® PETERSON’S Pits Concentration Factors THIRD EDITION Walter D. Pilkey Deborah F. PilkeyCONTENTS INDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS xvii PREFACE FOR THE THIRD EDITION 1 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN RELATIONS 1 LL Notation / 1 1.2 Stress Concentration / 3 Selection of Nominal Stresses / 6 Accuracy of Stress Concentration Factors / 9 1.2.3. Decay of Stress Away from the Peak Stress / 9 13. Stress Concentration as a Two-Dimensional Problem / 10 1.4 Sess Concentration as a Three-Dimensional Problem / 11 15 Plane and Axisymmetric Problems / 13 1.6 Local and Nonlocal Stress Concentration / 15 1.6.1 Examples of Reasonable Approximations / 19 1.7 Multiple Stress Concentration / 20 18 Theories of Strength and Failure / 24 1.8.1 Maximum Stress Criterion / 25 1.8.2 Mohr's Theory / 26 viiMaximum Shear Theory / 28 von Mises Criterion 7 28 Observations on the Use of the Theories of Failure / 29 Stress Concentration Factors under Combined Loads: Principle of Superposition / 31 1.9 Notch Sensitivity / 35 1,10. Design Relations Por Static Stress / 40 1.10.1 Ductite Materials / 40 1.10.2 Brittle Materials / 42 LLL Design Retations for Alternating Stress. / 43 LILI Ductile Materials / 43 VIL2 Bridle Materials / 44 1.12 Design Relations for Combined Alternating and Static Sesses 44 1.12.1 Ductite Materials / 45 112.2 Brittle Materials / 48 1.13. Limited Number of Cycles of Alternating Stress / 49 1.14 Stress Concentration Factors and Stress Intensity Factors / 49 References / 54 NOTCHES AND GROOVES 3 21 Notation / 57 2.2 Stress Concentration Factors / 58 2.3 Notches in Tension / 60 2.3.1 Opposite Deep Hyperbolic Notcbes in an Infinite Thin Element: Shallow Elliptical, Semicizcular, U-Shaped, or Keyhole-Shaped Noiches in Serai-infinite Thin Elements; Equivalent Elliptical Notch / 60 Opposite Single Semicircular Notehes in a Finite-Width Thin Element / 61 2.3.3. Opposite Single U-Shuped Notehes in a Finite-Width Thin Element / 61 2.34 — Finite-Width Corrcetion Factors for Opposite Narrow Single Elliptical Notches in a Finite-Width Thin Element / 63 2.3.5 Opposite Single V-Shaped Notches in a Finite-Width Thin Element / 63 2. Single Notch on One Side of a Thin Element / 63 2.3.7 Notches with Flat Bottoms / 64 23.8 Multiple Notches ina Thin Element / 64 2.4.9 Analytical Solutions for Stress Concentration Factors for Notched Bars / 65 2A Depressions in Tension / 65 24.1 Hemispherical Depression (Pio) in the Surface of a Semi-infinite Body / 6525 28 CONTENTS IK, 24.2 Hyperboloid Depression (Pit) in the Surface of a Finite-Thickness Element / 66 2.4.3 Opposite Shallow Spherical Depressions (Dimples) in a Thin Element / 66 Grooves in Tension / 67 2.5.1 Deep Hyperbolic Groove in an Infinite Member (Circular Net Section) / 67 25.2 U-Shaped Circumferential Groove in a Bar of Circular Cross Section / 67 2.5.3. Flat-Bottom Grooves / 68 2.5.4 Closed-Form Solutions for Gronves in Bars of Circular Cross Section / 68 Bending of Thin Beams with Notches / 68 2.6.1 Opposite Deep Hyperbolic Notches in an Infinite Thin Element / 68 ‘Opposite Semicircular Notches in a Flat Bean / 68. Opposite U-Shaped Notches ina Phu Beam / 69 ‘V-Shaped Notches in a Flat Beam Element / 69 Notch on One Side of a Thin Beam / 69 Single or Multiple Notches with Semicircular or Semielliptical Notch Bottoms / 70 2.6.7 Notches with Flat Bottoms / 70 2.6.8 Cloxed-Form Solutions for Stress Concentration Factors for Notched Beams / 70 Bending of Plates with Notches / 71 2.7.1 Various Edge Notehes in an Infinite Plate in Transverse Bending / 71 2.7.2 Notches ina Finite-Width Plate in Transverse Bending / 71 Bending af Solids with Grooves / 71 28.1 Deep Hyperbolic Groove in an Infinite Member / 71 28.2 U-Shaped Circumferential Groove in a Bar of Circular Cross Section / 71 2.83 Flat-Botlom Grooves in Bars of Circular Crass Section / 73 2.8.4 Closed-Form Solutions for Grooves in Bars of Circular Cross Section / 73 Direct Shear and Torsion / 73 2.9.1 Deep Hyperbolic Notches in an Infinite Thin Element in Direct Shear / 73 2.9.2 Deep Hyperbolic Groove in an Infinite Member / 73 2.9.3 U-Shaped Circumferential Groave in a Bar of Circular Cress Section Subject to Torsion / 74 294 V-Shaped Circumferential Groove in a Bar of Circular Cross Section Under Torsion / 75X CONTENTS 2.9.5 Shaft in Torsion with Grooves with Flat Botioms / 76 6 — Closed-Forn Formulas for Grooves in Bars of Circular Cross Section Under Torsion / 76 2.10 Test Specimen Design for Maximum K; for u Given 1/D or +f / 16 References / 76 Charts / 81 3 SHOULDER FILLETS 135 3.1 Notation / 135 3.2 Stress Concentration Factors #137 3.3. Tension (Axial Loading) / 137 3.3.1 Opposite Shoulder Fillets ina Flat Bar / 137 Effect of Length of Klement / 138 Effect of Shoulder Geometry in a Flat Member / 138 Effect of a Trapezoidal Protuberunce on the Edge of a Flat Bar / 139 435 Fillet of Noncircular Comour in a Flat Stepped Bar / 140 2.3.6 Stepped Bar of Circular Cross Section with a Circumferen Shoulder Filler / 142 33.7 Tubes / 143 3.3.8 Stepped Pressure Vessel Wall with Shoulder Fillets / 143 34 Bending / 144 34.1 Opposite Shoulder Fillets ina Flac Bar / 144 Effect of Shoulder Geometry in a Flat Thin Member / 144 Elliptic Shoulder Fillet in a Flat Member / 144 Stepped Bar of Circular Cross Section with a Circumferential Shoulder Filler / 144 3.5 Torsion / 145 35.1 Stepped Bar of Circular Cross Section with a Circumferential Shoulder Fillet #145 25.2 Stepped Bar of Circular Cross Section with a Ciecumferential Shoulder Fillet and a Central Axial Hole 7-146 33.3 Compound Fillet / 146 3.6 Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration at u Shoulder / 147 References / 149 Charts / 151 4 HOLES 176 41 Notation / 176 4.2 Stress Concentration Factors / 178 4.3, Circular Holes with In-Plane Stresses / 180 4.4.1 Single Cirenlar Hole in an Infinite Thin Element in Uniaxial ‘Tension / 19044 ABA 4as 43.6 43.7 43.19 Elliptical Holes in Tension / 44.1 442 443 444 CONTENTS x! Single Circular Hole in a Semi-infinite Element in Uniaxial Tension / 184 Single Circular Hole in a Finite-Width Element in Uniasial Tension / 184 Effect of Length of Element / 185 Single Cireular Hole in an lafinite Thin Element under Biaxial In-Plane Stresses / 185 Single Circular Hole in a Cylindrical Shell with Tension or Invermat Pressure / 187 Circular or Eltiptical Hole in a Spherical Shell with Internal Pressure / 189 Reinforced Hole near the Edge of a Semi-infinite Element in Uniaxial Tension / 190 Symmetrically Reinforced Hole in a Finite-Width Element in Uniaxial Tension / 192 Nonsymmetrically Reinforced Hole in a Finite-Width Element in, Uniaxial Tension / 193 Symmetrically Reinforced Circular Hole in a Biaxially Stressed Wide, Thin Element / 194 Circular Hole with Intemal Pressure / 201 ‘Two Circular Holes of Equal Diameter in a Thin Element in Uniaxial Tension ot Biaxial In-Plane Stresses / 202 ‘Two Circular Holes of Unequal Diameter in a Thin Element in Uniaxial Tension or Biaxial In-Plane Stresses / 208 Single Row of Equally Distributed Circular Holes in an Element in Tension / 208 Double Row of Circular Holes in a Thin Element in Uniaxial ‘Tension / 209 Symmetrical Pattern of Circular Holes in a Thin Element in Uniaxial Tension or Biaxial In-Plane Stresses. / 209 Radially Stressed Circular Flement with a Ring of Circular Holes, with or without a Central Circular Hole / 210 ‘Thin Eleraent with Circular Holes with Internal Pressure / 211 3 Single Elliptical Hole in Infinite and Fi in Uniaxial Tension / 215 th Correction Factor for « Cracklike Central Slit in a Tension Panel / 217 Single Elliptical Hole in an Infinite, Stressed / 218 Infinite Row of Elliptical Holes in Infinite- and Finite- Width Thin Elements in Uniaxial Tension / 227 Elliptical Hole with Internal Pressure / 228 -Width Thin Elements in Element Biaxially45 4.6 47 48 Elliptical Holes with Bead Reinforcement in an Infinite Thin Element under Uniaxial and Biaxial Suesses / 228 Various Contigueations with In-Plane Stresses / 228 4st 45.12 Holes in Orthotrey 476 Bending Thin Element with an Ovaloid: Two Hotes Connected by a Stit under Tension: Eqnivalem Ellipse / 228 Circular Hote with Opposite Semiciecular Lobes in a Thin Element in Tension / 229 Infinite Thin Element with u Reet Comers Subject to Uniaxial or Biawi Finite-Width Tension Thin Element i Hole / 231 ‘Square Holes with Rounded Comers and Bead Reinforcement in an Infinite Panel under Uniaxial and Biaxial Stresses / 231 Round-Comered Equilateral Triangular [ole in an Infinite Thin Blement under Varions States af Tension #232 Uniaxially Stressed Tube or Bar of Circular Cross Section with a Transverse Circular Hole / 232 Round Pin Joint in Tension / 233 Inclined Round Hole in an Infinite Panel Subjected to Various States of Tension / 234 Pressure Vensel Nozzle (Reinforced Cylindrical Opening) / 235 Spherical or Ellipsoidal Cavities / 236 Spherical or Ellipsoidal Inclusions / 237 Thick Elements / 239 Countersunk Holes / 240 Cylindrical Tunnel / 241 Tntersecting Cylindrical Holes #242 Rotating Disk with a Hole / 244 Ring or Hollow Roller / 245 Pressurized Cylinder / 245 Pressurized Hollow Thick Cylinder with a Circular Hole in the Cylinder Wall / 246 Pressurized Hollow Thick Square Block with a Circular Hole in wulur Hole with Rounded Stress / 230 Round-Comered Square the Wall / 247 Other Configurations / 247 hin Members / 248 Pi Orthotropic Panel with an Elliptical Hoke / 248 Onthotropic Pane! with a Cireular Hole / 249 Orthotropie Panel with a Crack / 250 Isotropic Panel with an Elliptical Hole / 250 Isotropic Panel with a Circular Hole / 250 More Accurate Theory for a/b <4 / 250 725148.1 48.2 48.3 484 48.5 48.6 48.7 488 48.9 conTenTs — xili Bending of a Beam with a Central Hole / 252 Bending of a Beam with a Circular Hole Displaced from the Center Line / 253 Curved Beams with Circular Holes / 253 Bending of a Beam with an Elliptical Hole; Slot with Semicireular Ends (Ovaloid); or Round-Comered Square Hole / 253 Bending of an Infinite- and a Finite-Width Plate with a Single Circular Hole / 254 Bending of an Inf Plate with a Row of Circular Holes / 254 Plate with a Single Elliptical Hole / 255 Bending of an Infinite Plate with a Row of Elliptical Holes / 255 Tube oF Bar of Circular Cross Section with a Transverse Hole / 255 4.9 Shear and Torsion / 256 49.1 49.2 493 494 495 49.6 49.7 49.8 Shear Stressing of an Infinite Thin Element with Circular or Elliptical Hole, Unreinforced and Reinforced / 256 Shear Stressing of an Infinite Thin Element with a Round-Cornered Rectangular Hole, Unreinforeed and Reinforced / 256 ‘Two Circular Holes of Uneq Pure Shear / 257 Shear Stressing of an Infinite Thin Element with Two Cirenlar Holes or a Row of Circular Holes / 257 Shear Stressing of an Infinite Thin Element with an Infinite Pattern of Circular Holes / 257 ‘Twisted Infinite Plate with a Circular Hole / 258 Torsion of a Cylindrical Shell with a Circular Hole / 258 Torsion of a Tube or Bar of Circular Cross Section with a ‘Transverse Circular Hole / 258 | Diameter in a Thin Element in References / 260 Chants / 270 5.1__Notation_/ 401 5.2 Shaft with Keyseat / 402 52 5, 5.2.3 5.24 525 5.2.6 Bending / 403 Torsion / 404 ‘Torque Transmitted through a Key / 404 Combined Bending and Torsion / 404 Effect of Proximitiy of Keyseat to Shaft Shoulder Fillet / 405 Fatigue Failures / 406 5.3. Splined Shaft in Torsion / 406 54 GearTeeth / 407xiv CONTENTS 5.5 Press- or Shrink-Fitted Members / 409 5.6 Boltand Nut / 411 5.7 Bolt Head, Turbine-Blade, or Compressor-Blade Fastening (T-Head) / 413 58 LugJoint / 415 58.1 Lugs with h/d <0.5 / 416 58.2 Lugs with h/d > 0.5 / 416 5.9 Curved Bar / 418 5.10 Helical Spring / 418 5.10.1 Round or Square Wire Compression or Tension Spring / 418 5.10.2 Rectangular Wire Compression or Tension Spring / 421 10.3 Helical Torsion Spring / 421 S.LL Crankshaft / 422 5.12 Crane Hook / 423 5.13 U-Shaped Member / 423 5.14 Angle and Box Sections / 424 5.15 Cylindrical Pressure Vessel with Torispherical Ends / 424 5.16 Tubular Joints / 424 References / 425 Charts / 430 STRESS CONCENTRATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 457 6.1 Computational Methods / 457 6.2 Finite Element Analysis / 461 6.3 Design Sensitivit 6.2.1 Principle of Virtual Work / 461 6.2.2 Element Equations / 463 6.2.3. Shape Functions / 466 62.4 Mapping Funetions / 470 6.2.5 Numerical Integration / 471 6.2.6 System Equations / 472 6.2.7 _ Stress Computation / 476 Analvsis / 482 63.1 Finite Differences / 483 63.2. Discrete Systems / 484 63.3 Continuum Systems / 486 6.3.4 Stresses / 489 63.5 Structural Volume_/ 489 3.6 Design Velocity Field / 490 64 Design Modification / 499 64.1 _ Sequential Linear Programming / 502 64.2 Sequential Quadratic Programming / 503 64.3. Conservative Approximation / 504CONTENTS XV 644 — Equality Constraints / 505 645 Minimum Weight Design / 506 64.6 Minimum Stress Design / 506 References / 510 INDEX SSINDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS xviiINDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS — xix CHAPTER 2: NOTCHES AND GROOVES: U Tips | ane | aa] ae pa Plat bottom 274 236 uy Orretenateies hossng | Hse Pam | aa | 6 Singevehin | ea)XX INDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS Depressions in ‘opposite sides of a thin element Shape of — | Section and Form of Seess Sires. Equation | Chan Raiser Loud Case Raiser Number | Number FTP Tension | Semiciwusr | 2.38 24 a4 Das 95 26 96 Multiple notches on Bending ‘Semi-clliptical 2.66 232 M3 ‘one side of ite et width thin clement - Bending | Semicie 271 2s | 19 (out-of-plane) TT Tension Ussaped 24 o 25 8s nN 26 36 253 wa Opposites notches in iite= Semicirlar | 2.32 23 83 id hin elerenn Vestaped 238 27 87 Fat baton 237 240 %0 Semicirautar | 262 224 | 108 (in-plane) , U-shaped 263 225 105 226 | 106 227 07 253 4 Flat bottom 2.67 2m 14 Bending ‘Abita 239 | 10 doutof-planey | shaped UU Tension Semicircular 238 22 2 23 93 NNN Opposite multiple otc i iite- ‘width hin elemens Uniaxial Spherical 243 207 7 tension o Conca gr00KeINDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS xxi Fam ots Stee “tganin | chon | Niner rasa testcase | acer | Nor | snter | rena Unt | Hemp | 2 en ° Vipatioe | 22 Ca Desi senile ly Ten | tome [aaa % Tosion | Hapaiwie [292 | aae | — Tam | tae [as 7 grove insta 3 zs | iat 2 | ass | aa | os Traimaw | Fatwow [267 | 2m ans male Toss [Usted | 205 7 4 Vorest [388 13 By Raton [298 3xxii INDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS. CHAPTER 3: SHOULDER FILLETS, ‘Stepped pressure vessel Shape ot | Section and Form of Stress Suess Equation | Chart | Number Raiser Load Case Raiser Number | Number | of Char [rein gle aaa ut 51 raius Fa.) _ fT Tapered 335 Shoulder filets in Bending | Single radi 3a 37 160 thin element elipical aaa 39 ise Tapered 333 Torsion “Tapered 335 | J | trension [Single radius 333 32 152 a) Tre aad 33 155 ‘Shoulder fillets preteens in thin element Bending | Single radius 342 38 161 “Tension | Single radius 336 a 1357 4 Bending Single radius 344 3.10 165 ——! 3 166 Should filt - in bor of ccolar Torsion gle radius 350 2 167 ‘cross section 3.13 tee Compound 358 36 173 radius 37 175 “Tension | Singloradus 337 35 158 P A Torsion Single radius 352 3.4 169 —I his 170 Shoukler filet in bar of circular cross section with xia hole Internal Stepped BAR 36 159 pressure ringINDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS — xxii CHAPTER 4: HOLES Shape of Seetion and Pape Form of Stress Suess Equation Chat | Number Raiser Lond Case Raiser Number Number | of Chart Uniaxial Circular 431 fo vensio ys. (4.94.10) Elliptical aa 450 334 Eqs. (4.57) Hole in infinite and (4.58) {hin element Elliptical bole 45.12 450 34 with inclusion 475 366 Citeular hole 452 4.60 346 ‘with opposite semicircular lobes Rectangular 4.628 348 Eguilateral 4.65 355 triangular Inclined 459 4.70 361 Internal Circular, 43.12, 43.19, pressure | elliptical, and 445 ther shapes Eqs. (441) sand (4.77) Biaxial sess | Circular 435 (in-plane) Eqs. (4.17) and (4.18) Rectangular 453 4.2 a8 Various 45. 4683 382 shapes 453 Eguilateral 456 465 Elliptical 454 338 4 339 Inclined 4.69 360 Bending, Circular 44 491 382 Coutf-plane) and (4.130) Elliptical 487 494 385 Bags. (4.13; and (4.133) Shear Cireular or 49. 497 388 elliptical Rectangular 492 499 300 Twist Circular 496 4106 | 308 Eg, (4.138)xxiv INDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS cee oaOo vending | Cirutar Pano | aoe | aan ‘Transverse hole Torsion Circular 498 4.108, 400 ‘novus ee 000 = infinite thin element hates with looo |e Pe = Pep 0° 0°% o| | min cus | te |e Triangular pattern of holes: in-plane) 4.39,.441 | 321,325 | a9 enon 3 o-°o tension 44s 329 oOXxxvi_ INDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS Sew Toma | Gasp ae |e o vs a | Sy | ath © {Sy & su © Ba pats == 419INDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS: xxvii Shape of | Section and Page Form of Stress Equation Chan Number Lewd Case | Raiser Number Number | of Chart Uniaaiat | Circular 438 47 276 tension 435 4.64 383 Reinforced hole in semi« infinite thin element rol Uniaxial | Circular 439 48 27 tension 43.10 49 280 Eq, (4.26) 4.10 281 == au 282 Reinforced hole in finite swiduh thin element Internal | Circular 43.12 420 295 Oo presse Hole in panel Cirealar 4313 421 206 “Two holes in a finite thin clement Uniaxial | Circular 43.13 422,423, | 298,299, ° tension 43.14 424,426, | 300, 308, oO gs. (4.423, | 427,429, | 309,311 44eand | 430,431 | 312,313 (4.45) ‘Two holes in infinite thin element Biaxial | Circular 43.13 425 301 sarcsses 43.14 4.26 308 (in-plane) Eqs 428 310 (443-445) Shear Circular | 493,494 4.101 392 ial circular 3 685 wa 1 Circul at 446 330 SO) in-plane table stresses Inernal 43.19 447 331 Ring of holes in sure Table 4.2 circular thin element psXxvili__ INDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS Shape of Section and Page Form of Stress Equation Char | Number Raiser Load Case Nuinber Number | of Chart Intersal 43.19 448 m2 pressure Table 4.2 Hole in cieular thin element Internal Ciecalar 43.19 449 23 pressure Table 4.2 Circular patteen of holes in eireular thin element Tension Circular 458 407 358 O Eqs. 4.83) rT sand (4.84) Pin joint with closely fiting pio 500] Pinned or riveted joint with multipte holes “Tension Circular cavity 45.1 an 362 ‘of elliptical ross section Cavity in infinite body Ellipsoidal cavity 45.1 472 363, Of crcl eros seton Uniaxial | ——_ Spica aS ro oO tention of ee ia 386)4.88) Cavities in te siresses panel and eylinder o Tension | Elipsodal as aa | as Ss cavity 2 Row of cavities in infinite clementINDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS —Xxixt Stopeof | Section and Page Formof Sues sires rihen Somber teaver Lo! Cue aver Number orca Unix Naw waa as | sr - ‘emion cok | equ cteyon Gack in in tension clement Hygautc 462 an | pn emia) | ame | 36 ume! Toatng | Ceara ote saa am | 0 ceo sai None tea aa | ai net ‘ole Dak Diamevical nes aa | om pps inca a (08) once Tews ne Diana tas ie | om “opposite external: Bg, (4.106) concn reals Tua No holein te ae | ma @ | ree J csindervat | tap eet) futon im 1.103) ve war wa | on ‘cylinder wall Eg. (4.110)XXX INDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS. CHAPTER 5: MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ELEMENTS Shepeot | Sesion and Tee Fomot Stes Sees Bion | chan | Number Iai toatcue | ace | Naber | xonter | ofchan Bening | Senucicuse | 524 | ao SS cna ) = Seine [| s2 Kone Tosi | Sonic =p an cot a veningand | end torsion aiky Torsion 33 sa 2 rN Splined shatt Bending sa 35 mea | 56 and 5) 37 Gear tooth 58 Bending Shoulder 34 39 38 filets £4.55) Short beam Bending 35 Tables S.1 +r and 52 Prsefted member f=) Tension $6 Bolt and at mM Tensionand | Shoulder 37 510 9 beoing filets T-hcadINDEX TO THE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS —XXxi Shape ot | Section and Page on of Stes Stress equation | Chat | Number Raiser Load Case Raiser Number | Number | of Chat aa Temsion Sauane 38 sal a ended 513 446 ° ound 3 va | as 1 ended 518 M6 Lag in | ening Unitoom 39 34 “7 [Se ie Eq, (5.) Curved bar ‘Nononiform 512 «rans hook, . whereas Kay decreases from 30 2. Either Ky, or Kj. can be used in calculating the maximum stress, It would appear that X,, is easier to determine as oF is immediately evident from the geometry of the bar. But the value of &,, is hard to read from a stress concentration plot for 4/H > OS, since the curve becomes very steep. In contrast, the value OF Ky easy to read, but it is necessary to culculate ihe net cross-sectional area to find the maximum stress. Since the stress of interest is usuully on the net cross section, Ky is the more generally used factor. In addition, in a fatigue analysis, only K,, be used t0 caleulme the stress gradient correctly, In conclusion, normally it is more convenient to give stress concentration factors using reference stresses based on the net arva ruther than the gross area. However, if a fatigue analysis is not involved and 4/H <0. the user may choose to use Ke to simplify calculations,8 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN RELATIONS Example 1.2. Torsion Bar with a Groove A bar of circular cross section, with a U- shaped circumferential groove, is subject 10 an applied torque 7, The diameter of the bs is 2D the radius of the groove is r. and the depth of the groove is ¢. The stress distribution for the cross section at the groove is shown in Fig. 1.4, with the maximum stress occurring at point A at the bottom of the groave. Among the alternatives to define the reference stress ae: a. Use the stress at the outer surface of the har cross section BB", which is far from the groove, as the reference stress. According to basic strengil af materials (Pilkey 2005), the shear stress is linearly distributed slong the radial dircction and (eT apt en ow Tw = tp b. Consider point A’ in the cross section B'-8!. The distance of A‘ from the central axis is same as that of point A, that is, d = D — 2¢. If the stress at A‘ is taken as the reference stress, then 167d te = SS = tom Q c. Use the surface stress of a grooveless bar of diameter d = D ~ 21 as the reference stress. This corresponds to a bar of cross section measured at A-A of Fig, 1b, For this urea 7d?7/4, the maximum torsional stress taken as a reference stress would be lor a= Thom 3 An a In fuct this stress based on the net area is an assumed value and never oceurs at any Point of interest in the bur with a U-shaped circumferential groove. However, it is intuitively appezling and easy to calculate, it is more often used than the other two reference stresses, Example 1.3 Cylinder with an Eccentric Hole A cylinder with an eccentric citcular hole is subjected to internal pressure p ax shown in Fig. 1.5. An clastic soloution for stress is difficwl to find. It is convenient 10 use the pressure p as the reference stress Fo =P so that These examples illustrate that there are many options for selecting « reference stress, In this hook the stress concentration factors are given based on a variety of reference stresses. each of which is noted on the appropriate graph of the stress concentration factor. Sometimes, more than one stress concentration factor is plolled on a single chart. The reader should select the type of fctor that appears to be the most convenient.STRESS CONCENTRATION 9 Figure 1.5 Circular cylindsr with an eccentric hole, in Factors 1.2.2 Accuracy of Stress Concentra Stress concentration factors are obtained analytically trom the elasticity theory, compu- tationally from the finite element method, and experimentally using methads such as. photoclasticity or strain gages, For torsion, the membrane analogy (Pilkey and Wundertich 1993) can be emplayed, When the experimental work is conducted with sulficéent precision, excellent agreement is often obtained with well-established analytical stress concentration factors. Unfortunately, use of stress concentration factors in analysis and design is not on as ficm a foundation as the theoretical basis for determining the factors. The theory of elasticity ons are based on formulations that include such assumptions as that the material must be isotropic and homogeneous, However. in actuality materials may be neither uniform nor homogencous, and may even have defects. More data are necessary because, forthe required ision in material tests, statistical procedures are often necessary. Disectional effects in Js must also be carefully taken into account. It is hardly mecessary (0 point out that the designer cannot wait for exact answers to all of these questions. As always, existing information must be reviewed and judgment used in developing seasomable appreximare procedures for design, tending toward the safe side in doubtful cases. ln time, advances will take pluce and revisions in the use of stress concentration fuctors will need to be mule accordingly. On the other hand, it can be said that our limited experience in using these methods has been satisfactory. 1.2.3 Decay of Stress Away from the Peak Stress There are a number of theories of elasticity analytical solutions For stress concentrations, such as for an elliptical hole in a panel under tension. As can be observed in Fig. 1d, these solutions show that typically, the stress decays approximately exponentially from the Jocation of the peak stresses to the nominal value at a remote location, with the rate of decay higher near the peak value of stress.10 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. 1.3 STRESS CONCENTRATION AS A TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEM Consider u thin element lying in the .t, ¥ plune, loaded by in-plane forces upplied in the ,y plane at the boundary (Fig. 1.6a). For this case the stress components &-, 15: be assumed to be equal to zero. This state of stress is called plane stress, and the stress components o,, oF), Ty, tite functions of ¢ and ¥ only. Tf the dimension in the : direction of a long cylindsiesl or prismatic body is very large retative (o its dimensions in the x. y plane and the applied forees are perpendicular to the longitudinal direction (: d (Fig. 1.66). it may be assumed that at the midsection the = di i are equal to zero. This is called the plane strain state. These two-dimensional problems are referred 0 as plane problems. ‘The differential equations of equilibrium together with the compatibility equation for the stresses 74. Uy. Ty ina plane clastic body are (Pilkey and Wunderlich 1993) dirs a 13 Oy 3h ae aa where Fy. Fy denote the components of the applied body force per unit volume in the x. y directions and /¢) is @ function of Poisson’s ratio: te plane strain 14 for plane stress Foy jay ) Figure 1.6 a) Plune stress: (b) plane strain.STRESS CONCENTRATION AS A THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEM = 11 The surface conditions are Pala, tm, as Pr = boy + ine where p., py are the components of the surface force per unit ara al the boundary in the y directions. Also, /,1m ae the direction cosines of the normal to the boundary. For constant body forces. 8B, fd = apy, /ay = 0, and Eq, (14) becomes: (ar a= 0 6 Equations (1.3), (1.5), and (1.6) are usually sufficient to determine the stress distribution foc two-dimensional problems with constant body forces. These equations do not contain material constants. For plane problems, if the body forces are constant. the stress distribution isa function of the body shape and loadings acting ou the boundary and not of the material This implies for plane problems that stress concentration factors are functions of the ‘geometry and loading und not of the type of material. Of practical importance is that stress concentration factors can be found using experimental techniques such as photoelasticty that utilize material different from the structure of interest. 1.4 STRESS CONCENTRATION AS A THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEM For three-dimensional problems, there are no simple relationships similar to Egs. (1.3), (1.5), and (1.6) for plane problems that show the stress distribution to be a function of body shape snd applied loading only. In general, the stress concentration factors will change with different materials. For example. Poisson’s ratio 1 is often involved in a three-dimensional stress concentration analysis. In this book most of the charis for three-dimensional stress concentration problems aot only list the body shape and load but also the Poisson's ratio for the case. The influence of Poisson's ratio on the stress concentration factors varies with the configuration. For example. in the case of a circumferential groove ina round bar under torsional load (Fig. 1.7), the stress distribution and concentration fuctor do not depend en Poisson’s ratio. This is because the shear deformation due to torsion does not change the volume of the element, namely the cross-sectional wreas remain unchanged. Figure 1.7 Round bar with a circumferential groove und torsional loading,42 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. Lf cs Figure 1.8 Hyperbolic circumferential groove in a round bar. around bar under ection is (Neuber As another example, consider a hyperbolic circumferential groove tension land P (Fig. 1.8). The stress concentration Factor in the axial 1958) Fame 1 ja, . Ky = im eg LotC + FOS ++ we + Ke Gee cafe oe eg LET FOS H NH MED) 7) and in the eiteumferential direction is afr Key = SOR it +0053 18 Tom aye BCH" ) a8) where ris the radius of curvature at the base of the groove, C is ya/r) + 1, and the reference stress yom is P/( 7). Obviously Ky, and Xp are Cunetions of v. Table 1.1 lists the stress concentration factors for different Poisson's ratios for the hyperbolic cireumferentinl gfoove when 2/r = 7.0, From this table it can be seeo that as the value of increases, Key dcoreases slowly whereas Kw increases relatively rapidly. When # = 0, Ky = 3.01 and Ky = 0.39, Ibis interesting thut when Poisson's ratio is equal to zero (there is no transverse contraction in (he round bar), Uie ma SUFESS Tana is Mot equal Lo 2F0. TABLE LI Stress Concentration Factor asa Function of Poisson's Ratio far a Shaft in Tension with a Groove’ " 00 02 os Ky 3.0L 2.89 st 79 Ke 0.30 0.78 038 101 “The shalt has a hyperbolic clxcumerectial growve with ase — 7.0.PLANE AND AXISYMMETRIC PROBLEMS 13 1,5 PLANE AND AXISYMMETRIC PROBLEMS: For solid of revolution deformed symmetrically with respect to the axis of revolution, itis: convenient (o use eylindrical coordinates (r, #, 2). The stress components are independent of the angle # and 7.9. sy, are equal to zero, The equilibrium and compatibility equations for the axisymmetrical case are (Timoshenko and Goodier 1970) Ba, | OR | OH + Sey ar ae r thy 19 Ores | OO, +in +h, 0 9 ee TP Pe, Pe, Pry +o 1.10 ae Gt Bea ‘The strain components are ae any au aw =e mete Se Mut & or fe ox % ay ow ( , where it and w are the displacements in the r (radial) and x (axial) directions, respectively. The axisymmetric stress distribution in a solid of revolution iy quite similar to the stress distribution for a two-dimensional plane element. the shape of which is the same as a Tongitudinal section of the solid of revolution (sce Fig. 1,9). Stictly speaking. their stress distributions and stress coneentri factors should not be equal, But under certain ¢ir- ‘cumstances, their stress concentration factors are very close. To understand the relationship between plane and axisymmetric problems, consider the following cases. fap tb) Figure 19° Shalt with ac svetional shupe: (a) sha, cumferential graave und a plune element with the same longitudinal (b) plane, Kise14 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. CASE 1. A Shaft with a Circumferential Groove and with the Stress Raisers Fer from the Central Axis of Symmeny Consider a shalt with a circumferential groove under tension (or bending) load, and suppose the groove is far from the central axis, @/2 22 ry. as shown in Fig. 1.90. A plane element with the same longitudinal section under the same loading is shown in Fig 1.98. Let Kix and K,2 denote the siress concentration factors for the axisymmetric solid body and the corresponding plane problem, respectively. Since the groove will nol affect the stress distribution in the area near the central axis, the distributions of stress components of... Ty. Near the groove in the axisymimettic shaft are almost the same as those of the stress components «ry, «7,, 7, near the natch in the plane element, so thal Ki = Kis. For the case where a small groove is a considerable distance from the central axis of the shaft, the same conclusion can he explained as tallows. Set the terms with 1/r equal 10.0 since the groove is far trom the central axis, r is very large! and note that differential Eqs. (1.9) reduce to ao, | OT, Mig, =0 or (4.13) Tex + ao, 7 0 or ay Pe and Fg. (1.11) becomes. fu ao oe 1.13) Introduce the material law plon— say be =4,, Ya Gm into Eq. (1.10) and use Eq. (1.12). Forconstant body forces this leads 1o.tn equation identical (with y replaced by r) to that of Eq, (1.6). This means that the governing equations are the same, However, the stress oy is not included in the governing equations and it ean be derived from O9 = Wo, +a) clay When = 0. the stress distribution of a shaft is identical to that of the plane element with the same longitudinal section, CASE 2. General Case of an Axteymmetrical Sotid with Shatlow Grooves and Shoulders In general, for a selid of revolution with shallow grooves or shoulders under tension or bending as shown in Fig. 1.10, the stress concentration factor Kx can be obtained in terms, of the plane case factor K;2 using (Nishida 1976) x ‘hay (0+) a kenge (15)LOCAL AND NONLOCAL STRESS CONCENTRATION 15. Axisymmetric, Ky Plane, Ky Axisymmetsie, Ky Plane, Ky @ 1) Figure 1.10 Shallow groove (a) and shoulder (b), where ry is the radius of the groove and 1 = (D — d)/2 is the depth of the groove (or shoulder). The effective range for Eq. (1.15) is 0 = 1/d = 7.5. If the groove is far from the central axis, :/d —+ O and Kyy = Ko, which is consistent with the results discussed in Case 1 CASE 3. Deep Hyperbolic Groove As mentioned in Section 1.4, Neuber (1958) provided formulas for bars with deep hyperbolic grooves, For the case of an axisymmetric shaft under tensile load, for which the minimum diame of the shaft d (Fig. 1.8) is smaller than the depth of the groove, the following empirical formula is available (Nishida 1976): Ky = 0.75K eq + 0.25 (1.16) Equation (1.16) is close to the theoretical value over a wide range and is useful inengineering is. This equation not only applies to tension loading but also to bending and shearing load, However, the error tends to be relatively high in the latter cases. 1,6 LOCAL AND NONLOCAL STRESS CONCENTRATION If the dimensions of a stress raiser are much smaller than those of the structural member, its influence is usually limited to a localized area (or volume for a three-dimensional ease). That is, the global stress distribution of the member except for the localized area is the same as that for the member without the stress raiser, This kind of problem is referred to as. localized stress concentration. Usually stress concentration theory deals with the dacalized stress concentration problems. The simplest way to solve these problems is to separate this, localized part from the member, then to determine X, by using the formulas and curves of a simple case with a similar raiser shape and loading, If a wide stress field is affected, the problem is called nonlocal stress concentration and can be quite complicated, Then a full-fledged stress analysis of the problem may be essential, probably with general-purpose structural analysis computer software.16 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. Ry Radin of centril hole Ry Outer radius of the disk F_ Distance between the center of the disk and the center of Ry Radins ut which 6, . 6g are (0 be culeulited. a Radius of bole O 7.8 Polar coordinates Rotuling disk wilh 1 central hole and two symmetrically located holes. Example 4 Rotating Disk A disk rouating at speed w has a central hole and wo additional symmetrically located holes as shown in Fig. 1.1, Suppose that Ry = 0,24R2, a= (006K, R = 0.5K, v = 0.3. Determine the stress concentration factor near the small circle O, Since X2-R, is more than 10 times greater Lhan @, it can be reasoned that the existence of the smull @, hole will not affect the general stress distribution. Thar is to say, the disruption in stress distribution due tocircle Oj is. ed to a local area. This qualifies then as localized stress concentration Fora rotating disk with a central hole, the theory of elas (Pilkey 2003) a, a oye where w is the speed of rotation (rad/s), pis the mass density, and R, is the radius at which oF, 9 are to he calculated. The O; hole may be treated as if it were in an infinite region and subjected to biaxial stresses &,, 0, asshownin Fig. L.12a. For points, Ry = R—a = 0.5R;—O.06R, = 044K, and the elasticity solution of (1) givesLOCAL AND NONLOCAL STRESS CONCENTRATION 17. Fy Gy lo a 0 02 fod 706 Ok 1D Point A Point B Re isthe radius at whieh 6, gy, isewteukited Gy, =0y at Re=Ry wb Analysis of & hollow rolling disk with wo holes: (a7 hole Oy is treated as boing axial stresses er, ery: (B) results feom Ku (1960). (1) No centeel hole: (ID approximate AV} photoelastic results (Newie 140) Figure 1.12 subjected to sutution; (1M) © 1 solution Bere 24 \_ os 2 Spee} (1 + 028 me 048") = 0506 +r op 2 1+3r oon = eR ( 0.28 + ~ rae ) @ ate = as (218 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. Substitute & = 0.4/0 = U.566/1.244 = 0.455 into the stress concentration factor formula For the case of an element with a circular hole under biaxial tensile load (Eq. 4.18) giving Ky = TAPS = 3 0.45: aa = 2545 and the maximum stress at point A is 3.1660 (22 jt 3.1660 (Fp arma = Kix Ova :) GB Similarly, at point B, Rg = R + 4 = O.5Ry + 0.06R; = O.56R2, oy = 0.56 @ = pot) 4) ate og = 061 ( Pe Substitute « = oyn/om = 0.56/1.061 = 0.528 into the stress concentration factor formula of Bg. (4.18) oa Kn = — 0526 = 2.472 ca and the maximum stress at point B becomes 3+ Ip? Arms = Katy = 206028 (25 par 6) To calculate the stress at the edge of the central hole. substitute Ry = OUR, ino a, of (i: Sty arm = 2.204 oH 61 Equations (3) and (5) give the maximum stresses at points A and B of an inti as shown in Fig, 1.124. If oy: is taken as the reference stress, the corresponding stress concentration factors are. 3.1660 Lat am Kap 119 This approximation of treating the hole as if it were in an infinite region and sub- jected lo biaxial stresses is based on the assumption that the influence of circle Oy is limited to 4 local area. The results ure very close to the theoretical solution, Ku (1960)LOCAL AND NONLOCAL STRESS CONCENTRATION 19. analyzed the case with Ry = 0.24Rs, R = 0.435R:, a = 0.11R>. Although the cir- cle O; is larger than that of this example, he still obtained reasonable approximations by treating the hole as if it were in an infinite region and subjected to biaxial stresses. The results are given in Fig. 1.126, in which or, on the central circle (R, = 0.24R>) was taken as the reference stress. Curve II was obtained by the approximation of thi example and curve III is from the theoretical solution (Howland 1930). For point A. r/Ry = 0.335 and for point B, r/R, = 0.545. From Fig. 1.124, it can be seen that at points A and & of the edge of hole Q), the results from curves If and IIT are very close. The method used in Example 1.4 can be summarized as follows: First, find the stress field in the member without the stress raiser at the position where the stress raiser occurs, This analysis provides the loading condition at this local point. Second, find a formula or curve ftom the charts in this book that applies to the loading condition and the stress raiser shape. Finally, use the formula or curve to evaluate the maximum stress. It should be remembered that this method is only applicable for localized stress concentration, 1.6.1 Examples of Reasonable Approximations Consider now the concept of localized stress concentration for the study of the stress caused by notches and grooves, Begin with a thin flat element with a shallow notch under uniaxial tension load as shown in Fig. 1.134. Since the notch is shallow, the bottom edge of the element is considered to be a substantial distance from the notch. It is a local stress concentration problem in the vicinity of the notch. Consider another element with an ellipti hole loaded by uniaxial stress o as indicated in Fig. 1.136. (The solution for this problem can be derived from Eq, 4.58.) Cut the second element with the symmetrical axis A-A’. ‘The normal stresses on section A-A’ are small and can be neglected. Then the solution for an clement with an elliptical hole (Eq. 4.58 with a replaced by 1) k, D =1+aft (17) Vr ccan be taken as an approximate solution for an element with a shallow notch. According to this approximation, the stress concentration factor for a shallow notch is a function only of the depth ¢ and radius of curvature r of the notch. Figure 1,13 (a) Shallow groove /; (b) model of 1.20 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. tat co) (a) Deep groove in tension; (2) model of For a deep notch in a plane clement under uniaxial tension load (Fig. |-14a), the situmion is quite differem. For the enlarged model of Fig. 1.146, the edge A-A' is considered to be a substantial distance trom bottom edge A-B", and the stresses near the A=! edge are almost zero, Such a low stress area probably can he safely neglected. ‘The local areas that should be considered are the bottom of the groave and the straight line edge B-A’ close 1o the groove bottom, Thus the deep notch problem. which might appeur ta be a nonlocal stress concentration problem, can alse be considered as localized stress: concentration, Furthermore the bottom part of the groove cun be upproximated by a hyperbola, since it is a small segment, Because of syimmerry (Fig. 1.14} iC is reasoned that the solution to this problem is same as that of a plane clement with two opposing hyperbola notches. The equation fur the stress concentration factor is (Durelli 1982) cisy where d is the distance between the notch and edge 8B’ (Fig. 1.146}, [tis evident that the stress concentration factor of the deep notch is a function of the radius of curvature r of the bottom of the notch and the minimum width « of the clement (Fig. 1.14), For nowhes of ate depth. sefer to the Neuber method (see Eq. 2.1). 1.7 MULTIPLE STRESS CONCENTRATION ‘Two or more stress concentsations occurring at the same location ina structural member are said 10 be in a state of multiple stress concentration, Multiple stress concentration problems, oceur ofien in engineering design. An example would be a uniaxially tension-lovded plane element with a circular hole, supplemented by a notch at the edge of the hole as shown in 1,15. The notch will lead to a higher stress than would oceur with the hole alone. Use Ki, 10 represent the stress concentration factor of the clement with a circular bole and Kj2 to represent the sss concentration Eictor of a thin, flat tension element with a notch on an edge. In general, the multiple stess concentration factor of the clemem Ky,» cannot beMULTIPLE STRESS CONCENTRATION — 21 t ery Kyo fat (by Figure 1.15 Multiple stress concentration: (a small notch at tie edge of a circular hole: (bh temlargerent of F. deduced directly from Kj, and Kip. The (vo different factors will interact with each ether and produce a new stress distribution, Because of it’s importance in engincering design, considerable elfort has heen devoted to finding solutions to the multiple stress concenteation problems. Some special caxes of these problems follow. CASE 1. Geometrical Dimension of One Stress Raiser Much Smalter Than That of the Other Assume that d/2 >> rin Big. 1.15, where r is the tadius of curvature of the notch, Notch r will nov significantly influence the global stress distribution in the element with the circular hole. However, the notch can produce a local disruption in the suess field of the clement with the hole, Fer an infinite clement with a circular hole, the stress concentration factor K,) is 3.0, and for the element with a semicircular notch K,_ is 3.06 (Chapter 2). Since the notch does aot affect significantly the global stress distribution near the circular hole, the stress around the notch region is approximately K,,07. Thus the noteh can be considered fo be located in a tensile speciman subjected to a tensile load K,,0 (Fig. 1.154). Therefore the peak stress at the tip of the notch is Kj» "Kyu. TLean be concluded that the multiple stress concentration factor a point A is equal to the product of K,, and K,2, Kaa = Kas Kea = 9.18 ctyy which is close to the value displayed in Chast 4.60 for r/d — 0. If the notch is relocated to point B instead ot A. the nvultiple stress concenteation factor will be different, Since at point B the stress concentration factor due ta the hole is -1.0 (refer to Fig. 4.4), Kya = ~1.0-3.06 = 3.006, Using the same argument, when the notch is situated at point C (A= 2/6), Ky = 0 (refer wo Section 4.3.1 and Fig. 4.4) and Kj,2 = 03.06 = 0.1 evident that the stress concentration factor can be effectively reduced by placing the notch at point C. Consider a shaft with a circumferential groove subject to a torque 7’. and suppose that there is a small radial cylindrical hole at the botom of the groove as shown in Fig. 1.16.22 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. Figure 1.16 Small radial hole through a groove. Uf there were nv hole, the site of stress at he bottom of the groove woutd be one of pure sheur, and Ky, for this location could be found from Chart 2.47,) The stress concentration near the small radial hole can be modeled using an infinite element with a circular hole under shearing stress, Designate the corresponding stress concentration factor as K,2.(Then Kg can be found from Chart 4.97. with a = B.) The multiple stress concentration factor at lhe edge of the hule is Kaz Ka 20 CASE 2, Size of One Stress Ratser Not Much Different from the Size of the Other Stress Raiser Under such circumstances the multiple stress concentration factor cannot be calcu- tated us the product of the separate stress concentration factors as in Bq. (1.19) or (1.20). In the case of Fig, 1.17. for example, the maximum stress location A for stress concentra factor 1 does not coincide with the maximum stress location A for stress concentra | Figure 1.17 Two stess raisers oF almost equal magnitude in an infinite (wo-fimensional element,MULTIPLE STRESS CONCENTRATION 23. Looe o a iby w Figure 118 Special cases of multiple stress concentration: (a) sha with double grooves: () semicintinite element with double notches; (c) circular hole with elliptical notches. factor 2, In general, the multiple stress concentration factor adheres to the relationship (Nishida 1976) maxtK, Kia) © Kaa © & + Ki aay Some approximate formulas are available for special cases. For the three cases of Fig. 1.18—Ahat is, a shaft with double circumferential grooves under torsion load (Fig. 1.18, a semi-infinite element with double notches under wension (Hig. 1.185), and an infinite element with circular and clliptical holes under tension {Fig. 1.18¢)—an empirical formula (Nishid 1976) Kno © Kae + (Kine ~ Bao -q (§ 1,22 > (1.22) was developed. Under the loading conditions corresponding to Fig. (.18a, b, and ¢, as appropriate, Kj, is the stress concentration fsctor for an infinite element with a circular hole and ;2. is the stress concentration factor for an clement with the elliptical noteh. approximation is quite close to the theoretical solution of the cases of Fig. 1.180 and 6. For the case of Fig. 1.18c. the error is somewhat larger, but the approximtation is still adequate, Another eflective method is 1 use the equivalent ellipse concept. To illustrate the method, consider a flat element with 3 hexagonal hole (Fig, 1.19a), Aw ellipse of major semiaxes a and minimum radius of curvature r is the enveloping curve of two ends of the hexugonal hole. This ellipse is called the “equivalent ellipse” of the hexagonal hole. The stress concentration factor of a Bat element with the equivalent elliptical hole (Fig, 1,196) is (Eq. 458) Ky afta 1.23) Vr24 DEFINITIONS ANO DESIGN RELATIONS: rrtt ptt Pld douudy (a ) © @ Figure 1.19 Equivalent ellipses: (a) element with a hexagonal hole; (6) element with an equivalent ellipse; (c) semi-infinite element with a groove; (d) semi-infini ent with the equivalent elliptic groove. which is very close to the K; for the fat clement in Fig. 1.194. Although this is an approximate method, the calculation is simple and the results are within an error of 10% Similarly the stress concentration factor for a s infini ‘ment with a groove under tensile loading (Fig. 1.19) can be estimated by finding K, of the same element h the equivalent elliptical groove of Fig. 1.19d for which (Nishida 1976) (Eq. 4.58) fad (1.24) r 1.8 THEORIES OF STRENGTH AND FAILURE If our design problems involved only uniaxial stress problems, we would need to give only limited consideration to the problem of strength and failure of complex states of stress. However, even very simple load conditions may result in biaxial stress systems. An example is a thin spherical vessel subjected to internal pressure, resulting in biaxial tension ing on an element of the vessel. Another example is a bar of circular cross section subjected to tension, resulting in biaxial tension and compression acting at 45°, From the standpoint of stress concentration it should be noted that such simple loading as an axial tension produces biaxial surface stresses in a grooved bar (Fig. 1.20). Axial load P res axial tension «7 and circumferential tension > acting on a surface element of the A considerable number of theories have been proposed relating uniaxial to biaxial or triaxial stress systems (Pilkey 2005); only the theories ordinarily utilized for design purposes are considered here. These are, for brittle materials,' the maximum stress criterion netion herween brittle and ductile materials is arbitrary. sometimes an clongation of 5% is considered jon between the two (Sexerberg 1930),THEORIES OF STRENGTH AND FAMURE = 25 Small surface element Section 1 Figure 1.20, Biaxial stress in a notched tensile member, and Mobr's theory and, for duetile materials, maximum shear theory and the von Mises criterion, For the follawing theories it is assumed that the tension or compressive eritieal stresses (strength level, yield stress, or ultimate stress) are available. Also it is necessary to under- stand that any state of stress can be reduced through a rotation of coordinates to a state oF stress involving only the principal stresses 4, 3, and ar. 1.8.1 Maximum Stress Criterion The mesxinint stress criterion (or normal stress or Rankine criterion) can be stated as, follows: failure occurs in a muhiaxial state of siress when either a principal tensile stress reaches the uniaxial tensile steength oy, or a principal compressive stress reaches the uniaxial compressive strength o4.. For a brittle material oy, is usually considerably greater than g,,. In Fig. 1.21, which represents biaxial conditions (gv and w principal stresses 7; = 0), the maximum stress criterion is represented by the thew} Maxinumn stress criterion 1 esilecon ou on De, ‘ Tunsion Compression : FE 4 ‘ \ Mote’ theory Maximum stress 7 Maximum stress criterion //eriterion + " Gm F 5; Compression Figure 1.21 Bioxial conditions for strength thepries for brite muserials, 1.8.2 Mohr's Theory The condition of failuce of brittle materials according to Makr's theory (or the Coulonth- Moke theory or internal friction theory¥is illustrated in Fig. 1.22, Circles of diameters rar and o,,. are drawn as shown, A stress sttte, for which the Mobr's cirele just cotttacts the line of tangency? of the ay and @,,. circles, represents a condition of failure (Pilkey 2005). See the Mohr’s circle (dashed) of diameter «71 — a of Fig. 1.22. The resultant plat for biavial conditions is shown in Fig. 1.21. The conditions of failure are as follows: Figure 1.22) Mohr’ theory of failure uf bottle materials, The seuigh ling is pexial case ofthe wine general Mhr's theory, whigh shine an & cure envelopeTHEORIES OF STRENGTH AND FAMURE = 27 For oy = Oand o2 = 0 (tirst quadrant), with a = 02 oon (1.26) For) = Oand ey < 0 (second quadrant) 2-2. 27) Tu Oye Foro, = Oand oy <0 (third quadrant) a Bw 1.28) Form, = Qand @2 = 0 (fourth quadrant) a (1.29) Tu) Gn As.will be seen later (Fig. 1.23) this is similar to the representation for the maximum shear theory, except for nonsymmetry, Certain tests of brittle materiuls seem to substantiate the maximum strexs eriterion {Draffin and Collins 1938). whereas other tests and reasoning lead to a preference for Mohr's theory (Marin 1952), The maximum sess criterion gives the same results in the first and third quadrants. For the torsion case (rs = —a), use of Mohr's theary is on the “safe side.” since the limiting strength value used is Af"A' instead of Ma (Fig. 1.21), The following can be shown for M’A’ of Fig. 1.21: nt _ 1.30) UF Gud tre) «e o Tensinn 6, ~~ View ~~ Maximum shear theory + 7 von . Mises MoM “sci criterion F oy Compression © o o Compression Figure 1.23. Biaxial conditions for strength theories fer ductile muterials,28 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. 1.8.3. Maximum Shear Theory The mavimum sheur theory (or Tresea's or Guest’s sheory) was developed :s a yield or failure, but it has also been applied to fatigue failure, which in ductile materials is thought to be initiated by the maximum shear stress (Gough 1933). According to the maximum shear theory, failure occurs when the maximum shear stress in a multiaxial system reaches the value of the shear stress in a uniaxial bar at failure. In Fig. 1.23, the ‘maximum shear theory is represented by the six-sided figure. For principal stresses «71. 72, and or, the maximum shcar stresses are (Pilkey 2005) oO Hoo oF: (aly The actual maximunt shear stress is the peak value of the expressions of Eq. (1.31). The value of the shear failure stress in a simple tensile test is 7/2, where o is the tensile failure sires (yield cry oF fatigue «1 in the tensile test. Suppose that fatigue failure is of imerest and that y is the uniaxial Fatigue limit in alternating tension and compression, For the biaxial ease set ory = 0. and suppose that , i6 greater than 7 for both in tension. ‘Then failure occurs when (7, 09/2 = 04/2 of 7, = 7. This is the condition represented in the first quadrant of Fig. 1.23 where or, rather than ory is displayed. However, in the second and fourth quacants, where the biaxial stresses are of opposite sign, the situation is different. For ay = —0, represented by line AE of Fig. 1.23, failure accurs in accordance h the maximum shear theory when [ery — (—0)| /2 = ry/2 or a = 7; /?, namely M‘A'SOB/2 in Fig, 1.23, In the torsion test nat (32) This is hulf the value corresponding to the maximum stress criterion, 1.8.4 von Mises Criterion ‘The following expression was proposed by R, von Mises (1913), as representing a criterion of failure by yielding: tay (1.33) where «7 is the yield strength in a uniaxially loaded bar. For another failure mode, such as fitigne failure, replace o, by the appropriate stress level, such as a7). ‘The quantity on the right-hand side of Ey. (1.33), which is sometimes available as output of structural analysis software, ix offen reterred to us the equivalent stress oy! [or PF toy — a Ho — (L34h To This theory, which is also called the Mavi e-Huber-Hencky-von Mises theory, octahedral shear stress theory (Eichinger 1926, Nauai 1937), and maximum distortion energy theory (Heneky 1924), stutes that failure oceury when the energy of distortion reaches the sameTHEORIES OF STRENGTH AND FAILURE 29 energy for failure in tension.’ If 73 = 0, Eq. (1.34) reduces to (1.35) ‘This relationship is shown by the dashed ellipse of Fig. 1.23 with OB = oy. Unlike th six-sided figure, it does not have the discontinuities in slope, which seem unrealist physical sense. Sachs (1928) and Cox and Sopwith (1937) maintain that close agreement with the results predicted by Eq. (1.33) is obtained if one considers the statistical behavior of a randomly oriented aggregate of crystals, For the torsion case with a) = —a) = 7), the von ina criterion becomes 0.5770, (1.36) or MA = (0.577)OB in Fig. 1.23, where zy is the yield strength of a bar in torsion, Note from Figs, 1.21 and 1.23 that all the foregoing theories are in agreement at C, representing equal tensions, but they differ along AE, representing tension and compression of equal magnitudes (torsion). Yield tests of ductile materials have shown that the von Mises criterion interprets well the results of a variety of biaxial conditions. It has been pointed out (Prager and Hodge 1951) that although the agreement must be regarded as fortuitous, the von Mises criterion would still be of practical interest because of it’s mathematical simplicity even if the agreement with test results had been less satisfactory. There is evidence (Nisihara and Kojima 1939; Peterson 1974) that for ductile materials the von n also gives a reasonably good interpretation of fatigue results i the upper half (ABCDE) of the ellipse of Fig. 1.23 for completely alternating or pulsating tension cycling. As shown in Fig. 1.24, results from alternating tests are in betier agreement with the von Mises criterion (upper line) than with the maximum shear theory (lower line).. If yielding is considered the criterion of failure, the ellipse of Fig. 1.23 is symmetrical about AE. With regard to the region below AE (compression side), there is evidence that for pulsating compression (¢.g.,.0 to maximum compression) this area is considerably enlarged (Nisihara and Kojima 1939; Rds and Eichinger 1950; Newmark et al. 1951), For the cases treated here we deal primarily with the upper area.* crit 1.8.5 Observations on the Use of the Theories of Failure If a member is in a uniaxial stress state (i.¢., Fux = 01. 02 = 7; = 0), the maximum stress can be used directly in Oya, = K/ Ty) for a failure analysis, However, when the location of the maximum stress is in a biaxial or stress state, it is important 10 consider not only the effects of «7 but also of oy and ars, according to one of the theories “The proposals of both von Mises and Hencky were to a considerable extent anticipated by Huber in 1904, Although limited to mean compression and without specifying mode of failure; hs paper in the Polish language did not atteaet international atietion unl 20 years later 11 will be noted that all representations in Figs, 1.21 and 1.23 are symmetrical about line HIC. In some cases, such as forgings and bars, strong directional effects can exist (Le. transverse strength can be considerably less than Tongitudinal strength), Findley (1951) gives methodls for taking anisotropy into account in applying strength theories30 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. 70 oo 30. 40 6 Gaugh una 2» J Pollard (1935) 1 Nisthara and Kavwamote (1940) Wo 9 2 100) Beneling Fatigue Tint, béin.2)/1000 Figure 1.24 Comparison of wrsion and hending fatigue limits (or ductile materials. of steength (failure! For example, tor a shaft with a cirewmferential groove under tensile loading. a point at the bottom of the groove is in a biaxial stress state; that is, the point is subjected (o axial stress «7, and circumferential stress a as shown in Fig. 1.20, Ifthe von Mises theory is used in a failure analysis, then (Fq. 1.35) aay + 1.37} ou 2 y To combine the stress concentration and the vou Mises strength theory, introduce a factor KI a 1.48) 1.29) where K, = or /er is defined as the stress concemration factor af point A that ean be read from a chart of this book. Usually.) < @2/o) < I.sothat X} < K,. In general, K/ is about 90% to 95% of the valne of K, and not less than 85%. Consider the case of a three-dimensional block with a spherical cavity under uniaxial tension &. The two principal stresses ut point A on the surface of the cavity (Fig. 1.25) areTHEORIES OF STRENGTH ANOFAMURE 31 Figure 1.25 Block with aspherical cavity, (Nishida 1976) My - 1) ee eC eer (doy From these relationships aah (1.42) For» = 0.4, and when 7 — 0.3, It is apparent that X/ is tower than and quite close to Ky. ft can be concluded that the usual design using K; is on the safe side and will not be accompanied by significant errors. Therefore chants for K) are not included in this book. 1.8.6 Stress Concentration Factors under Combined Loads: Principle of Superposition In practice. a structural member is offen under the action of several Lypes of loads, instead of being subjected to a single type of loading as represented in the graphs of this book. In such32 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. a case, evaluate the stress for each type of load separately. and superimpose the individual stresses, Since superposition presupposes a linear relationship between the applied Joa: and resulting response, it is necessary thal the maximuin stress he less than the elastig limit of the material, The following examples illustrate this procedure, Example 1.5 Tension and Bending of a Two-Dimensianal Element A notched thin element is under combined loads of tension and in-plane bending as shown in Fig, 1.26. Find the maximum stress, For tension load P. the stress concentration factor K,4, can be found from Chart 2.3 and the maximum stress is Four = Kiar Foon cr) in Which opm = P/(dh). For the in-plane bending moment A. the maximun bending stress is (the stress concentration factor can be found fiom Chart 2.25) Pryac2 = Ko Fond Q) where Guus = OM/dFh) is the stress at the base of the groove, Stresses Puuct and Pasa? are both normal stresses that ogcur at the same point, namely at the hase of the groove. Hence, when the element is under these combined loads, the maximum stress at the notch is Fousx = Fmast + Fmac? = Kin Promt + KrorFaom? Q) Example 1.6 Tension, Bending, and Torsion of a Grooved Shaft A shat of circular cross section with a circumferential groove is under the combined loads of axial force P, bending moment Mf, und torque 7’, as shown in Fig. 1.27. Calculate the maximum stresses corresponding to the varions failure theories, ‘The maximum steess is (the stress concentration factor of this shaft due to axial force P ¢an be found from Chart 2.19) a — Figure 1.26 Rlement under texsivn and bending leading,THEORIES OF STRENGTH AND FAMURE © 33 Figure 1.27 Grooved shaft subject to tension, bending, and torsion, aw Pine = Kia Ww aD The maximum stress corresponding to the bending moment (from Chact 241) is 22M rae: = Kar 2h a ‘The maximum torsion stress due to torgue 7 is obtained from Chart 2.47 as. Fouad © Knee @ rs The maximutn stresses of Eqs, (1)-(3) occur at the same location, namely atthe base of the groove, and the principal stresses are calculated using the familiar formulas (Pilkey 2005) $m + punt) + 3 Groast + Fon 2¥ + Tay 5 « fo ao ba (rust + Fre) — beens + Fm 2 + 472 (5) ‘The various failure eriteria for the base of the groove can now be formulated. ‘Maximum Stress Criterion Fou = cy Mobr’s Theory From Eys. (4) condition of failure is (Eq. 1.27) ory eusy to prove that a) > Qand or < 0. The o where oy is the uniacial tensile strength and a7, is the uniaxial compressive strength,34° DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. Maximum Shear Theory Since o> 0,2 < 0,03 = 0, the maximum shear stress is moo 1 ar Fay = OE = Flore + Fnae2)? + Aaa @) von Mises Criterion From Bq. (1.34), [propos oh - fm PE Gey oF ayer tot fens + Gin)? + FB oO Example 1.7 Infinite Element with a Cireutar Hole with Internal Pressure Find the cess concentration factor for an infinite element subjected to internal pressure p on it’s ular hole edge as shown in Fig, 1.284. ‘This example can be solved by superimposing two configurations, The leads on the element can be assumed to consist of two vases: (1) bisxial lension or = p (Fig. 1.28b); (2) biaxial compression o = —p. with pressure on the circular hole edge (Fig. 1.280. For case 1, = p, the stresses at the edge of the hole are (Eq. 4.16) a =0 on = 2p a tan = 0 tb) tel Higure 1.28 (4: Infinite clement subjected fo internal pressure p on a citeular hole edge; (b) element under biavial tension al area remote [rom the hole; (c} element under biaxial compression,NOTCHSENSITIVITY «35 For case 2 the stresses at the edge of the hole (hydrostatic pressure) are on Pp on —P @ Tan The stresses for both cases cun be derived from the formulas of Little (1974). The total stresses at the edge of the hole can be obtained by superposition O, = On tO = —P Ta = mn + Oo = P fel Tea = Tor + Ton = 0 The maximum stress is yan, ~ p. If p is taken as the nominal stress (Example 1.3), the corresponding stress concentration factor can be defined as x, = fms = San rn From P 1.9 NOTCH SENSITIVITY As noted at the beginning of this chapter, the theoretical stress concentration Factors apply mainly to ideal elastic materials and depend on the geometry of the body and the loading. Sometimes a more realistic model is preferable. When the applied loads reach a certain level. plastic deformations may he involved. The actual strength of structural members may be quite different from that derived using theoretical stress concentration factors. especially {or the cases of impact and alternating loads. is reasonable (© introduce the concept of the effective stress concentration factor Ky. ‘This is also referred to as the Factor of stress concentration at rupture o€ the notch rupture strength ratio (ASTM 1994), The magnitude of K, is obtained experimentally, For instance, X, for a round bar with a circumferential groove subjected to u tensile load P’ (Hig, 1.294) is obtained as follows: (1) Prepare vo sets of specimens of the actual material, the round bars of the first set having circumferential grooves, with @ as the diameter at the root of the groove (Fig. 1,29a), The round burs of the second set are of diameter d without grooves (Fig. 1.296), (2) Perform a tensile test for the two sets of specimens, the rupture toad for the first set is P', while the rupture toad for second set is P. (3) The effective stress concentration factor is defined us (aay In general, P’ < P so that K, > 1. The effective stress concentration factor is a function not only of geometry but also of material properties. Some characteristics of Ky for fouding of different materials are discussed briefly below.36 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. we Figure 1.29. Specimens for oblaining &. 1. Ductite materiat, Consider a tensile loaded plane element with a V-shaped notch. ‘The material law for the material is sketched in Fig. 1.30. If the maximum stress at the root of the notch is less than the yield strength oj.24 < oy. the stress distributions fear the notch would appear as in curves J and 2 in Fig. 1.30. The maximum stress value is Keen aay Sixx Figure 1.30 Stress distribution near a notch for a ductile material,NoTCHsENsiiviTy 37 As the ou exceeds &., the strain af the root of the notch continues to inerease but the maximum stress increases only slightly. The stress distributions on the eross section will be of the form of curves 3.and 4 in Fig. 1.30, Equation (1.44) no longer applies to this case, AS ety Continues to increase. the stress distribution at the noich hecomes more uniform and the eflective stress concentration factor K,. is close to unity. 2. Brittle material. Most brittle materials can be treated as clastic bodies, When the applied load inercases, the stress and strain retain their linear relationship until damage vccurs. The effective stress concentration factor K, is the same as K,. 3. Gray cast iron, Although gray cast irons belong to brittle materials. they contain Bake graphite dispersed in the steel matrix and a number of small cavities, which produce much higher stress concentrations than would be expected from the geometry of the diseontinuity. tn such a case the use of the stress concentration factor K; may resvlt in significant error and K, can be expected to approach unity, since the stress raiser has a smaller influence on the strength of the member than that of the small cavities and flake graphite. It can be reasoned fram these three cases that the effective stress concentration factor depends on the characteristics of the material and the nature of the load, ay well as the geometry of the stress raiser. Also 1s K, = K,, The maximum stress at rupture ean be defined to be. one = Ker (14s) “To express the relationship between K, and K; introduce the concept of notch sensitivity g Boresi etal, 1993): Kel aa 1.46) or Ke = {Ky - +0 aaa ‘Substitute Eq. (1.47) into Eq. (1.35: max = (Ke DE ue (1.48) Ifq — 0, then K, — 1, meaning Grat the stress concentration does not influence the strength of the structural member Ig = Lo then &, = &,, implying thut the theoretical stress concentration factor should be fully invoked. The notch sensitivity is a measure of the ageeement between K, and K,. The concepts of the effective stress concentration factor and noteh sensitivity are used primarily for fatigue strength desiga, For fatigue loading, replace K, in Eq. (1.43) by Ky or Ky, defined as __ Fatigue limit of unnotched specimen (axial or bending) _ 149) Fatigue fimit of notched spocimen (axial or ending) ay ‘C4? if38 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. Fi K ue limit of unnetehed specimen (shear stress) _ Ty = a 1.50) Fatigue limit of notched specimen (shear stress) uy “sey where Ky is the futigne notch factor for normal stress and Kj is the Fatigue notch factor for sheur stress, stich as torsion. The notch sensitivities for fitigue became «51h (1.52) where K,, is defined in Eq. (1.2). The values of q vary from q = for no noteh effect (Ky = 1ytog = | for the full theoretical effect (Ky = Ky). Eqgutions (1.51) and (1.52) can be rewritten in the following form for design use: Kip = Ky ~ We 53) Koy = Ky — Wt I «say where K,- is the estimated fatigue notch factor for normal stress, a calculated factor using am average q value obtained from Fig. 1.31 or a similar curve. and Ruy is the estimated Fatigue notch factor for shear stress, {f no information on q is available, as would be the case for newly developed materials, it is suggested that the full theoretical factor, Ky or K.. be used. It should be noted in this Noth Radius, », millierecs o tf 2 § 4 5 68 7 & 9 0 | Annealed or Normalized Stee! Acecage-Afuminun: Alloy (har and sheets) Nore ‘presiniate values — especially in shaded band, Not veribed for very deep, ot natehes ir > 4. = 0 D0 ONd 008 012 0.16 025 924 028 032 036 AAD Note Radius. Notch Sensitivity. 4 nehes. Figure 131 Aversge fatigue notch sensitivity,NOTCHSENSITIVITY 39 connection that if notch sensitivity is not taken into consideration at all in design (q = 1), the error will be on the safe side (Kiy = K; in Eq. (1.53), In plotting Ky for geometrically similar specimens, it was found that typically K, decreased as the specimen size decreased (Peterson 1933a,b, 1943; Peterson and Wahl 1936). For this reason it is not possible to obtain reliable comparative q values for different materials by making tests of a standardized specimen of fixed dimension (Peterson 1945). Since the local stress distribution (stress gradient,’ volume at peak stress) is more dependent ‘on the notch radius than on other geometrical variables (Peterson 1938; von Phillipp 1942; Neuber 1958), it was apparent that it would be more logical to plot q versus r rather than q versus d (for geometrically similar specimens the curve shapes are of course the same). Plotted q versus r curves (Peterson 1950, 1959) based on available data (Gunn 1952; Lazan and Blatherwick 1953; Templin 1954; Fralich 1959) were found to be within reasonable scatter bands. ‘A q versus r chart for design purposes is given in Fig. 1.31; it averages the previously mentioned plots. Note that the chart is not verified for notches having a depth greater than four times the notch radius because data are not available. Also note that the curves are to be considered as approximate (see shaded band). Notch sensitivity values for radii approaching zero still must be studied. It is, however, ‘well known that tiny holes and scratches do not result in a strength reduction corresponding to theoretical stress concentration factors. In fact, in steels of low tensile strength, the effect of very small holes or scratches is often quite small. However, in higher-strength steels the effect of tiny holes or scratches is more pronounced. Much more data are needed, preferably obtained from statistically planned investigations, Until beter information is available, Fig, 1.31 provides reasonable values for design use. Several expressions have been proposed for the q versus r curve. Such a formula could be useful in setting up a computer design program. Since it would be unrealistic to expect failure at a volume corresponding to the point of peak stress becuase of the pla deformation (Peterson 1938), formulations for X r are based on failure over a distance below the surface (Neuber 1958; Peterson 1974). From the K'y formulations, q versus r relations. are obtained, These and other variations are found in the literature (Peterson 1945), All of the formulas yield acceptable results for design purposes, One must, however, always remember the approximate nature of the relations. In Fig. 1.31 the following simple formula (Peterson 1959) is used”: Trak (ss) 4 where a is a material constant and r is the notch radius, In Fig. 1.31, a = 0.0025 for quenched and tempered steel, @ = 0.01 for annealed or normalized steel, @ = 0.02 for aluminum alloy sheets and bars (avg.). In Peterson (1959) more detailed values are given, including the following approximate design values for steels as a function of tensile strength: The stress is approximate! linear inthe peak stess region (Peterson 1938; Leven 1955). The comesponding Kuke-Hardrath formula (Kubn and Hardrath 1952) based on Neuber relations is 1 1+ Vor Either formula may be used for design purposes (Peterson 1989). The quantities « or devermsined by (est data. material constant, are40 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. @,/100 a 30 Q01s 7 9.010 100 9.007 125.005 150 0.0035 200 0.0020 280 0.0013 where oy = tensile strength in pounds per square inch. In using the foregoing e values, cone must keep in mind that the curves represent averages (see shaded band in Fig. 1.31). ‘A method has been proposed by Neuber (1968) wherein an equivatent larger radius is used to provide a lower K factor. The increment to the radius is dependent on the stress state, the kind of material, and its tensile strength. Application of this method gives results that are in reasonably good agreement with the calculations of ether methods (Peterson 1953), 1.10 DESIGN RELATIONS FOR STATIC STRESS 1.10.1 Ductile Materials As discussed in Section 1.8, under ordinary conditions a ductile member loaded with a steadily increasing uniaxial stress does not suffer loss of strength due to the presence of a noteh, since the notch sensitivity q usually lies in the range @ to 0.1. However. if the function of the member is such that the amount of inelastic strain sequiced for the strength to be insensitive to the notch is restricted, the value of g may approach 1.0 (Ke = Ky). If the member is loaded statically and is also subjected to shock loading, or if the part is to he subjected to high (Davis and Manjoine 1952) or low temperature, or if the part contains shatp discontinuities, a ductile material may behave in the manner of a brittle material, which should be studied with fracture mechanics methods. These are special cases. I¥ there is doubt, &; should be applied (g = 1), Ordinarily, for static loading of a ductile material, set gq = Oin Eg. (1.48), namely Oya, = Fon? ‘Traditionally, design safety is measured by the facvor of safery n. It is defined as the ratio of the load that would cause failure of the member to the working stress on the member, For ductile material the failure is assumed 10 be caused by yielding and the equivalent stre oq can be used as the working siress (von Mises criterion of failure, Section 1.8), For axial loading (normal, or direct. stress 1 = On. Os = oy = ae ee (1.56) or vensideration is 00 the busis of strength wnly. Sires conveniteation dees not oninadily reduee the stcength tof notched member in 5 slaic test, ul wally it des reduce total deformation la rupture. This meurs Keer Pductiy oe, expressed in a differenc wu, less area under the stress-strain diagram (leks energy expended in produciag complete filuse 2s olten of major importance to hav wx much energ) absorption capacity as possible {e£ metal versus plastic for an autemnabile body). However, this iva consideration depending an consequence of failure, and so-on, aad is mot within the scope ofthis hock. which cals onky with strength factors, Pkisde behavior is involved in a limited way in the use of the Factor das is discussed in te section:DESIGN RELATIONS FOR STATIC STRESS 41 where a, is the yield strength and gay is the static normal stress = de, = 01. Kor bending (0 = Gon. 2 = 04 = 01, yet ae as? Fo, where Ly iv the limit design factor for bending and wy, is the static bending stress. In general, the limit design factor J. is the ratio of the Toad (force or moment) needed 10 cause complete yielding throughout the section of u bar (u the load needed 10 cause initial yielding at the “extceme fiber"(Van den Broek 1942), assuming no stress concentration. for bending of u rectangular bar, 1, = 3/2; for bending of a round bar, 1,70; for torsion of a round bar, L, = 4/3; for a tube, it ean be shown that for bending and torsion, respectively. 16 b= aifdey 4 [l= tdi/doy A sa where d; and cy are the inside and outside diameters, respectively. of the tube, These relations are plotted in Fig. 1-32, Criteria other than complete yielding can be used, For a rectangular bar in bending, Li values have been caleulated (Steele et al. 1952). yielding to 1/4 depth 2, = 1 yielding to 1/2 depth £, = 1.375; for 0.1% inelastic strain in steel with yield poi 30,000 psi, Zy, = 1.375. For acircwlar bar in bending, yielding to 1/4 depth, (4, = 1.25.and yielding 10 1/2 depth, £ = 1.5. For a tube ai /dy ielding 1/4 depth, Ly = 1.23, and yielding 1/2 depth, Ly = (1.58) Torsion by @ 01 0202 04 95 06 07 OS D9 10 day «dy inside diameter dy outside diameter Figure 1.32 Limit desiga [actors for tabular members,42 DEFINITIONS ANO DESIGN RELATIONS All the foregoing L values are based on the assumption that the stress-strain diagram becomes horizontal after the yield point is reached, that is, the material is elastic, perfectly plastic. This is a reasonable assumption for low- or medium-carbon sicel. For other stress- strain diagrams which can be represented by a sloping line or curve beyond the elastic range, a value of L closer to 1.0 should be used (Van den Broek 1942). For design Loy should not exceed the tensile strength oy, For torsion of a round bar (shear stress), using Eg. (1.36) obtains, byty Loy n= SR (1.59) ~~ V3m where 7, is the yield strength in torsion and 7 is the static shear stress, For combined normal (axial and bending) and shear stress the principal stresses are 1 4 fH) 1 01 = 5 (0+ 2) +5 KM TP 2 1 I 02 = 5 [ow + (ooo/Ly)] — sy [04 + (ov/Lo) | [org + (@up/Ly))° + Mmy/LP + A(t /L)* where oy is the static axial stress and oy is the static bending stress. Since «ry = 0, the formula for the von Mises thea en by (Eq. 1.35) so that ay oy i (1.60) M1 fora + (oo /Ls))* + 3 (mo/Ls) 1.10.2 Brittle Materials Itis customary to apply the full X; factor in the design of members of brittle material. The use of the full K; factor for cast iron may be considered, in a sense, as penalizing this material unduly, since experiments show that the full effect is usually not obtained (Roark et al, 1938). The use of the full X, factor may be partly justified as compensating, in a way, for the poor shock resistance of brittle materials. Since it i: icult to design rationally for shock or mishandling in transportation and installation, the larger sections obtained by the preceding rule may be a means of preventing some failures that might otherwise occur. However, notable designs of cast-iron members have been made (large paper-mill rolls, etc.) involving rather high stresses where full application of stress concentration factors would rule out this material, Such designs should be carefully made and may be viewed ‘as exceptions (o the rule. For ordinary design it seems wise to proceed cautiously in the treatment of notches in brittle materials, especially in critical load-carrying members. The following factors of safety are based on the maximum stress criterion of failure of Section 1.8, For axial tension or bending (normal stress), ue (1.61)DESIGN RELATIONS FOR ALTERNATING STRESS 43 where oi, is the tensile ultimate strength. &, is the stress concentration factor for normal stress, and a}, is the normal stress, For torsion of a round bar (shear stress), _ Fe Kiso a (1.62) where X,. is the stress concentration factor for shear stress ancl ry is the static shear stress, The following factors of sufety ure based on Mohe’s theary of failure of Seetion 1.8 Since the factors bused on Muhr’s theory are on the “safe side™compured to those bused on the maximum stress criterion, they ure suggested for design use. For axial tension or bending, Eq. (1.61) applies. For torsion of a round bur (sheur stress), by Ey. (1.30). 1.63) + ul Fue) where a, is the tensile ultimate strength and is the compressive ultimate strength. For combined normal and shear stress. 260 = sh Keri ~ af ) +1 + Fyfe Kay + MK TOF 1.11 DESIGN RELATIONS FOR ALTERNATING STRESS 1.11.1 Ductile Materials For alternating (completely reversed cyclic) stress, the stress concentration effects must be considered. As explained in Section 1.9, the fatigue notch factor Ky is usually Tess than the stress concentration factor K;. The factor Ki, represents a calculated estimate of the actual fatigue notch factor K, Naturally. if &, is available from tests, one uses this, but a designer is very seldom in such a fortunate position. ‘The expression for Kyy and Kz, Eys. (1.53) and (1.54), respectively, are repeated here: Ky - (K-41 " (1.65) Koy = (Kno WL The following expressions for factors of safety. are based on the von Mises criterion of failure as discussed in Section 1.8: For axial or bending loading (normal stress), Ty or ~ aL 1.66 "Kia Ta Do (186 where ory is the fatigue limit (endurance limit) in axial or bending test (normal stressp and is the alternating normal stress aunplitude. For torsion of a round bar (shear stress), oF V3 yike FV ta (1.67) where 7y is the fatigue limit in torsion and ry is the alternating shear stress amplitude.44 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. For combined normal stress and shear steess, o, SS L608} Vikan) #3 (Kast) By rearranging Eq. (1.68), the cquation for an cllipse is obtained, a (1.69) ia TiBF * GaayK where oak) and oy /Uty3Kq/) are the major and tunnotched specimens by Gough and Pollard (1935) and by Nisihara and Kawamoto 1940) are in excellent agreement with the elliptical relation. Fatigue tests of notched specimens (Gough and Clenshaw 1951) are not in as good agreement with the elliptical relation as are the unnotehed, but for design purposes the elliptical relation seems reasonable for ductile materials, 1.11.2. Brittle Materials Since our knowledge in this area is very limited, it is suggested that unmouitied K, factors be used. Mohr's theory of Section 1.8, with oy,/,, = 1. ix suggested for design purposes for brittle materials subjected to alternating suess. For axial or bending loading (normal stress), % oe 1.70) 0” Ke, am For torsion of a round bar (shear stress) n= ot Si 171 Rete Tink om For combined normal stress and shear stress, (72) 1.12 DESIGN RELATIONS FOR COMBINED ALTERNATING AND STATIC STRESSES. ‘The majority af important strength problems comprises neither simple static nor alternating caves, but involves Auctating stress, which is a combination of bath, A cyclic Huctuating steess (Fig. 1.33) having a maximum vulue oq, and ntinimum value o yn can be considered as having an alternating component of amplitude Fax ~ Tovin a z (73}DESIGN RELATIONS FOR COMBINED ALTERNATING AND STATIC STRESSES 45 6 Figure 1.33 Combined altemating and steady stresses. und a steady oF starie component Srasy + Frin, ons © Cin (7ay 1] = 1.12.1 Ductile Materials In designing parts to be made of ductile materials for normal temperature use, i isthe usual prictice to epply the stress concentration factor to the alternating component but not to the static component. This appears to be a reasonable procedure and is in conformity with test data {Houdremont and Bennek 1932) such as that shown in Fig. 1.344. The limitations discussed in Seetion 1.10 still apply. By plotting minimum and maximum limiting stesses in Fig. 1.344, the relative positions of the stutie praperties, such ay yield strength and tensile strength, are etearly shown, However, one can also use a simpler representation such as that of Fig. 1.344. with the alternating component as the ordinate. Vin Fig. 1.344, the curved lines are replaced by straight lines connecting the end points oy and o,, ¢¢/Kyp and o,, we have a simple approximation which is un the safe side for siwel menibers.” From Fig. 1.345 we can obtain the following simple rule for factor of safety: lane + Kyo. op) (75) ‘This is the same as the following Soderberg rule (Pilkey 2005), except that «, instead of ,. Soderberg’s rule is based on the yield strength (see lines in Fig. 1.34 “For ste] mecnbers, a cubig relation (Peterson 1952; Nichols 1969) fits available dats tiiely well, — fer, JOR, (8 — Weg fened + 11. This is the expation far the lowcr fill carve of Fig. 14h, Far cet lomicum alloys. the ao, curve has 2 shape (Lazan and Blaisrwick 1952) hat is coneave slightly below’ the tp K yo li a he upper ene arise the line the have ed.46 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. 0 Notehed Tensile strengeh Yield strenziy Test point 4, kginm! cry Figure 134 Limiting values of combined alternating and steady stresses for plain und noicbed specimens (Wata of Schenck, 11.7% C steel. Houdremont ard Beonek 1932): (a1 limiting minimean and maximum values: (>) limiting ulecnating and steady eomppments,DESIGN RELATIONS FOR COMBINED ALTERNATING AND STATIC STRESSES a7 connecting o and e,.04/Ky and 05): =——_____ 1.76) fagfty) t (Ky delay) c By referring to Fig. 1.34b, it can be shown that = OB/OA. Note that in Fig. 1.34a. the pulsating (Q1to max) condition corresponds to tan ' 2, of 634°, which in Fig. 1.34h i 45". guation (1,76) may be further maditied to be in conformity with Eqs. (1.56) and (1.57), which means applying limit design for yielding, with the factory and considerations as stated in Section 1.10.1: Il ne ee a7 (eryg Zo) + Ceryy Lor) + (Kipp) As mentioned previously Lacy must not exceed o,. That is. the factor of safety from Eq. (1.77) must not exceed from Eq. (1.75). For torsion, the same assumptions and use of the von Mises criterion result in: SO C78) V3 [(ro/ Lotte) + Kyp tal] For notched spevimens Eq. (1.78) represen a design relation, being on the safe edge cof test data (Smith 1942), It is interesting to note that, for unnotched tersion specimens, Static torsion (up fo a maximum stress equal fo the yield strength in torsion) does nor lower the limiting alternating torsional range. It is apparent that further research is needed in the torsion region; however, since noich effects are invelved in design (almost without exception), the use of Bq- (1,78) is indicated. Even in the absence of stress concentration, Eq. (1.78) would be on the “safe side.” though by a large margin for relatively large values of statically applied torque. For a combination of static (steady) and alternating normai stresses plus static and alternating shear stresses (alternsting components in phasc) the following relation, derived. by Soderherg (1930), is based on expressing the shear stress on an arbitrary plane in terms of static and alternating components, assuming failure is governed by the maximum shear theory and a “straight-line” relation sinvilar to Faq. (1.76) and finding the plane thar gives a minimum factor of safety n (Peterson 1993): as a (1.799 VY eofoy) + Kou/oy yf #4 [ofa + Kindopl ‘The following moilifications are made lo correspond to the end conditiuns represented by qs. (1.56). (1.57), (1.59). (1.66), and (1.67). Then Eq. (1.79) becomes te et Vf [eras /o) + (Gn Lney) + Key Gud op]? + 3 [to/b or) + (Key taf] (1.80)48 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. For steady steess only. Eq. (1.80) reduces to Eg, (1.60). For alternating stress only. Eq. (1.80) reduces to Eq. (1.68). For normal stress only. Fig, (1-80) reduces to Eg, (1,77). For torsion only, Ey, (1.80) reduces to Bq, (1.78). In ests by Ono (1921, 1929) and by Lea and Budgen (1926) the alternating bending fatigue strength was found not to be attected by the addition of a static (steady) torque (less than the yield torque). Other tests reported in a discussion by Davies (1935} indicate a lowering of the bending fatigue strength by the addition of stutic torque, Hohenemser and Prager (1933) found that a static tension lowered the alternating torsional fatigue strength; Gough and Clenshaw (1951) found that steady bending lowered the torsional fatigue steength of plain specimens but that the effect was smaller for specimens involving stress concentration, Further experimental work is needed in this area of special combined stress combinations, especially in the region involving the additional effect of stress concentration, Ta the meantime, while it appears that use of Eq, (1.80) may be overly “safe” in certain cases of alternating bending plus steady torque, it is believed that Eq. (1.80) provides « reasonable general design rule. 1.12.2 Brittle Materials A “straight-line” simplification similar to that of Fig. 1.34 and Eq. (1.75) can be made for brittle material, except that the stress concentration effect is considered to apply also to the statig (steady) comportent L n= ———________ «1B1} Keon) 7am As previously mentioned, unmodified &, factors are used for the brittle material eases. For combined shear and nermat stresses. data are very limited, For combined alternating bending and static torsion, Ono (1921) reported u decrease of the bending fatigue strength of east iron as steady torsion was added. By use of the Soderberg: method (Suuerbery 1930) and basing failure on the normal stress criterion (Peterson 1953), we obtain 2 oo —, x (2am) - ay (22 + 2) +43 (Za 2) Om) WO New” ey Ow 8 A rigorous formula for combining Mohr’s theory components of Egs. (1.64) and (1.72) does not scem to be available, The following approximation which satisfies Egs. (1,61), (1.63), (1.70), and (1.71) may be of use in design, in the absence of 4 more exuct formula. n (1.82)STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS AND STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS 49 For steady stress only, Eg, (1.83) reduces to Eq, (1.64), For alternating stress only. with y¢/er4, = L. Eq. 1.83) reduces to Eq. (1.72). Kor normal stress only. Ey. (1.83) reduces to Eg. (1.81). |. (183) reduces to This in turn can he reduced to the component eases of Eqs. (1.63) and (1.71) For torsion only. 184y 1413 LIMITED NUMBER OF CYCLES OF ALTERNATING STRESS In Stress Concentration Design Factors (1953), Peterson presented formulas for a limited number of cycles (upper branch of the S-N diagram), These relations were based on an average of available test data und therefure apply to polished lest specimens 0.2 0 0.3 in, Giumeter. If the member being designed is not (oo far from this size runge, the formulas may be useful as a rough guide, but otherwise they are questionable, since the number of cycles required for a crack to propagate to rupture of a member depends on the size of the member. Fatigue failure consisis of three stages: crack initiation, crack propagation, und rupmre. Crack initiation is thought not to be strongly dependent on size, although from statistiew! considerations of the number of “weak spats” one would expect some effect. So much progress has been made in the understanding of crack propagation under cyclic stress, that itis believed that reasonable estimates can be made for a number of problems. 1.14 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS AND STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS Consider an elliptical hole of majoraxis 2c and minoraxis 2b ina plane element (Fig. 1.354). If b — 0 (or a > A), the elliptical hole becomes a crack of lengih 2¢ (Fig. 1.350). The stress iniensity fuctor K represents the strength af the elastic stress fields surrounding the ceack tip (Pilkey 2005). It would appear that there might be a relationship between the stress concenteation factor and the stress intensity factor. Creager and Paris (1967) analyzed the stress distribution asound the tip of a crack of length 2a using the coordinates shown in Fig. 1.36. The origin @ af the coordinates is set a distance of r/2 ftom the tip, in which is the radius of curvature of the tip. The stress, in the » direction near the tip can be expanded as a power series in terms of the radial distance, Discarding all terms higher than second order, the approximation for mode | fracture (Pilkey 2005, Sec. 7.2) becomes (185) Ki @ ( eos (1 fim 2 where oF is the tensile stress remote from the crack, (p, 6) are the polar coordinates of the. crack tip with origin O (Fig. 1.36), K; is the mode I stress intensity factor of the ease50 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. fa) 4) Figure 1.35 Elliptic hole model of a crack ay # — 0: (ab elliptic holes (h) crack. Figure 1.36 Coordinate system forstress at the tip of un oltipse. in Fig. 1.354. The maximum longitudinal stress occurs at the tip of the crack, that is, at = ¢/2, @ = 0, Substituting this condition into Eq, (1.85) gives K Ime = (1.86) However, the stress intensity factor can be written ay (Pilkey 2005) Ky = Colma (1.87) where C is a constant that depends on the shape and the size of the crack and the specimen.[STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS AND STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS St Substituting Lg. (1.87) into Eg. (1,86), the maximum stress is tnx = 0 + 2C0y/ 5 1.88) With o as the reference stress. the steess concentration factor at the tip of the erack for a ‘two-dimensional element subjected (o uniaxial tension is oan a Kk, ~ Ses - is2e/% Fran (1.89 A Equation (1.89) gives an approximate relationship between the stress concentration factor and the stress intensity factor. Due to the rapid development of fracture mechunies, a large number of crack configurations have been analyzed, and the corresponding resulty can be found in various handbooks, These results may be used 10 estimate the stress concentration Gctor for many cases. For instance, for a crack of length 2a in an infinite element under uniaxial tension, the factor C is equal to 1, so the corresponding stress concentration fuctor is /f (1.909 Eq, (1.90) is the same as found in Chapter 4 (Eq. 4.58) for the case of « single elliptical hole in an infiniwe clement in uniaxial tension. [L's not difficult w apply Eq. (1.89) to other cases, con K 142 Fyemn Example 1.8 Eteinent with a Circutar Hole with Opposing Semicircular Lobes Find the stress concentration factor of an elemem with a hole of diameter d and opposing semicircular lobes of radius ras shown in Fig. 1.37, which is under uniaxial tensile stress ar, Use known stress intensity factors. Suppose that a/H = 0.1, r/d = 0.1. o rtrtt & Figure 1.37. Elencot with a circular hole with two opposing semicireuae lobes,52 DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN AELATIONS. ITH Figure 1.38 Elemem with acirculur hole andl a pair of equal leagth erucks. For this problem, choose the stress intensity factor for the ease of radial eracks emanating from a circular hole in a rectangular panel as shown in Fig. 1.38. From Sib (1973) it is found that C = 1.0249 when a/H = 0.1, The crack length i d/2+randr/d = 01, so =6 a Substitute C= 1.0249 and a/r = 6 into Eq. (1.89), Kp = 142-1029 V6 Q The stress concentration factor for this case also can be found from Chart 4.61, Corre- sponding to.a/H = 0.1, r/d = 0.1. the stress concentration fuctor based on the net area is Ky = 4.80 Gh The stress concentration factor based am the gross anes is (Example 1.1) Ky 4.80 Tom a cr The results of (2) and (4) are very clase. Further results are listed below, IC would appear that this kind of approximation ix reasonable.'STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS AND STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS 3 Hi rhd_K, fom Eg. (1.89) Ki, from Chat 461% Dillerence 02 0.05 767 42 16 02 0.25 4.49 46 -28 Os Ad 602 6.00 0.33 06 OL 62 6.00 03 06 0.25 467 47 -06 Shin et al. (1994) compared the use of Eq, (1.89) with the stress concentration factors, obtained from handbooks and the finite element method. The conclusion is that io the ran; of practical engineering geometries where the noteh tip is not ton close to the boundary line of the element, the discrepancy is normally within 10%, Table 1,2 provides a comparison for a case in which two idemival parallel ellipses in un infinite element are not aligned i the axial loading direction (Fig, 1.39), TABLE 1.2 Stress Concentration Factors for the Configurations of Fig. 1.39 Le KK fromEy (189) Discrepancy (05) om a7 os (17a 17.80 ~o2 os a9 091338 13.60 Lo. Ost 2 09 967 10.00 34 034 8.87 09 624 6.36 ce) Old OR Lor 78 198 60 Senenees: Values tor C ror Shin: eC. (19941, values for K; feoms Murakami 11987), blidddy Figure 1.39 Infinite element with (wy identical ellipses that are ol aligned in the x diretion,54 DEFINITIONS ANO DESIGN RELATIONS: REFERENCES ASTM, 1994, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 03.01, American Society for Testing and Boresi, A. P,, Schmidt, R. J. ed., Wiley, New York. Cox, H. L., and Sopwith, D. G., 1937, The effect of orientation on stresses in single crystals and of Fundom orientation on the strength of polycrystalline aggregates, Proc. Pitys, Soc. Lmdon, Vol. 49. p. 134. Creager, M., and Paris, P.C., 1967, Elastic field equations for blunt eracks with reference to stress corrosion cracking, Int. J. Fract. Mech, Vol. 3, pp. 247-252. Davies, V.C., 1935, Discussion based on theses of S. K. Nimhsnmimie and W. J. H Polytechnic), Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. London, Vol. 131, p. 66. Davis, E. A., and Manjoine, M, J., 1952, Effect of notch geometry on rupture strength at elevated temperature, Proc. ASTM, Vol. 52. Drattin, J. O.,und Collins, W. L., 1938, Effect of size and type of specimens on the torsional properties of cast iron, Proc. ASTM, Vol. 38, p. 235. Durelli, A.J., 1982, Stress Concentrations, U.M, Project SF-CARS, School of Engineering, University of Maryland, Office of Naval Research, Washington, DC. Bichinger, A.. 1926, Versuche zur Klirung der Frage der Bruchgefahr, Proc. 2nd Intemational Congress on Applied Mechanies, Zurich, Switzerland, p. nd Sidebottom, O. M., 1993, Advanced Mechanics of Materials, Sth tt (Battersea Findley, W. N., 1951, Discussion of “Engineering steels under combined cyclic andl static stresses” by H.J. Gough, 1949, Trans. ASME Appl. Mech. Seet., Vol. 73, p. 211 Fralich, R. W., 1959, Experimental investigation of effects of random loading on the fatigue life of notched cantilever beam specimens of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy, NASA Memo 4-12-59L, National Aeronzutics and Space Administration, Washington, DC. Gough, H. J., 1933, Crystalline structure in relation to failure of metals, Proc. ASTM, Vol. 33, Pt 2, p.3. Gough, H. J., and Clenshaw, W. J., 1951, Some experiments on the resistance of metals to fatigue under combined stresses, ARC R&M 2522, Aeronautical Research Council, London. Gough, H.J.,and Pollard, H, V., 1935, Strength of materials under combined alternating stress, Proc h. Eng, London, Vol. 131. p. 1, Vol. 132, p. 549. Gunn, N. J. R, 1952, Fatigue properties at low temperature on transverse and longitudinal notched specimens of DTD363A aluminum alloy, Tech. Note Met, 163, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, England. Hencky, H., 1924, Zur Theorie plastischer Deformationen und der Hierdurch im Material her vorgerufenen Nebenspannungen, Proc, Ist International Congress on Applied Mechanics, Delt, ‘The Netherlands, p. 312. Hohenemser, K., and Prager, W,, 1933, Zur Frage der Ermildungsfestigkeit bei mehrachsigen Span- nungsustiinden, Merall, Vol. 12, p. 342. Houdremont, R., and Bennek, H., 1932, Federstihle, Stahl Eisen, Vol. 52, p. 660. Howland, R. C.1., 1930, On the stresses in the neighboshood of a circular hole in a strip under tension, Trans, R, Sov. London Ser. A, Nol. 229, p. 67 Ku, T-C., 1960, Stress concentration in a rotating disk with a central hole and two additional symmetrically located holes, J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 27, Ser. E, No. 2, pp. 345-360. Kuhn, P,, and Hardrath, HF. 1952, An engineering method forestimating notch-size effect in fatigue tests of steel, NACA Tech, Note 2805, National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics, Washington, pe.REFERENCES 55 Lazan, B. J.. and Blatherwick, A. A., 1952, Fatigue properties of aluminum alloys at various direct stress ratios, WADE TR 52-306 Part 1, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, Lazan, B. J., and Blatherwick, A. A., 1953, Strength properties of rolled aluminum alloys under various combinations of alternating and mean axial stresses, Proc. ASTM, Vol. 53, p. 856. Lea, F C., and Budgen, H. P, 1926, Combined torsional and repeated bending stresses, Engineering London, Nol. 12: Leven, M. M., 1955, Quantitative three-dimensional photoelasticity, Proe. SESA, Vol. 12, No. 2, p. 167. Little, R. W., 1973, Elasticity, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, p. 160. Ludwik, P, 1931, Kerb- und Korrosionsdauerfestigkeit, Mezall, Vol. 10, p. 705. Marin, J. 1952, Engineering Materials, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Murakami, ¥., 1987, Siress Intensity Factor Handbook, Pergamon Press. Elmsford, NY. J. Appl. Physi. Nol. 8. Nadai, A., 1937, Plastic behavior of metals in the strain hardening rang p. 203. Neuber, H., 1958, Kerbspannuneslelire, 2nd ed. (in German), Springer-Verlag, Berlin; translation 1961, Theory uf Notch Sizesces, Office of Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commere: Washington, DC, 1961 p. 207. Neuber, H., 1968, Theoretical determination of fatigue strength at stress concentration, Rep. AFML- TR-68-20. Ai Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH. Newmark, N. M., Mosborg, R. J.. Munse, W. H., and Elling, R. E., 1951, Fatigue tests in axial compression, Prae. ASTM, Vol. 51, p. 792. Newton, R.E., 1940, A photoclastic study of stresses in rotating disks, J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 7, p. 57. ols, R. W., Ed, 1969, A Manual of Pressure Vessel Technology, Elsevier, London, Chap. 3. 1976, Stress Concentration, Mori Kita Press, Tokyo (in Japanese’. ara T, and Kawamoto, A., 1940, The strength of metals under combined alternating stresses, Trans. Soe. Mech, Eng. Jpn. Vol. 6, No. 24, p. & ihara, T., and Kojima, K.. 1939, Diagram of endurance limit of duralumin for repeated tension tnd compression, Trans. Soc. Mech. Eng. Jpm.. Vol. $, No. 20, p. EL ue of steel under combined bending and torsion, Mem. Coil. Eng. Kyushu mp. Unie, Vol. 2, No. 2 ‘Ono, A., 1929, Some results of fatigue tests of metals, J. Soc. Peterson, R. E., 19334, Stress concentration phenomena in ‘Mech. Sect., Vol. 55, p. 157. Peterson, R.E., 1933b, Model testing as applied to strength of materials, Trans. ASME Appl. Meck. Sect, Vol. $5, p. 79. Peterson, R. E., 1938, Methods of correlating data from fatigue tests of stress concentration speci Stephen Timoshenko Anniversary Volume, Macmillan, New York, p. 179. Peterson, R. E., 1943, Application of stress concentration factors in design, Proc. Soc. Exp. Stress Anal.. Vol. 1, No. 1p. HIS. Peterson, R.E., 1945, Relation between life testing and conventional tests of materials, ASTA Bull, pl. Peterson, R. E., 1950, Relation between stress analysis and fatigue of metals, Proc. Anal., Vol. 11,No. 2,p. 199. Peterson, R. E., 1952, Brittle fracture and fatigue in machinery, in Fatigue and Fracture of Metals, Wiley, New York, p. 74. Peterson, R. Ea, 195 Peterson, R. E., 1959, Analytical approach (o stress concentration effect in aircraft materials, Tech. Rep, 59-507, U.S. Nit Foree-WADC Symposium on Fatigue of Metals, Day Ni Nishi ¢. Jpn., Nol. 32, p. 331. , Trans. ASM tigue of me Soe. Exp. Stress Stress Concentration Design Factors, Wiley, New York.5G DEFINITIONS ANO DESIGN RELATIONS: Peterson, R. E., 1974, Stress Concentration Factors, Wiley, New York, Peterson, R. E., and Wahl, A. M., 1936, ‘wo and three dimensional eases of stress concentration and comparison with fatigue tests, Trans. ASME Appl. Mech, Sect., Vol. 57, p. Al Pitkey, W. D.. 2005, Formulas for Stress, Strain, and Structural Matrices, 2nd ed., Wiley, Hoboken, NI Pilkey, W. D., and Wunderlich, W., 1993, Mechanies of Structures: Variational and Computational Methods, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Prager, W.. and Hodge, P.G., 1951, Theory of Perfecaly Plastic Solids, Wiley, New York. Roark, R.J., Hartenberg, R.S.,and Williams, R. Z., 1938, The influence of form and scale on strength, Univ, Wise. Exp. Sim. Bull. 84 Rés, M., and Bichinger, A., 1950, Die Bruchgefahr fester Kirper, Fide. Materialprucf. Ber, Nol. 173. Sachs, G., 1928, Zur Ablcitung ciner Fliessbedingung, Z. VDI, Vol. 72, p. 734. Shin, C.S., Man, K.C.,and Wang, C., M., 1994, A practical method to estimate the stress concentration of notches, tnt, J. Fatigue, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 242-256. Sih, G. C., 1973, Handbook of Stress Intensity Factors, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA. ‘Smith, J. O., 1942, The effect of range of stress on the fatigue strength of metals, Uniu. Ml. Exp. Sin Bull, 334 Soderberg. C. R., 1930, Working stress, Trans, ASME, Vol. 52, Pt. 1, p. APM 5: Steele, M. C., Lit C. K., and Smith, J 0., 1952, Critical review and interpretation of the literature plastic (inelastic) behavior of engineering metallic materials, research report, Department of ‘Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, University of Mlinois, Urbana, IL. ‘Templin, R. L., 1954, Fatigue of aluminum, Proc. ASTM, Vol. $4, p. 641 Timoshenko, S., and Goodier, J. N., 1970, Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York Van den Brock, J. A., 1942, Theory of Limit Design, Wiley, New York Von Mises, R., 1913, Mechanik der festen Kirper im plastisch deformablen Zustand, Nachr Ges Wiss. Goettingen Jahresber: Geschaefisjal: Math.-phys. Kl. p. 582. Von Phillipp, H. A., 1942, Einfluss von Querschittsgrdsse und Querschittsform auf die Dauerfestigkeit bei ungleichmassig verteilten Spannungen, Forschung. Vol. 13. p. 99. Sources of Stress Concentration Factors Neuber, H., 1958, Theary of Notch Stresses, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin; translation, 1961, Office of Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC. Nishida, M., 1976, Siress Concentration, Mori Kita Press, Tokyo (in Japanese). Pilkey, W. D., 2005, Formulas for Stress, Strain, and Structural Matrices, 2nd ed., Wiley, Hoboken, NI Savin, G.N,, 1961, Sess Concentration Arvund Holes, Pergamon Press, London (English translation editor, W. Johnson). Savin, G.N., and Tulchii, V.1,, 1976, Handbook on Siress Concentration, Higher Education Publishing House (Chinese translation, Heilongjiang Science and Technology Press, Harbin, China). Young, W. C., 1989, Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York. Web Site for This Book ‘www.stressconcentrationfactors.com, discussion forums and errata related t0 this book.CHAPTER 2 NOTCHES AND GROOVES 2.1 NOTATION Definition: Panet. A thin fat element with in-plane loading. This is a sheet that is sometimes referred tous a membrane, Symbols: a = width of a notch or semimajor axis of an ellipse b= distance between notch centers or serniminor axis of an ellipse c = distance bebween noteh centers d= minimum diameter (Yor three-dimensional) or minimum width (for wo-dimen- sional) of member D = diameter of member fe = minimum thickness of a thin element f= thickness of a thin element H = height ur width of member k, Kjg = stress concentration factor with the nominal stress based on gross area K,, = stress concentration factor with the nominal stress based on net area 1 = length of member m stress concentration factor bending moment per unit length M = bending moment P = total applied in-plane force 1 = radius of a notch, notch bottom radius oz58 NOTCHES AND GROOVES 1 = depth of a notch T = torque «= open angle of noteh v = Poisson’s ratio @ = normal stress 7 = shear stress 2.2 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS ‘The U-shaped notch or circumferential groove is a geometrical shape of considerable interest in engineering. It occurs in machine elements such as in turbine rotors between blade rows and at seals. Other examples are found in a variety of shafts (Fig. 2.1) such as a shoulder relief groove or a retainer for a spring washer. ‘The round-bottomed V-shaped notch or circumferential groove, and to 4 lesser extent the U-shaped notch, are conventional contour shapes for stress concentration test pieces in the areas of fatigue, creep-rupture, and brittle fracture. A threaded part may be considered an example of a multigrooved member. As mentioned in Chapter 1, nwo basic K; factors may be defined: K;,, based on the larger (gross) section of width H and Kjq, based on the smaller (net) section of width d (Fig, 2.2). For tension, Kip = Cmax/o, where & = P/HH and Ky = Foax/oonss Where From = P/ha. Since design calculations are usually based on the critical section (width d) where gy is located, Kia is the generally used factor. Unless otherwise specified, K, refers to Ky, in this chapter. Neuber (1958) found the theoretical stress concentration Factors for the deep hyperbolic notch (Fig. 2,34) and the shallow elliptical notch (Fig. 2.36) in infinitely wide members under tension, bending, and shear, These results will be given in this chapter. For finite width members, Neuber introduced the following ingenious simple relation for notches, Snap Ring | a ( | 4 Grinding a TS Relief E Shap Ring NEL Groove REY Groove fa) i) © Figure 2.1 Examples of grooved shafts.STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS © 59. thy Figure 2.3 Notches: (a) deep hyperbolic; (0) shallow elliptical. with arbitrary shapes: Vikoo kab Kya 14 yf Bea tha = Vik. IP ky — 0 where Ky is the stress concentration factor for a shallow elliptical notch (with the same t/r ys for the notch in the finite width member} in a scmi-infinitely wide member, Ky, is the stress concentration factor for a deep hyperbolic match (with the same ¢/d as for the notch in the tinite width member) in an intinitely wide member, 1 is the notch depth, ¢ it the noteh radius (minimum contour radius), ¢ is a minimum diameter (three-dimensional) cor minimum width (two-dimensional) of the member. Consider, for example, a fat bar with opposite notches of arbitrary shape, with notch depth 4, notch radius rand a minimum bar width d. If K;, is the stress concentration factor of a shallow clliptical notch of Chart 2.2 with the same t/r and Ky, is the stres: concentration factor af a deep hyperbolic notch of Chart 2.1 with the same r/d. then Ky. of Eg. (2.1) is an estimate of the stress concentration factor of the flat bar with opposite noiches.60 NOTCHES AND GROOVES. Equation (2.1) is not exact, Recem investigations have provided more accurate values for the parameter ranges covered by the investigations, as will be presented in the following sections, If the actual member being designed has a notch of groove that is either very deep or shallow, the Neuber approximation will be close. However, for values of /# in the region of 1/2, the Neuber K, can be as much as 12% ton low, which ison the unsafe side from a design standpoint. More accurate values have been obtained over the most used ranges of parameters. These form the basis of some of the charts presented here, However, when value for an extreme condition such as a very small or large +/d is sought, the Neuer method is the only means of obtaining a useful factor. Some charts cavering the extreme ranges are also included in this book Another use of the charts of Neuber factor as detailed in Sect ‘The K, factors for the that members covered in this chapter are for two-dimensional states of stress (plane stresses) und apply strictly to very thin sheets. or more strictly to where fdr +O, where A = element thickness and r = notch radius, As h/r increases, a state of plane strain is approached, in which case the stress at the notch surface at the middle of the element thickness increases and the stress at the element surface decreases. Some guidance may be obtained by referring to the introductory remarks af the beginning of Chapter 4, The K; factor for a notch can he lowered by use of a reinforcing bead (Suzuki 1967). in designing a test piece for maximum K,, 2.3 NOTCHES IN TENSION 2.3.1 Opposite Deep Hyperbolic Notches in an Infinite Thin Element; Shallow Elliptical, Semicircular, U-Shaped, or Keyhole-Shaped Notches In Semi-intinite Thin Elements; Equivalent Elliptical Notch In Chart 2,1, X,, values are given for the deep (d/H — 0} hyperbolic notch in un infinite thin element (Neuber 1958; Peterson 1953). Chart 2.2 provides K,, values for an elliptical or U-shaped notch in a semi-infinite thin clement (Seika 1960; Bowie 1966; Barrata and Neal 1970), For the higher 1/r values. K;, for the U-natch is up to 1% higher than for the elliptical notch. For practical purposes, the solid curve of Chart 2.2 covers both cases. ‘The semicircular notch (1/7 = 1) in a semi-infinite thin etement bas been suudied by a number of investigators. Ling (1967) has provided the following summary of K, factors: 1936 Maunsell 3.05 1940 Isibasi 3,06 1941 Weinel 3.063 1948 Ling 3.065 1965 Yeung 3.06 1965 Mitchell 3,08 Similar lo the “equivalent elliptical hole” in an infinite panel (see Section 4.5.1), an “equivalent elliptical notch” in a semi-iniinite thin element may be defined as an elliptical notch that has the same ¢/r and envelops the noich geometry under consideration. All such notches, U-shaped. keyhole (circular hole connected to edge by saw cut), and so on have very nearly the same K, as the equivalent elliptical notch, The “equivalent elliptical notch” applies for tension. It is not applicable for shear.NOTCHES INTENSION 61 ry «by Figure 24 Equivateot ootch trom splitting 2 thin elem (by hall of thin element with a noish. WLwith s hole: ja) thin element with a hole; Stress concentration factors have been approximated by splitting a thin element with a central hole axially through the middle of the hole (Fig, 2-4) and using the &, for the hole to represent the resulting notches. From Eq, (1.90) the stress concentration factor for an elliptical hole in a thin element is Veaye wheres is the semiaxis which is perpendicular to the tensile loading. Chart 2.2 shows this K; also, The factors for the U-shaped slot (Isida 1955) are practically the same. A comparison of the curves for aeiches and holes in Chart 2.2 shows that the preceding approximation can be in enor by as much as 10% for the larger values of #/r. 2.3.2 Opposite Singte Semicircutar Notches in a Thin Element ite-Width For the tension ease of opposite semicircular notches in a finiw-width thin element, Keg and Kr factors (Isida 1953; Ling 1968; Appl und Koerner 1968; Hooke 1968) are given in Chant 2.3. The difference between K,, and K,, is iMlustrated in Chart 2.3, ‘Consider a bur of constant width H and a constant force P, As notches are cut deeper wreasing 2r/H), Kyy deereases, reflecting a decreasing stress concentration (peak stress divided by average stress across d). This continues umtil 2r/H — 1, in etfect a uniform stress lension specimen, Faclor Kis increases as 2r/H increases, reflecting the increase in aan Owing 10 the loss of section. Slot (1972) found that with 2/H = 1/2 in a strip of length 1.54. good agreement was obtained with the steess distribution for & applied at infinity. 2.3.3 Opposite Single U-Shaped Notches In a Finite-Width Thin Element Strain gage tests (Kikukawa 1962), photvelastic tests (Flynn and Roll 1966), and mathemat- ical analysis (Appl and Koerner 1969) provide consistent data for the opposite U-shaped62 NOTCHES AND GROOVES. notches in a lat bar (two-dimensional case} of Chart 2.4. An important cheek is provided by including in Chart 2.4 the curve representing mathematical results (sida 1953; Ling 1968) for the semicircular notch (Chart 2.3), a special ease of the U-notch, The agreement is excellent for values of H/d = 2. Photoelastic results (Wilson und White 1973) for H/d = 1.05 are alse in good agreement. Barrata (1972) has compared empirical formulas for Kj, with experimentally determined values and concludes that the following two formulas are satisfactory for predictive use. Barrata and Neal (1970); mr 24 Ko = [0.780 422454) } [0.993 + 0.180 {7 ~1.010 (7) + i103) (: - z) Q3) Heywood (952% . ur . “lt [raat - 3] H/d — 1+ 05V/r H/d —1+ fil 4p with rthe depth of a notch, 1 = (H = d)/2. Relisrring to Chart 2.4, Eq. «2.3) gives values in good agreement with the solid curves for r/d < 0.25. Equation (2.4) is in better agreement for r/d > 0.28, For the dashed curves (not the dot-dash curve For semicircular notches), Eq. (2.3) gives lower values as 1/d increases. The tests on which the formulas are based do not include parameter values corresponding to the dashed curves, which are uncertain owing to their determination by interpolation of r/d curves having H/d as abscissae. In the absence of better basie data, the dashed curves. representing higher values. should be used for design, In Chart 2.4 the values of r/d are from 0 to 0.3, and the values of H/¢ are from 1 10 2, covering the most widely used parameter ranges. There is considerable evidence (Kikukawa 1962; Flynn and Roll 1966; Appl and Koemer 1969) that for greater values of r/d and H/d. the K, versus H/d curve fora given r/d does not flaiten out but reaches a peak value and then decreases slowly toward a somewhat lower K, value as H/d — ~, The etfect is small and is not shown on Chart 2.4 In Chart 2.4 the range of parameters corresponds 10 the investigations of Kikukawa (1962), Flynn and Rol! (1966), and Appl and Koemer (1969). For smaller and larger r/d values, the Neuher values (Ey. 2.1. Charts 2.5 anu 2.6), although approximate, are the only wide-range values available and are useful for certain problems. The largest errors are at the midregion of d/H. For shallow or deep notches the error becomes progressively smaller. Some specilic photoelastic tests (Liebowitz et al, 1967) with d/H = 0.85 and £/H varying trom ~ 0.001 to 0.02 gave higher &,,, values than does Chart 2.5.NOTCHES INTENSION 63 2.3.4 Finite-Width Correction Factors for Opposite Narrow Single Elliptical Notches in a Finite-Width Thin Element For the very narrow elliptical notch, approaching a crack, “finite-width correction” formulas have been proposed by Westergaurd (1939), Inwin (1958), Bowie (1963), Dixon (1962) Brown and Stawley (1966). and Koiter (1965). Plots for opposite narrow edge notches are given in Peterson (1974). The formula (Brown and Strawley 1966; Barrata and Neal 1970), based on Bowie’ results for appasite narrow elliptical notches in a finite-widih thin element (Fig. 2.2) i satisfactory for values of 2¢/H < 0.5: kK, 24 2 Fe = 0998 + 0.180 ®) ~ oso (2) where is the crack length and K,, is K; for H = %. ‘The following Koiter (1965) formulu covers the entire 22/4 range. or the lower 21/H range agreement with Ey, (2.5) is good, For the mid-2//H range, somewhat higher values thun the Eq, (2.5) values are obtained, Ka _ fy 2 ay wy )p, a? aa oso (2) oorss (2) + voi (2) 1-5 26 “These gross area fuctors K;, are related to the net arcu factors Ky, by Ku _ Ks mw K(1-2 27) Ke Ky ( z) en 2.3.5 Opposite Single V-Shaped Notches in a Finite-Width Thin Element 2\* +1710 ) sy Stress concentration factors Kig have been obtained (App! and Koerner 1969) for the flat tension bar with opposite V notches as a fonction of the V angle, « (Chant 2.7), The Leven- Frocht (1953) method of relating Kjq 1 the Ky, of a corresponding U noteh as used in Chart 2.7, shows that for H/d = 1.66 the angle has little effect up to 90°. For H/d = 3 it has litle effeet up to 60°. In comparing these results with Chart 2.28, where the highest H/d = 1.82, the agreement is good, even though the two cases are different (symmetrical noxches, in tension (Chart 2.7); notch on one side, in bending (Chart 2.28)], 2.3.6 Single Notch on One Side of a Thin Element Neuber (1958) has obtained approximate X,, values for a semi a deep hyperbolic notch, whercin tension loading is applied along a midline through the minimum section (Chart 2.8). Chart 2.9 presents Kj, curves based on photoelastic tests «Cole and Braun 1958), Corresponding Neuber K,, factors obtained by use of Chart 2.8 and of Eq. (2.1) are on the average 18% lower than the yg factors of Churt 2. ‘The curve tor the semicircular notch is abtained by noting that for this case r = H - d or H/d = 1 + r/d and that Ky = 3.065 ate/d — 0.64 NOTCHES AND GROOVES. 2.3.7 Notches with Flat Bottoms: Chart 2.10 gives stress concentration factors Kip for opposing notches in finite-width thinel- ements, with lat hottoms (Hetényi and Liu 1956: Neuber 1958: Sobey 1965), Finite clement analyses have given stress concentration factors up to 10% higher than the experimental results of Chart 2.10 (ESDU 1989). Chart 2.11 provides factors for a rectangular notch on the edge of a wide (semi-infinite) flat panel in tension (Rubenchik 1975, ESDU 1981). The maximum stress dua, Occurs at points A of the figure in Chart 2.11, When a = 2r, (he notch base is cular, and two. poitits A coincide at the base of the notch. 2.3.8 Multiple Notches in a Thin Element. I has long been recognized that a single notch represents a higher degree of stres centration thun a series of closely spaced notches of the same kind as the single notch Considered from the standpoint of flow analogy, 1 smoother flow is obtained in Fig. 2.50 and c, than in Fig, 2.50. For the infinite row of semivireular edge notches, factors have been obtained mathemat- ically (Atsumi 1958) as a fonction of notch spacing and the celative width of a bar, with results summarized in Charts 2.12 and 2.13. For infinite notch spacing. the Kp factors are im agreement with the single-notch factors of Isidkt (1953) and Ling (1968), Chart 2.3. For a specific case (Slot 1972) with ¢/H = 1/4 and b/a = 3, yood agreement was obtuined with the corresponding Atsumi (1958) value. An analysis (Weber 1942) of a semi-infinite pane! with an edge of wave form of depth 1 and minimum radius r gives Ky, = 2.13 fort/r = 1 and b/er = 2, which is in agreement switlt Chart 2.12, con @w UU (bl SUV i) Figure 2.5 Muliple neDEPRESSIONS INTENSION 65 Stress concentration Factors K,, are available for the ease of an infinite row of circular holes in a panel steessed in (ension in the direction of the row (Weber 1942: Schulz 1942, 1943-1945). If we consider the panel as split along the axis of the holes, the K,, values should he nearly the same (for the single hole, K;,, = 3 for the single noth. Ki, = 3.065), ‘The K,, curve for the holes as a function of b/a fits well (slightly below) the top curve of Chart 2.12. For a finite number of multiple notches (Fig. 2.54), the sitess eoncentratian of the intermediate notches is considerably reduced, The maximum stress concentration occurs at the end notches (Charts 2.14 and 2.15, Durelli et al. 1952). and this is also reduced (as compared t© a single notch) but (© a lesser degree than for the intermediate notches. Sometimes a memher can be designed as in Fig. 2.5¢. resulting in a reduction of stress concemration is compared to Fig. 2.55 Factors for two pairs of notches (Atsumi 1967) in a square pattern (6/H = 1) are included in Cham 2.13. Photoelastic tests have been made for various numbers (up to sin) of semicircular notches (Hetényi 1943; Durelli et al. 1952). The results (Charts 2.14, 2.15, and 2.16) are consistent swith the recent mathematical factors forthe intinite row (Atsumi 1958). Chan 2.16 provides, for comparison, Keg for a groove that corresponds (0 2 lower Kee limit for any number of semicircular notches with overall edge dimension ¢. For the Aero thread shape (semicircular notches with b/a = 1.33), two-dimensi photoelastic tests (Hetényi 1943) of six notches gave K, values of 1.94 for the interme: notch und 2.36 for the end notch. For the Whitworth thread shape (V notch with rounded bottom), the corvesponsling photoelastic tests (Helényi 1943) gave A, values of 3.35 and 4.43, respectively, Fatigue tests (Moore 1926) of threaded specimens and specimens having a single groove of the same dimensions showed considerably higher strength for the threaded specimens. ill 2.3.9 Analytical Solutions for Stress Concentration Factors for Notched Bars. Gray et al, (1995) derive closed-form expressions for stress concentration factors for thin bars in tension or bending with notches in terms of the depth of the nowh, the end radius, and the width of the bar. [n this paper. the shape of the notch is replaced by an equivalent ellipse or hyperbola. The closed-form relations are based on finite element analyses. Noda etal. (1995) provide formulas for stress concentration factors for single-side and opposite notches under tension, 2.4 DEPRESSIONS IN TENSION 2.4.1 Hemispherlcal Depression (Pit) In the Surface of a Semi-infinite Body ie hody with a hemispherical depression under equal bi (Fig. 2.6). K, = 2.23 was found (Eubanks 1954) for Poisson's ratio v = 1/4. Thi 7% higher than for the corresponding case of a spherical cavity (K, = 2.09 for v = 1/4), «Chart 4.73), Mereover the semicircular edge notch in tension (X, = 3.065) (Chast 2.2) is about 2% higher than the circular hole in tension (K, = 3) (Chart 4.1 and Ey. 4.18).66 NOTCHES AND GROOVES. bhbddd Hinite body with a hemispherical depression uncler equal biswia) stress. Figure 2.6 Si 2.4.2 Hyperbotoid Depression (Pit) in the Surface of a Finite-Thickness Element The hyperboluid depression simulates the type of pit caused by meteoroid impact of an aluminum panel (Denardo 1968), For equal biaxial stress (Fig. 2.7) values of K, in the range of 3.4 «0 3.8 were obtained for individual specilic geometries as reported by Reed und Wilcox (1970). The authors point out that the X, values are higher than for complete penetration in the form of a circular hole (K', = 2: see Eq. 4.17). 2.4.3 Opposite Shallow Spherical Depressions (Dimples) ina Thin Element The geometry of opposite dimples in a thin element has been suggested for a test piece in which a crack forming at the thinnest location can progress only into a region of lower stress (Cowper 1962). Dimpling is olten used (0 remove a small surface defect, Ifthe depth is small relative to the thickness (h,,/f approaching 1.0 in Chart 2.17), the stress increase is small, The Kie = Gmx/o values are shown for uniaxial stressing in Chart 2.17. These values also apply for equal biaxial stressing. The calculated values of Chart 2.17 are for a shallow spherical depression having diameter greater than four or five times the thickness of the element. In terms of the variables given in Chart 2.17, the spherical radius is lpia 4a lh-hey +h Aa (28)GROOVES INTENSION 67 6 Figure 2.7 Hyperbolical depression in the surface of a finite thickness panel under equal Biuxial stress, ford # 5h. r/in > 25. For such a relatively large radius, the stress increase for a thin section (h,/h — 0) is due (o the thinness of section rather than stress concentration per se Cig, stress gradient is aot sleep). For comparison, for a groove having the same scetional contour as the dimple, K;, shown by the dashed line on Chart 2.17. the Ke values being calculated from the Kye values of Chart 2.6, Note that in Chart 2.6 the Km values for r/d = 25 represent a stress. concentration af about 1%. The Ky fuciors therefore essentially represent the loss of the section, Removal of a surface defect in a thick section by means of creating a relatively shallow spherical depression results in negligible stress concentration. on the order of 1%. 2.5 GROOVES IN TENSION 2.5.1 Deep Hyperbolic Groove in an Infinite Member (Circular Net Section) Exact K, values for Neuber’s solution (Peterson 1953; Neuber 1958) are given in Chart 2,18 for a deep hyperbolic groove in un infinite member. Note that Poisson's ratio hus only a relatively sorall effec 2.5.2 U-Shaped Circumferential Groove in a Bar of Circular Cross Section ‘The K,, values for a bar of circular cross section wilh a U groove (Chart 2.19) are obtained by multiplying the X,, of Chant 2.4 by the ratio of the corresponding Newber three-dimensional68 NOTCHES AND GROOVES. Ky, (Chant 2.18) over two-dimensional Ky, values (Chart 2.1). This is an approximation. However. after comparison with the bending and torsion eases, the results seem reasonable. ‘The maximum stress oceurs at the bottom of the groove. Cheng (1970) has by a pho- toelastic test obtained K,, = 1.85 for r/d = 0.209 and D/d = (.505, The conesponding Ky from Chart 2.19 is 1 which agcees fairly well with Cheng’s value, which he be- lieves to be somewhat low. Finite element studies (ESDU 1989) have confirmed the stress concentration values in Chart 2,19 (and Chart 2.22), Approximate Ky (actors, based on the Neuber (1958) formula, are given in Chart 2.20 for smaller r/d values und ia Chart 2.21 for larger r/d values (e.g., test specimens). 2.5.3 Flat-Bottom Grooves Chart 2.22 gives K;,, for flat-bottom grooves under tension based on the Neuber formula (Peterson 1953; ESDU 981). 2.5.4 Closed-Form Solutions for Grooves in Bars of Circular Cross Section There have been a variety of studies leading to analytical equations for stress concentration factors for grooves in bars of circular erass section, {n Nisitani and Noda (1984), a solmion technique is proposed for finding the stress concentration factors for V-shaped grooves under tension, torsion. or bending, For several cues, the resulting factors are shown 10 be reasonably cluse to results available previously. A variety of stress concentration factors charts are included in this paper. ‘Noda et al, (1995) provide formulas for V-shaped grooves for burs subjected to tension, torsion, and bending, Noda and Takase (1999) extend the formulas to cover grooves of any shape in bars under tension und bending, 2.6 BENDING OF THIN BEAMS WITH NOTCHES 2.6.1 Opposite Deep Hyperbolic Notches in an Infinite Thin Element Exact Ky values of Neuber's solution (Peterson 1983: Neuber 1958) are presented in Chart 2.23 for infinite thin elements subject 10 in-plane moments with opposite deep hyperbolic notches. 2.6.2 Opposite Semicircular Notches in a Flat Beam Chart 2,24 provides K,, values determined mathematically (Isida 1953: Ling 1967) fora thin bbeam element with opposite semicircular notches. Slot (1972) found that with r/H = 1/4 a strip of length 1.5/7, good agreement was obtained with the stress distribution for M applied a infinity Troyani et al, (2004) showed computationally that for very short hars the stress con- centration factors will be larger than the traditional values. More specifically, they found that for £/H < 0.5 (see Fig. 2.8 for the definitions of Land H) the use of the stress concentration factors of Chart 2.25 cun signi ntly underestimate values ebtained from the theory of elasticity.BENDING OF THIN BEAMS WITHNOTCHES 69 Figure 2.8 Bending of a flat beam with opposite U-shaped notches. 2.6.3 Opposite U-Shaped Notches in a Flat Beam ‘The stress concentration factor Ky, for opposite U-shaped notches in a finite-width thin beam element is given in Chart 2.25. These curves are obtained by increasing the photoelastic Ky values (Frocht 1935), which asin tension are known to be low, to agree with the semicircular notch mathematical values of Chart 2.24, which are assumed to be accurate. Photoelastic (Wilson and White 1973) and numerical results (Kitagawa and Nakade 1970) are in good agreement, Approximate Ky, Values for extended r/d values are given in Charts 2.26 and 2.6.4 V-Shaped Notches in a Flat Beam Element ‘The effect of notch angle on the stress concentration factors is presented in Chart 2.28 fora bar in bending with a V-shaped notch on one side (Leven and Frocht 1953). The K, value is fora U notch, Kiq is fora notch with inclined sides having an inchided angle @ but with all other dimensions the same as for the corresponding U notch case. The curves of Chart 2,28 are based on data from specimens covering a H/d range up to 1.82. Any effect of H/d up to this value is sufficiently small that single a curves are adequate. For larger H/d values, the a curves may be lower (see Chart 2.7), 2.6.5 Notch on One Side of a Thin Beam Chart 2.29 provides X,, for bending of a semi-infinite thin element with a deep hyperbolic notch (Neuber 1958). In Chart 2.304, Ky, curves based on photoelastic tests (Leven and Frocht 1953) are given. Corresponding Neuber Kj, factors obtained by use of Chart 2.29 and Fg. (2.1) are on the average 6% higher than the Ky» factors of Chart 2.30a ‘The curve for the semicircular notch is obtained by noting that for this case H/d = 1+ r/d and that Ke, = 3.065 at r/d — 0, In Chart 2.306, finite-width correction factors are given for a bar with a notch on one side. The full curve represents a crack (Wilson 1970) and the dashed curved a semicircular notch (Leven and Frocht 1953). The correction factor for the crack is the ratio of the stress-intensity factors. In the small-radius, narrow-notch limit, the ratio is valid for stress concentration (Irwin 1960; Paris and Sih 1965). Note that the end points of the curves are70 NOTCHES AND GROOVES. 10 ats/H = Vand (/Ky. at /H = 1. The 1/K,. values at 1/H = 1 for elliptical notches are obtained from Kya of Chart 2.2. These 17K; values at ¢/#1 = | are useful in sketching in approximate values for elliptical notches, If Kyc/Krq (not shown in Chart 2.306) is plotted, the curves start at 1.0-at 1/#7 = 0, dip below 1.0, reach a minimnm in the ¢/# = 0.10:00.15 range, and then turn upward to go to infinity at 1/A7 = 1.0. This means that for bending the effect of the nominal stress gradient is 10 couse yy to decrease slightly as the notch is cut into the surface, but heyond a depth of 1/H = 0.25 (00.3 the maximum stress is greater than for the infinitely deep bar. The same effect, only of slight magnitude. was obtained by Isida (1953) for the bending case of a bar with opposite semicircular notches (Chart 2.24; Kj not shown), In tension, since there is no nominal stress gradicut, this cffect is not obtaincd. Chart 2.31 gives &,, for various impact specimens. 2.6.6 Single or Multiple Notches with Semicircular or Semielliptical Notch Bottoms From work on propellant grains. it is known (Tsao et al. 1965) “that invarigbly the stress concentration factor (or an optimized semiclliptic notch is significantly lower than that for the more easily formed semicircular notch.” Photoelastic fests (Tsao et al. 1965: Nishioka and Hisamitsa 1962; Ching et al. 1968) were made on beams in bending, with variations of beam and notch depth, notch spacing, und semielliptical notch bottom shupe. The ratio of beam depth to notch depth #/1 (notch on one side only) varied from 2 (0 10. Chart 2.32 provides results for H#/r = 5, For the single noth with 1/a — 2.666, the rutio of K,, for the semivireular bottom to the K, for the optimum scmiclliptical bottom, a/b = 241 is 1.25 (see Chart 2.32). In other words, a considerable stress reduetion (20% in this case) results from using a semiclliptical notch bottom instead of a semicircular notch bottom, As can be found from Chant 2.32, even larger stress reductions can be obtained for multiple notches. Although these results are far a specific case of a beam in bending, it is reasonable to expect that, in goncral. a considerable stress reduction can be obtained by use of the iptic notch bottom. The optimum «/b of the semiellipse varies from L8 10 greater th the single notch and the wider spaced multiple notches averaging at about 2 and the cluser spaced notches increasing toward 3 and greater. Other uses of the elliptical contour are found in Chart 4.59 tor the slot end, where the optimum @/b is about 3, and in Chart 3.9, for the shoulder fillet. 2.6.7 Notches Chart 2.33 offers stress concenteation factors K,q for thin beams with opposite notches with flat bottoms (Neuber 1958; Sobey 1965). For a shuft with flat-bottom grooves in bending and/or tension, stress concentration factors K,,, are given in Chart 2.34 (Rubenchik 1975; ESDU 1981), Flat Bottoms 2.6.8 Closed-Form Solutions for Stress Concentration Factors for Notched Beams As mentioned in Section 2.3.9, the paper by Gray et al. (1995) contains analytical expres- sions for the stress concentration factors for thin-walled burs with in-plune bending. Also,BENDING OF SOLIDS WITHGROGVES «71 ‘Noda et al. (1995) present formulas for stress concentration factors far thin-walled bars with single-side and opposite V-shaped notees under tension and in-plane and out-of-plane bending, as well as U-shaped notches with out-of-plane bending. 2.7 BENDING OF PLATES WITH NOTCHES 2.7.1 Various Edge Notches in an Infinite Plate in Transverse Bending Stress concentration factors Ky, for opposite deep hyperbolic notches in a thin plate (Lee 1940; Neuber 1958) are given in Chart 2.35. The factors were oblained for transverse bending. The bending of a semi-infinite plate with a V-sbuped notch or a rectangular notch with rounded comers (Shioya 1959) is covered in Chart 2.36. Atr/t = 1. bath curves have the same K,y value (semicircular notch), Note that the curve for the rectangular notch has a minimum Ky at about r/¢ = 1/2. In Chart 2,37, Ky factors are given for the elliptical notch (Shioya 1960). For comparison, the corresponding curve for the tension case from Chart 2.2 is shown, This reveals that the tension Ky, factors are considerably highe Tn Chart 2.38 the K, factor for an infinite row of semicircular nutches is given as a function of the noteh spacing (Shioy 1963}, As the notch spacing increases, the K, value for the single notch is approached asymptotically. 2.7.2. Notches in a Finlte-Width Plate In Transverse Bending Approximate values have been obtained by the Neuber method (Peterson 1953; Neuber 1958) which makes use of the exact values for the deep hyperbolic notch (Lee 1940) and the shallow elliptical notch (Shioya 1960) in infinitely wide members and modifies these for finive-width members by using a second-power relation that has the correct end conditions, The results are shown for the thin plate in Chart 2.39. No direct results are available for intermediate thicknesses. If we consider the tension case us representing maximum values for a thick plate in bending, we can use Chant 2.4 for t/h — 0. For the thin plate (1/h — ©) use is made of Churt 2.39. us deseribed in the preceding paragraph. (For intermediate thickness ratios, some guidance can be obtained trom Chart 4.02; see also values on Chart 4.94 in the region of 6/a = 1.) 2.8 BENDING OF SOLIDS WITH GROOVES 2.8.1 Deep Hyperbole Groove In an Infinite Member Stress concentration factors Ki, for Neuber's exact solution (Peterson 1953; Neuber 1958} are given in Chart 2.40 for the bending of an infinite three-dimensional s hyperbolic groove. The net section on the groove plane is circular. 2.8.2 U-Shaped Circumferential Groove in a Bar of Circular Cross Section ‘The Ky, values of Chart 2.41 fora U-shaped circumferential groove in a bar of circular cross section are obtained by the method used in the tension case {see Section 2.5.2). Approximate72 NOTCHES AND GROOVES. K,, factors for small r/d values are given in Chart 2.42 and for large r/d values (e.g., test specimens). in Chart 2.43. Using finite element analyses. stress concentration factors of Chart 2.41 (and Chart 2.44) have been shown to be reasonably accurate (ESDU 1989). sh Example 2.1 Design of a Shajt with a Circumferential Groove Suppose that we to estimate the bending fatigue strength of the shaft shown in Fig. 2.9 for two material an axle steel (normalized 0.40% C), und a heat-treated 3.5% nickel steel, These materials ‘will have fatigue strenyths (endurance limits) of approximately 30,000 and 70, 000 Ib/in.”, respectively, when tested in the conventional manner, with no stress concentration effects in a rotating beam machine. First we determine K,,, From Fig. 2.9, d = 1.378 - (20,0625 = 1.253 in, and r = 0.03125 in, We ealeulate D/d = 1.10 and r/ef = 0,025. From Chart 2.41 we find that Key = 2.90. From Fig. 1.31 we obtain, for r ~ 0.03125 in., ag value of 0.76 for the axle steel and 0.93 for the heat-treated allay steel. Substituting in Ey, (1.53), for axle steel, Ky = 1 +0.76(2.90- 1) = 244 000 2 di oy ~ a = 12,300 Ib/in® for heat-treated alloy steel, Ky = 1 0.93(2.90 - 1) = 2.77 70.000 2 Q) Oy = Sa = 25,200 bin? TT This tells us that we can expect strength values of approximately 12,000 and 25.000 Ib/in? under fatigue conditions for the shaft of Fig. 2.0 when the shaft is made of normalized axle steel and quenched-and-tempered alloy stec! (as specilied), respectively. These are not working stresses, since a factor of safety must be applied thar depends on type of service, consequences of failure. and so on, Different factors of safety are used throughout industry depending on service and experience. The strength of a micmber, however, is not. in the same sense, a matter of opinion or judgment and should be estimated in accordance with the best methods available, Naturally, a test of the member is desirable whenever possible. In any event, an initial calcutation is made, and this should be done carefully and include all known factors, 0.0625 7h r= 0.03125 0.0625 Figure 29 Grooved shaft.DIRECT SHEAR AND TORSION = 73. 2.8.3 Flat-Bottom Grooves in Bars of Circular Cross Section ‘Stress concentration factors for a bar of circular cross section with flat-bottom grooves are presented in Chart 2.44 (Peterson 1953; Sobey 1965: ESDU 1981). 2.8.4 Closed-Form Solutions for Grooves in Bars of Circular Cross Section The work of tani and Noda (1984), Neda el al, (1995), and Noda and Takase (1999) discussed in Seetion 2.5.4 contains closed-form formulas for various-shaped grooves for bars under bersling. 2.9 DIRECT SHEAR AND TORSION 2.9.1 Deep Hyperbotic Notches in an Infinite Thin Element in Direct Shear The stress concentration factors given in Chart 2.45 are trom Neuber (1958). Shearing forces are applied to an infinite thin clement with deep hyperbolic notches. These forces ate parallel to the notch axis! ax shown in Chart 2.45. The location of anes isl —=—_— 9 VF Orsay The location of Ta. along the Fine corresponding to the minimum seetion is at 10 2) aa AL the location Of Gina, Kis = Tinax/Toom = (Orax/2)/ Tom = K,/2. is greater than the Ky, value for the minimum section shown in Chan 2.45, For combined shear and hending, Neuber (1958) shows that for large d/r values it is. a. good approximation to add the two K, factors (Charts 2.35 and 2.45), even though the maxima do not occur at the same location along the notch surface. The case of a twisted sheot with hyperbolic notches has been analyzed by Lee (1940). 2.9.2 Deep Hyperbolic Groove in an Infinite Member Sitess concentration factors Ki, for Neuber’s exact solution (Peterson 195.3; Neuber 1958) arc presented in Churt 2.46 for the torsion of un infinite three-dimensional solid with a deep: hyperbolic groove. ‘The nef section is circular in the groove plane. "For cquiliviue, the shear forve couple 2AV euist be counierbalunced by an equal ecuple symmetrically applied remaicly from the worch (Neuher 1958), Ta avold possible consision with the combined shear and fending ease. the ceuurtercouple 1s aot shown ia Chast 288,74 NOTCHES AND GROOVES 2.9.3 U-Shaped Circumferential Groove in a Bar of Circular Cross Section Subject to Torsion Chart 2.47, for a U-shaped circumferential groove in a bar of circular cross section, is based on electric analog results (Rushton 1967), using a technique that has also provided results in agresment with the exact values for the hyperbolic notch in the parameter range of present interest, Mathematical results for semicircular grooves (Hamada and Kitagawa 1968; Mauhews and Hooke 1971) are in reasonably good agreement with Chart 2.47. The X,, values of Chart 2.47 are somewhat higher (average 4.5%) than the photoclastic values of Leven (1955). However, the photoelastic values are not in agreement with certain other published values (Okubo 1952, 1953). Chart 2.48 shows a leveling of the K,, curve at a D/d vulue of about 2 or less for high 1/d values, Approximate Kj, factors beyond the r/d range of Chit 2.47 are given farsmall fd values in Chart 2.49 and for large r/d values (e.g., test specimens) in Chart 2.50. Example 2.2 Analysis of a Circular Shaft with a U-Shaped Groove The circular shaft of Fig, 2.10 has a U-shaped groove. with ¢ = 10.5 mm deep. The ridius of the groove root is 7 = 7 mm, and the bar diameter away frem the notch is 2 = 70 mm. The shatt is subjected to a bending moment of M = 1.0 KN - m and a torque of 7 = 2.5 KN +m, Find the maximum shear stress and the equivalent stress at the root of the notch. The minimum radius of this shaft is d=D- = 1-2 105 = 49mm ai @) Kin = 1.82 3) Similarly from Chart 2.48 the stress concentration factor for torsion is Ki, = 146 ay 4 A d= Dd Vigure 2.10 Shalt, with circunsferential U-sbaped groove, subject to torsion and bending,DIRECT SHEAR AND TORSION 75 As indicated in Chart 2.41. an, is found as. 32M _ 32x 1.0.x 10% = = 885i SI aE x (apayy SOAMPA o Fron = Thus the maximum tensile stress at the coot of the groove is Aya = KeeFyom = 182 X 86.58 = 157.6 MPa (6) In the case of torsion, the shear stress Tyeen is found to be a so that the maximum torsional shear stress at the bottom of the groove is, Tan ~ Kectoom ~ 146 X 108.2 — 158.0 MPa (8) ‘The principal stresses are found to be (Pilkey 2005) aye k - oy = 78.8 + 176.6 = 255.4 MPa w= Som - aV Oh, + Athy = 78.8 — 176.6 = 97.8 MPa “Thus the corresponding maxinaum shear stress is TT = 176.6MPa oy which, of course, differs from the maximum torsional shear stress of (8), Finally, the equivalent stress (Eq, 1.35) becomes JSAP — 155.4 & (—9TB) + (9B ab = 315.9 MPa 2.9.4 V-Shaped Circumferential Groove in a Bar of Circular Cross Section Under Torsion Chart 2.51 shows Kj. for the V groove (Rushton 1967), with variable angle ce. using the style of Charts 2.7 and 2.28. For e = 90° the curves an: approximately independent of76 NOTCHES AND GROOVES. rfd. For a = 135* separate curves ate needed for r/d = 0.005, 0,015, and 0,05, The effect of the V angle may be compared with Charts 2.7 and 2.28, 2.9.5 Shaft in Torsion with Grooves with Flat Bottoms The stress concentration factors K,, for flat-bottom notches in 2 shall of circular cross section under tension are given in Chart 2.52. 2.9.6 Closed-Form Formulas for Grooves in Bars of Circular Cross Section Under Torsion ‘As mentioned in Section 2.5.4, Nod et al, (1995) provide closed-form expressions for V-shaped grooves under torsion as well as for tension and bending 2.10 TEST SPECIMEN DESIGN FOR MAXIMUM kK, FOR A GIVEN r/D OR 1/H Tn designing at test piece. suppose that we have a given outside diameter (or width). D (or #)2 For 4 particular notch bottom radius, r, we want to know the notch depth (the d/D) or 7/4 ratio) that gives a maximum K,* From the curves of Charts 2.5, 2.20, 2.26, 2.42, and 249, maximum XK, values are plotted in Chart 2.53 with r/H and d/H as nensional problems and 1/D and d/D for three-dimensional. Although these values are approximate, in that the Neuber approximation iy involved (as detailed in the introductory cearks at the beginning of this chapter), the maximum region is quite flut, and therefore &; is not highly sens to variations in d/D or d/H inthe maximum region, From Chart 2.53 it van be seen that a rough guide for obtaining maximum &, in a specimen in the most used r/D or r/# range is «o make the smaller diameter, oF width, about three-fourths of the larger diamicter. or width (assuming that one is working with a given r and Dor 4). Another specimen desig problem occurs when 7 und ¢ are given. The smallvr diumeter d may, in some cases, be determined by the testing machine capacity. In this case K, increases with increase of B/W, reaching a “knee” at a D/d value which depends on the rfd value (see Chart 2.48). For the smaller r/¢ values, a value of d/D — 1/2 where the “knee” is reached would be indicated. and forthe larger r/d values. the value of /D = 3/4 would be appropriate. REFERENCES Appl, E.J..and Koerner. D. R.. 1968, Numerical analysis af plune elasticity problems, Prac. Am. Sac, Civ. Eng. Vol. 94, p. TAB. "The width 0 frequently depends on the svailable bur siz. The minirsam notch bottom radius is afiesdictared by the ability ofthe shop < produce accurate, smooth, small ai,REFERENCES 77 Appl. F.J., and Koerner, D. R., 1969, Stress concentration factors for U-shaped. hyperbolic and rounded V-shaped notches, ASME Pap. 69-DE-2, Engineering Society Library, United Engineering ‘Center, New York. Atsumi, A,, 1958, Stress concentration in a strip under tension and containing an infinite row of semicircular notches, Q. J- Mech. Appl. Math, Vol. 11, Pt 4, p. 478, Atsumi, A., 1967, Stress concentrations in a strip under tension and containing two pairs of semi- cireuler notches placed on the edges symmetrically, Trans. ASME Appl. Mech. Sect., Vol. 89, p. 565, Barrata, F. 1, 1972, Comparison of various formulae and experimental stress-concent for symmetrical U-noiched plates, J. Strain Anal, Nol. 7, p. 84 Barrata, F, 1, and Neal, D. M., 1970, Stress concentration factors in U-shaped and semi-elliptical shaped edge notches, J. Strain Anal., Vol. 5, p. 121. Bowie, O. L., 1963, Rectangular tensile sheet with symmetric edge cracks, AMRA TR 63-22, Army Materials and Mechanics Reseureh Center, Watertown, MA. Bowie, O, L. 1966, Analysis of edge notches in a semi-infinite region, AMRA TR 66-07, Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center, Watertown, MA. Brown, W. F, and Strawley, J. B., 1966, Plane strain crack toughness testing of high strength metallic crials, STP 410, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, p. 11 Cheng, ¥. F, 1970, Stress at notch root of shafts under axially symmetrie loading, Exp. Mech., Vol. 10, p. S¥4. Ching, A.. Okubo, S...and’Tsao, C. H., 1968, Stress concentration factors for multiple semi-elliptical notches in beams under pure bending, Exp. Meck, Vol. 8, p. 19N, Cole, A. G., and Brown, A. F, C., 1958, Photoelastic determination of stress concentration factors caused by a single U-notch on one side of a plate in tension, J, R. Aeronatit, Soc, Vol, 62, p. 597. Cowper, G. R., 1962, Stress concentrations around shallow spherical depressions in a flat plate, Aeronaut. Rep. LR-340, National Research Laboratories, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Denardo, B. P., 1968, Projectile shape effects on hypervelocity impact craters in aluminum, NASA TN D-4953, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC. Dixon, J bution around edge slits in plate loaded in tension: the effect of finite width of plate, JR. Aeronaut. Soe., Vol. 66, p. 320. Durell, A.J., Lake, R. Land Phillips, E., 1952, Stress concentrations produced by multiple semi= circular notches in infinite plates under uniarial state of stress, Proc. Soc. Exp. Stress Anat, Vol. 10, No. 1. p. 53. ESDU 1981, 1989, Sizess Concentrations, Engineering Science Data Unit, London. Eubanks, R. A., 1954, Stress concentration due to a hemispherical pit ata free surface, Trans. ASME Appl. Mech. Sect., Vol. 76, p. 57. Flynn, P. D., and Roll, A, A., 1966, Re-examination of stresses in a tension bar with symmetrical U-shaped grooves, Proc. Soc. Exp. Stress Anal., Vol. 23, Pt. 1, p. 93. Flynn, P.D., and Roll, A. A., 1967, A comparison of stress concentration factors in hyperbolic and U-shaped grooves, Proe. Soc. Exp. Stress Anal., Vol. 24, Pt. 1, p. 272. Frocht, M. M., 195, Factors of stress concentration photoelasticity determined, Trans. ASME Appl Mech. Sect., Vol. 57, p. A-67. Frocht, M. M., and Landsberg, D., 1951, Factors of stress concentration in bars with deep sharp ‘grooves and fillets in torsion, Trans. ASME Appl. Mech. Sect., Vol. 73, p. 107. . Tournery, F, Spence, J., and Brennan, D., 1995, Closed-form functions for elastic notched hars, J. Strain Ana, Vol. 30, p. 143. Grayley, M. E., 1979, Estimation of the stress concentration factors at rectangular circumferential ‘grooves in shalts under torsion, ESDU Memo, 33, Engineering Science Data Unit, London. Hamada, M., and Kitagawa, H., 1968, Elastic torsion of eircumferentially grooved shafts, Bull. Jpn. Soc, Mech, Eng., Vol. 1. p. 605. 9 factors78 NOTCHES AND GROOVES Hartman, J, B., and Leven, M. M., 1951, Factors of stress concentration in bars with deep sharp grooves and fillets in tension, Proc. Soc. Exp. Stress Anal., Vol. 8, No. Hetényi, M., 1943, The distribution of stress in threaded connections, Proc. Soc. Exp, Stress Anal. Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 147. Hetényi, M. and Liu, T. D., 1956, Method for calculating stress concentration factors, J. Appl. Mech, Vol. 2 Heywood, R. B., 1952, Designing by Photoelasticity, Chapman & Hall, London, p. 163. Hooke, C. J., 1968, Numerical solution of plane elastostatic problems by point matching, J. Strain Anat., Vol. 3, p. 109. Inglis, C. E,, (913, Stresses in a plate due to the presence of cracks and sharp comers, Engineering (London), Vol. 95, p. 415. Invin, G. R., 1958, Fracture, in Encyclopedia of Physics. Vol. 6, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, p. 565. Inwin, G. R.. 1960, Fracture mechanics, in Structural Mechanics, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY. Isida, M., 1953, On the tension of the strip with semi-circular notches, Trans, Jpn, Soc. Mech. Eng, Vol. 19, p.5. Isida, M., 1955, On the tension of a strip with central elliptic hole, Trans. Jpn. Vol. 21. fa, M., 1962, Factors of stress concentration for notched bars under tension and bending, Proc, FOth Intemational Congress on Applied Mechanics, Elsevier, New York, p. 337 Soc. Mech. Eng., Kil Kitagawa, H.. und Nakade, K., 1970, Stress concentrations in notched strip subjected to in-plane bending, Technol. Rep. of Osaka Unix, Vol. 20, p. 751 Koiter, W. T., 1965, Note on the stress intensity factors for sheet strips with crack under tensile loads, Rep. 314, Laboratory of Engineering Mechanics, Technological University, Delft, The Netherlands, Lee, G, Ho, 1940, The influence of hyperbolic notches on the transverse flexure of elastic phates, ‘Trans, ASME Appl. Mech. Sect., Vol. 62, p. A-53, Leibowitz, H., Vandervelt, H., and Sanford, R. J., 1967, Exper. Mech., Vol. 7, p. 513. Leven, M. M., 1955, Quantitative three-dimensional photoelast 167 Leven, M. M., and Frocht, M. M., 1953, Stress concentration factors for a single notch in a flat plate in pure and central bending, Proc. SESA, Vol. 11, No. 2, p. 179. Ling, C.-B., 1967, On stress concentration at semicircular notch, Trans. ASME Appl. Mech. Sect Vol. 89, p. $22. Ling, C.-B., 1968, On stress concentration factor in a notched strip. Zrans. ASME Appl. Mech. Sect. ‘Vol. 90, p. 833, Matthews, G. J,and Hooke, C. J., 1971, Solution of axisymmetric torsion problems by point matching, J. Strain Anal.. Vol. 6, p. 124. Moore, R. R., 1926, Effect of grooves, threads and corrosion upon the Vol. 26, Pt. 2, p. 255. Neuber, H., 1946, Theory of Notch Stresses: Principle for Exact Calculation of Strength with Reference to Structural Form and Material, JW. Bdwards Co., Ann Arbor, MI Nouber, H., 1958, Kerbspannungstelive, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin; translation, 1961, Theary of Noich Stresses, Office of Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC. Nishioka, K, and Hisamitsu, N., 1962, On the stress concentration in multiple notches, Trans, ASME Appl. Mech Sect., Vol. 84, p. S75. Nisitani, H., and Noda, N., 1984, Stress concentration of a cylindrical bar with a V-shaped circum Pract Mecl., Vol. 20, p. 743: ress concentrations due te sharp notches, 1. Proc. SES) . Vol. 12, No. 2, p. gue of metals, Proc. ASTM, ferential groove under torsion, tension or benREFERENCES 79 Noda, N., and Takase, Y., 1999, Stress concentration formulas useful for any shape of notch in a round test specimen under tension and under bending, Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct, Vol. p. 1071 Noda, N.,.Sera, M.,and Takase, ¥., 1995, Stress concentration factors for round and flat test specimens, with notches, Int J. Fatigue, Vol. 17, p. 163. Okubo, H., 1952, Approximate approach for torsion problem of a shaft with a circumferential norch, Trans. ASME Appl. Mech. Sect., Nol. $4, p. 436. ‘Okubo, H., 1953, Determination of surface stress by means of electroplating, J. Appl. Piys., Vol. 24, p. 1130. Paris, P.C., and Sih, G. C., 1965, Stress analysis of eracks, ASTM Spee. Tech. Publ, 381, Amerie Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, p. 34, Peterson, R. E., 1953, Stress Concentration Design Factors, Wiley. New York. Peterson, R. B., 1974, Stress Concentration Factors, Wiley, New York Pilkey, W. D.,.2005, Formulas for Stress, Strain, and Structural Matrices, 2nd ed.,Wiley, New York. Reed, R.B.,and Wilcox, P. R., 1970, Stress concentration due to a hyperboloid cavity in a thin plate, NASA TN D-5955, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC. Rubenchik, V. Y., 1975, Stress concentration close to grooves, Vestn. Mashin., Vol. $8, No. 12, pp. 26-28, stress concentrations for the torsion of hollow shouldered shafts ied by an electrical analogue, Aeronaut, Q., Vol. 15, p. 83. Rushton, K, R.. 1967. Stes cor jons Vol. 9, p. 697. Schulz, K. J, I ising in the torsion of grooved shafis, J. Mech. Sei. Schule, K. J., 1942, On the state of stress in perforated strips and plates, Prac, Koninkivke Neder- landsche Akadamie van Wetenschappen (Netherlands Royal Academy of Science), Amsterdam, Vol. 45, pp. 233, 341, 457, 524, Schulz, K. J., 1943-1945, On the state of stress in perforated strips and plates, Proc. Koninklike Ned- erlandsche Akadamie van Wetenschappen (Netherlands Royal Academy of Science), Amsterdam, Vol. 46-48, pp. 282, 292. Seika, M., 1960, Stresses in rch. Vol. 27, p. 20. Shioya, S., 1959, The effect of square and triangular notches wi semi-infinite plates, Z Angew. Math, Mech., Vol. 39. p. 300, Shioya, S., 1960, On the transverse flexure of a semi-infinite plate with an elliptic noteh, Jag.-Arch.. Vol. 29, p.93 Shioya, S., 1963, The effect of an infinite row of sen semi-infinite plate, Jng.-Arch., Vol. 32, p. 143, Slot, T., 1972, Siress Analysis of Thick Perforated Plates, Technomic Publishing Co., Westport, CT. Sobey, A. J.. 1965, Stress concentration factors for round rectangular holes in infinite sheets, ARC R&M 3407, Aeron Research Cout ‘Suzuki, S.1., 1967, Stress analysis of a semi-infinite plate containing a reinforced notch under uniform tension, In. J. Sotids Struct., Vol. 3, p. 649 ‘Troyani, N., Hernindez, S. 1, Villarroe!, G., Pollonais, C., 2004, Theore concentration factors for short flat bars with opposite U-shaped notches subjected to bending, Jat. J, Fatigue, Vol, 26, pp. 1303-1310. ‘Tsao, C. H., Ching, A., and Okubo, S., 1965, Stress concentration factors for semi-elliptical notches in beams under pure bending, Exp. Mech., Vol. 5. p. 19. semi-infinite plate containing a U-type notch under uniform tension, th fillets on the tcansverse flexure of ircular notches on the transverse flexure of a al stress -plane80 NOTCHES AND GROOVES. Weber. C.. 1942, Halbebene mit periodisch pewelltem Rand, Z. Auge: Mark, Meck. Val 22. p. 29, \Westerguanl, H. M., 1939, Bearing pressures and cracks, Zruzs. ASME Appl. Mech, Sect., Wal. 61, p. AAO, Wilson, [IL and White, D. J,, 1973. Stress concentration factors for shoulder fillets and grooves in Plates. 2 Siraiu Anal. Vol. 8. p43. Wilson, W. K., 1970, Sitess intensity factors for deep efacks in bending ond compact tensian speci- mens, in Engineering Fracuure Mechanics, Nol, 2, Pergamon Press, Loadan,(9561 2qn9N) uoEstDT UT TW2AF>I9 URAL apEAe ATSAIHE OP WL 79 wy ob , Pie oO or e z s rh Z * 8 seouous = 9 Me, % " P _ wou, oz er v* se ze sh = = ve ub 92 6 ~ 2 a 4 oe ee ee oz ‘Api® @Huyuy ve uz ve ez ae te or ee zr se vy eg or 6 er ro 100 1000 oe 1oq220.Xy doap susoddo soy “y coLsty NoNEAUDONOD WINS TUE a1See “COL61 WON pur eRe 99961 Seog 19961 19S) HOHSUOT UE MoMID}a UN ONUUI-NHDS © UF YoIOU padoy-f| 40 [eon Ue 39) "y SsOIIN) WONRINUADUOD SON TZ MUN “a 00S 00% O0€ 00% OOLOs 09 oF oe oz o6e29S yp € 2 L H t HAE ARATE: eomnows oO 0g of or osCHARTS «83. 50 Kg 40 3.0 : - Kirn non * 5 =o Ky 3.065 -3.470(20 +1 20 1% 02 04 06 08 To arf ‘Chart 2.3 Stress concentration feetors K., and K, for a tension stsip with opposite semi edge notches (sida 1995; Ling 1968).84 NOTCHES AND GROOVES 3.0 29 28 ar 26 25 24 23 22 Kin Hid 4.18 24 1 ee \ 20 Hes, 19 Semiciroular /\ UIsida 1959: Ling Y968) > 18 = Snax 17 Kin = ee et 1.6 Shame hd 15 i 2 at? (2ty? ners Kin = 5+ Op (Gr) + Ca ar) +Cr( 14 O1stirs20 2,0 stirs 50.0 4,037 + 1.991N E74 0.002t/r 13 1.886 — 2.18192] 7 — 0,048t/r 4.013 + 0-424NE/F—0.748t/r- | 0.649 + 1.086NE7r + 0.142017 12 Cg | -2.461 + 1.888VE7r~0.236t/r | 1.218 -0.922VF7r ~ 0-086¢/r 11 Forsemicieoular notch (i/r=1.0) K; = 3065 -3.472(#) « 1.000 (2) + 0.405(2) 10 ° 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 rid Chart 2.4 Stress concentration factors K, for a flat tension bar with opposite U-shaped notches (from data of Isida 1953; Flynn and Rell 1966; Ling 1968; Appl and Koerner 1969).See “Cre “ba Mto9y gg61 29qNON Sursn pareynayea) worst ur sotsiou padeys-p) moyjeys ausoddo ype wouutsads War Tey 404 ““y SOLON HoNRIHDDIOD Sang gz AEH pis oor OL or £040) 35 3.0 Kea 25. 20. 15 10s z E aE “1.0 15 20 25 3.0 35 40 Ku Chart 2.7. Stress concentration factors Kj, for a flat tension bar with opposite V-shaped notches (Grom data of Appl and Koerner 1969). shots(gor saynan, ‘sanyes areurxosdde} WoruaL “yoiou sqogiaddy doep v Yat WaUUDpS UIE aNMYLE-yWEs E fo FuIpeo| UOISUDL sop “Ly sHOI905 MK Fury ez ueyD pia vo £0 zo bo 0 or oz gz oe se ov0 0.05 0.10 015 0.20 0.25 0.30 rid Chart 2.9 Stress concentration factors Kiy fora flat tension bar with a U-shaped notch at one side (from photoelastic data of Cole and Brown 1958). Tension loading in line with middle of minimum section. Sepp90 NOTCHES AND GROOVES. Kam Gow 2 wt Pe P non lajald #0. 50 1.91 19 001 002 0.03004 0050.08 008 0.10 020 rid (hala 210 50 108 oS 10 001 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05008 0.08 0.10 020 rid Chart2.10 Stress concentration factors K,, for apposing notches With Mla! boltomnsin fnite-width Mat elements in tension (Lletényi and Liu 1956; Neuber 1958: Sobey 1965: ESDU 1981): (aha/d — 0.25; (ald ~ 19.“(861 NASA S261 AIMSUAqN HoISHAT AY swaUIa.a TY SHUBUT-NwNes UL swIOHIOG TY YIN sOqDIOU JOY "yY S1OISRY WONENAIVED SANS LT HAN eo zo{8S01 MUNSLY Jo LIES WHY) soysIoU aFip2 epOM.IUSS Jo SEL THUMUL YU sey LOUD v 4oy “Ly s¥OHE) CONENUDIUOD SINS TET HEY vig on 6 @ Z 9 s ’ zo (a yreseo+(Baaere-saare [10 —*"" 6 SST FOE Bye Qetp oom (ypin eyuyuy) Pe o~HiP PY wou, 2M se eg“GaSaE RUNSTY Jo rIEp tuaN]) soypHou AFA An]HawANUES J S90 AID vo eo Ly SAMIR] LONENUDSAT SONS ETT MED. zo ro 0 ob sh oz uy sz ypiou @(Gurs (296). Burt es61 wprsi) oo =F ge 93“Acsor TE? HEM Sa 1s rig >25 3 Rigs 1.0 0 oz 048 08 10 Jig th Chart 2.47 Stress convenirution actors Ki, for a uniaxially steessed infinite thin element with allow depressions (dimples) (Cowper 1962)See “(wounpos gg61 29qNDN) UoIsUDI UL “o¥PD PoOISUOLAIP -vony) “WOHOOS 194 SEINE wy Jog api ATOHUULE UP UF aNoME sOGIOdY dope 40} ".y SJOIDE] ONEAUDTUOD SsANS BIT HEHD oF cle rh oF eb 20% 22 sive 9% 8% of ze Hee of Be oF oF 4 Pi4 Fo 200, oy oO Pit 1000CHARTS «© 99. 16 Did 21.48 1p Mem ge 1.10 14 1.05 13 12 la 1.0 0 0.05, 0.10 O15 020 025 0.30 rid Chart 2.19 Stress concentration factors Ky for a tension bar of circular crass section with a U= shuped groove, Velues are approximate,03 04 05 y/p 06 07 02 roave, r/d from 0,001 to 0.05 (from Neuber 1958 ‘naft in tension with a U-shaped gi Chart 2.20 Stress concentration fuctors Ky, for a gr00See “(Kioaup 3661 49qHON Suysn Sanyea pareynopes wuasaudan soning) axon padnys-f) # yitas WoIsUaL UE HoHIDDS SsaHa aRpMAUTD Jo UaMIIJadS 1891 40} “Y SHOINE] WOREUDIUOI SANS ITT MUI Pit ool on oL £9, 5s i rh 101102 NOTCHES AND GROCYES femme g p— =) onan aE 4 nl jz] v jajd =0.25 oT 10 om 002 0.08004 0.05008 0.08 0.10 0.20 rid wai 10 om 0.02 0.03004 0.05006 9.08 0.10 020 rid Chart 2.22 Streys concentration fuctors fy, for lat-hottom gronves in tension (Neuber 1958 for: mulas: ESDU 1981): (a) e/a = O28: th)afel = 1oseo JRUOISUSUNP-0a8) TUDMID]E ULM SHAN APTUYME UE WL SOYDIOU sxfoquoddy daap 2 “My o t pl bo e005, ae vi a S9eUNOIUL = Y a oe zz vz 92 az Wz of ee vo 100 en 1000 Juounjes ge] s0ynayp stuatuCU auE|d-e o» a3afgns “4y swoiom] woNTEIUIOUOD SANG ETT WEY “y 10312961 34F7 '¢S61 EPIL) seymoN adpe ue weag 1ey © Jo Zuypury 20) "Ly S090) iaouos ssANS ZZ UND ALE OL 60 0 zo 90 go v0 e0 zo vo Oo a rh (Z)eve -~(2) exe'e + (4) ce99- set = x ot at YEH) vous rr) ‘wDip, sap Hn ~ . Dg ¥ oz =H 2 ve 92 ee oe ze 108CHARTS 105 Semioircular 1g sida 1989; Ling 1967) ON, N. Sma 1.7 | Pu are “NS My ~ 1.6, Sam = 75 2 ‘8 aL 1s 260 57) 63C) +e Gi SS O1St/r<20 2.0 Stress concentration for ‘noth of angle c with ‘other dimensions the same. For @ = 90° Ke Kin For 90! < as 150° and O.S eo eo oot pie bey Huyue-sunas F yo Suipay 404 “y Thom 28 Ee Le ier nom = 27 ! ae 2.6 =f 2 ne 25 i Co) il 025 stirs20 2.05t/r 550.0 2a il ; | 0906+ Losmifr~o.022!/; | 1.009 oszaNir + oolw/r il Cp |-0.192 = 4.0379 iF + O.674¢/7 | =1.504 = 2.44tTr <0. 0471/7 23 Fr Cy | 0,808 + 5.321T7F = 1.231r/r | 2.486 + 2280NRTF + 0.001F/r aout (4 [0567 2.364777 + 0.566¢%> | 1.056 ~ 1,104,77F~ 0.058¢/r \ For semicircular groove (Ir = 1.0) Kis = 2,000-3.556( Lal 1.0 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 rid Chart 2.47 Stress concentration fuctors K,, for torsion of a bar of circular cross section with a U-shaped groove (from electrical analog data of Rushton 1967).CHARTS © 129 80 48 28 46 aa 42 40 38 Tid = 0.08 361 {2-09 Kuo nam 34 ‘seam = 187 a 32 ° Kix 28 rid = 0.02 26 24 rid= 0.03 22 20 rfd= 0.05 18 VY Semiciraviar Lo rid = 0A la oo’ rid 02 0 ee 127 occ ey FH 10 1.0 15 20 25 30 35 40 Did Chart 248. Stross concemrution factors K., for torsion of a bar of circular cross section with a U-shaped groove (from cleetrival analog data of Rushton 1967)wos}) 9S0'0 01 1001) Wed] G4 “woISIOL WHO A0jn9at9 Jo 1ye4ps porooss padeqs-f) 404 *y LOIRy Wo 130“hava soxana) axoaud padeysep) Mo[qegs © qi Uo}29s Ss019 seyMaND Jo 3eq F JO MOIsHO} 24 40} tana Russm sage Sso}>j HONEUDSUOD SKIS GST HEN Pie oor OL oo 20 son ove sre oy OFESP/GSS001 “TS P/A5E0 oe Pio + (pratg + tg = See PY wow Dot wo Orr “way =F 131132 NOTCHES AND GROOVES 0 18 2.0 25 3.0 3s 40 Ky Chart 2.51 Stress concentration factors K,. for torsion of a bar of circular eross section with a V groove (Rushton 1967), SeppCHARTS 133 Kee SO Tron 18 toom = 18% 60 1.9 ' 05 06 07080910 20 a0 40 80 60 r Jn torsion with flal-bottom groove (Rubenchik, Chart 252 Stress concentration facto Ky, fort 1975: Grayley 1979; ESDU 19811,434 NOTCHES AND GROOVES 10 aiD or diy s oo 002 r/Dor cf Chart 2.53. Approsimste geometric relutiony for maximum stress concentration for notched. and grooved specimens (based on Neuber 1958 relations).CHAPTER 3 SHOULDER FILLETS The shoulder fillet (Fig. 3.1) is the type of stress concentration that is more frequently encountered in machine design practice than any other, Shatis, axles, spindles, rotors. and so forth, usually involve a number of diameters connected by shoulders with rounded fillets replacing the sharp comers that were often used in former years. 3.1 NOTATION Definition: Panel, A thin flat element with in-plane loading Symbols: a= semimajor axis of an ellipse fr = semiminor axis of an ellipse d= smaller diameter of circular bar; smaller width of thin flat element d, = middle diameter or width of streamline fillet d; = diameter of central (axixl) hole D = larger diameter of circular bar f= thickness of a thin flat element H = larger width (depth) of thin flat element H. ~ depth of equivalent wide shoulder elememt K, = stress concentration factor Kj. = stress concentr: n Factor for shear (torsion) Ke, Kup = sicess concentration factors atl, HL 135436 SHOULDER FILLETS. ww (by ) a) Figure 3.1 Examples of filleted members: (a) engine crankshaft; (b) rusbine rotor: (c) motor shaft; (d) railway axle. £, = length or shoulder width Ly = axial length of filtet Ly = radial height of fillet M = bending moment P = applied tension force r= fillet ra 7 = fillet radius at end of compound fillet that merges into shoulder fillet ry = fillet radius at end of compound fillet that merges into shaft += fillet height F = tomue angle a = stress Tmax = maximum shear stress avm = nominal shear stress = location of maximum stress measured from the center of the fillet radiusTENSION {AXIALLOADING) 137 pee dP Figure 3.2 Fillets in a thin clement and a circular bar. 3.2 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS Unless otherwise specitied, the stress concentration factor K, is based an the smaller width or diameter, d. In (ension (Fig. 3.2) Ky = Gm noms Whete Gum = P/fed fOr a thin flat element of thickness ft and yy = 4P/ md? fora circular bar. Many of the fillet factors for tension and bending are based on photoelastic values. (Others are found from finite element analyses. For torsion, the fillet factors ure from a mathematical analysis. A method was given in Peterson {1953} for obtaining approximate X, values for smaller r/d values where ris the fillet radius. The charts in this book extend well into the small r/d range, owing to use of recently published results. ‘The K, faeiors for the thin Hat members considered in this chapter are for wo- dimensional states of stress (plane stress) and apply only to very thin panels or, more strictly, to where fi/r — 0. As fh/r increases. « state of plane strain is approached. The stress at the fillet surface at the middle of the panel thickness increases, and the stress at the panel surtace decreases Some of the stress concentration cases of Chapter 5 on miscellaneous design elements are related to fillets. 3.3 TENSION (AXIAL LOADING) 3.3.1 Opposite Shoulder Fillets in a Flat Bar Chant 3.1 presents stress concentration factors X, for a stepped flat tension bar. These curves are modifications of the & fuctors determined through photoelastic tests (Frocht 1935) whose values have been found 10 be tov low, owing probably to the sinall size of the models und to possible edge effeets, The curves in the r/d range of 0.03 to 0.3 have been obtained as follow: KAChan 3.1) = K,(Pig. 57, Peterson 1953) K, (Chart 2.4) ] ele on X, (noth, Frocht 1935)438 SHOULOEA FILLETS. ‘The r/d range has been extended to lower values by photoelastic tests (Wilson and White 1973), These data fit well with the above results from Eg, (3.1) for H/d > 1.1 Other photoclastic tests (Fessler et al. 1969) give K; values that agree reasonably well with the H/d = 1.5 and wo curves of Chart 3.1, 3.3.2 Effect of Length of Element The stress concentration factors of Chart 3.1 are for elements of unspecified length, Troyani et al. (2003) have used standard finite element sofware 1 compute stress concentration factors of the element af Fig. 3.3 of various lengths J, was shown, for example, that for 3 very short clement with £./’ = 0.5, the stress concentration factors are higher than those given in Chart 3.1 by an average of about 5% for H/d = 1.05 and 90% for H/d = 2.0. 3.3.3 Effect of Shoulder Geometry in a Flat Member The factors of Chart 3.1 are for the case where the large width Af extends back from the shoulder a relatively great distance, Frequently one encounters a case in design where this shoulder width £ (Fig. 3.4) is relatively narrow. Figure 3.3. Element of length 2. Yp~ Unstressed Figare3.4 Effect of a narrow shoulder,TENSION (AXIAL LOADING) 139 In one of the early investigations in the photoelasticity field, Baud (1928) noted that in the case of a narrow shoulder the outer part is unstressed, and he proposed the formula H,=d +03L G2) where Hy is the depth (Fig. 3.4) of a wide shoulder member that has the same &, factor. ‘The same result can be obtained graphically by drawing intersecting lines at an angle 6 of 17° (Fig. 3.4). Sometimes a larger angle @ is used, up to 30°. The Baud (1934) rule, which was proposed as a rough approximation, has been quite useful. Although the K, factors for bending of fat clements with narrow shoulders (Section 3.4.2) were published (Leven and Hartman) in 1951, it was not until 1968, that the tension case was systematically investigated (Kumagai and Shimada) (Chart 3.2), Referring to Charts 3.2¢ and d, note that at L/d = 0 a cusp remains. Also K, = | at L/d = ~2r/d (see the dashed lines in Charts 3.2c and d for extrapolation to K, = 1). The extrapolation formula gives the exact L/d value for K, = | for H/d = 1.8 (Chart 3.2c) when r/d < 0.4, and for H/d = 5 (Chatt 3.2d) when r/d = 2. Kumagai and Shimada (1968) state that their results are consistent with previous data (Spangenberg 1960; Scheutzel and Gross 1966) obtained for somewhat different geometries. Empirical formulas were developed by Kumagai and Schimada (1968) to cover their results, Round bar values are not available. It is suggested that Eq, (1.15) be used. 3.3.4 Effect of a Trapezoidal Protuberance on the Edge of a Flat Bar A weld bead can sometimes be adequately approximated as a trapezoidal protuberance. The geometrical configuration is shown in the sketch in Chart 3.3. A finite difference method was used to find the stress concentration factor (Derecho and Munse 1968). The resulting K, factors for @ = 30° and 60° are given in Chart 3.3. The dashed curve corresponds to a protuberance height where the radius is exactly tangent to the angular side; that is, below the dashed curve there are no straight sides, only segments of a circle. See sketch in Chart 3.3. ‘A comparison (Derecho and Munse 1968) of K; factors with corresponding (large L/1) factors, obtained from Figs. 36 and 62 of Peterson (1953) for filleted members with angle correction, showed the latter 10 be about 7% higher on the average, with variations from 2 to 15%. A similar comparison by Peterson, using the increased X; fillet values of Chart 3.1, showed these values (corrected for angle) to be about 17% higher (varying between 14 and 22%) than the Derecho and Munse values. Strain gage measurements (Derecho and Munse 1968) resulted in K, factors 32%, 234%, and 31% higher, with one value (for the lowest K,) 2.3% lower than the computed values. ‘They comment: “the above comparisons suggest that the values fin Chart 3.3] ...may be slightly lower than they should be. It may be noted here that had a further refinement of the acing been possible in the previously discussed finite-difference solution, slightly higher alues of the stress concentration factor could have been obtained.” It is possible that the factors may be more than slightly lower. A typical weld bead would correspond to a geometry of small ¢/L, with H/d near 1.0. Referring, for example, to Chart 3.34, we see that for 1/L = 0.1 and r/L = 0.1, Ky is surprisingly low, 1.55. Even if we increase this by 17%, to be on the safe side in design, wwe still have a relatively low factor. K, = 1.8.140 SHOULOEA FILLETS. 3.3.5 Fillet of Noncircular Contour in a Flat Stepped Bar Circular fillets ure usually used for simplicity in drafting and machining, The circular fillet does not correspond to orinimum stress concentration, ‘The variable radius fillet is often found in old machinery (using many cast-iron parts) where the designer or builder apparently produced the result intuitively. Sometimes the ‘variable radius fillet is approximated by two radii, resulting in the compound fillet illustrated in Fig. 3.4. Baud (1934) proposed a fillet form with the same contour as that given mathematically for an ideal, frictionless liquid flow in the bottom of a tank (Fig. 3.6): G3) that the same boundary may also be the contour of constant stress for a tension member. Figure 3.5. Compound fillet. Figure 3.6 Idea! frictionless liquid flow frontan opening in the bottom of a tank.TENSION (AXIALLOADING) 141 ‘TABLE 3.1 Proportions for a Streamline Fillet” afd ay/d ay/d for Bending Jd for Bending for Tension or Torsion y/d___ foe Tension __or Torsion 00 1.636 1475 03 187 0s2 0.002 1610 1.420 os Laie L035 0.005 1594 1377 05 1.096 1.026 001 172 1.336 06 L070 Lo2t 0.02 1537 1 07 1051 ors 0.04 1483 1.230 08 1037 Lois 0.06 1.440 1.193 09 1.027 L012 0.08 1.405 1.166 10 1019 Lo10 0.10 1374 Lis 13 1.007 [L005 os 1310 1.107 L6 L008 1.003, 02 1.260 1.082 2 1.000 1.000 See Fig. 17 for notation dy a Figure 3.7 Notation for Table 3.1 By means of 4 photoelastic test in tension, Baud observed that no appreciable stress concentration occurted with a fillet of streamline fors For bending and torsion, Thum and Bautz (1934) applied a correction in accordance with the cube of the diameter, resulting in a shorter fillet than for tension, This correction led to Table 3.1. Thum and Bautz also demonstrated by means of fatigue tests in bending and in torsion that, with fillets having the proportions of Table 3.1, no appreciable stress concentration effect was obtained. ‘To reduce the length of the streamline fillet, Deutler and Harvers (Lurenbaum 1937) suggested. special elliptical form based on theoretical considerations of Féppl (Timoshenko and Goodier 1970). Grodzinski (1941) mentions fillets of parabolic form. He also gives a simple graphical method, which may be useful in making a template or a pattern for a cast part (Fig. 3.8). Dimensions a and b are usually dictated by space or design considerations, Divide each distance into the same number of parts and number in the order shown, Connect points hav- ing the same numbers by straight lines. This results in an envelope of gradually increasing radius, as shown in Fig. 3.8, For heavy shafts or rolls, Morgenbrod (1939) has suggested a tapered fillet with radii at the ends, the included angle of the tapered portion being between 15° and 20° (Fig. 3.9). This is similar to the basis of the tapered cantilever fatigue specimen of McAdam (1923), which has been shown (Peterson 1930) to have a stress variation of less than 1% over a 2 in. ha nominal diameter of | in. This conical surface is tangent to the constant-stress. of revolution142 SHOULOEA FILLETS. « » . Figure 3.8 Construction of special fillet (Grodzins 20° Figure 3.9 Tapered fillet suggested by Morgenbrod (1939), Photoelastic tests have provided values for a range of useful elliptical fillets for bending (Section 3.4.3), The degree of improvement obtained may be useful in considering a tension ease. Clock (1952) has approximated an elliptical fillet by using on equivalent segment of a circle and has provided corresponding X, values. An excellent treatment of optimum transition shapes has been provided by Heywood (1969). His, des some interesting observations about shapes found in nature {tree trunks and branches, thorns, animal bones fiscussivon ini 3.3.6 Stepped Bar of Circular Cross Section with a Circumferential Shoulder Fillet Consider a stepped bar of circular cross section with a circumferential shoulder fillet. The K, values for this case (Chant 3.4) were obtained by ratioing the X, values of Cha accordance with the shree- to two-dimensional notch values, as explained in Section 2.5.2. Chart 3.4 is labeled “approximate” in view of the procedure, For «d/D values considered valid for comparison (0.6, 0.7. 0.9), photoelastic results for round bars (Allison 1962) are somewhat lower than the values of Chant 3.4. Phatoclastic tests (Hessler ¢t al, 1969) give &; values for D/d = (,5 that ure in good agreement with Chart 3.4. Although the stress concentration values in Chart 3.4 seem to be confirmed with finite element analyses in ESDU (1989), Tipton etal. (1996) contend on the basis of finite element analyses that the stress concentration factor curves of Chart 3.4 can underestimate stresses by as much ay 40%. For 0.002 = r/d = 0.3 and LOL = D/d = 6.0 they suggest thatTENSION {AXIALLOADING) 143 Figure 3.10 Location of maximum stress in the fillet, the equation X, a na —————__—_____ Dy ry -O [343 — 34D /d F + 0.023210 /d)* B+ fo) + eee oe o8(7) (3) \ T= Basar — DOD /dF a B.S) provides better values than the stress concentration factors in Chart 3.4. Equation (3.5) was obtained by curve fitting based on finite element results. The location of & (of Fig, 3.10) of the mainumn stress in the filtet was found t© be 4 function of the geometry. For the same ranges of r/d and D/d they found “30 =U? ¢b tdcgrees) ~a-2u (2) +| art pee r =1I27D/d) a + [-nss +09 (3) * "| (im ay G6 For this ease of temsile loading, the formula of Eq, (3.5) corresponds closely for a variety of cases with the finite element analyses of Gooyer and Overbeeke (1991), 3.3.7 Tubes Stress concentration factors A, are given in Chart 3.5 for thin-walled tubes with fillets. The data nce based on the work of Lee and Ades (1956). {n Chart 3.5, K; is shown versus 1/r for various values of 1/h for a tube subject to tension, The plot holds only when (d/h + di/ty > 28. Por d, < 28he/tr + hy, K, will be smaller, For solid shafls (dj = 0), Ky is reduced as (/2 inereases. The location of dma is in the fillet near the smaller tube. 3.3.8 Stepped Pressure Vessel Wall with Shoulder Fillets Chart 3.6 is for a pressure vessel with a stepped wall with shoulder fillets, The K; curve is based on calculated values of Griffin and Thunnan (1967). A direct comparison (Griffin and Kellogg 1967) with a specific photoelastic test by Leven (1965) shuws ood agreement. The strain gage results of Heifetz, and Berman (1967) are in reasonably good agreement144° SHOULOEA FILLETS. with Chart 3.6, Lower values have been obtained in the finite clement analysis of Gwaltney etal, (1971). For comparison, the model shown in Chart 3,1 may be considered to be split in half avially. The corresponding X, curves have the same shape as in Chart 3.6, but they are somewhat higher, However, he cases are not striclly comparable and, furthermore, Chart 3.1 is approximate. 3.4 BENDING 3.4.1 Opposite Shoulder Fillets in a Flat Bar Stress concentration factors for the in-plane bending of a thin element with opposing shoulder fillets are displayed in Chart 3.7, Photoelastic values of Leven and Hartman (1951) cover the r/d range trom 0.03 to 0.3. whereas the photoelastic tests of Wilson and White (1973) caver r/d values in the 0.003 10 0.03 range. ‘These results blend together reasonably well and form the basis of Chart 3.7. 3.4.2 Effect of Shoulder Geometry in a Flat Thin Member In Chart 3.8, X; factors are given for various shoulder parameters for a fillet bar in bending (Loven and Hartman 1981). For L/H — Oucusp remains, For H/d — 1.25 (Chart 3.8a) and r/d = 1/8.K, = | when L/H = =1.6r/d. For H/d = 2 (Churt 3.86) and r/d = 1/2, K, = twhen L/H = —r/d. For H/d = 3 Chat 380) and r/d <1, K, =U when L/H = ~(2/3)ir/d). The dashed lines in Chart 3.8 show extrapolations to K, = 1. Only limited information on bars of circular cross section is available. It is suggested that the designer obtain an adjusted value by ratioing in accordance with the corresponding Neuber three- to two-dimensional notch values (Peterson 1953, p. 61), or Eg. (1.15). 3.4.3 Elliptical Shoulder Fillet in a Flat Member Photoelastie tests hy Berkey (1944) have provided , factors for the flat element with in- plane bending (Chart 3.9). The corresponding factors fora round sbaft should be somewhat lower. An estimate can be made by comparing the corresponding Neuber three- to two- dimensional notch factors, as discussed in Section 2.5.2. Equation (1.15) can also he used 3.4.4 Stepped Bar of Circular Cross Section with a Circumferential Shoulder Fillet Photoclastic tests (Leven and Hartman 1951} have been made of stepped bars of circular nin the F/d cange of 0.03 w 0.3. By use of the pline bending tests of Wilson and White (1973) reasonable extensions of curves have been made in the 7/i range below 0.03. The results are presented in Chart 3.10, Jn comparison with other round bar photoelastic tests {Allison 1961a,b) for the d/D ratios considered valid for comparison, there is reasonably goed agreement for d/D = 0.6, 0.8. However, for d/D ~ 0.9 the results are lower, In the design of machinery shaits. where bending and torsion are the primary loadings of concem, small steps (2/d near 1.0) are often used. Since for this region Chart 3.10 cross seeTORSION 145 is not very suitable, Chart 3.11 has been provided, wherein the curves go to K, = 1.0 at D/d = 1.0. Tipton et al, (1996) performed a finite clement analysis study and showed that for r/d <0.05 the stress concentration factors of Chany 3.10 and 3.11 ean underestimate the maximum stress between 3 and 21%. The smaller the ratio r/d. the greater the possible error. The potential underestimation of Charts 3.4, 3.10, and 3.11 was previously identified by Gooyer and Overheeke (1991) and Hardy and Malik (1992). In the finite element analyses, Tipton et al, calculated the elastic stress concentration factor Ky as Ky = 7) /eryou. where a; is the maximum principal stress and @y,9, = 32M/ad*, as in Charts 3.10 and 3.11 for bending. For tension, they used tugy, = 4P/ad", For the geometric limits 0.002 =5 r/d =5 0.3 and 1.01 == B/d + 6.0, they found that the stress concentration factor X, for bending can be represented as “4a us Toon 2 7 kK, 063240277 (2) 1. (Q V 0.14 = 0.363(D/d)? + 0.503(.D/d¥ 4 a yo 1 239D/dP + 3.368(D/dy* GD The location of the maximum stress in the fillet ix shown as & in Fig. 3.10 and was determined to be given by pv p\*) 04+ 3) + | 6.95 + 23(3) ing +f-osnenis(2) 3102 " ONE a. 4 (Wegrees) +276 (3) ‘| (1m a Bay 3.5 TORSION 3.5.1 Stepped Bar of Circular Cross Section with a Circumferential ‘Shoulder Fillet Investigations of the filleted shaft in torsion bave been made by use of photoelasticity (Allison 1961; Fesster et al. 1969}, with strain gages (Weiglund 1943), by ase of the electrical: analog (Jacobsen 1925; Rushton 1964), and computationally (Mathews and Hooke 1971). ‘The computational approach, using a numerical technique based on elasticity equations and a point-matching method for approximately satisfying boundary conditions, is believed 10 be of satisfuctory uccuracy. Currently most computational stress concentration studies are performed using finite element based general purpose structural analysis software. The Mathews and Hooke method provides &,. values (Chart 3.12) lower than those used previously (Peterson 1953), and in the lower r/1d range it provides higher values than from Rushtan’s electrical analog, An eupirical relation (Eesster et al. 1969) based on published data including two pho- toelastic tests by the authors is in satisfactory agreement with the values of Chart 3.12 in the area covered by their tests. Also in agreement are the results of a finite clement study (ESDU 1989).146 SHOULOEA FILLETS. {In design of machinery shatts, where bending and torsion ace the main caves of interest, smal] steps (D/d near 1.0) are often used, For this region Chart 4.12 is not very suitable and Chart 3.13 has been provided. whervin the curves go to K,, = 1.0 at D/d = 10. 3.5.2 Stepped Bar of Circular Cross Section with a Circumferential Shoulder Fillet and a Central Axial Hole Central (axial) holes are used in large forgings for inspection purposes and im shafts for cooling ot fluid ansimission purposes. For the hollow shaft, reasonable design procedure is 1 fined the rutios of stress concens tration factors from Chart 3.L4, that have becn obtained from the electrical analog values, (Rushton 1964) and then, using the Kj values of Charts 3.12 and 3.13, to find the stress concentration factor Ky of the hollow shafi. Chart 3.14 provides the cativs of the Ky, values for the hollow shaft 10 the Kiw values for the solid shaft of Charts 3.12 and 3.13. These ratios. (Ky — D/(Kiw ~ Hare plotted against the ratio d)/d. Chart 3.15 gives Ki. for hollow shafts, plotted, in contrast to the preceding table, versus ¢/d. Both Charts 3.14 and. 3.15 are based on the data from Rushton (1964). The stress cancentration factors in Chart 3.15 were nearly duplicated in ESDU (1989) using finite element analyses, The strength/width ratio of the small-diameter portion of the shaft increases with it creasing hollowness ratio. However, this is usually aot of substantial benefit in practical designs because of the relatively larger weight of the large-diameter portion of the shall. An exception may occur when the diameters are close together (D/d = 1.2 or less. 3.5.3 Compound Fillet For a shouldered shaft in torsion, the stress concentration factor can by controlled by adjusting the size of a single radius fillet. Specifically, the stress concentration factor is seduced by increasing the radius of the fillet. However, the inerease in radius may not be possible due to practical comstraints on the axial length (2.,) and radial height (L,). See Fig. 3.11, Occasionally the lowest single radius fillet stress concentration factor Kj, (¢.2., from Charts 3.12 and 3.13) that fits within the restrictions on Ly and £, ean be improved somewhat (up 10 about 20%) by using « double radius fillet. For a double radius fillet. two distinet maximum stress concentrations occur. One is on circumferential line Jf, which is located close to where radii ry and rz are tangential to cach other. The other occurs where ry is first parallel 10 « on circumferential line 7. Por cases that satisfy constrains an Ly and L,. the lowest maxinaum shear stress occurs For the largest Figure 3.11 Double radius fillet.METHODS OF REDUCING STAESS CONCENTAATION AT ASHOULOER 147, fillet For which Ky equals Kyr. Cate should be taken to ensure that the two fillets fit well at their intersection, Small changes in r) can Jead to coresponcing changes in the shear stress aL H due to stress concentration, For Ky = Kus. Chart 3.16 provides plots of rs/d versus £../d and £, /d lor n/n, and @ (Battenbo and Baines 1974; ESDU (981). The corresponding reduction in Ku/Ky = Kun /K, versus r9/1; is given in Chart 3.17. Example 3.1 Design ofa Fillet fora Shaftin Torsion Suppose that a fillet with a stress concentration factor of less then 1.26 is 10 be chiosen for a shaft in torsion. In the notation of, Fig. 3.11,d = din. D = Sin, There isa spacing washer carrying the maximum allowable 45° chamfer of 0.5 in, to accommodate the tillet, For a single radius (r) fillet, let r = E, and ealcul D & a. a4 -2 5-3 ons a From Chart 3.12, K, = 1.35, This value exceeds the desired K, = 1.26. Ifa double radius fillet is employed, then for a stress concentration factor of less than 1.26 Ko Km 1.26 Ky OK, 135 0.93 @ Both L, and La, must be less than 0.5 in, For a double radius fillet. Fy > Ly so that L, (0.3 in. is the active constraint. From the upper curve in Chart3.17.7:/r, = 3 ean satisty this constraint, Use Z., = 0.5 in, in Chart 3.162, and observe that for fy/d = 0.5/4 = 0.125 O19 a a for which £,/d is 0.08. Finally. the double radius fillet would have the properties 7) = 0.19 X 4 = 0.76 in, Ly = 0.08 X 4 = 0.32in, (ay ry = 0.76/3 = 0.2533 in, 3.6 METHODS OF REDUCING STRESS CONCENTRATION AT A SHOULDER Onv of the problems occurring in the design of shafiing. rotors. and so Forth, is the reduction of stress concentration at a shoulder fillet (Fig. 3.124} while maintaining the positioning Tine (-[ and dimensions D and d. This can be doae in a number of ways, some of which are illustrated in Fig. 3.12b. ¢. d, ¢, and f. By cutting into the shoulder. a larger fillet radius. can be obtained (Fig. 3.12) without developing interference with the fitted member, A sert could be used as at Fig. 3.12c, but this represemts an additional par. A similar result could be obtained as shown in Fig, 3.12d, except that a smooth Billet surface is more difficult 10 realize.148° SHOULOEA FILLETS. Comer radius in shat. 6 Bearing a tw © a Comer 7! rhe sad.us ia Comer shalt radi in nat, ra te “y Figure 3.12 Techniques for reducing stress concentration in stepped shaft with bearing: (a) with comer radius only; (4) underem: (¢) inserted ring: (eft undercut to simulate « ring: (o) relief groove: (f)tclief groove. Sometimes the methods of Fig. 3.12. ¢, and d are not helpful because the shouler height (D — d)/2 is too small. A relief groove (Fig, 3.12¢, f) may be used provided that this does not contliet with the lacation of a seal or other shaft requirements, Fustigue tests (Oschatz. 1933; Thum and Bruder 1938) show a considerable gain in strength due to relief grooving. It should be mentioned thal in the case at hand there is also a combined stress concentra tion and fretting corrosion problem it the bearing fit see Seetion 5.5). The gain due to filletREFERENCES 149 improvement in this case might be limited by failure atthe fitted surface, However, fatigue tests (Thumm and Bruder 1938) showed that at least for the specitic proportions tested a g: in strength was realized by the use of relief grooves. REFERENCES Allison, 1. M., 19614, The elastic stress concentration factors in shouldered shafts, Aeronaut. Q., Vol. 12, p. 189. Al 1961b, The elastic concentration factors in shouklered shafts: Hl, Shafis subjected to bending, Aeronaut. Q., Vol. 12, p. 219. Allison, I. M., 1962, The elastic concentration factors in shouldered shafts: Il, Shafts subjected to axial load, Aeranaut. Q., Vol. 13, p. 129. Appl, F. J., and Koerner, D. R., 1969, Stress concentration factors for U-shaped, hyperbolic and rounded V-shaped notches, ASME Pap. 69-DE-2, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York Battenbo, H., and Baines, B. H., 1974, Numerical stress concentrations for stepped shafts in torsion with circular and stepped filles, J. Strain Anat., Vol, 2, pp. 90-101 Baud. R. V., 1928, Study of stresses by means of polarized light and transparencies, Proc. Eng. Sac. West, Pa, Vol. 44, p. 199. Baud, R. V., 1934, Beitrige zur Kenntnis der Spannungsverteilung in Prismatischen und Keilf&rr Konstruktionselementen mit Querschnittsibergingen, Eide. Materialprif. Ber., Vol. 83, Zusich; see also Prod. Eng., 1934, Vol. 5, p. 133. Berkey, D. C., 1944, Reducing stress concentration with elliptical fillets, Proc. Soe. Exp. Stress Anal, Vol. 1,No. 2, p. 56. Clock, L. S., 1952, Reducing stress concentration with an elliptical fillet, Des, News, May 15, Derecho, A. T., and Munse, W. H., 1968, Stress concentration at external notches in members subjected to axial loading, Univ, Ml, Eng. Exp. Sin. Bull. 494, ESDU, 1981, 1989, Stress Concentrations, Engineering Science Data Unit, London. Fessler, H., Rogers, C. C.,and Stanley, P., 1969, Shouldered plates and shafts in tension and torsion, J. Strain Anal, Vol. 4, p. 169. Frocht, M. M., 1935, Factors of stress concentration photoelastically determined, Trans. ASME Appl. Mech. Sect., Nol. 57, p. A-67. Gooyer, L.E., and Overbecke, J. L., 1991, The stress distributions in shoulder shafts under axisym- metric loading, J. Strain Anat. Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 181-184, Griffin, D. S., and Kellogg, R. B., 1967, A numerical solution for axially symmetrical and plane elasticity problems, Int. J. Solids Struct., Vol. 3, p. 781. Griffin, D. S.,and Thurman, A. L., 1967, Comparison of DUZ solution with experimental results for uniaxially and biaxially loaded fillets and grooves.” WAPD TM-654, Clearinghouse for Scientific and Technical Information, Springfield, VA, Gwaltney, R. C., Conum, J. M., and Greenstreet, W. Li 197, cylindrical shells with step changes in outside diameter, Trans. ASME J. Eng. tnd., Vol. 93, p. 986, Hardy, S. J., and Malik, N. H., 1992, A survey of post-Peterson Stress concentration factor data, Jn. J. Fatigue, Vol. 14, p.149. ifetz, J. H., and Berman, L., 1967, Measurements of stress concentrs fillets of a cylindrical pressure vessel, Exp. Mech., Vol, 7, p. 518. Heywood, R, B., 1969, Pioioelasticity for Designers, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY, Chap. 1 ' factors in the external150 SHOULDER FILLETS Jacobsen, L, S., 1925, Torsional stress concentrations in shafts of circular eros section and variable diameter, Trans. ASME Appl. Mech. Sect., Vol. 47, p. 619. Kumagai, K..and Shimada, H., 1968, The stress concentration proxluced by a projection under tensile load, Bull. Jpn. Soc, Mech. Eng., Vol. 11, p. 739 Lee, L. H.N.,and Ades, C. ., 1956, Stress concentration factors for circular fillets in stepped walled cylinders subject to axial tension, Prac. Soc. Exp. Stress Anat., Vol. 14, No. 1 Leven, M.M., 1965, Stress distribution in a cylinder with an external circumferential fillet subjected to internal pressure, Res. Memo. 65-9D7-520-MI, Westinghouse Research Laboratories, Pittsburgh, PA. Leven, M. M., and Hartman, J. B., 1951, Factors of stress concentration for flat bars with centrally enlarged section, Proc. SESA, Vol. 19, No. 1, p. 53. .. 1937, Ges. Vortrage der Hauptvers, der Lilienthal Gesell. p. 296. Matthews. G.J..and Hooke, C.J., 197 J. Swain Ana, Vol. 6, p. 124. McAdam, D. J., 1923, Endurance properties of steel, Proc. ASTM, Vol. 23, PL. IL p. 68. Morgenbrod, W., 1939, Die Gestaltfestigkeit von Wailzen und Achsen mit Hohikeblen, Staht Eisen. Vol. 59, p. S11 Oschatz, H., 1933, Gesetzmiissigkeiten des Danerbruches und Woge zur Steigerung der Daverhalt- barkeit, Mit. Materialpriftmgsanst. Tech. Hochsch. Darmstadt, Vol. 2 Peterson, R. E., 1930, Fatigue tests of small specimens with particular reference to size effect, Proc Am. Soe. Steel Treatment, Vol. 18, p. 1041. Peterson, R. Ex 1953, Stress Concentration Design Factors, Wiley, New York. Rushton, K. R., 1964, Elastic stress concentration for the torsion of hollow shouldered shafts deter- mined by an electrical analogue, Aeronaut. Q., Vol. 15, p. 83. Scheutzel. B.. and Gross, D., 1966, Konsiruktion, Vol. 18, p. 284. Spangenberg, D., 1960, Konsiruksion, Vol. 12, p. 278. Thum, A., and Bautz, W., 1934, Der Entlastungstihergang: Giinstigste Ausbildung des Oberg aan abgesetzten Wellen us, dg., Forsch, Ingives., Vol. 6, p. 269. ‘Thum, A., and Bruder, E., 1938, Dauerbruchgefahr an Hohlkehlen von Wellen und Achsen und ihre Minderung, Deutsche Krafifahriforschung im Auftrag des Reichs-Verkehirsministeriums, No. 1 VDI Verlag, Berlin, ‘Timoshenko, S., and Goodier, J. N., 1970, Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York p. 398, Tipton, S.M., Sorem, J. R., and Rolovie, R. D., 1996, Updated stress concentration factors for filleted. shafts in bending and tension, J. Mech. Des., Vol. 118, p. 321. ‘Troyani, N.. Marin, A., Garcia, H., Rodriguez, F. and Rodriguez, S., 2003, Theoretical stress con- centration factors for short shouldered plates subjected to uniform tension, J. Strain Anal, Eng. Des, Vol. 38, pp. 103-113. Weigand, A., 1943, Ermittlung der Formzitfer der auf Verdrehung beanspruchten abgesetzen Welle mit Hilfe von Feindehnungsmessungen, Lufifahrt Forsch., Vol. 20, p. 217 Wilson, I. H., and White, D. J.. 1973, Stress concentration factors for shoulder fillets and grooves in plates, J. Strain Anat., Vol. 8, p. 43 Lurenbaum, ution of axisymmetric torsion problems by point matching igesCHARTS 181 4.02 4.01 10 © 001 0.05 9.10 0.15 ozo 0.25 0.30 rid Chart 341 Siress concentration factors K; for a Stepped flat tension bar with shoulder hllets Chased ‘om data oF Frocht 1935; Appl and Koerner 1969: Wilson and White 19731152 SHOULOER FILLETS 20 19 18 17 16 Ky 15 14 13 12 1 10 1 2 3 4 na 5 6 7 8 Chart 32a Stress concentration factors K, for w stepped flat tension bar with shoulder fillets (Kumagai and Shimada, 1968): L/d = 1.5. SeppCHARTS © 153 4 10 1 2 3 4a 5 6 7 8 Hid Chart 3.26 Stress concentration faelors X, fie a stepped flat tension bur with: shoulder fillets (Komagui and Shirmuds, 1968): L/d = 3.5. 2.0 19 18 Ww 16 15 Kr 14 Lid Stress conventeation Furtors K, for a stepped fat tension bar with shoulder Fillets ia WOE: H/d = LB,154 SHOULOEA FILLETS. rid 20.18 Lid Chart 3.24 Stress concentration faciors &, for a stepped fut tension bar with shoulder fillets (Kumagai and Shimada, 1968): H/d = 5.Chart 3.3a Stress concentration factors K; for a wapezoidal protuberance on a tension member L/(d/2) = 1.05 (Derecho and Munse 1968): # = 30°. Sepp456 SHOULOEA FILLETS. 23 22 24 te He acer 20 a4 14 0313 19 0251.25 020 1.20 18 SK 01518 BS oto 1.70 xt” SRE 0075 1.075 r SRS 0080 1080 16 ORS 0.025 1.005. Zo 15 in ay gre ‘ SOE 14 “ S29 ‘ x? 13 wa 1 22 60" 14 yee ON 02 0.8— Approx rid oa 02 03 wn, 04 0s 06 07 Chart 3.3b Stress concenuntion factors K, for a (rapezoidal protuberance om a (ension member Lfid/2y — 1.05 (Derecho and Munse 1968); 11 — 40°,CHARTS 157 5.0 45 , values are approximate 4.0 Ki=C,+ Cy (2+ 0,(2)+ (2) O1st/rs20 0.826 + 1.187\F/F— 0.009¢/r 0.012 -3.056y#/r + 0.961t/7 2.0 28.3.0 28 26 24 22 Ke 20 18 16 14 12 10 ° Chart 3.6 Stress concentration fi CHARTS © 159 Cross section of pressure vessot om = CO] > Fillet detait H t 2 45 Ky = OmaxtTaom Meridional Stress -—P Chom= a ~ dy tors K; for u stepped pressure vessel wall with a shoulder fillet R/H © 10 (Griffin and Thurman 1967},160 SHOULOEA FILLETS. 5.0 45 40 25 20 16 10 0 001 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 rid Chart 3.7 Siress concentration factors K; for hending of & stepped flat bur with shoulder fillets (based 09 photoelastic tests af Loven anul Hartman 1951; Wilson and White 1973).x=, 265 (2) (fed m wre £>-20s{-0028) «20 # Dastirs2o 30 29 28 ar 26 25 24 23 22 ad 20 19 18 17 16 18 14 13 12 wW 08 “06 04-02 0 02 04 06 08 LAL 20s1'rs200 1058 1 00e,Fir - 0.088%" “8.852 + 1.690377" - 04960 ir 6120-5687 Air 6 4251: 2.558 + 3048, F7r -O.70N/r 10 1 CHARTS 14 16 161 18 20 ‘Chart 3.8 Bifect of shoulder width 2, on sivess concentration Factors X, for filleted burs in bending, (based on photoelastic data by Leven and Harvman 1951); H/d = 1.28.162 ‘SHOULOER FILLETS: 3.0 29 28 27 26 25 24 28 22 a4 20 19 Ke 18 WwW 18 15 14 13 12 "1 HEL - wo AZ f/bt 08-06 04-02 0 02 04 98 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 (Chart 3.8b Effect of shoulder width £ on stress concentration factors X, for filleted hars in bending (haved on photoelastic data by Leven und Hartman 1951): H/d = 2CHARTS 163 30 29 28 a7 26 25 24 23 22 24 20 19 K& 18 WwW 18 15 14 13 “ A be ——F 19) ee 1 He Safi 08-06 04-02 0 02 04 98 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 Chart 3.8¢ Effect of shoulder width £ on stress concentration factors K, for filleted bars in bending, (based on photoelastic data by Leven and Hartman 1950: F/d = 3.164 SHOULOEA FILLETS. 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 1a — aib 03 aibe 4 19 ° 1 2 3 ad 4 5 6 7 Chart 39 Stress concentration factors K, for the bending case of a flat bar with an elliptical fillet, H/d = 3 (photoelastic teats of Berkey 1954),CHARTS 165 ee (Vb | du onan 2M oe 2 K=O, +02 (F) + c5(%) + ca O14 sein s2.0 0.947 + 1.206ViTr~ 0.131¢/r 0.022 = 8 a0mvtir + 0.9151 /r 0.869 + 1.77V E17 — 0.555¢/r 0.810 + 0.422\r/F - 0 2600/r 45 40 20) cos 26 as Fa = Be ) sin 26 where a is the radius of the hole, ¢ and @ are the polar coordinates of a point in the element as shown in Fig. 4.3, At the edge of the hole with r = a. a= 0 oq = a1 ~ 2e0820) 14.0) Tm = 0 Atpoint A, @ = a/2(or3a/2and ou = 30 ‘This is the maximums stress around the citele, so the stress concentration factor for this: case is 3. ‘The hole in a panel is such a commonly referenced case that often other stress. concentration factors are compared to the “standard” of 3. The vuluc of Ki = 3 is shown in Chart 4.1 fora panel of intinite width, that is, for large H The distribution of org at the edge of the hole is shown in Fig. 4.4, At point 2, with = 0, Eq. (4.6) gives oun =182 HOLES tftttat fi tdds Figure 44° Circumferential stress distribution on she edge of a circular hole in an infinite thin celemwat. When 0 = 47/6 (or £577/6) ono Consider section /—F, which passes through the center of the hole and point A, as shown in Fig. 4.3, For the points on section f-1, 0 = 7/2 (or 34/2) and Eq. (4.5) becomes o> a= ayy Ta = From Eq, (4.7). it cun be observed that on cross section Jf. when r on = 3o, and as 7 increases, ory decreases. Eventually. when r is lurge enough, ay = or, sind the sicess distribution recovers to a uniform state. Also, it follows from Ey. (4.7) that the stress concentration caused by a single hole is localized. When, for example, r = 5.0c, ay decreases to 1.027. Thus, after Sa distance from the center, the stress is very close fo 3 uniform distribution, ‘The stress distribution over cross section 7-H of Fig. 4.3 can be obtained using similar seasoning. Thus, from Ey. (4.5) with @ — O (or @ ~ 7), x) + as Figure 4.5 shows the cy distribution on section /-/ und the @ distribution over section HAH. Note that on cross section Wf, g, = oF, although it finally reaches . The stressCIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 183, Figure. Distibution of oy on section /-f and or, an section HIF gradient on section #/—17 is less than that on section f-#. For example, on section #—H when 0.980 oF o& — @, = 2%. In contrast, on section 1-f, when + = 5.04, oy reaches «r within the 2% deviation, For the tension ease of a finite-width thin element with a cireulur hole, K, values are given in Chart 4.1 for d/H 0.5 (Howland 1929-1930), Photoelastic values (Wahl and Becuwkes 1934) and analytical results (Isida 1953: Christiansen 1968) arc in good agreement. For a row of holes in the longitudinal direction with a hole t0 hole center distance/hole diameter of 3, and with d/H = 1/2, Slot (1972) obtained good agreement with the Howland XK, value (Chart 4.1) for the single hole with 4/H = 1/2 Ina photoelastic test (Coker and Filon 1931), it was noticed that as d/H approached unity the stress ory on the outside edges of the panel upproached %, whieh would correspond 1 Ky = 2. Many onber researchers also indicane that K,y = 2 for ¢/H — 1 (Wahl and Beeuwkes 1934; Heywood 1952; Koiter 1957), Wah] and Becuwkes observed that when the hole diameter so closely approaches the width of the panel that the minimum section between the edge of the element and the hoke becomes an infinitely thin filament; for any finite deformation they noted that “this filament may move inwurd toward the center of the hole sufficiently to allow for a uniform stress distribution, thus giving Ky, = 1. For infinitely small deformations relative to the thickness of this filament, however, Kin tay still be equal to 2.” ‘They found with w steel model test that the curve does not drap down 10 unity as fast as would appeur from certain photoclastic tests (Hemiig 1933). Since the inward movement varies with o wad E, the K,, would not drop to 1.0 as rapidly as with aplastic model. The ease of d/H — 1. dees not have much significance from a design ‘standpoint, Further discussion is provided in Belig and App! (1972). An empirical formnli for Ky, was proposed tw cover the entire d/H range (Heywood 1952) Gay The formula is in good agreement with the results of Howland (Heywood 1952) ford / < 0.3 und is only about 1.5% lower at d/H = 1/2 (Ky, = 2.125 versus K,, = 216 for Howland). The Heywood formula of Eq. (4.9) is satisfactory for many design applications,104 HOLES. since in most cases f//1 is fess than 1/3, Note that the formula gives Kn = 2asd/If — 1, which seems reasonable, ‘The Heywood formula, when expressed as Ki.. becomes afay 1-H) 4.3.2 Factors for a circular hole near the edge of a semi-infinite clement in tension are shown in Chart 4.2 (Lidoguti 1947; Minullin 1948; fsida 1955a). The load carried by the seetion between the hole and the edge of the pancl is (Mindlin 1948) P= ochV 1 afeP aly where oF is the stress applied to semi-infinite panel, ¢ is the distance from center of hole to edge of panel, « is the radius of hole, and fs the thickness of panel, In Chart 4.2 the upper curve gives values of Ky = ou/o, where oy is the maximum stress at the edge of the hole nearest the euge of the thin tensile element, Although the factor K,_ may be used directly in design. it was thought desirable to also compute Kj, based on the load carried by the minimum net section. The X,, fuctor will be comparable with the siress concentration factors for other cases (Example 4.1). Based on the actual load carried by the minimum net section (Eq. 4.11), the average stress an the net section AB ix _ och T= _ VF Fm Cah Tale ky = oR = afe) 4.12) FearBw oy l— (afer The symbols er, ¢, a. ft have the sume meaning as those in Eq, (4.11). 4.3.3 Single Circular Hole in a Finite-Width Element in Uniaxial Tension The case of a tension bar of finite width having an eccentrically located hole has been solved analytically by Sjéstrim (1950). The semi-infinite strip values are in agreement, with Chart 4.2, Also the special case of the centrally located hole is in agreertent with the Howland solution (Chart 4.1). The results of the Sjostrdm analysis are given as Kye = Fru / Values in the upper part of Chart 4.3. These values may be used directly in design. Anaitempt will be made in the following fo arrive at approximate K,, factors based on the net section, When the hole is centrally located (e/e = 1 in Chart 4.3), the loud carried by section A= is och, As e/c is increased to infinity. the load carried by section A-B is. from Eq. (4.11), rcliy/T — (ae. Assuming a linear relation between the foregoing end conditions, shat is, ¢/¢ = 1 and e/e = =, results in the following expression for the load catied by sectivn AB: (4.13)CIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 185, The stress on the net section A-B is — ohyl— tafe Ate — alll ~ (efe¥d — VT a/eF)] Tren so that b= fei - v1 = afer ay It is seen from the lower part of Chart 4.3 that this relation brings all the A, curves cuther closely together. Por all practical purposes. then, the curve for the centrally located hole te/c = Lis, under the assumptions of Chan 4,3, a rwonuble approximation for all eccentricities 43.4 Effect of Length of Element Many of the elements considered are of infinite length. Troyani et al, (2002) studied the effect of the length of an element on stress concentration factors (see Fig. 4.6). Ta doso.they performed finite clement analyses of thin elements of varying lengths in uniaxial tension, They found that if the length of the clement is less than its width, the stress concentration factor available for an element of infinite length is of questionable accuracy, The stress concentration factors for several lengths are compared with the stress concentration factors of Chart 4.1 for an infinite-length element. 4.3.5 Single Circular Hole in an Infinite Thin Element under Biaxial In-Plane Stresses If a thin infinite element is subjected to biaxial in-plane tensile stresses and ar as shown in Fig. 4.7, the stress concentration factor may be derived by superposition. Equation (4.5) is the solution for the uniaxial problem of Fig. 4.3, AC the edge of the hole for the biaxial case of Fig. 4.7, the siresses caused by a are calculated by setting ¢ = ao = 01. @ = 0+ @/2 in Eq. 14.6): ° uy Figure 4.6 Eficet of ienglh of an clement (Troyani et al. 2002),1986 HOLES. igure 4.7 Infinite thin element under biaxial tensile in-plane loading. 07 20 oy = oy) + 2cos26) (4.153 m=O Superimpose Eq. (4.15) and By, (4.6) with o replaced by or, which represents the stresses under uniaxial tension 2: a, =0 Fa = (oy + Oy) — Aap — Gon 20 4.16) ta = 0 er so that on = al + a + 2otl ~ adeos20 Assume that @ = 1. Then Fema = Foy = HG a) Faun = Fas = Ba WY Ifo) is taken as the reference stress, the stress concentration factors atl pointy A und & are Ki = Zit = 3a 1 17} a7 (4.18) ICs interesting to note that if 7 and gf are both of the same sign (positive or negative). the stress concentration factor is less than 3, which is the stress concentration factor caused by uniaxial stress. Por equal biaxial stresses. oy — of, the stresses at A and B are G4 = 04 = 2a, or K, = 2 Ur /h = 0, D/d = 1 in Chant 4.132). When oy and o2 haveCIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 187, same magnitude but are of opposite sign (the state of pure shear). Ky = 4 (Ki, = Ky = 41. This is equivalent to shear stresses + = 7, at 45° Gr/b = Lin Chart 4.97), 4.3.6 Single Circular Hole in a Cylindrical Shell with Tension or Internal Pressure Considerable analytical work has been done on the stress in a cylindrical shell having a circular bole (1 ekkerkerker 1964: Fringen et al. 1965; Van Dyke 1965), Stress concentration factors are given for tension in Chart 4.4 and for internal pressure in Chart 4.5. In both charts, factors for membrane (tension) and for total stresses (membrane plus bending) are given. The torsion ease is given in Section 4.9.7 and Chari 4.107, For pressure loading the analysis assumes that the force representing the total pressure corresponding to the area of the hole is carried as a perpendicular shear force distributed around the edge of the hole. This is shown schematically in Chart 4.5. Results are given as a function of dimensionless parameter 8: 19a) where R is the mean radius of shell. i is the thickness of shell. a is the radius of hole, and v is Poisson’s tativ, In Charts 4.4 aod 4,5 and Fig, 4.8, where » = 1/3, B= 0639— 4.196» Veh “The analysis assumes a shallow, thin shell. Shallowness means a small curvature effect over the circumferential coordinate of the hole, which means a small «/R. Thinness of course implies a small 1/R. The region of validity is shown in Fig. 4.8. “The physical significance of f can be evaluated by rearranging Eq. (4.19%): (af Ry Vik For example. by solving Eq. (4.19¢) for A. a 10-in-wiameter cylinder with a 1-1 would have a thickness of 0.082 in, for B = 1/2, a thickness of 0.02 in, for B thickness of 0,005 in, for 8 = 2, and a thickness of 0,0013 in. for 8 = 4, Although 8 represents a very thin shell, large values of B often oc avrospace structures. A formula is avuitable (Lind 1968) for dhe pressurized shell where B is large compared 1 unity. ‘The K, factors in Charts 4.4 and 4.5 are quite large for the larger values of 8, corre- sponding to very thin shells. Referring to Fig. 4.8, we have B= 0.639 (4.19) B n/R 4 = 0.008 2 <0.007 L < 0015 1/2 < 0.025188 HOLES ou os 0.02 aol we Ont Shallow. "Thin Shell 0.00 o4 os atR Figure 4.8 Region of validity of shallow. thin shell theory (Van Dyke 1965), In the region of B = 1/2. the X, factors are not unusually large. A study of the efiect of clement length on strexs concentration factors ia Troyani et al. (2005) shows that for lengths less than the mean cylinder diameter (L < 2R) the stress concentration factors in Chart 4.4 may be significantly lower than those obtained with a finite element code. The theoretical results (Lekkerkerker 196d: Eringen et al. 1965; Van Dyke 1965) are, swith one exception, in good agreement. Experiments have been made by Houghton and Rothwell (1962) and by Lekkerkerker (1904). Comparisons made by Van Dyke (1965)CIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 189, showed reasonably good agreement tor pressure Joading (Houghton and Rothwell 1962), Poor agreement was obtained far the (ension loading (Houghton and Rothwell 1962). Referring fo tests on tubular members (Jessop et al, 1959), the results for d/2 = 0.9 are in good agreement for tension loadings (Chart 4.66), Photwelastic rests (Durelli etal, 1967) were made for the pressurized loading. Strain gage results (Pierce and Chou 1973) have been obtained for values of 6 up to 2 and agree reasonably well with Chart 4.4, Analytical expressions for the stress concentration factors in cylinders with a circular hole subject to uniaxial tension and intemal pressure are provided in Savin (1961) and are discussed in Wu and Mu (2003). For a cylinder with a/8 << 77 with axial tensile Jouding along the cylinder axial direction 1/2 ma? 34 (3a — vt Be (3c - wy, anh at ae {re fa y'7} () at BU = h where A and B are as shown in Chart 4.1, @ is defined in Chari 4.5, and 1 is Poisson's ratio. For a cylinder with u/R << y/h/R subject to internal pressure p. a/dh Ky= (4.20) ny aye ae — fsa — yy? Be a= Tan [3a = v3] TRE ae=0 Ke 5 one 420 Frm apt 3S pays 9 7 Tap {i + (3 = #7] sr ad = n/2 where orig and Opp are equal to pR/2h and pR/h. respectively. ‘The case of two circular holes has been analyzed by Hanzawa et al. (1972) and Hamada et al. (1972). It was found that the interference effect is similar to that in an infinite thin element, although the stress concentration factors are higher for the shell, The membrane and hending stresses for the single hole (Hamada et al. 1972) are in goad agreement with the results by Van Dyke (1965) on which Charts 4.4 and 4.5 are based. Stress concentration factors have been obtained for the special case of a pressurized ribbed shell with a reinforced circular hole interrupting a rib (Durelli et al. 1971). Stresses around an elliptical hole in a cylindrical shell in tension have been determined by Murthy (1969), Murthy and Rao (1970), and Tinglefl (1971). 4.3.7. Circular or Elliptical Hole in a Spherical Shell with Internal Pressure Consider holes in the wall of a thin spherical shell subject to internal pressure. Chart 4.6 haved on K; factors determined anulytically (Leckie et al. 1967} covers openings varying frou a circle to an ellipse with b/a = 2, Referring ta Chart 4.6. the X, values for the four dofa values in an infinite flat element biaxially stressed are shown along the left-hand edge of the chart. The curves show the increase due to hending and shell curvature in relation fo the flat element values. Experimental results ¢Leckie et al. 1967) are in good agreement, Application to the ease of an oblique nozale is discussed in the same urtivle,190 HOLES. 4.3.8 Reinforced Hole near the Edge of a Semi-intinite Element in Uniaxial Tension Consider a semi-infinite thin element subject to uniaxial tension, A circular hoke with integral reinforcement of the same material is located near the edge of the element, Stress concentration factors are shown in Chart 4.7 (Mansfield 1955; Wiltrick 1959a; Davies 1963; ESDU 1981). High stresses would be expected to occur al poims A and #. In the chart the values of Kip ind Kyy are plotted versus A, /Qak) for a series of values of e/a.The quantity A, is culled the effective cross-sectional area of reinforcement, AL= CA, (4.22) where A, is the cross-sectional area of the reinforcement (constant around hole), C4 is the reinforeement efficiency fuetor. Some vulues of Cy ure given in Chart 4.7. For point A, which is at the clement edge. the gross stress concentration factor is defined a the ratio of the maximum stress acting along the edge and the tensile sitess o: Few Kya = (4.23) where gus is the maximum stress at point A along the edge. AL the junetion (B) of the element and the reinforcement, the three-dimensional stress fields are complicated. ft is seasonable to use the equivalent stress (req Section 1.8) at H as the basis to define the stress concentration factor, Define the gross stress concentration Factor Ka 8 = fe Kua = 7 (4.24) As shown in Chart 4.7, the 1wo points B are symmetrically located with respect to the minimum cross section /-1. For A,/(ul1) < 0.1, the two puints B coincide for any value of c/a. If A./(Qah) > 0.1, the Wo points & move further uway as either ¢/et or A,/2ah) increases, Similarly the two edge stress points A are alse symmetrical relative (0 the minimum cross section J=f and spread apart with an increase in ¢/«, For e/a = 1.2 the distance hetween two points A is equal oa. When ¢/a = 5, the distance is 6a If the distance between element edges of a finite-width element and the center of the hole is greater than 4a and the reference stress is based on the gross cross section, the data from Chart 4.7 will provide a reasonable approximation, The value of Ca depends on the geometry of the reinforcement and the tanner in which it is mounted. If the reinforcement is syemmetrical about the mid-plane of the thin element and if the reinforcement is connected to the thin element without defect, then the change in stress aetoss the junction can be ignored and the reinforcement efficiency factor is equal to L(Cq = Vand A, = 4,). If the reinforecmnent is nonsymmetric and lies only to one side of the element, the following approximation is available: 425) where J is the distance of the centroid of the reinforcement from the mid-plane of the element (e.g. see Fig. 4.9), J is the moment of inertia of the reinforcement about the mid-CIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 191 — | +e bog mo Sofhote in 0.5 in Baia L Section Reinforcer D204 in, Thin Element 4-1 Section Enlargement Figure 4.9 Hole with L-scetion reinforeement plane of the element, If the reinforcement is not symmetric, bending stress will be induced in the element. The data in Chart 4,7 ignore the effect of this bending. Example 4.2L Section Reinforcement Fied the maximum stresses in a thin clement with a 4..-in-radius hole, whose center is 5.5 in. from the element's edge. The thickness of the element is 0.04 in, The hale is reinforced with an L section as shown in Fig, 4.9, A uniaxial in-plane tension stress of = s applied to the thin element, For the reinforcement, with the dimensions of Fig. 4.9, A, = 0.0850 in?, 7 = 0.0927 in.. and 1 = 0,000928 in.*, where Ar is the cross-sectional area of the L-section reinforcement. the distance of the centroid of the reinforcement from the mid-plane of the element. and / is the moment of inertia of the reinforcement about the mid-plane of the clement (Fig. 4.9). Begin by calculating the reinforcement efficiency factor Cy using Eq. (4.25): 1 — 2.0550 0.0927? _ TORR 0.490 a The effective cross-sectional area is given by (Eq. 4.22) Ac = CA, = 0.490 +0,0550 = 0.0270 Thus 0.0270 2ah 24.0 0.04 = 0.0822 and G192 HOLES From the curves of Chart 4,7 for Ac/(2afth = 0.0822, when e/a = 1.3. Kyn = 2.92, Kign ~ 240. and when cfc = 1.5, Bie = 2.65, Kipa = 1.98, The stress concentration factor atc/a = 1,34 can be derived by interpolation: a BI) 3 oo The stresses at point A and B are (Eqs. 4.23 and 4.24) wg = 232-6900 = 16,008 Ib/in? (6) on = 2.86 6900 = 19.734 Ib/in# a where ary is the equivalent stress at poim B. 4.3.9 Symmetrically Reinforced Hole in a Finite-Width Element in Uniaxial Tension For « symmetrically reinforced hole in a thin element of prescribed width, experimental results of interest for design application are the photoelastic test values of Seika and Ishii (1964, 1967). These ests used an element 6 mm thick. with a hole 36 mm in diameter. Cemented symmetrically into the hole was a stiffening ring of various thicknesses contain- ing varius diameters ¢ of the central hole. The width of the element was also varied. A constant in all tests was D/k = diameter of ring/thickness of element = Chart 4.8 presents Ky = Opa/o values, whete o = gross stress, tor various width ratios H/D = width of element/diameter of ring, In all cases yay is located on the hole surface at 90° to the applied uniaxial tension, Only in the case of 47/2 = 4 was the effect of fillet radius investigated (Chart 4.8¢) For H/D = 4 and D/f = 5, Chart 4.9 shows the net stress concentration factor, detined as follows: P= GA = Own where P is the total applied force . Ul = Dyh +(D = din += 2) " 7 (ed / DINU f+ A H/D (why (4.20) where d is the diameter of the hole, D is the ouside diameter of the reinforcement, # is the width of the element, / is the thickness of the element, 4, is the thickness of the reinforcement, and r is the fillet redius at the junction of the element and the reinforcement.CIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 193, Note from Chart 4.9 that the Kj, values are grouped closer together than the Ky, values of Chari 4.8, Also note that the minimum &,, occurs at 4,/f = 3 when + > 0, Thus for efficient section use the 4,/h should he set at about 3. ‘The H/D = 4 values sre particularly useful in that they can be used without serious ervor for wide-element problems. This can he demonstrated by using Eq. (4.26) 10 replot the K,, curve in terms of ¢/H = diameter of hole/width of clement and cxtrapolating for d/H = 0, equivalent to an infinite element (see Chart 4.10), Acwill be noted from Chart 4.8¢ that the lowest Xj, factor achieved by the reinforceme used in this series of tests was approximately 1.1, with h,/it 2 4. d/D = 0.3, and o/h = 0.83. By decreasing d/D, that is, by increasing D relative to d, the Ky factor ean bbe brought to 1.0. For a wide clement without reinforcement, Kj, = 3; to reduce this to 1, it is evident that #/h should be 3 or somewhat greater ‘An approximate solution was proposed by Timoshenko (1924), based on curved bar theory. A comparison curve is shown in Chart 4.8c. 4.3.10 Nonsymmetrically Relnforced Hole In a Finite-Width Element in Uniaxial Tension For an asymmetically ceinfosced hole ia a finite-width element in tension ay shown in Chart 4.11, photoctastic tests were made with d/h = 1.833 (Lingaiah et al, 1966). Except for one series of tests, the volume of the reinforeement (Vg) was made equal (o the volume of the hole (¥q). in Chart 4.11 the effect of varying the ring. height (and corresponding ring diameter) is shown for various d/# ratios, A minimum K, value ix reached at about hy/h = LAS and D/d = 1.8. A shape factor is defined as pf? hot 427) For the photoelastic tests with d/h = 1.833 and Ve/Ver = 1. the shape factor C, is chosen to be 3.666, This is shown in Fig, 4.10. 1f one wishes to lower K; by increasing Vq/Viy. the shape factor C, = 3.666 should be maintained as sh interim procedure. In Chart 4,12, where the abscissa scale is ¢/H, extrapolation is shown to. d/H = 0. This provides imermediate values for relatively wide elements. ‘The curves shown are for a zero fillet radius. A fillet radius r of 0.7 of the element thickness f reduces X,, approximately 12%. For small radii the reduction is approximately ade Figure 4.10 Shape factor fora nonsymmetric reinforced circular hole.194 HOLES linearly proportional to the radius. Thus, for example, for r/h = 0.35, the reduetion is approximately 6% 4.3.11 Symmetrically Reinforced Circular Hole in a Biaxially Stressed Wide, Thin Element Pressure vessels, turbine casings, deep sea vessels, aerospace devices, and other structures subjected to pressure require perforation of the shell by holes for introduction of control mechanisms, windows, access to personnel, and so on, Although these designs involve complicating factors such as vessel curvature and closure details, some guidance can be obtained from the work on flat elements, especially for small openings, including those for leads and rods. ‘The state of stress in a pressurized thin spherical shell is biaxial, 7) = 0. Fora circular hole in a biaxially stressed thin element with a, = o>, from Eqs. (4.17) or (4.18), Ky = 2. The stress state in a pressurized cylindrical shell is 2 = «7/2, where a; is the hoop stress and o> is the longitudinal (axial) stress, For the corresponding flat panel, K, = 2.5 | 4.18, with a = 0/0, = 1/2). By proper reinforcement design, these factors can be reduced to 1, with a resultant large gain in strength. It has long been the practice to reinforce holes, but design information for achieving a specific K value, and in an optimum way, has not been available, “The reinforcement considered here is a ring type of rectangular cross section, symmet- rically disposed on both sides of the panel (Chart 4.13). The results are for flat elements and applicable for pressure vessels only when the diameter of the hole is small compared to the vessel diameter. The data should be useful in optimization over fairly wide practical range. A considerable number of theoretical analyses have been made (Gurney 1938; Beskin 1944; Levy et al. 1948; Reissner and Morduchow 1949; Wells 1950; Mansfield 1953; Hicks 1957; Wittrick 1959a; Savin 1961; Houghton and Rothwell 1961; Davies 1967). In most of the analyses it has been assumed that the edge of the hole, in an infinite sheet, is reinforced by a “compact” rim (one whose round or square eross-sectional dimensions are small compared to the diameter of the hole). Some of the analyses (Gurney 1938: Beskin 1944; Davies 1967) do not assume a compact rim. Most analyses are concerned with stresses in the sheet. Where the rim stresses are considered, they are assumed to be uniformly distributed in the thickness direction The curves in Chart 4.13 provide the stress concentration factors for circular holes with symmetrical reinforcement, This chart is based on the theoretical (analytical) derivation of Gurney (1938). The maximum stresses occur at the hole edge and at the element to reinforcement junction, Because of the complexity of the stress fields at the junction of the element and the reinforcement, the von Mises stress of Section 1.8 is used as the basis to define the stress concentration factor. Suppose that 0 and 2 represent the principal stresses in the clement remote from the hole and reinforcement. The corresponding von Mises (equivalent) stress is given by (Eq. 1.35) (Goon ao? Ga, = Vo} — oa + 03 (4.28) ‘The stress concentration fi ctors based on dag are defined asCIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 195, Kigg = Smet (4.29) Sey Fax Ken = (4.30) o where Ki is the stress concentration factor at the edge of the hole, and Key is the stress concentration factor at the junction of the clement and reinforcement The plots of Kj.y and Kj versus h,/h for various values of D/d are provided in Chart 4.13. For these curves, » = 0.25 and h, < (D — d). The highest equivalent stress. occurs at the edge of a hole for the case of low values of ft, /h. For high values of fy /A, the highest stress is located at the junction of the element and the reinforcement. Ifthe reinforcement and the element have different Young's moduli, introducea modulus- weighted h,/h (Pilkey 2005), that is, multiply h,/h by E,/E for use in entering the charts. The quantities E,and E are the Young's moduli of the reinforcement and the element materials, respectively, Example 4.3 Reinforced Circular Thin Element with In-Plane Loading A 10-mm- thick element has « 150-mm-diameter hole. It is reinforced symmetrically about the mi plune of the element with two 20-mm-thick circular rings of 300-mm outer diameter and 150-mm inner diameter. The stresses o, = 200 MN/m?, ay = 100 MN/m?, and Ty = 74.83 MN/in? are applied on this element as shown in Fig. 4.1. Find the equivalent stress at the edge of the hole and at the junction of the reinforcement and the element. For this element hy 2:20, D_ 300 ko 10d 150 If there were no hole, the principal stresses would be calculated as 1 1 ——______, ; 1 = 31200 + 100) + 5 (200 — 100)? + 4-74.83? = 240 MN/m? @ 1 1 se 2 2 = 31200 + 100) ~ 5/200 — 100)? + 4-74.83" = 60 MN/m* @ Ss 2 t < > t 2 re ALL Symmettically reinforced circular hole in infinite in-plane loaded thin element.196 HOLES The ratio of the principal stresses is 2/4 = 60/240 = 0.25, and from Eq. (4.28), the corresponding equivalent stress is, oq = VAD? = 240» 60 + 602 = 216.33 MN/m? 4 The stress concentration factors for this case cannot be ablained from the curves in Chart 4.13 directly. First, read the stress concentration faciors for DA = 2 and hy, fit = in Chart 4.13 to find wna a f2 a,- 0 0:7 -a/2 42> -0 Kua = Kup 118 133 16a 174 176 Kies = King 0.69 109 1.20 1.09 097 Use the table values and the Lagrangian S-point interpolation method (Kelly 1967) 10 find, for os/oy = 0.25, Kea = 118 61 Kea = 1.49 lent stresses oge = 149+ 216.33 = 322.33 MN/m* (61 Gaga = 1-18 216.33 = 255.27 MN/m? “The results of strain gaye tests made at NASA by Kaufman et al, (1962) on in-plane loaded flat elements with noncompact reinforced circular holex can be used for desige purposes. The diameter of the holes is eight times the thickness of the elemem. The connection between the panel andthe reinforcement included no fillet, The actual case, using fillet, would in some instances be more favorable. They found that the degree of agreement with the theoretical results of Beskin (1944) varied considerably with the variation of reinforcement parameters. Since in these strain gage tests the width of the element is 16 times the hole diameter, itean be assumed that for practical purposes an invariant condition corresponding to an infinite element has been attained, Since ne correction has been made for the seetion removal by the hole, Ky ~ Ginga /t is used Charts 4.14 10 4.17 are based on the strain gage results of Kaufman and developed in a form more suitable for the types of problem encountered in turbine and pressure vessel design, These show stress concentration factors for given D/d and h/h. ‘These charts involved interpolation in regions of spurse data. For this reason the charts are labeled ats giving approximate stress concentration values. Purther interpolation ean be used to obiain K,s values between the curves, Tn Charts 4.14 (0 4,19 the stress concentration factor Kiy — Gmc /e) bas been used instead of Ky, = Oman/Geq- The former is perhaps more suitable where the designer wishes to obtain oy... as simply and directly as possible. Kor 7) = 03 the two factory are the same. For 03 = 01/2. Ke = 200K, 157K ye. In drawing Charts 4.14 to 4.17. ithas been assumed that as D/d is increased an invariant conditions approached where hy 7h = 2/Kyg foray = wy.he/ht = 2.5/ Ky for ers = o7,/2CIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 197, =D» ~ Unstressed thbddd oth Figure 4.12. ftvet of nate reinforcement Ithas also been assumted that for relatively sinall values of D/d, less than about 1.7, constant values of Ki ate reached as h /f is increased: that is. the outermost part of the reinforcement in the thickness direction becomes stress free dead photoelastically) (Fig. 4.12), Charts 4.14 to 4.17 are plotted in terms of two ratios defining the reinforcement propor- tions D/d and 4,/h, When these ratios are not much greater than 1.0, the stress in the rim: of the reinforcement exceeds the stress in the element, The basis for this conclusion can be ‘observed in the chants. To the left of and below the dashed line Rig = 1, Kig is greater than 1. so the maximum stress in the rim is highcr than in the clement, When the ratios are large, the reverse is true. Also note in Chants 4.14 to 4.17 the crossver, or limit, Tine (deed Tine denoted Kj, = 1) dividing the wo regions. Beyond the line (Loward (he upper right) the maximum stress in the reinforcement is approximately equal to the applied nominal stress, Kye = 1. Inthe other direction (toward the lower left) he maximum stress is in the rim, with Kye increusing from approximately 1 at the crossover line to a maximum (2 for oy = and 2.5 for a = «7 /2) at the origin, It is useful w consider that the left-hand and lower straight Tine edges of the diagrams (Charts 4,14 10 4.7} also represent the above maximum conditions. Then one can readily interpolate an intermediate curve, as for Kye = 1.9 in Charts 4.14 and 4.15 oF Kye = 2.3 in Charts 4.16 and 4.17, The reinforcement variables D/d and h,/A van be used to form two dimensionless ratios ional area of added reinforeement materialfeross-sectional area of ALMbul) = cross the hole, (WD dh, ~ h) eG) aap198 HOLES Ve/Vi = volume of added reinforcement material/volume of hole, Ve _ (#/4XD? = d?y(h, =) _ [| (D\? _ hy Va Ca/DEh “Ha) lao! 432) ‘The ratio F = A/(ud) is used in pressure vessel design in the form (ASME 1974) A= Fhd (433) where F = 1. Then Eq. (4.33) becomes (4.34) Although for certain specified conditions (ASME 1974) F may be less than 1, usually F = 1. The ratio Ve/Vr is useful in arriving at optimum designs where weight is a consideration (aerospace devices, deep sea vehicles, e Tn Charts 4.14 and 4.16 a family of A/hd curves has been drawn, and in Charts 4.15 and 4.17 a family of Ve/Vir curves has been drawn, each pair foro = 02 and oy = 04/2 stress states. Note that there are locations of tangency between the A/(hd) or Ve/Vi curves and the K,, curves. These locations represent optimum design conditions, that is, for any given value of K;, a location is the minimum cross-sectional area or weight of reinforcement. The dot-dash curves, labeled “locus of minimum,” provide the full range optimum conditions, For example, for K,, = 1.5 in Chart 4.15, the minimum Ve/Vq oceurs a the point where the dashed line (Ky, = 1.5) and the solid line (Va/Vq) are tangent. This, occurs at (D/d, Iy/h) = (1.55, 1.38). The corresponding value of Ve/Vi is 1/2. Any other point corresponds to larger Ki, or Va/Vy. It is clear that K,, does not depend solely on the reinforcement area A (as assumed in a number of analyses) but also on the shape (rectangular cross-sectional proportions) of the reinforcement. In Charts 4,18 and 4.19 the K,, values corresponding to the dot-dash locus curves are presented in terms of A/(/id) and Vg/Vi,. Note that the largest gains in reducing Ki are made at relatively small reinforcements and that to reduce Ky, from, say, 1.2 to 1.0 requires arelatively large volume of material. The pressure vessel codes (ASME 1974) formula (Eq. 4.34) may be compared with the values of Charts 4.14 and 4.16, which are for symmetrical reinforcements of a circular hole ina flat element, Por 6) = 0 (Chart 4,14) a value of Kye of approximately 1 is attained at AMMhd) = 1.6. For oy = 71/2 (Chart 4.16) a value of Ky of approximately 1 is attained at A/hd a bit higher than 3. It must be borne in mind that the tests (Kaufman et al. 1962) were for d/h = 8. For pressure vessels d/f may be less than 8, and for aircraft windows d/h is greater than 8, If d/h is greater than &, the stress distribution would not be expected to change markedly; furthermore the change would be toward a more favorable distribution However, for a markedly smaller d/h ratio, the optimal proportions corresponding to d/h = 8 are not satisfactory. To illustrate, Fig. 4.130 shows the approximately optimum proportions h,/h = 3, D/d = 1.8 from Chart 4.14 where d/h = 8. If we now consider a case where d/h = 4 (Fig. 4.13), we see that the previous proportions h,/h = 3, D/d = 1.8, are unsatisfactory for spreading the stress in the thickness direction. As an interim procedure, for 0, = a» it is suggested that the optimum h,/h value be found fromCIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 199, nik i fn cn ay Figure 4.13 Effects of different d/t eatin: (ai d/h = 8:00) fit = 4, Chast 4.14 of 4.16 and D/d then be determined in such a way that the same reinforcement shape factor (DB ~ d)/21/Ith, ~ n/2] is maintained. For 7 the stress pattern is ymnmetrical. with the principal stresses in radial and tangential (circular) directions, From Chart 4.14, for a) = 3, the optimum proportions for Kyg ~ | are appro» D/d = 1.8 and iy/h = 3, The reinforcement shape factor is ately _ (B= d2 _ [w/d)— Nd OG WA” Tein (4.359 For D/d and df = 8 the shape factor C, is equal to 3.2. For or suggested tentative reinforcement proportions for ¢/h values less than 8, whieh is the basis of Charts 4.14 to 4.17. are found as follows: (4.36) D_ Gilti./n= 1 po at! an Substitute hy /i: = 3 imo Eq, (4.37), retaining the shape factor of Cy = 3.2.40 find D o4 Goat! (4.38) For d/h = 4, Eq, (4.38) reduces to D/d = 2.6 as shown by the dashed line in Fig. For 0: = 0/2 and d/h < 8, itis suggested as an interim procedure that the shape factor Cy = (9/2)/(h, — ft) of Eq, (4.27) for d/h = 8 be maintained for the smaller values. of d/h (sce Eq tension): da Old a OO a Aaym Gh Gay For D/d = 1.75,h,fh = D/d can be obtained fron Ea, ¢ ndd/h = 8, C, = 1.75. Ford/h less than 8 and fy, /ht = 5, L329}: oe 4.40)200° HOLES ‘The foregoing formmlas are based on Ky ~ 1. Ifa higher value of Ky is used, for example, to obtain a more favorable Ve/Vir ratio (ie. less weight). the same procedure may be followed to obtain the corresponding shape factors. Example 4.4 Weight Optimization through Adjustment of Kye Consider an example of a design tradz-olf. Suppose for o> — 0/2, the rather high reinforcement thickness ratio of hy/t = Sis reduced (0 f,/h = 4, We see from Chart 4.16 that the Kye factor increases from about 1.0 to only 1.17. Also from Chart 4.19 the volume of reinforcement material is reduced 33% (Vp/¥y 0f 8.4 to 5.55}. ‘The general formula for this example, based on Eq. (4.39), for hy /h = 4 and d/h <8 is D _ 2S) — Z ah 77) a Similarly for oy = 7. if we accept Ky = 1. we see from the locus of minimum A/(id), Chart 4.14, that 4,/h = 22 and D/d = 1.78. From Chart 4.19 the volume of reinforcement material is reduced 41% (Vp/Viy of 4.4 to 2.6). ‘The yeneral formula for this example, based on Eq. (4.37), for d/ii values less than 8 is a BI ‘The foregoing procedure may add more weight than is necessary for cases where d/h < but from a stress standpoint, the procedure would be on the safe side. The same procedure applied to d/h values larger than 8 would go in the direction of lighter, more “compact” reinforcements. However, owing to the planar extent of the stress distribution around the hole. it is not recommended to extend the procedure (o relatively thin sheets, d/A > 50, such as in an airplane structure. Consult Gurney (1938), Beskin (1944), Levy et al. (1948), Reissner and Morduchow (1949), Wells (1950), Mansfield (1953), Hicks (1987), Wittrick (1959a,b). Savin (1961), Houghton and Rothwell (1961), and Davies (1967). Where weight is important, some further reinforcements may he worth considering. Duc to the nature of stress-flow Lines, the outer comer region is unstressed (Fig. 4.14a). An ideal contour would be similar to Fig. 4.146, Kanfiman et al, (1962) studied a reinforcement of triangular cross section, Fig, 4.14¢ The angular edge at A may not be practical, since a lid or other member often is used. A compromise shape may be considered (Fg, 4. ld). Dhir and Brock (1970) present results for a shape like Fig. 4.14¢ and point out the large savings of weight that is attained. ‘Studies of a “neutral hole.” that is, a hole that does not create stress concentration (Manstield 1953), and of a variation of shect thickness that results in uniform hoop stress for a circular hole in a biaxial stressed sheet (Mansfield 1970) ure worthy of further consideration for certuin design applications (ie., molded parts).CIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 201 a a ——T7 | —_— T TT TL TF abi ah Figure 4.14 Reinforcement shape optimal design based on weight. 4.3.12. Circular Hole with Internal Pressure As illustrated in Example 1.7, the stress concentration factor of an infinite element with a circular hole with internal pressure (Fig. 4.15) may be obtained through superposition of the solutions for the cases of Fig. 1.28 and e, At the edge of the hole, this superposition provides = Ont Oe oy = om + om =p aly Tra = Tra + Tae = so that the corresponding stress concentration factor is Ky = to/p = 1. The case of a square panel with a pressurized central circular hole could be useful as a cross seetion of u construction conduit. The K, = tyx/p factors (Durelli and Kobayashi 1958; Riley etal, 1959) are given in Chart 4.20. Note thal for the thinner walls (a/e > 0.67, the maximum stress occurs on the outside edge at the thinnest section (point A), For the thicker wall (a/e < 0.67). the maximum stress occurs on the bole edge at the diagonal location (point B). As a mutter of interest the K, based on the Lamé solution (Timoshenko and Goodier 1970) is shown, although for a/e > 0.67. These are not the miximwm values. A check at /e values of 1/4 and 1/2 with theoretical factors (Sekiya 1953) shows good agreemem. Figure 4.15 Infinite clement sith a hole with internal pressure.202 HOLES An analysis (Davies 1965} covering a wide w/e range is in good agreement with Chart 4.20. By plouing (&; - 110 = a/e)/Aa/e) versus a/e, linear relations are obtained for small and large a/e values, Extrapolation is made to (K; — IML - afe)/(afe) = 2 at afe — 1,asindicaed by an analysis by Koiter (1957) and to 0 for a/e > 0. The upper curve (maximum) values of Chart 4.20 are in reasonably good agreement with other recently calculated values (Slot 1972). For a pressurized circular hole near a comer of a large squate panel (Durelli and Kobayashi 1958), the maximum K, values are quite close to the values for the square panel with a central hole. For the hexagonal panel with a pressurized central circular hole (Slot 1972). the K, es are somewhat lower than the corresponding values af the upper curve of Chart 4.20, with 2a dofined as the width across the sides of the hexagon. For other cases involving a pressurized hole, see Sections 4.3.19 and 4.4.5. For an eccentrically located hole in a circular panel, see Table 4.2 (Section 4.3.19) and Charts 4.48 and 4.49. 4.313 Two Circular Holes of Equal Diameter In a Thin Element Uniaxial Tension or Biaxial In-Plane Stresses: Consider stress concentration factors for de case of wo equi holes in a thin element subjected to uniaxial tension o. Consider firs! the case where ihe holes tie along a line that is perpendicular to the direction of stress @, 3s shown in Fig, 4.16. In general, from the conclusions for a single hole (Seetion 4.3.3), the stress concentration at point B will be rather high if the distance between the two holes is relatively small. Chart 4.214 shows this characteristiv for i finite-width panel, Stress concentrations for an infinite thin element are provided in Chart 4.216. In this case. when / > 6a. the influence between the two holes will be weak. Then itis reasonable to adopt the results for a single hole with K, = 3. If the holes lie along a Fine that is parallel to the stress o-. as shown in Fig. 4.7, the situation is different. As discussed in Section 4.3.1, for a single hole. the maximum stress occurs at point A and decreases very rapidly in the direction parallel 10 o” (Fig. 4.4), For two holes there is some influence berween the nwo locations 4 if 7 is small, The stress distribution for oy tends to become uniform more rapidly than in the case of a single hole. The stress concentration factoris less than 3, However, as linereases, the infinence between the two holes decreases. so X, increases. AUthe location = 10a. K, = 2.98, which is quite Figure 4.16 Two circular hotes of equal diameter, aligned on a Tine perpendicular to the direction of stressCIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 203, Figure 4.17 Two circular hotes of equal dismeter. aligned along a close to the suess concentrution factor of the single-hole case and iy consistent with the distribution of Fig. 4.4, Several stress concentration factors for two equal circular holes are presented in Charts 4.21 to 4.25. Wit is assumed that section B-B of Chart 4.216 carries a load correspon dislance between center lines. we obtain Swarell ~ d/l) King — aan This corresponds to the Hight Kj Hines of Charts 4.21) and 4.24. [twill be noted that near t/a = A, the factor becomes Jow in value (ess than | for the biaxial case). Uf the same basis is used as for Eq. (4.11) i.e.. actual load carried by minimum section), the heavy Krag curves of Charts 4.21 and 4.24 sre obtained, For this case = Fact = d/l) Kit = (4.43) Note that Kye in Charis 4.216 and 4.24 approaches 1.0 as {/d approaches 1.0, the clement tending to become, in effect. a uniformly steessed tension member. A photoelastic test by North (1965) of a panel with nwo hotes having 1/d = 1.055 and uniaxially stressed Iransverse to the axis of the holes showed nearly uniform stress ia the ligament. In Chart 4.22, mo i8 located at 8 = 90" for 1/d = 0, 0 = 844° for /d = 1. and 0 approaches 90° as [/d increases. In Chart 4.23, gins Tor a = 0° is same as in Chart 4,22 (8 — 84.4" for t/t = 1.055, 0 — 89.8" for U/d = 6); Gm for ae = 45° is located at @ = 171.8" ati/d = 1.058 and deereases toward 135° with increasing values of ?/d: Gas for a = 90° is located at @ = 180° Numerical determination of K, (Christiansen [968) for a biaxially stressed plate with two circular holes with [/ = ? is in good agreement with the corresponding values ai Ling (19484) and Haddon (1967), For the more general case of a biaxially stressed plate in which the center line of ewo holes is inclined 0°, 15". 30°, 45%, 60°, 75°. 90°. to the stress direction, the stress concentration factors are given in Chart 4.25 (Haddon 1967). These curves represent the relation between K, and @/I for various values of the principal stress ratio oF; /of3, IL is assumed that dhe or and ery are uniform in the area Far from the holes. If the minimum distance between an element edge and the center of either hole is greater than 4a, these curves can he used without significant error. There are discontinuities in the slopes of some of the curves in Chart 4.25, which correspond to sudden changes in the positions of the maximum (or minimum) stress.204 HOLES Example 4.5 Flat Element with Two Equal-Siced Holes under Biaxial Stresses Sup- pose that thin flat clement with two 0,5-in. radius holesis subjected to uniformly distributed stresses 0 = 3180 psi vy = — 1020 psi, Zr = 3637 psi. along the straight edges far fram the holes as shown in Fig. 4, (8u. If the distance berween the centers af the holes is 1.15 in., find the maximum stresses at the edges af the holes For an area far from the boles, resolution of the applied stresses gives the principal stresses, a= 5280 psi a -i ! P+ Ah, — -3120 psi 2 a5 ZY (oe — oF + Arh, ~ 3120 psi 21 The angle #, between w, and the principal stress 1 is given by (Pilkey 2008) ay tan 26, 7 5 L732 8) a. 4 30° @ ‘This problem can now be considered as a problem of finding the masimuay stress of a Hat clement under biaxial tensile stresses @, and @2, where @, forms a 30° angle with the line conuceting the hole conters (Fig. 4.185). Chart 4.25 applies ta this case. We need ay _ -3120 2. SS = -os91 o 3280 ° 5) a 05 8 MO Los 7 agg 708s 6) a oy Figure 4.18 Two holes in an i finite panel subject to combined stresses,CIRCULAR HOLES WITH IN-PLANE STRESSES 205, Acan be found from Chart 4.25e that when the abscissa value u/? = 0.435, Ky = 4.12 and ~5.18 for oso) = —0.8. and Ky = 4.45 and ~6.30 for oy/e, ~ —0.75. The stress concentration factors for o2/a1 = -0.591 can be obtained through interpolation K,=424 and - 5.58 o The extreme stresses at the edges of the holes are = @ Fons 4,24 +5280 = 22,390 psi Cension) 3.58 + 5280 — -29,500 psi (compression) where 7 = 5280 psi is the nominal stress. Example 4.6 Two Equat-Siced Holes Lying at an Angle in a Flat Element under Biaxial Stresses Figure 4.190 shows a segment of a flat thin clement containing wo holes of 10-mni diameter, Find the extreme stresses near the holes, ‘The principal stresses arc (Pilkey 2005) 1 lee ours hon te 5 yilon ~ oy + ar}, = 382,28. MPa w and occur at -a @ (sce Fig. 4.196), Use Chant 4.25 w find the extreme stresses, In this chart + 1da® = 50d" ol Since Chart 4.25 applies only for angles # = 0, 15°. 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, and 90°, the stress concentration factors for @ = 60° can be considered to be adequate approximations, Alternatively. use lincar interpolation. This leads to, for a/1 ~ 3/115 ~ 0.435 and o3/a, = S8.5/—80.5) = —0,702. K,/=69 and 37 (4 ‘Thus 80.5 6.9 = —263.9 MPa Fins = OKs ( —80.5 X (-3.7) = 141.5 MPa are the extreme stresses occur at each hole boundary. 4.3.14 Two Circular Holes of Unequal Diameter in a Thin Element in Uniaxial Tension or Biaxial In-Plane Stresses Stress concentration factors have been developed for wwe circular holes of unequal diam- eters in panels in uniaxial and biaxial tension, Values for Xj for uniaxial tension in an206 HOLES rT 4 6, 24 MPa fa) Lid LLL wenn ed stresses. used in wed by Haddon (1967). His geometrical notatio Charts 4.26 and 4,27, since this is convenient in deriving expressions for Kin. For Chart 4.26, to obtain Ky, exactly, one must know the exact loading of the ligament between the holes in tension and bending and the relative magnitudes of these loadings. For two equal holes the loading is tensile, but its relative magnitude is not known. In the infinite element have been obt