Sear

Biodegradable
plastic

Disposable cutlery made from biodegradable plastic

Biodegradable plastics are plastics that
can be decomposed by the action of living
organisms, usually microbes, into water,
carbon dioxide, and biomass.[1]
Biodegradable plastics are commonly
produced with renewable raw materials,
micro-organisms, petrochemicals, or
combinations of all three.[2]

While the words "bioplastic" and

"biodegradable plastic" are similar, they are
not synonymous. Not all bioplastics are
biodegradable.
Application
Biodegradable plastics are commonly
used for disposable items, such as
packaging, crockery, cutlery, and food
service containers.[3] In principle they
could replace many applications for
conventional plastics, however cost and
performance remain problematic. Their
usage is financially favorable only if
supported by specific regulations limiting
the usage of conventional plastics.[4] For
example, biodegradable plastic bags and
shoppers have been compulsory in Italy
since 2011 with the introduction of a
specific law.[5]

Types

Development of biodegradable containers

Bio-based plastics …
Biologically synthesized plastics (also
called bioplastics or biobased plastics) are
plastics produced from natural origins,
such as plants, animals, or micro-
organisms.[6]

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) …

Polyhydroxyalkanoates are a class of

biodegradable plastic naturally produced
by various micro-organisms (example:
Cuprividus necator). Specific types of
PHAs include poly-3-hydroxybutyrate
(PHB), polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV) and
polyhydroxyhexanoate (PHH). The
biosynthesis of PHA is usually driven by
depriving organisms of certain nutrients
(e.g. lack of macro elements such as
phosphorus, nitrogen, or oxygen) and
supplying an excess of carbon sources.[7]
PHA granules are then recovered by
rupturing the micro-organisms.[8]

PHA can be further classified into two

types:

scl-PHA from hydroxy fatty acids with

short chain lengths including three to
five carbon atoms are synthesized by
numerous bacteria, including
 Cupriavidus necator and Alcaligenes
latus (PHB).
mcl-PHA from hydroxy fatty acids with
medium chain lengths including six to
14 carbon atoms, can be made for
example, by Pseudomonas putida.[9]

Polylactic acid (PLA) …

Polylactic acid is thermoplastic aliphatic

polyester synthesized from renewable
biomass, typically from fermented plant
starch such as from corn, cassava,
sugarcane or sugar beet pulp. In 2010,
PLA had the second highest consumption
volume of any bioplastic of the world.[10]

PLA is compostable, but non-

biodegradable according to American and
European standards because it does not
biodegrade outside of artificial
composting conditions. (See
#Compostable plastics.)

Starch blends …

Starch blends are thermoplastic polymers

produced by blending starch with
plasticizers. Because starch polymers on
their own are brittle at room temperature,
plasticizers are added in a process called
starch gelatinization to augment its
crystallization.[11] While all starches are
biodegradable, not all plasticizers are.
Thus, the biodegradability of the
plasticizer determines the biodegradbility
of the starch blend.

Biodegradable starch blends include

starch/polylactic acid,[12]
starch/polycaprolactone,[13] and
starch/polybutylene-adipate-co-
terephthalate.
Others blends such as starch/polyolefin
are not biodegradable.

Cellulose-based Plastics …

Cellulose bioplastics are mainly the

cellulose esters, (including cellulose
acetate and nitrocellulose) and their
derivatives, including celluloid. Cellulose
can become thermoplastic when
extensively modified. An example of this is
cellulose acetate, which is expensive and
therefore rarely used for packaging.[14]

Lignin-based polymer composites …

Lignin-based polymer composites are bio-
renewable natural aromatic polymers with
biodegradable properties. Lignin is found
as a byproduct of polysaccharide
extraction from plant material through the
production of paper, ethanol, and more.[15]
It is high in abundance with reports
showing that 50 million tons are being
created by chemical pulp industries each
year.[16] Lignin is useful due to its low
weight material and the fact that it is more
environmentally friendly than other
alternatives. Lignin is neutral to CO2
release during the biodegradation
process.[15] Other biodegradable plastic
processes such as polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) have been found to
release CO2 and water as waste products
produced by the degrading
microorganisms.[16]

Lignin contains comparable chemical

properties in comparison to current plastic
chemicals, which includes reactive
functional groups, the ability to form into
films, high carbon percentage, and it
shows versatility in relation to various
chemical mixtures used with plastics.
Lignin is also stable, and contains
aromatic rings. It is both elastic and
viscous yet flows smoothly in the liquid
phase. Most importantly lignin can
improve on the current standards of
plastics because it is antimicrobial in
nature.[15] It is being produced at such
great quantities and is readily available for
use as an emerging environmentally
friendly polymer.

Petroleum-based plastics …
Petroleum-based plastics are derived from
petrochemicals, which are obtained from
fossil crude oil, coal or natural gas. The
most widely used petroleum-based
plastics such as polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS)
are not biodegradable. However, the
following petroleum-based plastics listed
are.

Polyglycolic acid (PGA) …

Polyglycolic acid is a thermoplastic

polymer and an aliphatic polyester. PGA is
often used in medical applications such as
PGA sutures for its biodegradability. The
ester linkage in the backbone of
polyglycolic acid gives it hydrolytic
instability. Thus polyglycolic acid can
degrade into its nontoxic monomer,
glycolic acid, through hydrolysis. This
process can be expedited with esterases.
In the body, glycolic acid can enter the
tricarboxylic acid cycle, after which can be
excreted as water and carbon dioxide.[17]

Polybutylene succinate (PBS) …

Polybutylene succinate is a thermoplastic
polymer resin that has properties
comparable to propylene. It is used in
packaging films for food and cosmetics. In
the agricultural field, PBS is used as a
biodegradable mulching film[18] PBS can
be degraded by Amycolatopsis sp. HT-6
and Penicillium sp. strain 14-3. In addition,
Microbispora rosea, Excellospora japonica
and E. viridilutea have been shown to
consume samples of emulsified PBS.[19]

Polycaprolactone (PCL) …
Polycaprolactone has gained prominence
as an implantable biomaterial because the
hydrolysis of its ester linkages offers its
biodegradable properties. It has been
shown that firmicutes and proteobacteria
can degrade PCL. Penicillium sp. strain 26-
1 can degrade high density PCL; though
not as quickly as thermotolerant
Aspergillus sp. strain ST-01. Species of
clostridium can degrade PCL under
anaerobic conditions.[19]

Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA, PVOH) …

Poly(vinyl alcohol) is one of the few
biodegradable vinyl polymers that is
soluble in water. Due to its solubility in
water (an inexpensive and harmless
solvent), PVA has a wide range of
applications including food packaging,
textiles coating, paper coating, and
healthcare products.[20]

Polybutylene adipate terephthalate

(PBAT)
…

Polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT)

is a biodegradable random copolymer
Factors affecting
biodegradation
Chemical composition …

Least to greatest resistance to

biodegradation:
n-alkanes > branched alkanes > low
molecular weight aromatics > cyclic
alkanes > high molecular weight
aromatics = polar polymers[21]

Physical properties …

Shape
Exposed surface area
 Thickness[21]

Abiotic factors …

Temperature
Atmospheric water/salt concentration
Photo-degradation
Hydrolysis[21]

Biotic factors …

Presence of proper strains of

microorganisms[21]

History
Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) was first
observed in bacteria in 1888 by Martinus
Beijerinck.[22] In 1926, French
microbiologist Maurice Lemoigne
chemically identified the polymer after
extracting it from Bacillus
mageterium.[22][23] It was not until the early
1960s that the groundwork for scaled
production was laid.[24] Several patents for
the production and isolation of PHB, the
simplest PHA, were administered to W.R.
Grace & Co. (USA), but as a result of low
yields, tainted product and high extraction
costs, the operation was dissolved.[24]
When OPEC halted oil exports to the US to
boost global oil prices in 1973[25], more
plastic and  chemical companies began
making significant investment in the
biosynthesis of sustainable plastics. As a
result, Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI
UK) successfully produced PHB at a yield
of 70% using the strain Alcaligenes
latus.[24] The specific PHA produced in this
instance was a scl-PHA.[24] Production
efforts slowed dramatically due to the
undesirable properties of the PHA
produced and the diminishing threat of
rising oil prices soon thereafter.[24]
In 1983, the ICI received venture capital
funding and founded Marlborough
Biopolymers to manufacture the first
broad-application biodegradable plastic,
PHBV, named Biopol. Biopol is a
copolymer composed of PHB and PHV, but
was still too costly to produce to disrupt
the market. In 1996, Monsanto discovered
a method of producing one of the two
polymers in plants and acquired Biopol
from Zeneca, a spinout of ICI, as a result
of the potential for cheaper production.[26]
As a result of the steep increase in oil
prices in the early 2000s (to nearly
$140/barrel US$ in 2008), the plastic-
production industry finally sought to
implement these alternatives to
petroleum-based plastics.[27] Since then,
countless alternatives, produced
chemically or by other bacteria, plants,
seaweed and plant waste have sprung up
as solutions. Each of these potential
solutions has its drawbacks, such as high
water use, carbon emissions, or toxicity of
byproducts, but are ultimately a step
toward a more sustainable future. It was
first introduced in 1970.

Controversy
Though the terms “compostable”,
“bioplastics”, and “oxo-degradative
plastics” are often used in place of
“biodegradable plastics”, these terms are
not synonymous. The waste management
infrastructure currently recycles regular
plastic waste, incinerates it, or places it in
a landfill. Mixing biodegradable plastics
into the regular waste infrastructure poses
some dangers to the environment.[28]
Thus, it is crucial to identify how to
correctly decompose alternative plastic
materials.

Compostable plastics …

Both compostable plastics and

biodegradable plastics are materials that
break down into their organic constituents;
however, composting requires strict
control of environmental factors, including
higher temperatures, pressure and nutrient
concentration, as well as specific chemical
ratios. These conditions can only be
recreated in industrial composting plants,
which are few and far between.[29] Thus,
plastics that are compostable can degrade
only under highly controlled
environments.[30] Additionally, composting
typically takes place in aerobic
environments, while biodegradation may
take place in anaerobic environments.[31]
That is, biologically-based polymers,
sourced from non-fossil materials,
decompose naturally in the environment.
Whereas bioplastics, made of biologically
degradable polymers, require the
assistance of aneaerobic digesters or
composting units to break down synthetic
material during organic recycling
processes.[32]

Contrary to popular belief, non-

biodegradable compostable plastics do
indeed exist. These plastics will undergo
biodegradation under composting
conditions but will not begin degrading
until they are met. In other words, these
plastics cannot be claimed as
“biodegradable” (as defined by both
American and European Standards) due to
the fact that they cannot biodegrade
naturally in the biosphere. An example of a
non-biodegradable compostable plastic is
polylactic acid (PLA).[33][34]

The ASTM standard definition outlines that

a compostable plastic has to become "not
visually distinguishable" at the same rate
as something that has already been
established as being compostable under
the traditional definition.[35]

Bioplastics …

A plastic is considered a bioplastic if it

was produced partly or wholly with
biologically sourced polymers. A plastic is
considered biodegradable if it can degrade
into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass in
a given time frame (dependent on different
standards). Thus, the terms are not
synonymous. Not all bioplastics are
biodegradable.[36] An example of a non-
biodegradable bioplastic is bio-based PET.
PET is a petrochemical plastic, derived
from fossil fuels. Bio-based PET is the
same petrochemical plastic however it is
synthesized with bacteria. Bio-based PET
has identical technical properties to its
fossil-based counterpart.[37]
Oxo-degradable plastics …

In addition, oxo-degradable plastics are

commonly perceived to be biodegradable.
However, they are simply conventional
plastics with additives called
prodegredants that accelerate the
oxidation process. While oxo-degradable
plastics rapidly break down through
exposure to sunlight and oxygen, they
persist as huge quantities of microplastics
rather than any biological material.[38]

Greenwashing …
All materials are inherently biodegradable,
whether it takes a few weeks or a million
years to break down into organic matter
and mineralize.[39] Therefore, products that
are classified as “biodegradable” but
whose time and environmental constraints
are not explicitly stated are misinforming
consumers and lack transparency.[36]
Normally, credible companies convey the
specific biodegradable conditions of their
products, highlighting that their products
are in fact biodegradable under national or
international standards. Additionally,
companies that label plastics with oxo-
biodegradable additives as entirely
biodegradable contribute to
misinformation. Similarly, some brands
may claim that their plastics are
biodegradable when, in fact, they are non-
biodegradable bioplastics.

Environmental impacts
Environmental benefits …

Microbial degradation: The primary

purpose of biodegradable plastics is to
replace traditional plastics that persist in
landfills and harm the environment.
Therefore, the ability of microorganisms to
break down these plastics is an incredible
environmental advantage. Microbial
degradation is accomplished by 3 steps:
colonization of the plastic surface,
hydrolysis, and mineralization. First,
microorganisms populate the exposed
plastics. Next, the bacteria secrete
enzymes that bind to the carbon source or
polymer substrates and then split the
hydrocarbon bonds. The process results in
the production of H2O and CO2. Despite
the release of CO2 into the environment,
biodegradable plastics leave a smaller
footprint than petroleum-based plastics
that accumulate in landfills and cause
heavy pollution, which is why they are
explored as alternatives to traditional
plastics.[19]

Municipal solid waste: According to a

2010 report of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
the US had 31 million tons of plastic
waste, representing 12.4% of all municipal
solid waste. Of that, 2.55 million tons were
recovered. This 8.2% recovery was much
less than the 34.1% overall recovery
percentage for municipal solid waste.[40]

Depressed plastics recovery rates can be

attributed to conventional plastics are
often commingled with organic wastes
(food scraps, wet paper, and liquids),
leading to accumulation of waste in
landfills and natural habitats.[41] On the
other hand, composting of these mixed
organics (food scraps, yard trimmings, and
wet, non-recyclable paper) is a potential
strategy for recovering large quantities of
waste and dramatically increasing
community recycling goals. As of 2015,
food scraps and wet, non-recyclable paper
respectively comprise 39.6 million and
67.9 million tons of municipal solid
waste.[42]

Biodegradable plastics can replace the

non-degradable plastics in these waste
streams, making municipal composting a
significant tool to divert large amounts of
otherwise nonrecoverable waste from
landfills.[43] Compostable plastics combine
the utility of plastics (lightweight,
resistance, relative low cost) with the
ability to completely and fully compost in
an industrial compost facility. Rather than
worrying about recycling a relatively small
quantity of commingled plastics,
proponents argue that certified
biodegradable plastics can be readily
commingled with other organic wastes,
thereby enabling composting of a much
larger portion of nonrecoverable solid
waste.

Commercial composting for all mixed

organics then becomes commercially
viable and economically sustainable. More
municipalities can divert significant
quantities of waste from overburdened
landfills since the entire waste stream is
now biodegradable and therefore easier to
process. This move away from the use of
landfills may help alleviate the issue of
plastic pollution.

The use of biodegradable plastics,

therefore, is seen as enabling the
complete recovery of large quantities of
municipal solid waste (via aerobic
composting and feedstocks) that have
heretofore been unrecoverable by other
means except land filling or
incineration.[44]

Environmental concerns …

Oxo-biodegradation: There are allegations

that biodegradable plastic bags may
release metals, and may require a great
deal of time to degrade in certain
circumstances[45] and that OBD (oxo-
biodegradable) plastics may produce tiny
fragments of plastic that do not continue
to degrade at any appreciable rate
regardless of the environment.[46][47] The
response of the Oxo-biodegradable
Plastics Association (www.biodeg.org) is
that OBD plastics do not contain metals.
They contain salts of metals, which are not
prohibited by legislation and are in fact
necessary as trace-elements in the human
diet. Oxo-biodegradation of polymer
material has been studied in depth at the
Technical Research Institute of Sweden
and the Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences. A peer-reviewed report of the
work shows 91% biodegradation in a soil
environment within 24 months, when
tested in accordance with ISO 17556.[48]
Effect on food supply: There is also much
debate about the total carbon, fossil fuel
and water usage in manufacturing
biodegradable bioplastics from natural
materials and whether they are a negative
impact to human food supply. To make
1 kg (2.2 lb) of polylactic acid, the most
common commercially available
compostable plastic, 2.65 kg (5.8 lb) of
corn is required.[49] Since as of 2010,
approximately 270 million tonnes of
plastic are made every year,[50] replacing
conventional plastic with corn-derived
polylactic acid would remove 715.5 million
tonnes from the world's food supply, at a
time when global warming is reducing
tropical farm productivity.[51]

Methane release: There is concern that

another greenhouse gas, methane, might
be released when any biodegradable
material, including truly biodegradable
plastics, degrades in an anaerobic landfill
environment. Methane production from
594 managed landfill environments is
captured and used for energy[52]; some
landfills burn this off through a process
called flaring to reduce the release of
methane into the environment. In the US,
most landfilled materials today go into
landfills where they capture the methane
biogas for use in clean, inexpensive
energy.[53] Incinerating non-biodegradable
plastics will release carbon dioxide as
well. Disposing of non-biodegradable
plastics made from natural materials in
anaerobic (landfill) environments will
result in the plastic lasting for hundreds of
years.[54]

Biodegradation in the ocean:

Biodegradable plastics that have not fully
degraded are disposed of in the oceans by
waste management facilities with the
assumption that the plastics will
eventually break down in a short amount
of time. However, the ocean is not optimal
for biodegradation, as the process favors
warm environments with an abundance of
microorganisms and oxygen. Remaining
microfibers that have not undergone
biodegradation can cause harm to marine
life.[55]

Energy costs for production

Various researchers have undertaken
extensive life cycle assessments of
biodegradable polymers to determine
whether these materials are more energy
efficient than polymers made by
conventional fossil fuel-based means.
Research done by Gerngross, et al.
estimates that the fossil fuel energy
required to produce a kilogram of
polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) is 50.4
MJ/kg,[56][57] which coincides with another
estimate by Akiyama, et al.,[58] who
estimate a value between 50-59 MJ/kg.
This information does not take into
account the feedstock energy, which can
be obtained from non-fossil fuel based
methods. Polylactide (PLA) was estimated
to have a fossil fuel energy cost of 54-56.7
from two sources,[59][60] but recent
developments in the commercial
production of PLA by NatureWorks has
eliminated some dependence of fossil
fuel-based energy by supplanting it with
wind power and biomass-driven
strategies. They report making a kilogram
of PLA with only 27.2 MJ of fossil fuel-
based energy and anticipate that this
number will drop to 16.6 MJ/kg in their
next generation plants. In contrast,
polypropylene and high-density
polyethylene require 85.9 and 73.7 MJ/kg,
respectively,[61] but these values include
the embedded energy of the feedstock
because it is based on fossil fuel.

Gerngross reports a 2.65 kg total fossil

fuel energy equivalent (FFE) required to
produce a single kilogram of PHA, while
polyethylene only requires 2.2 kg FFE.[62]
Gerngross assesses that the decision to
proceed forward with any biodegradable
polymer alternative will need to take into
account the priorities of society with
regard to energy, environment, and
economic cost.

Furthermore, it is important to realize the

youth of alternative technologies.
Technology to produce PHA, for instance,
is still in development today, and energy
consumption can be further reduced by
eliminating the fermentation step, or by
utilizing food waste as feedstock.[63] The
use of alternative crops other than corn,
such as sugar cane from Brazil, are
expected to lower energy requirements.
For instance, "manufacturing of PHAs by
fermentation in Brazil enjoys a favorable
energy consumption scheme where
bagasse is used as source of renewable
energy."[64]

Many biodegradable polymers that come

from renewable resources (i.e. starch-
based, PHA, PLA) also compete with food
production, as the primary feedstock is
currently corn. For the US to meet its
current output of plastics production with
BPs, it would require 1.62 square meters
per kilogram produced.[65]
Regulations/standards
To ensure the integrity of products labelled
as “biodegradable,” the following
standards have been established:

United States …

ASTM International defines methods to

test for biodegradable plastic, both
anaerobically and aerobically, as well as in
marine environments. The specific
subcommittee responsibility for
overseeing these standards falls on the
Committee D20.96 on Environmentally
Degradable Plastics and Bio based
Products.[66] The current ASTM standards
are defined as standard specifications and
standard test methods. Standard
specifications create a pass or fail
scenario whereas standard test methods
identify the specific testing parameters for
facilitating specific time frames and
toxicity of biodegradable tests on plastics.

Anaerobic conditions …

ASTM D5511-18 - Standard Test Method

for Determining Anaerobic Biodegradation
of Plastic Materials Under High-Solids
Anaerobic-Digestion Conditions[67]

ASTM D5526-18 - Standard Test Method

for Determining Anaerobic Biodegradation
of Plastic Materials Under Accelerated
Landfill Conditions[68]

Both standards above indicate that a

minimum of 70% of the material should
have biodegraded by 30 days (ASTM
D5511-18) or the duration of the testing
procedure (ASTM D5526-18) to be
considered biodegradable under anaerobic
conditions.[67][68]
Aerobic conditions …

ASTM D6400 - Standard Specification for

Labeling of Plastics Designed to be
Aerobically Composted in Municipal or
Industrial Facilities[69]

ASTM D6868 - Standard Specification for

Labeling of End Items that Incorporate
Plastics and Polymers as Coatings or
Additives with Paper and Other Substrates
Designed to be Aerobically Composted in
Municipal or Industrial Facilities[35]
Both standards above outline procedures
for testing and labelling biodegradability in
aerobic composting conditions. Plastics
can be classified as biodegradable in
aerobic environments when 90% of the
material is fully mineralized into CO2
within 180 days (~6 months).[69][35]

Europe …

Anaerobic conditions …

EN 13432:2000 - Packaging: requirements

for packaging recoverable through
composting and biodegradation[70]

Similar to the US standards, the European

standard requires that 90% of the polymer
fragments be fully mineralized into CO2
within 6 months.[70]

Aerobic conditions …

EN 14046:2004 - Evaluation of the

ultimate aerobic biodegradability and
disintegration of packaging materials
under controlled composting
conditions.[71]
Do oxo-degradable plastics fulfill …

the US and European standards?

Oxo-degradable plastics cannot be

classified as biodegradable under
American and European standards
because they take too long to break down
and leave plastic fragments not capable of
being consumed by microorganisms.
Although intended to facilitate
biodegradation, oxo-degradable plastics
often do not fragment optimally for
microbial digestion.[72]

Role of genetic engineering

and synthetic biology
With rising concern for environmental
ramifications of plastic waste, researchers
have been exploring the application of
genetic engineering and synthetic biology
for optimizing biodegradable plastic
production. This involves altering the
endogenous genetic makeup or other
biological systems of organisms.[73]

In 1995, an article titled “Production of

Polyhydroxyalkanoates, a Family of
Biodegradable Plastics and Elastomers, in
Bacteria and Plants” describes the use of
synthetic biology to increase the yield of
polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs),
specifically in Arabidopsis plants.[74]
Similarly, a study conducted in 1999
investigated how the oil seed rape plant
can be genetically modified to produce
PHBVs. Although a high yield was not
produced, this displays the early use of
genetic engineering for production of
biodegradable plastics.[75]

Efforts are still being made in the direction

of biodegradable plastic production
through genetic fabrication and re-design.
A paper published in 2014 titled “Genetic
engineering increases yield of
biodegradable plastic from cyanobacteria”
outlines procedures conducted to produce
a higher yield of PHBs that is industrially
comparable. Previous research indicated
that both Rre37 and SigE proteins are
separately responsible for the activation of
PHB production in the Synechocystis strain
of cyanobacteria. Thus, in this study, the
Synechocystis strain was modified to
overexpress Rre37 and SigE proteins
together under nitrogen-limited
conditions.[76]
Currently, a student-run research group at
the University of Virginia (Virginia iGEM
2019) is in the process of genetically
engineering Escherichia coli to convert
styrene (monomer of polystyrene) into
P3HBs (a type of PHA). The project aims
to demonstrate that waste polystyrene can
effectively be used as a carbon source for
biodegradable plastic production, tackling
both issues of polystyrene waste
accumulation in landfills and high
production cost of PHAs.[77]

Biodegradable conducting
polymers in the medical field
Biodegradable Conducting Polymers (CPs)
are a polymeric material designed for
applications within the human body.
Important properties of this material are
its electrical conductivity comparable to
traditional conductors and its
biodegradability. The medical applications
of biodegradable CPs are attractive to
medical specialties such as tissue
engineering and regenerative medicine.[78]
In tissue engineering, the key focus is on
providing damaged organs with
physicochemical cues to damaged organs
for repair. This is achieved through use of
nanocomposite scaffolding.[79]
Regenerative medicine applications are
designed to regenerate cells along with
improving the repair process of the
body.[80] The use of biodegradable CPs
can also be implemented into biomedical
imaging along with implants, and more.[78]

The design of biodegradable CPs began

with the blending of biodegradable
polymers including polylactides,
polycaprolactone, and polyurethanes. This
design triggered innovation into what is
being engineered as of the year 2019. The
current biodegradable CPs is applicable
for use in the biomedical field. The
compositional architecture of current
biodegradable CPs includes the
conductivity properties of oligomer-based
biodegradable polymers implemented into
compositions of linear, starshaped, or
hyperbranched formations. Another
implementation to enhance the
biodegradable architecture of the CPs is
by use of monomers and conjugated links
that are degradable.[78] The biodegradable
polymers used in biomedical applications
typically consist of hydrolyzable esters
and hydrazones. These molecules, upon
external stimulation, go on to be cleaved
and broken down. The cleaving activation
process can be achieved through use of
an acidic environment, increasing the
temperature, or by use of enzymes.[78]
Three categories of biodegradable CP
composites have been established in
relation their chemistry makeup. The first
category includes partially biodegradable
CP blends of conductive and
biodegradable polymeric materials. The
second category includes conducting
oligomers of biodegradable CPs. The third
category is that of modified and
degradable monimer units along with use
of degradable conjugated links for use in
biodegradable CPs polymers.[78][79]

See also
Biodegradable bags
Biodegradable waste
Biodegradable additives
Bioplastic
BioSphere Plastic
Economics of plastics processing
 Microplastics
Photodegradation
Plastic bag
Plastics 2020 Challenge

Further reading
Biodegradable Plastics and Marine
Litter
Biodegradability of Plastics: Challenges
and Misconceptions
Stevens, Eugene (2002). Green plastics :
an introduction to the new science of
biodegradable plastics . Princeton:
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