Ports and harbors conduct four important functions:

I. Administrative (ensuring that the legal, socio-political and economic interests of the state
and international maritime authorities are protected),
II. Development (ports are major promoters and instigators of a country’s or wider regional
economy),
III. Industrial (major industries process the goods imported or exported in a port), and
IV. Commercial (ports are international trade junction points where various modes of
transport interchange; loading, discharging, transit of goods).
HARBOUR:-
It is partly enclosed area which provides safe and suitable accommodation for supplies,
refueling, repair, loading and unloading cargo.
PORT:-
A port is a harbour where marine terminal facilities are provided.A port is a place which
regularly provides accommodation for the transfer of cargo and passengers to and from the ships.

Port = Harbour + Storage Facility + Communication Facility + Other Terminal Facility.

From above,It can be stated that a port includes a harbour i.e. every port is a harbour.

COMPONENTS OF HARBOR:

 Entrance Channel

 Break Water

 Turning Basin

 Shelter Basin

 Pier

 Wharf

 Quay

 Dry Dock

 Wet Dock

 Jetty
 ENTRANCE CHANNEL:-Water area from which ships enter in the harbour and it
should have sufficient width, 100 for small harbour, 100 to 160m for medium and 160 to 260m
for large harbour.

 BREAK WATER:-A protective barrier made up of Concrete or Course Rubble Masonry

constructed from shore towards the sea to enclose harbour .

 TURNING BASIN:-It is water area which is required for maneuvering the ship after
entering to the harbour and it is large enough to permit free turning.

 SHELTER BASIN:-It is area protected by shore and breakwater.

 PIER:-It is a solid platform at which berthing of ships on both the sides are possible.

 WHARF:-It is a docking platform constructed parallel to shoreline providing berthing

facility on one side only.

 QUAY:-It is also dock parallel to the shore which is solid structure providing berthing on
one side and retaining the earth on the other.

 DRY DOCK:-It is a chamber provided for maintenance, repairs and construction of

ships. It includes walls, floor and gate.

 WET DOCK:-Due to variation in tidal level, an enclosed basin is provided where in

number of ships can be berthed. It has an entrance which is controlled by a lock gate.

 JETTY:-It is a solid platform constructed perpendicular to the shoreline for berthing of

ships.

 QUAY:-It is also dock parallel to the shore which is solid structure providing berthing on
one side and retaining the earth on the other.

 DRY DOCK:-It is a chamber provided for maintenance, repairs and construction of

ships. It includes walls, floor and gate.

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD HARBOUR

 It should be connected with roadway and railway.

 Surrounding land should be fertile and densely populated.

 Ship channels must have sufficient depth for draft or vessel.

 Breakwaters must be provided to protect against destructive wave action.

 The bottom should furnished secure anchorage to hold ships against the wind force.
 Numbers of quay, piers and wharfs should be sufficient for loading and unloading cargo.

 It should have facilities like fuel, repair and etc. for ships.

 Harbour area should be sufficiently large.

 It should have enough cold storage.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARBOURS

1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PROTECTION NEEDED

Natural Harbor:-Harbor protected by storms and waves by natural land contours, rocky out
crops, or island that is called Natural Contour. (Eg. Kandla port, Cochin port & Mumbai
Harbour)

Semi – natural harbor: A semi – natural harbor is protected on the sides by the contours of land
and requires manmade protection only to the entrance. (Eg. Mandvi, Veraval & Visakhapatnam
port).

Artificial Harbor:-An artificial harbour is one which is manmade and protected from storms
and waves by engineering works. (Eg. Chennai Harbour)

2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON UTILITY

Commercial Harbor:-It is an harbor in which docks are provided with necessary facilities for
loading and unloading of cargo. (Eg. Chennai Harbour)

Refuge Harbour:-These are used as a heaven for ships in a storm or it may be part of a
commercial harbour.(Eg. Chennai Harbour & Visakhapatnam Harbour)

Military Harbour:- It is a naval base for the purpose of accommodating naval ships or vessels
and it serves as a supply depot.(Eg. Mumbai Harbour & Cochin Harbour)

Fishing Harbour:-These harbours have facilities for departure and arrival of fishing ships. They
have also necessary arrangement to catch fish.

3. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON LOCATION

 Ocean Harbour

 River Harbour

 Canal Harbour

 Lake Harbour
CLASSIFICATION OF PORTS:-

Ocean Port:- This is a port intended for large ocean going ships.

River Port:-River port is located on the banks of the river inside the land.

Entry Port:-This is location where foreign citizens and goods are cleared through custom house.

Free Port:- This is an isolated and enclosed area within which goods may be landed, stored,
mixed, repacked, manufactured and reshipped without payment of duties.

ADVANTAGES OF WATER TRANSPORTATION

Specific function, objectives and the advantages derived from water transportations facilities are
summarized below:

 Easiest and cheapest mode of communication by utilization of natural surfaces of canals,

rivers and oceans, as the element of friction during traction and maintenance are less than
road transport.

 Require cheap manual, wind and steam motive power.

 Higher load carrying capacity for bulky and heavy commodities.

 Development of industry.

 Development of commerce and expansion of trades.

 Development of agriculture.

 Development of natural resources and their effective use.

 Discovery of new island is possible.

 Development of economic progress and international contact.

 Provide enhanced mobility and promotes social and political unity.

 Assistance in the problem of national defense.

DISADVANTAGES OF WATER TRANSPORTATION

 It requires more time due to slow speed and circuitous routes. Final docking stages
require greater skill.

 Mountainous rivers and waterfalls hinder water transportation. Require better position
fixing and obstruction detecting systems to avoid surface collision.
  Frequent storms results in great loss of life and material.

 Rapid growth in demand which is more than the capacity of existing facilities.

 Vessels oil spillage, noise smoke and fumes cause pollution and endanger marine lives.

 Uncertainty problem, like energy shortage problem due to political and natural causes.

 Energy conservation concern because of energy problem of transportation development.

HARBOUR PLANNING

 It is necessary to carry out a topography survey of the neighborhood including the

foreshore and the depths of water in the vicinity.

 The borings and soundings should be taken to ascertain the character of the ground.

 The borings on land should also be made so as to know the probable subsurface
conditions on land. It will be helpful in locating the harbour works correctly.

 The nature of harbour, whether sheltered or not, should be studied.

 The existence of sea insects which undermine the foundations should be noted.

 The problem of silting or erosion of coastline should be carefully studied.

 The natural meteorological phenomena should be studied at site especially with respect to
frequency of storms, rainfall, range of tides, maximum and minimum temperature,
direction and intensity of winds, humidity, direction and velocity of currents, etc.

SITE SELECTION FOR HARBOUR:-

The guiding factors which play a great role in choice of site for a harbour are as follows:

 Availability of cheap land and construction material;

 Transport and communication facilities;
 Natural protection from winds and waves;
 Industrial development of the locality;
 Sea – bed, subsoil and foundation conditions;
 Traffic potentiality of harbour;
 Availability of electrical energy and fresh water;
 Favorable marine conditions;
 Defense and strategic aspects; etc.
BREAKWATER

Breakwater is a protective barrier constructed to form an artificial harbour with a water area so
protected from the effect of sea waves as to provide safe accommodation for shipping.

Design Process of Breakwater:-

 Character of coastal Current

 Direction and force of Winds

 Availability & Cost of Material

 Natural of Foundation

 Probable maximum Height, Force & Intensity of waves

Forces acting on Breakwater:-

 Hydrostatic force,

 Wind force,

 Wave action,

 Solvent action

 Sea insects

Factors Determining Selection of Breakwater:-

 Availability of Construction Material

 Depth of Water

 Condition of Sea Foundation

 Availability of Equipment

Types of Breakwaters:-

 Vertical Wall Type

 Rubble Mound Type

 Composite Type

Vertical Wall Type Breakwater:-

 Concrete block gravity wall

  Stone and concrete masonry

 Concrete caissons

 Rock filled sheet pile cells

 Rock filled timber cribs

 Concrete or steel sheet pile walls

Suitable For….

 Sea bed is non – erodable,

 No chances of differential settlement of foundation,
 Depth of water > 2T Maximum wave height.

 Rubble Mound Type Breakwater:-

 Natural Rock

 Concrete Block

 Combination of Both

 Consist of three layers…

 The core-consists of quarry waste

 The intermediate layer-used for protecting slopes and the top of the core-consists of rubble
stones

 Top layer- upper portion of breakwater consists of blocks weighing 11-10 tones
 Composite Type Breakwater:-

 The solid super structure protected by a parapet on the sea face,

 Provides a platform for handling cargo,

 It has a rubble base over which a vertical wall type breakwater is constructed,

 Combination of mound and vertical wall type breakwater,

 Methods of Protection of Breakwater:-

 By arrangement of heavy concrete blocks,

 By paving using granite blocks,

 Using tetrapodes and tribars.

Comparison of Mound type & Vertical Wall type Breakwater:-

Mound Type Vertical Wall Type

Wave breaks at the breakwater. Reflect the wave energy.

Large entrance. Narrower entrance.

Regular maintenance necessary. Maintenance is practically eliminated.

Can be constructed on any type of foundation. Require a firm foundation.

Recommended where plenty of rocks Recommended when there is shortage of rock.

available.

Require unskilled labour. Require skilled labour.

Merits of Mound type Breakwater:-

 No special equipment needed,

 Require unskilled labour,
 Large size rubbles can be used without dressing,
 Constructed on any type of foundation,
 Construction is porous, hence no possibility of uplift.

Demerits of Mound type Breakwater:-

 Require huge quantity of material,
 Initial cost high,
 Regular maintenance,
 Harbour side can not be used for mooring ships,
 Occupancy large area of basin.
Merits of Wall type Breakwater:-
 Narrower entrance, hence greater protection to the sheltered area,
 Harbour side of the breakwater can be used for mooring ships,
 recommended where shortage of rock,
 Maintenance is practically eliminated,
 It increase size of harbour basin,
 Reduces the amount of material.
Demerits of Wall type Breakwater:-
 Skilled labourers are required,
 Special equipments are required for construction,
 Repairing is difficult,
 Require a firm foundation.
WHARVES
These are platforms at which vessels take on and discharge passengers and cargo on one side and earth
retained on other.
 It’s a platform built parallel to shoreline,
 Should give sufficient depth of water for the ship to float,
 Wharves built parallel with the shore are called quays,
 Built to retain or protect the embankment or filling.
TYPES OF WHARVES
1. Open construction wharves:-
Wharves of open construction have their decks supported by piles or cylinders.
 It can be either high level decks or relieving type platforms,
 Can be made of timber, R.C.C, or both,
 Pre cast or pre stressed slab or beam are economical.
2. Solid type wharves:-
These are composed of earth or rock fill partly confined by some sort of bulkhead.
 Depth less than 15m, bottom suitable for support of gravity type of structure, steel pile cells are
best suited,
 Cells act as a gravity wall of sufficient weight,
 Resist over turning or sliding at base.

QUAY WALLS
Wharves built parallel with the shore are called quays.
Function:-
 To retain and protect the embankment or filling on the landward side,
 To provide berthing on the sea side,
 To support the platform above.
JETTIES
A narrow structure projecting from the shore into water with berths on one or both sides and
sometimes at the end also.
 In the form of piled projections,
 Constructed outside the harbour or inside the harbour
 When built in combination with a breakwater then it is known as breakwater pier.
USES OF JETTIES
 Jetty is a solid platform constructed perpendicular to the shoreline or breakwater,

 It provides berth to ships,

 It is used for handling inflammable materials like petrol, diesel, kerosene, crude oil etc.

 It can be used for dredging in the approach channel

TYPES OF JETTIES

1. Solid structure:-
 It is usually of mound breakwater type,
 Used more for the prevention of silting in the entrance channel.
2. Piled structure:-
A. Open pile jetties
 Cheaper than the solid type but having same durability
 Can’t be used where jetty is required to be very wide
 Timer, R.C.C., steel
 Steel jetties are supported on screw piles
 Timer and R.C.C. are suitable for large jetties
B. Piled and cylinder jetties
 Piles are completely encased in concrete cylinders
 Piles carry loads of whole structure and cylinders don’t
 Capable of sustaining heavy impacts from ships
PIERS
• Piers are the structure built at angle with the shore.

• On both sides of a pier berths are provided.

 Type:-

(A) Open or solid construction

 Open pier are constructed over open water on exposed timber or concrete piles

 Open pier are used where minimum restriction of currents is specified

  These piers are relatively more economical as narrow piers in deep water

DOLPHINS

They are the marine structures located at the entrance of the locked or alongside a pier or a wharf.

 Uses:-

 To absorb the impact force of the ships

 To provide mooring facilities i.e. for typing up ships

 They are also used to shorten the length of piers and wharves

 Types:-

(A) Breasting Type

 Provided in front of the sea face of the pier of wharf.

 Designed to take the impact of ship while docking and are equipped with fenders

(B) Mooring Type

 Located behind the seaward force of the berth

 They are provided with bollards or mooring posts and with capstans where heavy lines are to be
handled

 Smaller than breasting dolphins

FENDERS

A fender is a form of a cushion is provided on a jetty face for ships to come in contact.

 The fender can be made of different materials in various forms

 It absorbs the impact of ship and protect them from damage

 Qualities of good fenders:-

 They should have a high capacity for absorbing energies during berthing of a ship

 They should be simple in design and construction and easily replaceable

 It must be able to resist tangential forces effectively

 They should not be easily damaged during berthing

 They should not damage ship’s hull

Types of Fenders:-

(A) Wooden Fender

 Simplest form of wooden fender are in the form of horizontal wooden member.

 They absorb energy because of deflection when struck by a ship

(B) Rubber Fenders

 The simplest form of rubber fenders are rubber tires hung over the side of the dock.

 Rubber fenders are supported by wire rope attached to eye bolt set in the concrete dock wall

MOORING ACCESSORIES

Arrangement such as bow, stern, spring and breast lines are necessaries to hold the ship stationary with
the dock & to load or unload the cargo as well as passenger.

Types of Mooring Accessories

Bollards

This is fastened to single or double bollards which are located along the face of the dock 15 to 27 m
apart with the help of ship lines such as bow, stern lines, spring and breast lines

Chocks

Open or closed chocks are used for directing lines on to the correst post avoiding the lines from rubbing
against sharp edges.

Corner mooring post

These are located at the out shore corners of a pier or at the ends of the wharf.

• These posts are designed to take greater loads than that on bollards which is about 50 tones line
pull.

• Used mainly to bring the ship into the dock or to wrap it around the corner of pier or dolphin.

Cleats

Cleats are used to tie small vessels such as; small ships, tugs and workboats.

• These are usually spaced about 10 to 13m apart along the face of the dock.
Capstans

It has a revolving cylindrical surface

• These are used to wind the ship’s line and thus to pull the ship along the docking platform after
which the lines are secured to the bollards.

• They may be pneumatically or electrically operated.

TIDES AND WAVES: Some of the natural and meteorological phenomena which primarily affect the
location and design of the harbour. They are as follows:

 Coastal currents and evidences of sitting, including littoral drift or coast erosion.
 Tides and tidal range.
 Wind, wave and their combined effect on harbour structures.

Tides:

Tides on the coast-line are caused by the sun and moon.

The effect of tides is to artificially raise and lower the mean sea level during certain stated periods.

This apparent variation of mean sea level is known as the tidal range.

Spring tides and Neap tides:

At new and full moon or rather a day or two after (or twice in each lunar month), the tides rise higher
and fall lower than at other times and these are called Spring tides.

Also one or two days after the moon is in her quarter i.e. about seven days from new and full moons
(twice in a lunar month), the tides rise and fall less than at other times and are then called neap tides.

Waves and wind:

The ‘sea wave’ is by far the most powerful force acting on harbour barriers and against which the
engineer has to contend.

The wave has the impulse of a huge battering ram and equipped with the point of a pick axe and chisel
edge”.

It is the most in compressible natural phenomena.

The formation of storm waves takes place in the open sea due to the action of wind.

Water waves are of two kinds:

• Waves of oscillation and

• Waves of translation;
  The former are stationary, while the latter possess forward motion.
 But all translatory waves originally start as waves of oscillation and, become translatory by
further wind action.
 The harbour engineer’s main concern is the translatory wave.

NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

Necessity for signals:

The mariner and his ship have to be guided by proper signals during navigation, especially,

(1) to avoid dangerous zones like hidden rocky outcrop and sand bars,

(2) to follow proper approaches and

(3) to locate ports.

Fixed and floating light stations:

 The light stations when they are built on land are called fixed as in the case of permanent
lighthouse structures.
 Such structures are located either in the hinterland close to the shore or in the sea on
submerged outcrops and exposed to the fury of the waves.
 Alternately, where there are difficulties in establishing proper foundations; floating light rations
in the form of a light vessel may be adopted.
 Buoys of standard shapes also belong to the ‘floating type and are generally used to demarcate
boundaries of approach channels in harbour basins.
Lighthouse:
 It is a lofty structure popularly built of masonry or reinforced concrete in the shape of a tall
tower on a high pedestal.
 The tower is divided into convenient number of floors, the topmost floor containing powerful
lighting equipment and its operating machinery.
 The lower floors are used, as stores and living rooms necessary for the maintenance and
working of the light station.
 The main parts of a typical lighthouse tower are illustrated in fig.
 Lighthouses may be located on shore or on islands away from the mainland as in the case of
warning light stations.
 In the former case, the lighthouse may be easily connected with the nearest village or township
by proper communications, while in the later situation it is located far habited area.
 In either case as a matter of convenience and urgency, all the requirements for the efficient and
unfailing maintenance and working of the lighthouse, like stores and staff quarters are provided
in the lighthouse shaft.
Lighthouse construction:

It is quite evident that the type of foundation to be adopted for a particular situation will depend on the
characteristics of soil of that area.

On good rock or hard soil, a thick bed of concrete may serve while on submarine or marshy locations,
piles or caissons could be used.

The superstructure is generally a masonry or an R.C.C tower constructed on a prominent basement.

The stone or concrete blocks used in the construction of the basement are joggled both vertically and
horizontally as shown in fig.

To secure and bind the blocks together and resist strongly forces tending to dislodge or move them.

The tower is divided into a number of floors and the light is housed at the summit in a glazed room.

The floors are accessible by a flight of winding stairs from bottom to top.

Just below the lantern room is the service room and other rooms lower down are used for oil and
general stores, personnel, and other accessories like water storage and fire fighting apparatus.

A narrow gallery is provided outside the lantern room protected by pipe railing.

The dimensions and geometrical shapes shown in the figure are adopted in modern practice and more
recent lighthouse like the Eddystone are examples of this type of construction.

The light should be identified and its distance ascertained, for the mariner to locate his position.

These lights are made ‘fixed’ or flashing for easy identification by the navigator and are classified
accordingly to their illuminating power.

The height of the tower above sea level determines the geographical range and the intensity or power
of the light the luminous range.

These two are important factors, deciding the range of visibility.

The illumination is both refracted through powerful lenses and prisms and reflected or flashed by highly
polished hyperbolic concave mirrors fig.shows the details of the light apparatus.

Fixed lights are likely to be confused with the private lights of the neighbourhood and hence, it is
desirable to avoid fixed lights as far as possible.

Light signals

These signals are subdivided into three types:

(1) Light ships

(2) Beacons

(3) Buoys.

Light ships:

• Small ships displacing about 500 tonnes are used for this purpose.

• The lantern is carried on an open steel tower approximately 9 m to 12 m above the water level and
erected amidships.

• The light apparatus consists of four pairs of mirror reflectors placed around the light and made to
revolve at a suitable speed emitting ,a predetermined number of flashes.

• The ship is with service personnel and is securely anchored or moored.

• light ships are more stable and the lights in them more steady which is an important factor for a
mariner.

• The hulls of light ships are built of steel and they are generally painted with red colour.

• The name of the station is painted in white colours on both sides of light ship.

• The superstructures are also provided with white colours.

• The storm warning signals are also installed on the light ships.

• When the light ships are being overhauled, red colour relief light ships with the word ‘Relief’ on the
sides are used.

Beacons:

• Any prominent object, natural or artificially constructed, easily indentifiable and capable of being used
as a means to indicate and guide in navigation is generally designated as a beacon.

• Lofty topographical feature like hill summit, building or structure like a church steeple, or factory
chimney, could all be made use of as beacons.

 Alternately, a beacon could be built in the form of an open tapering frame work, with a wide
stable base and gradually narrowed top, terminating in a distinctive figure, like a triangle or
circle as shown in fig.
 The distinctive geometrical figure is suitably painted so as to cause prominence.
Buoys:

• Buoys are floating structures of small size employed for demarcation like entrances, approach channel
used for indicating direction changes in means of alignment. Beacons are thus of the navigation.

• Beacons are navigation or as immense help in boundaries and so on.

• They are moored to sinkers, or heavy anchors, with the help of heavy chains, whose length are two to
three times the depth of water and which are 70 to 90 mm in diameter.

• They are useful in indicating approach channel widths, two rows of buoys being used one along each
boundary.

• These buoys are denominated ‘Star board-hand’ or ‘port-hand’ buoys according to their positions
being to the left or right of the navigator respectively as he approaches the harbour.

• Buoys are of different designs and patterns. They are designed not only to support their own weight,
but also the weight of cables or chains by which they are moored.

• The surface of buoy structure near water line should be protected by the provision of stout wooden
fendering so that it is not seriously damaged in case of an impact.

• Thus, buoys are floating signals and they are usually prepared of steel and iron plates of minimum
thickness 6 nun.

• Buoys are hollow structures and they are constructed in two watertight sections so that in case one of
them is leaky, at least the other one may prevent it from sinking.

• The maxi mum distance between consecutive buoys is about 16Q0 m in estuaries and in narrow
channels, it is about 150 m to 300 m.

• The diameter of a buoy varies from 1 80 m to 3 m.

• In tidal places, the depth of water is liable to fluctuation and hence, in such cases, the buoys are not
steady and they do not give correct guidance regarding alignment.

• The presence of buoys also indicates the proximity of places with shallow depth of water.

• Buoys are also classified according to their size, shape, colour, weight, purpose, etc. Brief descriptions
of buoyage system, mooring buoys and wreck buoys are given below.