QUESTIONNAIRE IN TEXT LINGUISTICS

1. The Subject Matter of Text Linguistics

2. Approaches of Investigation and Research Methods for the Study
of Text in Text Linguistics
3. A Brief Survey of Text Linguistics in historical Perspective
4. Text Linguistics and Pragmatics
5. Text Linguistics and Discourse Analysis
6. The Text as a Unit in a Text Linguistics Analysis. Definitions of
“Text”. Structure and Composition of Texts.
7. Typology of Texts
8. Constitutive Standards of Textuality
9. Regulative Principles
10. Different Views on Cohesion
11. Anaphora and Cataphora
12. Types of Repetition
13. Synonymization
14. Substitution via Pro-forms
15. Ellipsis
16. Tense and Aspect. Functional Sentence Prospective
17. Lexico-thematic Fields
18. Nominative Chains
19. Coherence
20. Intentionality
21. Acceptability
22. Informativity
23. Situationality
24. Intertextuality
25. Stylistics. Investigating English Style
26. Stylistic Devices. Functional Styles of the English language.
 1. The Subj. analysis, which dealt functions, the context 1. in the light of
Matter of TL with speech acts & of situation it occurs the whole historical
Up to the 60s all ling. conversation. in + the conditions background &
phenomena were TL takes into necessary 4 the perspective of studying
studied & investigated consideration some human interaction. TL language & its
on level sentence. It regularities, also investigates products;
was impossible strategies, various text types & 2. against the
realizing how dominances, their relevance 2 background of 20th
language functions in preferences & other texts. cent. general
the process of defaults that can The subject of TL linguistics;
communication study & explain a № deals + the specificity 3. against the
without the study of of ling. phenomena of the text as such, & backcloth of their
phenomena like the beyond the sentence of diff. text types, branches of linguistics
use of articles, level. It is focused on written & oral, in investigating the text,
tenses, adjunction & the text, concerning their ≠ spheres of e.g. pragmatics,
others on text level. its general & its usage. The cognitive linguistics,
This discipline was specific characteristic importance of TL can cognitive psychology,
called TL, text features, referring to be discussed: sociolinguistics etc.
grammar or discourse its organization,
 2.Approaches 3. Analyzing a text, we step until they reach the final participants, providing
There R no strict should regard some factors goal. successful comm. In order
categories & gram. rules in as motivation, strategies, 3.Means- end analysis – to understand the whole
the text that can be taken into preferences, defaults, which the problem – solver tries to text, the recipients make
consideration in it structuring. refer to presuppositions about find out what the differences presuppositions about what
There are some standards of the info of the text, the between the initial state and follows in the text. Van Dijk
textuality, which can serve as participants’ background the goal state are, and then and Kintsch discuss
a basis 4 defining the knowledge about the real reduce them one by one until macrostructures in
parameters of the text. If world, prior knowledge of the goal state is reached. connection with linguistic
these standards are not other texts related to the text Stages of the process of structures and their
approved then there is non- in question, etc. text production: syntactic & semantic
text. If a text follows the gram. & representations in the text,
1. there can be absence structural conventions, it will
1. Planning- text
and in connection with
producer’s intention is
of cohesion and coherence, be easily to process and will cultural and social factors,
attaining some goal via text.
& no relevance to the take less time and efforts related to the
Text producers can use,
situation. In such situations, understanding it. But if not, communicative context /
“means- end analysis” to find
the communication will brake the missing pieces will be situation. Macrostructures
out in what way the ≠ btw the
down, or will not be achieved filled, because even if there consist of macro
current state and the goal
at all. Depending on the are several choices and propositions, and are
state can be reduced to the
participants’ tolerance and possibilities for the realization related to discourse
extent.
prior knowledge of the real of the text, some of them are cognitive models. The
world, or the type of the text, always more preferable than 2. Planning is conn. with strategies connected with
communication can be others depending on context the introduction of ideas text comprehension include
successful. of situation. It is proved, that presented as control centers. surface structure
2. Another factor is the way people belonging to the same If the text producer’s goal is representations and
people understand text. society or at least to the same to persuade people or semantic interpretation of
They usually make diff. social group will decode a text manipulate them, they may these structures.
senses of way they read or almost in the same way. If try hard to think of intriguing There are some
hear. This is why the research users of a language are not ideas & ways of rendering schematic strategies
methods are probabilistic. familiar with the functioning of them, so that they can specific for the organization
TL applies descriptive the system, the way that change the text receiver’s of each type of text, and it
methods. Distinctive linguistic language is used, comm. will view and actions. follows requirements
units used in a text R be blocked. 3. The “phase of related to the beginning,
described & explained taking In the process of development” is “a searching continuation and end of the
into consideration a № of comprehension, there are a of stored knowledge spaces’. text. The moment we see
factors: number of approaches that an abstract we immediately
1. The units R related 2 are applied to text.
4. The arranging of the start making hypotheses
expressions in a sequential
one another in a linear B&D dentify text about the following
order bearing in mind the
sequence via gram. comprehension in terms of information, the type of text
gram. dependencies The last
dependences on surface level problem – solving. Receivers we are going to read, the
phase of production is called
& conceptual dependencies in of text try to solve “problems” way it is structured etc.
parsing. There is asymmetry
the textual world. (not all which appear during their (e.g. scientific film/ article).
btw. the languages (German
elements that modify an understanding of text. The In the process of
+ Russian have grammatical
element can B placed directly compreh. will be successful if comprehension of texts,
cases; English have no such
before or after it.) There are they go down the text from the two approaches can be
cases). This leads to
some conventions 4 the order the “initial state” to the “goal applied, because as one
asymmetry btw. the plane of
in which adj., appear: He is a state”, but if there is place of reads a text one tries to
form & of meaning.
real young gentleman = the the text, they can not find the most appropriate
II. According to Van Dijk
modifiers {young; gentleman} understand, there is a way for understanding the
and W. Kintsch, when
R btw the determiner “a” and problem, because the text form beginning to end.
decoding a text, different
the main word “gentleman”). “connecting pathway” cannot Here could be used one of
recipients apply their own
There is often asymmetry in be “found or defined”, a the three search types
strategies depending on
language btw. the plane of “block” is occurred. suggested by B&D. One
their knowledge base,
form & the plane of content, There R 3 search types, applies some of the
interests, and opinions.
e.g.: while content is according to B&D, 4 strategies for text
Different readers follow
continuous, the expressions connectivity between states. comprehension suggested
their own cognitive models
that R used 4 rendering that 1.Depth- first search – by Van Dijk and Kintsch,
of the real world stored in
content R discrete elements. when the “problem solver” connected with the
their episodic memory, and
2. The discrete elements tries to reach the goal along structuring of the text –
when needed they
have to be systematized and as they read the text without syntactic and semantic- as
compare text presented
controlled by some orderly trying to grasp the details. well as + some background
knowledge with their
principles, which R closely 2.Breadth- first search – knowledge, knowledge
knowledge of the world.
connected + some the problem – solver tries to about the real world, some
However, there is a certain
logical,socio-cultural & understand the text step by presuppositions about the
amount of general
situational factors, & they can context of the text, etc.
information, common to all
be analyzed more easily.
3. Brief Survey of TL founder is Quintilian, to the study of the appeared earlier in
and he has defined 4 text. the text. He considers
The study of the qualities of style: The Prague School the principles of
text dates from correctness, clarity, linguists discovered pronominal chaining
Ancient Greece and elegance, that the importance as a sytagmatic
Rome through Middle appropriateness. of info. affects the substitution which is
Ages and could be T.s have been objects normal word order, basic in forming a
found in Rhetoric. of investigation of even when it is fixed. text.
The major task of the Anthropology. The They study the FSP Teun van Dijk has
rhetoricians was attention is paid to ≠ connected with old or studied literary and
training public orators types of discourse in known information, poetic texts which do
and their main fields ≠ cultures & to the called theme, and the not always follow
of interest were theory of the new or unexpected strictly the
invention, the narrative. information- rheme, conventions of
discovery of ideas; Sociology+Ethno & their distribution in grammar and
disposition- the methodology deal the sentence, meaning. His
arrangement of with conversation & depending on sem. contribution to TL is
ideas; elocution- the human interaction, context. his theory about the
search for adequate taking into Investigation semantic macro-
expressions for consideration turn- related to units above structure, connected
rendering the ideas; taking, differences of the sentence level with the content of a
and memorization- social status of started in the 1930- text. 4 him those R
takes place before participants, etc. & 50s with Vilem expressed by a string
delivery, which is the involve cognitive Mathesius and his of adjacent
actual speaking. In approach to studies about the sentences, having
the Midd. Ages discourse. links of a sentence normal semantic
rhetoric belonged to Discourse with adjacent structures, which
the alongside analysis is the study sentences. Zellig define the meaning of
grammar and logic/ of spoken language Harris made a the whole unit on the
dialectic. or conversation. It distribution analysis basis of the meanings
Problems of the investigates the of a whole connected of the sentences the
rhetoric are shared functions and text according to unit consist of. Van
with the text purposes of language “equivalences” or Dijk reckons that the
linguistics: in use, & the role of relationships in which generating of a text
1. presentations participants for elements were the must begin with a
of ideas can be achieving successful same/ had the same main idea, which is
controlled comm. environments. In further developed
systematically; Most of the lit. order 2 B more into the detailed
2. the link btw. studies have been exhaustive, he meanings that are
ideas and the ways focused on single text applied the notion represented in the
they R expressed can or on some text “transformation”,adop form of sentences.
be taught & studied types. ting by Noam Van Dijk and Kintsch
respectively; Philology uses the Chomsky 4 his are interested in the
3. ideas can be diachronic approach transformational cognitive process of
expressed in a to the language. The grammar, which was comprehension. In
number of ways as language has been well received because their views this is
text, some of which analyzed in terms of it offered a means of closely connected
are of higher quality minimal units handling complexity with and depends on
than others; (phonemes, and open systems, participants’
4. texts can be morphemes,etc. such as those of knowledge of the
judged by the effects These units and their nouns, verbs etc. world, their
they make on the distinctive features R. Harweg says information about
receivers; have been grouped in that texts are events and situations
5. They usually levels that have been organized with the stored in the
serve for purposeful studied help of “substitution”, memory, and on their
interaction & comm. independently of one an expression presuppositions about
Stylistics is another, but this referring to another the context and the
continuation of does not bring much one of the same type of text.
ancient rhetoric. Its sense that has
 TL+ Pragmatics producer has made, if syntactic, semantic & language. He applies
we regard it from a phonological factors. the 3 maxims
TL & PR R closely point of view of There are 3 major (locutionary act,
connected + the act of pragmatics. From a TL functional- semantic illocutionary act,
comm., which is the perspective, it is components in the perlocutionary act.) to
successful interaction connected with the system of language ≠ contexts of language
btw. participants in a standards of defined by Halliday and use. The maxims he
linguistic act. intentionality & Hasan, and by Leech. has introduced are
Pragmatics can be acceptability, cohesion They are the ideational, more like strategies.
defined as being at the & coherence & the interpersonal, and Grice has introduced
intersection of a situationality. PR is also the textual. They are the term conversational
number of fields within interested in producers closely connected to implicatures- the
& outside cognitive and receivers of text in problems discussed by mechanisms by which
science -linguistics, the situation in which grammar, pragmatics, utterances usually
cogn. psychology, comm. takes place. The and text linguistics. The express more than
cultural anthropology & second task is related 2 ideational component in actually said. Grice’s
philosophy, sociology & making inferences the linguistic system is maxims R connected
rhetoric. Pragmatics which add to one’s connected with with the principle of
deals with the analysis stored knowledge of the language functioning as cooperation, which is
of language use or the world. They are a means of conveying important in cases in
effects of language use connected with the text and interpreting which some advice or
on language structure. producer’s knowledge, experience in the world. assistance is needed.
It takes context into with guesses on part of It refers to cohesion, When this principle is
account. The broadest text producers about coherence and not followed,
interpretation of addressee’s knowledge, informativity. The communication brakes
pragmatics is that “it is with what the text interpersonal down.
the study of producer believes that component refers to The maxim of
understanding the addressee believes social, expressive and quantity is stated as
intentional human to be false, and how conative functions of “make your contribution
action” (Green). This the text producer feels language in conn. with as informative as is
action can include about individuals, the speaker’s attitudes required” (B& D).
verbal and non- verbal situations and events and influence upon the Informative means
means of comm., that have been referred attitudes and behavior providing new/
provided they are to in the act of of the hearer. It is unpredictable info when
successful. Acc. to G. communication. connected to the needed.
Green, the narrowest The area TL and standards of The maxim of quality
interpretation of the pragmatics also share is intentionality and is concerned with
pragmatics is that it related to efficiency and acceptability The truthfulness- it is
deals with the study of effectiveness of textual is related 2 applied more often to
indexicals, which are communication. language functioning as scientific texts.
dependent on the Relevant info is a means of constructing The maxim of relation
context of their provided in the process a text (spoken/ is “be relevant”-& is
utterance. In of communication in written). It concerns connected by Wilson &
pragmatics the focus of such way that the result the ways old and new Sperber with the prior
attention have been the is achieving a maximum information are knowledge one has in
indexicals effect using the most presented in the text. connection with the
(demonstr.pronouns appropriate linguistic These 3 components topic and with the
“I”,”you”; adverbs means of expression are related 2 grammar, context of situation.
“now”, “today”; with minimal effort on pragmatics and to TL- The maxim of
demonstratives “this”, part of the addressee. they are associated manner means “B
“that”, tenses, etc.). The “optimal relevance” with the text as a perspicuous”- avoid
TL & PR are in communication whole, as its textuality. obscurity, avoid
interested in the goals depends on the PR & semantics are ambiguity, B brief, B
and functions of “contextual resources” interrelated. Pragmatics orderly.
utterances. The tasks of of participants & on the deals with the study of PR deals with ≠
the text users are to “proceeding abilities or meaning in relation to factors connected with
understand what the intellectual awareness”. speech situations, & utterances (various
writer/ speaker had While TL deals with semantics deals with implicatures,
said and to evaluate the text in general & meanings a property of presuppositions,
that model and use it to with some rules for its expressions in a given assumptions,
update his own model organization (its language, and with the predictions &
of the world (Green). texture), pragmatics relation of signs to the inferences). Pragmatics
The understanding is investigates language in objects they stand for. & linguistics help us see
connected with communication Grice suggests language within a
comprehension what (conversation and general principles macro-framework which
statement, imperative, speech acts). introducing can reveal more than a
question, etc. the text Gramm. competence communicative values micro-linguistic
is connected + into the study of approach.
 4.TL & Disc. Anal. certain field of possible lack of 1-to–1 or speaking and reading
communication” & as “a correspondence btw. or hearing) that create
The term discourse is process of exchanging gram. form & and interpret the text,
used in a № of ways signs or messages”. It communicative function and the larger social
and is treated by ≠ is considered by some is pointed out. The context that bears upon
researchers in ≠ fields researchers “a synonym same fact is true for it. The text is closely
of study- linguists, of communication” written texts that are connected with societal,
pragmatists, history (Dobrev/a). Others the subject of study in cultural and political
etc. outline it as referring to text linguistics. issues. The critical
About 20 years ago, the interactive process In almost all discourse analysis also
this term was used as a and the end result of discourse analysis- studies the relations
written / oral thought and based investigations, it between language,
presentation on a communication. It is is oral texts that are ideology and power.
certain topic. The basic the social process of the object of attention, Georgakopoulou and
reason for introducing making and but there are linguists Goustos have defined
discourse into different reproducing senses. who apply discourse some of the
fields of study in the Additional factors are analysis also to written assumptions specifying
Anglo- American connected with social, texts. the TL perspective 2
context is the attempt historical and Discourse is often discourse:
to discover certain institutional formations, assumed to include 1. the basic unit of
regularities in units as well as with more than just one oral analysis is text
larger that the discursive “subjectives” or written text. It is 2. the focus of the
sentence. What matters (class gender, nation, connected with the examination is the
in discourse is age, family and production and language of the text
establishing successful individuality). reception of texts, as 3. text is structured
comm. among Emphasized in well as with the socio- 4. Texts R
participants. The discourse is the role of cultural practices texts meaningful language
functions & purposes of the reader in actively are related to. Acc. to units, which primarily
language in use are building & filling the Fairclough discourse derive their meaning
important. Studies in missing links in the analysis can be from their situated use.
discourse analysis and world of the text, based understood as an Thus both TL and
in text linguistics take on their social and attempt to show discourse analysis take
into consideration some cultural knowledge and systematic links into consideration the
factors such as experience of the world between texts, text, written or oral,
tolerance on the part of and on the way states discourse practices, and connecting it with the
participants towards and events are socio- cultural given context of
some texts provided characteristically practices. By text he situation as well as with
there is no break down manifested in it. understands not only the larger social and
in communication. Both There are also the verbal expression of cultural context it
discourse analysis and studies devoted to information, but also occurs in. Both text
text linguistics study specific discourses. the non- verbal linguistics and discourse
language in social There is media representations examine the role of
context. Discourse discourse research to supporting this regulative principles-
analysis puts an television and news. information. In this efficiency,
emphasis on oral There are also studies respect discourse effectiveness, and
representations of devoted to analysis overlaps with appropriateness. There
language, while text institutionalized text linguistics. are also some
linguistics deals in the discourses like Lately has been differences in their
main with written texts, medicine, lit. & science. introduced a new approaches. Text
though it does not There R cases in which approach to the study linguistics explores the
disregard spoken texts. particular texts take up of the text, called static of texts- their
Fairclough has stated elements from ≠ critical discourse characteristic properties
that the linguistic discourses & articulate analysis. It views the and standards of
perspective of discourse them. text as produced and textuality, while
is closely connected In discourse matters received in real-world discourse analysis deals
with the interpersonal the language in context contexts. It is a highly with textual dynamics,
function of language. and communication. integrated form of connected 2 a great
Today in most of the Discourse norms & their discourse analysis, extent with their
studies of discourse the realizations in language because it applies three production and
2 senses of it R differ from culture to different levels of reception.
interrelated. Discourse culture. analysis- the text,
is defined as “a process In all of the studies discursive practices
of creating a text in a about discourse a (the process of writing
 5. Text as a Unit which it appears. It is various standards of paragraphs, chapters,
1. The text has situated as a process. textuality. The text sections etc.,
been defined and The text can be does not exist depending on the
interpreted by spoken or written, it independently of its length of the text.
researchers in a consist of utterances. producers and They comprise the
number of ways. In If the text has 2 B receivers, & cannot architectonics of the
principle, all studies investigated be discussed in text.
of text can be divided fundamentally & isolation, apart from The minimal
and grouped into 2 systematically, the the situation it meaningful
main approaches. two approaches have appears in. If a constitutive units in a
The first approach to be combined and linguistic formation is text consist of text
is the propositional integrated, because non- communicative, entities, which name
one; it is also called apart from the fact it is considered as a the object from the
linear grammar of that the text is non- text. real world (the
text and is based on a composed of 2. The text is referents). They are
purely linguistic sequentially ordered organized organized in
description of speech and grammatically thematically as a nominations, which
products. Acc. to it, dependent sentences, semantic macro- appear on surface
the text is a result of it also fulfils a structure, consisting level. Propositions
sentences that R communicative of linearly ordered are grouped in the
linearly conn. It has function. Among the and logically and text around some
been discussed as a focus in a text thematically topics, thus building
linguistic unit of the linguistic analysis are connected sentences. different micro-texts
highest rank, situated the semantic The participants’ within the
above sentence level. connectivity in the expectations are that organizational macro-
The text is defined as text and its meaning the utterances they structure.
a linear sequence of as well as the socio- produce and receive The macro-
thematically cultural experience of comply with the structure of the text
connected sentences, participants and the grammatically correct consists of various
or as a coherent specific social rules of the micro-texts fulfilling
sequence. This linear situations the text respective language, different functions in
sequence is occurs in. but communication the text. Not all texts
supported by different Acc. to B &D the can also take place if have an introduction
types of lexical and text is a someone of the rules and conclusion, as
gram. means, which communicative is violated. The ≠ these two parts play
R either repeated, or occurrence which between the whole an additional role in
substituted, or meets 7 standards of text and its separate the text. The
expressed by various textuality- cohesion, constitutive elements introduction can state
forms, having the coherence, is that while the text the reason for
same, similar intentionality, fulfils a presenting the given
meaning. acceptability, communicative information, the aim
The second informativity, function on its own, of the text, the idea
approach can be situationality, & the elements behind the whole
classified as the intertextuality. If any comprising it only text, some general
communicative of them is not help with the and background
grammar of text. It fulfilled, the text is achievement of this knowledge on the
views the text as a considered 2 B non – function. The whole basis of which the
comm.. unit, taking text or non- organization of the whole text is
some extra linguistic communicative. In text on surface level constructed. In
criteria into this respect the text defined by its content shorter texts such as
consideration for its is considered as a and genre determines news reports,
definition. As part of vehicle of human its composition. announcements and
the sign system of communication. For Sometimes the advertisements, the
language, the text is the purposes of a TL thematic structuring headline can serve
regarded as a comm.. analysis, texts can be of the text can be the function of the
unit having different studied as carefully used for achieving introductory part. The
semiotic values in planned or as certain aims and main body presents
comparison with its spontaneous special effects the basic information
forming elements. instances, or as (poems can put an in the text that is
The text is also instances belonging emphasis on form). why it is the most
defined as a complex to ≠ functional styles The text consists of loaded in respect to
linguistic unit which is and genres. an introduction, main content. The
related to extra Text as an object body and conclusion. conclusion consists of
linguistic reality and of TL can be regarded The information in inferences based on
is part of it. The text as a communicative these parts in the the whole
realizes itself in the occurrence that is text is distributed in information, results,
context of situation in organized around sentences, units, and summaries.
Typology of Texts whether it is carefully presented, that rigorous
There R № of planned in advance & differentiates them. classification.
classifications & then presented, or K. Reiss suggests In descriptive texts
typological whether it is another classification: there is a frequency
descriptions based on produced at the informative texts as of conceptual
different criteria. A moment of speaking. opposition to non- relations for
text that normally In this respect, there informative texts. attributes, states,
belongs to one type are spontaneous & Scientific texts fulfill instances, and
can also belong to non - spont. texts. the function of adding specifications. The
another by Acc. to the form of info to society’s control centers will be
“borrowing” means & the text they can be knowledge store of objects and
devices characteristic mainly written & oral facts by making use situations. The frame
of the second type. (spoken). Orality and of results drawn from is the most common
In one text can be literacy are two observation, pattern.
used combinations of concepts that R experiments and Narrative texts R
elements from ≠ connected with documents. rich in actions &
types of texts. Text spoken & written If the semiotic events, arranged in a
typology is connected texts in a specific systems that are particular sequential
with actual systems way. The speaking- utilized in texts are order. In most cases,
in which various writing axe is taken into usually from a
choices about the connected with the consideration, texts personal point of
form and content of mode or the medium can be homogeneous view R presented the
the text have already in which the info. is (if they consist only concrete events. The
been made. For B&D rendered, while the of verbal or of non- schema is the most
a text type is a set of orality- literacy axe verbal signs) or commonly applied
heuristics for refers to the features heterogeneous or global knowledge
producing, predicting, used with certain text polysemiotic (if the pattern.
& processing textual types. There R text consist of verbal Argumentative
occurrences. combinations possible and of non-verbal texts R evaluated
They suggest a – speeches or signs). texts that promote
typology of lectures can be Acc. to the certain beliefs or
descriptive, narrative, presented orally, and functional styles they ideas that are true or
and argumentative then printed, or they use the text can be false, positive or
texts. Descriptive can be carefully divided into belle- negative. There are
texts can explain planned and prepared lettres (poetic texts, cohesive devices for
laboratory in advance. The fiction, drama, emphasis in the
experiments, or can position of the text comedy, etc.); surface text-
refer to a description along the orality- publicistic or repetition,
of an event or a literacy continuum journalistic texts parallelism, and
process. In K. Reiss’s can be defined by a (news reports, paraphrase. The plan
view text types №of parameters- articles, essays, is the most
correspond to certain degree of planning etc.); scientific texts; commonly applied
functions- (greater in written official docs global knowledge
descriptive, texts); degree of (business, military pattern.
expressive, and shared knowledge texts, etc.); etc. Literary texts
appellative. R. and involvement; use Referring to the fulfill the functions
Harweg proposes 7 ≠ of lexical and production of texts on description, narration
text types: syntactical items; the the basis of textual and argumentation.
monological, role of non- verbal entities, there are Didactic texts
narrative, event, elements etc. texts, that treat serve 2 distribute an
experience, Some other criteria events, states, already established
background-deictic, 4 defining texts can processes from the knowledge to a non-
fictional and fable be connected with real world, and there specialized audience
text. This the way the real are texts that analyze of text receivers. In
classification is too world is represented. or comment other scientific texts some
detailed and follows In this case there can texts. information
different criteria. be fictional & non- Classifications connected with
Texts can follow fictional texts. overlap & there is receiver’s background
diverse criteria for B&D define the substantial knowledge can be
belonging to a certain literary text as a text heterogeneity, omitted and facts can
group, based on diff. whose world stands because different be presented on the
features. There are in a principled scholars use only basis of readers’
others classifications, alternativity some of the presupposition, but in
which emphasize relationship to the parameters for didactic texts
additional text accepted version of categorization. producers have to
features and the “real world”. Prototypes are present more basic
properties. Poetic text are schemata of the most info, because they
Another considered to be a characteristic cannot rely on
classification takes subclass of literary members of a class, receivers’ background
into account the way texts, it is the way which help for the knowledge.
of presenting info- information is building of a more (“Sermon” Preacher).
 6. Standards of Together + cohesion consideration both occurrences of the
Textuality these are the main the producers and presented text are
standards and if they receivers of the expected -
The first standard do not exist in a text, information unexpected or
of textuality is no communication presented in the text. known- unknown.
cohesion. can be achieved. In this respect the Low informative texts
Acc. 2 B&D it refers Coherence concerns other standards are are boring and
to the stability of the the ways in which the user- centered. uninteresting.
text, upheld via a components of the Intentionality Situationality
continuity of textual world, which concerns the text concerns the factors,
occurrences. The underline the surface producer’s attitude in which make a text
components in the text are mutually fulfilling his relevant to a situation
surface text depend accessible and intentions, to attain a of occurrence.
upon each other acc. relevant. The concept goal specified in a Sometimes
2 gramm. forms and is a configuration of plan. Sometimes situationality can
conventions, so that knowledge which can cohesion and have an influence on
we can say that be recovered or coherence are cohesion. Part of the
cohesion is bound up activated with more disturbed in order to information can be
with gram. or less unity and achieve special implicit, because it
dependences, which consistency in the effects in can be easily
helps to clarify mind. Relations are communication. provided by the
meanings and uses in the links between Acceptability context of situation.
a text, but they are concepts, which concerns the Intertextuality is
not sufficient for the appear together in a receiver’s attitude a standard that
message. If there is textual world. that the set of concerns the factors
some interaction btw. Coherence is closely occurrences should which make the
cohesion and the connected with constitute a cohesive utilization of one text
other standards of continuity of senses and coherent text dependent upon
textuality, then the in a text. Participants having some use or knowledge of one or
requirement 4 a usually use their own relevance for the more previously
successful knowledge of the receiver. This attitude encountered texts. It
communication is world by making is responsive to such is closely connected
fulfilled. The reason is inferences about the factors as text type, with text types. The
that if text is information in the social or cultural application of this
ambiguous on the text- the already setting, and standard causes
surface level, it can stored knowledge desirability of goals. unexpectedness and
be disambiguated in with help of the in Text receivers should high informativity. It
the moment one the text presented be tolerant towards also provokes the
realizes & grasps the knowledge help disturbances and reader’s interest.
deep structure receivers to supply the missing These standards R
message. Sometimes understand the sense info. Sometimes such the constitutive
the background implied in the latter. disturbances are principles of textual
knowledge can help Cohesion and intended to help communication. They
to resolve ambiguity coherence R text achieve special R interconnected &
without difficulty. -connected notions. effects, as in jokes. their separate
The second But the text cannot Informativity function cannot
standard of textuality be properly decoded concerns the extent always be
is coherence. if we do not take into to which the differentiated.
 Regulative its receivers if the makes the text more efficiency and
Principles information that is interesting and effectiveness and
presented in it is not memorable. It is provides balance
There R certain much, but it is needed more attention between the two. If in a
regulative principles constructed on the in connection with the given situation
that control textual basis of information implicit information in participants decide that
communication. They already known to the text, because it is they are not satisfied
do not help the participants, then it will more difficult to with the desired effect
organization of the text be of no value to them comprehend, but it can and outcome of the
but serve as criteria for and they will lose be recoverable either communication they
the actualization of the interest in it. Efficiency from the narrower or have established, they
communicative function contributes to broader context, or can change or direct it
of the text. These are processing ease- less from the context of in a more favorable
efficiency, attention is needed for situation. Often is way.
effectiveness, and the interpretation of a needed some socio- The 3 regulative
appropriateness. text. cultural knowledge on principles are connected
Efficiency is Effectiveness leaves part of the participants. with Relevance Theory.
connected with the a strong impression in Appropriateness of In the act of
expenditure of effort by recipients’ minds and a text refers to the communication the
the participants’ in aims set by the connection btw the information that is
communication and is addresser. This context of situation and presented should create
directly dependent on regulative principle is the ways in which the adequate effect with
the informational connected with the standards of textuality minimally necessary
density of the text. A poetics of language, are realized in the given effort, the info should
text will require less which puts an emphasis text. It serves as a also B appropriate to
effort in its decoding by on the message. It mediator between the context of situation.
 7. Views on aspects that content is kept in a the whole macro-
Cohesion correspond to B&D’s “long- term” memory. state.
cohesion and Received info is Units & patterns of
B&D define cohesion coherence. The first placed first in the the type of phrases,
as referring to the aspect is connected active storage clauses and sentences
ways in which the with the meaningful “working memory”, can be activated for a
components of the relations btw. where processing short period of time
surface text. separate sentences & resources are and with a minimum
The concept of bigger components of distributed among of processing
cohesion was first the text; the second elements of a resources. As these
introduced by M.A. K. is connected with the presentation acc. 2 structures are met in
Halliday and R. Hasan structure, and is used their importance. texts that vary in
in 1976. They view for expressing the Gramm. length, because of the
cohesion as a deep structure links dependences in the different parts,
semantic concept. It and meanings on text obtain also different types of
refers to relations of surface level. among elements that texts consist of
meaning that exist The linguistic are situated at a paragraphs, stanzas,
within the text & is elements on surface distance. The chapters, etc., some
expressed through level are related to gram.macro-state of devices for bringing
the startal and dependent on the text is formed by about stability and
organization of each other via gram. the basic units of economy in text can
language,which is forms and syntax- the phrase be used. Missing
represented as conventions. The (a head with at least elements in closely-
consisting of 3 levels latter uphold the one dependent knit units can cause
of coding, or “strata” continuity of element), the clause more problems than
– the semantic, the occurrences. The (a unit with at least failure to use devices
lexico- gram. and the syntax plays an one noun/noun- like repetition,
phonological & important role in phrase & a verb/ verb substitution,
orthographic. connection with clause, which are omission, etc.
Cohesion occurs when cohesion. The links connected through a Cohesion in written
2 elements, btw linguistic gram. agreement of texts relies mostly on
dependent on each occurrences can B number and person), endophoric reference,
other are potentially explicit & implicit. It and the sentence (a which is reference
integrated into a text. depends on the unit with at least one with the text, while
E. Dobreva and I. communicative non- dependent cohesion in oral texts
Savova state that in participants whether clause). is achieved with the
the most text- they will render some Although all help of exophoric
linguistic studies the parts of the info more elements are reference, which is a
standard of silent than others. organized in a linear situational reference“,
connectiveness is Surface structures R order, not all either based on
proposed as the basic kept in the human modifiers can be shared knowledge or
property of the text. mind for a short adjacent in their on participants’
The term is period of time, while head, which is used presence.
subdivided into two deep structure as a control center for
 8. Anaphora surface level, while ordinates, or general new content
and Cataphora repeating the words. elements, based on
structure and its They define the already existing
There are content, is called references within the ones.
cohesive ties, which ellipsis. Pro- forms R text as endophoric- a “Last night I saw
link units of diff. used by the general term for Sophie Brent. I have
ranks at shorter or substitution of textual reference, not set eyes on her
longer distances content- carrying which can be for some months….”
within the whole text. elements with short anaphoric or The use of a pro-
B&D call the placeholders of no cathaforic. form before the co-
repetition of elements independent content. The use of a pro- referring expressions
and patterns Cohesion can form after the co- they substitute is
recurrence, while also be achieved with referring expression is called cataphora.
partial recurrence is help of diff. tenses, called anaphora. It is It is used to
the shifting of already aspect, & junction the most common stimulate the reader’s
used elements to diff. used in the text for case in which the pro- interest, to generate
classes. The expressing events form refers back to suspense, and to
repetition of a and situations. the antecedent it cause text receivers
structure + new Halliday and stands for. The pro- to make their own
content is called Hasan call the form can be judgment and
parallelism. occurrence of items interprets correctly presuppositions about
Paraphrase is the having 1 & the same provided, it is what is to follow. It
rep. of content with a referent reiteration. connected with its can also put a special
≠ wording. The It refers 2 repet., antecedent. emphasis on a certain
omission of some synonyms or near- Anaphoric reference is part of the text.
elements from the synonyms, super a way of introducing
 12. Repetition the previous used 4 achieving diff. has already been
discourse). stylistic effects on the introduced in the text
When a word or Repetition can be reader. It can also be by the use of the
phrase is repeated used as a cohesive used to indicate indefinite article. The
directly without any device, in ENG it does continuity. (in definite article can be
changes we speak of not lead to poetry). Sometimes used as a cohesive
lexical repetition. clumsiness in stylistic the linear progression device even when it
The repeated words aspect, but in BG it is on surface level leads occurs for the firs
or phrases can stand considered as bad to thematic time in the text, this
4 different entities – style. progression. In cases is connected with the
objects, One and the same of parallelism the background
circumstances, word or phrase can themes and rhemes knowledge and the
actions, etc. most occur in nominative of 2 adjacent cultural experience of
repeated are the chains together with sentences can differ the addresser and the
nouns and the noun other words & but they can be addressee. The use of
phrases. This kind of phrases having 1 & identical in equivalent the definite article is
repetition is used for the same referent structures- the theme needed when one
syntactico- stylistic from the real world. is the same, the cannot rely on the
linking of the The use of partial rheme differs (My previous information
constructive units in repetition as a Bonnie). in the text, or in the
the text, based on cohesive device in The repetition of context of the
the addresser’s aim texts is connected content with a situation.
of achieving special with the occurrence change of expression Definiteness in
effects. If the same of one and the same is called nouns can also be
item is repeated basic lexeme but with paraphrase, which expressed by the use
more than once, it some changes in it increases of demonstrative
can make easier the (boy- boys- boys’- informativity and is a pronouns going along
remembering of the boy’s), in its way of adding new with them. Here their
product, but it can explanation or both. info about the object function is to point
also provide It is possible to shift of attention. The info out the substitute
additional info about a word to a diff. is explicitly stated. It lexical items. The
this product. Such gram. class. Words is also called definite article can
texts contain having one and the “descriptive also be equivalent in
pragmatic same root can be repetition”, because meaning to a
information about the partially repeated. In in most of the cases demonstrative
product provoking such cases there can it describes in a more pronoun (the desire
new interpretations be changes of V. into detailed way a term, = this desire).
and creating new N (describe- a word, or a phrase 2 or more items
conative effect on the description); ADJ into that has been can refer to 1 another
reader. The repetition N (red- redness). In introduced before. It in a text through
of larger sequences such way a change is is also used for their comparison,
has macro- connected with a avoiding repetition because the object
structuring functions. change in and monotony. It for comparison is
The repetition is to presentation of a brings emotional either implicit or can
be found in certain element from coloring to the be restored due to
conversations, the textual world. information that is the receiver’s
because in There are also presented, in presuppositions,
improvised changes that do not reaching it with new background
spontaneous speech affect the basic data. knowledge, or
participants do not naming lexeme but The article is previous info about
have much time to more its modifiers: relevant signal, which the object in
plane their reactions diff.modifiers is related to the question. The implicit
to what they hear. collocate with 1 & the lexical meaning of comparison is
The constant same N or Nphrase. the noun it refers to. textually,
repetition of lexical The repeated use There are cases in intertextually and
items in a text can of one and the same which the definite situationally
reduce informativity. surface structures article is used in conditioned.
In some cases it is whose slots are filled expressions that refer The object of
used to confirm one’s with different anaphorically to comparison can be
previous statement expressions is called another part of the outside the text
or to convey surprise. parallelism. (He felt text. The expression, (explicit)– “than the
Rep. can B used in his knees weak, his containing a definite others”; “than at any
repudiation (rejection eyes heavy, and his article in it, refers to other place”.
of info carried from head empty.) It is an expression which
 13. btw the 2 terms can The contextual presented in a more
Synonymization be: synonymy appears in interesting &
1. part- to – a concrete text btw 2 expressive way.
The question of members of a Nom. Antonyms in text
whole relations: car-
paraphrase is closely chain, 1 of which is also help for
brake; box- lid; door-
connected with that often a metaphorical achieving of cohesion.
room
of synonymization. It expression referring They can be
2.part to part
can refer to the to the object in connected with the
relations: mouth-
naming of certain question. It is hard to apposition of cause-
chin; verse- chorus
actions. define and to effect, problem-
3.specific- general
Circumstances, distinguish from solution, etc. Acc. to
relations: boy- child;
qualities, etc. there R paraphrase, which is D. Tannen repetition
lily- flower
virtual & actual a substitution of a of linguistic elements
4.synonyms and near
synonyms. In practice given concrete is a kind of
synonyms: disease-
the former are rare reference with a involvement strategy.
illness; pour- fill
and they can be descriptive phrase. In It creates the
found as dictionary 5. pair of words both types of impression of a
entries (pour- fill). drawn from the same synonymy lexical shared universe.
The correlation ordered series: Jan/… items with a more All types of
between different March general meaning are repetition lead to
nominations can also If members of one specified in the text, variations in meaning,
have the character of and the same class and words with a feelings, and
hyponymy and appear in a text, they specific meaning are emotions, because
hypernymy. will be co- followed by phrases each time a word is
Hyponyms are hyponyms of one containing new repeated, it appears
more specific and and the same information about the in a new context and
concrete as the subordinate term referent, that comes in new collocations. It
hyperynyms. (chair…table- in question. is used in ceremonies,
Hypernyms/ hyponyms of Most preferred rituals, & political
superordinates “furniture”; walk… cohesion device is speeches, where the
presuppose relations drive – hyponyms to synonymyzation, manipulation of
of inclusion & words “go”; banana… because it avoids audiences plays a
of a more general papaya – hyponyms literal repetition. The major role.
class. The relations of “fruits” etc. referent can be
 14. Substit. via is to achieve linear pointing to a previous shall, will,) and modal
Pro-forms connectiveness in the member of the verbs (can, would,
surface text. nominative chain (this, should, must) are often
Cohesive devices R Transformation of a that, such). used to stand for a verb
used 4 achieving non- pronoun word, Pronouns and or a verb phrase that
economy in the text phrase, clause, pronoun word are used has appeared earlier in
through shortening and sentence, or even a for larger parts in the a text, which
simplifying it. One of larger part of a text into text as clauses or contributes the
these devices is pro- a pronoun is called sentences. For a economy of the text.
forms. They stand for pronominalization. One purpose we use Pro- modifiers, & pro-
full words or for such of its main pronouns as “this”, compliments (so, such,
with a concrete characteristics is the “all”, “so”, “then”. They one, some, etc.) can be
meaning, or for longer possibility of expressing can be included in used to stand for
stretches of text. They in a short way some phrases of a more modifiers, connected
get the meaning of the information already general meaning: “that with the previous info
lexical items they stand mentioned in the thing”, “such a case”, presented in the text.
4. They allow previous text or present “these words”, etc. (It is about his
communicative in the text to follow. Another type of daughter! – Which
participants to avoid The function of the general repetition is one?)
repetition and substitution is fulfilled when in the previous Pro-forms can be
monotony and keep the by personal, reflexive, text a № of objects or correlated with entire
info current in active possessive pronouns, facts are mentioned clauses. Halliday and
storage. pronominal adverbs of that are rendered later Hasan call this type of
The settings of pro- place, and in rare cases on as a unified whole. substitution “clausal
forms vary in regard to of time. Pronoun words can substitution”. It refers
specificity. The usual The relative establish links to the to the information from
progression starts with pronouns, relative left and to the right in a whole clause used in
a more specific content, adverbs of place and the text: “it is simple the previous sentence
moving to a less time substitute for a like that; you just have and is structurally
specific. A reversal, previous naming of an to believe in yourself.” related to it.
which serves to raise object, and in the same There are cases in Sometimes pro-
the interest in the time they introduce a which the pronouns and modifiers and pro-
following info, is also new quality of the the pronoun adverbs compliments can stand
possible. object by using a refer to the situation in for some info occurring
The most common subordinate predicative which the text occurs. after them. In such
pro- forms are clause (the man, who; In this case the cases efficiency is
pronouns. They the table, which). reference is exophoric- increased in the text
substitute noun or noun The demonstr. “Come here”. and it provokes the
phrases with which they pronouns 4 objects and Pro-verbs as reader’s interest in the
co- refer. Their function persons are used for auxiliaries (do, be, information that follows.
 15. Ellipsis other (story)”- 2 in texts, a feature text not to become
elliptical which creates the incomprehensible or
Ellipsis is another constructions, which impression of ambiguous. With
cohesive device used R temporarily implicit. immediate contact ellipsis the elements
4 achieving economy, This kind of reference with the reader and a can be related
compactness, and is achieved with the good imitation of anaphorically and
efficiency in the text, help of nominal everyday cataphorically and
for avoiding ellipsis. This way of communication. they can be far apart.
repetition. It is using elliptical Clausal ellipsis can Substitution
connected with the constructions helps to B used 4 resembles
occurrence of a zero maintain a high level strengthening pronominalization
element, referring to of informativity in the cohesion in the text. because there is
a previous part of the text. The usage of ellipses replacement of
text. It can be used The most common requires a strong members from a
anaphorically as a elliptical constructions attention from the nominative chain,
cohesive device. are those, in which receiver; he should placed near one
We distinguish: verbs and subjects track the information another. Ellipses
Grammatical are missing. These R back or forwards to make some
ellipsis: missing used in the comprehend the text hypotheses and
parts R the subject newspaper headlines, correctly. presuppositions about
and the verb- (It is) telegrams, & dialogs There is a the omitted elements,
Stolen. 4 saving space and borderline btw ellipsis which are confirmed
In cases ellipsis R time. & substitution used as or rejected by the
used cataphorically Ellipsis presupposes cohesive devices in context. They cannot
the reader’s interest the existence of texts. The be comprehended
is simulated:”Read shared knowledge or substitution can only without the text they
one (of the first two interest between be used anaphorically appear in.
stories) and we communicative and the two elements
guarantee you will be partners. It often have to be
unable to resist the contributes to orality improximity, for the
 16. Tense & can make inferences model is based on 4. The type of
Aspect. FSP about the continuity the connection of junctives that links
of events, they can Theme- Rheme entities by which one
Tenses are used for upgrade the through the subject of them depends on
expressing past, information. successive sentences the other (because,
present, or future The Functional (Th1- Rh1; Th1 - Rh2; since, while, thus...)
times. Aspect is used Sentence Perspective Th1- Rh3). is called
to show if the action (FSP) is focused on The third model on subordination. They
is momentary, the cohesion, the basis has a main are related with the
continuous, coherence, Theme [T] and the standard if coherence
(in)completed. These informativity, and following themes because they relate
are supported by the situationality. It (Th1, Th2, Th3) are its the sentences
normal ordering concerns with the devices. through causality,
strategies 4 Theme- Rheme The intonation temporality, purpose,
presenting info. organization in the helps for emphasizing etc. Through the use
When the forms of text. The new of new information, of “it” we signal
the verbs do not information, which and it links together modality (If it seems
help, modifiers or carries the capacity spoken surface texts impossible, take a
junctives are used. of information and and it qualify the closer look!).
These distinctions are communicative linkage of concepts Junctives can
made more obvious dynamism, and is not and relation within introduce a new
and precise with the recoverable from the textual world and theme….Junctives as
help of the narrower context, is usually between the textual “so”, “as far as” are
or wider context. In placed at the end of world and the shared used for going back
cases when the the sentence. In the prior knowledge. to a previous theme.
emphasis is put on opposite, the already We use devices, They are often
the vividness of the known information is which serve to used when there is a
text, the actual time recoverable from connect old and new change of the speech
of the activity is not context, either information, clause type (direct-
specifies in the text. because it has been and result, to name indirect).
This technique is mentioned before, or facts, objects and They are also used
used in news because the text events connected by for connecting two
headlines, because producer expects that relations of time, adjacent sentences or
there the time of the the receiver has a space, reason, etc., for connecting blocks
actual happening prior knowledge these devices are the of sentences at a
does not correspond about the junctives, adverbs, greater distance.
to the time of information; and it is numerals and other In the beginning, in
receiving the usually placed at the function words. the middle or in the
information. front part of the The junctives end of the sentence
When the speaker sentence. These two connect sentences. can appear words like
decides either the elements (Theme- They are used as a “besides”, “really”,
deictic center of the Rheme) are closely cohesive device, for “indeed”, “as well”,
message will remain interrelated in the their intratextual which are used for
on the sender of text. There ear linking. There are linking sentences in
information and the different models of four types of them: the text and appear
time of coding event, Th- Rh concatenation 1. The type of mostly in scientific
or to be projected on based on the place of junctives, which links texts.
the receiver and the the Themes and entities of an equal Adverbs such as
time of encoding the Rhemes in the status (and, also, “then”, “earlier”,
information, he uses sentence and their moreover) is called “soon”, etc. express
the “deictic connection with conjunctions. This temporal, spatial, and
simultaneity”. Some following sentences. is the largest logical relations. They
text require the One refers to the category. relate events,
presence of this linear thematic 2. The type of objects, and
simultaneity, progression in a text junctives, which links processes together.
especially when and the link between entities of different By using adverbs of
presenting info. as if the sentences is status (or, either/or) place we make the
received at the achieved through the is called relation between the
moment of is predicate. The Rheme disjunctions. facts more concrete.
sending, and in cases of the first sentence We can also use
when it is actual and is the Theme of the
3. The type of
junctives that links whole phrases
valid only for a second. (Th1- Rh1= including numerals as
entities that are
certain period of time Th2- Rh2 …) “two days after”, “on
opposed in a way
(news reports). By the other model the next day”, “the
(but, however, yet) is
If there are some the Theme of first”, etc. (In a week
called
gaps in the time successive sentences or two, in fact, they
contrajunctions.
organization of the is the same, and the discovered another
text, text receivers Rheme differs, this coffee bar.).
 17. Lexico- field, which is based are situated in combined depends on
thematic Fields on the unity of different places in the the theme or topic in
content and function whole syntagmatic the text or
Words and phrases and consist of the chain. There are subsegments- when
are grouped together “plane of content” other words and we are in restaurant
and are interrelated and “plane of phrases that not we will omit some
in the text. This expression”. There belong to the same words, because of the
happens either are three types of lexico- thematic field background
through lexico- functional semantic between them. In the knowledge, or
thematic fields, or fields according to lexico- thematic field because of the
through nominative their inner there are “key” addresser’s
chains. The lexico- organization: nominations around viewpoint, etc. all this
thematic field is monocentric, which are is connected with
connected with the polycentric, and concentrated the “saliency” in
occurrence of whose elements from main ideas. describing certain
linguistic items linked a continuum. The different phenomena,
to one another Lexico- thematic lexico- thematic fields processes, events,
through their fields help to achieve are closely integrated etc. and these are
semantic meanings. cohesion thanks to and intertwined. the most important
They are thematically the lexical There are no clean features for the text
related in the text organization of boundaries between producer.
with their semantic language and its way them, because a The number of
meanings and they of modeling in the lexeme belonging to lexico- thematic fields
are organized in surface structure. one lexico- thematic differs according to
lexico- thematic Lexemes are grouped field can be related to the specificity of the
fields. The lexems according to their other lexemes from text. In fiction the
are connected with contextual features. other lexico- thematic fields are
one another in Lexico- thematic fields. comparatively
nominative chains. fields represent There are cases in numerous because of
They concern the co- textual nominative which lexemes do not the various topics. In
reference of lexemes complexes, consisting become scientific texts the
naming identical of element monosemantic in the lexico- thematic fields
objects in the text in nominations of text. They can appear are fewer. The actual
a different way. objects, processes, in the text with more meanings of the
The grouping of situations, events, than one virtual words and phrases in
lexemes that have at circumstances, and meaning. That is how scientific texts are
least one semantic other elements from they can combine very close to their
feature, which is the real world with lexemes virtual ones, and in
dominant in all of represented in the belonging to other literary texts the
them is called a text. The nominations lexico- thematic contextual features of
lexico – thematic field are ordered in a fields. Lexemes can lexemes are
or a lexico – linear sequence, be polyvalent, when dominant. In
thematic lines, or constituting a they have more than scientific texts, the
isotopes. Some continuous one sense at one and number of stylistically
researchers treat the syntagmatic chain. the same time. marked units is
continuity of lexems The different words The way words and lower.
in a text as a and phrases from the expressions are
functional- semantic lexico- thematic field selected and
18. Nom. Chains The variety of naming
objects in the
The occurrence of nominative chains is
nominative chains in greater in literary
a text is connected texts. Their fiction is
with the interrelation naming objects and
and grouping of characterizing it in a
lexemes referring to certain way,
the different naming expressing some
of one and the same nuances and adding
objects mentioned in different
the text. characteristics to its
The continuous description. The lack
presence in the of variety can be
surface structure of intentional for
the textual items achieving some kind
referring to a number of emphasis on the
of objects from the object in question.
real world leads to a The elements in the
repetition of one and nominative chains
the same or different can be in adjacent
nominations. stretches of text and
The length of the at a distance from
nominative chains one another.
can vary from two to According to the
“n” elements. There established link there
are more than two are close and distant
nominative chains in links in a text based
a text. Each chain is on relative proximity.
comparatively Short- range parts of
independent, and is surface structure are
connected with the organized as closely-
others in the text. knit patterns of
The first naming of grammatical
the object is dependences, while
occasional, but it has cohesion in long-
to be comparatively range stretches is
convincing because of achieved by re- using
its differentiation previous elements or
from the others. Its patterns, which make
choice depends on the text more stable
the addresser’s and compact.
preferences, goals, All linguistic
and intentions. The mechanisms and
object can be ways for achieving
represented cohesion in the text
independently, but in operate in close
most cases it is in relation to one
connection with other another, leading to
objects from the the whole
textual world. The organization of the
other members of the text. Next to these
nominative chain some non- verbal
have to support the means can also be
identity of the given used.
object. Each
successive member
of the nominative
chain can refer to the
object in a number of
ways: by repetition
(Mark… Mark), by
substituting with a
pronoun (Mark… he),
synonym (it rains… it
pours), paraphrase or
making a zero lexical
repetition (He stood
up and Ø went to
close the window.).
 19. COHERENCE which is usually knowledge about a relations are
placed in the active central concept. activated by linguistic
For B&D storage, where Frames state what expressions, which
coherence is elements are kept things belong are related to one
connected with and processed together in principle. another through
continuity of according to their Frames and grammatical
sentences in the importance. Well- presuppositions we independences in the
textual world. If there integrated chunks of have about them surface text. The
is a lack of continuity knowledge are more make the pragmatic control centers
the text cannot be easily and efficiently interpretation of supporting the main
considered coherent. remembered than utterances easier, topics re primary
They interpret single isolated even in cases in concepts- objects,
coherence as a elements. If an item which the information situations, events,
standard underlying of knowledge is is presented in an etc. there are
the surface text, activated, then other unusual way. additional ones,
connecting it with the items associated with Schemas are global which are called
deep structure level it in active storage patterns of events secondary concepts-
in a text. The are also activated. and states in ordered state, agent, location,
standard of This is called sequences inked by relation, etc.
coherence cannot be spreading activation. time proximity and Grammatical heads
discussed in isolation By decoding text causality. Unlike are usually primary
from the other we use our episodic frames, schemas are concepts. The
constitutive (related with the own always arrayed in a concepts supporting
standards; it is in experience) and progression, so that the surface text are
constant interrelation semantic memory hypotheses can set greater in number
with the standard of (reflects the inherent up about what will be than the linguistic
cohesion. Words and patterns of the done or mentioned items used to express
phrases are used with organization of next in a textual their content.
their actual knowledge). world, and these Coherence and
meanings, making Determinate patterns are leading cohesion are closely
sense in the text. knowledge concerns to a goal. connected; they
Linguistic items all concepts and is B&D differentiate cannot be discussed
normally have more essential for their plans and schemas- a independently,
than one virtual comprehension. planner evaluates all without taking
meaning and only Typical knowledge is elements in terms of participants in
one sense in a text. If when using most but how they advance communication into
the sense that the not all instances f the toward his goal. They consideration. The
text producer has concept. To call the stabilized degree of coherence
implied in the text accidental knowledge plans scripts, which of a text depends on
does not become refer components differ from plans by the successful
clear at once, there is which are true of rare having a pre- interpretation and
non- determinacy. If instances. established routine, comprehension on
the virtual meaning Determinate and are usually used the addressees’ part.
of a polysemantic knowledge is for representing
word or phrase that connected with information about
is used does not prototype theory and stereotypic episodes
become the principle of family based on the
monosemantic in the resemblances. The structure of the
text, then there is common features of human mind with
ambiguity. If the text each one of the which they are
producer’s intentions category members of connected.
are connected with the class of person Coherence is based
producing multiple (man, woman, child) on the combination of
senses in a text, will be: can talk, can concepts and
there is polyvalence. walk, and can think. relations activated in
The correct The text is a text. All language
interpretation of the coherent and expressions on
information is acceptable if the surface level serve to
connected with the information in it is render concepts.
receiver’s common - organized around Relations of the kind
sense knowledge well connected global “state of”, “agent of”,
about events and cognitive models, are used to link
situations. This related to knowledge concepts to one
knowledge can be of basic concepts. another. The
expressed through The patterns are concepts & relations
language, but they stored as complete are related into a
are not equivalent. chunks in our minds. network, which
People usually can For B&D frames are consist of “knowledge
reproduce the global patterns, spaces” grouped
information behind which contain around main topics.
the surface structure, commonsense These concepts and
20. Intentionality There is a constant planning. This is a
interdependence btw complex of problem-
People can reduce mental spaces and solving, which is used
and receive text, for cognitive models in a for achieving the
various reasons not text occurring in a expected goal in a
always cohesive and certain situation. The given situation. The
coherent. The intentions of text plan can begin in the
attitudes of text producers are current state, or at
users should also be projected onto the an initial state. As a
included when text on the default, the goal
judging different assumption that state should be
texts. receivers share the desirable from the
Acc. 2 B&D same or similar planner’s standpoint.
intentionality cognitive models. Planning can vary. It
concerns the text The situation in depends on a number
producer’s attitude which text occur of factors; some are
that the set of plays an important connected with the
occurrences should role in producing a possibility of
constitute a cohesive text. In some achieving the
and coherent text situations producer’s goal, the
instrumental in (conversation) duration if making
fulfilling the cohesion and plan, etc.
producer’s intentions, coherence can be The discourse
to distribute impaired, but this action leading to a
knowledge or to does not block change in a situation
attain a goal specified communication, in has to be carefully
in a plan. cases participants are planed if the text
Intentionality is also tolerant. producer is trying to
connected with the Coherence can be direct the situation
addresser’s conative impaired 4 achieving toward a goal. This
intentions and with special effects. can be achieved by
the manipulative (Jokes: Why a blonde situation
effects from the washes her hair and management.
explicit and implicit walks around the
rendering of info. bathroom? – Because
Which of the it is said “wash and
linguistic elements go”)
should be explicitly The ≠ aspects of
and implicitly intentionality are
rendered depends on closely related with
the addresser’s different ways of
intentions and on expressing modality
language recourses in the text: explicitly-
for realization. The through the usage of
type of text modal verbs,
influences the choice imperative and
of linguistic conditionals;
structures and the implicitly- through
combinations of some occurrences in
semantic, structural the indicative mood.
and contextual The conative
meaning in the text. intentions are carried
Some text types are more successfully if
built on some metaphoric and
discontinuities which poetic words and
do not block expressions are used
participant’s in the text, the
communication. The degree of
functional content of intentionality in such
the text is connected cases increases.
with a widening of The question of
meaning and with the intentionality is
cognitive models of closely related with
the senders and the acts of speech,
receivers of info. which deals with the
Cognitive models matter of conventions
provide frames that and intended effects.
are closely related The step text
with the general producers take for
human and culture- carrying their goal
specific experience. are connected with
21. Acceptability unusual occurrences 5. the degree
in text. For example texts are connected
The standard of in the news reports
to other similar or
intentionality is are using auxiliaries known texts.
closely related with and articles are
the standard of omitted in the
acceptability, which headline and in the
characterizes the body.
position of recipients Texts are more
expecting to accept a easily accepted if
text that is relevant there are some
and useful for them. salient elements in
It is also connected them, because in this
with the expectations way the information
about the semantic can be easily
structures of the text. remembered.
In cases, in which Informativity is
there is information increased through
that do not ambiguities,
correspond to our polyvalences,
expectations about vagueness, and
the real world, we indefiniteness. These
need additional do not impede
linguistic or acceptability, because
extralinguistic the text can be
indicators. This interpret in more
principle is than one way, and
functionally similar to because with the help
the regulative of the whole text, the
principles, because information is made
the judgment is made monosemantic and
by the receiver. If he disambiguated.
accepts the text with Intentionality and
its peculiarities, acceptability are
referring to its form, closely interrelated.
the type of text, and Intentionality is
the topic of connected with the
discussion, than he goals of the text
may be tolerant to producer, while he
some disturbances. fulfils his plan; and
In connected acceptability is
discourse, the connected with the
sentences are way that the receiver
interrelated; they are accepts the
not isolated from producer’s goals and
each other, with the intentions. The
help of next standing common between
sentences. The them is that both
addressees can standards depend on
accept the factors like:
information while 1. the
filling the missing degree participants’
links by themselves,
models of the real
so it seems to them world differ or are
that they have made
alike;
the inferences, which 2.the degree general
the addresser is
human and culture-
trying to apply. specific knowledge of
The standard of
participants coincides
acceptability is or overlaps;
connected with the
3.wether the center
degree of of orientation is one
informativity in texts,
and the same for
which is greater, if different participants;
there are more
4.the ways and
containing in means participants
themselves implicit
are using while
information fulfilling their goals
structures. The text
and plans;
receivers are prone
to be tolerant to the
 22. Informativity semantic density. consider to be the interestingness
Function words can generally applicable and the effectiveness
Informativity is also appear in slots to some real or of the text as a
closely connected occupied by content recoverable situation whole. Such are
with the content of words: “I am sick and or event, constitute common in
texts, and with tired of your “ifs””. their beliefs. journalistic texts.
coherence as a text- Inform. is People judge the The info is
centered notion. considered to be real world acc. to sequentially and
Informativity is a second- order in their experiences, logically ordered, the
user- centered cases occurrences are sensations & cause is followed by
standard, because below the upper emotions. By the effect or he
the participants in degree from the monitoring a visual result.
communication probability scale, or a sense, one starts with Informativety is a
decide what linguistic third- order in cases the most important standard closely
means they will use of occurrences fall to less important connected with
while presenting the outside the set of things. If one must various ways and
information in an more or less probable describe an event, means of selecting
appropriate, effective options. Texts one will preserve the and arranging
and efficient way. A normally contain temporal order in information in texts.
text will be more second- order which it has Some of these means
informative if it occurrences. When happened. These are the play of words,
contains new needed first- order tendencies are the use of new
information, or if occurrences can be connected with coinages, and the use
some parts of the upgraded and third – preferences, though of occasionalisms,
text are made order ones can be they are not which are only valid
salient. Informativity downgraded to keep obligatory and can be for the particular
is also connected with the medium order. modified acc. to way. The degree of
intentionality and Third- order Infor. participants’ tastes. informativity is higher
acceptability, because R interesting and The 2nd source of if there are implicit
it is very important to provocative. These expectations about a predication units,
whom the are patterns used in text in connection substantive and
information is a text that do not with informativity is absolute nominal
addressed. The meet receiver’s the organization of constructions,
degree of expectations. the language used ambiguity and
informativity is either Downgrading can in a text. polyvalence, etc. The
low or high, but not have several The 3rd source of occurrences of
one and the same directionalities. If text expectations comes elliptical expressions
through the text. receivers can not from the techniques are highly effective
B&D point out that understand the text, 4 arranging info and informative.
there R 3 orders of they can go back and according to the Their comprehension
informativity: 1. connect the importance of presupposes common
upper degree; 2. information with a elements within a background
lower degree; and 3. previous 1- sentence (FSP and knowledge and
apparently outside backward intonation). common interests
the set altogether. downgrading. If The 3 sources of among the
The occurrence of they go forth in the expectation are communicative
an option in the text, a forward interrelated and partners. The most
upper range of downgrading is cannot be discussed frequent cases of
probability would made; & if they try to separately. occurrences are
convey first- order find clues outside the The 4th source is second- order ones.
informativity. These text, they R doing text type. People Infor. is also
occurrences are used outward usually make some connected with
in all texts and they downgrading. If the predictions about the intentionality and
do not get much receiver can not possible linguistic acceptability. One
attention. By using make the necessary options that can and the same
them too much the links in the text, then possibly occur in a information can be of
text become dull and it will seem senseless certain type of text. different orders for
boring. The language to them. The reason The 5th source of different participants
allows economy by could be lacking of a expectations is the in actual comm.,
omitting some backgr. knowledge & immediate context, in depending on their
function words like in experience. which the text background
telegrams, B&D define the real appears. knowledge, way of
advertisements, world as a socially In discussing a viewing the world,
newspaper, weather dominant model of text, we should first etc.; it can be also
forecasts, etc. the human situation identify language accepted in different
Content words are and its environment’. techniques that ways.
more informative. Acc. 2 them indicate expectations, Infor. is closely
The use of more such propositions R true in which can be drawn connected with
words omitting that world & they R from the text itself. situationality. If
function words if even to facts, which a All sources of participants are not
possible increases the person or groups expectations increase familiar with the
situation the text Infor. may be very
appears in, for them high.
23. Situationality advertised product or communication in the
to avail themselves of desired way.
Disregarding the the offered services.
source all texts Situation
appear in, they monitoring is conn. +
should be related to the description of
the situation of objects and events.
occurrence. A One and the same
language functions in event will be
a given situation. The presented ≠ by
information in text different producers.
usually gives answers In cases in which
to some special participants have ≠
questions: who, to opinions of one and
whom, (about) what, the same thing, they
when, where, how, can start negotiating
which are connected with the help of
+ the communicative situation monitoring
situation, which may until a consensus is
coincide to the reached. This
situation described in happens when a
the text (news process of
reports on electronic negotiating take
media). In the place. Here is used a
printed media the repetition, because
situation described in people get confused
texts is usually and try to make
referred to the date things clearer. There
the newspaper is are words like “you
issued and there are know”,” (not) used to
words like something”, etc.
“yesterday”, “last If receivers are
week”, “tomorrow” to unwilling to share the
be found. The usage text producer’s views
of such words is arises a problem. If
exophoric and it some of the
contributes to the participants’
linking of the text monitoring fails to
with the context of fulfill their tasks and
situation. Is fiction than should be
the use of adverbials undertaken some
of time and place change of tactics.
refers to the situation If people want
either to the something to happen,
preceeding text, or to they try to convince
some following info. the other participant
The written text is in the conversation
anonymous; and an and go on negotiating
oral text is not, the subject of
because here the concern.
participants share The acceptability of
space and time. It is a text and its
used the situation relevance to a
monitoring / situation situation depends on
management. It is the participants’
very difficult to beliefs and prior
decide weather the knowledge of similar
function is connected situations and
with the monitoring expectations about
or managing a the real world. There
situation or is it the are many situations,
producer’s goals. in which a text can
Advertisements are appear, but in main
constructed situations types are
resembles limited. In all kinds of
monitoring, although situations monitoring
the aim of such texts and managing are
is to persuade their used to steer the
audiences to buy the
24. Intertextuality
the participants’ with the help of schemas and frames.
Intertextuality is a knowledge of other intertextuality and Mental imagery also
standard referring to texts and genres. The their comprehension helps in decoding a
the receiver’s time for building a depends mostly on text in cases
knowledge of other connection of a text stored knowledge involving location and
texts with which a with previous texts is patterns. time. Causal relations
text is connected different and depends Another are also taken into
explicitly and on the commonsense important factor consideration.
implicitly. A text does knowledge different connected with the There is some
not carry sense on its participants have of intertextuality is text interaction between
own. Textual other texts. This is allusion. It occurs text-presented
knowledge is called mediation and when a text is related knowledge and the
interrelated with is closely connected to another text real world, which can
commonsense with different text implicitly or explicitly. be applied, altered or
knowledge about the types and genres. There is no signal enriched. These
world, which every Mediation is less in about this reference factors vary with
user of a language conversation, in and the original different participants.
has. The knowledge summarizing or meaning is changed In analyzing
readers have about evaluating other to suit the new we should look to
previous texts should texts, or when context. Text allusion discover some
be activated in order referring to well- can add some systematic
to successfully known texts cultural aspects to a regularities,
achieving of the (speeches or works of text. There are conventions and
information. The literature). various types of strategies, which can
recipients should also Text receivers allusion, which are be applied to all
have good command use their knowledge called varieties: texts; and in what
of the about text types 1. through a verbal way they can be
presuppositions of while comprehending reference to another adapted or modified
the given text and various texts. They text; to suit the
the intentions of text make some 2. through communicative
producers. presuppositions about situation, if needed.
epigraphs (quotation
Intertextuality the information in Intertextuality
at the beginning of
is a standard that them. Texts are is a standard which
the text);
puts emphasis more related not only to increases the degree
3. through names
on the previously of implicitness and
of characters;
interdependence encountered texts informativity in text.
4. through choice of
between texts’ reader but also to text within It provokes the
titles;
than on their one and the same reader’s interest in
The text raises
discreteness or discourse. the text. In using
problems inherent
uniqueness. This is a Reliance on intertextuality text
more to the
link between texts previous text is used producers rely on
presentation than in
that make them often in information they are
the content of the
unique. The advertisements, sure corresponds
textual world.
autonomy of texts is which often make best to the recipients’
If there are
another criterion for references to the prior knowledge and
some information
their comprehension. Bible. There the time personal experience
gasps or missing links
Written texts are used for meditation is about similar texts,
while decoding texts,
autonomy, while not much, but this discussing similar
they are filled with
spoken texts are less text is well known to problems and
the help of receiver’s
autonomous, because everybody, or if not, analogous facts,
presuppositions,
participants share one can recognize the guaranteeing
inferences and
space and time. source because of its intertextuality
spreading activation
The decoding content. The jokes and their use of
of text depends on are also constructed