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Acknowledgments

With the grace of ALLAH ALMIGHTY, I have completed my training in Pakistan

Accumulators (Pvt) Ltd Hattar. During my training I have learned a lot of things and Number of
individuals has assisted me in completing my training and now putting up my report to my
respected managers. In particular, quality manager SIR SHAHID and D.Ms Quality have
helped me to complete my training in an effective manner. I am really grateful to them for
helping me by providing every assistance regarding to the training and moral support as well.
Also I would like say special thanks to SIR IFTIKHAR, GM MFG, whose encouragement and
advises have helped me a lot during my training.

Also special thanx to GM Production, who in first meeting told me the key points and
ambition of my training which was also very helpful to me.

Thanks are also to every AM, DM, SUPERVISOR, and OPERATOR. They all have helped me in
there immediate response to my questions .And also tell me the basics of their respective fields.

In the end, I want to say that it was really a great experience, learning new things in a practical
manner. And I am very thankful to PAL for giving me such a chance.

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Abstract

The lead-acid battery is the most widely used battery in the world. The most common is the SLI
battery used for motor vehicles for engine Starting, vehicle Lighting, and engine Ignition,
however, it has many other applications (such as communications devices, emergency lighting
systems, and power tools) due to its cheapness and good performance.

It was first developed in 1860 by Raymond Gaston. Strips of lead foil with coarse cloth in
between were rolled into a spiral and immersed in a 10% solution of sulphuric acid. The cell was
further developed by initially coating the lead with oxides, then by forming plates of lead oxide
by coating an oxide paste onto grids. The electrodes were also changed to a tubular design.

Lead Acid Storage Battery is reservoir of storing current. The main purpose of the battery
is to supply D.C power to electrical & electronic equipment. The battery consists of Positive
Plates, Negative Plates, Separator, Container, Cover of Container, Vent Plugs and Electrolyte.
In a fully-charged battery, the positive plate consists of lead peroxide (PbO 2), which is also called
lead dioxide. The negative plate is composed of lead. The electrolyte solution is sulfuric acid
diluted with water.
When an electrical load is placed on a battery, a chemical reaction takes place. The sulfate
molecules in the electrolyte break off and attach themselves to the negative plates and positive
plates. At the same time oxygen atoms from the lead peroxide from positive plates go into the
electrolyte solution to join with hydrogen atoms forming water. The sulfated molecules move to
the plates and oxygen atoms move to the solution release energy. This is call discharge cycle.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter no Chapter Page no
1 Alloy blending 3
2 Grid casting 7
3 Oxide mill 9
4 Pasting and curing 12
5 Formation and 14
washing
6 Drying and 15
Cutting
7 Separators 17
8 Assembly 19
9 Manufacture free 20
battery
10 Battery defects 23

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CHAPTER01
Alloy blending:
Blending:
It is a process of combining materials, blending is the process of solid-solid mixing or mixing of
bulk solids with small quantity of liquid.

Blending Facility:
The alloy blending department is responsible to provide required amount of different lead alloys
used in battery manufacturing process at PAL. To fulfill this requirement is equipped with thirteen
furnaces of different capacities.

The types of lead alloys which are prepared in alloy blending are under:

1. Pure Lead (99.97%).

2. Lead Calcium Alloy.

3. Antimonial Alloy.

i. ) 3 % Sb alloy

ii. ) 4 % Sb alloy

iii. ) 6% or Master Alloy

Alloy casting is workshop, where soft lead having 99.97% pure & reclaim lead having Sb>=1 %
is melted in different furnaces. This lead is used in different size of parts/grids, which is used in
manufacturing of dry charged & Maintenance Free Batteries.

Lead is element having density 11.34 g·cm−3, liquid density at M.P. 10.66 g·cm−3 , melting
point 327.46 °C. There are 16 elements which are found in lead as an impurity like (Cu, Ag, Bi,
Te, Na, Al, Si etc). For eliminating these impurities chemical blending is performed.

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Main components in alloys of different types are:

3% Antimonial Lead

Elements %age

Antimony 2.75- 2.85

Arsenic .21- .26

Tin .1- .14

Copper .025- .05

4% Antimonial Lead

Elements %age

Antimony 3.5- 3.75

Arsenic .01

Tin .15

Copper .005
6% Calcium Lead alloy

Elements %age

Calcium .10- 0.11

Arsenic .001

Tin .3-. 5

Copper .001

Purposes of the above contents in lead alloy:

 Antimony:

M.P of antimony = 6310C

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M.P of Lead = 3270C

M.P of Alloy = 285oC

So, good quality grids can be made at low temp.

 Arsenic:

Have property of hardening lead, also improve corrosion resistance of +ive by 30%.

 Tin:

Two reasons of using tin are:

I. It makes alloy flow better.

II. Helps to improve dry charge characteristics of plates in finished batteries.

 Copper:

In small amount it improves blending and casting but in large amount it effect the battery
performance by plating on negative.

Process

Pure lead is used in powder for pasting process on grids. Antimony (Sb) is added in Pb to
improve its strength & hardness as in first, lead is in soft form. 03 % Antimonial alloy used for
grid casting & 04 % Antimonial alloy is used for making small parts (inter connected cell, Poles,

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and Bushes etc). Master alloy is an alloy of antimony, arsenic with lead. Sb in master alloy is 6
%; this alloy is used as anti corrosion.

For eliminating impurities from lead, first of all lead is melted in the furnaces at a temperature of
450 Ċ. There are 06 furnaces operational in workshop having capacity of 14, 10, 15, 5, 5, 15
Metric Tons. When the lead is melted, dross on the top of lead is removed. Then sample of Pb is
checked in PDA spectrometer to check % of elements available in lead. NaOH is used with
mixture of NaNO3 in different proportions depending upon % of pure lead. NaNO 3 acts as a
drying agent for easy removal of slurries. For Antimonial alloys, % of Sb is measured through
PDA and hence, further quantity of Sb is calculated for making it in desired proportion. Cu is
such an element which only can be removed with Sulphur. Ca alloy (0.12 % Ca & 0.3 % Sn) is
also prepared for casting of grids which are used in manufacturing of MF Batteries.

CHAPTER02
Grid Casting
Grids are used in batteries for manufacturing of plates including +ive & -ive. Different
types of grids produced for different type of batteries having different thickness & weight for

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different battery. For casting of these grids, 03 % Sb alloy is used. 24 grid casting machine
(02 for Calcium grids) are operational in workshop. Each machine has a capacity of 10,000/day.

Process

Alloy lead melted at 400Ċ in furnace and alloy is injected in molds of grids, resulting
formation of grid in hard form. After set time grids are dropped in tray and extra parts are
removed. Cork spray is used to prevent solidification of grids in the mold and easy removal of
grids. It is made of Cork spray; water CMC (Corboxy Methyl Cellos). Name of different grids
are (F-1.2, F-1.8, X-1.6, X-3.5 etc).

Grids Functions

i. To serve as support for active materials.

ii. To conduct the electrical current.

iii. To uniform current distribution through the mass of active materials.

Quality checks

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i. Quality wise grids should be dimensionally correct, weight correct and achieving correct
electrical performance.

ii. Free from cracks.

iii. Free from excess feathers, which prevent the passing of paint through under side.

CHAPTER 03
OXIDE MILLS
Oxide mills are used to produce lead oxide from pure lead i. e 99.97% lead.

Lead Oxide
Process

99.97% pure lead is molten in furnace at a temperature of 400 Ċ, from molten lead small
bullets of lead having weight of 45 and 90 grams are casted on bullet casting machine. Inner
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temperature of bullet casting machine is maintained below 40 Ċ. Bullets casted are send to Silo
through conveyor belt for storage. When required bullets are send to Mill drum. From the inlet of
the balls air is also sucked due to vacuum inside. There are 03 mill drums are operational in
workshop having capacity of 08, 08 &14 Metric tons. When these bullets are crushed due
excessive heat is converted into lead oxide. After this, powder is sucked through blower; flow of
lead oxide into atmosphere is restricted through Air bags. There are 64, 64 & 144 air bags on
each filter bag house. By suction of air, PbO is stickled with air bags so compress air is filled in
bags with the help of compressor. By expansion of bags, PbO is laid down. There F.L.C (Free
lead contents) to be checked which should be in limit of 28±3. When lead oxide is met with
standards, it is transfer through conveyer belt in pasting section.

Quality checks are

i. FLC 28 ±3

ii. Water absorption should be greater than 11 ml/100 gm of lead oxide.

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Raw materials and parameters:

 Air:

There is no blower in mill but draws air by exhaust fan hence operation occur under negative
pressure to atm. So harmful Pbo don’t escape from process.

i. It provide oxygen for oxidation.

ii. Also to carry oxides from oxide mill.

iii. Also provide some cooling.

 Temperature:

Heat is generated by the reaction, heat by friction also. While its important to provide heat
initially to start the reaction.

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Quality Standards:

i. Raw material:

Only pure lead must be used, exact specifications depend on the use of oxides.

ii. Particle size:

Variation in size will effect the processing and also the electrical performance of the battery, fines
will give better performance.

iii. Oxidation Level:

Variations in Pbo contents will arise the processing problems.

iv. Water Absorption:

Correct value of water absorption is important to ensure good paste mixing.

CHAPTER 04
Pasting & Curing Process
i. Oxides and additives are dry mixed.
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ii. Water is added and mixed for a short time.

iii. Sulphuric acid is added

iv. After further mixing paste will be ready to use.

The main reaction which occur here is:

Pbo + H2So4  PbSo4 + H2O + heat^

Paste is composed of different type of chemicals for storing & generating electricity in
battery. Paste is made of lead oxide, lead and some additive. One is called +ve paste & other
–ve paste. 02 pasting machines having maximum capacity of 100,000/day.

Process

Water additives are added in mixer for 2 minutes. In last Sulphuric acid is mixed. After mixing,
grids are pasted thickness & weight is controlled according to specifications. After this, plated
are passed from F.D.O (Flush Drying Oven), where its moisture is controlled to acceptable level
7-10 %. After F.D.O, if paste on plate is not according to standards, rejected and grids are used as
re-claim lead. Pasted plates are place in curing chamber for 28 hours. Curing process hardens
paste strength, moisture control & reduction of free lead.

Material Positive Negative

Lead oxide (kg) 700 700

C.M.C (gm) 700 (0.1%) 0

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Prima Flock (gm) 420 (0.06%) 280(0.04%)

Magnesium Sulphate (kg) 1.05(0.15%) 0

Barium Sulphate (kg) 0 7.0(1.0%)

Carbon Black (gm) 0 1150 (0.16%)

Indulin C (gm) 0 2100(0.3%)

Steric acid(gm) 0 1050(0.15%)

Oil (lit) 0 3.0(0.42%)

Sulphuric acid (LTR) 55 (11.0%)(77kg) 50(70kg) (10.0%)

Water(LTR) 96 (13.71%) 87(12.42%)

Table 4.1: Paste Mixing Formulae

Quality checks are

i. Density of +ve paste should be 3.9-4.05 gm/cc

ii. Density of negative paste should be 4.01 to 4.15 gm/cc

iii. Lead powder temperature should be less than 45 C

iv. Paste temperature should be less than 60 C

v. Double feeding, missing & mishandling should be avoided

CHAPTER 05

Formation & Washing

Formation of pasted plates in done so that finished batteries can be charged in short time.
During formation process DC of desired ampere in supplied to plates in acidic medium for 20-22
HRS. Sulphuric acid having Sp gravity of 1.04 is used in this medium. During this process
positive plates are converted into PbO2 and negative plate into spongy lead.

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Process

After pasting and curing the active of both positive and negative plates contain Pbos, lead
sulphates, some residual lead and moisture with relative additives.

During formation plates are electrochemically formed, ie paste converted to active materials.
Plates immersed in dil sulphuric acid and D.C current passed, converting –ive paste to highly
spongy lead and +ive to highly porous lead oxide.

The electrochemical conversion of dried aged active material to lead and lead oxide is:

3Pbo . PbSO4 . 1.5 H2O + PbO + Pb - PbO2 + Pb + H2SO4

First of all positive plates are placed in the tank and than –ve plates in a tank. Than acid
solution is put into the tank. Plate’s remains in solution for 1 hour, this process is called socking.
Then charge is supplied for 20 hours for different types of plates according to weight of positive
plates. After charging –ve plates are removed first and than +ve plates. Plates are washed in
water till its PH is brought up to 5-6. After this –ve plates are kept in water to prevent oxidation.

CHAPTER06
Drying & Cutting
Plates are dried to remove moisture and than sent to cutting section. For drying +ive
plates TDO (Tunnel Drying Oven) is used while for _ive Plates I.G.O (Inert Gas Oven). Positive
Plates are placed in TDO at a temp of 200C. Final moisture is checked if is according to required
Specifications (0.5 %) send for cutting. 02 TDO are operational in workshop having capacity of
2800 Panels/HR. Negative plates dried in I.G.O for 2 HRS at a temperature of 150 Ċ. PbO is
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checked if <05 % sent for cutting. There are 04 IGO operational in shop having capacity of
2000/2 HRS.Its final stage for processing dry charged plates, and it have a lot of effect on the
performance of the battery and its storage characteristics.

 Positive plates drying:

Major requirement for drying +ive plates is speed, if its too slow drying, an over thick resistance
layer built between paste and grids.This layer is formed by reaction of lead dioxide of active and
lead of grit metal and reaction increases in water presence. It reduces battery performance when
filled with acid.

High drying temp also increases the thickness of this layer.

One coplecation in drying is the sp.gr of electrolyte, if its more than 1.04 oven drying will not be
effective, so plates in such conditions should be washed before drying.

 Negative plates drying:

Pure lead react with oxygen of atm to form lead oxide, and a lot of heat will be evolved which
will be sufficient to melt the grid. So the over effect of negative is to discharge the negative
plates.

To overcome this problem plates dried in an oven which reduces oxygen content of atm called
inert gas oven

Oxidation also occurs when pure lead is very hot so care must be taken when cooling plates after
drying.

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After drying plates are sent for cutting Section. Here, plates are cut from feet; lugs are brushed
and sent to assembly department.Quality checks in cutting section are:

i. Foot Miss cutting

ii. Uneven Brushing

iii. No Brushing

iv. Short Mold

v. Uneven Lug Cutting Height

CHAPTER07
Separator

Introduction

Separator is an important component in battery assembly; quality of battery performance also

depends on separator. It is used for separating +ve & -ve plates. Normally 3 types of separators
are formed.

i. PVC (Polyvalyne Chloride Chemical)

ii. Paper Glass Wool

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iii. P.E(Polythene Envelope)

Process

PVC is mixed with some water and put into sewing unit. This mixture is than passed
from Hoper; Hoper converts this mixture in the shape of separator on conveyor belt. Then it is
bring into electric oven at a temperature of 250 Ċ. At this temperature this powder is converted
into hard form. Next section is cooling; cool air is sucked through blower which lowers the
temperature of PVC. Manufacturing & assembling of separator is very important. Most of
battery failures are due to quality of separator, direct contact between positive & negative plates,
due to breakage of separator, misalignment, or shift of separator and hence cell short is reported
in a battery.

Quality checks are:

1. Separator should be of proper length & width

2. Should be free from any pin hole leakage

SEPARATOR

PVC SEPARATOR PAPER GLASS WOOL

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(SAMAD BOND)

PVC LOCAL BATTERIES

LOCAL MARKET PVC WITH GLASS

SALE WOOL

INSTITUTIONAL EXPORT
BATTERIES BATTERIES

Block diagram for Separator Manufacturing

CHAPTER08
Assembly
All related parts (ICC, Bushes, Plates, PVC, Containers etc) are brought to Assembly dept.
Battery parts is assembled and hence battery is ready for market. Assembly is the most important
& critical section in battery assembling because most of battery fault can occur due to
mishandling of parts or deficiency in quality control. So it is very important to manage complete
check & balance in assembling of battery.

Processes:

Different Processes are performed which are as follow

i. Stacking

ii. Separating

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iii. Box Making

iv. Group burning

v. Short Circuiting test(Lead Tear)

vi. I.C welding

vii. Shear testing

viii. Short circuiting test

ix. Heat Seal

x. Pole Making

xi. Leakage Test

xii. Pole Finishing

xiii. Marking/Stamping

xiv. Warranty Card/Packing

CHAPTER09
MF PLANT
Introduction
Maintenance Free Batteries formally known as MF Batteries are manufactured in MF
plant. These are called MF because it requires no maintenance or charging after supplying to
market. Calcium alloy is used in grids casting for MF batteries. Ca is used because it absorbs
exhaust gases due to reaction in battery and it also gives long service life to grids. The whole
manufacturing process is same as that of dry-charged batteries up till coding is marked.

Process

Ca is used in lead alloy in 0.12 % with Sn 0.3% for grids. Bullets are casted in bullet
casting machine and sent to oxide mill. In oxide mill, lead oxide in prepared. F.L.C should be
22 ±3. This lead oxide is mixed in mixing chamber. The paste is made in following composition.

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Material Positive Negative

Lead Oxide (kg) 700 700

C.M.C (gm) 700 0

barium Sulphate(kg) 0 4.22(0.6%)

Humic Acid(kg) 0 2.52(0.36%)

Acetylene Black(kg) 0 1.4(0.2%)

Lignin(kg) 0 1.68(0.24%)

Magnesium Sulphate(kg) 1.05(0.15%) 0

Cut Fiber(gm) 490(0.07%) 490(0.07%)

Water (LTR) 74(10.5%) ---84(12%) 74(10.5%) -- 84(12%)

35(5.0%) 49.0 kg 42(6.0%) 58.8 kg

Sulphuric acid (LTR)
(7.0%) (8.4%)

TABLE 9.1: MF paste mixing formulae

Quality checks are:

1. F.L.C should be 22 ±3

2. Paste density for +ve plate is b/w 4.05 to 4.15gm/cc & -ve plate 4.35 to 4.40gm/cc

3. Mixer temperature should be 50 Ċ to 60 Ċ

Plates than send to curing chamber, first of all moisture is created about 95 % for 16 HRS and
then it is dried for 12 HRS till required parameters are attained. After drying plate cutting is
performed & +ve plates are put into PE (Polythene Envelope). From this same process is
performed as that of dry-charged batteries. The whole process include

i. Grids Casting

ii. Oxide Mill Process

iii. Pasting Process

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iv. Curing & Drying

v. Cutting Process

vi. Enveloping

vii. Separating

viii. Stacking

ix. Group Making

x. Cell Insertion

xi. Short Circuit Test

xii. I.C Welding

xiii. Shear Testing

xiv. Heat Seal(Primary)

xv. Leakage Test

xvi. Coding

After this Battery is sent in PAL-03 for filling, charging and for dispatch. First of All
battery is filled with chilled sulphuric acid (H 2SO4) having specific gravity of 1.225. Chilled acid
is used to maintain temperature of battery cells. Than batteries are placed in formation lines for
22 HRS for charging. Batteries are charged through rectifiers having input of 300 A and 400 V
(D.C) and there are 8 formation lines with different programming for different batteries. 5-6
steps are performed in charging of a battery i.e. (charged at 22 A for 1 HR, than at 40 A for 2
HRS, 1 HR rest, discharge for 1 HR, etc). When required charging is attained, acid is re-filled to
maintained level. Next processes are sealing, washing and drying. Finally HRD (High Rate
Discharge) test is performed. Desired ampere for each battery is supplied for 2 sec. If indication
is normal, battery is ready for sale. Whole process can be easily understood with the help of
block diagram.

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Chapter 10

Defects in Batteries
There are mainly 2 types of defects in batteries

1. Manufacturing defects

2. Non manufacturing defects

Manufacturing Defects
Manufacturing defects are internal troubles of battery and can be eliminated by the combined
efforts of production and quality assurance department. Manufacturing defects are the following.

Cell short due to

1. Feet bent

2. Plate bent

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3. Separator misalignment

4. Separator missing

5. Separator damage

6. Plate damage

7. Uneven feet

8. Lead tear

9. Extra paste

10. Over tight or loose groups

11. Plate hardness (Initially)

12. Short circuiting due to sediment of active materials

Indication of Trouble

1. Cell voltage and Sp. Gravity are low in open circuit state as well as during charging

2. Sp. Gravity quickly drops when standing in storage in charged state.

Disconnection

1. Pole Disconnection
2. Inter cell weld disconnection
3. Group disconnection
4. Plate disconnection
5. Small part disconnection
Leakage

1. Top cover leak

2. Partition wall leak

3. Bush leak

Polarity

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1. Reverse layout

2. Reverse cell

Non Manufacturing Defects

These defects are mainly attributed to the dealers & the customers and can be minimized
by education, by imparting technical know how of the operation /service of the battery to the
customers. The following defects are not considered as manufacturing defects.

Sulfation

Basically this problem is occurring due to charging & discharging and sulphates transfer from
acid to plate & plate to acid. When sulphates cover the plate the active material pores of plate
decrease or almost clogged by which transfer of ions from plate to acid decrease then the specific
gravity become less the 1.1 thus Battery does not function properly.

Basically this problem faces by the deep discharge of the battery is due to the not properly
working of the UPS charging system. This problem is not a part of manufacturing defect.

i. This occurs due to not checking the specific gravity of battery periodically
ii. Insufficient charging by generator
iii. Lack of electrolyte (Not covering the top of plates)

Indication of Trouble

i. Plates are whitened

ii. Sp. gravity become lower
iii. Charging does not restore the battery

Corrosion of Grids & Active Material

i. Over charging
ii. Very high specific gravity (above 1.280)
iii. Charging & discharging at high temperatures (over 50Ċ)
iv. Presence of impurities in the electrolyte (like iron cooper, etc)
v. Charging with excessive current

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vi. Reverse charging

vii. Deep discharging

Indication of Trouble

i. Positive plate’s grid becomes dark brown and brittle.

ii. Separator is carbonated

Conclusion
Battery is a product which is sold for certain period of warranty time and after this time it
has to be expired. The customer’s requires proper education as it is consider being an electronic
product and has long service life as T.V, Refrigerator, Cell phones, etc. But they are unaware of
the fact that if battery handled with care, it also gives good service life. It is impossible to bring
battery’s defects to 0 % but can be minimize to acceptable limit with joint co-operation of
production department, quality control, dealer’s & customer’s proper training and education.
Regarding my training, I have studied and visited each and every department of Factory. It was
good experience for me to learn and understand processes of battery manufacturing. I think that
there are certain areas where modifications and amendments can be implemented. Beside this,
PAL is good growing company & Pakistan No #01 battery manufacturer and provides equal
opportunities for all employees.

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