GHT S4 02 (M)

Exam Code : HTM4B

HISTORY OF EUROPE (1789-1878)

SEMESTER - IV

HISTORY
BLOCK - 1

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 1

Subject Expert
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2. Dr. Gajendra Adhikari, Principal, D.K.Girls’ College, Mirza
3. Dr. Maushumi Dutta Pathak, HOD, History, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati
Course Co-ordinator : Dr. Sukmaya Lama, Asst. Prof. (KKHSOU)
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UNITS CONTRIBUTORS
1 Biraj Jyoti Kalita (CKB College)
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Saurav Kr Rai, R/S (DU), Ibrahim H. Sheikh (Halakura College)
4 &5 Sukmaya Lama (KKHSOU)
6 Kangkana Borah (Handique Girls College)
7 Joyshree Das (Barnagar College)
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Content (English Version) : Biswajyoti Dev Mahanta, Pragjyotish College
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Language (English Version) : Dr Bhuban Chandra Talukdar,
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Structure, Format & Graphics : Dr. Sukmaya Lama, KKHSOU

December, 2018

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 BACHELOR OF ARTS
HISTORY OF EUROPE (1789-1878)
DETAILED SYLLABUS

BLOCK - 1
PAGES

UNIT 1 : Age of Enlightenment

Concept and Meaning, Contribution, Its impact

UNIT 2 : Europe and French Revolution

Europe on the eve of French Revolution, French Revolution;
Causes: Nature, Contribution, Response and Reactions to the
French Revolution

UNIT 3 : France: From Republican Rule to Dictatorship

Responses to the Constitutional Monarchy, Anarchy in France,
National Convention, Reign of Terror, The Directory

UNIT 4 : Era of Napoleon

Coup d’etat of 1799, Reforms of Napoleon as the first Consul,
Territorial Expansion, Continental System, Fall of Napoleon

UNIT 5 : Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna

The European Confederation, The Holy Alliance, The Quadruple
Alliance, Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of Vienna;
Provisions: Signifiicance

UNIT 6 : Unification of Germany and Italy

Metternich and his policies, the Germanic Confederation, The
Frankfort Assembly of 1848, Bismarck and modern Germany,
Vienna Congress and Italy, Carbonari, Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi

UNIT 7 : Russian Reform Movement (1815)

Russia in 1815, Alexander II and his reforms

COURSE INTRODUCTION :

This Course is meant for the Fourth semester students of History of BA programme under the
revised semester system of Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University. The course is titled
History of Europe (1789-1878). This paper will discuss the history of Modern Europe since the
Enlightenment era till the rise of Liberalism. The course consists of fifteen units.

BLOCK INTRODUCTION
This is the first block of the course and it consists of seven Units. The Block will highlight the
crucial events that happened in Europe from 1789 till the Russian Reform Movement is 1815?
which had a tremendous impact on the world.
The first Unit Age of Enlightenment introduces the concept of Enlightment. The Unit also
throws light on the impact of Enlightenment in Europe and the rest of the world.
The second Unit Europe and French Revolution discusses the French Revolution in detail
along with the reactions and responses it garnered within France and worldwide.
The third Unit France: From Republican Rule to Dictatorship discusses the aftermath of the
French Revolution. The Unit highlights the political turmoil in France.
The fourth unit Era of Napoleon throws light on Napoleon, his rise to power and his downfall.
The fifth unit Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna emphasises on the peace settlements
that was negotiated among the European powers after the defeat of Napoleon.
The sixth unit titled Unification of Germany and Italy discusses the unification movement
that had begun in Germany and Italy under their respective leaders.
The seventh unit Russian Reform Movement (1815) deals with the reform movement in Russia
that took place during the reign of Alexander II.
While going through this paper, you will notice that some boxes are put in the left hand or right
hand side of the text. These boxes are meant to serve the purpose of in-text glossary for you. Again, you
may find some boxes marked with: “LET US KNOW”. These boxes will provide you with some additional
interesting and relevant information. The boxes marked with “ACTIVITY” will help you in making your
learning more active and efficient. And, at the end of each section, you will get “CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS” questions. These have been designed to self-check your progress of study. It will be
better if you solve the problems put in these boxes immediately after you go through the sections of the
units and then match your answers with “ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS” given at the
end of each unit.

4 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

UNIT 1 : AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

UNIT STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction

1.3 Concept and Meaning

1.4 Contribution of the Enlightenment Era

1.5 Impact

l The Age of Enlightenment and European Nation

1.6 Let Us Sum Up

1.7 Further Reading

1.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.9 Model Questions

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to -

l explain the meaning of Enlightenment
l discuss about the Enlightenment in historical perspective and it’s basic
ideas
l discuss the contribution of the enlightened philosophers and
l analyse the impact of the Enlightenment Age in Europe.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

This is the first Unit of the Block and in this Unit, we will discuss at
length about the Enlightenment period. The Enlightenment was a
philosophical and elite cultural movement of intellectuals in Europe during
the eighteenth century. It sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to
reform society and advance knowledge. The Enlightenment was also known
as the “Age of Reason”. During the 17th century, many writers and thinkers
began to question the established beliefs, e.g. the authority of king, or of
History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 5
Unit-1 Age of Enlightenment

the Christian church, in favour of scientific knowledge and reason. These

new developments gave rise to the idea of equal rights. The Enlightenment
slowly promoted the cultural, religious, political and traditional foundations
of state and society in Europe by appealing to the intellectual capacity of
human being. The Enlightenment greatly valued rationalism and empiricism.
Many Enlightenment thinkers were associated with scientific advancement
and the overthrow of religious superstitions in favour of development of free
speech and liberty.

1.3 CONCEPT AND MEANING

Scholars and philosophers have given different opinions about the

Age of Enlightenment. However, in the broader sense, it was a philosophical,
cultural and intellectual movement of the 18th century in Europe. It
emphasized reason, logic, criticism, freedom of thought and equality over
superstition, dogma, and blind faith. Undoubtedly, logic was not a new
innovation of Europe during the modern period. It had been used by the
scholars of Ancient Greece. However, there is no definite and clear-cut
beginning or ending point for the Age of Enlightenment .Many historians
simply say that the term, “Enlightenment” came into use in England during
the mid-eighteenth century. In fact, it was a seventeenth and eighteenth
century intellectual, social, political and cultural phenomenon. It is found
that the scientific revolution removed the old system of thinking during the
seventeenth century and allowed a new thinking to emerge. The mysticism
and imperial concept of the middle age had been replaced by the scientific
revolution. This idea created a new horizon and now people were free to
pursue individual freedom. Then, some historians used the beginning of
the eighteenth century (1701) and the middle of the seventeenth century
(1651) as an approximate starting period of the Enlightenment age. Many
scholars defined that the Enlightenment traced its origin to Decarte’s
“Discourse on Method”(1637). Other scholars argued that the Age of
Enlightenment began with the Glorious Revolution (1688) in England or

6 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

Age of Enlightenment Unit-1

with publication of Newton’s book, “Principia Mathematica” (1687). However

many scholars agreed that the Age of Enlightenment ended with the French
Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804-15).

l Meaning of Enlightenment:

Scholars and philosophers have given different views about the term
‘Enlightenment’. There are two basic definitions. One is the general meaning
of the “Enlightenment” that is related with Buddhism and the other is related
with the reason. However, we are generally concerned with the latter
meaning of the “Enlightenment”. In fact, the ‘Enlightenment’ as a European
intellectual and philosophical movement emphasizes on reason and
individual freedom rather than dogma and tradition.

Emmanuel Kant, one of the great philosophers in the Age of

Enlightenment, defines that “Enlightenment is the human being’s emergence
from his self-incurred minority.” Historian Roy Porter argues that “the thesis
of the liberation of human mind from the dogmatic state of ignorance was
prevalent at the time is the epitome of what the age of enlightenment was
trying to capture.” In the view of Bertrand Russell, the Enlightenment phase
was marked by the ideals of reason from long antiquity.

Chartier defines that the Enlightenment was only invented after the
French Revolution for a political goal. The leaders of the French Revolution
created an Enlightenment canon of the basic text by certain writers in order
to legitimize their republican political goal. According to Jonathan Israel “it
was the ideas themselves which caused the change that eventually led to
the revolutions of the later half of the 18th century and the 19th centuries”.
According to Peter Gray, “The Enlightenment, the Age that extends from
Locke to Condorcet –was one of the most creative ages in the history of
political theory.”

According to Zafirovski, “the Enlightenment is the source of critical

ideas such as democracy, reason and freedom as value of society which
opposed to the divine right of kings or traditions as the ruling hegemony.”

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Unit-1 Age of Enlightenment

1.4 CONTRIBUTION OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT ERA

The followings are the major ideas of the Age of Enlightenment:

Reason:
Reason was the most important idea of the Age of Enlightenment. It
may be noted that for last seventeen hundred years, the Pope and concept
of the Bible were the sources of ultimate truth for man and the only way to
communicate with God. But in the Age of Enlightenment, this was not the
truth and man felt obligated to follow his own intellect or knowledge of reason.
It was defined as the ability to operate upon concepts in abstraction without
emotion. Reason could help man to become free from ignorance.

Rationalism:
Rationalism was the basic idea of the age of Enlightenment. It sought
to apply reason and science in acquiring knowledge about the nature of
humanity. The Enlightenment thinkers believed that society should be
organized on rationalistic grounds.

Reformist:
It was another basic idea of the Enlightenment philosophers. It fact,
they tended to be anti-clerical and opposed to church officials .The
Enlightenment thinkers were also against monarchy and aristocracy.
Moreover, it promoted constitutional forms of government which was based
on Locke’s idea of social contract. The Enlightenment philosophers also
argued for the government should be balanced and division of power into
the executive, Legislative and Judiciary.

Religious Tolerance:
The Enlightenment was characterized by an idea of religious
tolerance. The Enlightened philosophers believed that man should be free
to worship as they wished. The concept of religious tolerance holds that
God gave equal rights and equal liberty to all human being. So, humans
should be free from all kind of oppression.

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Age of Enlightenment Unit-1

l Major Figures of the Enlightenment Age:

The era of the Enlightenment represents a phase in the intellectual
history in Europe”. The following philosophers and thinkers made significant
contribution to the Age of Enlightenment.
Hugo Grotius (1583-1645)
Hugo Grotius was a prodigious intellectual and humanist of
Netherland. He laid the foundation for international law based on the concept
of natural law. His philosophy of natural law had a major impact on the
development of political thought during the later seventeenth century. It is to
be noted that he was deeply influenced by the classical philosophy of Aristotle
and Stoics. Hugo Grotius espoused the idea of religious tolerance.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Thomas Hobbes was a great philosopher, scientist and historian.
He played a notable role in the development of the idea of the Enlightenment.
His most significant works are such as “The Leviathan” (1631), “ The
Behemoth” (1668) and “The Elements Compromising” (1650). Hobbes’s
famous work, “The Leviathan” was a book in which he wrote about the
structure of society and legitimate government. He felt that the old political
system had led to the civil war and revolution in society. Therefore, he
searched for a new model of government. It may be noted that his philosophy
and idea could be described as the rough draft of the Enlightenment.
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
He was a great scientist, mathematician and philosopher of England.
Newton contributed a lot to development of Enlightenment ideas. His laws
of motion and universal gravitation led to a tremendous progress of society.
Newton brought rational knowledge together into a grand synthesis. His
scientific theory formulated a new truth and people now began to question
on religion and existence of God. His idea of scientific innovations helped to
produce a fundamental intellectual change.
John Locke (1632-1704)
John Locke was one of the famous English philosophers and political
theorists. He laid much of the ground work for the Enlightenment and made
significant contribution to the ideas of liberalism. It is found that Locke’s

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Unit-1 Age of Enlightenment

contribution to the era of Enlightenment came from his ability to provide

theories and sophisticated thoughts of how individuals developed from a
mental standpoint. During the period between 1675-1689, he wrote the
famous work, “Essay on Toleration” (1689). In his book, he popularized the
idea that the people should get their equal right and all governments should
secure the rights of all citizen. He also wrote other works such as, “Second
Treatise of Civil Government” (1690) and “Essay Concerning Human
Understanding” (1690). John Locke assumed a sole theoretical justification
for a contractual monarchy which was based on the agreement between
ruler and ruled. His philosophy had enormous influence on the political
thought during the Age of Enlightenment.
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
He was a significant political philosopher of the Enlightenment era.
He wrote two important works –”The Persian Letters”(1721) and “The Spirit
of Laws”(1748). His idea remained a powerful influence on the Enlightenment
philosophy. His work “The Spirit of Laws” was “the first attempt to survey
the varieties of human society, to classify and compare them and to study
the intra-functioning institution.
Voltaire (1694-1778)
Francois Marie Arouet, popularly known as Voltaire was the most
famous and undisputed prince of philosophical thought. He was twice sent
to prison. He exiled in England from 1726 to 1729.There, he was influenced
by political system of England. Like Montesquieu, he also admired the British
institution. He greatly admired the tolerance Act of 1689. Voltaire claimed
that England lived as a happy land where the spirit of ancient Greece lived
on. He was also deeply influenced by enlightenment ideas of Newton and
John Locke. Despite of his beliefs in tolerance, he criticized the Roman
Catholic Church. Then, he welcomed a new scientific view of enlightenment.
He revealed a human rage towards intolerance and injustice. He argued
that the Christian Church was responsible for the ignorance. Voltaire gave
a new Enlightenment in shifting the attention of cultivated public away from
established authority.

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Age of Enlightenment Unit-1

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Jean Jacques Rousseau was one of the greatest philosophers of
France during the Age of Enlightenment. He exerted a profound influence
on the revolutionaries of France. In fact, his political ideal influenced the
Enlightenment in France and across Europe. Rousseau criticized the
eighteenth century civilization which he thought as artificial. In his work,
“The Discourse on the Art and Science”, he argued that the art and science
have not been beneficial to humankind. Rousseau devoted his writings to
interpreting the possible ways of reforming human civilization where man
could be free to be themselves. According to Rousseau, “Man is born free.
But later on society help him to realize his full capacity for self-determination.”
This philosophy of Rousseau was a major contribution to the Enlightenment.
In his major work, “Social Contract” (1762), he argued that “sovereignty
power should be in the hands of the people. The sovereignty power is not
the master of the people. The people may establish or remove them as it
pleases.”
Denis Diderot
Denis Diderot was a great French philosopher and writer during the
eighteenth century. He was also a prominent figure of the Enlightenment
era. He wrote several works such as “The Philosophical Thoughts” (1746).
He also edited the collective 17 volume of “The Encyclopedia”. His
philosophy expounded on his view about nature, materialism, evolution and
experimental science. However, “The Encyclopedia” as a vehicle for
spreading the Enlightenment ideas, carried faith in empiricism.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
He was one of the greatest German philosophers central to the
Enlightenment. He emphasized rationalism and empiricism .He was a strong
advocate for social reform of all kinds. According to Immanuel Kant, “the
term ‘Enlightenment’ means “dare to know” which implied to overthrow the
stigma of ignorance. He tried to reconcile rationalism and individual liberty.
In his work, “Critique of Pure Reason” (1781), he continued to shape German
thought. According to Kant, “human becomes enlightened when he has the

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Unit-1 Age of Enlightenment

courage to act without the guidance of another.” In fact, Emmanuel Kant’s

ideas are clear and if a human being were to reach to the enlightenment,
there would be no any kind of oppression and domination in society.

1.5 IMPACT

The age of enlightenment played a vital role in changing political,

social, religious and economic life in Europe. The age of enlightenment
made its deep in impact in transforming of the European society. Therefore
we must be careful to analyze the impact of the enlightenment age.

Impact on Politics:

The political impact of the enlightenment related to democracy and

will of power is difficult to summarize. Thinkers like Voltaire, Denis Diderot,
Rousseau, John Locke, Jeremy Bentham produced a body of work which
were linked with political thought, civil liberty, freedom of thought and ideas
of democracy. However “the will of the people” or sovereignty is an
enlightenment philosophy which was popularly advocated by Rousseau.
However, the idea of democracy and social contract was also of great
importance in France both before and after the France Revolution. As an
impact of Enlightenment idea, democratic institutions were in existence in
some degree in England, Switzerland. The thinkers of the enlightenment
age believed that the government and its supporting laws headed to reflect
the “general will of the people”. Then, the idea of the separation of government
powers into a legislature, an executive and judiciary was shaped by the
Enlightened philosopher, Montesquieu in his book, “The Spirit of Laws”.
However, many thinkers during the enlightenment age argued that
“enlightened despotism” was the best way to rule the people. Moreover,
this kind of rule becomes popular in many European countries during the
eighteenth century. Joseph of Austria (1780-90) was one of the greatest
examples of “Enlightened Despotism”.
Impact on Economics:

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Age of Enlightenment Unit-1

The philosopher as well as thinkers espoused a new economic

system which we call as “Laisser-Faire” or free economy system. The
physiocrats were the most famous thinkers of the Laissez- Faire school in
France. Then in 1776, Adam Smith’s work “The Wealth of Nation” in which
he argued that labour and the market were the prime creators of wealth.
Thus, ideas of the free trade or Laisser-faire moved the people from rural
areas to urban area. It also shifted the economic reliance from agriculture
to non-agriculture products. The transformation of economic system during
the enlightenment age led to economic globalization of Europe.

Impact on Society and Religion:

The enlightenment made its impact on social and religious structure
of European society. The basic goal of the enlightened philosophers was
social reform. They provided first real challenge to the established authority
and theocracy. The age of Enlightenment was characterized by optimism
through which humanity could change the world and rectify any kind of
mistake of the past. Life style of people began to change. The Enlightened
thinkers believed that reason alone is sufficient to reform societies. The
French Revolution was inspired by the Enlightenment ideas of religious
tolerance, liberty and equality.
Religious liberty was generated in democracy. So, they raised
their voice for the doctrine of the separation of church and state. Then, the
enlightened thinkers were challenging traditional faith based ideals. Many
European countries wished to establish a national religion. The idea of
Enlightenment stressed reason and religious tolerance over dogma, blind
beliefs and evils. Although, many thinkers of the enlightenment age were
believers in one God, they denounced religious dogma, miracles and
prophesy. Some thinkers of the enlightenment period took more extreme
approach and denied the existence of God. The philosophers of the
eighteenth century gave more importance to the practical knowledge. They
denounced the slave system and believed in the fundamental principle of
equality. The Enlightenment promoted religious pluralism.
Impact on Science:

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Unit-1 Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment grew out of the sense that science was
becoming an important part of people’s life. Science contributed a lot in
Enlightenment thought. Scientific progress began as a result of the
Enlightenment .Scientific progress included the invention of the steam engine
by James Watt and other significant discoveries. Scientific progress during
the Enlightenment age was dominated by the academies. It is found that
the academies were also the backbone of the maturation of Science. After
1700 A.D., a large number of academies were established in Europe. Now,
scholars of the Enlightenment era used science to question and probe the
universe. The influence of science also appeared more commonly in
literature during the Age of Enlightenment. Some literature was directly
influenced by scientific topics. James Thomson’s “Poem to the Memory of
Newton” praised Newton’s science and legacy. Many scientific and literary
journals were published during the Enlightenment era. In fact, according to
Jonathan Israel, “The learned journals influenced the intellectual culture of
Europe to a greater degree than any other cultural innovation.”

l The Age of Enlightenment and European Nation

The enlightenment movement gradually operated in different nations
of Europe. The enlightenment reached deep into the middle class of
European soul and made its influence on France, England, Germany,
Russia, Spain, Poland and most nations of Europe.

France
France was influenced by the Enlightenment philosophy. French
Enlightenment philosophers had learned and developed their own ideas
and thoughts .The belief of natural law and religious tolerance can be seen
as Enlightenment ideas which led to opposition to established authority. In
the later 16th century and the early part of 17th century, France was dominated
by a hereditary monarchy and dogmatic church. The enlightened
philosophers attempted to use natural law and reason as a way to weapon
against the established authority of France. Many philosophers like Voltaire,
Rousseau contributed a lot to the rise of the Enlightenment in France. The
new ideas of the Enlightenment shaped the policies of the French Revolution
14 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)
Age of Enlightenment Unit-1

from 1789 to 1799.As a result of the revolution, new idea of secularism

began.

Germany

By the mid 18 th century, Germany was influenced by the

enlightenment movement. In fact, the German enlightenment in philosophy,
Science and culture emerged as an intellectual force independent of France
because the upper as well as middle class of Germany were influenced by
the intellectual development of France. Frederick the Great (1712-86), the
king of Prussia patronized philosophers and scientists at his court of Berlin.
Moreover, Voltaire, the greatest figure of the age of enlightenment was eager
to accept Frederick’s invitation to live at his place. On the other hand,
Christian Wolff (1676-1754), who was a writer, expounded the enlightenment
idas to German as a philosophical language. Johann Gottfried von Herder
contributed a lot to the enlightenment. According to him, every folk had its
own identity which expressed in its language and culture. It is found that the
royal family, aristocrats and the middle class gave full support to the German
enlightenment.

Russia

The Russian enlightenment in the eighteenth century encouraged

the proliferation of arts and science. The age of enlightenment in Russia
produced the Russian university, library and independent press. Catherine,
the Great who was one of the enlightenment despots of Russia contributed
a lot to fostering of science and education. However, many enlightenment
scholars such as Leonhard Euler, Anders Lexell played a notable role in the
development of the enlightenment in Russia.

Spain

It is found that the enlightenment made its influence on Spain in the

mid eighteenth century. Charles III, King of Spain tried to rescue his empire
from the influence of the dogmas and evils of Middle age.

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Unit-1 Age of Enlightenment

Scotland
The enlightenment made its influence in Scotland. It is found that the Scottish
Enlightenment thinkers like Adam Smith, Hutchison, and David Hume
contributed a lot for the modernization of Scotland during the 18th century.
Adam Smith’s great work “Wealth of Nation” advocated liberty in the context
of global economy. James Hutton and William Thomson led to the scientific
progress in Scotland.

Poland
The age of enlightenment reached Poland and changed the way of life. It began
here in the 1730s-40s. It led to development of cultural and education
progress.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q 1: When did the Glorious Revolution begin?
.............................................................................................................
Q 2: Who wrote the book, “Principia Mathematica?
.............................................................................................................
Q 3: Who was Hugo Grotius?
.............................................................................................................
Q 4: Who was the author of the book, “The Leviathan”?
.............................................................................................................
Q 5: In which year was Voltaire born?
.............................................................................................................

1.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that-

l Many writers and thinkers of the eighteenth century, especially in France
attempted to develop a new idea and thought popularly known as the
16 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)
Age of Enlightenment Unit-1

Enlightenment. It was based on a rational approach to man’s

relationship with the society.
l The Enlightenment Ideas had rapidly changed the socio-political, cultural
and religious arena of people. It laid focus on new thought and ideas
that was shifting from theological to secular concerns.

1.7 FURTHER READING

1) Gay, Peter (1996). The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, Vol.2. New

York, Ny : W.W.Norton & Company.

2) Sen, S.N. (2013). Europe and the World –From Renaissance to the
Second World War. London : NCBA.

3) Wokler, Robert. (2012). Rousseau: the Age of Enlightenment and Their

Legacies. New Jersey, US : Princeton University Press

1.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer to Q No1: 1688.

Answer to Q No 2: Sir Isaac Newton.

Answer to Q No 3: Hugo Grotius was a prodigious intellectual and humanist

of Netherland.

Answer to Q No 4: Thomas Hobbes.

Answer to Q No 5: 1694.

1.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: What is meant by “The Age of Enlightenment”?
Q 2: Who was John Locke?

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 17

Unit-1 Age of Enlightenment

Q 3: In which year was the book, “Social Contract” published?

Q 4: Who was the author of the book, “Essay on Toleration”?
Q 5: Who was Immanuel Kant?
B) Short Questions (answer each question within 150 words)
Q 1: Briefly write a short note on Rousseau.
Q 2: How did the Enlightenment ideals influence Germany?
Q 3: In what ways did the Enlightenment help in the progress of
democratic ideas?
C) Long Questions (answer each question within 300-500 words)
Q 1: Describe the variations of the Enlightenment movement in Europe.
Q 2: Critically estimate the contribution of the philosophers and thinkers
to the Age of Enlightenment.
Q 3: Discuss the impact of the Enlightenment in science and politics in
Europe.

*** ***** ***

18 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

UNIT 2: EUROPE AND FRENCH REVOLUTION

UNIT STRUCTURE
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Europe on the eve of the French Revolution
2.4 French Revolution
l Causes
l Nature and Contributions
2.5 Response and Reaction to the French Revolution
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Further Reading
2.8 Answer to Check Your Progress
2.9 Model Questions

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to-

l describe the condition of Europe prior to the outbreak of the French
Revolution.
l discuss the causes that led to the French Revolution and the nature
of the Revolution.
l discuss the responses that evoked on the backdrop of the French
Revolution.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit, we discussed the idea of Enlightenment and

its emergence in the European scene. The impact of Enlightenment was
felt in all the spheres- politics, art, literature, music, and religion etc of
Europe, which made for an interesting study. The era of Enlightenment
was marked by the rise in the belief of human dignity, power of reasoning,
individual freedom etc. It is therefore interesting in this context, to study the

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 19

Unit-2 Europe and French Revolution

outbreak of the French Revolution which laid the foundation for the rise of
modern nationalism. It is said, “The French revolution was the most prepared
event of history”.
In order to understand the French Revolution better, it’s important to
understand the political and socio-economic conditions of Europe on the
eve of the French Revolution. And this Unit will enable you in understanding
the developments that took place in pre and post Revolution France.

2.3 EUROPE ON THE EVE OF THE FRENCH

REVOLUTION

In this section, we will be discussing the condition of Europe right

before the breakout of the French Revolution.

l Political Condition

Autocratic monarchy was the prevailing fashion of government of

18th century Europe. But in the 18th century it became more centralized
than before. The kings claimed Divine right to rule the subjects. Kings in the
eighteenth century of Europe, ruled according to hereditary dynastic right.
The leading royal houses of Europe in eighteenth century were; The
Bourbons of France, the Hapsburgs of Austria, Hohenzollerns of Prussia,
the Hanoverians of England and the Romanovs of Russia. The kings were
omnipotent.

The kings covered their despotism by the cloak of enlightenment.

Though, in the 18th century the concept of autocratic monarchy was
tempered by the enlightenment the kings were intelligent enough to cover
their selfishness by enlightened doctrines. Enlightened despotism was,
however, a clever attempt to perpetuate the despotism. Even if other
European monarchs advocated enlightened reforms, the Bourbon monarchy
of France was uninfluenced by enlightenment Idea.

l Economic Condition
In the eighteenth century, agriculture was the main source of
European economy. Possession of landed estates was a passport to acquire
20 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)
Europe and French Revolution Unit-2

social status and prestige in the eighteenth century in European economy.

Among the few impediments faced in agricultural sector were- lack of
scientific farming, feudalistic oppression and serfdom, etc. Export of grain
and food products was strictly prohibited. This resulted in the low prices of
the food stuff. Thus, the farmers made no profit by selling their produce and
hence there were no incentives for scientific farming. This apathetical attitude
left the rural population in poverty.

Feudal exploitation and manorial system also stunted the growth of

agriculture. Most of the peasants were serfs who were tied to master’s
land and were denied political and civil rights. They were subjected to various
types of taxes imposed on them by the state, the lord and the church.
The condition of trade was better than agriculture. European economy was
guided by the doctrine of mercantilism in this period. Mercantile economy
sought to boost up export and reduce imports. High tariff was imposed on
foreign goods imported, which raised its cost to a prohibited level. It prevented
the growth of international trade. Side by side with mercantilism there was
paternalism policy or state intervention in industry and trade. Every aspects
of national life in the eighteenth century including trade and industry were
subjected to state regulations.

In the eighteenth century Europe, there also flourished a new

economic ideal, called physiocratism or rule of nature. This school of
economic thought preached the doctrine of free trade. Under the existing
state control and mercantilism industry is stifled. Therefore, physiocrats
demanded the end of state control and intervention in industry and abolition
of protection.

Colonial trade and the influx of Mexican gold in the European market
led to capital accumulation in the hand of the bourgeois class. Number of
towns and factories began to multiply, along with the bourgeois class who
battered against the feudal order of society. They were the messengers of
the coming of revolution.

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 21

Unit-2 Europe and French Revolution

l Social Condition

Eighteenth century Europe nourished the legacies of medieval

European society. People were divided into three estates namely – the clergy,
the nobility and the commoners. The commoners were the peasants, the
workers, etc who had no qualification of high birth, formed the third estate.
Professionals like the lawyers, physicians, teachers, rich and ordinary
merchants, peasants, serf, workers etc were also included in the third estate.
The serfs had no political and civil rights. The serfs had to offer corvee
(manual service) or compulsory labour without any wage in their master’s
land. He had to pay various taxes to the state, the lords and the church.
Other peasants like free peasants, meteors, renters were in no way in better
condition than the serfs. The peasants were denied any civil and political
status in the society. Another poor and depressed class belonging to the
third estate was the sansculottes. They comprised the loading carriers,
daily workers, beggars, pavement dwellers of Paris and other cities. At the
top of the third estate was the bourgeois class. They were more affluent
than other members of the third estate. England and France had the highest
number of bourgeois. They were a socially unhappy class because while
they considered themselves as being the most elite and active part of the
society, they were treated as inferior by the nobility.

The members of the nobility class were a privileged class in the

society and held vast estates. The nobility as a class were roughly sub-
divided into sub classes - court nobility. They were high born nobles and
acted as ministers, courtiers, councillors and intendment etc. They enjoyed
vast amounts of income from the landed estates and salary. The rural nobility
lived in their village estates. They had neither power nor wealth, yet they
took pride in their status owing to their birth. Land owning was considered
as the most honourable job. The third category of nobility was the service
nobles, those who entered the rank of nobility by the virtue of holding high
offices.
The clergy formed a part of the first estate. Monasteries and
bishoprics had vast landed estates wherefrom they derived large income.

22 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

Europe and French Revolution Unit-2

Besides, the church collected religious tax called tithes, which amounted
to 1/10th of the produce of the land. The lower clergy or parish clergy were
relatively poor and lived a chaste and sedate life. The clergy exercised a
great influence on the society. The clergy men were free from all taxation
along with several other privileges, in the European society, in the eighteenth
century

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q 1: What is meant by the “Divine Right Theory” of rule?
.............................................................................................................
Q 2: Why was serfdom declining in Western Europe?
.............................................................................................................
Q 3: Given reasons that obstructed the growth of trade.
.............................................................................................................
Q 4: Who formed the “Third Estate”?
.............................................................................................................
Q 5: Who were the “Sansculottes”?
.............................................................................................................

2.4 FRENCH REVOLUTION

l Causes of the French Revolution

One of the potent reasons for the outbreak of the French Revolution
was the nature of the old regime. The old regime here includes the regime
in Europe and particularly in France. Most of the countries in Europe were
ruled by absolute monarchs, who were oppressive. The nations were too
suspicious of the neighbouring nations. The intention of the stronger states
was to occupy the weaker ones and plunder their resources. The social

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 23

Unit-2 Europe and French Revolution

scenario in Europe was in a sorry state. Feudalism was still prevalent in

the European nations. Taxation policies were unjust and unfair. The
commoners who were heavily taxed were the ones who were least able to
pay, while the privileged ones were exempted from paying all sorts of taxes.
The feudal lords committed many atrocities on the serfs and the latter were
born to suffer at their hands.
Politically, France before the revolution was under the arbitrary rule
of the old regime. A highly centralized monarch ruled at the top, surrounded
by corrupt officials at a lower level, a degenerated administration and the
absence of the people’s representative institutions characterized the political
situation in France. Louis XV was an incapable king unlike his grandfather
Louis XIV. All the powers were concentrated in the hands of the ruler. Long
ago, Louis XIV had declared: “L’etat c’est moi” (I am the state) and this
legacy was carried forward by his successors. The crown wielded power
on all matters of the state, legal, commercial, etc. The courtiers were all
greedy and had selfish intentions. Letters de cachet was very common.
The First Estate or nobility of France was the most privileged of all
other classes. They enjoyed exemptions from all taxation. Earlier they were
allowed to enjoy the benefit in return for their services to the king. But with
the centralized monarchy the duties and functions earlier performed by
them were now performed by the central government, and this left the nobility
with no duties. But they retained and enjoyed the old privileges and benefits.

The next privileged class was the Second Estate or clergy. Most of
the clergy were drawn from the nobility. Most of them were engaged in the
intrigues and dissipation within the Church. The higher clergy were in control
of the posts and yet had no duties, while the lower ranked clergies did all
the work and yet lived in abject poverty. This class of the clergy were
infuriated and thus allied with the peasants for a common cause.

The Third Estate constituted the majority of the population, which

included the upper middle class or the bourgeoisie, the artisans and the
peasants. The bourgeoisie classes were the intellectual class in the French
society who had good positions and money. They were keen for socio-

24 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

Europe and French Revolution Unit-2

political reforms. The artisans and the peasants lived at the mercy of the
rich middle class who owned the industries or lands. The condition of the
peasantry was very pitiable. They were to pay taxes to the state, tithes to
the Church, and rent to the landlord. The money left after all the payments
was not enough and the peasants were left to starve and die. They had to
work as corvee, do all the menial jobs of their lord, see his crop being
destroyed by the hunting troops of his master and yet could not protest.
Their condition is best understood by the saying of the French maxim: “The
nobles fight, the clergy pray, the people pay”.

France under Louis XVI was going through a serious financial crisis.
The reckless wars of Louis XIV had left the country in heavy debt, while the
luxurious lifestyles of Louis XV and his courtiers led the nation to bankruptcy.
Economically, France was left with an empty treasury; a bankrupt Empire
with no prospect of economic revival due to the fact that taxes could not be
imposed on the privileged classes and the peasants would not be able to
pay any more. The finance ministers, Turgot and Necker, tried to bring in
reforms but could not make much headway due to the opposition from the
nobles who were threatened with the loss of their privileges. A hailstorm in
July, 1788 destroyed the harvest and pushed the country to starvation and
then came the severe winter. Prior to 1788, there were a series of bad
harvests that left the poor bleeding in poverty and starvation. There was a
rise in the prices of goods and rents which made the life of the poor people
very miserable.

Financial crisis was an important cause for the outbreak of the French
Revolution. For over a century, France had been at war with Great Britain.
Besides, the extravagant expenditure incurred by the royal court in grand
projects only made the matter worst. The fatal blow to France came when
it got involved in a war with Great Britain. The crown was compelled to
summon the Estates General. This was a signal for change.
The Paris Parliament demanded the summoning of the Estates General.
The king attempted to overawe the Parliament which led to riots in many

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 25

Unit-2 Europe and French Revolution

places. Thus, the king had to summon the Estates General and on May 5,
1789 the Estates General was summoned after a gap of 176 years.

When the Estates General met, every member had cahiers from
his constituency. There was a united demand for a constitution and reforms
in taxation. The Third Estates demanded the abolition of the feudal rights,
Caheirs : Lists of to which there was a lot of opposition. They also demanded the meeting of
grievances the Estates General in a single chamber and the votes to be counted on
the basis of individuals. The Estates General comprised the three chambers
of elected representatives from each order. The three chambers were for
the nobles, clergy and the commoners. The system of voting was done on
the basis of the order or houses and hence the decisions were always
made in favour of the privileged orders. When the Estates General was
summoned, Necker allowed double the members to the Third Estate than
the two other orders combined. However, the voting system remained the
same when the Third Estate demanded for the votes to be counted on the
basis of the heads than orders. The Third Estate on June 17, 1789 declared
itself to be the National Assembly representing the whole country and
pledged to work on its behalf.
The king ordered the hall doors to be closed so as to obstruct the
work of the Assembly. But the members of the Assembly rushed to a nearby
tennis court wherein they took an oath of making a constitution and not to
part before that. This is known as the Oath of the Tennis Court. The king
took a stern step and declared the activities of the Third Estate to be illegal
and also for the Estate General to meet in three chambers rather than one.
But soon he had to change his decision and allowed the meeting of all the
three chambers as one and ordered the two privileged classes to join the
Third Estate for the formation of the Assembly. This paved the way for the
ultimate end of the monarchy. But the king was not to be cowed down. He
sent armed forces to suppress the National Assembly. He replaced Necker
with Breteuill. This enraged the Parisians and they marched in the streets.
There were some clashes between the royal forces and the crowd. The
public of Paris revolted and soon attacked the prison fort of Bastille. Bastille

26 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

Europe and French Revolution Unit-2

was regarded as a symbol of authority and autocratic power. On July 14,

1789 the Bastille was razed to the ground. The Parisian mob took over the
control of the city.

A new form of municipal government was formed, a National Guard

was established at Paris and Lafayette was made its commander replacing
the king’s troops. The peasants who had been hard hit by the rocketing
food prices now attacked the nobles and the wealthy peasants. They burnt
down the title deeds and looked for grains which were kept in secret stocks.
Many nobles were killed by the angry peasant mob.

These outbursts soon spread all over France. Many other cities
took it as an example and formed governments on the Paris model. The
peasants revolted and sacked the castles of their feudal lords. The king Corvee : Feudal
had to yield before the tide and recognized the National Guard, recalled privilege the
Necker as the Finance Minister and sent back the armed troops. This incident French landlords
had a strange impact. The nobles in a historic session of the National asserted in the
Assembly surrendered all their feudal rights and privileges. On August 4, form of forced
1789 the nobles gave up their hunting privileges. Corvees, customary labour from the
th
services and tithes were abolished. On September 27 , 1789, the Assembly common masses
issued the– “Declaration of The Rights of Man and Citizens”. Equality was
to be the watch word. Discrimination was to be done away with, and
emphasis was laid on the rights of man. But soon the people became
suspicious of the designs of the Royal Court. The fear of famine lingered
along with the scarcity of bread. The women of Paris led a long march to
Versailles where the king was residing. The monarchy had thus come to an
end with the king becoming a prisoner at the hands of the people.

l Nature and Contributions of the French Revolution

The aforesaid revolutionary ideas were not just restrained to France
and were bound to sail outside France. That is why, from very early on,
philosophers outside France started developing a counter narrative whereby
they criticized the very idea and phenomenon of change through revolution.
The famous English philosopher Edmund Burke in the immediate aftermath

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 27

Unit-2 Europe and French Revolution

of the French Revolution described it as nothing but an embodiment of evil

and an ‘unnecessary occurrence’ brought about by a clique. Burke
considered the French Revolution as a ‘conspiracy’ of literate class against
the rulers. In fact, Burke defended himself by saying that he was not against
change but he felt that it should be in occurrence with past traditions and
customs. Similarly, the Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle painted a
horrible picture of revolution and viewed the revolutionary crowd as an
uncontrolled, blood thirsty and wild eyed mob. Dissident voices emerged
within France also. The French scholar H. Taine, in 1876, wrote that a
revolution is an ‘insurrection of mules and horses against men, under the
conduct of apes, possessing the throats of parrots.’

The intellectual current in France was brought in by the prolific

teachings of the likes of Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. They prepared
the people’s mind for the event that was to shake France and entire Europe.
They guided the people with their leadership, gave voices to their grievances
and acted like politicians. Their writings were an insight into the decaying
state of condition in France and they were very vocal about it. Montesquieu
stood for constitutional monarchy and glorified the government of England.
He was against the divine right theory of monarchical rule but he was not
opposed to a liberal form of monarchy. He was against the Church and
state despotism. His book “L Esprit Des Lois” was an analysis of the principle
of government. Voltaire advocated benevolent despotism. His anger was
directed towards the State and the Church and all the malpractices that
were rampant therein. His writings shook the faith of the general people in
the state organization and the Church. He stood for the superiority of reason.
Rousseau was in favour of social reconstruction. He favoured a government
based on individual equality. In his book ‘Social Contract’ he propounded
the theory of democracy in which the people were the sovereign power. He
held guilty the corruption of the state institutions and political machinery for
depriving man of his natural rights to liberty and happiness. His social
contract theory meant that kingship was a contract framed by the people
for their welfare, thus recognizing the responsibility of the crown towards

28 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

Europe and French Revolution Unit-2

the masses. Beside these great thinkers there were other writers like Diderot,
d’ Alembert, Turgot, Quesnay, Beaumarchais etc. Even though many
scholars do not ascribe the French Revolution to the influence of the
intellectuals, yet it cannot be denied that the intellectuals exposed the people
to new ideas and thinking patterns that prepared them for the revolution
that was to come.

LET US KNOW

Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote the “Social Contract”

which says: “Man is born free, and yet everywhere he
is in chains”.

The French Revolution saw the participation of all sections of the

society, especially the bourgeoisie. The causes of sufferings were borne
mostly by the Third Estate, consisting of the bourgeoisie, the peasants,
and artisans. The middle class of France took the lead in the revolution.
When the Estate General met, the Third Estate took the commanding role
and they were joined by the lower clergy as well. It was basically the
commoners who, under the guidance of the intellectuals, razed Bastille,
the symbol of state repression. The peasant also took up arms against
their landlords. The women marched from Paris to Versailles. When the
king had ordered the three chambers to sit separately, the commoners
refused but waited and negotiated. The lead was taken by Bailly, the
astronomer (who later became their president and Mayor of Paris) and
Abbe Sieyes, a writer. The lower clergies too joined the Third Estate when
along with some clergy declared itself as the National Assembly and started
the revolution. When Louise XVI declared for the sitting of the three chambers
secretly, it was Mirabeau, a journalist and orator who defied it. During the
revolution the bourgeoisie leaders led the revolution. But as it progressed it
passed to the commoners.

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 29

Unit-2 Europe and French Revolution

2.5 RESPONSE AND REACTION TO THE FRENCH

REVOLUTION

The French Revolution evoked a strong response from the French

people. The idea of equality, liberty and fraternity echoed throughout and
heralded the beginning of a new era world-wide. Nonetheless, the French
Revolution was a real time political event having far reaching impact within
and outside France. In this situation, the European powers vehemently
opposed the French Revolution. Incidentally, almost all the so-called
‘enlightened rulers/despots’ of Europe came together to crush the French
Revolution which was supreme manifestation of enlightenment philosophy.
The excesses of the revolutionary ideals in France under Jacobins and
Napoleon Bonaparte sent the rest of the European monarchs in a state of
panic especially after the execution of Louis XVI. The European powers
formed as many as four Coalitions to defeat France and to halt the spread
of revolutionary ideals outside France. The European powers formed
coalition among them to drive out the revolutionary government of France.
The First Coalition was formed by England, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Spain,
Holland and Sardinia against France. They initially registered victory but
soon the French were able to break the Alliance and Napoleon rose as the
saviour of the French Revolution. However, the defeat of Napoleon in the
Battle of Nile in 1798 led to the formation of the Second Coalition which
included England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and Naples. Meanwhile, in France,
Napoleon Bonaparte managed to capture power which was seen as a threat
by many European rulers. In the battle that ensued, England was left alone
as other members left the Coalition. Peace was restored for a temporary
period. The Third Coalition of Russia, Austria, Sweden and England were
formed against the undue interference of Napoleon in the internal affairs of
Switzerland. The objective of the Third Coalition was the expulsion of the
French army from the northern part of German speaking areas; the
independence of Holland and Switzerland and the restoration of Piedmont
to the King of Sardinia. It was also agreed among the European powers

30 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

Europe and French Revolution Unit-2

that once France would be defeated, map of Europe will be redrawn

restoring the erstwhile boundaries. However, the Third Coalition also met
with the same fate. The Fourth Coalition was formed in 1813 with Russia,
Prussia, Austria and England each of them being ruled by the so-called
‘enlightened despots’. By this time Napoleon had begun to face defeat both
on home ground as well as on the battle field offshore. As an aftermath, the
Bourbon monarchy was reinstated in France and national boundaries of
Europe were restored. Thus, for the time being European powers managed
to halt the progress of the French Revolution.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q 6 : Who said: “L’etat c’est moi”?
.............................................................................................................
Q 7: What is a ‘‘Letters de cachet’’?
.............................................................................................................
Q 8: By whom was the march from Paris to Versailles undertaken?
.............................................................................................................

2.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you have learnt about –

l The evolution of political system in Europe and the rule of monarchical
administration in Europe and the social structure, the condition of trade
and agriculture, different categories of peasants and the evolution of
colonial markets by European traders.
l The French Revolution was a reaction against the autocratic
monarchical rule that prevailed in France. The wide participation of the
French people from all walks of life gave a significant boost to the
Revolution.
History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 31
Unit-2 Europe and French Revolution

l The French Revolution of 1789 resulted in breaking the prevailing political

norms, ideals and regimes of Europe. The revolution brought sweeping
changes in every aspect of life in France,

l As a result, there was an ideological and armed reaction to prevent the

dissemination of revolutionary ideals throughout Europe. The ideals
were seen as a threat in many European countries which resulted in
the formation of many coalitions to combat against the forces unleashed
by the Revolution.

2.7 FURTHER READING

1) Maiti, Provatansu. (1970). A History of Europe (1789-1919). Kolkata :

India, Sreedhar Prakashani.
2) Hayes, C. J. H. (1963): Modern Europe to 1870. New York, USA: Mac
Millan.
3) Ketelbey, C. D. M. (2000): A Short History of Modern Europe. New
Delhi, India : Surjeet Publication

2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Answer to Q No 1: According to the “Divine Right Theory” of rule, the King

claimed immunity from all earthly controls. They were predestined
to rule by the Divine right and were solely responsible to god alone.
Answer to Q No 2: Serfdom was declining in Western Europe because
the landlords found serf labour unproductive. Cultivation of land by
hired labour was found to be productive and cheap.
Answer to Q No 3: State interference and strict regulations were among a
few causes that obstructed the growth of trade.
Answer to Q. No. 4: The commoners mostly the serfs, peasants,
professionals, workers, labourers formed the Third Estate.

32 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

Europe and French Revolution Unit-2

Answer to Q. No. 5: The poorest and deprived among the members of the
Third Estate were known as Sansculottes.
Answer to Q. No. 6: Louis XIV.
Answer to Q. No. 7: It is an arrest warrant by which anyone could be
arrested on mere suspicion.
Answer to Q. No. 8: The women peasants.

2.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

A. Very Short questions (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: Who were the members of the Third Estate in the European society?

Q 2: Name the two French finance ministers who wanted to reform

the French economy on the eve of the French revolution.

Q 3: Name the French monarch who was executed by the revolutionaries.

Q 4: On which historical date was the “Declaration of the Rights of Man

and Citizens” signed by the national Assembly?

B. Short questions (Answer each question within 150 words)

Q 1: Describe the social structure of Europe in 18th century?

Q 2: What was the mercantile system in European Trade and

commerce?

Q 3: What was the role of the Church in 18th century Europe?

Q 4: What do you know about the Oath of the Tennis court?

Q 5: Write short notes on the Girondists and the Jacobin

C. Long questions (answer each question within 300-500 words)

Q 1: Discuss about Bourgeois class in European society.

Q 2: Analyse the feudalistic character of European economy on the eve

of French Revolution.

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 33

Unit-2 Europe and French Revolution

Q 3: Narrate the circumstances that led to the end of monarchy in France.

Q 4: Discuss the participation of the intellectual class in the French

Revolution.

Q 5: Discuss the reactions against the French Revolution.

*** ***** ***

34 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

UNIT 3: FRANCE: FROM REPUBLICAN RULE TO
DICTATORSHIP

UNIT STRUCTURE

3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Responses to the Constitutional Monarchy
3.4 Anarchy in France- National Convention
l Reign of Terror
3.5 The Directory
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Further Reading
3.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.9 Model Questions

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

l explain the developments under the Constitutional Monarchy and
the response from the people
l describe the work of the new Republic under the National
Convention
l discuss the function of the Directory and the transformation of
France to military dictatorship.

3.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit, we discussed at length on the French Revolution of

1789. The Unit deliberated on the causes leading to the Revolution, the
nature of the Revolution and the responses to it.
In this Unit, we will discuss the aftermath of the French Revolution that all
began with the burning of the Fort of Bastille. The Unit will highlight on the

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 35

Unit-3 France : From Republicant Rule to Dictatorship

internal developments mostly the political upheaval post Revolution. The

lack of political stability in France was the highlight of that period.
Consequently the period was marked by the Reign of terror and there was
anarchy all over France.
Most importantly, France was going through a phase of experiments
with the change in governance. Monarchy was challenged and overthrown
with the formation of Republic and later a dictatorship.

3.3 RESPONSES TO THE CONSTITUTIONAL

MONARCHY

The National Assembly started framing the new constitution and it

declared itself as the Constituent Assembly. The Declaration of Rights was
formulated and on its basis the new constitution was to be made. The
National Assembly acted as the Constituent Assembly rooted out the Old
Order in France. After working hard for two years, the National Assembly
framed a Constitution and announced the “Declaration of the Rights of Man”
on 27th August, 1789. It was based on Rousseau’s view as discussed in his
famous work “The Social Contract”. This Declaration contained the rights
which the people could inherently enjoy. The principles were so universal
that the appeal of Declaration touched the heart of entire people of Europe.
Following fundamental rights were granted to the citizens:
l Men are born free and are equal in rights
l Article II mentioned the natural rights of the people, which cannot be
taken away by anybody. They are the right to liberty, property, security
and resistance to expression.
l Liberty was defined as the power to do anything that does not harm
another.
l Sovereignty resided in the nation only.
l All citizens were equal before law. They had a right to enjoy equal
opportunity in the society.
l Right of property was sacred and inviolable. No one could be
deprived of his property without payment of just compensation.

36 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

France : From Republicant Rule to Dictatorship Unit-3

l Article VII and IX mentioned that no man could be indicted without

authority of law. Everybody had the right to express themselves,
freedom of speech. Every public servant was responsible to the
people.
The Declaration heralded the dawn of a new order in Europe. It
raised a high optimism in the mind of men as a charter of their liberty. It
borrowed its idea from Rousseau and also from the American and English
Constitutions. Many of its significant clauses condemned the wrongs under
which the Frenchmen had suffered under ancient regime. Therefore, the
Declaration was a formulation of purely abstract doctrines unrelated to the
historical context.
However the Declaration was a half hearted document. Though it
proclaimed equal rights of men, it did not assert their political or social
equality. It only proclaimed the rights of men and not their duties. It was
marked by bourgeoise love for property. It had also not mentioned about the
equal rights to vote for all the citizens. It also did not mention about the
improvement of the deplorable condition of the slaves. But despite its
shortcomings, the Declaration was significant.
The Constituent Assembly felt the need of a religious settlement in
France. The Deputies of the Constituent Assembly agreed with the
suggestions given by Camus that church should be brought under the state.
By a Decree dated February 19, 1790 the French Church was nationalised.
The monasteries and monkish living houses were abolished. The authority
of Roman Pope on the French Church was abolished. Monastic system,
papal right of appointment of church officers, payment of tithe and other
taxes to the Church, were abolished. A new order in the Church of France
was laid down. By a law named the civil constitution of the clergy. The
Church became a department of the state. The old territorial limits of the
bishoprics were abolished. Each administrative department was to have
an elected bishop. Each Commune was to have an elected local priest.
The Church officials were to be paid by the State. The Pope could no longer
draw money from French church. Toleration was granted to all creeds. The
priest was asked to take oath to obey the civil constitution.
History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 37
Unit-3 France : From Republicant Rule to Dictatorship

The declaration proclaimed the equal right of all men and their
freedom. The constitution was finally adopted in 1791. A constitutional
monarchy was established with the king as the head of the executive with
some limited veto power and the power to choose his own ministers. The
Legislative Assembly consisted of a single chamber of 745 members elected
for two years by limited franchise. The judiciary also went through certain
reforms. The whole administration was decentralized. France was divided
into districts, cantons, communes and local councils. The assembly also
confiscated the Church lands to solve the financial problems. Assignats or
paper money were issued. The Church also underwent changes. By the
Civil Constitution of the Clergy the old dioceses was abolished. The bishops
and the priests were to be elected by popular vote. Tariff barriers within
France were abolished and so were the trade guilds and corporations.
However, the constitution only pushed the nation towards discontentment.
There were many loopholes in the constitution.
Thus, Mirabeau stated, “The disorganization of the country could
not have been better planned”. The attempt of Louise XVI to flee from his
country was soon discovered and this added fuel to the fire. The people
were convinced of the disloyalty of the king for his subject and they were in
no mood to support the monarchy. The radical group demanded a republic
form of government, but the constitutional monarchists still held the majority
and hence the king was again reinstated to his earlier position.
The Legislative Assembly met on October 11, 1791. The members
of the Assembly were divided into groups. The Constitutionalists were in
favour of the new constitution by which the king was the head of the
government. The Republicans in the house were divided into Girondists
and the Jacobins. The Girondists were Moderate Republicans. They were
mostly from the district of Gironde and were eager for a republican
government but practically they were not ready. The Jacobins were the
extreme factions. They regarded all means to be legitimate if it meant the
safety of the republic.

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Soon France was embroiled in a war. The cause for it was basically the
issuing of a decree by which the émigrés were asked to return home to
France within a fixed time or else face consequences leading to death or
confiscation of property. The king vetoed this decree and this aroused the
suspicions of the people. Moreover, the European nations were worried
with the turns of events in France. They feared the revolutionists and their
ideas which were spreading outside France. The German Princes were
not happy with the abolition of the feudal dues and tithes. Austria had given
shelter to the French émigrés and, hence, the relation between Austria and
France became sour. The émigrés in the meantime were trying to collect
troops and induce the foreign power to free France from the revolutionists.
The French people were alarmed. At the same time Austria and Prussia
issued the famous declaration of Pillnitz by which they rallied to the cause
of the anti-revolutionist in France and was ready for an armed intervention.
This convinced the French people that the king was in a secret alliance
with the foreign powers. The Girondists were in favour of a war so as to
overthrow the monarchical government. They were successful in their
attempt when on April 20, 1792 France declared war against Austria.
However, the Jacobins led by Robespierre were not in favour of war. The
French army had to face defeat in the war and the Republicans declared
the king to be a traitor.
During that time the Duke of Brunswick issued a manifesto by which
he announced the destruction of the French capital if the royal family were
hurt. The people of France were angry as it confirmed their worst fears of
the double game of their ruler. The mob soon attacked the king’s palace.
The Legislative Assembly now voted for the suspension of the king and
declared for the election of a National Convention. Meanwhile the mob of
Paris was led by the Jacobins, who had replaced the municipal governments
of Paris by a new commune or the city council. The Jacobins were
determined to face the enemies of France. They first decided to teach a
lesson to those Royalists whom they suspected to have aided the foreign

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Unit-3 France : From Republicant Rule to Dictatorship

powers. Many Royalists were killed and upon merest suspicion more than
thousands of men and women were guillotined. This incident was known
as the September Massacre of 1792. The Jacobins now marched to meet
the Austro-Prussian army at Valmy where the French won the battle. This
instilled courage and confidence amongst the French army and thus they
went on to win more such battles with the effect that in 1793 the Republican
army had Belgium, Savoy and Nice in their possession and also a firm grip
on the middle of the Rhine. The revolution had left France as a nation divided.

3.4 ANARCHY IN FRANCE

l National Convention and the Reign of Terror

The National Convention which met on September 21, 1792 declared France
a republic. The monarchy was abolished. A new committee for drafting a
new constitution was appointed. But this act was postponed due to the
rivalry between the Girondists and the Jacobins. Both were Republicans
but they differed in their views. The Girondists did not trust the mobs of
Paris. They wanted the supremacy of the convention. They wanted the
commune to be brought to justice and the end of the bloody massacres.
But the Jacobins aimed to save France and make the Paris Commune
superior to all other offices. Between these two parties were the majority of
the people which could never decide between the two.
Louis XVI was executed as per the will of the Convention on January
21, 1793. The convention soon raised propaganda, which urged the people
of Europe to rise against their rulers and were assured of the support of the
revolutionaries. The convention was taking an aggressive attitude, which
became a serious menace to the European powers. The Republicans also
declared all as enemies, who would refuse liberty and equality as the basic
principle of the nation. France had become ready for war. Indeed under the
pretext of natural rights France wanted to pursue her traditional policy of
conquest. Europe saw the turn of events in France as a menace to her
security. The execution of Louis XVI shocked the entire European community
of nations who pushed for further action. Thus Europe formed a coalition.

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France : From Republicant Rule to Dictatorship Unit-3

In the First Coalition against France, the countries were England,

Holland, Sardinia, Spain, Austria and Prussia. The French ambassador to
England, Chauvelin was ordered to leave for France. At this France declared
war. While collectively the Europeans fought for the preservation of
monarchy, each of them had their own agenda. Austria was eager to expel
France from Belgium; Sardinia wanted to save Savoy, and England saw
her commercial fortune ruined due to the opening of the Scheldt. At the
early stages France had to suffer defeat. This led to a civil war, as many
peasants rose up in revolt. The Committee of Public Safety was formed to
save France from internal and external danger. The defeat of France under
Dumoriez, who belonged to Girondists, gave a chance for a new clash
between the Girondists and the Mountain (Jacobins). The difference soon
led to the arrest of as many as 31 Girondists leaders. A reign of terror was
let loose by the Jacobins under the leadership of Robespierre, Danton and
Marat.
With the expulsion of the Girondists, the Jacobins took over. France
was hounded by enemies within and without. Within France a discontented
group, who were opposed to the revolutionist, was growing up. They did
not appreciate the supremacy of the Paris Commune over the other
departments; rather, they wished for all the departments to be equal.
Meanwhile, the peasants of La Vendee rose up in revolt incited by priests,
and called for the abolition of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. They
protested against compulsory military service. Faced with such a situation
the Jacobins created a new Committee of Public Safety under Robespierre
which consisted of 12 members with unlimited executive powers.
The Committee of Public Safety was nothing but a machine for the
spread of terror. Its activities were aimed to create fear in the minds of the
pro-monarchical and the anti-revolutionists. Those who were suspected
were arrested by the law of suspect put to a speedy trial by the revolutionary
tribunal, and guillotined at the square of the revolution. The committee took
efforts to quell the internal revolts and encounter external enemies. France
won against the European coalition. The English were defeated at

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Unit-3 France : From Republicant Rule to Dictatorship

Hondschoote, the Austrians at Wattignies, Belgium were recovered, Toulon

recaptured, Holland occupied and by the Treaty of Basle in 1795, Prussia
and Spain made peace with France. Now with no dangers, external and
internal, questions arose with regard to the reign of terror. The Hebertist
(most extreme section of the Jacobins) were in favour of ultra - revolutionary
measures like worship of reason rather than Catholic faith and called for
the closure of all the places of worship in Paris. But the Hebertists’ were all
sent to the guillotine by Robespierre and they were soon followed by the
Dantonists due to their moderate policies which Robespierre regarded as
dangerous. Robespierre now became the leader and promoted terror with
more vigour. This only helped him to make more enemies than friends and
at last Robespierre and his associates were arrested and Robespierre
himself was executed on 28 July.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions :

Q 1: When did the Legislative Assembly meet?
__________________________________________________________
Q 2: Who were the Emigres?
__________________________________________________________
Q 3: Name the two Republican groups in the Legislative Assembly.
__________________________________________________________
Q 4: When was King Louise XVI executed?
__________________________________________________________

3.5 THE DIRECTORY

The Constitution of 1795 was the third Constitution of the

Revolutionary period. It was also known as the Constitution of Year III. The
National Convention was dissolved after framing this constitution on 26th

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October 1795. It was prepared keeping in view the principle of democracy.

Much stress was given on rights and duties. The framers of the Constitution
of 1795 represented the bourgeois order. Rejection of manhood suffrage
was the keynote of the plan of 1795. It gave political power to the propertied
bourgeois. The main features of the Constitution were-
Executive :
The power of the Executive was laid in the Committee of five powers
known as the Directors. One among them was to lead the Directory. He
was supposed to be the resident of France. The office of the Directory was
established at Luxemburg. The Directory appointed the ministers and thus
the Cabinet was formed. The Directors kept a tab on the law and order
situation of the country.
Legislative :
It had two chambers. The first chamber was called “The Council of
Five Hundred” and the second chamber was known as “The Council of
Ancients”. The former consisted of 500 members while the latter was
composed on 250 members. One must be at least 30 years to be a member
of “The Council of Five Hundred” and to be a member of The Council of
Ancients, one must have attained the age of 40 years. The former chamber
proposed laws and legislations, while the function of the latter was to approve
or disapprove the laws proposed by the first Chamber.
Rules of election :
The property was the basis of election. The people who used to pay
tax to the government had the right of election. It was provided in the
Constitution that 1/3rd of its members were to retire every year and in the
early election 2/3rd members would be elected from the outgoing members
of the National Convention. This provision was laid down with a view so that
the Royalists might not be elected in a great number in the legislature. This
provision not only annoyed the Royalists but also the middle class who felt
deeply concerned with it and revolted against the National Convention on
5th October, 1795. Barras crushed this revolt with the help of Napoleon
Bonaparte.

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Unit-3 France : From Republicant Rule to Dictatorship

Demerits of the Constitution :

l The right of vote was awarded on the basis of property which

deprived most of the people from the right to vote. The Democrats
opposed the constitution due to this anomaly.

l The royalists were not satisfied because it gave no importance to

the then king.

l No provision was made to remove the differences between the

executive and the legislative.

l The members of the executive were neither responsible to the

legislature nor to the people. They could be removed from their post
only by impeachment.

Causes of the downfall of Directory :

With the death of Robespierre, a mild regime followed. The last

remnant of the reign of terror was dissolved. A constitution was drawn up
known as the “Constitution of the Year III”. The executive power was entrusted
to the Directory of five members and there were two houses to carry out
the legislative duties-Council of Five Hundred and the Council of the Ancients.
The convention also provided that two-thirds of the new legislative should
be chosen from amongst the deputies of the present convention, thus
disallowing the monarchical element within the legislature. Soon, an
insurrection followed as the royalists groups were dissatisfied with the
convention. Napoleon Bonaparte, one of the Directors took the lead and
saved the convention which was eventually dissolved on October 26. The
Directory turned its attention towards foreign policy in which they made
many blunders. Its domestic policy was equally unpopular. All this led to a
coup d’etat by Sieyes and Napoleon and on November 9, 1799, the
Directory was overthrown and a Consulate came up in its place. Napoleon
was chosen as the first Consul. 1799, the Directory was overthrown and a
Consulate came up in its place. Napoleon was chosen as the first Consul.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions :

Q 5: The Directory was overthrown by a coup. Who led the coup?
________________________________________________________
Q 6: Who was chosen as the First Consul?
________________________________________________________
Q 7: What was the other popular name of the Jacobins?
________________________________________________________
Q 8: Why were the Royalists not in favour of the Directory?

________________________________________________________

3.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, we have learned that-

l The revolution paved the way for the establishment of Constitutional

monarchy. The Constituent Assembly announced the Declaration
of the Rights of Man by which fundamental rights were granted to
the French citizen.

l The peace after the Declaration however did not last long as the
discontentment spread and soon France was caught up in a state
of civil war. The conflict was mainly between the Constitutionalists
and the Republicans.

l Once the Republican Government was established, France faced

a tense situation. There was chaos and anarchy in france.

l The Directory only made it worse. There was insurrection led by

Napoleon who was successful in his attempt to establish a
dictatorship in France.

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Unit-3 France : From Republicant Rule to Dictatorship

3.7 FURTHER READING

˝◊√—1±Ê√œ ¢∂√Lö -
1) Ketelbey, C. D. M. (2000): A Short History of Modern Europe. New
Delhi, India: Surjeet Publications.
2) Hayes, C. J. H. (1963): Modern Europe to 1870. New York, USA:
MacMillan.

3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Answer to Q No 1: October 11, 1791.

Answer to Q No 2: Those that migrated from France and tried to curb the
French Revolution by aiding the foreign countries.
Answer to Q No 3: Girondists and the Jacobins.
Answer to Q No 4: 1792
Answer to Q No 5: 1793
Answer to Q No 6: Napoleon Bonaparte
Answer to Q No 7: The Mountain
Answer to Q No 8: The Royalists were not satisfied because it gave no
importance to the then king.

3.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: Who were the Dantonists?
Q 2: What was the provision of the Declaration of Pillnitz?
Q 3: When did France declare war on Austria?

B) Short Questions (Answer each question within 150 words)

Q 1: Write short notes on the Girondists and the Jacobins.

46 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

France : From Republicant Rule to Dictatorship Unit-3

Q 2: Write short notes on :

a) The National Assembly
b) The Directory
C) Long Questions (Answer each question within 300-500 words)
Q 1: Narrate the circumstances that led to the end of monarchy in
France.
Q 2: Discuss the participation of the intellectual class in the French
Revolution
Q 3: How was the French Republic transformed into a military
dictatorship?

*** ***** ***

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 47

 UNIT 4: ERA OF NAPOLEON
UNIT STRUCTURE

4.1 Learning Objective

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Coup d’état of 1799
l Rise of Napoleon
4.4 Reforms of Napoleon as the first Consul
4.5 Territorial Expansion: Continental System
4.6 Fall of Napoleon
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Further Reading
4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.10 Model Question

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

l discuss how Napoleon Bonaparte came to power, and describe the
growth of his Empire wing to his policy of territorial expansion.
l discuss the internal reforms initiated by Napoleon Bonaparte.
l explain the Continental System of Napoleon Bonaparte and also his
gradual fall from grace.

4.2 INTRODUCTION

In the last Unit, we have discussed the period of transition that France
underwent post the Revolution of 1789. The Bourbon monarchy was
abolished in France and a republic was proclaimed. But Napoleon Bonaparte
once again established himself as the Emperor of France, re-establishing
monarchy there.
In this unit, we will discuss in details the rise and fall of Napoleon
Bonaparte. Through this Unit, we will be able to understand Napoleon as a

48 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

Era of Napoleon Unit-4

leader through his foreign policy and his achievement as a ruler through his
reforms.

4.3 COUP D’ÉTAT OF 1799

Napoleon Bonaparte was born on 15th August, 1769 at Ajaccio in

Corsica. At the age of seventeen in 1786, Napoleon joined the army as an
artillery officer and soon distinguished himself as a good military official.
In France, from 1795 to 1799, the executive power had been entrusted
to the Directory. The first question that confronted it was the question of
continuing the war against the enemies of the republic. The Directory planned
a double attack upon the Austrians, one through Germany and the other
through Italy. The responsibility of the Italian campaign was given to Napoleon
Bonaparte.
Napoleon and his army quickly appeared before the gates of Turin
and compelled the Sardinians to sue for peace by the cession of Savoy
and Nice. Next he turned against the Austrians and entered Milan in triumph.
The Austrians were driven out of Lombardy. Napoleon next besieged Mantua.
The Austrians made repeated efforts to relieve Mantua but were totally beaten
at Bassano, Arcola and Rivloli. Venice was also conquered by the French.
The Italian programme of Napoleon also included an attack upon the Papacy.
He invaded the Papal territory and forced upon the Pope, the Treaty of
Tolentino by which the latter agreed to cede territories and recognize the
newly formed republics in Italy. Napoleon next crossed the Alps and by a
rapid march came within the striking distance of Vienna. This sudden move
frightened the Austrian Emperor Francis II. He concluded a peace with
Napoleon by the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797). By this treaty Austria
ceded Belgium to France and recognized the French possession of the
Ionian Islands and the extension of the French frontiers up to the Rhine.
She also recognized the two republics namely the Ligurian Republic and
the Cisalpine Republic which Napoleon had created in Italy. In return for
these concessions, France gave Venice to Austria.

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Unit-4 Era of Napoleon

After the Italian campaign, Napoleon was received with enthusiasm at home.
The Directory appointed him the commander of the army for the invasion of
England. But a direct invasion of England was impossible without a powerful
fleet. So, Napoleon advised the Directory to carry out an expedition for the
conquest of Egypt, the key to the East. This would be an indirect blow to
England. The Directors agreed to his proposal and Napoleon set sail for
Egypt in May, 1798. Napoleon conquered Malta and won the famous Battle
of the Pyramids which made him the master of the Nile basin. But the
English admiral Nelson followed him closely and in the Battle of the Nile, he
completely destroyed the French fleet. In the meantime, a new European
coalition known as the Second Coalition was successful in driving
Napoleon out of Germany and Italy.
The Directory was discredited by these reverses and the Directors
were losing the popular support. Their domestic policy too was weak and
unpopular. Taking advantage of the unpopularity of the Directors, Sieyes
(one of the Directors) and Napoleon joined hands. They organized a coup
d’etat, and overthrew the Directory on November 9, 1799. This is known
as the Coup d’etat of 18th Brumaire.
l Rise of Napoleon
After the overthrow of the Directory a new constitution was framed
for France in 1799. Under that constitution the executive power was put in
the hands of the Consulate consisting of three Consuls to be elected by the
Senate for 10 years. Sieyes, Ducos and Napoleon Bonaparte were the
three Consuls with Napoleon being appointed as the First Consul. Soon
Napoleon consolidated his position by dismissing Sieyes and Ducos and
appointed two new Consuls who were not strong enough to oppose him.
The first problem of the Consulate was to meet the Second Coalition
formed against France and to recover the ground lost during Napoleon’s
absence in Egypt. Meanwhile, Russia withdrew from the coalition leaving
Austria and England to face France. Napoleon sent Moreau to attack the
Austrians from Germany and he himself set out to meet them in Italy. He
crossed the St. Bernard Pass and unexpectedly appeared before the

50 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

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Austrians. In the battle that followed at Marengo the Austrians were completely
defeated and Napoleon recovered all of Italy at one stroke (1800). A few
months later Moreau also won a decisive victory over the Austrians at
Hohenlinden, which opened the road to Vienna. These reverses compelled
Emperor Francis II of Austria to sue for peace. By the Peace of Luneville,
Austria reconfirmed all the cessions made to France by the Treaty of Campo
Formio, and agreed that the Rhine should remain the boundary of France
on the East.
After the Peace of Luneville, the only member of the Coalition that held out
against France was England. Napoleon turned to diplomacy and made use
of the grievances of neutral powers against England. The British ships used
to search neutral ships for French goods. Napoleon instigated the Russian
Czar to revive against England the Armed Neutrality, consisting of Russia,
Prussia, Sweden and Denmark in order to prevent England from searching
neutral ships for French goods. But this league was not successful against
England and Napoleon was inclined to conclude peace with England. By
the Peace of Amiens (1802), which followed, England restored all conquests
from France. England agreed to recognize French annexations in Europe
and to abandon all intervention in continental affairs.
In 1802, Napoleon managed to transform the Consulate for 10 years to one
for life, with the right to name his successor. This step made him the
absolute ruler of France and brought him within view of the throne. In the
meantime, a royalist conspiracy was made on the life of Napoleon which
rather served to emphasize his pre-eminence. Then in May, 1804 Napoleon
proclaimed himself the Emperor of the French as this change was being
demanded by the interests of the French people. A plebiscite ratified this
change of constitution by a majority of more than three and a half million
votes.

4.4 REFORMS OF NAPOLEON AS THE FIRST CONSUL

During the short interval of peace which followed the Treaties of Luneville
and Amiens, Napoleon devoted himself to the task of reorganizing the

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Unit-4 Era of Napoleon

government of France and building up afresh the fabric of social order. His
aims were to heal the wounds of the nation, to secure efficiency of
administration, and to ensure a large measure of social and fiscal “equality”.
But he was opposed to the principle of “liberty”. Following are some of the
major reforms:
l He reduced the elected councils to impotence and placed the
departments and smaller administrative units, such as communes, in
the hands of prefect, sub-prefects and mayors who were all appointed
either directly or indirectly by himself. This system restored order but
ignored the ideas of self-government.
l To enlist the sympathy of every section of the community, he did away
with all party distinctions. The émigrés and the nonjuring clergy were
sympathetically treated, and offices were thrown open to all including
the Royalists and Girondists. As the Civil Constitution of the Clergy had
alienated a considerable section of the people, Napoleon sought to win
their gratitude by restoring the Roman Catholic Church. He came to an
agreement with the Pope in 1801, known as the Concordat. By it
Catholicism was recognized as the “religion of the great majority of the
French people”. The Catholic Church was made dependent on the state.
This measure healed the schism in the Church and thus gave great
satisfaction to the mass of the population.
l However, his great achievement in the work of internal re-construction
was the Civil Code known as the Code of Napoleon. His famous
code gave to France a common system of law, at once clear, orderly,
and systematic and thereby made justice rapid, cheap and reliable. It
established social equality in the eyes of law, secured religious toleration
to all and perpetuated much of the social gains that had been won by
the revolution.
As part of his economic reforms, Napoleon founded the Bank of France.
He encouraged trade and industry. For developing the education system,
he reorganized and improved national education, both higher and primary.
He also created a new aristocracy of merit by instituting the Legion of

52 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

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Honour. This satisfied the French love of glory. He thus created a new
aristocracy faithful to himself.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q 1: When and where was Napoleon Bonaparte born?

_____________________________________________________________

Q 2: Between whom was the Treaty of Campo Formio concluded?

_____________________________________________________________

Q 3: Name the three Consuls of the Consulate in France.

_____________________________________________________________

Q 4: When did Napoleon proclaim himself as the Emperor of the

French?

_____________________________________________________________

4.5 TERRITORIAL EXPANSION: CONTINENTAL

SYSTEM

For 10 years from 1804 to1814 Napoleon remained the Emperor of

France. After consolidating his position at home, Napoleon started to follow
an aggressive policy of territorial expansion. He once again started the revival
of the colonial policy of the Bourbons.

The truce with England secured by the Treaty of Amiens proved to

be short lived. Napoleon complained that England refused to evacuate Malta.
On the other hand, the English demanded that France should evacuate
Holland and Switzerland. But both France and England were in no mood to

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Unit-4 Era of Napoleon

evacuate their occupied territory and war became inevitable. Napoleon seized
Hanover, the hereditary German possession of the English king and closed
its ports to British ships. He then made naval preparations for the invasion
of England. But at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), the British admiral, Nelson,
defeated the combined French and Spanish fleet destroying the French
naval power and all possibility of the invasion of England.

Meanwhile, Russia and Austria were antagonized with the rise of

Napoleon. Austria resented Napoleon’s aggression in Italy where she had
been once the dominant power. Under such a situation the British Prime
Minister, Pitt the Younger formed the Third Coalition against France.

Napoleon on hearing about the Coalition acted rapidly. He advanced

towards Austria and reached the Danube surrounding the Austrian army at
Ulm on 20th October, 1805. Then he entered Vienna. On December 2,
1805 Napoleon won the Battle of Austerlitz against the Austrians. This victory
of France resulted in the withdrawal of Austria from the Third Coalition
and reduced her to a second class power.

After Austria, Napoleon turned his attention towards the German

states. He started the task of reconstructing the German political system.
On July 19, 1806 the Confederation of the Rhine was formally proclaimed
under French patronage. The Confederation of the Rhine destroyed the
Holy Roman Empire.

Prussia which had so far remained neutral finally joined the Third
Coalition. Napoleon had earlier gifted Hanover to Prussia. But when
England became aware of this fact during some peace negotiations,
Napoleon decided to restore Hanover to the English. This angered Prussia.
She formed an alliance with Russia and declared war against France. But
the Prussian armies received a crushing blow at the two Battles of Jena
and Auerstadt and Napoleon entered Berlin in triumph (1806).

Although Napoleon was victorious everywhere, but his power was

military rather than naval. He therefore, found it impossible to make a direct
attack upon England. Therefore, in 1806 the Continental System was

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formed. France being a land power and not a naval power, Napoleon found
it impossible to make a direct attack upon England. Therefore, he sought to
bring England to terms indirectly by ruining her trade and commerce upon
which her power depended. He sought for the closure of every continental
market to British goods which would prove to be a fatal blow to England.
Thus, in 1806, he issued from Berlin a series of decrees declaring a blockade
of the British Isles and forbidding all commerce with them. All British goods
were ordered to be seized. England retaliated by Orders in Council which
forbade all trade with ports belonging to France or her allies. Thereupon,
Napoleon issued his Milan Decree (1807) by which he declared that any
ship of any country which should touch at a British port, was liable to be
seized and treated as a prize. The Berlin and the Milan decrees formed
what is called Napoleon’s Continental System. At Tilsit he secured the
adhesion of Russia to this scheme of destroying England’s trade.

However, the plan of Napoleon was not successful. The British fleet
controlled the seas and no colonial goods could be obtained except through
British vessels. Although English commerce was put to great disadvantage,
it went on as before. But the commerce of the continental states was ruined.
The result was that the prices of the necessary commodities of life went up
enormously and the inhabitants of the European continent suffered greatly.
The subject allies of France became discontented with Napoleon and his
rule became hateful to the population.

Still for Napoleon the conquest of Europe was not complete with
Russia remaining as a formidable enemy of France. In 1807 the French
army fought a fierce battle with the Russians in the battle field of Eyleau.
On June 14, 1807, Napoleon defeated the Russians at Friedland. The Czar
Alexander I at once sued for peace and the Treaty of Tilsit were signed
between them. By this treaty Napoleon created new kingdoms out of the
Prussian territory. Russian losses were restored. The most important feature
of the treaty was that it was followed by an alliance between Russia and
France.

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4.6 FALL OF NAPOLEON

Napoleon was at the height of his power in 1807. He occupied

Portugal in order to bring her within his Continental System. Then in 1808,
he occupied Spain putting his own brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish
throne. In the North-West, Napoleon annexed Holland in 1810 because his
brother Louis Napoleon, who ruled there, refused to sacrifice the interests
of his Dutch subjects by enforcing the Continental System. Next, he annexed
a considerable portion of North Germany up to the Baltic in order to close
the Northern coastline of Europe to British ships. He also conquered Genoa
and Tuscany in Italy and then added the Papal States. He tried to bring
Denmark and Sweden within his Continental League against England, but
was unsuccessful in his attempt. Even in Spain the French had to face
reverses at Baylen and Vimiero. The French commander Junot was
compelled to evacuate Portugal by the Convention of Cintra.
The news of reverses at Baylen and Vimiero called for Napoleon to
take more energetic action in Spain. Already both the Portuguese and the
Spaniards were able to receive the help of England. In Austria there was
also the outburst of nationalism being infected by Spanish nationalism.
Hence, Napoleon renewed his alliance with Russia by the Convention of
Erfurt to counteract the hostile attitude of Austria. With his position being
secured in Central Europe, Napoleon burst upon Spain at the head of a
large army. He defeated the Spanish armies in several encounters, entering
Madrid in triumph and reinstalled his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the
Spanish throne. He then turned to crush the British army under Sir John
Moore as they have marched into Northern Spain to assist the Spanish in
organizing a resistance in the South. However, as Austria was threatening
to declare war, Napoleon had to return to France leaving the Spanish
responsibility under Marshal Soult. In the absence of Napoleon, Sir John
Moore defeated the French armies though he was himself killed in the action.
Thus the latter spoiled Napoleon’s plan enabling Southern Spain to organise
resistance to French rule.

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Era of Napoleon Unit-4

With the death of Moore, Wellesley was appointed to the chief

command. He opened his Italian campaign by driving the French army under
Soult, out of Portugal. Then in 1809 he defeated the French at the Battle of
Talavera and prepared to march upon Madrid. But the French army under
Soult regained its position forcing Wellesley to retreat to Portugal. In the
meantime Napoleon successfully defeated Austria at Wagram and sent his
best general Massena with a large army to expel the English from Portugal.
But he was not successful. Under such a situation in 1812 the Russians
attempted to invade France which distracted the French. Taking this
opportunity Wellesley captured the fortresses of Ciudad, Rodrigo and
Badajoz and routed the French at Salamanca. He then occupied Madrid,
but only for a short period. But when the French army under Soult was
called away to Germany, Wellesley turned towards Spain, defeated its ruler
Joseph severely at Vittoria. Napoleon’s attempt to conquer Spain was thus
a failure which eventually brought about his downfall.
After defeating the Austrians at Wagram, Napoleon had forced Austria
to sign the Treaty of Schonbrunn by which she had to pay a heavy indemnity
and had to make territorial cessions on the Polish, Alpine and Adriatic
frontiers. The Austrian Emperor also had to give his daughter, Maria Lousia,
in marriage to Napoleon. But this matrimonial alliance between Austria and
Napoleon offended the Czar of Russia. This rift between the two powers
further increased with the refusal of the Czar to increase the rigours of
Napoleon’s economic blockade of England. Moreover, the Czar wanted to
modify the Continental System as Russian was incurring heavy financial
loss. Hence, Napoleon thought to bring Czar Alexander to terms by a
smashing victory over the Russians like that of Friedland. Napoleon followed
the Russians with his dogged energy, defeating them at Bordino, and finally
occupying Moscow (1812). The Russians deserted their ancient capital
and set it on fire. This compelled Napoleon to retreat during which his army
was exposed to indescribable hardships of hunger and exhaustion, intensified
by the rigour of a Russian winter and the harassing attacks of the Cossack
guerrilla bands. Napoleon deserted the army and hurried to Paris. This ill-

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fated expedition shattered the military power of Napoleon and encouraged

the powers of Central Europe to shake off his domination.

The Russian disaster had sent a ray of hope to the enemies of

Napoleon. Prussia was the first to rise. The enthusiasm of the people swept
away the timid irresolution of King Frederick William III and forced him to
sign a treaty of alliance with the Czar at Kalisch and declare war against
Napoleon. Berlin was recovered from the French. The War of Liberation
(1813) was now fairly afoot. Austria too joined the European coalition when
Napoleon refused the terms of peace as proposed by Metternich, the Austrian
Chancellor, Bernadotte, king of Sweden inspite of once being one of
Napoleon’s marshals joined the allies and England agreed to help him. Thus
was formed the Fourth Coalition against France. Napoleon’s generals
were defeated in several engagements but he defeated the Austrians at
Dresden. This was his last great victory. But the odds against him were too
heavy. The allies closed upon him at Leipzig and there, in three days’ battle
known as The Battle of the Nations, they overwhelmed him with superior
numbers in 1813. With the defeat of Leipzig, Napoleon’s political structure
in Germany collapsed. The Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved.
Holland was made independent.

The allies offered Napoleon peace on the basis of the “natural

boundaries” of France, the Rhine, the Alps and the Pyrenees. But Napoleon
refused them. So, the allies invaded France from all directions. At La Rothiere
he was defeated by the Prussian general Blucher and was again offered
peace at Chatillon on the basis of the frontiers of 1791 France. He, however,
refused the terms and avenged himself on Blucher by defeating him in four
successive engagements. He defeated another army of invasion at
Montereau and sought to detach Austria from the Allies. Thereupon, the
four great Allied Powers, namely, England, Russia, Prussia and Austria –
concluded the Treaty of Chaumont, making an alliance for twenty years.
Slowly and gradually on March 30, 1814, the Allies entered Paris. Napoleon,
finding that his marshals had deserted him, was forced to abdicate. By the

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Era of Napoleon Unit-4

Treaty of Fontainebleau he abandoned his European position and had to

retire to the island of Elba where he was allowed to exercise his sovereignty.

A congress was held at Vienna to settle the affairs of Europe. But

the powers quarreled over the spoils of victory. In February, 1815, Napoleon
suddenly escaped from Elba and landed near Cannes in France. Louis
XVIII, the newly reinstated French king fled across the border and Napoleon
entered Paris amidst the wildest acclamations. The restoration of Napoleon
is called the Hundred Days. As soon as the European powers heard of
Napoleon’s escape they reunited against Napoleon. It was in the Battle of
Waterloo (1815) that Napoleon was finally defeated and surrendered to the
Captain of a British ship. He was exiled by the English in the Island of St.
Helena where he died six years later in 1821.

In short, the Continental System was one of the greatest blunders of

Napoleon. To enforce the System, Napoleon followed a policy of systematic
aggression upon other European countries which led to a series of costly
wars, exhausting him of men and money. His attempt to destroy England
by ruining its powerful economy backfired and became one of the main
causes of his downfall.

Another cause of his downfall was his harsh treatment of the Pope.
He demanded that the Papal ports should be closed against British ships
but the Pope replied that he would remain neutral. Thereupon Napoleon
imprisoned the Pope and annexed his territories. These activities of
Napoleon shocked the Catholic nations of Europe and did much to shake
the fabric of Napoleon’s power.

The fall of Napoleon began with the Spanish expedition. It was this
“Spanish Ulcer” that ultimately led to the doom of Napoleon. Napoleon’s
interference in the affairs of Spain by declaring Joseph Bonaparte as the
king of Spain was disastrous. England extended its support to Spain and
thus Napoleon was caught in a long drawn war. Napoleon was surrounded
by officers and generals who were deceitful and treacherous.

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The next campaign was against Austria. France was left isolated by
it powerful allies and made weak and vulnerable by its unfaithful friends.
Though Russia allied with France, yet the bond was fragile. It was the control
in the Near East that brought Russia and France in direct conflict. Napoleon
sent his army to attack Moscow, but the hurdles encountered during the
march came at a heavy cost. He lost most of his men and his resources
were depleted to a huge extent due to the strong generalship of the enemy
and the extreme weather conditions. Even then, Napoleon won several
victories and was able to keep hold but he was heavily outnumbered by his
rivals and in April 7, 1814, he abdicated as the Emperor of France.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q 5 : During which period did Napoleon remain the Emperor of France?

___________________________________________________________

Q 6 : Name the battle in which Admiral Nelson defeated the combined

French and Spanish fleet.

___________________________________________________________

Q 7 : Against whom did Napoleon win the Battle of Austerlitz?

___________________________________________________________

Q 8 : What was the significance of the Milan Decree?

__________________________________________________________

Q 9 : What was the impact of the Continental System on Europe?

__________________________________________________________

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Era of Napoleon Unit-4

4.7 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, we have learnt that,

l Napoleon Bonaparte was one of the greatest conquerors and by
the might of his sword and Grand Army he established his mastery
over almost whole of Europe.

l He formulated the Continental System to hold England in check

and to destroy her by striking at her trade and commerce. Napoleon
also made a series of reforms for the internal reconstruction of
France, and

l His expansionist policies were aggressive which was seen as a

threat and hence, the formation of Coalitions against Napoleon which
ultimately brought the downfall of the Empire built by Napoleon and
the man himself.

4.8 FURTHER READING

1) Hayes, C. J. H. (1963). Modern Europe to 1870. New York, USA:

Macmillian.
2) Phukan, Meenaxi. (2000). Rise of Modern West. New Delhi, India:
MacMillan Publishers.
3) Thomas, D. (1962). Europe Since Napoleon (2nd edition). London,
UK: Longman.

4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer to Q No 1: 15th August, 1769 at Ajaccio in Corsica.

Answer to Q No 2 : Napoleon Bonaparte and Emperor Francis II of Austria.
Answer to Q No 3: Sieyes, Ducos and Napoleon Bonaparte.
Answer to Q No 4: In May, 1804.
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Unit-4 Era of Napoleon

Answer to Q No 5: 1814
Answer to Q No 6: Trafalgar
Answer to Q No 7: Austrians
Answer to Q No 8: By the announcement of the Milan Decree (1807),
Napoleon declared that any ship of any country which should touch
at a British port was liable to be seized and treated as a prize.
Answer to Q. No. 9: One of the impact was the prices of the necessary
commodities of life went up enormously and the inhabitants of the
European continent suffered greatly.

4.10 MODEL QUESIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 Words)

Q 1: Which were the powers who formed the Second Coalition against
France?
Q 2: Which powers formed the Third Coalition against France?
Q 3: In which year did the Last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II formally
resign?
Q 4: What is the Legion of Honour formed by Napoleon?
Q 5: Which European powers formed the Forth coalition against France?
Q 6: In which battle and in which year was Napoleon finally defeated?
B) Short Questions (Answer each question within 150 Words)
Q 1: What is meant by the 18th Brumaire?
Q 2: Write briefly what is the Code of Napoleon.
Q 3: Write a short note on the battle of Waterloo.
C) Long Questions (Answer each question within 300-500 Words)
Q 1: How did Napoleon Bonaparte become the Emperor of France?
Q 2: Discuss the rise of the Napoleonic Empire.
Q 3: Discuss the Continental System of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Q 4: Discuss the reforms introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte in France.

*** ***** ***

62 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)
UNIT 5 : CONCERT OF EUROPE AND
CONGRESS OF VIENNA

UNIT STRUCTURE
5.1 Learning Objectives

5.2 Introduction

5.3 The European Confederation

l Concert of Europe

l The Quadruple Alliance

l Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle

5.4 The Holy Alliance

5.5 Congress of Vienna

l Provisions

l Significance

5.6 Let Us Sum Up

5.7 Further Reading

5.8 Answers to your Progress

5.9 Model Questions

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to -

l describe the political chaos in Europe after the downfall of Napoleon,
and political attempts to bring a balance of power
l discuss the various alliances formed among the European powers
through the Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe
l explain the role played by the major European powers in the attempt to
establish peace.

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Unit-5 Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna

5.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, we learnt how Napoleon Bonaparte established
his authority over France and became the master of the European Continent.
We also discussed how Napoleon transformed the map of Europe with his
aggressive territorial expansionist policy and became a threat which brought
Austria, Prussia, Russia and England together. This Coalition was
successful in bringing the fall of Napoleon in 1815.
In this Unit, we will discuss the changes that were brought about by
the victorious powers in the continent of Europe to ensure peace. The Holy
Alliance, the Concert of Europe and the Congress of Vienna were attempts
on the part of the European powers to establish a friendly relationship among
them so that a balance of power was maintained in Europe.

5.3 THE EUROPEAN CONFEDERATION

The Congress of Vienna had sealed the triumph of reaction. It restored

the pre-revolutionary conditions as far possible. But so great was the dread
of the Revolution that the European powers could not rest content with
devising some plans for ensuring the permanence of the Vienna Settlement.
No doubt the Vienna treaties were entrusted to the collective guarantees of
the powers but past experience had convinced them to the necessity of
having some sort of machinery for closer international co-operation in the
interest of European peace. To secure this object two conflicting schemes
were put forward. The one was Holy Alliance sponsored by Czar Alexander
of Russia, and the other was Concert of Europe, based on Quadruple
Alliance of the big powers. It provided that the allied powers should from
time to time met in the Congresses to discuss the common interests and
the needs of Europe for the promotions of peace and prosperity. The Holy
Alliance and the Concert of Europe are often confused unite each other,
because both of them became instruments of reactionary policy in the skillful
hands of them Austrian minister, Metternich.

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l The Quadruple Alliance

The other proposal put forward was the Quadruple Alliance which
was signed on 20 November, 1815 by Russia, Prussia, Austria and England
with the objectives of the maintenance of the treaties with France,
preservation of the political stability of Europe, and consolidating the friendly
relations amongst the four sovereigns for the welfare of the world. This
Quadruple Alliance formed the very basis of the Concert of Europe.

By the Article VI of the Quadruple Alliance, it was also agreed that the
signatory powers should meet from time to time in diplomatic Congresses
to discuss any problems which might arise and to decide what would be
‘most salutary for the peace and prosperity of peace. This proposal became
the foundation of the ‘Concert of Europe’. The years that followed the
‘Quadruple Alliance’ have been called the »Age of Congresses¼. On several
occasions, the members of European Concert met together at specific
places to discuss questions that called for collective deliberations.

l Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)

The first congress of the Concert of Europe was held at Aix-la-Chapelle

in the year 1818. There the powers permanently decided the position of
France. As France promptly paid off the indemnity to the Allied Powers, the
Allied army occupying French soil was withdrawn and France was admitted
as the fifth great power to the Quadruple Alliance making it a Quintuple
Alliance. The Five Powers now began their fresh conquest and in this regard,
they called upon the king of Monaco to rule in a proper way and to check the
territorial ambition of Bavaria. The king of Sweden was asked to give an
account for ignoring the treaty rights in his dealings with Norway and
Denmark. The elector of Hesse was denied the title of king; Bavaria was
deprived of the Rhenish Palatinate due to a verdict passed by the Five
Powers.

But on questions involving their own conflict of interests they failed to

overcome their mutual jealousies and to take concerted action. England
refused to take any action in the rebellious Spanish colonies of Spain due to

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Unit-5 Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna

their commercial interest. Similarly Russian ships were prevented from

making inroads into the Mediterranean to bring down the pirates.

l Congress of Troppau (1820) : The next congress was held at

Troppau in 1820, where the rift initiated at the first congress became wider.
All the members of the European Concert condemned the revolutions that
broke out that year in Naples, Spain and Portugal. Metternich urged all the
powers to view the revolution as common concern of all the states as it
might infect them. He thereby advocated the principle of intervention in
suppressing revolution everywhere. But the English Foreign Minister, Lord
Castlereagh, supported by the French, refused to intervene and regarded
revolutions as internal problems. Still at Metternich’s initiative Prussia,
Russia and Austria signed a declaration known as the ‘Troppau Protocol’
by which the three powers recognized the responsibility of stamping out
revolution even at the cost of intervening in the domestic problems of a
sovereign state.

l Congress of Laibach (1821) : The third congress was held at Laibach

in 1821. In this congress the predominant interest of Austria in Italy was
recognized and Austria was allowed to send forces to suppress the revolt
in Naples. They successfully suppressed the revolt in Naples and also put
down a liberal movement in Piedmont.

l Congress of Verona (1822) : In 1822 the congress was summoned

at Verona. At that time revolution was going on in Spain and the Greeks
revolted against Turkey. These two problems caught the attention of the
European Concert. In the Greek revolt, the Russians wanted to intervene
on the side of the Greeks. But Austria and England, the rivals of Russia in
the Balkans prevented her from interference in the affairs of Greece. Then
the Bourbon ruler of Spain asked the Bourbon ruler of France for help in
suppressing the revolt. Russia, Austria and Prussia allowed France to help
Spain in suppressing the revolt. But England opposed any intervention in
Spain and withdrew from the congress when other powers gave mandate

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Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna Unit-5

for French intervention in Spain. Thus, with the withdrawal of England, the
Concert of Europe broke up.

The Concert of Europe was a noble attempt as an agency for

international co-operation. But it unfortunately broke up due to the mutual
jealousy of the powers, lack of faith on any agreed principles and
irreconcilable differences of interest on common issues.

The experiment of holding congresses emerged in the wake of

Napoleonic wars as a reaction to the growing danger that lurked around.
These congresses were nothing but a growing aspiration of the European
powers to bring international peace.

5.4 HOLY ALLIANCE

In the post-Napoleonic period, the main concern for the states of

Europe was the preservation of peace and order in the continent of Europe.
An attempt in this direction was the Holy Alliance, a proposal put forward by
Czar Alexander I of Russia.

Among the diplomats assembled at the Congress of Vienna, Czar

Alexander I was the most liberal one, in spite of him being an autocrat in
Russia. Actually, he was a man of liberal and mystical ideas. He believed
that the French Revolution was essentially irreligious and for preventing
the occurrence of similar kind of revolution in future all sovereigns of Europe
should recognize their responsibility to God. The rulers of the European
states, he believed, should apply the principles of Christianity in their
dealings with one another.

There should be a spiritual Christian Alliance, a Holy Alliance among

the Christian kingdoms of Europe on the basis of the Holy principles of
Christianity, namely, Justice, Christian Charity (Benevolence) and Peace.
He set forth his ideas in a document which contained his vision of a
brotherhood of sovereigns based upon Christian ideals. It declared that the
sovereigns of Europe were henceforth bound by a solemn engagement to

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Unit-5 Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna

take the precepts of Holy religion as their sole guide in governing their own
subjects and in their political relations with other countries.

In September, 1815 Czar Alexander I successfully induced the King

of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria to join the Holy Alliance. The three
sovereigns together signed the Holy Alliance declaring that in the
administration of their respective states and in their political relation with
other states they would follow the Holy principles of Christianity. All the
sovereigns of Europe, except the Pope and the Sultan of Turkey, were
invited to sign the Holy Alliance and all of them signed it except the Prince-
regent of England. Thus the Holy Alliance in Europe was formed.

But in practice the Holy Alliance was a failure and it came to an end
with the death of Czar Alexander I in 1825. Actually, Czar Alexander I was
the only sovereign among all the signatory sovereigns of the Holy Alliance
to take it very seriously. It should be noted that the Holy Alliance was
honoured more in its breach than in observance. Most of the European
rulers signed the Holy Alliance as they did not want to antagonize Czar
Alexander I. Metternich called it verbiage, and Emperor Francis of Austria,
while signing it, said he did not know what it meant: “if it was a question of
politics, he must refer it to his Chancellor; if of religion, to his confessor.”
Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Minister, pronounced it as “a piece of
sublime mysticism and nonsense.” Even Pope Pius VII regarded the Holy
Alliance as an attempt to reduce the Christian religion to “religiosity”.

Hence, it can be said, that the Holy Alliance was a sincere attempt to
bring all the European states close to one another on the noble principles of
Christianity. But the application of religious principles in politics was quite
impossible. Besides, the Holy Alliance was only a declaration and not a
treaty and the element of compulsion of fulfilling it was not there. The Holy
Alliance was the hobby of Czar Alexander -I and it came to end with his
death.

68 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions :

Q 1 : Who were known as the Vienna Powers?
.............................................................................................................
Q 2 : Who gave the idea for the Concert of Europe?
.............................................................................................................

Q 3 : Name the Sultan who was not invited to sign the Holy Alliance.
.............................................................................................................

Q 4 : When did the Holy Alliance come to an end?

.............................................................................................................

5.5 CONGRESS OF VIENNA

Napoleon Bonaparte had badly disfigured the political map of Europe.
The well known boundary lines had disappeared and almost every frontier
needed reconstruction. He had torn away territories from some states and
added them to other states. Even many ruling dynasties had been
overthrown.
There was an urgent need to redraw the map and impose the terms
of a peace treaty on France. The peacemaking process was very complex
and it was stalled by the second attempt of Napoleon to assert his imperial
position also known as the One Hundred Days.

LET US KNOW

One Hundred Days: After his abdication of the throne,

Napoleon was meant to retire to the island of Elba. But,
he took up arms and tried to win over the people and the allies but to
no gain. However he suffered a defeat in the battle of Waterloo (June
18, 1815).
This return of Napoleon from his exile is termed as the One
Hundred Days (20 March to 22 June, 1815).

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Unit-5 Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna

After the overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte and his departure to the

Island of Elba, the victorious powers namely, Austria, Prussia, Russia and
England together with Spain, Portugal and Sweden made formal peace
with France by signing the first Treaty of Paris in May, 1814, which restored
the pre-revolutionary French frontiers of 1792 and provided for the holding
of a congress of all the European powers to arrange a general peace
settlement. With negotiations becoming more complex, a further conference
was arranged by the Allies.

Vienna, the capital of Austria, was chosen as the venue of the

congress as Austria had played the decisive part in the overthrow of Napoleon
Bonaparte. In order to resettle the disturbed continent of Europe all the
states of Europe, except Turkey assembled at Vienna, the capital of Austria
in the autumn of 1814. There at a magnificent assembly, all of them met
under the Presidentship of Metternich, Chancellor (Prime Minister) of Austria.
He was the most outstanding figure among the assembled diplomats with
a commanding personality.

The task before the Congress was not an easy one. The immediate
problem before the allies was the question of settlement with France. It
was an arduous task to undo the territorial reconstruction brought by
Napoleon in the continent of Europe. The question of German nationalists
also taxed the Congress, besides the issue of Prussia and Russia.

Never in Europe, prior to the Congress of Vienna, was there an august

gathering of such a galaxy of crowned heads and titled dignitaries. Most
prominent of them were Emperor Francis I of Austria, Czar Alexander I of
Russia, King Frederick William III of Prussia, Foreign Minister Lord
Castlereagh of England, Prime Minister Metternich of Austria, etc. Russia
under Alexander I was interested in the creation of a larger Poland dependent
on Russia. Metternich and Castlereagh shared a cordial rapport due to
their conservative ideology of protecting Europe from any further Revolutions.
Prussia was interested in the neighbouring territory of Saxony. France was
represented by Talleyrand initially but after the return of Napoleon from Elba,
he was replaced by Duc de Richelieu in September 1815.
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The main business of the congress was carried on by England, Russia,

Austria and Prussia. As stated above, the main task before the congress
was to rebuild the European state-system demolished by Napoleon
Bonaparte. The diplomats wanted to set the affairs of Europe in an orderly
manner so that there would be no recurrence of revolution in future. As
such, the diplomats at the Congress of Vienna followed three principles
while making the territorial reconstruction of Europe.

1. Balance of Power: The principle of Balance of Power was directed

towards providing effective safeguards for the future peace of Europe
to ensure that no European state could in future become powerful like
France and dominate Europe. Every kingdom should be equally
powerful.

2. Legitimacy: By the principle of Legitimacy, the pre-revolutionary

conditions were tried to be restored as far as possible. This principle
was propounded by Talleyrand, the great French diplomat. As per this
principle all those dynasties that were in power prior to the outbreak of
French Revolution in 1789 or the rise of Napoleon were regarded as
legitimate dynasties. So, these dynasties were to be restored in their
respective states.

3. Compensation: With this principle of Compensation the victorious

powers were rewarded at the cost of the defeated powers. By applying
this principle, the victorious powers tried to enhance their own interest.

l PROVISIONS OF THE VIENNA SETTLEMENT

On the basis of the above three principles, the diplomats at Vienna
arrived at a conclusion. This was the “Final Act” signed on 15th June,
1815 commonly called the Peace Settlement of Vienna. The
provisions were:

1. The Bourbon dynasty was to be restored in France with Louis XVIII as

the king. But France lost a large part of her colonial Empire. She was
also forced to pay huge war indemnity. The Bourbons were also restored
in Spain, Naples and Sicily.

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Unit-5 Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna
2. The Savoy dynasty was restored in Sardinia and Piedmont. To the
kingdom of Sardinia, Savoy and Piedmont were restored and Genoa
was added. This was done with the intention of creating a strong
kingdom on the South-Eastern frontier of France.

3. The Pope was restored with all his temporal possessions in Rome.

4. The Confederation of the Rhine established by Napoleon Bonaparte

was destroyed. A loose German Confederation of the 38 German States
was established under the headship of Austria. Internal autonomy was
provided to the German States, but external affairs were to be controlled
by the Federal Diet of the Confederation under the Presidentship of
the Austrian Chancellor.

5. The Swiss Confederation established by Napoleon Bonaparte was

restored and the neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed by the
powers.

6. Belgium (Austrian Netherlands) was joined with Netherland as one

kingdom under the rule of the restored Dutch Prince of Orange dynasty
now to be recognized as the king of the United Netherlands. This was
done to compensate the Dutch and to erect a stronger state on the
Northern frontier of France.

7. For her surrender of Belgium to Netherland, Venetia and Lombardy

was given to Austria. The members of the Habsburg family were placed
on the thrones of Parma, Modena and Tuscany. Hence, Austria got a
commanding position in Italy. She also got Tyrol from Bavaria and
recovered the Illyrian provinces along the Eastern coast of the Adriatic.

8. Prussia got back all her German territories taken away by Napoleon. In
addition, she got Swedish Pomerenia, two-fifth of Saxony, the whole of
Westphalia and most of the Rhineland. These cessations were made
to Prussia so that she might act as a defence against France in the
North-Eastern frontier.

9. Russia was allowed to retain Finland which she had conquered from
Sweden. She was also given Bessarabia which she had captured from

72 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna Unit-5

the Turks. Besides, she got most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw
(Poland).

10. Sweden as compensation for the cession of Finland to Russia and

Pomerenia to Prussia secured Norway from Denmark. This was a
punishment to Denmark as she had supported Napoleon Bonaparte.

11. In Europe, England acquired Helligoland, Malta and she enlarged with
the retention of Trinidad (from Spain), Mauritius and Tobago (from
France) and Ceylon and Cape of Good Hope (from Holland) thereby
becoming the greatest colonial power in Europe.

12. In addition to the territorial readjustments, the Congress of Vienna made

declaration favouring the abolition of the slave-trade. While France,
Holland and Sweden abolished slave trade in 1815, Spain continued till
1820.

13. The Congress also confirmed the civil rights granted to the Jews by
the states of German under the influence of Napoleon.

14. The Congress recommended for the free navigation of international

rivers.

l SIGNIFICANCE

The Congress of Vienna of 1814-15 was a remarkable achievement

for the diplomats assembled there. It was the first international meeting
which tried to bring peace in Europe. More than distributing the trophies of
the war among the victors, the congress was directed towards resettling
the disturbed continent of Europe. In making the settlements, the element
of compromise was applied as far as possible and no harsh term was
imposed upon France and the other defeated countries. The Peace
Settlement of Vienna succeeded in bringing peace to Europe for a period of
99 years from 1815-1914.
As for the criticism of the Vienna Settlement, the statesmen present
in the Congress have been accused of ignoring the forces of liberalism and
nationalism that had been unleashed by the French Revolution. The
Congress of Vienna ignored the sentiment of nationality while making the

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Unit-5 Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna

territorial readjustments which only fuelled the hostility of France. Later

Napoleon III made it a principle of his foreign policy to wreck the Vienna
Settlement.

The most influential critic of the Vienna Settlement was Sir Charles
Webster. His main points of criticism were- discouraging the idea of self
government and the failure to work on issues like disarmament. He is of the
opinion that the statesmen were too eager to compromise and strike a deal
due to their lack of faith and courage as well their narrow outlook.

Adam Zamoyski opines that the statesmen assembled at the

Congress were well aware of the nationalist sentiments but they chose to
ignore it and failed to acknowledge the new forces of democratic ideas
which were resented by the Germans and the Italians. They calmly set
aside all these national considerations in order to secure the balance of
power and dynastic interests. True to the traditions of the Old Regime, they
thought in terms of dynasties and states.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q 5 : When was the Treaty of Paris signed?

.............................................................................................................

Q 6: Under whose Presidentship was the Congress of Vienna held?

.............................................................................................................

Q 7: Why was Vienna chosen as the venue of the congress?

.............................................................................................................

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5.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that,

l the Vienna Congress and then the Concert of Europe were noble
attempts to preserve peace in Europe,

l However, the alliances fell apart due to mutual jealousy and

conflicting interests. The powers who were influential during this
Conference (mainly Austria, Russia, Prussia, Britain) had their own
interests to serve.

l The significance of the Conference lay in its role to establish peace

but at the same time, it garnered a lot of criticism due to the failure
of the statesmen in acknowledging the nationalist feeling of the time.

5.7 FURTHER READING

1) Hayes, C. J. H. (1963). Modern Europe to 1870. New York, USA:

Macmillan.
2) Phukan, Meenaxi. (2000). Rise of Modern West: New Delhi, India:
MacMillan India.
3) Thomas, D. (1962). Europe Since Napoleon (2nd edition). New Delhi,
India: Surjeet Publications.

5.8 ANWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer to Q No 1: England, Austria, Prussia and Russia.

Answer to Q No 2: Kauntiz, the Chancellor of Austria.

Answer to Q No 3: Sultan of Turkey

Answer to Q No 4: 1825

Answer to Q No 5: 1814

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Unit-5 Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna

Answer to Q No 6: Metternich

Answer to Q No 7: It was because Austria had played the decisive part in

the overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte.

5.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (answer each question within 50 words):

Q 1: Which three principles guided the diplomats of the Vienna Congress
in Reconstruction of the political map of Europe?
Q 2: Name the four congresses of the Concert of Europe.
Q 3: When was the Aix-la-Chapelle signed?
Q 4: How was France treated by the European powers in the Congress
of Vienna?
Q 5: What was the provision of the Second Treaty of Paris (1815)?
B)Short Questions (answer each question within 150 words):
Q 1: Write in brief what is meant by the battle of the Nations.
Q 2: What is the importance of the concert of Europe?
Q 3: What happened to the Swiss Confederation in the Congress of
Vienna?
C)Long Questions (answer each question within 500 words):
Q 1: Explain the significance of the Holy Alliance.
Q 2: Give reasons for the failure of the Concert of Europe.
Q 3: Discuss the provisions of the Congress of Vienna. To what extent
were the powers satisfied with the arrangement?

*** ***** ***

76 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

UNIT 6: UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND ITALY

UNIT STRUCTURE

6.1 Learning Objectives

6.2 Introduction
6.3 Unification of Germany
6.3.1 Metternich and his policy
6.3.2 The Germanic Confederation
6.3.3 The Frankfurt Assembly of 1848
6.3.4 Bismarck and Modern Germany
6.4 Unification of Italy
6.4.1 Vienna Congress and Italy
6.4.2 Carbonari, Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi
6.5 Let Us Sum Up
6.6 Further Reading
6.7 Answer to Check Your Progress
6.8 Model Questions

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

l discuss the background of the Italian Unification Movement
l explain the role of eminent personalities in the unification of Italy and
l describe the role of Metternick and Bismarck in the unification of
Germany.

6.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit, we discussed the Peace Settlement that was

forged in Vienna and the various alliances that were made post Vienna
Conference. We discussed at length the provisions of the Conference and
its significance for the European nations.

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Unit-6 Unification of Germany and Italy

In this Unit, we will be discussing the unification of Italy and Germany. The
Unit will throw light on the aspirations of the people in the wake of the spirit
of nationalism and the respective role of the leaders in unifying their nation.

6.3 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY

Germany comprised of a number of princely states which were always

fighting among themselves for supremacy. The ideas of the French
Revolution had aroused nationalist aspiration among the Germans. But the
settlement of the Congress of Vienna upset all chances of German
unification. The ousted princes were restored to their states and all nationalist
aspirations were curbed by strong reactionary measures. Thus, the old
local divisions were once again established and Austria was given control
of the German States also.

6.3.1 Metternich and his Policy

Metternich played a key role at Vienna in 1815, which was meant

to keep Europe safe from French and Russian intrusion. He had no
love for Revolution and hence he detested any reform movement.
He made all efforts to curb any self-determination struggle or
movement. He stood for the restoration of the ancient regime. He
created a political idea on which was built the post war settlement
among the European powers.
Clemont von Metternich was the most significant conservative
statesman in Europe during the period 1814-48. As well as
dominating affairs within the Austrian Empire, he often dictated
policies within the German Confederation and the Italian states, and
directly influenced the pattern of international relations through the
medium of the Concert of Europe. He has been credited by some
historians with having devised a method of working, known as the
“Metternich System”. This system represented Metternich’s efforts
to maintain the 1815 settlement through an alliance of European

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monarchies and by the comprehensive repression of nationalism

and liberalism within states. Obviously, the importance of this
Metternich System reflected Metternich’s significant role in Europe.

6.3.2 German Confederation

Founded in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna by the powers of

Central Europe, the German Confederation was intended to take
the place of the Holy Roman Empire dissolved in 1806. At its
foundation, it was decided that the ‘German question’ should be
dealt with to the advantage of the Habsburg Monarchy. There were
two possible ways of dealing with the German question: one
possibility was the unification of the German states including those
parts of the Habsburg monarchy that had been part of the Holy
Roman Empire or had a German population, while the other was
that of a federation that excluded the Habsburg dominions. While
the former, sometimes referred to as the ‘greater German solution’,
made for Catholic-Habsburg dominance, the ‘smaller German
solution’ favoured that of the Protestant-Prussian Hohenzollerns.
Although German unification in the second half of the nineteenth
century was to see the second model gain the upper hand, the
Congress of Vienna pursued the greater German solution.
Essentially, the German Confederation extended over the
territories of the old Reich and was a federation of sovereign states.
The Federal Assembly (Bundestag) in Frankfurt am Main met under
the presidency of the Austrian delegate. The foundation of the
Confederation postponed the solution of the ‘German question’ for
around two generations and a decisive change of direction did not
take place until Austria’s defeat at Königgrätz in 1866.

6.3.3 The Frankfurt Assembly

Sporadic revolts had broken out in Germany following the

February Revolution of France in 1830. In the year 1848 and 1849

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the liberal elements of Germany had made an earnest effort to

achieve national unity. They called a National Parliament at Frankfurt.
But this was rejected by the sovereigns of the leading states: Austria
and Prussia. The old confederation was restored, resuming its
sessions in May, 1851.Though, the hopes for the German unification
were dashed to the ground, it produced some good results.
l It was realized that German unity could not be achieved so long
as Austria remained the supreme authority in their country and
regulated her affairs through the Federal Diet.
l It was also realized that so long as the German Princes were
not brought round to the idea of German unity, the entire attempt
to reform the country would fail.
l Another fact that emerged from the failure of 1848 was that the
German unification could not be achieved by a popular movement
undirected by the Princes.

LET US KNOW

For the unification of Germany three things needed to be

done namely, the abolition of the German confederation;
expulsion of Austria from Germany and new adjustment
of relations with the Princes in order to persuade them to accept a
politically unified Germany.

If Austria was to be expelled from Germany then in her place a

new leader should be found to rule the country, which could fulfill
the hopes of the nationalists. Prussia seemed fittest for such a
leadership. She was looked upon as the natural leader of German
unity inspite of her betrayal on two occasions. The faith upon her
was natural as she stood heroically against Napoleon Bonaparte
and her armies had fought bravely for the whole of Germany. Even
her economic leadership entitled her to political leadership. She
had even had a Constitution and created a Parliament. This had

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created hopes of the patriots and nationalists in Prussia for their

unification.
The international situation also favoured Prussia. The Crimean
War had alienated Russia from Austria and made her a friend of
Prussia. Again, a change came over Prussia when William I (1797-
1888) succeeded Frederick William IV in 1861 and became the King
of Prussia. He was then 64 years old. He wanted Prussia to become
the leader of Germany. His entire lifetime had been spent in the
army, which he loved passionately. He believed that Prussia’s
destinies were dependent upon her army. For that he appointed
efficient persons like Von Moltke as Chief of the General Staff, Von
Roon as the War Minister and Bismarck as the Minister-President.
William I even demanded appropriations which parliament declined
to grant him. The king was urged to abolish parliament altogether.
But he did not do so because he had sworn to support the
constitution. William I wanted to make Prussia the most powerful
nation in Europe.

6.3.4 Bismarck and Modern Germany

Otto Von Bismarck became the Minister-President of Prussia

on September 23, 1862 at a critical stage of her history. His services
were requisitioned to control and subdue the Parliament which had
rejected the request of the king for sanctioning budget for
strengthening the Prussian army. Bismarck was of the opinion that
the unification of Germany could be brought about only by waging a
war. Hence, he was in complete agreement with William I on the
question of reform in the army. He realized that for Prussia to lead
the unification of Germany, her armies should not only be strong but
also more powerful than those of her enemies. Diplomatic
preparations were also to be made. Bismarck successfully
prevented King William I of Prussia from attending the Congress of
German Princess, thereby ruining the attempt of Austria to

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consolidate her leadership of Germany by introducing some federal

reforms.
A war with Austria was necessary for the realization of
Bismarck’s great design-the unification of Germany under Prussian
leadership. The opportunity came in 1863 with the revival of the
Schleswig-Holstein question. Schleswig and Holstein were two
duchies in the Danish Peninsula, in the North of Germany. The king
of Denmark was the Duke of the two duchies. But the duchies had
their separate laws and institutions which the Danish king was bound
to observe. Schleswig was a fief of Denmark, while Holstein was a
member of the German Confederation. The populations of these
duchies were partly Danish and partly German. The Danes wanted
incorporation of the duchies with Denmark and the Germans with
that of the German Confederation.

LET US KNOW

The two duchies being partly inhabited by Danish and

Germans, serious complications arose due to the rising
nationalism in Denmark and Germany. The Duke of Augustenburg
also had strong claims over the two duchies.

Earlier in 1848 the king of Denmark attempted to merge the

two duchies with his kingdom. But the attempt failed due to the
opposition of Prussia and the Duke of Augustenburg. By the Treaty
of London in 1852, Denmark’s possession of the duchies was
confirmed, but their absolute incorporation into the Danish kingdom
was forbidden. In 1863 the Danish king violated the Treaty of London
by a constitutional claim. Bismarck at once interfered in the issue.

Bismarck in spite of having bitter relations with Austria

successfully entangled her in an alliance with Prussia against
Denmark. This was a great diplomatic achievement of Bismarck,
for Prussia alone could not act against Denmark. The two powers
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delivered an ultimatum to Denmark which was refused by the Danish

king and hence war was declared. In February 1864 they invaded
Denmark and by a treaty concluded at Vienna in October 1864, the
Danish king ceded the two duchies to Austria and Prussia jointly.
But soon the two powers (Austria and Prussia) started to quarrel
over the question of Schleswig-Holstein. While Prussia had an
interest over the duchies, Austria was against Prussia’s occupation
of the duchies permanently. Rather, she proposed that the duchies
should be handed over to the Duke of Augustenburg which was
disliked by Prussia. The situation was exactly what Bismarck had
waited for. Bismarck arranged a temporary settlement of the question
by the Convention of Gastein (1865) pending the final settlement.

By the term of the Convention, Austria was to occupy and

administer the duchy of Holstein populated by the Danes and Prussia
the duchy of Schleswig populated by Germans. Further, it was agreed
that the question of the duchies should not be brought before the
Diet. This Convention became one of the master strokes of
Bismarck diplomacy. With Holstein being surrounded by Prussian
territory, Bismarck got an opportunity to conspire against Austria in
the duchy.

Meanwhile Austria was having a hard time in keeping Holstein

under her possession, for the Danes frequently created problems.
As such, she put forward the claims of the Duke of Augustenburg
and took the question of the two duchies to the Federal Diet. This
was a violation of the Convention of Gastein which gave Bismarck
an opportunity to accuse Austria of ill-faith and a pretext for war. But
before going to battle, Bismarck diplomatically safeguarded Prussia
against the danger of foreign intervention by securing the goodwill
of Russia when Prussia helped the Czar in suppressing the Polish
insurrection (1863). While Austria had lost the goodwill of the Czar
because of her pro-Polish attitude, he now (1865) won over French
neutrality by winning Emperor Napoleon III’s sympathy for nationalist

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aspirations and making a vague prospect of having territorial gain

either on the Rhine or in Belgium. Then he negotiated a treaty of
alliance with Italy which provided that if within three months Prussia
could provoke a war, Italy would co-operate with Prussia against
Austria and would receive Venetia as the reward of the help.

After isolating Austria diplomatically, Bismarck successfully

persuaded the Prussian king William I for the war. With both military
and diplomatic preparation for the war being ready, Bismarck
proceeded to provoke a conflict with Austria. As a reply to Austria’s
demand of disposing the question of the two duchies before the
Federal Diet, he declared that the Convention of Gastein had ceased
to exist and sent troops into Holstein and expelled the Austrians.
This hostile action of Prussia provoked the Austrians who in protest
mobilized their troops. At this point, Prussia proposed the reform of
the German Confederation on the basis of universal suffrage with
the exclusion of Austria. Austria turned down this reform proposal of
Prussia and prevailed upon the Diet to mobilize the Federal forces
to punish Prussia for infraction of Austrian rights in Holstein.

Austro-Prussian War of 1866 : Thereupon Prussia seceded

from the Confederation and declared war upon Austria, claiming to
act in self-defence. Finally, the war broke out in June, 1866. It proved
to be one of the shortest wars in history, beginning on June 16 and
ending on July 3,1866. Prussia had no German allies of any
importance. Austria was supported by Hesse-Casel, Bavaria, Saxony
and almost all the minor German states, their rulers being fearful of
Prussian designs. But Prussia had superior military organization
with which they struck with amazing swiftness. The Prussian armies
overran Hesse- Casel, Bavaria and Saxony in ten days and within
two weeks crushed the resistance of the smaller German states.
Then they made a direct attack on the Austrians and obtained an
overwhelming victory over them at Sadowa.

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Fearing any further foreign intervention, Bismarck immediately

started negotiation with Austria and thereby brought the war to a
close, by the Treaty of Prague. By it, Austria accepted her exclusion
from Germany, consented to the dissolution of the German
Confederation, ceded Venetia to Italy and her share in Schleswig-
Holstein to Prussia, and agreed to recognize any reconstruction of
Germany to be made by Prussia.

Reconstruction of Germany: The victory of Prussia made her

supreme in Germany. Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Nassau and
free city of Frankfort were annexed to Prussia with her territory
continuously running across North Germany. All the other states
north of the river Maine were organised into a new confederation
called the North German Confederation under the Presidentship of
the Prussian king. But Bismarck left the South German states like
Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemburg and others free to act as they chose.
Thus, the partial unification of Germany was completed after the
victory of Prussia over Austria.

Franco-Prussian War: With partial unification of Germany being

completed, Bismarck now set himself to complete the task. At that
time France was the greatest continental power. Bismarck knew it
quite well that to complete the unification of Germany, a war with
France was inevitable. Hence, he diplomatically isolated France.
Russia was friendly to Prussia as Bismarck had offered to help her
during the Polish troubles. Bismarck further strengthened this
relationship by supporting Russian designs against Turkey. Prussia
also had the goodwill of Austria as she was treated with great
leniency and moderation after the defeat at Sadowa. The friendship
of Italy was retained by holding out to her the prospect of acquiring
Rome where the position of the Pope was being defended by the
French troops. After securing the goodwill of neighbouring powers,
Bismarck attempted to find out an earliest pretext for a war with
France.

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In 1868 the Spanish incident provided the much needed

opportunity for war. Napoleon III declared war against Prussia. The
immediate cause of the War was the refusal of the Prussian king to
give assurance about the Spanish throne. Before the outbreak of
hostilities Bismarck published the written proposals of Napoleon III
containing his demand for compensation, thereby convincing Europe
that a new era of French aggression was likely to begin. He thereby
built European opinion against France and also brought the South
German states to the side of Prussia. In the war the French were
beaten at Worth and Graveloth. Finally, at Sedan the entire French
army surrendered to the Prussian general Von Moltke and Napoleon
III was taken prisoner. Thereafter, Bismarck compelled France to
accept the Treaty of Frankfurt by which France had to give up Alsace
and Lorraine to Germany, pay a heavy war indemnity and to allow
the German troops to hold a part of France until it was paid.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q 1 : Between which two countries was the Treaty of Frankfurt

signed?

.............................................................................................................

Q 2: What was the significance of the Treaty of Prague?

.............................................................................................................

Q 3: Why did Bismarck prevent King William from attending the

Congress of German Princes?

.............................................................................................................

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6.4 UNIFICATION OF ITALY

6.4.1 Vienna Congress and Italy

Napoleon III had once tried to liberate the Austrian provinces of

Lombardy and Venetia. But he abandoned the cause of the Italian
nationalities in the middle of success. The betrayal by Napoleon III
proved that the Italian nationalities could free themselves from foreign
yoke only through their own efforts. However all hopes were crashed
by the Congress of Vienna.
At Vienna Congress, the Italians were represented by the Pope
which was not what the Italian patriots would have wanted. However,
Metternich who took the lead in the Congress, failed to see Italians
as people and hence the formation of a state by them was out of
question. Austria, by the agreement made in Vienna, began extending
its influence in Italy. Military troops were stationed permanently in
Lombardy-Venetia. Every measures taken during the Congress was
made to ensure that Italy would not fall into the control of France.
Old Dukes and kings were restored in Italy who would be acting
under the command of the Austrian Emperor. All of these worked
against the idea of any unification of Italy.

6.4.2 Makers of Modern Italy

A large number of patriots dedicated their lives to the making of

modern Italy. Among them were three great persons- Joseph Mazzini,
Giuseppe Garibaldi and Count Camillodi Cavour. These three leaders
were different in their views regarding the Unification of Italy, but
they were united in their aims. Republicans, Federalists and the
Constitutionalists were the three parties that began to work for the
unification of Italy. Let us discuss the contribution of these three
leaders for the unification of Italy.

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l Joseph Mazzini (1805-1872): Joseph Mazzini was born in 1805

in Genoa. The deepest aspiration of Italian people had finally
found a voice: clear bold, and altogether thrilling in him.
He advocated a republican form of government. The
Republicans under the leadership of Mazzini made bold attempts
to rouse the Italians against authority. At first he tried to achieve
his goal by joining the Carbonari and organized revolt in 1830.
However, he failed and was imprisoned. He then founded the
Young Italy society in 1831 to create patriotism and nationalism
among the people. This society was destined to be an important
factor in the making of a new Italy. The programme of this society
was very clear, that first of all, Austria must be thrown out of
Italy and war must come as soon as possible. No Italian should
depend on foreign government aid and diplomacy but should
depend upon their own unaided strength. His motto was God
and his people.
l Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882): Giuseppe Garibaldi was born
in Italy in 1807. From the very beginning he was interested in an
adventurous life. He was highly inspired by Mazzini. So he joined
Young Italy. His military experience was chiefly in irregular guerilla
fighting. He even took part in the revolt of 1834 organized by
Mazzini and as a result was condemned to death. But he
somehow managed to escape to South-America where for the
next 14 years he lived in exile. He participated in a good number
of wars in South America. He even raised a ‘Red Shirt Party’ in
America and took part in the civil war there.
Garibaldi returned to Italy in 1848, when the revolution broke
out in Europe. When the Piedmont Government rejected his
services, he helped the patriots of Lombardy. He again fled to
America, but returned to Italy to complete the work of Cavour
for Italian unification. He was a Federalist. The Federalists under
the leadership of Garibaldi wanted to create a Federation of the
Italian states under the Presidency of the Pope. Though a

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Federalist, Garibaldi ultimately agreed to the idea of a

constitutional monarchy.
l Count Cavour (1810-1861): Count Cavour was born in 1810 in
Sardinia and spent his youth mostly in Piedmont. He was a
nationalist and a great patriot. Cavour took full advantage of the
situation created by Mazzini. Cavour was a first class diplomat
and an efficient politician. The policy that Cavour pursued for
the unification of Italy was based on the sound principle that
Italy alone could not work for her own salvation. Cavour was a
man of liberal ideas and entered the Piedmontese cabinet in
1850 and became the Prime Minister of Piedmont in 1852.He
remained the Prime Minister of Piedmont except for a brief
interruption, until his death in 1861. With the assumption of office
by him, a new stage of the Italian question began to develop.
With the help of Garibaldi’s armed strength and his own
diplomacy, Cavour tried to bring about the unification of Italy.
Cavour knew it well that a sound foreign policy should always
base itself on sound economic and political stability at home.
For this he always wanted to make Sardinia – Piedmont a model
state and a leader of all the Italian states.

LET US KNOW

The Republicans succeeded in setting up a republic in

Rome, but it was crushed by Napoleon III. With this ended
republicanism in Italy. Likewise, the refusal by the Pope
to fight against Austria discredited the Federalists in the eyes of the
people. The only hope of the people was now left with the king of
Sardinia-Piedmont.

Italian unification came in stages. These stages are discussed

below:
The first step towards the unification of Italy began within the
assumption of the office of the Prime Minister by Cavour who was a
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great statesman and diplomat. The policy Cavour pursued for the
unification of Italy was based on one sound principle that Italy alone
could not work out her own salvation. Foreign help was of ardent
necessity. The Italian question must be brought out of the obscurity
of Austria’s domestic policy and placed before the European Powers
so that their support could be enlisted for the Italian cause. He knew
it well that unification of Italy was impossible in economic and
parliamentary matters. With this view Cavour tried to start his work
for the Italian unification that was achieved in stages.
Initially Cavour set about the task of promoting the economic
progress of Piedmont and developing its parliamentary government.
Italy must be united under the House of Savoy. As such, Piedmont
must be made a model state, strong and liberal enough, so that
other Italian states would accept her leadership. Under general
Lamarmorathe army was also reorganized for the role it was to
play in the unification process. Along with developing Piedmont
economically and politically, Cavour was also seeking an ally. But
the choice was limited, either France or England.
At this juncture the Crimean war (1854- 56) broke out, providing
a much needed opportunity to Cavour. Piedmont had no enmity with
Russia. But she made an unconditional and very risky alliance in
1855 with France and England against Russia and rendered a distinct
service to them. In return Cavour was admitted to the Congress of
Paris which met in 1856 to discuss the terms of peace. There Cavour
raised the whole Italian issue before the assembled diplomats
showing the worst effects of Austrian rule over Italy. The Italian
question thus became a matter of European concern. Hence, it has
been said that “out of the mud of Crimea was born a new Italy”.
The French Emperor Napoleon III was considered to be
sympathetic towards the Italian cause as he had fought as a
Carbonaro in 1831. As such Cavour tried and successfully won
over Napoleon III to the Italian cause. By the Campact of Plombiers

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in 1858 Napoleon III agreed to provide help to Sardinia in the event

of a war against Austria and to make Italy free from the Alps to the
Adriatic. Austria should be driven out of Lombardy and Venetia which
were to be added to Piedmont. Naples and Rome were to be left
untouched and the rest of Italy was to be made into a separate
kingdom. As the price for providing assistance Napoleon III was to
receive Nice and Savoy. To strengthen this Franco-Sardinian
alliance, the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-
Piedmont was to be given in marriage with Prince Jerome Bonaparte,
the cousin of Emperor Napoleon III.
After a period of nine months from the Pact of Plombiers, the
Austro-Sardinian war broke out in1859.The allied French and
Sardinian troops aided by Garibaldi were victorious in two great
battles, that of Magenta and of Solferino against Austria. Lombardy
was cleared of the Austrians. The rulers of Tuscany, Parma and
Modena were also expelled by their subjects when they knew that
the Austrians were expelled from Lombardy. But suddenly Napoleon
III halted the tide of his success. He met with the Emperor of Austria
at Villa franca and concluded there an armistice with Austria without
consulting with his ally. As per the terms agreed upon Austria was
to cede Lombardy to Sardinia but to retain Venetia. The rulers of
Tuscany, Parma and Modena were to be restored and an Italian
federation was to be formed under the Presidency of the Pope.
These terms were ratified by the Treaty of Zurich.
The acquisition of Lombardy by Piedmont was the first step in
the unification of Italy. In Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Romagna (a
Papal state) also provisional governments were formed and the
people voted for their merger with Piedmont. So, it became difficult
for Napoleon III to restore the expelled rulers in view of strong national
feeling among the people, who received sympathy from England.
Under such a situation Cavour once again won over Napoleon III to
his side by giving the offer of Savoy and Nice. He secured his consent

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Unit-6 Unification of Germany and Italy

to the incorporation of the central duchies to Sardinia. As a result,

plebiscites were held in Tuscany, Parma, Modena and Romagna.
All these states voted for their merger into the kingdom of Sardinia-
Piedmont. With this, except Venetia, the Northern half of Italy was
united under Piedmont and made free from foreign control.

LET US KNOW

Plebiscite: A vote made by all the members of an

electorate on an important public issue.
Carbonaro: A member of Italian Carbonneri, a revolutionary society.

With Northern half of Italy being almost united, there started

similar movement in the Southern part of Italy. The people of the
Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily) were discontented under the
tyrannical rule of their Bourbon monarch. The Sicilians asked
Garibaldi for assistance. He promised to help, provided the intended
revolt was started by them in the name of Italy and King Victor
Emmanuel II. The Sicilians rose in revolt and Garibaldi landed in
Sicily in 1860 to help the revolutionaries. Commanding his volunteer
army-the famous thousand Redshirts, Garibaldi within three months
became the master of the island and proclaimed himself the dictator
of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel II. He then turned towards
Naples. At his approach King Francis II of Naples fled to Gaeta and
Garibaldi entered Naples where the people welcomed him.

Next, Garibaldi thought of occupying Rome. This had greatly

annoyed Cavour because he thought that such an advance would
surely lead to a war with France as Rome was protected by a French
garrison. There was also a possibility that Garibaldi being Republican
at heart might give the movement a republican character. All these
would definitely upset Cavour’s plan for Italian unity. Hence, Cavour
prevailed on Victor Emmanuel II to march to the Papal States as he

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knew that Napoleon III would not interfere as long as Rome was
respected. At his instance, therefore, Victor Emmanuel II led an army
into the Papal States. He defeated the Papal army at Castel fidardo
and occupied Umbria and the Marches.

Victor Emmanuel II then went to meet the Redshirts at Naples.

Garibaldi and his army of volunteers were stationed there as they
could not advance further being checked by the Neapolitan army at
Capua. Meanwhile, plebiscites were held in Sicily, Naples, Umbria
and the Marches where majority people voted for union with the
kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. Garibaldi too surrendered all his
power to Victor Emmanuel. Then Victor Emmanuel II completed the
conquest left incomplete by Garibaldi. Capua was occupied and
the King of Naples Francis II surrendered at Gaeta in 1861.This
brought military operations to a close. Now the kingdom of Sardinia-
Piedmont was expanded into the kingdom of Italy. In1861 the first
Italian Parliament representing all Italy except Rome and Venetia,
met at Turin and Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy.

Venetia was still under Austria and Rome was still subject to
the Pope. As such, without Rome and Venetia the unification was
incomplete. But an opportunity came when the Austro-Prussian war
broke out in 1866. By helping Prussia against Austria, Piedmont
acquired Venetia. Then only Rome was left to complete the Italian
unification. With the outbreak of the Franco-Prussia war in 1870,
Napoleon III was compelled to withdraw the French army from Rome
where they were sent in 1849 to protect the Pope. Victor Emmanuel
II took full advantage of the situation and occupied Rome which
became the capital of united Italy. Thus, the unification of Italy was
achieved.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q 4: Who was the leader of the Republicans?

.............................................................................................................

Q 5: Name the leader of the Federalist.

.............................................................................................................

Q 6: In which year did Cavour enter the Piedmontese cabinet?

.............................................................................................................

Q 7: What was the first step in the unification of Italy?

.............................................................................................................

Q 8: When did Garibaldi land in Sicily?

.............................................................................................................

6.5 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you have learnt:

l Italy and Germany was able to unify after a long struggle and the
significant role played by the respective diplomats and leaders were
Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour, Metternich and Bismarck.

l The success of the unification movement in Italy paved the way for the
success of such liberal and democratic movements in other parts of
Europe and the world.

l Likewise the unification of Germany brought about a major development

in the course of the history of Europe. It brought about the triumph of
the principle of nationalism and self - determination.

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Unification of Germany and Italy Unit-6

6.6 FURTHER READING

1) Ketelbey, C. D. M. (1994). A History of Modern Times from 1789.

New Delhi, India: OUP
2) Hayes, C. J. H. (1963). Modern Europe to 1870. New York, NY:
MacMillan.
3) Thompson, D. (1990). Europe Since Napoleon (2nd edition). New
Delhi, India: Surjeet Publications.

6.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Prussia and France

Answer to Q No 2: War with Austria was brought to an end and Prussia
gained much favour from it.
Answer to Q. No. 3: Bismarck successfully prevented King William I of
Prussia from attending the Congress of German Princess, thereby
ruining the attempt of Austria to consolidate her leadership of
Germany by introducing some federal reforms.

Ans to Q No 4: Joseph Mazzini

Ans to Q No 5: Garibaldi

Ans to Q No 6: 1850

Ans to Q No 7: The occupation of Lombardy by Piedmont

Ans to Q No 8: 1860

6.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 Words)

Q 1: Name some of the dominating personalities of the Italian Unification
movement.
Q 2: Name the organization founded by Mazzini in 1831.

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Unit-6 Unification of Germany and Italy

Q 3: In which year was the unification of Italy finally completed?

Q 4: What was the provision of the Treaty of London (1852)?
Q 5: Why was Prussia chosen to be the leader of the German Unification
Movement?
B) Short Questions (Answer each question within 150 Words)
Q 1: Write briefly what you know about Mazzini
Q 2: Write short note on:
a. Franco-Prussian War
b. Convention of Gastein
c. Cavour
C) Long Questions (Answer each question within 300-500 Words)
Q 1: Discuss the unification of Italy.
Q 2: Examine the role of different leaders in the unification of Italy.
Q 3: Discuss the role of Bismarck in the unification of Germany.
Q 4: Narrate briefly the series of events that led to the unification of
Germany.

*** ***** ***

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UNIT 7: RUSSIAN REFORM MOVEMENT (1815)

UNIT STRUCTURE
7.1 Learning Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Russia in 1815
7.4 Alexander II and his reforms
7.5 Let us sum up
7.6 Further Reading
7.7 Answer to check your progress
7.8 Model Questions

7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through the unit, you will be able to –

l explain the socio-political condition of Russia in 1815 which serves
as a background of the Russian Reform Movement
l describe the reign and times of the predecessors of Alexander II, and
l discuss the reforms initiated by Alexander II during his reign.

7.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit the discussed on the unification movement of

Germany and Italy In this unit we are going to discuss about the history of
Russia during 1815. Here we will discuss about the socio-economic
conditions of Russia during the 19th century. The political condition of Russia
will also be discussed here. In this unit we also include about the Czar
Alexander II and the reforms introduced by him in Russia. The emancipation
of serfs and some other reforms introduced by Alexander II will also be
discussed in this unit.

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7.3 RUSSIA IN 1815

In spite of her rise as a great Power of Europe after the defeat of

Napoleon Bonaparte in Moscow, Russia remained backward socially and
economically. Even her political institutions were medieval in character.
l Social Condition
Russian society was composed of two classes- (1) the Nobles (2)
the Serfs. There were clerical and bourgeoisie classes also but they were
relatively insignificant. The same social anarchy prevailed in Russia as it
did in France before the Revolution of 1789. The nobles were not required
to perform any duty towards the government but they enjoyed the privileges
associated with such duty. They ruled over the serfs with an iron rod.
The condition of the peasants was very pitiable. The Serfs lived in
very wretched conditions and got no protection from the State against the
oppression committed on them by the nobles. They were flogged, sold and
sent to Siberia or even killed without any rhyme or reason. Czar Nicholas I
took some steps to improve the lot of the serfs.

l Political Condition
The individuals in Russia had no political status whatsoever. There
were no representative institutions and the people had no say in the political
matters. They had no freedom of speech. Several restrictions were imposed
on the press. Even the judiciary was not independent. The autocracy
prevailed and the Czar ruled the country with the help of Council of Ministers
who were appointed by him and were responsible to him only. The words of
the Czar were laws of the land. Such laws were called Ukases. The Czar
administered the provinces with the help of Imperial Police. A number of
officials appointed by the Czar treated the people most cruelly.

l Alexander I (1801-25)
Czar Alexander I, was the first ruler during whose reign Russia rose
to become a great power in Europe. He ascended the throne in 1801. He
was a bundle of contradiction. He was both thunderous and enigmatic. He

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was an idealist by nature. He had a religious bent of mind which made his
character imbalanced and intriguing. He was, however, a liberal at first
because of the education he had received from a Swiss tutor. His liberalism
led him to believe that peace could be established in Europe on the Christian
prospects. Among the emperors and ministers who attended the Congress
of Vienna in 1804-15, the presence of the Russian Czar was conspicuous
for the reason that he was the only liberal who extended benign influence
on the proceedings of the Congress. It was he who insisted on offering
generous terms to the defeated French. He also insisted on the few French
kings to rule the country according to a charter. He encouraged the
aspirations of the German people for unity and integrity of their country. He
was exceptionally liberal with the Poles so much so that he formed a separate
kingdom of Poland and granted it autonomy under his rule. He granted a
constitution to Poland and respected the constitution of Finland, which was
recently annexed to Russia. He also liberated the serfs of some of the
Northern provinces and abolished slavery. His religious faith led to the
formation of a Holy Alliance. But he gave up liberalism and became an arch
reactionary when he came under the full influence of Metternich.

l Nicholas I (1825-55)
The death of Alexander was followed by uprisings by the liberals who
wanted to set up a constitutional government in Russia. The revolutionaries
are called Decemberists, for they led the uprisings in December. But
Nicholas I, who was the brother of Alexander I and succeeded to the throne
after some troubles, suppressed the uprising most cruelly. He became an
arch enemy of liberalism. He banned foreign periodicals and magazines,
forbade foreign travels and established an effective espionage system to
check the spread of liberal ideas.
Nicholas crushed the Poles when they revolted in 1830. About, 45000
Poles were banished from the country. Nicholas pursued an imperialistic
policy. He wanted to dismember Turkey by supporting the cause of the
Greeks. He took full advantage of the defeat of the Turkey at Naverino. He

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compelled the Sultan after the withdrawal of France and England from the
scene, to accept the treaty of Adrianople be which Greece was made free.
By the treaty of Unkier Skelessi with Turkey after the defeat of Mehemet Ali,
Nicholas converted the Black sea into a Russian lake. Nicholas also helped
Austria by crushing the Hungarian revolt in 1848. He helped the Prussian
king in check when he was offered the German crown by the Frankfurt
parliament. But it was the issue regarding the holy places in Turkey that led
to Nicholas’ downfall. By supporting the cause of the Greek monks, he
wished to bring Turkey under his control. But he failed. The Crimean War
brought about his fall and death.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions-

Q 1: How many classes were there in the Russian society?
.............................................................................................................
Q 2: What does “Ukase” mean?
.............................................................................................................
Q 3: When did Alexander I ascend the throne?
.............................................................................................................
Q 4: Who were the “Decemberists”?
.............................................................................................................

7.4 ALEXANDER II AND HIS REFORMS

On the death of Nicholas I, the Russian throne was occupied by his

son Alexander II in 1855 until his assassination in 1881. He was thirty seven
years of age when he ascended the throne and did not inherit the cruel
traits of his father. He was most humiliated at the defeat of his country at
the hands of Britain and France in the Crimean war. The disaster of Crimea
(1856) exposed the military ineptitude and revealed the socio-economic

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Russian Reform Movement (1815) Unit-7

backwardness of the country. The final responsibility of this state of affairs

rested squarely on the shoulders of the despotic Czar. Therefore the new
Czar who succeeded during the middle of the Crimean war felt it necessary
to introduce liberal reforms in his country. As mentioned earlier he
inaugurated a series of reforms during the first decade of his tenure. But he
was careful enough to safeguard royal prerogatives and let the people know
that reforms can come from above and not by violent revolution.

Ø Reforms
All repressive laws relating to the freedom of travel, press and religion
were revoked. The expansion of Railways under the Czar gave special
preference to railways building and setting up of weapon industry. The
Government helped the growing industries by supply of capital and securing
foreign capital. During 1860-1870, exports rose in value from 181 to 350
million roubles, and import from 159 to 336 million.

Ø Emancipation of the Serfs

Russia had forty-five million serfs, half of them working on the crown
lands and the remaining under the nobles and the Church. They worked on
lands of their masters and received meager wages. They were much
exploited. No improvements on land were effected either by the landlord or
the church or the emperor, but the crushing burden of paying taxes fell
upon the shoulders of the peasants. Comparatively the serfs working on
the crown’s land were better off since the lands were held by Mirs (village
communities). During the last days of Alexander I he envisaged a scheme
to emancipate the serfs gradually. After his death, his brother Nicholas did
not do anything, on this issue.

On March 3, 1861, the Edict of Emancipation was issued. It abolished

serfdom throughout the Empire, and it won for Alexander the popular title of
the “Czar Liberator.” This manifesto did not merely declare the serfs free
men; but it undertook also to solve the far more difficult problem of the
ownership of the soil. The Czar felt that merely to give the serfs freedom,
and to leave all the land in the possessions of the nobles, would mean the

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Unit-7 Russian Reform Movement (1815)

creation of a great proletariat possessing no property, therefore likely to fall

at once into a position of economic dependence upon the nobles, which
would make the gift of freedom a mere mockery. Moreover the peasants
were firmly convinced that they were the rightful owners of the lands which
they and their ancestors for centuries had lived upon and cultivated, and
the fact that the landlords were legally the owner did not alter their opinion.
To give them freedom without land, leaving that with the nobles, who desired
to retain it, would be bitterly resented as making their condition worse than
ever. On the other hand, to give them the land with their freedom would
mean the ruin of the nobility as a class, considered essential to the state.
The consequence of this conflict of interests was a compromise, satisfactory
to neither party, but more favorable to the nobility than to the peasants.

l The Division of the Land

The lands were divided into two parts. The landlords were to keep
one; the other was to go to the peasants either individually or collectively as
members of the village community or Mir to which they belonged. But this
was not given to them outright; the peasant and the village must pay the
landlord for the land assigned to them. As they were not in a position to do
this the state was to advance the money, getting it back by installments.
This arrangement was a great disappointment to the peasants. Their newly
acquired freedom seemed a doubtful boon in the light of this method of
dividing the land. Indeed, they could not see that they were profiting from
the change. Personal liberty would not mean much, when the condition of
earning a livelihood became harder rather than lighter. The peasants
regarded the land as their own. But the state guaranteed forever a part to
the landlords and announced that the peasants must pay for the part
assigned to them. Moreover, as the division worked out, they found that
they had less land for their own use than in the pre-emancipation days and
that they had to pay the landlords, through the state, more than the lands
which they did receive were worth. The Edict of Emancipation did not
therefore bring either peace or prosperity to the peasants. The land question
became steadily more acute during the next fifty years owing to the vast

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increase in population and the consequent greater pressure upon the land.
The Russian peasant lived necessarily on the verge of starvation.
The emancipation of the serfs is seen, therefore, not to have been a
boon. Yet Russia gained morally in the esteem of other nations by abolishing
an indefensible wrong. Legally, every man was free. Moreover, the peasants,
though faring ill, yet fared better than had the peasants of Prussia and Austria
at the time of liberation.

l Administrative Reforms
Alexander set up District Local Councils, which were representatives
of the people. The Provincial Councils were elected by these District
Councils. The duties assigned to these local bodies were related to the
development of infra-structure, like the repairing of roads and bridges,
supervision of sanitation and primary education and prevention of famines.
The power of these councils was, however, restricted by the veto power of
the Provincial Governor. These councils proved a very good ground for
training in the management of public affairs. They also paved the way for
decentralization of power.

l Judicial Reform
Alexander improved the judicial system which had become corrupt
and inefficient. He separated judiciary from executive in order to make the
judges independent in their work. The trial by jury was introduced and court
proceedings were made public. He got framed a new panel code so that all
the cases could be tried uniformly. Now all were treated as equals in the
eyes of law. The Court was guided by Customary and National laws. Trained
judges were appointed in higher courts. The sole higher court of appeal
was the Senate. Justices of the Peace, chosen by popular election, were
instituted to deal with minor cases. However, Alexander made a mistake in
making this office elective. It bred corruption after some years.

l Financial Reforms
In the financial sphere, Russia established the State Bank in 1866,
which put the national currency on a firmer footing. The Ministry of Finance

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Unit-7 Russian Reform Movement (1815)

supported railroad development, which facilitated vital export activity, but it

was cautious and moderate in its foreign ventures. The ministry also funded
the Peasant Land Bank in 1882 to enable enterprising farmers to acquire
more land. Other important measure was the abolition of liquor concessions
in favour of an Excise tax.

l Recognition of Fundamental Rights and Educational Reforms

Alexander II was the first Czar who gave recognition of the fundamental
rights of the people. He removed the censorship against the press,
journalism and educational institutions. Several new educational institutions
were set up throughout the country. In 1858, a High School was started for
the education of girls. A ministry of education was set up by Alexander II. It
set up large number of primary schools in towns, which was controlled by
Zemstov. A new establishment for secondary school was introduced.
Lecturers were appointed more freely and Deans of Faculties were elected.
The new University Code granted autonomy to the Universities. The
Professors were granted full freedom to express their views to the students.
Teaching of law was made more modern. In the school syllabi, teaching of
Greek, Latin and Mathematics were introduced along with natural science.
The number of Secondary Schools increased. A great progress was made
in women’s education. The number of the universities in Russia arose to 8.

l Military Reforms
The reform of the military service (1874) was the last of the principal
reforms during the reign of Alexander II. The Franco- Prussian War
demonstrated the necessity of building a modern army. The old system of
long term service (25 years) for a limited number of recruits were
abandoned, as being too heavy a burden for the people and as providing
practically no reserves. The new conscription system, which provided for a
short term active service followed by several years in reserve, was
introduced by Dmitry Milyutin in 1874. It was drawn on democratic lines,
calling to the colours all young men of 21 without distinction of class.
Exemption was only granted to young men who were the sole breadwinners
of their families. It also gave the army a role in teaching many peasants to
read and pioneering medical education for women.
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Russian Reform Movement (1815) Unit-7

l Criticism
These reforms though conceived in an enlightened spirit, proved
disappointing to the peasant. They regarded themselves burdened with taxes
and bitterly resented the payment of compensation for the land which they
had come to regard as their own. The nobility lost their free labour supply
and their debts were paid out of their redemption fees. Accustomed to free
labour, they found it hard to adopt themselves to the change and they soon
discovered that the bonds they received as compensation money were not
readily convertible into cash. The abolition of serfdom failed to achieve the
desired results. Though the serf was relieved of certain disabilities, but he
was burdened with fresh obligations.

The reform of Local Self Government was accepted by the people

with indifference. Its impact on the society was marginal. The Zemstov
was not a political body. It could not criticize and control the executive and
influence its policy. It was no alternative to a parliament. It had no power to
control the tyranny of officers. Nor was the autocratic power of the Czar
reduced by any degree. The Zemstov had no right to raise its fund by
independent taxation. It had to depend on the contribution of the Government
which was meagre.

Above mentioned were some major reforms of Alexander II .The first

ten years of his reign saw the introduction of many salutary reforms which
raised high hopes among the liberals. A new spirit began to pervade Russia
and it found expression in new literature. But disillusionment was not long
in coming.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

Q 5: In which year did the Crimean War take place?

.............................................................................................................

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Unit-7 Russian Reform Movement (1815)

Q 6: When was the Edict of Emancipation of Serfs issued?

.............................................................................................................

Q 7: Who was known as the “Czar Liberator”?

.............................................................................................................

Q 8: When was the High School for girls started in Russia?

.............................................................................................................

Q 9: When did Russia establish the State Bank?

.............................................................................................................

7.5 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit we have learnt about-

l The deplorable socio-economic conditions in Russia during the early
19th century.
l The reactionary regime of Alexander I and Nicholas I and the growing
protests by the people during their rule.
l The liberal reforms brought during the reign of Alexander II in various
aspects of the administration which had an impact on the lives of
the people.

7.6 FURTHER READING

1) Mahajan V.D. (1956) : Modern Europe since 1789. Delhi, India: S.

Chand & Company Limited

2) Rao, B.V. (1985) : History of Modern Europe 1789-1975. New Delhi,

India : Sterling Publishers Private Limited.

3) Lipson, E. (1968) : Europe in the Nineteenth Century, 1815-1914

(11th edition). London : A. and C. Black.

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Russian Reform Movement (1815) Unit-7

7.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer to Q No 1: Two classes- the nobles and the serfs.

Answer to Q No 2: Imperial order

Answer to Q No 3: 1801

Answer to Q No 4: Decemberists were the liberals who wanted to set up

constitutional government in Russia.

Answer to Q No 5: 1853-1856

Answer to Q No 6: March 3rd, 1861.

Answer to Q No 7: Alexander II.

Answer to Q No 8: 1858

Answer to Q No 9: 1866

7.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: What were the liberal steps taken by Alexander II?

Q 2: How did Alexander II pave the way for decentralization of power?

Q 3: What were the measures taken by Alexander II for the Fundamental

Rights of the people?

Q 4: What were the military reforms done by Alexander II?

Q 5: What were the financial reforms done in the reign of Alexander II?

B) Short Questions (answer each question within 150 words)

Q 1: Write a short note on the social conditions of Russia during 1815.

Q 2: Write a note the political conditions of Russia during 19th century.

Q 3: What were the administrative reforms of Alexander II?

Q 4: What were the judicial reforms done by Alexander II?

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Unit-7 Russian Reform Movement (1815)

C) Long Questions (answer each question with 300-500 words)

Q 1: What was the foreign policy of Nicholas I?

Q 2: Give an account of the opening years of the reign of Nicholas II.

Q 3: What reforms were enacted during the reign of Alexander II?

Q 4: Write a note on the “Emancipation of Serfs”.

*** ***** ***

108 History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1)

 REFERENCES

English Books-
1) Hayes, C.J.H. (1963). Modern Europe to 1870. New York, NY: MacMillan
2) Ketelby, C.D.M. (1994). A History of Modern Times from 1789. New
Delhi, India Oxford University Press.
3) Lipson, E.(1968). Europe in the Nineteenth Century (1815-1914).
London, UK: A. and C .Black
4) Mahajan, V.D. (2009). History of Modern Europe since 1789. New
Delhi, India S.Chand & Co.
5) Rao, B.V. (1985). History of Modern Europe (1789-1975). New Delhi,
India: Sterling Publishers Prvt Ltd.
6) Simpsons, William and Jones, Martin (2nd edition). (2009). Europe
(1789-1914). London, UK: Routledge
7) Thompson, David. (1990). Europe since Napoleon. New Delhi, India:
Surjeet Publications

Websites and Electronic Sources-

1) Blind, Karl. (1869). The Spanish Revolution in The North American

Review, Vol. (108), pp.- 542-578.
2) Parker, A.A. (1937). History of Carlism in Spain in Studies : An Irish
Quarterly Review, Vol. (26), pp. 16-25.
3) Smith, Willard. A. (1953). Napoleon III and the Spanish Revolution of
1868 in The Journal of Modern History, Vol . (25), pp. 211-233
4) Smith, Willard A. (1950). The Background of the Spanish Revolution
of 1868 in The American Historical Review, Vol. (55), pp. 787-810

History of Europe (1789-1878) (Block-1) 109