandum of association ‘nominal value notice period objects, off-the-shelf company option partner partnership personal assets premium private limited company profit profit and loss account proportion public limited company records and accounts register registered office resign retire retum risky rules and regulations run a business run into trouble run up a debt salaried partner self-assessment form self-employed setup share share capital shareholder single-member company sleeping partner sole trader stockbroker submit subscriber substantial trade trade under unlimited liability 259 wonepunes/ve snTOLES FOUNDATION EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Look at this list of words. They are all nouns. Put the correct word into the following sentences. Write your answers in the boxes numbered 1-10 below. There is an example at the beginning (+) (AA) office (C) profit (F) stockbroker partner (A) assets (0) dividend (6) capital Q) tabitity (8) subscribers (©) drawings (H) shareholders Example (*) Every company has a registered (+) , Which is the company’s ‘legal seat’ 4 Asole trader has unlimited (1) for the debts of his or her business. 2 The (2) of a company are the owners af the company. They can be individual people or other ‘companies. 3 The aim of every commercial business is to make a (3) 4 {own a lot of shares in different companies. | don’t deal with the process of buying and selling the shares myself. | prefer to use the services of a (4) 5 Sara Jones and | are in business together. It is not an incorporated business. Sara is my business ©) 6 Translate Ltd is a small company that provides translation services for people who move to the UK, but ‘who don't speak much English. The company doesn’t have many (6) , just a computer and office furniture, some books, and cash at the bank. 7 Fenlake and Grifths is a partnership, The partners do not receive a salary but they are each allowed to take £500 each month from the partnership account for personal use. The formal word for this money is) : 8 The shareholders are delighted because the company performed very well this year. The company announced that it will pay the shareholders a (8) in June. 9 The issued share (9) of a company is the total nominal value of the shares that the shareholders own, +10 The formal name for the first shareholders of a company is the (10) (lA ch) 2) 8 (4) ©) © ” @) (9) (10) 260 © Cathrine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007Exercise 2 Look at the groups of words below. In each group, three of the words belong to the same subject area but there fs one ward that does not belong, Put a circle around the word that is the odd one out. Do not circle ‘more than one answer for each sentence. There is an example at the beginning (+). ae B resin er) Diana a A setup B stat © form D dissolve 2 A sleeping, B shareholder © equity D salaried ® A capital B sole trader © partnership D company @ ‘A market value B premium © asset D nominal value © A issued B joint and several € unlimited D limited Exercise 3 Look at the following article. Read it and decide ifthe statements under it are true or false. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). ‘Tom is a director of a private limited company called Fixit Ltd. He is the sole shareholder of that company. Tom incorporated his company three years ago. The company has an authorised share capital of £1000. Each share has 4 nominal value of £1. Tom owns 50 shares. The rest of the shares are unissued. Tom qualified as an accountant six years ago. He worked for a big firm of accountants as an auditor. Then he decided to start up his own business. Fixit Ltd provides a consultancy service for other businesses. Tom advises businesses on the best way to operate their accounts systems. He also gives businesses a lot of advice about tax. Fixit Ltd is a successful company which has @ lot of clients. Tom lives in Birmingham but he spends a lot of time at his clients’ offices. Most of his clients are based in London. Example (+) Fruit Ltd is @ public limited company. 1 Fixit Ltd is a single-member company. 2. The issued share capital of Fixit Ltd is £1000, 3 Tom is 2 qualified accountant. 4 Fait Lid collects tax from other businesses. 5 Tom spends a lot of his time in London. (*) FALSE a (2) @ (4) ©) © Catherine Mason & Rosemary tins 2007 261 wonepunes WL mnThe Language of Business Law Ua dirtTHE LANGUAGE OF BUSINESS LAW INCORPORATED AND UNINCORPORATED BUSINESSES Exercise 1 Lawyers often talk about the differences between incorporated businesses and unincorporated businesses. Look at each of the words and phrases in the blue box and decide if it is connected with: a incorporated businesses b unincorporated businesses legal entity member partnershi limited liability partnerst private limited company corporation tax share joint and several liability unlimited liability public limited company dividend imited liability partner sole trader Exercise 2 Look at the following lst of five afferent business structures. Read what the people say below and match their businesses with the correct business structure. © sole trader © limited liability © private limited © public limited © partnership partnership company ‘company a. Esther Jackson: ‘We set up our business together two years ago. I'm an accountant and Mark is a builder. We trade under the name of MH Property Services. Mark does all the building work while | deal with all the paperwork. Mark and | share all the profits. We didn’t have to register the business anywhere, but we joined ‘the local small builders’ association, We took out a loan from the bank when we set up, to buy a van and any tools that Mark needed, The bank insisted on securing the loan on our house, but as we were confident about the future of the business, we decided to take this risk. We're doing quite well at the moment. This type of business is@_ b Harriet Higgins: ‘| own shares in Express Enterprises, which I bought two years ago through a stockbroker. Express Enterprises has just announced that it has made record profts this year. It has deciared a dividend, which provides an excellent retum on my investment. This dividend is to be distributed soon. All of the shareholders will be delighted that the price of shares has risen by 21 pence each since this announcement was made. Stockbrokers are reporting that a lot of people are interested in buying Express Enterprises's shares. This type of business is a © Catesne Nason & Rosemary thins 2007 = seuain jez wn¢ Hassan Abdullah: ‘| own a specialist business consultancy firm. | have office premises in Birmingham ‘and | employ two full-time employees. | have just completed the annual retum for the last year of ‘vading, providing details of the capital, the shareholders, address of the registered office and other information. My accountant is preparing the annual financial accounts. Business fluctuated last year, but | am optimistic that it will grow and provide a steady income.’ This type of business is a Elliot Solomon: ‘The four of us set up our accountancy business about 18 months ago. After considering the options, we decided on this type of business structure, Most new professional services are using this structure. There is less risk involved as we are only liable for the amount of money we contributed to the business. Tax was another consideration. We didn’t want to pay corporation tax which is generally at a higher rate, so we opted for this. We each have to pay income tax on our share of the business profits.’ This type of business is a @ Suzanne Marshall: “i am a maths teacher. | used to work in a big school, but decided that | wanted to do private tutoring, specialising in helping children who find it difficult to understand maths. The business is very successful and | have @ waiting list of parents who are interested in their children having lessons with me. | don’t want a big business, I'm happy just doing the hours | want. | can be as flexible as | want. If | need more money, | just accept extra pupils. The business is easy to run and I'm not restricted by rules and regulations." This type of business is a o Collocation bank @ to set up a business © to declare a dividend © business fluctuates @ to take a risk © to distribute a dividend © to consider an option © to make record profits © a return on investment © to secure a loan Preposition bank © to trade under a name © 2 retum on investment “The business is owned by Mr Fox, and “Lown shares in a number of companies trades under the name of “Foxgloves”.” which provide me with a good return on my investment.” @ to insist on something “I advised her to settle the case, but she © to decide on something insisted on taking legal action. “Our lawyer advised us about the different business structures and we finally decided © to be confident about something ona partnership. “He took his law exams last week and he says that he is confident about the results.’ © to opt for something “At first we wanted to set up a private @ to own shares in a company limited company, but in the end we opted “Ny uncle owns shares in Harlax ple and for a partnership.” also in Janson ple.” @ to be restricted by something © to be interested in doing something “Companies are restricted by a lot of rules “Lam interested in buying shares in Next and regulations.” Express plc." 264 1 Catherine Mason & Resomary Akins 2007SOLE TRADERS Exercise 1 José Perez is a website designer. He Is thinking about starting his own business and yesterday evening he went to @ talk given by the focal BusinessConnect office, which gives information to entrepreneurs. Look at José’s notes and match the headings in the blue box with the correct summary in the notes. © Setting up © Management Tax © Profits/losses © Liability © Capital © Employing staff Notes about being a sole trader a Itis very easy to start the business and you can begin to trade immediately. The owner does not need to register with anyone other than HM Customs & Excise, which is the government department in the UK that collects tax. The owner is completely responsible for the business. ifthe business fails, the owner is fully responsible for all the business debts. This is called unlimited liability. If the business does well and makes money, that money belongs to the owner. But if the business does badly, the owner bears all the losses. The owner runs the business himself or herself and does not have a boss. You can pay other people to work for you if you start to get busy, but you will remain the boss. ‘You must register with HM Customs & Excise within three months of starting the business. If you make a profit you will have to pay part of it to the government. The owner's word is final. The owner has full control over how he or she runs the business. The owner uses his or her personal money, or borrows from friends or relatives, Banks can be reluctant to offer a loan to a new sole trader. You need 4 good business plan and the bank will want security over your personal assets to make sure you repay the loan. Collocation bank © to make a profit © to beara loss © personal assets © unlimited liability © to run a business @ to repay a loan © to make money © to have contro! © catherine Mason & Rosemary Atkins 20 265Unit 7B, Higher — —O Preposition bank © to register with someone © to borrow something from someone. “Lam going to register with the local had to borrow £100 from my Dad last association of small businesses.’ week as | had no money to pay my rent. © to be responsible for something © to belong to someone “You are responsible for notifying us if you ‘The house belonged te my uncle before change your address.” he died.” © to do something within a period of time © to have control over something “I need to answer that letter within five days.’ He has full control over the banking arrangements of the business.’ © to have security over assets “The bank has security over my house.’ Exercise 2 José Perez is talking about the advantages and disadvantages of being a sole trader. Using your knowledge of collections and propositions, correct the language below. ‘I considered all the advantages and disadvantages when | (a) created my business and in the end | opted (b) to.a type of business in which I am called a sole trader. It is easy to (¢) operate and you don't need to register (d) to anyone except the tax authorities. As | am the sole owner, | am entitled (e) for all the profits that the ousiness (f) earns, but if things go wrong, | (g) take all the losses. | have (h) unrestricted liability ‘or the debts of the business, which means that my (i) own assets are at risk if| can't pay my creditors. | borrowed some money (j) with the bank, and they now have security (k) for my house.” “I considered all the advantages and disadvantages when I (a) Up my business and in the end | opted (b) a type of business in which | am called a sole trader. Its easy tole) and you don't need to register (d) anyone except the tax authorities. As | am the sole owner, | am entitied (e) all the profits that the business @ , but if things go wrong, | (g) all the losses. | have (h) liability for the debts of the business, which means that my () assets are at risk if| can't pay my creditors. | borrowed some money (j) the bank, and they now have security (k) my house.” PARTNERSHIPS Exercise 1 The Royal Chatsworth Bank has produced some Business Fact Sheets for its customers. The fact sheet about partnerships is on the next page. Fill the gaps in the text with the correct words or phrases from the box below. © joint and several © sleeping © profits: © assets © self-employed © creditor register © legal entity © resigns © dissolved © salaried © equity 268 Camere Mason & Rosemary Ans 2007Ke The Royal Chatsworth Bank Business Fact Sheet - Partnerships If two oF more people wish to go into business together, @ partnership offers @ simple way to | $930, Parner shee the conta, resposbiy ad ences ofthe Pins, You do rot need to (a) your partnership, except with the tax authonties. A partnership | isnota tb) It does not have its own legal personality, As a result, each partner is usually regarded as being (¢) Each partner will pay income tax on their share of the (d) of the partnership. | Apartnership often just consists of general partners. All of these partners have the authority ‘to make decisions about the business. They share all the profits and have (e) liability for any debts incurred by the business. This means that if the partnership does not ay what it owes to someone, that (f) may demand payment from one or more of the partners. The partners’ personal (g) are said to be ‘at risk’ leis possible to have other types of partner. An (h)___partner contributes capital to the partnership and receives a share of the partnership profits in proportion to the amount of capital he or she has invested. These partners are involved in all decision-making. Another type | ofpantner is a @) partner, who receives high remuneration for his or her ‘services, but does not receive a share of the profits of the partnership. Finally, some people may ‘contibute money to the partnership but they do not involve themselves in the day-to-day control ff the business. They are often called () partners or dormant partners. ‘There is no legal obligation to have a partnership agreement although this is recommended. It-will help to avoid or resolve any disputes which may arise. If there is no partnership agreement, the dispute will be settled according to the Partnership Act 1890. However, the Partnership Act may provide a solution that the partners do not like. Also, if there is no partnership agreement, the partnership must be (k) instantly if @ partner ceases to be a partner, for example ifhe or she dies, () or goes bankrupt. ‘Again, this is probably not what the partners would like to happen. Collocation bank @ «© to go into business © to incur a debt © to settle a dispute © a legel entity © to demand payment © to dissolve a partnership © tomake a decision © to resolve a dispute © to go bankrupt Preposition bank © according to something © to consist of something ‘All disputes are resolved according to the ‘My diet consists of coffee and chocolate!” terms of your partnership agreement. ° ‘Camere Mosan& Roseman Atuine 2007 267 sous wn,Unit 78) Higher THE LANGUAGE OF DRAFTING Francesca Rodd is a lawyer who specialises in partnerships. Two of her clients, Samantha Sully and Kate Mace, are setting up a beauty salon. Samantha and Kate have already met Francesca once to ask some questions about operating a business as a partnership. However, they have now decided to include a third partner, Angie Forrest, in the business. The addition of a new partner means that Francesca will have to ‘think carefully when she defines the term ‘partner’ in the agreement. All three partners have instructed Francesca that they would like new partners to be able to join them in future if the business is successful. This is another factor that Francesca will have to take into consideration when she defines the term ‘partner’ in the partnership agreement. The clause that Francesca drafts must: @ include all three current partners. b include any partner who may join the partnership in the future, © exclude any partner who leaves the partnership. This applies to any future partners as well as the three current partners. Exercise 1 The three situations above that Francesca must cover in her clause are described in more detail below. Match the situations with the correct description. ‘Any individual who used to be a partner of the business but who now stops being a partner for any reason at all. (1) All of the indi ials who are parties to this agreement at the date of this agreement. (2) Any individual or individuals who join the partnership each starting from the particular date on which he/she adds his/her name to the schedule attached to this agreement. (3) Exercise 2 Here are some words that Francesca will need to use when she drafts the clause that provides a definition Of the term ‘partner’ in the partnership agreement. Match each word with the correct meaning, a Respective means... b Aschedule is.. © Annexed means... d_ Context means... © Whatsoever means. 268 ..a document containing extra information that is attached to a contract. (1) -..felevant, particular, the one thing in a group of things that refers to or belongs to a particular person. (2) attached. (3) catall. (4) circumstances or situation. (5)Exercise 3 Choose the correct word from the list in Exercise 2 to complete these sentences. ‘a The specifications for the building work that your client will carry out are contained in the attached to this contract. b The company will not pay any additional expenses _ $0 you should be very careful Not to spend more than the money that you have been given. © to this draft contract is the list of assets that you are purchasing. What is the full of the dispute between the partners? | only have one person's story 0 | do not know the exact circumstances. e Alter the meeting both of the lawyers returned to their offices to discuss the new developments in the case with their clients. Exercise 4 Using the descriptions from Exercise 1 and the definitions in Exercise 2 to help you, complete the clause that Francesca drafts for the partnership agreement by putting the words from the blue box below in the correct place. hereto whatsoever © former respective annexed hereof thereof |The ‘Partners’ means all the individuals who are parties (a) at the date | ©) and shall include, from the (€) dates upon which any | | other individuals by the addition of their names and addresses to the schedule —@ hereto such other individual or individuals, and shall unless the context othenvise requires exclude any such individual being a (e) partner of the business who shall have ceased for (f) reason to be a partner co Ccatmerne Maton & Rosemary atkins 2007 20 sowinyae wnUnit 7B/Highor Exercise 5 Look at these clauses from the partnership agreement. They deal with when the partnership between the three partners will begin and how long the partnership will continue. Match the words and phrases that are highlighted in the clauses with the meanings below. 2, Commencement and Duration 24 2.2 23 Subject to the provisions for retirement, resignation, expulsion and dissolution hereinafter contained the Firm shall continue during the joint lives of the Partners and the survivors of them. If any Partner ceases to be a partner by reason of his death or retirement or expulsion in accordance with the provisions of this agreement the Firm shall not determine as regards the surviving or continuing Partners. ‘The Partnership shall continue until terminated at the end of any Partnership Year by a majority of the Partners ging to all the other Partners not less than three months’ written, notice of their intention to do so. | ‘a Formal communication or warning that something is about to happen The word is b_ Asituation where someone leaves a business partnership because the other partners force him or her togo. The word is © Toend of to terminate. This word also has another meaning in legal English, which is to ‘decide’. When you see this word in an agreernent you must be careful to be sure of which meaning the lawyer is using, The word is d_ Aword to describe the situation where someone stops working because he or she has reached a certain age. In many countries this is the age of 65. The word is e The terms and conditions contained in a contract. The word is f A formal way of saying ‘because of The word or phrase is & The situation where a partnership has been brought to an end so that it no longer exists. The word is A formal word meaning the start or the beginning of something. The word is 270 Catherine Mason & Rosary fins 2007iA formal word meaning ‘stops’ The word is J The situation where someone leaves his or her job voluntarily. That person stops working by telling the employer, usually by letter, that he or she is leaving, The word is_ kA formal way of saying ‘considering what is written in’ or ‘except as stated in’. These words also have another meaning in legal English, which is ‘depending on’. When you see these words in an agreement you must be careful to be sure of which meaning the lawyer is using. The word is, 1 Aperiod of time. It has a definite beginning and a definite end. The word is, 'm Most of the people or things in a particular group. More than half of any particular group. The word is fn The remaining partners. The people who continue to be partners after one of the partners dies or leaves the partnership for any other reason. The word is Exercise 6 In the partnership agreement that Francesca Rodd is drafting, she has referred to the partnership as ‘the Firm’. Samantha, Kate and Angie are the only three partners in the beauty salon. Read the clauses in Exercise 5 again and decide if the following statements are true or false. ‘Unless something happens that is stated in the clauses about Tue False retirement, resignation, expulsion and dissolution, the partnership will continue while Samantha, Kate and Angie are all alive. b The word ‘survivors’ in clause 2.1 means the children of Samantha, Tue False Kate and Angie, fone partner dies, the partnership will end. Tue False d__ If Kate does something wrong and is forced to leave the Firm, then Tue False ‘Samantha and Angje will continue with the partnership. e Ifone partner retires at the age of 60, the partnership will end. True False f Kate and Angie can end the partnership by writing to Samantha, telling True False her three months in advance that they want to close the partnership at the end of the Partnership Year. © Catnene tson & Rosemary At 2007 am sousuaz wnUnit 78, Higher Exercise 7 Here are two more clauses from the partnership agreement. Explain the meaning of each of the highlighted words. Make sure you check how the words are being used In these clauses. There is an example at the beginning (+). 6. Profits and losses The Partners shall share the Profit for each Partnership Year and () bear any loss for any Partnership ‘Year in the (a) proportions specified opposite their names in column 2 of Schedule 1 hereto. 7. Drawings Uniess otherwise (b) determined by the Partners each Partner shall be (6) entitled to (d) draw from the Partnership Account on account of his share ofthe Profit for each Partnership Year the (©) aggregate monthly sum stated opposite her name in column 3 of Schedule 1 hereto. —__! Example: To bear a loss means to carry @ loss. You will have to pay for that loss. a Proportions means b Determined means c Entitled means | d_ To draw means ° Aggregate means | THE REGISTER OF LETTER WRITING Exercise 1 Francesca has written the letter on the opposite page to her clients, encfosing the partnership agreement i that she has drafted for them. The words that have been underlined are too informal. Replace these words with @ more appropriate phrase. There is an example at the beginning (+). (#) your instructions 212 © Catherine Maton & Rosemary Atkins 2007Hedgsons LLP 1 High Street Chatsworth CHL 6GT Samantha Sully, Kate Mace and Angle Forest 115 March 20%x 14 Kitstone Avenue Chatsworth My ref: FR 44 cut eer Dear Ms Sully, Ms Mace and Mrs Forrest Partnership agreement for Revitalise beauty salon | have drawn up a partnership agreement in accordance with (=) what you t me. ‘You are all (a) giving an amount of £5,000 to the business. | have provided in clause 8 of ‘the agreement that you will receive interest on this sum at the rate of 5% each year. You will (b) all have any gains and losses equally. Simitarly, you will be equally (e) responsible for the costs of running the business and for paying the (d) amounts of money that the partnership owes if there are insufficient funds in the partnership account. Clause 7 provides that each of you will be able to (e) take £500 a month from the partnership account for your personal use, which represents a prepayment of your part of the profits aver the accounting period. If at the end of the accounting period any of you has had more than your share of the profits, then you have to repay back the excess amount immediatety. Clause 9 specifies the earliest possible (f) time for leaving the partnership for age reasons is G0. Clause 12 sets out the grounds for (g) forcing a partner to go out of the partnership, either because they have done something wrong or for some other reason. Finally, clause 115 says what will happen when you want to (h) finish the partnership. | ook forward to seeing you next Wednesday moming at 10 o'clock when I can answer any ‘questions that you may have and we can finalise the agreement. Yours sincerely FAN, Francesca Rodd © catering Mason & Rosemary Aine 2007 ans vowsm/az wonUnit 72,/Higher COMPANIES Exercise 1 ‘Sandra Hobson is a law student at the University of Chatsworth. She has just attended a lecture on company law. Here are her notes about private limited companies and public limited companies. Read Sandra's notes and find the words or phrases in the notes that match each of the meanings on the next page. My notes — company lecture Private limited and public limited companies The governing legislation is Companies Act 2006. All companies are registered at Companies House, which is the central registry of companies in the UK. ‘Companies are incorporated businesses. A company is a legal entity. It has its own legal personality, Companies must disclose certain information. Each year, every company must file its financial accounts and Annual Return at Companies House. The financial accounts include a balance sheet and a profit and loss account. The Annual Return contains up-to-date information about that company. The owners of a company are known as the members, or shareholders. ‘Shareholders have limited liability. They will not be liable for the company debts with their own assets. ‘Companies pay corporation tax; employees pay income tax. Companies must follow lots of rules and regulations. Every company has a memorandum and articles of association. The business of a company is run by the directors. ‘The shareholders may receive a dividend if the company makes a profit. Private limited company The name of a private limited company must end with the word ‘Limited’ or the ‘abbreviation ‘Ltd’ A private limited company must have a minimum of one director and a company secretary. Itis possible (and common) to have a single-member company, with only one shareholder. No minimum share capital is required to set up a private limited company. ‘The agreement of existing shareholders is needed to issue new shares or buy or sell | existing shares. Public limited company The name of a public limited company must end with the abbreviation ‘pic’ A public limited company must have a minimum of two directors and a company secretary. It is not possible to have single-member public limited company. A public limited company can be a listed company of unlisted. If listed, the company shares can be bought or sold on the Stock Exchange or Alternative Investment Market, (All), often through 2 stockbroker. A stockbroker deals in shares. ‘A minimum of £50,000 share capital is currently required to start @ public limited company. 214 Ccanenne Nason & Rosemary tins 2007a These are businesses which have been formally set up and registered as companies. Answer sowpyyan wen b_ This is something that exists in the eyes of the law. It is a legal ‘being’, and can be a person or ‘a. company. Answer: © This means ‘to make public’, to tell someone, or to reveal. answer: 4 This is another name for the shareholders of the company. Answer: @ This means that the shareholders will not lose more than their investment in the company. They will have to pay any amount that they stil owe to the company for their shares, but no more, Answer f Thisis the name of the tax that a company has to pay. Answer: This is the name of the tax that individuals must pay when they earn money. Answer fh These are the people who are responsible for the day-to-day management and running of the company. Answer: i This is a payment of a company’s profits to the shareholders of the company. Answer: J. Thisis the person who must make sure that all the statutory regulations regarding a company are followed. Answer: k This is a company that has just one shareholder. Answer: 1 This is the amount of money that represents the value of a company’s shares. Answer: Collocation bank © to disclose information © to issue shares © to list a company Preposition bank © to have the agreement of someone ‘We have the agreement of our shareholders to enter into this contract.’ © to do something through someone ‘Lam buying some shares in Hatford ple through a stockbroker.” to file a document at a place "You need to file your statement at the court office.” to end with something “The name of a public limited company always ends with plc.” _ e'—o © Cather Mason & Rosomsy Akins 2007 218Unit 78, Higher INCORPORATING A COMPANY Exercise 1 eter Craig and his friend want to set up a new business. They have found a website called wwww/.CoTypes.co.uk, which provides information about the different types of company that exist in the UK. Peter has printed off the following information about private limited companies. Complete the gaps in the text by using the correct. ‘word or phrase from the box below. subscribers Incurred registered office memorandum of objects off-the-shelf articles of association incorporate entity association liability sole ww. CoTypes.co.uk/te Private limited companies All private limited companies are registered at Companies House. A private limited company must have a minimum of one shareholder. It must also have at least one director and one company secretary. If there is only one director then this (a) director cannot also be the company secretary. Directors run the company and the company secretary is responsible for making sure that information about the company's management, activities and capital is available to its shareholders and to members of the public. Limited (b) protects the owners of a limited company from personal loss as the company is a separate legal (c) - A private limited company has its own profits and debts. in other words, any debts (d) are the company’s debts ‘and not those of the owners. Forming a company You can buy an (e) company from a company formation agent. This is a company that has already been set up, but it has never traded. Alternatively you can © ‘@ company yoursel. In this case, you need to submit the following, documents, together with the registration fee to Companies House: © Memorandum of association © Articles of association © Form 10 and Form 12 The @) ‘sets out the company's name, where the (h) ofthe companys situated and what it wll do, in other words, the purpose of the company. Lawyers call that the (i) * of the company. Many companies use a short objects clause in the memorandum, stating that the object of the company is to carry on business as a general commercial company’. The @) ‘set out the rules for the running of the company’s internal affairs. ‘The articies must be signed by the (k) . These people are the first shareholders of a company. Form 10 gives details of the first directors, secretary and the intended address of the registered office. Form 12 is a statutory declaration of (1) with all the legal requirements relating to the incorporation of a company. Note: When the Companies Act 2006 finaily comes into force, there will be a change to the procedure of incorporating a company. 216 Catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007Preposition bank © to protect someone from something ‘A patent will protect your invention from. being copied.’ © to have a number of something ‘We need a minimum of 12 people to attend this course.” ‘© the object of something ‘What is the object of your meeting?" © to have at least a number the project.” © to make something available to someone “promise that | will make this information available to anyone who asks for it." ‘We need at least £20,000 to finance © to submit something to someone “You must submit these documents to the tax office by 34 January.” (= ustenine Exercise 1 Peter Craig and his friend decide to set up a private limited company. Peter goes to see a solicitor called Greg Harrison, who specialises in company law. Listen to their conversation. It is about completing one of the forms which is needed in order to incorporate the new company. Answer the following questions. a b What is the name of the company? What is the address of the registered office? |s Mr Craig using an agent? d What is Mr Craig's telephone number? Does Mr Craig have a DX number? f What is the name of the company secretary? & What is the address of the company secretary? hh Is the company secretary a Miss, Ms or Mrs? i Complete the following details about the two directors of the company: Director's details Director's details Full name, including title Address Date of birth Nationality Occupation Director of other companies? YesiNo YesiNo © Catharine Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 a sows /az wen,Unit 78 /Mighor PAPERWORK Exercise 1 Using the details that you have from the Listening Exercise, complete Form 10 below. a 10 Compares te coats nonearpy ~~ ‘Btalrecors and secretary and intended situation of Mieke registered office Atos oncom een ge Company Name infil Proowted Regt ores (PO Rannien hemes) ———$—= mrt Ragen ran sopzons on rt L. pomte are Paton retiree cartricae || emictnce mmc | manure creat apt rp Turn iy ompeee ores ™" Conpanca House, Crom Woy, Corl OFY43U2 OX 9060 Cait | (Steen reed bird raone (crrmanan egeees Sot Bias ewe Company Secretary os nave syertue | res “ye Fenn) [ ame | Consent signatre ne — continued 218 © Catharine Mason & Rosemary Akers 2007Consent signature ‘bate Directors mss NAME “See subscribers (ie those whe slgnes Ss members on the ‘emorancm of sociton). Sign Sioned Sioned Sioned Signed {© Catherne Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 nod with permission (of Companies House sown won,3 Exercise 2 Peter Craig asks his solicitor, Greg Harrison, to draft the Memorandum of Association of the new company. The memorandum appears below. Fill each gap in the memorandum with the correct word or phrase from the blue box. © objects liability © share capital © registered office © subscribers name The Companies Acts 1985-89 Private Company Limited by Shares Memorandum of Association of Outback Adventures Ltd 1. The company’s (a) is Outback Adventures Ltd. 2. The company’s (b) is to be situated in England and Wales. 3. The (c) Of the company are to carry on business as a general commercial company, 4. The (d) of the members is limited. 5. The compary’s (e) is £100,000 divided into 100,000 ordinary shares of £1.00 each. 6. We, being the (f) to this Memorandum of Association, wish to be formed into @ company pursuant to this Memorandum and we agree to take the number of shares shown opposite our respective names: Names and addresses of subscribers _ Number of shares taken by each subscriber Peter Craig Ten thousand shares 15 London Road oxton Hapshire ONS 4H ‘Shane Bradman Ten thousand shares 87 Hunts Roads Oxton Hapshire 0x2 6GP Total shares taken ‘Twenty thousand shares Dated 14/08/20XX 280 Ccanerne Maton & Rosemary Aikne 2007Exercise 3 { Greg Harrison is now acting for another client, Raj Patel, in the incorporation of a new company. Using the memorandum in Exercise 3 as a model, draft the Memorandum of Association for Raj Patel’s new ‘company. Here are the details that must be included in your memorandum. Client detaits: Company details: Raj Patel RP Computer Services Ltd 2 Cheryhott Road Capital: £100,000. Chatsworth Nominal value of each share is £4 CHS 6GH Issued: 25,000 RP to be sole shareholder The Companies Acts 1985-89 Private Company Limited by Shares ‘Memorandum of Association of Name and address of subscriber Number of shares taken by the subscriber Total shares taken Dated © cathorne Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007 281 | | Co sown wen,£ ‘SHARES AND SHARE CAPITAL Exercise 1 Kerry Bingham is a trainee lanyer. She is doing her training contract with Taylor Wallis. She is currently in the company law department ofthe fim and Greg Harrison is her supervisor. Greg is explaining the concepts of shares and share capital to her. ‘Olients often ask about the different share capital values that there are. I's quite difficult to explain, especially ifthe cients are from another country \where they dont have the same sort of capital values. First, lt’ just go through the different share values. ‘The market value of a share is the amount that a buyer actually pays for the share. That value fluctuates, meaning it varies, depending on how well the company is performing, The nominal value of the share stays constant — itis fhed for each company in the memorandum of association. For example, it might say in the memorandum that “the share capital of the company is £10,000 divided into 10,000 shares of £1 each.” In this example then, the Nominal value of each share is £1. Now, lt’s say the company is performing very well, and I want to buy ‘some shares. | pay £6 for each share. So the market, value is £6 and the nominal value is £1. That leaves a difference of £5 and we call that the premium. Now let's look at share capital values. in the UK, authorised share capital refers to the quantity and value of shares that a company is authorised to issue. This figure appears in the company’s memorandum of association. There isn'ta minimum authorised capital for a private limited company, but a public limited company must have an authorised share capital of at least £50,000. A company's issued share capital refers to the ‘quantity and value of shares actually issued to shareholders. Issued means ‘given out’. Another word is ‘allotted’. The issued share capital is sometimes algo called the nominal share capital, as it refers to the nominal value of the shares, not the market value. Before it can start to trade, a public limited company must have alloted shares to the value of £50,000. The shareholders ofthe compary do not have to pay for the total amount oftheir shares at the time they receive them, but they must pay for at least a quarter of the nominal value ofall their shares at that time. In addition, they have to pay any premium on the share Going back to my example, if a share with a nominal value of £1 is sold for £6 then the premium is £5. This premium must be paid to the ‘company together with a minimum of a quarter of the nominal value of each share. So, £5 plus £0.25 makes a total payment of £5.25. Look at the following information and answer the questions below. ‘The memorandum of Highgraves pic states: ‘The company's share capital is £300,000 divided into 300,000 ardinary shares of £1.00 each’ ‘The company’s balance sheet says: 200,000 160,000 Share capital ‘Share premium account ‘a What is the authorised share value of the company? b What is the nominal value of each share? © What is the issued share capital? d_ How much more share capital can the company issue if it wants? @ What is the total amount of the premiums that have been received by the company? f Assume that all the shareholders paid the same amount for their shares. Was the premium on each share 8p, 80p, £1 or £1.60? 282 © Cathonne Mason & Rosomary Atkins 2007LIMITED LIABILITY PARTNERSHIPS Exercise 1 Francesca Rodd is writing @ short explanation of limited liability partnerships. Her law firm is going to put this information on its website. Read the text and answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. Limited Liability Partnerships Limited Liability Partnerships (LLPs) were first introduced in the UK in April 2001. They are becoming an increasingly popular way of structuring a business. This is especially true of professional practices, such as accountancy firms and law firms. Setting up an LLP involves a similar process to that of setting up a limited company. LLPs are registered at Companies House and the requirements of disclosing information and filing annual, retums and accounts are similar to those for companies. The name of the partnership must end. with LLP. In the same way that a company has a separate legal personality, so does an LLP. It may sue and be sued in the name of the LLP. The partners of an LLP have the advantage of limited liability, which protects their personal assets. However, an LLP is not taxed as a limited company but as a partnership. Also, an LLP is @ more flexible structure than a company, with fewer rules and regulations to comply with, The partners of an LLP are called members. At least two of those members are chosen to be “designated members’, which are the equivalent of the directors of a company. The ‘rules’ of the Partnership are contained in an agreement, decided by the members. We can help you decide if an LLP is the right form of business structure for you and prepare the necessary formation and intemal documents. For more information and legal advice on Limited Liability Partnerships, call Francesca Rodd on 08451 2536478 or email her at [email protected] a When did it become possible to set up a limited liability partnership? bb Which professions like to use this particular structure for their business? © What documents do limited liability partnerships have to send to Companies House each year? d_ How does someone know that a business is a limited liability partnership? @ How isan LLP taxed? f How many designated members must a limited liability partnership have? Ccaterne Mason & Rosamay Atkins 2001 283 sows wn,Unit 78 Mier THE LANGUAGE OF DRAFTING Exercise 1 Francesca Rodd is acting for some new clients who wish to set up a limited liability partnership. Francesca has drawn up a deed of partnership. The clause below deals with setting up the limited liability partnership. Fill each gap in the clause with the correct preposition from the blue box. © under at with to ein © of | 2. Incorporation 2.1. The Members shall complete and deliver (a) Companies House all such. documents and pay all such fees as shall be necessary to lead to the incorporation (b) the LLP (e) accordance (d) the Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2000. 2.2. The certificate of registration of the LLP issued (e) the Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2000 shall be kept (f) the Registered Office. Exercise 2 Look at the words and phrases in the blue box. Match them with the correct meanings below. You will need these words and phrases to complete the next exercise. ratify (1) take effect (4) benefit (7) prior (2) determine (5) consent (8) subsist (3) indemnify (6) In the event that (9) a if start to operate € before b decide e officially approve hh continue to exist © good f pay for any damage i permission suffered 2a © Catenin Mason & Rostrary Ane 2007Exercise 3 Read the clause below. It deals with when the business will begin and how long it wil continue. Fill each {gap in the clause with the correct word or phrase from the blue box in Exercise 2. 3. Commencement and duration 3.1 The the provisions of this Agreement shall (a) on the Commencement Date. 3.2. The LLP shall carry on the Business anc/or carry on such other or additional trade profession or business as the Members shall from time to time (b) 3.3. The LLP shall (c) Until wound up in accordance with the provisions of the Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2000. 34 id) any Member may be personally liable under any contract entered into by him (e) 10 the incorporation of the LLP which was for the 6 of the LLP and with the express or implied () of the other Members then the LLP shail on incorporation be deemed to (h) that contract and shail (i) that Member from and against all claims, liabilities and costs in connection with it. Exercise 4 Read the clauses in Exercise 1 and Exercise 3 again and decide if each of the following statements are tnue or false. a It does not cost anything to register a limited liability partnership. True False When a new limited liability partnership is set up, it receives a Tue False certificate of registration from Companies House. ¢ The members can change the type of business that the limited liability Tue False partnership catries out, if they wish. 4 Toend a limited lability partnership, the terms of the relevant statute True False must be followed. e Clause 3.4 aims to protect the partners from any liability that they Tue False may have arising from all contracts that they signed before the limited liability partnership was officially created. © Catherine Mason & Roseman Akins 200 285 sewage wen,USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE Collocation review Complete these sentences with a collocation that you have seen. a ive all the options available to me and decided to go ahead and start the busines b The shareholders were pleased when Gernee pic a dividend, as last year they received nothing, ¢ Harrow & Trot pic has just announced that although business following the changes in interest rates, annual profits were up by 11% last year. If the business does badly, | may lose my house as | have liability for all of the debts of the business. We will not information about you to any third parties without your permission. f Ifyou do not have a partnership agreement, any disputes will be according toa statute from 1890. & | wasn’t able to pay my creditors and had no choice but to bankrupt, hh The company shares to three new members. i I've always wanted to own a business, but was a bit worried about it. Two years ago | decided to 2 risk and start a nursing agency. I'm pleased to say it's doing well We had a fantastic year last year - we made profits. Vocabulary review Complete these sentences with a word that you have seen, a We are afraid that your behaviour gives us no choice ather than to you from the partnership. b Ihave decided to all my money in a new company called TenBase ple. © When a new company is set up, it receives a of incorporation from Companies House. d_ The authorised share capital is £100,000 divided into 100,000 shares with a value of £1 each. Partners have joint and liability for the partnership debts. f Their solicitor advised them on the procedure that itis necessary to follow in order to anew company. & Another expression meaning a legal person is a legal fh Each partner is allowed to take out some money from the partnership account each month for his or her personal use. This is called his or her 286 [© cathe Mason & Rosemay/ Atkins 2007Pr The first shareholders of a company are called the In its memorandum of association, every company has an clause, which states the purpose of the company. reposition review Complete these sentences with the correct preposition. b | want to be @ company lawyer as | am very interested ‘commercial and business law. We are a limited liability partnership, which operates like a company but is taxed @ partnership. You must submit an annual return and accounts ‘Companies House every year. Our business name appears the list of reputable estate agents. We are a small business, consisting four full-time employees and two part-time employees. You must have least £50,000 share capital to start a public limited company. The object _ this exercise is to make sure that you can remember the correct prepositions! According the partnership agreement, each partner is entitled to drawings of £500 each month. | authorise you to make this information available Mr Richard Jard. The bank is willing to lend us some money, but itis insisting a personal guarantee from each of us. Catnenne Mason & Rosey hina 200 287 sown wen,TOLES HIGHER EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Read the following clause. The missing words are in the list below. For each gap choose the word which best fs into the space from the options provided. Use each option only once. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). Unit 78) FROM A PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT 6. Profits, Losses and Salaries 61 () to the following (1) of this clause the Partners shall (2) the profit for each Partnership Year and (3) any loss for any Partnership Year in the proportions specified opposite their names in column 2 of Schedule 1 hereto. 6.2 There shall be paid in each year by way of gross (4) sélaries which shall be | deemed to accrue from day to day and shall be paid (5) such sums (if any) as are set out opposite the Partners’ respective names in the Schedule 2 hereto. (AA) Subject (8) monthly (0) annual (A) share (C) provisions (E) bear (#) AA aw @ @ (4) © Exercise 2 ‘Read the following clause. The missing prepositions are in the list below. For each gap choose the preposition ‘hich best fits into the space from the options provided. Use each option only once. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (). FROM A LIMITED LIABILITY PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT 10. Drawings 10.1. There shall be paid to each Member (+) the Payment Date (1) each Month the Drawings or such other sum as the Members may (2) time to time agree (3) respect either of all Members or such Members as may thus be determined. 10.2 Any further payments to be made to or on behalf of any Member and any assets to be transferred to or (4) the benefit of any Member shall only be made, transferred or applied (5) the consent of the Members, (AA) on (®) with (D) for (a) from (©) of (©) in (AA a 2) 3) @ © 288 Catherine Mazon & Rosemary Aisne 2007Exercise 3 Read the text below and think of the word that best fits each space. Use only one word in each space. White your answers below. There is an example at the beginning (+). Companies ‘There are several different types of company in England, but the most common are the private limited ‘company and the (*) limited company. The name of a private limited company must end with ita’ or ‘limited’ and a public ited company's name must end with ‘ple’, so you will always know what type of company itis just by looking at its name. A company is an (1) business. This means that it has its own separate legal personality. Lawyers call it a legal (2) Both types of company must be registered at Companies House. That is the central registry of companies. There are over 2.3 milion registered companies in the UK. Every company has its own fle at Companies House and ‘anyone can look at the file to find out information about the company. You may like to visit the website of ‘Companies House for more information. The web address is wivw.companieshouse.gov.uk. The ‘owners’ of a company are called the (3) or the shareholders. This means that they own shares in that company. A share is a part of the company's capital. A private company cannot offer shares in the company to members of the public, but a public limited company can do this. A private limited company can have any number of shareholders. itis very common to have a private limited company with just one shareholder. In this case, the company is called a (4) -member ‘company. A public limited company must have a (5) of two shareholders, but usually has a lot more. Another big difference between the two types of company is the amount of share capital that the companies must have in order to incorporate and register them. Someone may register a private limited ‘company with a very small amount of share capital, maybe only £4, but in order to register a public limited ‘company it must have @ substantial amount of share capital. This amount varies, but at the moment itis. £50,000. The shareholders of a company have (6) liability, in other words they wll not lose any more than they paid for their shares. When someone wants to incorporate a new company they must (7) certain documents at Companies House. There are two very important documents that every company has. These are the ® of association and the articles of association. The first document sets out the essential information about the company, including the company’s name, the situation of the registered office and what the company will do, known as the objects of the company. The registered office is the place to which people will send all official letters and legal notices. The articles of association set out the internal ® of the company, ‘There are a lot of statutory regulations that a company must (10) with. The most recent legislation that governs companies in England and Wales is called the Companies Act 2006, Example (+) public wm © DO Me _ @ 8 Cm _ _ - (a _ _ _ © (10) (catherne Mason & Rosemary atkins 2007 259 sowsinyae wonUnit 78/ Higher WE stoning Exercise 4 Listen to what Pau! Evans says about setting up his business and answer the following questions. 1 Why did Paul Evans leave his previous job? 2 Paul calculated how lang he could live without earning any money. How long did he decide? 3. What type of business structure did Paul choose to set up? 4 What did Paul consider buying from a company formation agent? 5 What is the name of Paul's company? 6 Who ate the directors of the company? 7 Does the secretary of the company currently work as a lawyer? 8 Paul talks about two share capital values. One is the authorised share capital. What is the other? 9 What is the address of the registered office of Paul's company? 10 What did Paul receive from Companies House four months ago? 290 © cathene Mason & Rosemary Atkrs 2007{© Catherine Mason & Rosemary Airs 2007 sows rag wnModern Letter Writing Ue TOsMODERN LETTER WRITING THE LAYOUT OF A LETTER Exercise 1 Look at the layout of the letter below. This layout is used when you are writing a letter on a blank sheet of paper. Identify these parts: © The salutation © The body of the letter © Recipient's details © The date © Printed signature block © Sender's address © The complimentary close © The signature © Subject line a b 4 if OY h Notes to remember Sender's address: you don't need to include your name here, just your address. Recipient: this is the person you are writing to. Recipient's details: you should include the person's name, job title and address, or as many of these details as you know. 293Unit 8/Foundatlon/Migher Exercise 2 Look at the layout of the letter below. This layout is used when you are writing a letter using your own headed paper, or your company’s headed paper. Identify these parts: © The salutation © The body of the letter © Subject line © The date © The signature © Printed signature block © The letterhead © Recipient's details © The complimentary close © Reference Notes to remember Letterhead: this is already printed on the paper. Recipient's details: you should include the name, job title and address, or as many of these details as you know, 298 ® catene Mason & Resemary Atkins 2007DATES Dates can lead to problems. There isn'ta right or wrong way of writing the date — you can choose the style that you prefer. But you must remember that American writers write the date with the month first, then the day, then the year. English writers put the day first, then the month, then the year, us - moD/YY UK DD/MIMYY So for example, let's say that today’s date is 8 May 20XX. This can cause a lot of confusion when using abbreviated date US- MM/DD/YY —_05.08.xK UK-DDIMMYY —08.05.x%x They are both the same date, but they look completely different. Exercise 1 Look at the following ways this date (8 May 20XX) can be written and decide whether it has been writen in the American format (US) or the English formet (UW). a &/5/20Xx us uK b 05/08Xx us uK © May 08, 20xx us uK d 08/05/xx us uK @ 05.08.20xx us UK f 08 May x us uK 8th May 20x us UK bh May 8th, 20x us UK 1B May 20xx us UK J 08.05.20xx us UK k May &th 20xx us uK All of them are exactly the same date but if you don’t know that the US and UK have different ways of writing then problems may occur. Our advice to you is to always write the name of the month in full. For example, 8 May 20XX. Abbreviated dates can cause real confusion. Inthe UK, the modem format of writing dates no longer includes any punctuation. For example, modern vwters put 8 May 20XX instead of 8th May, 20% ® Catneane Mason & Rosary Atkins 2007 295 sougijuonepunes/e wunUnit 8/Foundation/Migher ‘SALUTATIONS This is the part of the letter that always starts with the word ‘Dear’. This should be the easiest part of your letter but it often causes real problems. Rules ‘You must leam these rules to make sure that you use the correct salutation. Recipient Salutation A law firm, company or institution Dear Sir o Madam Dear Sirs Man, name unknown Dear Sir Woman, name unknown Dear Madam ‘Aperson, name and sex unknown Dear Sir or Madam Man, name known Dear Mr Thorley Woman, name known, married* Dear Mrs Ratcliffe Woman, name known, single* Dear Miss Singh Woman, name known, marital status unknown* Dear Ms Pinto Married or unmarried couple, name unknown, Dear Sir and Madam Married couple, name known Dear Mr and Mrs Clarkson Unmarried couple, names known Dear Mr Rice and Ms Matthews 2 men, names unknown Dear Sirs 2 women, names unknown Dear Mesdames ‘A person, name and particular title known Dear Dr Gregson Dear Judge Fox Dear Professor Silvestri Friend or colleague Dear Alison “A warning about writing to women! The use of Mrs, Ms and Miss Itis sometimes difficult to know how to address a woman. You have to think about the person you ate writing to. Unfortunately there are no exact rules about this. Many married women like to be addressed as Mrs (Name}. However, it is not correct to assume that you can use this ttle for all women. Single women ay be offended by this. Also, itis often the case that women qualify as lawyers or in some other profession under their maiden name (that is the name they used before getting married) and continue to practise under this name, although they use their married name outside their professional life, So, a woman may be Ms Carruthers at work and Mrs Marston in her private life. Similarly, itis wrong to use Miss for all women as this is thought by many women to be unsuitable for their age and status. The modem title of Ms is the preferred form of address by many women in the UK and the USA and is a safe form of title to use if you don't know much about the recipient. 296 © Catherine Mazon & Rosoany Atkins 2007American English | American English follows the same rules as above, but when writing to a law firm or | company, the salutation ‘Gentlemen:’ is often Used. If you Use this, do not put ‘Dear’ before ‘Gentiemen:’ ¥ Gentlemen: X Dear Gentiemen Emai language Your first email to a person should follow the salutation rules that you have leamed. After that, if you ~—il ‘American English includes a period, which is called a full stop in British English, after most titles (but not after Miss), like this: » Dear Mr. Adams » Dear Mrs. Berkely Dear Ms. Reauld Dear Prof. Hicks Dear Dr. Cains Dear Miss Kingston are having an email conversation, you don't need to continue using a salutation as it is not necessary and sounds unnecessarily formal. In some countries the salutation ‘Dear Colleagues’ is used when writing to a law firm. However, | don’t use ‘Dear Colleagues’ when wnting a formal letter to UK recipients because itis not considered to be acceptable. You can use this in an email if you want to, as it is more informal. Exercise 1 White the correct salutation to start your letter to each of the following recipients. Example: John Smith (a new client) Dear MrSmith a Deborah Slater (a new client — you don't know if she is married) Dear b_ Lowe and Steele solicitors (you don't know Which solicitor is going to be dealing with this case) Dear © Mattheis Schmit (a familiar client ~ you are (on good terms with him) Dear d_ Maria Gabsnna (a lawyer in America) Dear fe Rebecca Wallis and Patrick Donaghue (new clients, brother and sister) Dear catrene Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 f Martin Barley (a doctor) Dear & RSGK Bank ple (you want to write to their legal department) Dear fh The Tolle Company (you want to write to its Managing Director) Dear 1 Jeremy and Patricia Simpson (new clients, they are a married couple) Dear J Bella Robson (you know she is married and she uses her married name) Dear ke Owner of Links Ltd (you know itis a woman, but you don't know anything else about her) Dear 297 soudiujuonepuno4 is wnCOMPLIMENTARY CLOSE Itis important that you match the complimentary close with the salutation that you use. Rules ‘You must learn these rules to make sure you use the correct close to your letter. An easy way of remembering is to check if you are using the recipient's name. If you are, you must end with "Yours sincerely’. if you don’t know the recipient's name, you have to end with “Yours faithfully’. Salutation Complimentary close Dear Sis Yours faithfully Dear Sir or Madam | Dear Sr Yours fail — Dear Madam Yours faithfully Dear Sir and Madam Yours faithfully | Dear Mesdames Yours faithfully Dear Mr Thorley Yours sincerely | Deor Ms Rati Yours sreerely | Dear Miss Singh Yours sincerely Dear Ms Pinto Yours sincerely Dear Mr and Mis Clarkson "Yours sincerely | Dear Mr Rice and Ms Matthews Yours sincerely Dear Dr Gregson Yours sincerely | DearJudge Fox ~ Yours sincerely | Dear Professor Sivesti Yours sincerely Dear Alison Yours sincerely Exercise 1 White the correct complimentary close to end your letter to each of the following recipients. Remember, if {you know their name you need to end “Yours sincerely’. Ifyou don't know their name, you must end "Yours faithfully’. Example: Dear Mr Smith Dear Ms Gabanna h Dear Judge Barley Yours sincerely a Dear Ms Slater fe Dear Sir 1 Dear Madam b Dear Sir or Madam f Dear Sirs © Dear Mattheis g Dear Mr and Mrs Simpson ater Moson & Roseman Akins 20American English In American English the close to the letter often Formal — Yours truly, Truly yours, Very truly depends on how formal the letter is. yours © Less formal/more personal ~ Yours © Very formal ~ Respectfully yours, Yours sincerely, Sincerely yours, Sincerely respectfully Email language You don’t need to use such a formal way of Kind regards ending your email. Polite, acceptable ways of Regards closing your email are: © Best wishes REFERENCES What's a reference? Most law firs include a reference on their letters so that they can quickly and easily identify the lawyer dealing with that particular matter and the corresponding file. For example, Riccarto Callini may use his initials and a number to identity his fles lke this: Re 112 RC 113 In his correspondence with other lawyers he will include his reference like this: Myref: RC 112 This will usually appear under the date block in the letter. If you receive a letter from a lawyer which states a reference you must remember to use this on your reply. You can also include your own reference. Let's say that Francesca Sanitta is replying to Riccardo. The references on her letter might look like this: Your ref: RC 112 My ref: FS 3.4, © Cathe tsar & Rosemary Ati 2007 299 savsiyuonepunogig WnUnit 8/Foundation/Highor ‘SUBJECT LINES Read these questions and answers and try to memorise the information. © What is a subject line? Itis ike & heading to a letter. © Do I have to include a subject line? ‘Yes. The modem style of writing always includes a subject line. © Why do | have to include a subject line? The purpose of a subject line is that when the recipient picks up the letter, he or she will immediately know what the letter is about. © Where does it go? The subject line can go either: a above the salutation, for example: Sale of shares in Moon Ltd Dear Mr Price or; between the salutation and the first paragraph of the letter, for example: Dear Mr Price ‘Salo of shares in Moon Ltd before the subject line. Should | use ‘RE:'? © Ihave sometimes seen ‘RI No. ‘RE:’ here means ‘regarding’. The modern style of writing does not use ‘RE: before the subject line. Itis a little old-fashioned now. Make your type bold font instead. ¥ Contract between Mrs Bracken and Mrs Orders X RE: Contract between Mrs Bracken and Mrs Orders, How much detail do | need to include in the subject line? Very little. The suidject line should be short and concise with just enough detail to allow the reader to know what the letter is about, ¥ Catering contract between Mrs Bracken and Mrs Orders X Catering contract (too litle information) X Contract between Mrs Bracken and Mrs Orders conceming the catering arrangements for a reception on 8 July, which was not fulfilled (too much information) son & Rosemary Atkins 2007 300Exercise 1 Here are three subject lines. Look at the first paragraph of the following letters and write in the correct subject line. a Outstanding invoice dated 2 June 20Xx My client: G Harrison Your client: R Dickens © 46 Nightingale Way, Birmingham, BH5 4RF Letter 4 Dear Ms Hargreaves: have been instructed by Guy Harrison in connection with a dispute between Mr Harrison and. Richard Dickens. | understand from my client that you act for Mr Dickens. Letter 2 Dear Mr and Mrs Rojas {lam pleases to inform you that HFRC Bank has now formally confirmed its mortgage offer and we are now in a position to proceed with your purchase of the above property. Letter 3 Dear Mr Lancaster | note from our records that our invoice (number 422) in respect of website design services remains unpaid. The sum of £763.50 was due on 2 August 20XX. Email language ‘The subject line should go in the subject box at the top of your email. Use the same amount of detail as you would in a formal letter. © Catneme Risso & Rosemary Atkins 2007 301 tahemensis weeUnit 8/Foundation/Highor THE BODY OF THE LETTER Read these questions and answers and try to memorise the information. © Why are you writing this letter? ‘What is the purpose of your letter? You should think about this throughout your letter and make sure that ts clear to the person who will read your letter. © Am | using the appropriate style and language for the recipient? ‘Always think about the person who is going to be reading your letter. The ‘register’ of the letter is important. Register means the tone and grade of language. If you are writing to another lawyer, the register of your letter will be different to a letter you are writing to a client who has no legal knowledge at all. Whatever style you choose for your letter, you must remember to use the same style throughout the letter. Don't mix the siyle in the same letter, as this is confusing. Be consistent. We will look at register in more detail later in this unit. © Have | included the right amount of detail? Again, think about the person who will be reading the letter. If you are writing to a client with no legal knowledge, you will need to explain any legal vocabulary that you use. You should not need to do this if you are writing to another lawyer. @ Is all the information relevant, accurate and clear? Ifyou are writing @ letter of advice, check whether you have covered all the main points. Have you answered any questions that have been raised? Your letter should be clear and unambiguous. Don't include a lot of unimportant details. © Am | using the appropriate tone? For example, is the letter friendly, formal, helpful, forceful? This is another part of register. In the same way as you use different tones of voice when you speak to someone, depending on whether you are pleased, angry, disappointed, informative etc, so the tone of your letters will vary. You nave to make sure that you are using the right tone for the purpose of your letter. © Have | set out my letter in short, concise blocks? If you just write one or two long blocks of information, this is difficult to read. itis much better to divide the information into short paragraphs, with one main idea to each paragraph. © Am | using a logical order of sentences and paragraphs? ‘You need to check that there is a natural flow throughout the letter. There should be logical links between the sentences and paragraphs. © Are my sentences the right length? If your sentences are too long, the reader will lose some of the detail. You should aim to use a maximum of 25 words in each sentence. © Have | used accurate grammar and punctuation? Remember to check your letter carefully before itis sent. Accuracy is very important for lawyers. Look for spelling errors, correct use of prepositions, accurate tenses. It is very important in a formal letter not to use Contractions or short forms, for example, I'm, don't, isn't, etc. Always write the two separate words in full, x Im X Don't X Didn't x Ive v lam ¥ Do not ¥ Did not ¥ Vhave Remember this as a checklist for your letter: Purpose Regster To help you remember your checklist: ‘Ones People Rarely Order Champagne (Chatty: PROCALL After Losing Litigation! ‘Accuracy Layout Length 302 © Catenne Mason & Rosemary Atns 2007PUTTING A LETTER TOGETHER Exercise 1 Here are the parts of a letter which have been jumbled up. It is a letter to @ bank from one of the bank's customers. Put them into the correct order. a It appears that this amount of £389.92 has been incorrectly debited from my account. This resulted in my being overdrawn on my account at the end of the month. You have then charged me a fee of £25 for an unauthorised overdraft. b 27 Limetree Avenue Chatsworth CHA ZL © G Hardwick It shows a debit of £389.92 on 2 May 20XX, This transaction did not take place. However, | did use my debit card on that date to pay for a shirt which cost £38.99. | enclose a copy of the debit card receipt, which clearly shows this transaction. Yours faithfully 5 June 20x g am not pleased about this. Please rectify this error immediately and refund the £25 overdraft ‘fee to my account. h Dear Sir My Account number 6387290 | look forward to hearing from you with confirmation that this error has been corrected. J The Manager | HBCR Bank Pie 1 High Street Chatsworth, CH4 4GP ‘continued © Catherine Mason & Rosemay Atkins 2007 303 sousiy/uonepune4/s wnkK Gary Pardaich g 1 Lam writing with reference to my bank statement dated 3. May 20XX, which shows the account . as being overdrawn. However, on checking the statement itis clear that it contains an error. THE REGISTER OF LETTER WRITING Register refers to the style and tone of your letter. The register that you use will change depending on who you are writing to. If you are writing to another lawyer, you will use legal vocabulary in your letter and write in a more formal style. If you are writing to a client who has no legal knowledge, you will use a different register. In this case, you will need to explain any legal vocabulary and perhaps use a more personal style. Whoever you are writing to, remember to use a modem style of English. Exercise 1 Look at these three sentences. A lawyer is writing a letter to another lawyer about the sale of a house. The sentences each contain the same information, expressed in different ways. Match each sentence with the different styles listed in the blue box. a have the pleasure of enclosing herewith the draft sale and purchase agreement in respect of the property hereinafter known as 25 Laurel Way, Chatsworth, for your perusal. b With this letter | have included the first version of the sale document regarding the house 25 Laurel Way, Chatsworth. © Lam pleased to enclose the draft contract in respect of 25 Laurel Way, Chatsworth (the Property). Modern, plain English as used by professional lawyers (1) ‘Simple, unprofessional sentence (2) Old-fashioned, overlong sentence (3) 304 xenExercise 2 In the following examples, which is the modem, professional style of writing? 1 2 | act for Frank Edmunds. I'm working for Frank Edmunds. | have been appointed to represent Mr Frank Edmunds. I'm writing to ask you about the cost of your accountancy services. ‘The purpose of this letter is to make enquiries about the level of the fees that you charge pertaining to accountancy services rendered. | am writing to enquire about your fees in respect of accountancy services. Please provide me with the following documents: Kindly furnish me with the following documents: Can you send these documents: Regarding your letter written on 15 November that's setting out ‘accusations about my client. With reference to your communication of 45 inst, which pertains to alleged activities by my client. | refer to your letter of 45 November 20XX, which contains various allegations against my client. | await hearing from you with all expedition. Please contact me as soon as possible. Can you call me please? 305 souyyuonepunes/s wan‘Unit 8/Foundation/Migher Exercise 3 Read the following letter which contains a mix of styles. Look at the underlined phrases. Some phrases are too informal and others are too old-fashioned. Replace each of the undertined phrases with one of the phrases from the blue box so that the register of the letter is a consistent, modem style. Dobson & Dean 44 Carliol Street Morpeth MP1 2DD Mrand Mrs J Coogan 25 October 20XX 1 The Meadows Morpeth Ref: CD 554 MP2 7GH Dear Mr and Mrs Coogan Your dispute with Total Kitchens | have now received @ response from Total Kitchens to the letter that («) you told me to writ foryou. | am afraid that the manager of the company has denied your allegation that they have (a) broken their promise to you. Under the circumstances | suggest that we (b) start a case in the court in order to (e) ask for some money for your losses. Having looked at the evidence that you have given me | (d) deem that the court will concur with you an find in your favour. | must tell you that according to current civil procedure rules (e) we've got to send them what is known as a ‘letter before action’ before we actually begin any legal proceedings. This letter gives them one final chance to acknowledge your claim and make us an offer to settle the matter. If they (f) do not avail themselves of this opportunity to act in this way then we are able to proceed with our claim. (s) Kind a imation that I should send this letter before action. Please do not hesitate to (h) ring me or visit me if | can be of further help, Yours sincerely CD Christopher Dobson © wrote on your behalf (+) © we must (3) © contact me (6) © consider that the court» breached their contract —_ Please confirm your will agree (1) with you (4) instructions (7) © claim damages (2) © fail to respond (5) ® take legal action (8) a b © a e f g h 306 © Cateene Maton & Rosernary Ans 2007raha ee sentences which are from letters written by a lawyer. The underlined word or phrase in each sentence is too old-fashioned. Replace it with a good alternative. ‘@ We deem that you are not acting in accordance with your undertakings. 'b The parties named hereinbefore agree as follows: © 1am writing pertaining to your letter dated 15 July 20Xx. d_ We respectfully request that you telephone us. Ihave received a letter from the solicitors acting for the vendees confirming that their clients can now proceed with the purchase of your property. f Please contact me with all due haste. a a b e e t Exercise 5 Now look at these sentences which are from letters written by another lawyer. The underlined word or phrase in each sentence is too informal. Replace it with @ good altemative. ‘a My client says that this point is true. 'b In your letter of 10 December you definitely gave up your right to repayment. © Your actions amount to an unequivocal break of the contract. You haven't paid any money in the last three months and your mortgage account is now in arrears of £2400. The total sum due to people that you owe money to is £6527. f We consider that you are fully to blame for the injury suffered by our client. a a e © f © Camere kaon & Roseman Atkins 2007 ypunog/ wen sousUnit 8/Foundation/Higher THE CONTENT OF THE LETTER Often the hardest partis thinking how to start each sentence of your letter. Exercise 2 Look at the following extracts from sentences. Complete each phrase with appropriate words. a Starting the main body of a letter We waiting confirm that. you for letter 12 June. reference our telephone conversatior Giving the recipient some good news We are to you that... am to you that... Giving the recipient some bad news We to ____ you that... am Asking the recipient to do something We be if I would it you could.. Apologising for something that you have done, or failed to do ' about the delay replying, We for any Please our Enclosing documents with your letter 1 . find ae © Catnenne Mason & Rosemary Athine 2007Ending the letter and referring to future contact, either a meeting or a reply to your letter you have any , please to us. Ive help way, let Hook to you. TYPICAL SENTENCES IN LEGAL LETTERS ‘The following phrases are useful when you are writing a letter on behalf of your client. You should try to memorise them. Opening Lines © We are instructed by Joseph Adams and understand that you act for Eliot Fletcher. © Thank you for your letter of 7 July. We confirm that we act for Elliot Fletcher. © Lact on behalf of... Lefer to your letter dated 16 August. Explain why you are writing, © lam instructed that ... © We have seen your letter of 1.4 September to our client .. am writing to ... We will take our client’s instructions and will contact you again soon, Explain what you want the recipient to do ® Please sign the enclosed agreement in the place marked with a cross, and return it to me by 24 June. We would be grateful if you will take your client's instructions as soon as possible. Refer to future contact If do not hear from you within 14 days of the date of this letter, | am instructed to start legal proceedings immediately. ® | look forward to hearing from you as soon as possible, ® Ifyou have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me. © Catneme Macon & Rosemary ns 2007 309 sysiuuonepuneg/g wenExercise 4 Put one of the phrases that you have jearned on the previous page into each space in this letter. Kyle and Co 10 Kings Square Liverpool LL 9RF Mr Peter Denby +10 August 20% 48 Eastgate Liverpool L25aA Ref: VH 2.02 Dear Mr Denby Letter before action (a) Deborah Hasting and am writing in connection with the building contract that you entered into with my client on 4.4 March 20Xx, the following contractual obligations remain © complete the fitting of a new kitchen by the agreed date of 26 June 20XX © carry out repairs to a garden wall to a satisfactory standard at Mrs Hasting’s home clear rubbish and building materal from Mrs Hasting’s driveway. © notify you that you must take immediate action to remedy these matters. (d) fey and hope that this ‘matter can be resolved without the need for further action. Yours sincerely ate Vanessa Hope Collocation bank © Clients consult lawyers © Lawyers represent clients © Lawyers start legal proceedings (no article ‘the’ © Clients instruct lawyers © Lawyers act on behalf before legal proceedings) of clients, © Lavyers act for clients © Lawyers commence legal | | © Lawyers advise clients Pon no article ‘the’ or ‘a’ before legal action) ——_—__, 310 © Catherine Mason & Rosemary Ans 2007Preposition bank to act for someone © within a period of time “if we do not hear from you within 14 days of the date of this letter...” ‘Lam acting for Ms Francesca Peroni.’ to act on behalf of someone ‘We act on behalf of Treadmill pl.’ © until a date (to set out a timescale) “You have until 12 January to fle a response, to be instructed by someone ‘We are instructed by Mr and Mrs Ross.” ® to look forward to something “Iook forward to meeting you.” to do something by a date (to impose a deadline) to hear from someone ‘Please retum the agreement to me by 2 “I look forward to hearing from you.” November. LETTER WRITING CLINIC The ten most common problems when non-native speakers of English write letters in English Some letter, 1 10 mistakes are common to almast every nationality when people write in English. When you write a you can improve it by asking yourself if some parts of it are: Too informal. A letter should be professional even when written in a plain English style. The more informal style of an email for example, is not acceptable in a letter. Too old-fashioned. A letter should be formal but this does not mean using language that is out-of- date. Out-of-date language includes what a native English speaker might refer to as ‘flowery’ phrases from previous centuries. Too abrupt. Most languages ere more direct than English. You can improve a letter by being sensitive to the way that certain things are expressed when they are written in English. Using archaic words. Modern letters should not include words such as ‘hereunder’ or ‘abovementioned’. Using contract vocabulary. Some formal, general English words are acceptable in contracts and other legal documents but are not natural when used in letters. Using uncountable nouns incorrectly, or even inventing nouns that don't exist at all Be aware of which nouns in English are uncountable. If you are unsure of a noun, check your diotionary. Confusing a verb with a noun. Are you sure, for example, of the difference between ‘advice’ and ‘advise’? A computer will not necessarily correct this type of mistake for you. Using articles incorrectly or not at all. Make sure that ‘a’ and ‘the’ are used correctly, especially if your own language does not use articles. Using the wrong collocation. For example, a lawyer ‘acts for’ a client and does not ‘work for’ a client. This is an example of accurate vert/noun collocation, Using the wrong preposition. A normal, one-page letter can contain 50 or more prepositions. If lots ofthe prepositions are wrong, unfortunately it wll give a very bad impression to the reader. 09 Rsaenacy ths 2007 au soysiqywonepenc4/e wun3 312 The dos and don'ts of letter writing Do Don’t Y use plain English X_ use unnecessarily difficult words or phrases ¥ be consistent in style X_ mix different styles, for example, change ¥ be formal but not old-fashioned areal keep your sentences short X_ use long sentences or long paragraphs ¥ check your grammar and punctuation. ea eee ee contracts in letters X be too abrupt. It can be considered impolite to be very direct about some subjects, particularly when writing in English. Exercise 1 Look at the letter on the next page. Some parts of the letter are underlined. Read the letter and match the underlined parts of it with the problems listed below: Mistake with uncountable noun. (1) Mistake with preposition. (2) Mistake of confusing a verb with a noun. (3) Mistake of using language that is too informal. (4) Mistake with collocation. (5) Mistake of using an archaic word. (6) Mistake of using a very ‘flowery’, old-fashioned phrase. (7) Mistake with an article. (8) Mistake of using a word that is appropriate in a contract. (9) Mistake of being too direct or abrupt. (10) | t (© Catharine Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 |Cooper & Co. 4 Barrow Lane Newport Pagnell NP21DG Mir A Robertson 8 May 20x« 410 Pontiands Lane Newport Pagnell NP6 SHY Dear Mr Robertson Your contract with Stephen Collier | act for Stephen Collier. Mr Collier has consulted me regarding the dispute between you. Mr Collier informs me that you entered into a contract with him in May of last year. It was agreed that you would act in the capacity of consultant for my client to assist him in his business of importing goods into this country from Eastem Europe. My client tells me that you have not fulfiled your obligations under (a) the aforesaid contract and that he is losing income as a result. |1am instructed that you assured my client that you had excellent business contacts in Warsaw and Prague and could (b) furnish my client with goods from those areas at a much ‘more competitive price than he is currently paying. Mr Collier tells me that he covered the costs of two (¢) travels that you made to visit Poland and the Czech Republic in July and ‘September of last year respectively. He has provided me with all of the receipts (d) in respect to these trips. ‘As my client has seen no benefit from these trips abroad and has no (e) proofs that you made ‘he trips, we request evidence of your activity on my client's henalf ora full reimbursement of ry client's outiay concerning this project. (f) My client wants to know how you spent his money. Naturally my client has no wish to continue his business relationship with your consultancy firm and we require the immediate retum of any paperwork or other confidential documents, ‘that you may have in your possession with regard to my client's business affairs. If we do not receive a satisfactory response from you within 14 days of receipt of this letter then I have (g) said to my client that he has grounds to start proceedings against you without further notice. Please note that if this matter comes to (h) the court then you will (i) make additional costs. (@) Lwould be most grateful if now ipt of int i r earliest convenience. | ook forward to hearing fram you. Yours sincerely Va Ctl David Goldman © Catheine Mason & Rosemary Aitns 2007 313Exercise 2 Improving the letter. Think about what you know about common mistakes in letter writing and complete the same letter below in a more appropriate way. There are sample phrases in the answer Key, which give ‘you one way of completing this exercise. However, there is more than one possible correct answer. Dear Mr Robertson I Your contract with Stephen Collier | | act for Stephen Collier. Mr Collier has consulted me regarding the dispute between you. Mr Collier informs me that you entered into a contract with him in May of last year. It was ‘agreed that you would actin the capacity of consultant for my client to assist him in his business of importing goods into this country from Eastern Europe. My client tells me that t you have not futfled your obligations under (a) ‘contract and that he is losing income as a result. | am instructed that you assured my client that you had excellent business contacts in | Warsaw and Prague and could (b) my client with goods from those areas ata | much more competitive price than he is currently paying, Mr Collier tells me that he covered the costs of two (¢) that you made to visit Poland and the Czech Republic in July and September of last year respectively. He has provided me with all of the receipts @ these trips. ‘As my client has seen no benefit from these trips abroad and has no (e) that you made the trips, we request evidence of your activity on my client's behalf or a full reimbursement of my client's outlay concerning this project. (f) Naturally my client has no wish to continue his business relationship with your consultancy firm and we require the immediate return of any paperwork or other confidential documents that you may have in your possession with regard to my client's business affairs. If we do not receive a satisfactory response from you within 1.4 days of receipt of this letter then | have (g) my client that he has grounds to start proceedings against you without further notice. Please note that if this matter comes to (h) then you will additional costs. a | ook forward to hearing from you. Yours sincerely Vath David Gokiman a4 © Cather Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007CORRECTING COMMON MISTAKES IN LETTER WRITING Exercise 1 Too informal Look at the following sentences. They are all too informal to be included in a professional letter. Match each sentence with the more formal altemative from the blue box below. | was hired by Mr Felton as his lawyer. b My thanks for your letter of 6 May 20XX. Our client has now told us what he wants to do. © I think the judge will agree to what we suggest. d__ MrFelton wants to have back the money that he has spent on hiring lawyers for this case. @ Tell me if you agree to do what we say we want in this letter. Please confirm that you are in agreement with this course of action. (1) ‘Thank you for your letter of 6 May 20XX. We have now had the opportunity of taking our client's instructions. (2) ‘The court ikely to be sympathetic to our propos: 3) My client will be seeking costs. (4) Jam instructed by Mr Felton. (5) Exercise 2 Too old-fashioned Look at the following sentences. They are all too out-of-date to be included in a professional letter. Complete the more modem alternative that follows each sentence by filing each gap with a suitable word. a. To my most distinguished colleague, Ms Booth. Ms Booth. b_ | am most honoured to write to you as the legal representative of James Black, Esquite. lam by James Black. © Myclient laments that his two previous letters have not received response nor payment. Despite two letters payment my cient has no | would be grateful if you would kindly acknowledge receipt of the documents enclosed herewith Please confirm that you have the documents. @ | advise that we initiate negotiations at your earliest convenience to resolve this issue in an amicable fashion. | suggest that this matter can be through negotiation and that we this process as soon as possible. © caterne Mason & Rasemary Ane 2007 31s sayzyywonepuned/s wunUnit 8/Foundation/Migher Exercise 3 Too abrupt Look at the following sentences. They are all too abrupt (impolite) to be included in a professional letter. Each sentence also contains a mistake, whieh is highlighted. Some of the mistakes are from the list oF ‘common mistakes and some are not. First ofall, correct the mistake that each sentence contains. [need you to send me more informations about this. b Ifyou do not pay us now, we will take you before the court, € [don’t think what you told about my client's behaviour in this situation is correct. d_ Ihave more things that | want you to explain me. Your client definitely said that my client could starting building on this land, Exercise 4 Below there are some polite altematives fo the sentences in Exercise 3. Match each sentence with the correct polite alternative sentence. need further information and would be grateful if you could forward the following: (1) | am writing with some additional enquiries. (2) We cannot accept your interpretation of our client's conduct in this matter. (3) Your client gave his express permission for building work to begin. (4) If we do not receive payment immediately we will issue proceedings without further notice. (5) Exercise 5 The following sentences all use archaic words. It is not appropriate to include words like this in a modern letter. It used to be true to say that archaic words made letters more formal. However, in the twenty-first ‘century, moder law firms don't use archaic words in correspondence with other law firms or clients. Underline the archaic word or words in each sentence. I hereby advise you that | am instructed by Mrs Shirley Malloy. b_ My client informs me that you have failed to respond to the abovementioned letter. € Due to your conduct in this matter, we have no option but to issue proceedings forthwith. _ [attach a copy of the contract hereto, @ Please supply me with the information that ! request hereunder. 316 (© Catherine Macon & Rosemary Akins 2007Exercise 6 Archaic words can often be deleted and it will make no difference to the meaning of the sentence. Sometimes it is necessary to write the sentence in a slightly different way to make sure itis polite and grammatically correct. Write the sentences in Exercise 5 again by filing each gap in the sentences below with an appropriate word. al on behalf of Mrs Shirley Malloy. bb My client informs me that you have not responded to letter. © Your leaves us with no choice but to issue proceedings Ihave a copy of the contract. @ Please supply me with the information in this letter. Exercise 7 Lawyers often use very formal words when drafting contracts. However, many of these words are not appropriate when writing a letter. The underlined words in the following sentences can be replaced with a word or phrase from the box below. Choose the correct word or phrase for each sentence and write it in the space provided. consider start obtain According to. people agreed ended clear if perform provide connected with a Kindly furnish me with the following information. Answer In the event that | am unable to attend the meeting on 4 January, | will inform you by email at least 24 hours in advance. Answer: © Pursuant to the local planning regulations, | do not think that you will get permission to build on land that is so close to the river. Answer: d_ My client will procure all necessary documents by the end of this month. Answer: e Your client has failed to execute his obligations under the contract. Answer: f This case has had a negative effect upon a great many persons. Answer: We deem it necessary to carry out an independent audit of the company accounts. Answer: continued ‘carne Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 a7 sousiwonepunog/e wenUnit 6/Foundation/Migher Your client determined the contract on the 28 July. Answer: Mr Smith undertook to complete the building work within three weeks. Answer J We will instigate legal action without further notice. Answer: k Please send me a copy of all documents pertaining to this matter. Answer: _ 1 Your client gave his express consent to allow my client access to all of the partnership's financial information Answer: Exercise 8 Uncountable nouns The following sentences contain nouns that are used incorrectly because they are uncountable. Underline the uncountable noun in each sentence. ‘a My client has suffered many damages due to this breach of contract. bam writing to request advices about starting a new business in the USA. You should buy an insurance in case you are sued under the inclemnity clause of the contract. She doesn't have many evidences to support her case. © Myclient has a valuable evidence to support her case. {My client requests compensations for the earnings that she has lost as a result of the breach af her ‘employment contract. & Do you have any proofs to support what you are alleging? hI have carried out many researches into this matter on your behalf. 218 © cathesne Mason & Rosny Aone 2007Exercise 9 Here are the sentences from Exercise 8 again. Complete each sentence with the correct word or phrase from the blue box below. alot of © proof ® piece of © a great deal © some ® policy © compensation © much a Myclient has suffered damage due to this breach of contract. bam writing to request advice about starting a new business in the USA. ¢ You should buy an insurance in case you are sued under the indemnity clause of the contract. 4 She doesn’t have evidence to support her case. e Myclient has a valuable evidence to support her case. f Myclient requests for the earnings that she has lost as a result ofthe breach of her employment contract. g Doyou have any to support what you are alleging? fh Ihave carried out of research on your behalf. Exercise 10 Some nouns are more difficult to remember than others. Look at this list of verbs and circle the correct noun for each verb. Example: verb: al noun (Glosataategoment a verb: disturb @ verb: respond noun: disturbmenvdisturbanee noun: response/respondment b verb: admit f verb: abate noun: admittatioryadmission noun: abatement/abation verb: amend & verb: distinguish noun: amendance/amendment noun: distinetion/dlstinguishment verb: dismiss, verb: lose noun: dismission/dismissal noun: losement/loss Canerne Mason & Roseman Akins 2007 319 04/8 wn soygigyuonepMigher Unit 8/ Founda’ Exercise 11 Confusing a verb wit The following sentences use a verb when they should use a noun. For each sentence write the correct anoun noun in the space provided. a Please send me your advise about this problem. Answer: I look forward to your respond, Answer: © My travel to England was by plane. Answer The euro is weak against the dollar at the moment and this has had a bad affect on business. Answer: e Do you have prave of what you say? Answer: Exercise 12 Using articles incorrectly Look at the following sentences. Each sentence contains an article. Decide if each sentence is correct or incorrect, b 320 How long was the yesterday's meeting? | have an appointment with Anthony Costello in the moming. ‘The clause 5 of this contract deals with termination. The force majeure clause is at the end of the contract. The court in Dobson Street was built in 1855. If you do not pay my bill | will see you in the court! The damages awarded to my client amounted to £15,000. My client was awarded £15,000 in the damages.Exercise 13 Using the wrong collocation Look at the following sentences. Each sentence contains two collocations that are not correct. Choose the correct words from the box below to complete each sentence with accurate collocations. susq/wonepunes/e ywn denies take out due rate ‘outstanding waste dispute find incur pay ‘a What interest level can you offer us if we borrow the loan? What interest can you offer us if we the loan? b_ My client does not wish to lose more time on this matter, nor to spend any further expense. My client does not wish to more time on this matter, nor to any further expense, & Payment for these goods was owed on 21 April and we request payment of the late amount immediately. Payment for these goods was (on 21 April and we request payment of the ‘amount immediately. d_ The legal quarrel between your client and the bank arose because your client did not reimburse his debt. The legal between your client and the bank arose because your client did not his debt. @ My client refuses your allegations and if you pursue this matter further we think the court will judge in ‘our favour. My client your allegations and if you pursue this matter further we think the court will in our favour. Exercise 14 Using the wrong preposition The sentences below each contain a mistake in the use of prepositions. Each sentence contains one mistake. Underline the preposition that is not correct in each sentence. a Thank you for instructing Morton and Partners to act for your behalf. b_ lam a partner in this firm and will have overall responsibility of your case. © We are obliged to add VAT to our charges, currently of the rate of 17.5%. d All payments you make to this firm will be placed at a client account in your name. @ This firm is audited from external auditors from time to time. f We cannot accept responsibilty of intercepted emails or viruses and we will assume safe arrival of emails 24 hours after they are sent. ay asins 2007 321Unit 8/Foundation/Migher Exercise 15 Complete the sentences below with the correct preposition. a. Thank you for your letter 10 December. b Further: ur telephone conversation this moming | am pleased to confirm my client's acceptance of your offer. © Our client will also be seeking compensation his loss of salary calculated from the date of the accident. d_ You will be able to claim certain other expenses incurred a result of the accident. ‘@ Perhaps you could let me know if our proposal is acceptable __ you. Exercise 16 In the sentences below circle the correct preposition from the two options offered. a. The most important provisions in/for the agreement are as folloy b Clause 7 covers the sale for/of partnership assets. © Clause 8 covers partnerships at/with other entities. d_ Clause 9 covers restrictions on transferring shares to/for third parties. € Please let me know if there are any other matters for/on which you require advice, 322 © Catherine Wason & Rosemary Atins 2007TOLES HIGHER EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Look at the letter below. A lawyer has written it to his client. Parts of the letter are written in an inappropriate way. They are underlined. Rewrite the underlined words in a more appropriate way. There is an example at the beginning (=). Hayden, Hind and Co 1 Waterloo Square London N36 4 Ms Julia Payne 1 July 20x 14 Olivier Mews London N36 189 (=) Most esteemed Julia Payne ‘Your dispute with Callaghan & Sons Ltd | have now had a response to the letter that I sent to Callaghan & Sons Ltd (1) for you on 114 June. | am afraid that the manager of the company, Paul Callaghan, has (2) refused your claim that they (3) nave dishonoured the contract that they entered into with you in March of this year. | enclose @ copy of Mr Callaghan’s letter, which we received yesterday. ‘The company’s attitude to your claim is much as we expected. Mr Callaghan seems to be relying on the fact that he had no formal written contract with you, to escape his (4) responsibilty for the (5) bad work that he carried out at your home, Under the circumstances | suggest that we issue Callaghan & Sons with a letter before action, in which we will state that you intend to (6) go to the court without (7) saying more. if this matter is not dealt with to your satisfaction. Having looked at the evidence that you have given me, including the photographs of the work that Callaghan & Sons did in March and Apri, | have every confidence that your claim will (8) win | would be grateful therefore if you would consider how you wish to proceed and let me know (9) quickly. Please do not hesitate to (10) call me or visit me if | can be of further assistance. | ook forward to hearing from you. Yours sincerely 1 tebe-— Miles Holman (+) Dear Ms Payne cr) 6) 2 7 3) 8) 4 a - 2) (5) (10) © Catnene Maton & Rosemary Akins 2007 323 seusiqvuonepuneg/e wenUnit 8/Foundation/Migher Exercise 2 Look at the letter below. A lawyer has written it to another lawyer. Parts of the letter are written in an inappropriate way. They are underlined, Rewrite the underlined words in a more appropriate way. There is an example at the beginning (+). Martineau & Emery 7 Bishop's Market Liverpool gsm Mr Martin Lowe 16 July 20xx. Bell Bainbridge, Solicitors Dickens Square Liverpool unk Dear (x) Colleague Taylor v Abernathy Sports & Leisure Ltd {refer to your letter addressed to my client (41) which has the day 14 July 20XX written on it This letter is in connection with the (2) law suit that has been made against my client, Abemathy Sports & Leisure Ltd, by your client, Mr Taylor. Mr John Rogerson at my client's head office has been dealing with this (3) quarrel to date, and he has supplied me with copies of all of the relevant documents. To begin with the (4) legal reasons for Mr Taylor's claim, | understand that his complaint is in respect of an injury to his neck that your client (5) had during a session in my client's Liverpool gymnasium and fitness centre. Your client claims that he was using a new weights machine and that (6) no-one from my aliens’ employees was available to give Mr Taylor instructions as to the safe use of the machine before he was allowed to use it. As a result of this Mr Taylor injured his neck and claims my client was in breach of the duty of care owed ‘to him. In short, Mr Taylor claims that my client was (7) not careful. | see from the claim form that Mr Taylor is claiming for loss of (8) his money from working as well as for (8) moral damage. My client intendeds to file a defence to this allegation on the basis that several employees can provide strong evidence to the contrary. In addition, my client will seek to recover from MrrTaylor any (20) money for lawyers and court expenses arising from this matter. Perhaps your client would lite to reconsider his claim in the light of this information. | ook forward to hearing from you. Yours sincerely Beth Aitchison *) Mr Lowe w © Qo - m ® 8 ® @ © (10) 328 {Rosemary Aine 2007A (© athe Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007 sousiqjuonepunos/s wunTHE LANGUAGE OF COMPANY LAW WHO RUNS A COMPANY? Exercise 1 Jessica Ryder is a law student at the University of Chatsworth. She must write a short paper about the people who are connected with a company. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Read the text and answer the questions below using a full sentence. Key vocabulary shareholders ‘employees company accountant secretary When the founders of a new company register the company at Companies House, the company exists as a separate legal entity. This is important as it means that the company is separate from its ‘owners, who are the shareholders of the company. Shareholders are also known as the members of the company. The people who work for the company are the employees. The people who have the power to run the ‘company are the directors. The company’s articles of association give the directors this power. Together, the directors are called the Board of Directors. They make all the decisions about the management of the company. There is a lot of paperwork in connection with a company. Some of this is financial paperwork, for example dealing with the payroll, which means calculating salaries and wages for the employees. It also involves sending invoices to people who buy ods or services from the company, and paying, Example: Who are the shareholders? Answer: The shareholders, also known as the members, are the ov a Who are the employees? directors creditors auditor debtors invoices from suppliers. Companies usually employ an accountant to deal with all this financial paperwork. Other paperwork is in connection with the legal administrative duties of a ‘company. This includes the duty to send an annual retum each year to Companies House, containing up: to-date information about the company, together with ‘annual financial accounts. Itis the duty of the company secretary to make sure that these legal requirements are followed. If this person fas to send the correct documents to Companies House at the ccomect time, then he or she may have to pay a fine. Each year, a qualified accountant, called an auditor, must inspect all the financial records of a company. The auditor has to look at the creditors. and the debtors of a company. Creditors are the people, including banks and other companies, who the company owes money to. Debtors are all the people who owe money to the company. The auditor must be satisfied that the annual financial records are accurate. ers of the company. b What do the directors of a company do? © What does an accountant do? d_ What does a company secretary do? CCaherne Maton & Roseman Atkins 200 continued 327 wonepunog/ve vn@ What does an auditor do? f What are creditors? & What are debtors? Exercise 2 Look at the following statements. All of the statements are made by people or organisations that have a connection with a company called Foxtrot Ltd. Complete each statement by using the correct word from the Key vocabulary in Exercise 1. a. Kerry Knight linvested £5000 in Foxtrot Ltd by buying shares in the company. | ama of the company. | am also known as a member of the company. b_ The manager of the Royal Chatsworth Bank Foxtrot Ltd took out a loan from us six months ago. They owe us £4200. We are a of Foxtrot Ltd. © Harry Orm lama of Foxtrot Ltd, together with two others, Mary Parker and Josh Copeland. Maty and | are also shareholders, but Josh does not own any shares in the company. Together we make ail the decisions about the company and we are responsible for running the company. Mary Parker am a director of Foxtrot Lid and | am also the company . This means that in addition to my duties as a director, | have the important task of making sure that | follow all the statutory requirements connected with a company, for example, sending notices of meetings to shareholders and sending documents to Companies House. @ Samuel Dickenson am an accountant and | work for a firm called AB Chartry & Co. Most of my clients are medium-size private limited companies. One of my clients is Foxtrot Ltd. | have to check the company's financial ‘accounts and make sure that they are accurate and show the true financial position of the company. am Foxtrot Lta's f Eliza Taylor | work for Foxtrot Ltd as their | deat with all the financial transactions of the ‘company. For example, | send invoices to people and pay our suppliers. | also deal with the payroll ‘each month to make sure that all of our employees receive their correct monthly salary. & Ron Baxter | bought some goods from Foxtrat Ltd three weeks ago. The cost of the goods is £795.20. | have an invoice for these goods, which | must pay next week. | am a of Foxtrot Ltd. h Jane Wilkinson am one of Foxtrot's | work in the sales department. | ike working here. | receive a good salary and | also receive a commission an any new sales. 328 Cathenne Moson& Rosemary Akins 2007Help desk What do these words mean? ‘suppliers — people or companies that provide an invoice ~ a piece of paper that shows what {goods or services to other people or companies, you are buying and how much you must pay. often on a regular basis. AREAS OF COMPANY LAW Exercise 1 Blison Garwood law firm want to recruit a lawyer to work in their company and commercial department. They put the following advertisement in a legal magazine. The most important words or phrases are in the key vocabulary. Read the advertisement and put the correct words or phrases from the key vocabulary into each sentence below to complete the definition, | Key vocabulary | © Restructuring companies Shareholders’ agreements Insolvency © Raising finance © Directors’ duties Directors’ service | © Acquisitions © Incorporating companies opeements 6 soint ventures © Mergers Ellson Garwood LLP Chatsworth law firm seeks dynamic company lawyer with at least two years’ POE. You will be advising our corporate clients in the following areas: '* Company incorporation * Joint ventures * Raising finance ‘© Shareholders’ agreements © Company restructuring ‘© Directors’ service agreements © Mergers * Directors’ duties * Acquisitions = Insolvency ‘Apply with C.V. and covering letter to Ms Fiona Bailey, llson Garwood LLP, The Parade, Chatsworth, CHa GFP (or email Fiona at [email protected] a are contracts of work between a company and a director. They are similar to contracts of employment. The agreement contains all of the details of the director's position, for example his or her remuneration, obligations, any restrictive covenant that applies, and @ confidentiality clause. b is a situation where a company does not have enough money to pay its debts. c take place when two companies join together to form one company. 4. Obtaining money from banks, private individuals, or investment institutions is known more formally as e occur when one company buys another company. They are also called takeovers. ; continued eathere Mason & Rose " = |Unit 9A/Foundation f is all of the legal work involved in setting up a new company. g is changing the existing structure of companies with the aim of improving their performance. Situations where two or more companies work together on a particular project for a limited period of time are called Each company remains independent from each other. 1 Ageements between the members of a compary are called They are important as they contain the members’ obligations to the company and to each other. For example, they state what happens when a shareholder wants to sell his or her shares. J Allof the obligations and requirements of a director are called Exercise 2 Peter Hapworth saw the advertisement and wrote @ letter to Fiona Bailey. Peter’s letter is mixed up. Put the parts of the letter in the correct order by writing your answers in the boxes numbered 2-9 below. ‘There is an example at the beginning, which is the start of the letter. 14 Gilbert Street Chatsworth CHT SKL Ms Fiona Bailey 24 July 20%x Ellison Ganwood LLP The Parade Chatsworth CHa 6FP (a) Upon qualification, Hedgsons offered me a position in the company law department. now have eighteen months’ PQE, specialising in this area. | have an excellent working, relationship both with clients and other members of the company department team, (b) Position of Company Lawyer (©) 100k forward to hearing from you. (d) Following successful completion of the Legal Practice Course at Oxton, | undertook my training contract with Hedgsons LLP. | gained experience in civil litigation, banking, property, and company law. (@) Dear Ms Bailey (f) Peter Hapworth (g) | read your advertisement for a company lawyer in the Legal Gazette (20 July 200%) with Interest. | would like to apply for this position. (h) Yours sincerely @) Whilst | enjoy my current position, | believe that Ellson Garwood would offer a wider client base and that | could acquire further skills and experience. | enclose my C.V. for ‘your information and would welcome the opportunity to meet you. | am able to attend an interview next month. Me (2 8 (a) ©) © m @ @ 330 Catherine Mason & Rosemary iknsHelp desk What do these words mean? PQE ~ an abbreviation for post qualification experience. That means how many years a lawyer has worked following the date of his or her qualification as a lawyer. PQE is used frequently in job advertisements for lawyers. undertook ~ in this context, it means ‘cic’ DIRECTORS Exercise 1 to acquire further skills ~ to get more practice in doing something so that you become better at doing that thing. client base ~ the number and type of people ‘and companies that a law firm provides a service to, David Merriman is talking about his job as a director of a company. The most important words are highlighted in the text. Read what David says and then complete the sentences on the next page by ‘matching the first half of each sentence with the correct ending. “My name is David Merriman, I'm one of the directors of Halloway & Riggs Ltd. Our company produces mobilty equipment for people who cannot walk property. Halloway & Riggs Ltd has a board of five directors. Four of us are executive directors. That means that we are the people who ‘make all of the day-to-day decisions about running the company. We aiso have one non-executive director, called Jack Drury. As a non-executive director, he is not involved in the daily running of the company, but he gives us advice on new designs for our equipment. When the shareholders of Halloway & Riggs Ltd appointed me as a director of the company six years ago, the rules about the duties of directors, ‘were not really very clear. There wasn't a statute dealing with the duties of directors. The law came from the common law. The main duties of a director were the duty to act with care and skil, and the fiduciary duty of good faith. Because a director knows so much about a company, the shareholders must trust the director always to act. in the best interests of the company. For example, Wwe, as directors, aren't allowed to make a secret profit by using our knowledge of the company for our own benefit. However, since the Companies Act 2006 came into force, the law about the duties of directors is a little clearer. The Act includes some provisions about directors. It talks about executive directors and. non-executive directors, which | mentioned earlier. It also talks about shadow directors. Basically, 2 (catherine Nason & Rosemary Nhins 2007 shadow director is @ person who is not officially a director of the company, because the shareholders did not appoint him or her as a director, but this person gives instructions to the other directors. Executive directors, non-executive directors and shadow directors all have the same duties and responsibilities to the company. Directors have a duty to avoid a conflict of interest. In other words, we're not allowed to be in a position where ‘our personal interest may tempt us to do something that would not be in the best interests of the company. If director has a personal interest that may conflict with the interests of the company, then the director must tell the other directors about, it. In other words the director must disclose that interest so that everyone knows about it hope to remain in my position of director of Halloway & Riggs Ltd for many years. My service ‘agreement with the company expires in two years, but | hope that the shareholders will reappoint me. | can remember only one occasion, which was three years ago, when the directors and shareholders were so dissatisfied with the performance of one of the directors, that the shareholders had to remove that director. That means they dismissed him. | would be devastated if that happened to me. I'm very proud of the company and its products and | firmly believe that this company has a great future. | will do my very best to ensure that | exercise my powers as a director to the best of my ability. 331a Brecutive directors, b Non-executive directors... © Appointed means. dA fiduciary duty is... @ A shadow director is. f Aconflict of interest is... & To disclose information means to. To remove a director means to... i To exercise a power means to, Exercise 2 .. a situation in which you are in a position of ‘rust for more than one person and if you take a articular action, this will give good results to one person while at the same time giving bad results to the other person. (1) advise the company about particular matters, but they do not take pat in the daily decision-making. (2) .. use that power. (3) «+ elected or chosen for a particular position. (4) ++ dismiss that person from his or her position as a director. (6) .. fun the company and make all the decisions ‘about the company. (6) «++ ve that information to someone or tell ‘someone about it. (7) +. a duty to act in the best interests of someone because that person trusts you. (8) «++ Someone who, even though he or she has no official position of authority, gives instructions to the official directors. (9) Read what David Merriman says again and decide if the following statements are true or false. a David Merriman is a member of the board of directors of Halloway & Riggs Ltd. b Jack Drury is a member of the board of directors of Halloway & Riggs Ltd. © David Merriman has been a director of Halloway & Riggs Ltd for six years. The directors are allowed to make a profit from their position but they ‘must not tell anyone about it. @ David Merriman wants to retire in two years. f Three years ago, the shareholders removed David Merriman from his position as a director. Help desk What do these words mean? ‘mobility equipment ~ this is equipment which helps people to move. For example, wheelchairs, crutches and walking sticks. good faith honesty and sincerity, loyalty. 332 Tue ‘False True False Tue ‘False Tue False Tue False Tue False the best of my ability — to do something to the best of your ability, is to do it as well as you possibly can. devastated ~ extremely upset. 2007COMPANY MEETINGS Exercise 1 Christine Martin works at the Chatsworth Business Advice Bureau. This san office that gives advice and information to people who want to start a new business. Christine is writing an information sheet about company meetings. The most important words or phrases are in the key vocabulary below. Read the frst page ofthe information sheet and answer the questions that follow using a full sentence, Key vocabulary company annual general meetings meeting | © board meetings chairperson © minutes convene extraordinary proxy general meeting stiowreRbneee quorum poll © adjourn Chatsworth Business Advice Bureau Company meetings Ifyou want to set up a private limited company or a public limited company you need to know about company meetings. There are board meetings and company meetings. Board meetings are meetings of the directors of the company. Company meetings are meetings of the shareholders of the company. The company must hold regular meetings. The directors make all the decisions about the company so they need to meet often. You need to keep a written record of each meeting. The written record of each meeting is called the minutes of the meeting, The person who controls a meeting is called the chairperson The shareholders meet at the company’s annual general meeting. This meeting takes place once each year. Itis usually called the AGM. Ifit is necessary for the shareholders to meet again, the company will convene an extraordinary general meeting, which is called an EGM. To convene a meeting simply means to call a ‘meeting. In other words, the company sends ‘a notice to all the shareholders telling them when and where the meeting will take place. There must be a quorum at a meeting. A quorum is the minimum number of people wino have to be at the meeting in order to make an official decision, Each company decides how many people will constitute the quorum. if the quorum is not present, then the meeting cannot continue. You will have to stop the meeting and arrange a new date for it. In other words, you must adjourn the meeting, which means to postpone it. Ifa shareholder cannot go to the meeting, maybe because he or she is on holiday, he or she can ask someone else to go the meeting and vote for him or her. That person is called the shareholder's proxy. People vote at @ company meeting either by raising their hands, or by making their vote (on paper. The first method of voting is more formally called a show of hands and the second method of voting is called a poll page 1 a Who attends board meetings? Answer: b Who attends company meetings? Answer: continued 333 wonepunes/¥w6 munUnit 9A/Foundation © What are the minutes of a meeting? Answer: d_ What does the chairperson do at a meeting? Answer: eHow often does an annual general meeting take place? Answer: f What does the abbreviation EGM mean? Answer: & There must be a minimum number of people attending a meeting before that meeting can continue. What is this minimum number of people called? Answer: |b What are the two methods of voting at a company meeting? Answer: Exercise 2 Use the correct words or phrases from the key vocabulary in Exercise 1 to complete the following sentences. a We need at least five people to attend the meeting before we can make any decisions. There are only four people here, so we do not have a present, b Ifyou want to read what happened at a meeting, you should look at the __of the meeting. © The company's takes place in March of every year. d_ Meetings of the shareholders are generally known as. @ I'm afraid there is not a quorum at this meeting. We will the meeting now and hold it again next week. f The AGM of Great Finance plc will take place next month. One of the shareholders, Daphne Mercier, will be in France when the meeting takes place. Daphne asked her friend, Teresa, to be her and vote on her behalf at the meeting, g One method of voting that is very often used at company meetings is where each shareholder raises his or her hand, in other words, voting by a fh Granger Ltd held its AGM last month. Now it is necessary to hold another meeting, This time it will be an 1 The directors hold regular at which they discuss the position of the company and make decisions about the company. J. There are a number of matters that we must discuss. We need to a company meeting as soon as possible. 338 (© catherine Mason & Rosemay Atkins 2007 ——$narnrcrnrrrnn 9)k All the shareholders voted by completing the voting form. This written vote is called a | Two of the shareholders became very angry during the meeting and started to shout at each other. The had to ask them to be quiet. Exercise 3 Here is the second page of the information sheet about company meetings. The most important words or phrases are in the key vocabulary below. Read the information sheet and decide if the statements on the next page are true or false. Key vocabulary © resolutions © carry © written resolutions © ordinary © motion © unanimously © notice Fenokations: | © pass © special resolutions Chatsworth Business Advice Bureau Company meetings Both the directors and the shareholders make their decisions at meetings. These decisions are called resolutions. If ‘someone has a proposal that they want to discuss at a meeting, this proposal is called ‘2 motion or a proposed resolution. The shareholders discuss each motion and then vote to decide whether or not to accept that proposal. When the shareholders accept or ‘agree to a motion, we say that the shareholders ‘pass a resolution’ or ‘carry a resolution’. This is another way of saying to approve of, or agree to, the decision There must be enough people voting in favour of a resolution in order to formally ‘accept it. If everyone agrees to the motion, then the resolution is passed unanimously. Unanimously means that everyone who is, present at the meeting is in complete agreement. However, you do not need everyone to agree. it depends on what you are voting about. Some motions need 2 simple majority of over 50% of people who are voting to agyee in order to pass them. These decisions are called ordinary resolutions. Other motions need a majority ‘of 75% of people who are voting to agree in order to pass them. These decisions are called special resolutions. B Cathene Mason & Rosemary Airs 2007 You do not always have to convene a meeting in order to pass a resolution. Shareholders can make ots of decisions by using written resolutions, especially ifthe company is a private limited company. This saves the tme and cost of holding formal meetings. ‘There are a lot of rules about holding company meetings. Some of these rules ate statutory, which means the Companies Act 2006 requires companies to have these rules. In addition to these statutory rules, each individual company imposes fts own rules, The rules of each individual company are in that company's articles of association. For exemple, if you are a director, you cannot just ‘announce that you wil hold a company ‘meeting today! The company has to send a formal notice of the meeting to the shareholders. That means you have to officially ‘announce to the shareholders that a company meeting will take place. You also have to make sure you give the shareholders the correct ‘number of days’ notice. You must study a company’s articles of association very carefully ‘to make sure that you follow all these rules. Our advice is to ask a solicitor to explain your company’s articles of association to you so that you fully understand ail of the procedures conceming meetings. page 2 335z 3 a A proposed resolution is called a motion. True False b In order to pass a resolution, all the shareholders must always agree unanimously. True False © Ordinary resolutions need at least 51% of people voting in favour of them. True ‘False d__ Shareholders can only pass resolutions at a formal meeting. True False @ Allof the rules about company meetings are in the Companies Act 2006. True —False Exercise 4 Rewrite each of the sentences below, using the correct word or phrase from the key vocabulary in Exercise 3 t0 replace the underlined word or words. Example: The shareholders passed decision to issue 100 new shares. ‘The shareholders passed a resolution to issue 100 new shares. a We will now discuss the following proposed resolution, proposed by Jane Edwards, We will now discuss the following , proposed by Jane Edwards. b The shareholders accepted a resolution to change the name of the company. The shareholders a resolution to change the name of the company. ¢ This resolution is a decision which requires over 50% of the votes to be in fevour of it n.order for it to succeed. This resolution is an d_ The company sent a formal announcement to all ofits shareholders informing them that the company is convening an EGM, which will take place on 12 June. The company sent a to all ofits shareholders informing them that the company is convening an EGM, which will take place on 12 June. This resolution is a decision which requires at least 75% of the votes to be in favour of it in order for it tosucceed. This resolution is a . 1 The shareholders passed the resolution with complete agreement, ‘The shareholders passed the resolution & Formost matters, the shareholders of Restart Ltd do not need to meet, as they are happy to use ‘decisions in writing, For most matters, the shareholders of Restart Ltd do not need to meet, as they are happy to use Help desk What do these words mean? ‘a Voting form — a paper that sets out the possible to raise your hand ~ to put one of your hands choices. You decide which of these choices you high into the air above your head. want, then write a cross (X) next to your choice. 336 yorne Mason & Rosary Atkins 2007COMPANY FINANCE - A CASE STUDY Exercise 1 Look at this case study of a private limited company. Some of the words are highlighted. Without using a dictionary ty to decide whether the highlighted words are verbs or nouns. Farmfoods Ltd is a private limited company which supplies animal food to farms for sheep, cows {and other animals. The company traded successfully for the past four years. The company’s most valuable asset is its factory where the company manufactures the animal food. The directors decided to expand the business. Farmfoods Ltd needed to borrow a lot of money to finance this expansion. The directors applied for a large loan from the Royal Chatsworth Bank. The bank considered the application and agreed to lend the company the money. However, the bank wanted ‘a guarantee from Farmfoods Ltd that the company would repay the loan. The bank demanded a fixed charge over Farmfood Lta’s assets. The directors agreed to grant a mortgage to the bank over Farmfoods Ltc’s factory. The bank now has security over the factory. If Farmfoods Ltd defaults on the loan repayments, the bank can take the factory from Farmfoods Lta. Verb Noun Exercise 2 Here are the highlighted words again. Fill each gap in the following sentences with the correct word from the blue box below to complete the definitions that follow. asset Joan repay mortgage borrow lend charge © security finance guarantee grant defautts a To money means to take money from someone else for an agreed period of time and then pay it back. b To money means to give money to someone else for an agreed period of time. That person must then give the money back to you. Catherine Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 337 wonepunog/y6 wnz 7 cA is a sum of money that you borrow from another person. You must pay back that money, usually with interest. d To money is to pay back the money that you borrowed from someone. e An is something that you own which has value. It can have a very low value, for example a CD, or a very high value, for example a house. f To 2 project means to obtain money in order to be able to pay for that project. BA isa promise to do something. h is @ guarantee that you will pay back to someone the money that you owe to them. Itis often ‘fixed’ to a particular asset, which means that if you don't pay back the money, that person will take the asset that you used to guarantee payment. A is one example of security. Its a legal document which gives a house or a building as secunty for a loan. If the owner of the house does not pay the loan back, then the person \who lent the money can take the house and sell in order to get his or her money back. J If someone on payment it means that he or she fails to make that payment. KA ‘sa type of security. A fixed charge is attached to a particular asset and gives the ‘chargsholder the fight to take that asset if the borrower does not pay the money that it owes. An example of a fixed charge is a mortgage. There are other types of charge, which are less important than fixed charges. 1 To. ‘a mortgage over your property is to use that property as security for a loan. Exercise 3 Look at the second part of the case study. Decide in each case which is the correct proposition from the ‘two possibilities, Unfortunately, Farmfoods Ltd experienced a very bad year («) offin trading last year. (a) Until/After ‘ period of terrible weather which ruined the crops, Farmfoods Ltd had to increase its prices (b) with/by 15% and its customers found other more competitive suppliers. The company’s plans (€) forito expansion did not receive approval (d) fromito the planning authorities, The company cannot pay the instalments (e) for/on the loan from the Royal Chatsworth Bank and last month the bank demanded full repayment (f) offte the loan. Farmfoods Ltd is insolvent. The company is Unable to pay its debts. Answers. Example («) of a b © a e f 338 © cathenne Mason & Roseman Aes 2007Exercise 4 ‘The directors of Farmfoods Ltd are looking at the list ofits creditors. Creaitors are either secured creditors or unsecured creditors. Secured creditors have some sort of security or guarantee of repayment, while unsecured creaitors have no guarantee of payment. Read the information about Farmfoods Lta’s creditors and decide if each creditor is @ secured creditor or an unsecured creditor. ‘Print It Ltd. This is @ company that supplies printing services to Farmfoods Ltd. Farmfoods Ltd did not ve any guarantee for payment of any amount. Answer: b Chatsworth Royal Bank. The bank has a mortgage over Farmfoods Ltd's factory to guarantee repayment of this loan. Answer © HGFT Bank. Farmfoods Ltd also took out a loan from this bank. HGFT Bank holds a charge over some of Farmfoods Ltd's assets. Answer: Spin Electric ple, This company provides Farmfoods Ltd with electricity. Farmfoods Ltd has not paid any of its electricity bills for five months. Farmfoods Ltd did not give any guarantee for payment of any amount. Answer: Grotell & Co. This is a partnership that supplies packaging to Farmfoods Ltd. There are two invoices from Grotell & Co that are waiting to be paid. There is no guarantee for payment of any amount, Answer: CLOSING A COMPANY Exercise 1 ‘Sam Clark is a law student at the University of Chatsworth. He must write a short summary about closing a ‘company. Here is Sam's summary. The most important words or phrases are in the key vocabulary below. Read the Information and answer the questions that follow using a full sentence. Key vocabulary strike off solvent members’ voluntary» realise dissolved wind up Nquidation insolvent a nancatie insolvency practitioner Closing a company Because a company is a legal entity, the directors cannot simply stop business and close the company. There are rules in connection with closing a company. The directors must | follow the correct procedures, which vary depending on the reason whiy the company is losing, There are a number of reasons why a company closes: © The company is no longer trading, The Registrar of Companies House has the power to } remove, or ‘strike off’, 2 company from the central register of companies if the Registrar believes that the company is not carrying on business. This will happen if, for example, continued \cahetne Meson & Rosemary atin 2007 339 onepuneg/ye wnUnit 9A/Foundation the company does not submit any annual accounts or annual returns to Companies House and fails to reply to any letters from Companies House. When the Registrar strikes off @ company, that company no longer exists. We say that the company is dissolved. «© The shareholders wish to close the company. Maybe, for example, the company was @ family business and the family no longer wishes to carry on that business. Or maybe the shareholders set up the company for a particular project, which is now finished. In these situations, the shareholders must liquidate the company. To liquidate a company means 10 formally close the company. Ifthe directors believe that the company is solvent, in other words the company has enough money to pay all its debts, the shareholders can ‘ollow a process called a members’ voluntary liquidation. The liquidation starts when the shareholders pass 2 resolution to wind up the company voluntarily. To wind up a company means the same as to liquidate or to close a company. ‘A person is then appointed to liquidate the company. He or she is called the liquidator of ‘the company. This person is a qualified insolvency practitioner, which means that he or she has the necessary qualifications to deal with closing companies. The job of the liquidator is to wind up the company. The liquidator must realise the assets of the company. This means that he or she must sell all the assets of the company. The liquidator then has to give the money from the sale of the assets to the creditors of the company. If any money remains, the liquidator distributes it among the shareholders of ‘the company. At the end of this process, the Registrar dissolves the company. © The company has no money. The other reason for closing @ company is because it does. not have enough money to pay its debts. In other words the company is insolvent. Again, there are many rules to follow if a company is insolvent. However, it is important to remember that not all insolvent companies must close. 340 Catherne Mason & Roser What does to strike off a company mean? Answer: What does to liquidate a company mean? Answer: What adjective describes a company which is able to pay all ofits debts? Answer: Which phrasal verb has the same meaning as to liquidate? Answer: ‘Who has the task of winding up a company? Answer: What does to realise assets mean? Answer: What is an insolvent company? Answer:Exercise 2 Use the correct words or phrases from the key vocabulary in Exercise 1 to complete the following sentences. a Ifyou want to be an you must have special qualifications which allow you to deal with the process of closing companies. b_ 1am pleased to report that after a very difficult year of trading, this company is now ‘and we are in a position where we are able to pay all of our debts. cA is a procedure where the shareholders of a solvent company decide to close the company. d_ When lawyers talk about closing a company they either use the verb ‘to _ ‘company or the phrasal verb ‘to a. company. These verbs have the same meaning. fe As Hawksend Ltd failed to respond to any letters or demands from Companies House, the Registrar is, going to Hawksend Ltd from the register of companies. {Following a terrible year of trading during which Klar Ltd made massive losses, Klars Ltd announced that the company is ‘and does not have the money to pay all of its creditors. When a company is in liquidation, the 's the person who has to wind up the company. h To an asset means to sell that asset in order to raise some money. At the end of the process of liquidating a company, the company is and does not exist any more. Help desk What do these words mean? to vary ~ to change, to alter. to carry on business — to trade. massive ~ extremely big. © Catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007 a woepunog ye wnINSOLVENT COMPANIES Read this information about what happens to a company when it is insolvent and then do the exercises ‘that follow. Introduetion Ifa company cannot pay its debts when they are due, the company is insoNent. Directors have a duty not ‘to allow a company to continue to trade when they know that the company is insolvent. The directors must decide what to do. They must consider which of the available insolvency proceedings will benefit the company. Insolvency proceedings are formal ways of dealing with the debts of the company. There are different types of company insolvency proceedings. The most common insolvency proceedings are: Administration ‘A company is in administration when either the directors, a secured creditor, or @ court appoints an insolvency practitioner to be the administrator of the company. The administrator takes control of the company and has to manage the company for the benefit of the creditors of the company. The aim of administration is to try to ‘rescue’ the company so that it can continue to trade as a going concem, or if ‘that is not possible, to sell the company's assets for the best possible price. Receivership A company is in receivership when a creditor, whose debt is secured by a charge over the company’s assets, appoints a receiver. The receiver can sell the assets subject to the charge and use the money he or she receives to repay the creditor. Creditors’ voluntary liquidation ‘This can take place when the company cannot pay its debts. The company has to pass a resolution stating that the company cannot continue in business due to its debts. A liquidator is appointed to wind up the company. The liquidator has to realise the assets of the company and give the proceeds to the creditors. ‘The proceeds is the money that you receive from selling something. If any money is left after payment of the creditors, the liquidator will give that money to the shareholders. At the end of the liquidation process, the Registrar at Companies House dissolves the company. Compulsory liquidation This takes place when a creditor presents a winding-up petition to the court, on the grounds that the company cannot pay its debts, and the court makes an order for the company to be wound up. Following the order, the Official Receiver becomes the liquidator of the company. At the end of the liquidation, the company is dissolved. Exercise 1 Choose the correct word from the Introduction section above to complete the foliowing sentences. a Ifadebtis , It means that it is time for you to pay that debt now. b Ifa company is unable to pay its debts, in the UK we say the company is Inthe USA they say that the company is bankrupt. ° is the state of not being able to pay your debts, d_ A lawyer who specialises in insolvency can advise which of the available insolvency Would be the best to use in a particular situation. 342 Ccathesine Mason & Rosersny Akins 2007Exercise 2 ‘Choose @ word or phrase from the administration section on the previous page to complete the following sentences. ‘a The person who has the power to run @ company which is in administration is called the This person must be a qualified insolvency practitioner. b To ‘a company means to run a company. © Ifyou do something for the ‘of someone, this means that you act in that person's best interests to get the best result for him or her. aa is a business that is actively trading. Exercise 3 Choose @ word or phrase from the receivership section on the previous page to complete the following sentences. aa {s an amount of money that you owe to someone. ba js a form of security to ensure that a company or person repays money which it owes to someone. eA is the person who must take control of a company’s assets and try to recover enough money to pay back a particular secured creditor. In this context, the expression * " means ‘covered by’ Exercise 4 Choose a word or phrase from the creditors’ voluntary liquidation section on the previous page to complete the following sentences. Ifa company makes a formal decision at a company meeting, it passes a b The phrasal verb * a company means to formally close the company. © To _ ___ assets means to sell assets in order to obtain money. A formal way of referring to the money that you get from selling something is to say the . of sale’. Exercise 5 Choose a word or phrase from the compulsory liquidation section on the previous page to complete the following sentences. a When a person ‘a document he or she officially gives that document to someone oF files the document in a particular place. ba is a document that starts the process of liquidation, It is a request made to the court to liquidate a company. eA formal way of saying ‘for the reason that' is to say ‘on the that’. _ if company is in compulsory liquidation, the becomes the liquidator of the company. 343 CCaberine Mason & Rosemary Aki wenepineayye tion7 UNIT 9A VOCABULARY CHECK These are the important words that you have studied in Unit 9A. You should make sure that you know these words before you go on to Unit 98. accountant acquisition adjourn administration administrator annual general meeting appoint auditor bankrupt board call cary chairperson charge client base ‘company secretary ‘compulsory liquidation conflict convene creditor debtor declare director dissolve elect employee ‘executive director exercise extraordinary general meeting fiduciary duty finance fixed charge ‘good faith erant isohency insolvency practitioner insolvency proceedings insolvent Joint venture liquidation 344 liquidator majority manage material meeting members’ voluntary liquidation merger minutes mortgage motion non-executive director notice official receiver ordinary resolution pass petition poll present proceeds propose proxy quorum, raise realise receiver receivership remove resolution restructure ‘secured creditor serve service agreement shadow director shareholders shareholders’ agreements show of hands solvent special resolution strike off suppliers takeover unanimously undertake: unsecured creditor wind up written resolution © Cathrine Mason & Rasomany kins 2007TOLES FOUNDATION EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 Look at the groups of words below. In each group, three of the words belong to the same subject area, but there is one word that does not belong. Put a circle around the word that is the odd one out. Do not circle more than one answer for each sentence. There is an example at the beginning (+), « A wind up B liquidate euoru) D sire of ir) A convene B hold © call D debt (2) A shadow B executive © creditor D non-executive @ AA liquidation B profit © administration —_—D receivership a) A director B mortgage © security D charge © A vote B merger € poll D show of hands Exercise 2 Here is a conversation between two lawyers. The conversation is mixed up. Put the conversation in the correct order. Write your answers in the boxes numbered 2 ~ 9 below. There is an example at the beginning (#), which is the start of the conversation. (*) Good morning Sarah. How are you? ‘a Another one? There seem to be so many businesses in financial trouble at the moment. Is this one @ large company? b_ I'm OK thanks. How's life in the insolvency department? Are you busy? © A familiar story, 'm afraid. The company did really well at first and made @ profit. Then the directors. made some decisions about expanding the company, which didn’t produce the results they wanted. They borrowed a lot of money from the bank and now they can't make the loan repayments. d_ No. Last week, the bank demanded full payment of the loan, which the company can't pay. There are a lot of other creditors, too. But after the bank gets its money back, I don't think there will be any money left for them, And certainly none for the shareholders. The company will be wound up. @ No, it's small, 15 employees | think. f Sowhat will happen? Isn't there any chance of saving the company? Very busy. I'm just going to start work on a new matter. Another liquidation, hh 15 more people out of a job, then. What happened? Me) @ @ 4) 6) ® ” 8 @) 1 Catenne Nason & Roseray Ans 2007 345 wunUnit 9A/Foundation Exercise 3 Look at the sentences below. Each sentence contains a mistake. The mistake is either an incorrect word ora word that should not be there, Put a circle around the word. Do not circle more than one answer for each sentence. There is an example at the beginning (+) Example (@) We need to borrow some money()the bank. 1. Asa director | must to exercise the duty of care and ski 2 In my opinion, this motion is not for the best interests of the company. 3 Atthe meeting the shareholders passed the resolution unanimous. 4 The bank will lend us the money but it wants security of the loan, 5 ‘Our non-executive director knows about this and she will give us an advice. 346 1 catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007\© Catharine Mason & Rosemty Ars 2007 347 wonepunog/¥6 wunLL fs We). De erred ee Law Unit 9B/HigherTHE LANGUAGE OF COMPANY LAW PEOPLE CONNECTED WITH A COMPANY Exercise 1 Look at this list of people. They are all connected with a company. Match each person in the list with the comrect descriation below. directors (1) shareholders (2) ‘company secretary (3) auditor (4) a Allof the people who are employed by a company. b The people of companies that a company owes money to. © The owners of a company. They are also called the members of a company, dAperson who checks the financial records of a company to verify that the accounts are a true reflection of the company's financial position. Exercise 2 accountant (5) employees (6) creditors (7) debtors (8) The people who run and manage a company. A person who deals with a company's finances. This person usually has professional qualifications in accountancy. The people or companies who owe a company some money. ‘The person who is responsible for making sure that a company’s statutory obligations are complied with. Use the correct words from Exercise 1 to fil the gaps in the following text. ‘My name is Louise Nichols. | own 40% of the issued shares in Sanders & Nichols Ltd. The other @ are Dennis Sanders and Kit Neilson. As well as being members of the company, ‘we are responsible for running the company, as we are the (b) of the company. Kit Neilson has an additional responsibilty as he is the (¢) He has to make sure that all the legal requirements in connection with filing documents at Companies House are complied with, We have three (d) \who work in our shop in Chatsworth. We use the services of an Oo} ‘to keep our financial records up-to-date. We have regular meetings with her and each month we look at the list of people who haven't paid our invoices. Of these (f) we look to see if there is a good reason why they haven't paid us. If there is no reason, we contact them to ask them to pay us immediately. In the same way, we look at the people that we owe money to. These are our (g) _ We pay most of these, but if we have a query we will raise that with them. Once a year it is necessary for an (h) to check the financial records and accounts of ur company. This is an independent check, to make sure that our annual accounts show the true financial position of Sanders & Nichols Ltd.” 349Unit 98/Higher WORKING IN COMPANY LAW Exercise 1 Greg Harison is a partner in the law firm Taylor Wallis. He works in the company and commercial department. Today Greg Harrison is speaking to a group of trainee lawyers and giving them his opinion about working as @ solicitor in company law. Fill the gaps in the text with the words from the bive box below. © statutory © raising © formations © incorporating © resolutions © insolvency © employment © dispute © acquisitions {have always wanted to work in the area of company faw because it is so interesting and there is so much variety. You have to deal with non-contentious work, such as (a) a new company, and contentious work, such as acting for a company which is in (B) with its suppliers. ‘We work closely with the other departments within the law firm. For example, if a company needs a service agreement for a new director, we will ask the (¢) department for assistance. If the matter involves a company which is experiencing financial difficulties, we will ask for advice from one of our lawyers in the banking and (d) department. if we are dealing with a situation where ‘one company is taking over another company, then we will involve a tax lawyer. | have been with this firm for 44 years and in that time | have dealt many aspects of company law. These include: © Dealing with company (e) and restructuring a company © Drawing up and advising on shareholders’ agreements © Drafting directors’ service agreements © Adhising on methods of (f) finance «© Giving advice on complying with new legisiation © Dealing with mergers and (@) © Giving advice on voting procedures at meetings and drafting (h) © Advising on company insolvency procedures © Dealing with joint ventures. ‘So as you see, company law is @ huge area of law, with many varied aspects. Some of the law regulating, ‘companies is () ‘and some comes from the common law. In 2006 a new Act of Parliament was passed, called the Companies Act 2006. This new legislation affects existing and new ‘companies and all company lawyers have a lot of work to do in becoming familiar with the legislation and advising their corporate clients on complying with it. Exercise 2 In Exercise 1, Greg Harrison gave a list of different aspects of company law that he has dealt with during his 14 years at his law firm. Look at the following statements and match each statement with the correct aspect of company law mentioned by Greg. Example statement: ‘A new statute has been passed which will fully come into force in 2008. This will have @ huge effect on company law and we must make sure that our clients are aware of the changes in the law and how it affects their company. Aspect of law: Giving advice on complying with new legislation. ‘a ‘Ifa company needs money, there are a number of ways the company can obtain it. However, it is important to consider both the short-term and long-term effects of each option and choose the one that best suits the purpose and needs of the company. Aspect of law: 350 © Caterine Mason & Rosemary Aine 2007| “You have instructed me in connection with the sale of your shares in Happy Times Ltd children’s nursery. | need to see a copy of the contract that you signed, which deals with the arrangements between all the members of Happy Times Ltd.” Aspect of law: “During the lifetime of a company, many decisions will be made and lots of formalities must be followed when taking those decisions. Aspect of law: “You would like to appoint Janice Longman as your new Financial Director and you have instructed me to draw up a document clearly setting out the terms and conditions of this appointment.’ Aspect of law: “Sadly, many companies do not succeed in trading profitably and they make substantial losses. Some of these companies have to close down, others may benefit from an experienced person taking control of the company. There are @ number of ways to help a company which isin financial difficulties.’ Aspect of law: ‘1am often involved in situations where two companies are joining together or where one company wants to gain control of another company.” Aspect of law: ‘At the moment | am working on a project which involves two independent companies working closely together on a particular project for a specified period of time,’ Aspect of law: “Itis very important, when setting up a new company or changing the structure of an existing company, to think about the consequences, both in terms of finance and the balance of power between the shareholders.’ Aspect of law: Collocation bank © to work closely © to raise finance © to make a decision © to experience difficulties ® a long-term effect © to take a decision Proposition bank © to be in dispute with someone © to work on a project “Our clients have been in dispute for a ‘Sally and Jacob are going to work on the long time.” NewStar project tomorrow.” to advise on something, to think about something | “Iam currently advising on the sale of a pub “Til think about that and give you an answer | in Manchester.” on Tuesday. in connection with something © t0 be familiar with something | “Please call me in connection with the proposed transaction.’ “I started work here two weeks ago and I'm just beginning to be familiar with the ‘company’s computer system. | © to succeed in doing something "Good news. We have succeeded in raising £500,000 for the project. | Catherine Mason & Rosemary Nis 2007 351 sou /a6 wnUnit 98, Higher DIRECTORS Exercise 1 Greg Harrison, one of the partners of Taylor Walls, is preparing a seminar on the role and duties of directors. Greg has written the following notes, which will be given to all clients who attend the seminar. Find the words in the notes that match each of the meanings given below. Taylor Wallis The role and duties of directors Greg Harrison, Company and Commercial department The owners of a limited company are the shareholders. However, the shareholders do not run the company. The directors do this. All private limited companies must have at least one director. A public limited company must have at least two directors. ‘Shareholders can choose who they want to appoint as a director. You will find the rules concerning directors in the company's articles of association. The articles may say how ‘many directors there should be, how long they can serve as a director and what happens at the end of their term. In many companies directors are required to retire after a specific period of time, for example, three years, although the directors can be reappointed. If the ‘company is dissatisfied with the performance of a director, it can remove a director before ‘the period of his or her office has expired. However, the company may still be liable to pay ‘the removed director compensation or damages in respect of the termination of the appointment as director. In the Companies Act a director is defined as including ‘any person occupying the position of director, by whatever name called.’ If you have been appointed as a director and you are Involved in the day-to-day decision making, you are called an executive director. If you have been appointed as a director, but you do not have any involvement in the day-to-day running of the company, you are called a non-executive director. As @ non-executive director, you will have the same legal responsibilities as other directors. If you have never been appointed as a director, you may still be classed as a shadow director. A shadow director is defined in the Companies Act as a ‘person in accordance with whose directions or instructions the directors of the company are accustomed to act’. As a shadow director you will have the same legal responsibilities as other directors. ‘As a director, you have many business responsibilities for ensuring the success of your ‘company, in areas such as health and safety, employment law and tax. In all your actions you are expected to exercise a degree of skill and care. The term ‘fiduciary duty’ is used a lot when talking about directors. This means thet you, as a director, are in a position of trust ‘and you must act in good faith and in the interests of the company as a whole. Ifa director acts improperly, this may lead to a fine, disqualification from being a director, personal liability for the company’s debts, or a criminal conviction. To formally choose someone for a particular job ar position, The word is b To be in the position of a director and to perform the duties required by that position. The word is 382 Jason & Rosemary Atkins 2007| © To dismiss a director from his or her job or position. The word is d_ Regarded as belonging to a particular group. The word is. © To have become used to something, The word is. f Touse, to put something into effect. The word is Dishonestly or illegally ‘The word is hh The state of being stopped from being in @ particular job, oF from taking part in a particular activity. The word is Exercise 2 Greg has invited the participants at the seminar to ask any questions that they have. Read the notes in Beercise 1 again and answer the participants’ questions below using a full sentence. a We'e thinking about setting up a private limited company. How many directors must we have?" Answer: b ‘Our company is unhappy with one of our directors and we want to fire him. Will the company have to pay him any money?" Answer: ¢ “My father is a director of a company. He doesn’t make decisions for the company, or have any say in the running of the company, but he does give advice. He's more like a consultant, really. What sort of director is he, and does he have any legal responsibilities to the company?" Answer: d_ ‘Tve got a friend called Fred. He isn’t officially a director of a company, but he tells the official directors ‘what to do and basically he’s the person that runs the company. Is he a sort of director?’ Answer: @ ‘Can you please explain again what fiduciary duty means?” Answer: (© Catone Mazon & Rosemary ks 2007 353Unit 98, Higher Exercise 3 More of the participants have asked questions. Match the following questions with Greg's advice in the blue box below. a ‘Weare the directors of Fixit Ltd. We wantto — d_— ‘I'ma director of Linx Ltd, | also own a lot of keep our shareholders happy by declaring a shares in Freshthought Ltd. The two large dividend. |s that always OK?" companies have entered into a contract and as a result | expect to make quite a lot of b ‘Tim the director of Marsh Ltd. | also own 76% ‘money from Freshthought Ltd. Can | keep of the shares in the company. Surely can do that money and not tell anyone? what | want with regard to decision-making?” @ ‘lam currently negotiating a new director's © ‘lown three houses. | want to sell one of service agreement with the company. | would them to the company. Is that allowed?” like the agreement to be for a fixed-term period of eight years. Is that OK?" Greg's advice “By law, you must declare any potential conflict of interest. You have to tell the other directors about your interest in the other company and you mustn't vote on ‘the deal. Also, you mustn't use your ‘Well, even though you are the majority shareholder 2s well as a director, you have to give equal consideration to all of the ‘company’s shareholders. You must consider Siemens position to make private profits in a way including the minority shareholders.’ (1) disk aris tie eomipary sea hiohay "Yes, but remember that any director's {you do, you may havesto hand that profit contract of employment with a term of two ‘over to the company.’ (4) years or over has to be approved by the Sranishonieres" 2) ‘It isn't always the best option, attractive though it may seem. You must remember “Yes, a company is permitted to purchase that the company is a separate legal entity property from a director of that company. from its directors, shareholders and However, substantial deals of that sort have ‘employees. What may be the best for the 10 be approved by the shareholders.’ (3) members, may not be the same as what is in the best interests of the company. Your ‘action may lead to a cash shortage, which ‘would conflict with the interests of the compary." (5) (= usteNine Exercise 1 Listen to Greg Harrison. He is giving the second part of his seminar about directors. In this part of the seminar, Greg Is outlining the duties of directors. Answer the following questions. a. Greg Harrison says that the role of a director developed from two sources. One was statute. What was the other source? Answer: b Why do directors have a fiduciary duty to the company? Answer In what year were the duties of a director codified? Answer 354 Caner Mason & Rosemary Aine 2007Why did the new Companies Act include a statutory statement of directors’ duties? Answer: How many duties for directors are specified in the new legislation? Answer: According to section 172, what do the directors have a duty to promote? Answer: What is the factor which decides how much skill and care that directors must exercise in carrying out ‘their duties? Answer: The fifth duty is contained in section 175. What must directors avoid? Answer: In section 177, what must a director declare in elation to a proposed transaction? Answer ‘What is the possible punishment for falling to comply with the duty contained in section 177? Answer: Collocation bank © to appoint a director © to remove a director © Bood faith «© to act improperly © to declare a dividend © a conflict of interest © to give advice © to give consideration to oO Preposition bank © to have at least a particular number “A public limited company must have at least two directors. © to appoint someone as a director “They decided to appoint Bella Martin as the new director.” © to be satisfied/dissatistied with something ‘The shareholders were dissatisfied with the exolanation given by the directors. © to be classed as something “Truepaint Ltd is classed as a medium sized enterprise.” © to act in the interests of someone ‘We are acting in the interests of the ‘company. © to lead to something “if you are late in fling your tax retum, this may lead to a fine. © to be disqualified from something ‘He was disqualified from driving for ‘wo years." © toact in good faith ‘Directors must always act in good faith.” oO © Catherine Mason & Rosemary kins 2007 355 sows /a6 wnUnit 9B, Higher COMPANY MEETINGS Exercise 1 Elison Garwood solicitors have witten some briefing notes for their corporate clients. The notes deal with ‘company meetings. The first page of the briefing notes appears below. Fill each of the gaps in the notes. with the correct word from the list in the blue box. © pass © extraordinary © elect © polt © show © proxy © have © proposed © convene © resolution © unanimously © taking Ellson Garwood solicitors Briefing notes | Company Meetings ‘The two main types of company meeting are the annual general meeting and the (a) general meeting, These meetings ate often referred to by their abbreviations, AGM and EGM. In general English, we use the expression ‘to ib) ‘a meeting’. In legal English, we use a more formal expression, ‘which has the same meaning. Lawyers say to hold a meeting or to (¢) a meeting. ‘Any meeting which is not an AGM is an EGM. An EGM can take place any numberof times, Until 2007, every company had to convene an AGM every calendar year. Ths is still true for public limited companies. However, following the introduction of the Companies Act 2006, | private limited companies are no longer obliged to hold an AGM. The purpose of the AGM is to consider the accounts and reports of the auditors and directors, to declare any dividends and to (a) new directors or auditors ‘The rules on voting at a meeting are found in a company’s anticles of association. Voting at company meetings is usually by a (e) __ of hands, with each member | having one vote. The other method of voting is by a (f) . In this case, a ‘written record is Kept and each member has a vote for every share that he or she holds. A® is a decision made by the directors or shareholders of a company. In | general English we talk about making a decision or (h) __a decision. in ‘egal English we say to () a resolution or to carry a resolution, | Aw resolution is called a motion. If the necessary majority is not obtained, then the motion fails. If the necessary majority is obtained, the resolution is passed. If everyone present at the meeting agrees to the resolution, it is passed | When a resolution is passed the company is bound by it. This ‘means that all the shareholders and the company must abide by the terms of the resolution, fa member is not able to attend a meeting in person, he or she can appoint a 0 to attend and vote on his or her behalf. page 1 as6 © Cathet Mason & Rosemary ns 2007Exercise 2 Here is the second page of the briefing notes about meetings. Read the information and decide if the statements that follow are true or false. Ellson Garwood solicitors Briefing notes Company Meetings All the shareholders must be given the required length of notice of a general meeting. The usual period of notice is either 14 days or 21. days, depending on what the meeting is about. When the meeting takes place there must be enough shareholders present to form a Quorum. That minimum number is specified in the company's articles of association. The required number is often two. If there are not sufficient people present who are entitled to vote on the business being discussed, then no decisions can be taken and the meeting ‘must be adjourned to a later date. Decisions made at meetings are called resolutions. There are a number of different types of resolution, but the three most commonly used are: © Ordinary resolution. This requires a simple majority of members voting in favour, either personally present or voting by proxy. Most company decisions are taken by ordinary resolution. © Special resolution. This requires a majority of 75% of those voting in fevour, either personally present or voting by proxy. There are several purposes for which a special resolution must be passed. These include altering the objects of the company, changing, the company’s name or changing a company’s articles of association © Written resolution. Following the introduction of the 2006 Companies Act, private limited ‘companies can now use written resolutions for most decisions. A written resolution avoids the necessity of holding a meeting, The aim of the legislation is to reduce the need for ‘formal general meetings for private limited companies, while still imposing a higher set of obligations on public limited companies. ‘At the meeting, someone will be asked to ‘take the minutes’ of the meeting, The minutes are a written record of proceedings at each general meeting. There are standard templates that you can use to help you produce company notices and minutes. Ellson Garwood can advise you on your particular requirements. For more details, contact Fiona Balley on 07865 433388 or email Fiona at [email protected] page 2 The notice period for a company meeting is always at least 21 days. True False The minimum number of members who must be at the meeting so True False that the meeting can take place is always two. If there is no quorum, the meeting has to be postponed. True False d__ There are just three types of resolution. Tue False continued © Catherine Mason & Rosemeny Atkins 2007 357Unit 98,/Highor € An ordinary resolution requires at least 51% of people who are voting Te False +o vote in favour of the resolution, f The new companies legislation in the UK tries to reduce the necessity True False of holding meetings for private limited companies. & The minutes of the meeting explain how long the meeting lasted. True False Exercise 3 Booktel! Ltd is a private limited company that distributes educational books around the world. The shareholders of Booktell Ltd have each received this notice of the company’s annual general meeting. Fill the gaps in the notice with the correct word from the box below. member proxy poll Registered accounts auditors: directors held BOOKTELL LIMITED Company No. 2753958 (‘the Company’) NOTICE OF ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING The annual general meeting of the Company will be (a) at ‘The Burlington Hotel, The Parade, Chatsworth, CH1 5M on 48 July 20XX at 2.00pm {or the following purposes: 1L. To receive the report of the directors and the audited (b) for the year ended 31 March 20Xx. 2. To re-appoint AB Chartry & Co as (e) 3. To authorise the (d) to fix the remuneration of the auditors. By order of the Board. oes Secretary | Date: 21 May 20xx e) office: 5 East Side, Blagfields Industrial Estate, Chatsworth, CH8 7HN Note: 5 At entitied to attend and vote at the meeting is entitied to appoint a @ to attend and, on a (h) , vote instead of him. A proxy need not be a member of the Company. 358Collocation bank © tohold a meeting © to convene a meeting © to make a decision © to take a decision © to pass a resolution © to camry @ resolution © to obtain a majority © to appoint a proxy @ © to form a quorum © a simple majority © to take the minutes © to adjourn a meeting Preposition bank © to have a meeting with someone "We need to have a meeting with our accountant soon.” © the rules on/about something "You must comply with the rules en voting, at company meetings.’ © a show of hands “Well vote on this motion by a show of hands.” © to attend in person “'m affraid | can't attend the meeting in person as | will be in Canada.” to vote by proxy ‘Tean't attend the meeting so I vote by proxy.” to ge notice of something “The members were given notice of the EGM.” 10 vote in favour of something ‘Would all those people voting in favour of the motion please raise their hands? to take the minutes of a meeting ‘Harry, please will you take the minutes of this meeting?” INSOLVENCY Exercise 4 On the next two pages you can see some notices which have been published in a newspaper. These Notices refer to a number of companies that are in financial difficulties. In the box below are some words that are used in the notices. Match each of the words in the box with the correct meaning provided below. Liquidator (1) Administration Order (4) Official Receiver (7) Members’ voluntary ‘Administrator (5) Compulsory liquidation (2) ‘iintincuponlectn liquidation (8) Receiver (3) ‘a This is when the shareholders of a company decide to close the company and there are enough assets to pay all the debts of the ‘company. b This is wnen the shareholders of a company decide that they must close the company, because there are not enough assets to pay all the debts of the company. © This is an order made by a court for a company to be closed d- This isan order made by a court that gives ‘a company some time to try to resolve its financial dificulties or sell its assets in order to pay its creditors. © Cotrerine Mason & Rosemary Atkins 2007 This is a person who supervises companies which are in administration. This person has passed special examinations to become an authorised insolvency practitioner. This is a person who supervises the closing of a company which is in liquidation. This is @ person who is appointed by a creditor of a company to take control of that company in order to sell its assets and pay the money it owes to that creditor. This person is a government official who is. appointad to close a company which is in financial difficulties, seven /a6 wenUnit 98/ Higher Exercise 2 Find a word in the notices that matches each of the following meanings. a. The lype or category of something, The word is _ b_ An abbreviation that means ‘insolvency practitioner’. The word is © An abbreviation that means ‘number’ The word is d_ An abbreviation that means ‘care of. The word is Appointment of Liquidators Company Number: 099974622. Name of Company: LANCO LIMITED. Nature of Business: Manufacture of food products. ‘Type of Liquidation: Members’ voluntary liquidation. Address of Registered Office: Fine House, ‘Sharpes Road, Linchester LN32 7BA, Appointment of Receivers Company Number: 085743, Name of Company: BARTSON LIMITED. Nature of Business: Manufacture of paper products, Address of Registered Office: Unit 3, Frosham Industral Estate, Chatsworth, CHS 4KM. Administration Orders In the High Court of Justice No 1221. of 20x MODEL RAIL LIMITED (Company Number 888564732) Registered Office: Hanover Hall, 6 Reginald Street, Oxton, Hapshire OX1. 6QD. Nature of Business: Educational Toys. 360 A formal application made to a court to request ‘a specific legal action. Here, the action asked for is to put a company into liquidation, The word is f An old-fashioned word that means the things. that belong to someone. The word is & A formal phrasal verb that means to give to someone. The word is Liquidators’ Names and Addresses: Nigel Orm, 1 Station Road, Linchester, LN3 7VX and Alistair Dean, 3 Prince Street, Linchester, LN4 4FP. Office Holder Numbers: 97983 and 97291. Date of Appointment: 2 August 20%X. By whom Appointed: Members. Receivers’ Names and Addresses: Helen Woods and Simon Allen of Jackson LLP, 4 Arcade House, Chatsworth, CH1 9DV. IP Numbers: 97983 and 97291. Date of Appointment: 2 August 20%X. By whom Appointed: Royal Chatsworth Bank, Administration Order made: 29 July 20XX. PB Nomis (Office Holder No 87699), Taylor Wallis, Newater Street, London EC5 QHN, and S J Pederson (Office Holder No 36528), 21 Footgate Park, London EC9 GPP, Joint Administrators. © catmerine Macon & Resomary At 2007Appointment of Administrators In the High Court of Justice (Chancery Division) Chatsworth District Registry No 111 of 20% ‘Comp Professional Limited (Company Number 2727164) Registered Office of Company: c/o Hedgsons LLP, 1 High Street, Chatsworth, CH1 6GT. Winding-up Orders Name of Company: Yeloo Services Ltd. Company Number ~ 1827540385. Adress of Registered Office ~ 4 Gover Way, Ellerton, EL8 6EJ. Court ~ High Court Of Justice. Nature of Business: Computer Related Activities. Date of Appointment: 7 August 20%X. Joint Administrators’ Names and Address: Kim Watts and Keith Price (IP Nos 6103P and 7583H), both of Hedgsons LLP, 1 High Street, Chatsworth, CH1 6GT. 9 August 20XX. Date of Filing Petition ~ 18 May 20XX. No. of Matter ~ 0003958 of 20XX. Date of Winding-up Order ~ 25 July 20XX. Official Receiver ~ 4th Floor, Tower House, 4 The Parade, Oxton, Hapshire OX6 7RX. Notice to Creditors Treeland Property Services Limited (in Compulsory Liquidation) In accordance with Rule 4.106, |, Kim Watts, of Hedgsons LLP, 1 High Street, Chatsworth, CH. 6GT, give notice that | was appointed Liquidator of the Company on 23 July 20XX. All persons having in their possession any of the effects or Exercise 3 Read the notices again and decide if the following statements are true or false. a _Lanoo Ltd is insolvent. The Royal Chatsworth Bank is a creditor of Bartson Ltd. ‘© Two people have been appointed to supervise Model Rail Ltd. d__ The petition to wind up Yeloo Services Ltd was presented on 25 July 20XX. @ Anyone who thinks that Treeland Property Services Ltd owes money to them must inform Kim Watts. assets of the Company must deliver them up to me and all debts due to the Company must be paid to me. Creditors who have not yet proved their debts must do so by 10 August. Watts, Liquidator. 3 August 20%%. Tue False Tue False Tue False Tue False Tue False 361 sovaina6 wenUnit 98, Higher Exercise 4 In or into. It is sometimes difficult to know which of these prepositions to use when you are talking about liquidation or administration. To help you to decide, we usually use ‘in’ to describe the state of the company which is in liquidation or administration and ‘into’ to describe the procedure of putting the company into liquidation. ‘Complete the following sentences with in or into. ‘alam writing in connection with Groves Ltd, which is__ administration, b_ 1am writing to notify you that Justex ple has been placed __administration. © Iwas announced yesterday that Beans Ltd has gone _ liquidation. d_ 1am acting for the creditors of a company called Larkson Ltd, which is__ receivership. e Sound Music Lid went. ‘compulsory liquidation last year following a series of bad decisions taken by the directors, f The members of Highfold Ltd have decided to put the company __ liquidation. WHO GETS THE ASSETS? Exercise 1 Read the following summary of the liquidation process. Fill each of the gaps in the text with the correct word from the box below. exist raise pay prevent sell collect, ‘The effect ofthe liquidation of @ company is to (a) that company from trading as a commercial entity. The liquidator has to (b) all the company's assets and then (¢) them, The aim is to (a) ‘a5 much money as possible. This process is called realisation of the assets. ‘The proceeds of the sale of the assets are then used to (e) as many people as possible who are entitled to this money. Itis often the case that nat everyone will get the money that they are owed. The liquidator pays people in a particular order of prionty. This order of priority is: © the costs of winding-up (including the other secured creditors liquidator’s own fees and expenses) © unsecured creditors © creditors with fixed charges interest on debts © preferential creditors (for example, wages and shareholders salaries owed to employees, and money due to the government in respect of tax) When the winging:-up is complete, the company is dissolved and it does not (f) any longer as a legal entity csemary Nins 2007 362 © cathenneExercise 2 Here is the liquidator's list of people or costs that the liquidator must pay. Match each category of people or costs with the correct definition in the blue box below. a The costs of winding-up e b Creditors with fixed charges f © Preferential creditors g d Other secured creditors These are the people who own the ‘company. (1) These are people or other companies who the company which is in liquidation owes money to, usually because the company borrowed money from them. These people ‘or companies took security (for example, @ ‘mortgage) from the company which is in liquidation to guarantee repayment of the loan. This security was secured against the fixed assets owned by the company, for example real estate or machinery. (2) This is the amount of money that you have to pay as a fee or a sort of penalty for ‘money that you owe to someone. It is usually expressed as a percentage. (3) ‘This includes the liquidator’s fees and expenses as well as any legal costs. (4) Collocation bank to go into liquidation’ receivership /administration administration @ to be in liquidation’ s reoeivership /administration Preposition bank © to go into liquidation/receivership/ e i administration | ‘Have you heard? Lextext Ltd has gone | into administration.” | L es © the proceeds of sale ‘What are you going to do with the proceeds of the sale of your house?” © caterne Maton & Rosemary Ans 2007 © to putiplace a company into liquidation/receivership/ » to present a petition Unsecured creditors Interest on debts Shareholders, ‘These are people or other companies who ‘the company which is in liquidation owes money to. However, these people or companies did not take any security from the company which is in liquidation to guarantee payment of the money. (5) These include people who are owed money by the company which is in liquidation and ‘who are considered to have priority over other creditors, even though they have no security to guarantee payment. It includes money due to the government in respect of tax, and wages owed to employees. (6) These are people or other companies who the company which is in liquidation owes money to. These people or companies took ‘some sort of secunty from the company Which is in liquidation to guarantees payment of the money. However, the security was not secured against the fed assets owned by the company. (7) © to realise assets © to dissolve a company ~ 7 to be in liquidation/receivership/ administration ‘I regret to inform you that Vantage Ltd is ‘now in liquidation.” | | © secured/unsecured creditors | | } | | | | 363 sous fa wnUnit 96, Higher USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE Collocation review Complete these sentences with a collocation that you have seen. a Weare __a meeting, which will be held on 5 October. b Atthe company meeting the members _ a resolution to change the name of the company to Jedexpress Lid. © We need to look at ways of finance, as we need more money if we want to go ahead with this project. The creditors presented a requesting that the company be wound up. @ The chairperson asked me to _ the minutes of the meeting, f The shareholders no longer want Mr Fox as a director of the company. They think that Mr Fox is not performing his duties properly. They will discuss the motion to this director at the meeting next week. & 1am unable to attend the meeting next week, so I have a proxy to go to the meeting and vote on my behalf h_ | am sony but we will have to this meeting to Monday of next week. i Kingsford Electronics Ltd was into administration last week. ' J The Official Receiver is the liquidator and he is in charge of the assets of the company. ‘That means he must sell the assets and use the money from the sale to pay the creditors. Vocabulary review Complete these sentences with a word that you have seen. ‘a A proposal which is being discussed at a meetings called a b The of a meeting provide the details of what happened at that meeting. © The Cf sale of something means the money that you get when you sell that thing Can the meeting go ahead? How many people are here? Do we have a present? e The ‘ate coming next week to check the financial records of the company. You will need to be here in case they have any questions, & This person has not been appointed as a director. However, he is the person who tells everyone what to do. He is known as a _ director, hh Asituation in which two companies decide to join together permanently is a 364 (© Catharine Mazon & Rosemary Atkins 2007 f One of the methods of voting at a company is by way of a written vote. This is called a_ .1A formal word for the purchase of a company is an_ . Informally, people often refer to it as a takeover. J Directors who are closely involved in the decision-making of a company are known as directors. Preposition review Complete these sentences with the correct preposition. a After six years of trading, Baxters Ltd went _ liquidation. Caroline Thomson has been disqualified being a director of any company for five years. © Weneed least five shareholders to attend the meeting in order to form a quorum. I can't attend the meeting person, 50 I will vote by proxy. e lama lawyer in the corporate department. At the moment | am advising, a new joint venture project. f We will need to arrange a meeting 2 tax specialist soon, @ Directors have a duty to act the best interests of the company. hh How many people are favour of this deal? i Well done everyone. Our client will be extremely satisfied the outcome of the negotiation. J. This action may lead ‘a claim being made by our suppliers. © Catering Mason & Rosemary Akins 200 365 sun ia6 wnTOLES HIGHER EXAM PRACTICE Exercise 1 There is a word or phrase missing from the following sentences. For each sentence circle the word which best fits into the space from the options provided below. There is an example at the beginning (+). Example: Each year, our company’s financial records are checked by an independent accountant called an (+ 1 Directors have to act in the best interests of the company as a whole. This is known as their a duy. 2 At the extraordinary general meeting last week, the shareholders (2) a resolution to change the company’s name. 3 There was no quorum present, so the meeting was (3) . Iti take place on 14 October. 4 Following his failure to submit the company’s annual return to Companies House or respond to any letters, he was finally (4) from being a director for two years. 5 The directors and shareholders agreed that the company was making huge losses and they had no ‘other choice but to put the company into (5) 6 The shareholders voted to (6) William Ashby as @ new company director for a fixed term of five years. 7 Jane Abbots formally declared that she had a personal interest in the transaction that was being discussed, which may (7) with the interests of the company. She did not vote on that transaction. 8 An (8) director is actively involved with the day-to-day decision making of the company. @ There is a lot of work in the mergers and (9) department at the moment. | am currently acting. for a corporate client which is buying all the shares in another company. 10 After payment of the secured creditors, the liquidator must pay the (210) creditors, for example any tax owed to the government. ” A examiner B assessor D inspector a A. goodwill B fiduciary © loyalty D good faith 2 A voted B decided © passed D ageed ° A delayed B suspended © stopped D adjourned (4) A disqualified B stopped C prevented D unauthorised 6) A liquidation B winding up Cc ruin D insolvency © A select B hire © employ D appoint (7) A dispute B conflict ¢ clash D contradict (8) A managing: B exclusive C executive D non-executive @) A acquisitions B takeovers: purchases D companies ao) A special B preferred © guaranteed D preferential 366 ether on & Roser Akins 2007Exercise 2 Read the following minutes of a meeting of a company. The missing words are in the list below. For each gap choose the word which best fits into the space from the options provided. Use each option only once. Write your answers in the box below. There is an example at the beginning (+). W&S LIMITED MINUTES of an Extraordinary General Meeting of the Company held at 34 Hengrove Street, Chatsworth, CHS 8FL ‘on 15 May 200X at 10.00am Present: ‘Neil Wright (Chairman) Katrina Spence Josie Abbots David Peters 4. The Chairman announced that (+) to the Meeting being held at short notice had been received from all the members of the Company having a right to attend and (4) at the Meeting. 2. The Chairman announced that a (2) was present 3. The Chairman (3) the resolution in the notice. The Chairman put the resolution to the meeting, (ok the vote on a (4) of hands and declared the resolution (5) unanimously as an ordinary resolution of the Company. 4, There being no further business the meeting terminated. ei Went Chairman (AA) consent (B) quorum (0) vote (A) show (C) carried (E) proposed (As w ja 3) ) 6) = Listening Exercise 3 A lawyer is speaking to a group of trainee solicitors, who are starting their work experience in her department. Some of the words are missing. Listen carefully and fil in the missing words. Write your answers in the box below. “Hello and welcome to the Banking and Insolvency department. My name is Kim Watts and I'm very pleased to meet you all. This is quite a large department, doing a lot of varied work. | specialise in insolvency. Most of our clients ate either banks or companies. The banks have generally made a large loan to a company, often secured by a debenture, and now the company is failing to make its repayments on the loan, because it is in 367 Cctherne Meson & Roseman Atkins 2007 sows /a6 on,Unit 98/ Higher financial (1) ‘The bank instructs us to assist with the recovery of the debt. Our other clients represent the other side of the coin. They are companies who are facing insolvency and they come to us ‘or advice on the best way forward, The most common description of insolvency is that a company cannot pay its debts when they become ‘due. There are various insolvency procedures that are available to companies. Id like now to briefly outline these procedures, as they often cause confusion until you become more familiar with them. First is the compulsory liquidation of a company. This is when the court orders the company to be wound up. Winding up usually starts by a creditor making a petition on the (2) that the company cannot pay its debts. The Official Receiver, who is an officer of the court, becomes the liquidator of the company and he ‘or she has a duty to investigate the company's affairs and the causes of its failure, including the conduct of the directors. A director can be disqualified from acting as a director for a period of time if, for example, he for she made the position of the creditors worse by continuing to trade when the company wes insolvent. When the winding up is complete, the company is formally (3) and it no longer exists. Next is administration. This is a court order made to appoint an administrator to (4) the company's affairs. A court may make an administration order when the company is unable to pay its debts and the court considers that by making an administration order, the whole or part of the company may be saved as a going (5) The company, its directors or its creditors start the procedure by making a petition against the company. While an administration order is in force, the company cannot be wound up and legal proceedings against the company cannot be started except with approval of the court. The administrator takes control of all the property of the company and makes proposals for the creditors to consider. The administration order continues until the court decides that the order is no longer needed and formally discharges it. Another insolvency procedure is receivership or administrative receivership. A receiver is appointed by the holder of a debenture of the company secured by a floating charge. Usually this is a bank. The company is said to be “in receivership”. The receiver has the power to sell the assets covered by the floating charge and give the (6) to the charge-holder. ‘further procedure is a company voluntary arrangement. We call this a CVA. This is when a company makes an agreement with its creditors in order to (7) its debts over an agreed period of time. The agreement has to be approved by the court. Meetings of the company and creditors are called to approve the proposed arrangement. Once approved, all creditors who had notice of the meeting and were entitled to vote are bound by the terms of the arrangement. The company can continue trading during the CVA and afterwards. Finally, there are two types of voluntary liquidation. Members’ voluntary liquidation means that the directors have made a statutory declaration of solvency — in other words, the directors believe that a company is solvent. This happens when a family business is sold off, for example, or if the purposes of the company have ‘come to an end. The liquidation starts when the members, in a general meeting, (8) a resolution to Wind up the company voluntarily. Remember, if itis @ voluntary liquidation, the company is not insolvent, In the case of a creditors’ voluntary liquidation, the company cannot pay its debts. The process is started by the directors, not the creditors. The company carries an extraordinary resolution to say that it cannot continue in business because of its liabilities and that it is advisable to wind up. A liquidator is appointed to wind up the company’s affairs. The liquidator does this by (9) the company’s assets and paying its creditors. If anything is left over, the members of the company receive it. In both types of voluntary liquidation, when the company's affairs are fully wound up, the formal dissolution of the company occurs and it (10) to exist. Well, | hope that helps just a litte. | am sure that you will gain some experience of all these procedures during your six-month period with this department. We have a great team here and everyone will be very happy to answer any questions you have, so please feel tree to come to any of us at any time. [a Q) 8 4) 6) ] | a e) @) (20) | 368 © Catherine Mason & Rosemary Atins 2007[© Catherine Mason & Rosemary Akins 2007Tents Contracts 2 UT VA EyUNDERSTANDING CONTRACTS 2 SOME MORE TYPICAL CONTRACT CLAUSES Read this text about some of the typical clauses you will find in commercial contracts. The most important words are in the key vocabulary below. Complete the exercises that follow. Key vocabulary term termination expiration confidential author creative work At the beginning of most commercial contracts there are sections that deal with information such as the names of the parties, the background to the contract and the defined terms. After these sections you will find the main body of the contract. ‘The main body of the contract is made up of clauses. There are some types of clause that you vill find in most commercial contracts. ‘A commercial contract usually contains, for example, a clause that states what the term of the contract will be. The term of the contract is the uration of the contract. It means the period of time for which the contract is valid. There wil also be a termination clause. This clause contains information about the expiration of the contract. Expiration means end. So, the agreed date of expiration of a contract is the agreed date upon. which the contract will end. A contract of ‘employment, for example, might have a term of ‘one year. The termination clause tells the employer and the employee now the contract can end after a shorter period of time, before the agreed date of expiration. There is often a clause in a contract that deals with information that must remain secret. This clause usually obliges one of the parties to keep confidential certain information connected with the other party. For example, let's say an advertising company enters into a contract with 2 drugs disclose intellectual property copyright commissions freelance non-disclosure ‘company. The advertising company agrees to create an advertising campaign for a new kind of medicine that the drugs company produces. The contract will include a clause that obliges the advertising company not to tell or disclose certain information to any third party about the drugs company’s products, production methods or financial information. This clause is often known as the confidentiality clause or the non-disclosure clause. Many modern contracts also have a clause that deals with intellectual property rights. This is very ‘common in contracts under which someone such as an author or a setf-employed, freelance designer produces creative work for a third party such as a publisher or a company. For example, Anna is a good artist. She designs birthday cards for children. The Cinderella Card Company commissions Anna to create two new designs for its birthday cards. To commission someone means to formally ask that person to do something or produce something, usually of a creative nature. ‘The contract should make clear who is the owner of the design after the company prints the cards. Is it ‘Anna oris it the card company? Can the card company use Anna's designs on other goods? The design is intellectual property and it can be very valuable. Most contracts make clear who has copyright in intellectual property. To have copyright in a design, for example, means that you are the ‘owner of that design. am wonepuneg/¥or men3 i z Exercise 1 ‘Match these words from the key vocabulary with the more informal word that has the same meaning. a Term means... --end. (1) b Expiration means... Self-employed, (2) © Confidential means... send, (3) Disclose means... secret. (4) e Freelance means... --duration. (5) f Author means... --cwriter. (6) g Termination means... tell. (7) Exercise 2 Complete these definitions with the correct word from the key vocabulary. a is work that requires some imagination, such as a painting, a book or a song. b Tohave In creative work, such as a book or a song, means to have legal ‘ownership of that work. © The writer who writes a piece of work such as a book or a song is usually referred to in a contract as the of that work. @ Tobea worker means to be self-employed, usually in a creative area of work such as design. © Sometimes large businesses freelance workers to do creative work for them, such as designing a company logo. fA clause states the way in which a contract can come to an end. g information is information that is private and must be kept secret. hh The parties to a contract often agree not to ___any confidential information to any third party. 1 Another word for the duration of a contract is the of the contract. i The of a contract is the end of that contract. kA ___ clause states that one party to the contract isnot allowed to tell anyone certain confidential information concerning the other party. 1 an Clause states which of the parties to a contract has copyright in creative work. 372 (© Catering Mazon & Rosemary Ras 2007SOME IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL VOCABULARY Exercise 1 Look at this list of questions. Each question asks about the meaning of a word that is important in understanding commercial contracts. Match each question with the correct answer. a What are perishable goods? — Why are some buildings called premises? 1b What kind of goods can | describe as What does it mean if | pay for something merchandise? in instalments? © What kind of building is a warehouse? 1 What is the job of a liquidator? d= What is a budget? i What does it mean if a business is insolvent? @ What does it mean if | owe money to k What is an invoice? someone? f What does store mean? it means to pay for something in several regular payments over a period of time. ‘Sometimes businesses pay for goods in this way. (1) It means to keep goods in a particular place where the goods will be safe until you are ready to use them or you are ready to sell them. (2) ‘These are goods that the public can buy from shops. They might also be described as ‘consumer goods’. (3) Iisa very specific amount of money. It is. the exact amount of money that a person has available to spend in order to do @ particular thing. (4) Because this name is often used for buildings and land which are for businesses to use and not for people to live in. (5) Itis a person who sells the assets of a business in order to pay the business's creditors. This person is sometimes called ‘a receiver’. (6) ‘cathe Meson & Rosemary Atkins 2007 Why clo some businesses put a serial number on their goods? It means that you have an obligation to pay money to that person. (7) They are goods like meat, fish, milk or fruit. These things are impossible to use or to sell after a certain time because they become dangerous for people to eat. (8) Itis very similar to a bill. tis a list of goods or semvices that a seller supplies to a buyer and it names the price that the buyer must pay. It often says how many days the buyer has to make the payment, for example, 30 days. (9) Some businesses do this so that they can identify their goods in the future. It helps the business in situations where they want to have their goods retumed because the buyer did not pay. (10) Itis a large building where a business keeps goods for a period of time before it sells them. (14) It means that the business does not have ‘enough money to pay its debts. (12) 373; 3 a am Exercise 2 Here are the words from Exercise 1 again. These words are very common in commercial contracts, especially contracts for the sale of goods. Some of the words are connected with the subject of money and payment. The other words are connected with goods. Decide which area the words are connected with, ‘money and payment or goods. Write your answers under the headings below. insolvent (adjective) © warehouse (noun) premises (noun) perishable (adjective) ® liquidator (noun) store (verb) invoice (noun) merchandise (noun) ‘owe (verb) budget (noun) instalments (noun) serial number (noun) Money and payment Goods Exercise 3 Complete these sentences with a word from Exercise 2. a. The buyer will pay for the goods in six equal monthly, The agent has an advertising of £10,000 to advertise the company’s products in Italy and he must not exceed this amount without written permission. © My company produces goods in China and we need a place to the goods for three ‘weeks before we transport them to England aa is a large building that businesses often use to store their goods, © Meat and fish are ‘goods and will go off very quickly if they are not stored correctly. 1 This contract will terminate immediately if the buyer becomes or has any other serious financial difficulty. How much money do we to our supplier? h We enclose our with the goods, which gives a full description of the goods that the buyer ordered and the amount of money that the buyer must pay. i Ifthe buyer becomes bankrupt and a is appointed to deal with the buyer's creditors, then the seller has the right to terminate the contract.