PARTS OF A COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

PACKAGE
References/Further Reading
Performance Criteria Checklist
Operation/Task/Job Sheet
Self Check Answer Key
Self Check
Information Sheet
Learning Experiences
Learning Outcome Summary
Module Content
Module Content
Module
List of Competencies
Content

Module Content

Module Content
Front Page In our efforts to standardize CBLM, the
above parts are recommended for use
in Competency Based Training (CBT) in
Technical Education and Skills
Development Authority (TESDA)
Technology Institutions. The next
sections will show you the components
and features of each part.

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 ICONNECT GLOBAL INSTITUTE, INC.
Poblacion Central, Ocampo, Camarines Sur

Sector :
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Qualification Title:
ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS ASSEMBLY AND SERVICING NC II
Unit of Competency:
SERVICE CONSUMER ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS AND SYSTEMS

Module Title:
SERVICING CONSUMER ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS AND SYSTEMS

ICONNECT GLOBAL INSTITUTE, INC.

Poblacion Central, Ocampo, Camarines Sur

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 Consumer Electronics Servicing NCII

COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIALS

List of Competencies

No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

ASSEMBLE ELECTRONIC ASSEMBLING ELC724335

1.
PRODUCTS ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS

SERVICE CONSUMER SERVICING CONSUMER

2. ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS ELC724336
AND SYSTEMS AND SYSTEMS

SERVICE INDUSTRIAL SERVICING INDUSTRIAL

3.
ELECTRONIC MODULES, ELECTRONIC MODULES ELC724337
PRODUCTS AND PRODUCTS AND
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS

MODULE CONTENT

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UNIT OF COMPETENCY : SERVICE CONSUMER ELECTRONIC
PRODUCTS AND SYSTEMS

MODULE TITLE : SERVICING CONSUMER ELECTRONIC

PRODUCTS AND SYSTEMS
MODULE DESCRIPTOR : THIS MODULE COVERS THE KNOWLEDGE,
SKILLS AND ATTITUDES REQUIRED TO INSTALL
AND SERVICE CONSUMER ELECTRONIC
PRODUCTS AND SYSTEMS. IT INCLUDES
COMPETENCIES IN INSTALLING, MAINTENANCE
AND REPAIRING AUDIO-VIDEO PRODUCTS/
SYSTEMS AND DOMESTIC ELECTRONIC
APPLIANCES AND HOME SECURITY SYSTEM.

NOMINAL DURATION : 50 hours.

LEARNING OUTCOME NO.

Upon completion of this module, the trainee/student must be able to:

LO1. Prepare unit, tools and workplace for installation and service
LO2. Install consumer electronic products and systems
LO3. Diagnose faults and defects of consumer electronic products and systems
LO4. Maintain/Repair consumer electronic products
LO5. Re-assemble and test repaired consumer electronic product

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. Complete check-up of consumer electronic products and systems is conducted and

defects are identified, verified and documented against customer description.
2. Manuals and service information required for installation are acquired as per
standard procedure.
3. Repair/maintenance history is verified in line with the company procedures.
4. Workplace is set/prepared for installation job in line with the client’s requirements.
5. Necessary tools, test instruments and personal protective equipment are prepared in
line with job requirements

LO1 PREPARE UNIT, TOOLS AND WORKPLACE FOR INSTALLATION AND SERVICE

Contents:

 Mensuration/Mathematics
 Drawing and Schematic Diagram
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  Environmental Safety
 Hand and Power Tools
 Proper Care and Use of Tools
 Test and Measuring Instruments
 Care and use of Test and Measuring instrument
 Audio-Video Products and Systems
 Domestic Electronic Appliances
 Principles Of Electrical Circuits
 Fundamentals Of Direct Current Circuits
 Fundamentals Of Alternating Current Circuits
 Fundamentals Of Electronic Components And Circuits
 Fundamentals Of Digital Logics, Components & Circuits
 Fundamentals Of Microprocessor Circuits And Programming
 Analysis Of Troubles And Isolation Techniques
 Principles Of Sound And Acoustics
 Fundamentals Of Audio Amplifiers
 Fundamentals Of Audio Source & Noise Reduction System
 Fundamentals Of AM &FM Receivers
 Principles Of Vision And Color
 Fundamentals Of Color Television
 Fundamentals Of Video Sources & Noise Reduction System
 AM Transmission And Reception
 FM Transmission And Reception
 Analog TV Transmission And Reception
 Digital HDTV Transmission And Reception
 Audio Video Sources And Formats
 Pulse Code Modulation
 Home Theater System
 Digital Noise Reduction System
 CCTV System
 Infrared Remote Control System
 Motor And Motor Control System
 LED And Lighting System
 Heat And Heating Control System
 Solar Cell And Battery Management System
 Microcontroller
 Microcontroller Interfacing

Assessment Criteria

 Complete check-up of industrial electronic components, products and

systems is conducted and defects are identified, verified and documented
against customer description.
 Repair/maintenance history is verified in line with the company procedures.

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  Service manuals and service information required for repair/maintenance are
acquired as per standard procedure.
 Workplace is set/prepared for repair job in line with the company
requirements.
 Necessary tools, test instruments and personal protective equipment are
prepared in line with job requirements

Conditions

Students/trainees must be provided with the following:

 Learning elements and manuals

 Working area/bench
 PPE
 Tools, equipment and test instruments
 Needed audio-video products and systems
 Needed consumer appliances
 Service manuals/schematics
 ESD free working area/bench
 Needed electronic spare parts/supplies

Assessment Method:

1. Written Test
2. Practical Demonstration w/ oral questioning
3. Interview
4. Portfolio

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 Learning Experiences

Learning Outcome 1 :

PREPARE UNIT, TOOLS AND WORKPLACE FOR INSTALLATION AND SERVICE

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Fundamentals of Electronic and Electricity

How to Diagnose, Troubleshoot, Repair § Individual performance terminate

AM and FM Radio Television and and connection and repair Audio Video
Domestic Appliances
Maintaining Training Facilities, Disposal of Products and systems. Diagnose fault
toxic waste. How to use and Read
components, More techniques in and errors from Basic to advance
Repairing Audio/video products and electronics and digitals
Domestic Appliances.

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 Information Sheet 1.1-1

Mensuration Math

Measurement and Calculation

All of these variations of the so called "Ohm's Law" are mathematically equal to one
another.

Name Formula sign Unit Symbol

voltage V or E volt V
current I ampere (amp) A
resistance R ohm Ω
power P watt W

What is the formula for electrical current?

When the current is constant:
I=ΔQ/Δt
I is the current in amps (A)
Δ Q is the electric charge in coulombs (C),
that flows at time duration of Δ t in seconds (s).
Voltage V = current I × resistance R
Power P = voltage V × current I

In electrical conductors, in which the current and voltage are proportional

to each other, ohm's law applies: V ~ I or V ⁄ I = const.
Constantan wires or other metal wires held at a constant temperature meet
well ohm's law.
"V ⁄ I = R = const." ist not the law of ohm. It is the definition of the
resistance.
Thereafter, in every point, even with a bent curve, the resistance value can
be calculated.
For many electrical components such as diodes ohm's law does not apply.

"Ohm's Law" has not been invented by Mr. Ohm

"U ⁄ I = R = const." is not the law of Ohm or Ohm's law. It is the definition of the
resistance.
Thereafter, in every point - even with a bent curve - the resistance value can be
calculated.
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Ohm's law "postulates" following relationship: When a voltage is applied to an object,
the electric
current flowing through it changes the strength proportional to the voltage. In other
words, the
electrical resistance, defined as the quotient of voltage and current is constant, and
that is
independent of voltage and current. The name of the law "honors" Georg Simon
Ohm, who could
prove this relationship for some simple electrical conductors as one of the first
searchers.
"Ohm's Law" has really not been invented by Ohm.

Tip: Ohm's magic triangle

The magic V I R triangle can be used to calculate all
formulations of ohm's law.
Use a finger to hide the value to be calculated. The
other two values then show
how to do the calculation.
The symbol I or J = Latin: influare, international ampere, and R =
resistance. V = voltage or
electric potential difference, also called voltage drop, or E = electromotive
force (emf = voltage).
Voltage drop calculations - DC / single phase calculation
The voltage drop V in volts (V) is equal to the wire current I in amps (A) times twice
the wire length L in feet (ft) times the wire resistance per 1000 feet R in ohms (Ω /
kft)
divided by 1000:
Vdrop (V) = Iwire (A) × Rwire (Ω)
= Iwire (A) × (2 × L (ft) × Rwire (Ω / kft) / 1000 (ft / kft))

The voltage drop V in volts (V) is equal to the wire current I in amps (A) times twice
the wire length L in meters (m) times the wire resistance per 1000 meters R in ohms
(Ω / km) divided by 1000:
Vdrop (V) = Iwire (A) × Rwire (Ω)
= Iwire (A) × (2 × L (m) × Rwire (Ω / km) / 1000 (m / km))

If the unit of power P = I × V and of voltage V = I · R is needed,

look for "The Big Power Formulas":
Calculations: power (watt), voltage, current, resistance

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 Some persons think that Georg Simon Ohm calculated the "specific
resistance".
Therefore they think that only the following can be the true ohm's law.

Quantity of resistance

R = resistance Ω
ρ = specific resistance Ω×m
l = double length of the cable m
A = cross section mm2

Electrical conductivity (conductance) σ (sigma) = 1/ρ

Specific electrical resistance (resistivity) ρ (rho) = 1/σ

Electrical Electrical conductivity Electrical resistivity

conductor Electrical conductance Specific resistance
Silver σ = 62 S·m/mm² ρ = 0.0161 Ohm∙mm²/m
Copper σ = 58 S·m/mm² ρ = 0.0172 Ohm∙mm²/m
Gold σ = 41 S·m/mm² ρ = 0.0244 Ohm∙mm²/m
Aluminium σ = 36 S·m/mm² ρ = 0.0277 Ohm∙mm²/m
Constantan σ = 2.0 S·m/mm² ρ = 0.5000 Ohm∙mm²/m

Difference between electrical resistivity and electrical conductivity

The conductance in siemens is the reciprocal of the resistance in ohms.

Simply enter the value to the left or the right side.
The calculator works in both directions of the ↔ sign.

Electrical conductivity σ Specific elec. resistance ρ

58 ↔ 0.017241
S · m / mm² Ohm ∙ mm² / m
σ=1/ρ ρ=1/σ
siemens S = 1/Ω or ohm Ω = 1/S

The value of the electrical conductivity (conductance) and the specific

electrical resistance
(resistivity) is a temperature dependent material constant. Mostly it is given
at 20 or 25°C.
Resistance R = ρ × (l / A) or R = l / (σ × A)
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For all conductors the specific resistivity changes with the temperature. In a
limited
temperature range it is approximately linear:

where α is the temperature coefficient, T is the temperature and T0 is any

temperature,
such as T0 = 293.15 K = 20°C at which the electrical resistivity ρ (T0) is
known.

Cross-sectional area - cross section - slice plane

Now there is the question:

How can we calculate the cross sectional area (slice plane) A
from the wire diameter d and vice versa?

Calculation of the cross section A (slice plane) from diameter d:

r = radius of the wire

d = diameter of the wire

Calculation diameter d from cross section A (slice plane):

Cross section A of the wire in mm2 inserted in this formula gives the
diameter d in mm.

Calculation − Round cables and wires:

• Diameter to cross section and vice versa •

Electric voltage V = I × R (Ohm's law VIR)

Electrical voltage = amperage × resistance (Ohm's law)
Please enter two values, the third value will be calculated.

Electric power P = I × V (Power law PIV)

Electric power = amperage × voltage (Watt's Law)
Please enter two values, the third value will be calculated.

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 Electric Power P watts
Amperage I amps
Voltage V volts
reset

P=I×V I=P/V V=P/I

Ohm's law. V = I × R, where V is the potential across a circuit element, I is the
current
through it, and R is its resistance. This is not a generally applicable definition of
resistance. It is only applicable to ohmic resistors, those whose resistance R is
constant over the range of interest and V obeys a strictly linear relation to I.
Materials
are said to be ohmic when V depends linearly on R. Metals are ohmic so long as one
holds their temperature constant. But changing the temperature of a metal
changes R
slightly. When the current changes rapidly, as when turning on a light, or when using
AC
sources, slightly non-linear and non-ohmic behavior can be observed. For non-ohmic
resistors, R is current-dependent and the definition R = dV/dI is far more useful. This
is
sometimes called the dynamic resistance. Solid state devices such as thermistors
are
non-ohmic and non-linear. A thermistor's resistance decreases as it warms up, so its
dynamic resistance is negative. Tunnel diodes and some electrochemical processes
have a complicated I to V curve with a negative resistance region of operation. The
dependence of resistance on current is partly due to the change in the device's
temperature with increasing current, but other subtle processes also contribute to
change in resistance in solid state devices.

Calculation: Parallel Resistance (Resistor) Calculator

Color Code Calculator for Resistors

Electric Current, Electric Power, Electricity and Electric Charge

How electricity works.

Ohm's Law clearly explained.
The Formula Wheel - Formulas of Electrical EngineeringOhm's law as acoustic equivalent

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 SELF-TEST Question

1. Find the resistance in the circuit.

a. Given b. Given C. Given

E=220V E=45V
R=50Ω
I=145A R=34Ω
I=12A
Required required required
R=? I=?
E=?

2. Calculate the total resistance.

a. Given
R1=51.25Ω
R2=75.8Ω
R3=70.040Ω
R4=18.25Ω
Required
RT=?
ET=?
PT=?
IT=?

3. Find the following value for the circuit.

Given
R1=10Ω
R2=30Ω
R3=50Ω
Required
a. ER1=________________________
b. ER2=________________________
c. ER3=________________________
d. IR= ________________________
e. RT= ________________________

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 Decimal, Hexadecimal, Octal, Binary

De He De He De He De He
Oct Bin Oct Bin Oct Bin Oct Bin
c x c x c x c x

00 0000000 02 0001000 04 0010000 06 0011000

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
00 0000000 02 0001000 04 0010000 06 0011000
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
00 0000001 02 0001001 04 0010001 06 0011001
2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0
00 0000001 02 0001001 04 0010001 06 0011001
3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1
0 0 00 0000010 16 10 02 0001010 32 20 04 0010010 48 30 06 0011010
1 1 4 0 17 11 4 0 33 21 4 0 49 31 4 0
2 2 00 0000010 18 12 02 0001010 34 22 04 0010010 50 32 06 0011010
3 3 5 1 19 13 5 1 35 23 5 1 51 33 5 1
4 4 00 0000011 20 14 02 0001011 36 24 04 0010011 52 34 06 0011011
5 5 6 0 21 15 6 0 37 25 6 0 53 35 6 0
6 6 00 0000011 22 16 02 0001011 38 26 04 0010011 54 36 06 0011011
7 7 7 1 23 17 7 1 39 27 7 1 55 37 7 1
8 8 01 0000100 24 18 03 0001100 40 28 05 0010100 56 38 07 0011100
9 9 0 0 25 19 0 0 41 29 0 0 57 39 0 0
10 A 01 0000100 26 1A 03 0001100 42 2A 05 0010100 58 3A 07 0011100
11 B 1 1 27 1B 1 1 43 2B 1 1 59 3B 1 1
12 C 01 0000101 28 1C 03 0001101 44 2C 05 0010101 60 3C 07 0011101
13 D 2 0 29 1D 2 0 45 2D 2 0 61 3D 2 0
14 E 01 0000101 30 1E 03 0001101 46 2E 05 0010101 62 3E 07 0011101
15 F 3 1 31 1F 3 1 47 2F 3 1 63 3F 3 1
01 0000110 03 0001110 05 0010110 07 0011110
4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0
01 0000110 03 0001110 05 0010110 07 0011110
5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1
01 0000111 03 0001111 05 0010111 07 0011111
6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0
01 0000111 03 0001111 05 0010111 07 0011111
7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1

De He Oct Bin De He Oct Bin Dec He Oct Bin Dec He Oct Bin

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c x c x x x

10 0100000 12 0101000 14 011000 11 16 011100

0 0 0 0 0 00 2 0 00
10 0100000 12 0101000 96 14 011000 11 16 011100
1 1 1 1 97 1 01 3 1 01
10 0100001 12 0101001 98 14 011000 11 16 011100
2 0 2 0 99 2 10 4 2 10
10 0100001 12 0101001 10 14 011000 11 16 011100
3 1 3 1 0 3 11 5 3 11
60 70
64 40 10 0100010 80 50 12 0101010 10 14 011001 11 16 011101
61 71
65 41 4 0 81 51 4 0 1 4 00 6 4 00
62 72
66 42 10 0100010 82 52 12 0101010 10 14 011001 11 16 011101
63 73
67 43 5 1 83 53 5 1 2 5 01 7 5 01
64 74
68 44 10 0100011 84 54 12 0101011 10 14 011001 11 16 011101
65 75
69 45 6 0 85 55 6 0 3 6 10 8 6 10
66 76
70 46 10 0100011 86 56 12 0101011 10 14 011001 11 16 011101
67 77
71 47 7 1 87 57 7 1 4 7 11 9 7 11
68 78
72 48 11 0100100 88 58 13 0101100 10 15 011010 12 17 011110
69 79
73 49 0 0 89 59 0 0 5 0 00 0 0 00
6A 7A
74 4A 11 0100100 90 5A 13 0101100 10 15 011010 12 17 011110
6B 7B
75 4B 1 1 91 5B 1 1 6 1 01 1 1 01
6C 7C
76 4C 11 0100101 92 5C 13 0101101 10 15 011010 12 17 011110
6 7
77 4D 2 0 93 5D 2 0 7 2 10 2 2 10
D D
78 4E 11 0100101 94 5E 13 0101101 10 15 011010 12 17 011110
6E 7E
79 4F 3 1 95 5F 3 1 8 3 11 3 3 11
6F 7F
11 0100110 13 0101110 10 15 011011 12 17 011111
4 0 4 0 9 4 00 4 4 00
11 0100110 13 0101110 11 15 011011 12 17 011111
5 1 5 1 0 5 01 5 5 01
11 0100111 13 0101111 11 15 011011 12 17 011111
6 0 6 0 1 6 10 6 6 10
11 0100111 13 0101111 15 011011 12 17 011111
7 1 7 1 7 11 7 7 11

He He He He
Dec Oct Bin Dec Oct Bin Dec Oct Bin Dec Oct Bin
x x x x

12 80 20 100000 14 90 22 100100 16 A0 24 101000 17 B0 26 101100

8 81 0 00 4 91 0 00 0 A1 0 00 6 B1 0 00
12 82 20 100000 14 92 22 100100 16 A2 24 101000 17 B2 26 101100
9 83 1 01 5 93 1 01 1 A3 1 01 7 B3 1 01
13 84 20 100000 14 94 22 100100 16 A4 24 101000 17 B4 26 101100
0 85 2 10 6 95 2 10 2 A5 2 10 8 B5 2 10

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13 86 20 100000 14 96 22 100100 16 A6 24 101000 17 B6 26 101100
1 87 3 11 7 97 3 11 3 A7 3 11 9 B7 3 11
13 88 20 100001 14 98 22 100101 16 A8 24 101001 18 B8 26 101101
2 89 4 00 8 99 4 00 4 A9 4 00 0 B9 4 00
13 8A 20 100001 14 9A 22 100101 16 AA 24 101001 18 B 26 101101
3 8B 5 01 9 9B 5 01 5 A 5 01 1 A 5 01
13 8C 20 100001 15 9C 22 100101 16 B 24 101001 18 B 26 101101
4 8 6 10 0 9 6 10 6 A 6 10 2 B 6 10
13 D 20 100001 15 D 22 100101 16 C 24 101001 18 B 26 101101
5 8E 7 11 1 9E 7 11 7 A 7 11 3 C 7 11
13 8F 21 100010 15 9F 23 100110 16 D 25 101010 18 B 27 101110
6 0 00 2 0 00 8 A 0 00 4 D 0 00
13 21 100010 15 23 100110 16 E 25 101010 18 B 27 101110
7 1 01 3 1 01 9 AF 1 01 5 E 1 01
13 21 100010 15 23 100110 17 25 101010 18 BF 27 101110
8 2 10 4 2 10 0 2 10 6 2 10
13 21 100010 15 23 100110 17 25 101010 18 27 101110
9 3 11 5 3 11 1 3 11 7 3 11
14 21 100011 15 23 100111 17 25 101011 18 27 101111
0 4 00 6 4 00 2 4 00 8 4 00
14 21 100011 15 23 100111 17 25 101011 18 27 101111
1 5 01 7 5 01 3 5 01 9 5 01
14 21 100011 15 23 100111 17 25 101011 19 27 101111
2 6 10 8 6 10 4 6 10 0 6 10
14 21 100011 15 23 100111 17 25 101011 19 27 101111
3 7 11 9 7 11 5 7 11 1 7 11

He He He He
Dec Oct Bin Dec Oct Bin Dec Oct Bin Dec Oct Bin
x x x x

19 C0 30 110000 20 D 32 110100 22 E0 34 111000 24 F0 36 111100

2 C1 0 00 8 0 0 00 4 E1 0 00 0 F1 0 00
19 C2 30 110000 20 D 32 110100 22 E2 34 111000 24 F2 36 111100
3 C3 1 01 9 1 1 01 5 E3 1 01 1 F3 1 01
19 C4 30 110000 21 D 32 110100 22 E4 34 111000 24 F4 36 111100
4 C5 2 10 0 2 2 10 6 E5 2 10 2 F5 2 10
19 C6 30 110000 21 D 32 110100 22 E6 34 111000 24 F6 36 111100
5 C7 3 11 1 3 3 11 7 E7 3 11 3 F7 3 11
19 C8 30 110001 21 D 32 110101 22 E8 34 111001 24 F8 36 111101
6 C9 4 00 2 4 4 00 8 E9 4 00 4 F9 4 00
19 C 30 110001 21 D 32 110101 22 E 34 111001 24 FA 36 111101
7 A 5 01 3 5 5 01 9 A 5 01 5 FB 5 01
19 C 30 110001 21 D 32 110101 23 E 34 111001 24 FC 36 111101
8 B 6 10 4 6 6 10 0 B 6 10 6 F 6 10

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19 C 30 110001 21 D 32 110101 23 E 34 111001 24 D 36 111101
9 C 7 11 5 7 7 11 1 C 7 11 7 FE 7 11
20 C 31 110010 21 D 33 110110 23 E 35 111010 24 FF 37 111110
0 D 0 00 6 8 0 00 2 D 0 00 8 0 00
20 C 31 110010 21 D 33 110110 23 E 35 111010 24 37 111110
1 E 1 01 7 9 1 01 3 E 1 01 9 1 01
20 CF 31 110010 21 D 33 110110 23 EF 35 111010 25 37 111110
2 2 10 8 A 2 10 4 2 10 0 2 10
20 31 110010 21 D 33 110110 23 35 111010 25 37 111110
3 3 11 9 B 3 11 5 3 11 1 3 11
20 31 110011 22 D 33 110111 23 35 111011 25 37 111111
4 4 00 0 C 4 00 6 4 00 2 4 00
20 31 110011 22 D 33 110111 23 35 111011 25 37 111111
5 5 01 1 D 5 01 7 5 01 3 5 01
20 31 110011 22 D 33 110111 23 35 111011 25 37 111111
6 6 10 2 E 6 10 8 6 10 4 6 10
20 31 110011 22 D 33 110111 23 35 111011 25 37 111111
7 7 11 3 F 7 11 9 7 11 5 7 11

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 SELF-TEST Question
1. Convert the following binary to decimal
a. 10101012
b. 10111112

2. Convert the following decimal to octal

a. 16710
b. 34510
3. Covent the hexa decimal to the decimal number.
a. AD316
b.6Fb16
4. Convert the octal number to the decimal number
a. 2578
b.2318
5. Calculate the addition and multiplication.
a. 10101 b.11001
+ 100112 X 10011

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 TASK INSTRUCTION SHEET

Title: RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Performance Objectives:
1. To know the deference ranges of VOM used as an ohmmeter.
2. To distinguish the scale plate of VOM and interpret accurately the
scale reading in the relation to the range used.

Materials Needed:
1 unit –VOM or equivalent
Resistors: ten assorted values ½ watts
Miscellaneous: two connecting wires with alligator clips.

Steps/Procedure
1. Determine the coded value of each resistor supplied its color codes
fill in the information required in the table.
2. Measure each resistor with the ohmmeter, and fill in the results in
the column measured value.
3. The color coded value and the measured value should agree within
the tolerance range of the resistor. Indicate the difference between
the measured and coded values.
4. Likewise. Fill up and complete the blank columns in the table with
the date or information.

Assessment Method
1. Write your correct measured value and color coded value in your
job instruction sheet then we will check the correct measured one
by one.
2. We will collect the papers on the right answer after measured value
of the training students.
3. Manual reading of resistance and color coded.

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 TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: PRACTICAL VOTAGE OHM’S METER READING

Performance Objectives:
1. To know the deference ranges of voltage reading used as DC.
Voltmeter, AC. Voltmeter reading and DC. Millimeter.
2. To distinguish the scale plate of VOM and interpret accurately the
scale reading in relation to range used.

Materials Needed:
1 unit –VOM or equivalent
1pc- operating manual
Steps/Procedure
1. Show where 7 ohms would be at Rx1 on the draw ohmmeter scale
determine the actual reading by using the four ranges of ohmmeter
function of VOM record the reading in the appropriate columns
provided.
2. Indicate where 4.2 volts would be at 10- range on the draw AC
voltmeter SCALE. Determine the actual reading in the appropriate
columns provided.
3. Show the location of 6.8 volts at 10-volt range on the drawn DC
voltmeter function of VOM. Record the reading in the appropriate
column provided.
4. Indicate the location of 17.5ma range on the drawn DC current
meter SCALE determine the actual reading by using the four
ranges on the DC current meter function of VOM record the
reading in the appropriate columns provided.

Assessment Method

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 1. Write your correct measured value in your job instruction sheet
then we will check the correct measured one by one.
2. We will collect the papers on the right answer after measured value
of the training students.
3. Practical testing and direct observation.

A schematic, or schematic diagram, is a representation of the

elements of a system using abstract, graphic symbols rather than realistic
pictures. A schematic usually omits all details that are not relevant to the
information the schematic is intended to convey, and may add unrealistic
elements that aid comprehension. For example, a subway map intended for
passengers may represent a subway station with a dot; the dot doesn't
resemble the actual station at all but gives the viewer information without
unnecessary visual clutter. A schematic diagram of a chemical process uses
symbols to represent the vessels, piping, valves, pumps, and other equipment
of the system, emphasizing their interconnection paths and suppressing
physical details. In an electronic circuit diagram, the layout of the symbols
may not resemble the layout in the circuit. In the schematic diagram, the
symbolic elements are arranged to be more easily interpreted by the viewer.

How to Draw Schematic Diagrams

A well-drawn schematic makes it easy to understand how a circuit works and aids
in troubleshooting; a poor schematic only creates confusion. By keeping a few
rules and suggestions in mind, you can draw a good schematic in no more time
than it takes to draw a poor one. In this appendix we dispense advice of three
varieties: general principles, rules, and hints. We have also drawn some real knee-
slappers to illustrate habits to avoid.

General Principles
1. Schematics should be unambiguous. Therefore, pin numbers, parts values,
polarities, etc., should be clearly labeled to avoid confusion.
2. A good schematic makes circuit functions clear. Therefore, keep functional
areas distinct; don't be afraid to leave blank areas on the page, and don't try
to fill the page. There are conventional ways to draw functional subunits; for
instance, don't draw a differential amplifier as in Figure E1, because the
function won't be easily recognized. Likewise, flip-flops are usually drawn

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 with clock and inputs on the left, set and clear on top and bottom, and
outputs on the right.

1. Wires connecting are indicated by a heavy black dot; wires crossing, but not
connecting, have no dot (don't use a little half-circular ``jog''; it went out in
the 1950s).
2. Four wires must not connect at a point; i.e., wires must not
cross and connect.
3. Always use the same symbol for the same device; e.g., don't draw flip-flops
in two different ways (exception: assertion-level logic symbols show each
gate in two possible ways).
4. Wires and components are aligned horizontally or vertically, unless there's a
good reason to do otherwise.
5. Label pin numbers on the outside of a symbol, signal names on the inside.
6. All parts should have values or types indicated; it's best to give all parts a
label, too, e.g., R7 or IC3.

Hints
1. Identify parts immediately adjacent to the symbol, forming a distinct group
giving symbol, label, and type or value.
2. In general, signals go from left to right; don't be dogmatic about this,
though, if clarity is sacrificed.
3. Put positive supply voltages at the top of the page, negative at the bottom.
Thus, npn transistors will usually have their emitter at the bottom,
whereas pnp's will have their emitter topmost.
4. Don't attempt to bring all wires around to the supply rails, or to a common
ground wire. Instead, use the ground symbol(s) and labels like +Vcc to
indicate those voltages where needed.
5. It is helpful to label signals and functional blocks and show waveforms; in
logic diagrams it is especially important to label signal lines, e.g., RESET'
or CLK.
6. It is helpful to bring leads away from components a short distance before
making connections or jogs. For example, draw transistors as in Figure E2.

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 Figure E2: Component leads

7. Leave some space around circuit symbols; e.g., don't draw components or
wires too close to an op-amp symbol. This keeps the drawing uncluttered
and leaves room for labels, pin numbers, etc.
8. Label all boxes that aren't obvious: comparator versus op-amp, shift register
versus counter, etc. Don't be afraid to invent a new symbol.
9. Use small rectangles, ovals, or circles to indicate card-edge connections,
connector pins, etc. Be consistent.
10. The signal path through switches should be clear. Don't force the reader to
follow wires all over the page to find out how a signal is switched.
11. Power-supply connections are normally assumed for op-amps and logic
devices. However, show any unusual connections (e.g., an op-amp run from
a single supply, where V- = ground) and the disposition of unused inputs.
12. It is very helpful to include a small table of IC numbers, types, and power-
supply connections (pin numbers for Vcc and ground, for instance).
13. Include a title area near the bottom of the page, with name of circuit, name
of instrument, by whom drawn, by whom designed or checked, date, and
assembly number. Also include a revision area, with columns for revision
number, date, and subject.
14. We recommend drawing schematics freehand on coarse graph paper (no
reproducing blue, 4 to 8 lines per inch) or on plain paper on top of graph
paper. This is fast, and it gives very pleasing results. Use dark pencil or ink;
avoid ball-point pen.

As an illustration, we've drawn a humble example (Figure E3) showing ``awful''

and ``good'' schematics of the same circuit; the former violates nearly every rule
and is almost impossible to understand. See how many bad habits you can find

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illustrated. We've seen all of them in professionally drawn schematics! (Drawing
the ``bad'' schematic was an occasion of great hilarity; we laughed ourselves silly.)

Figure E3 (A): An awful schematic

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 TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: PROJECT AND PCB LAYOUT

Performance Objectives:
1. To identify the electronic components used in a regulated power
supply.
2. To learn how to make an etching printed circuit board for the
regulated power supply projects.
3. To assemble the power supply, and then measure its output
voltage

Materials Needed:
TRANSISTOR: 2SD313 or 2SD526
DIODE: rectifier diode (DIJA)
CAPACITORS: 100uf/16v 220uf/12v; 0.01uf/100v
RESISTOR: 680 ohms ½ w; 5.6k ½ w
Transformer input: 220, output 3v 4.5v 6v 7.5 9v and 12v (750ma)
Miscellaneous: Power cord with plug hook up wires and solder. Etc.

Steps/Procedure
1. Your instructor will give you a simple project and schematic
diagram study then draw the circuit diagrams in the PCB layout
labels all parts.
2. Make an etching printed circuit board for mounting the electronic
components
3. In the following assembly steps, the components will be installed
on the components side of the board the leads passed through the
corresponding holes, and the board turned to solder the
components terminals to the printed side. Solder each component
immediately after it has been installed on the board.
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 Assessment Method
1. Check and verify every procedure during the testing process of
training or students.
2. We will collect the papers on the right answer after measured value
of the training or students.
3. Practical testing and direct observation and follow up questions.
4. Test and review exercises.

Environment, health and safety

Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) is an umbrella term for the laws, rules,
guidance and processes designed to help protect employees, the public and the
environment from harm. In the workplace, the responsibilities for designing and
implementing appropriate procedures is often assigned to a specific department,
often called the "HSE" department which is responsible for environmental protection,
occupational health and safety at work. HSE management has two general
objectives: prevention of incidents or accidents that might result from abnormal
operating conditions and reduction of adverse effects that result from normal
operating conditions.[1]

Regulatory requirements play an important role in the role and HSE managers must
identify and understand relevant HSE regulations, the implications of which must be
communicated to executive management so the company can implement suitable
measures. Organizations based in the United States are subject to EHS regulations
in the Code of Federal Regulations, particularly CFR 29, 40, and 49. Still, EHS
management is not limited to legal compliance and companies should be
encouraged to do more than is required by law, if appropriate.[2]

From a health & safety standpoint, it involves creating organized efforts and
procedures for identifying workplace hazards and reducing accidents and exposure
to harmful situations and substances. It also includes training of personnel in
accident prevention, accident response, emergency preparedness, and use of
protective clothing and equipment.

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 EMERGENCY RESPONSE SERVICES


Chemical Spill Response


Highway/Transportation Spills


Natural Disaster Response


Non-Hazardous/Hazardous Response


Oil Spill Response and Clean

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 TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION
1. Every trainer you must be able to prepare and provide a simple
cleaning material like used clothes and container waste every
end of the session.
2. Prepare proper dispose like ferric chloride or etching solution.

Material needed:
1. Container
2. Used clothes
3. And hand wash

Hand tool
.
A hand tool is any tool that is not a power tool – that is, one powered by hand
(manual labor) rather than by an engine.[1] Some examples of hand tools are garden
forks, secateurs, rakes, hammers,spanners, pliers, screwdrivers and chisels. Hand
tools are generally less dangerous than power tools.

Introduction to Electronic Servicing

With countless new electronic products or equipment reaching the market, there is
a large demand for electronic repair technicians and engineers. As a result, you
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may be interested in moving into the electronics repair field. The electronic
servicing field is considered a prestigious job. If you are really good in your work,
there is almost no competition and you can acquire skills that allow you to earn
enough money. Servicing is an ideal combination of your intelligence, efficiency
and easy mechanical work. By gaining more experiences the efficiency and skills
automatically becomes instinctive.

Many electronic equipment servicing operations are simpler than you may think.
You will be surprised to learn that most servicing problems have simple causes –
worn cables, dirty connectors, a loose screw in the works, and so on. Almost any
end-user can check for this kind of problem. However, there may be other
problems caused by component failure. You may give up and say “I’m not an
expert in electronics”. You may be surprised to learn that many “troubleshooting”
jobs do not require much detailed knowledge of electronics. Even in a
“professional” troubleshooting operation, the technician or engineer may not have
a detailed knowledge of the circuitry. Electronic servicing is not mysterious or
difficult; it only requires your patience and some basic knowledge in electronics.

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If you are thinking of becoming an electronics repair technician or engineer, you
need proper qualifications. Get at least a certificate in basic electronics or its
equivalent through electronic courses. You can go far beyond this by continuing up
to a diploma level. As you progress, you will discover your weakness. It’s then up
to you to find out more by attending professional courses or reading up related
books. Of course, the higher the level you desire, the better. Electronic equipment
breaks down every second and we will need good technicians and engineers to
ensure a good repairing job is done. So, if you are thinking of joining us – go for
it!!!

Hand Tools for Electronics

If you're in need of hand tools for electronics — e.g. pliers, cutters, crimpers, strippers, wire
wrapping tools, etc. — Circuit Specialists has what you're looking for at the lowest possible
prices. We carry screwdrivers, static-safe tweezers, and combination and extraction tools for
your electronics projects. Our magnifying table lamps make working with small components
a breeze and our grounding wrist straps will keep you free of static so you can work on your
devices with peace of mind.

WIRE WRAPPING TOOLS

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 Pliers & Cutters for Electronics

Crimping Tools

Miscellaneous Tools

Extraction Tools

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 Combination Tools

Cutter & Stripper Tools

Screwdrivers

Static Safe Metallic & Non-Metallic Tweezers Allen Wrench set

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 Electronic Parts & General Supplies

Circuit Specialists carries a truly staggering selection of electronic parts and general
supplies for your electronics projects. If you belong to an educational institution you'll
want to take a look at our educational electronic lab kitting service; simply submit a
component list and we'll deliver your neatly pre-packaged parts and supplies for easy
distribution to your students. In addition, Circuit Specialists has electronic kits and
development projects that allow you to gain hands-on experience while building
basic circuits.

Cable Ties, Wire & Wiring Accessories

Electronic Enclosures

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 Educational Lab Kitting Service

Electronic Kits & Development Projects

Educational Fiber Optics & Lasers

Heat Shrink Tubing

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 EPROM Programmers & Erasers

Hand Tools for Electronics

Tool Bags & Cases

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 Ultrasonic Cleaners

Sockets

Heat Sinks

Switches

Relays

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 LED Lighting Products

Potentiometers, Knobs & Trimmers

Power Transformers with Wire Leads

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 Semiconductor Devices

Safety Products

Crystals & Oscillators

Batteries & Accessories

Speakers, Buzzers & Microphones

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 TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: SOLDERING TECHNIQUES

Performance Objectives:
1. To tin a soldering gun or soldering iron.
2. To prepare hook up wire and cable for connections.
3. To learn soldering techniques different style (Circle point, Cross
point, Side point)

Materials Needed:
HAND TOOLS: Diagonal cutter, Long nose, soldering iron 30 watt wire stripper and etc.
Miscellaneous: Hook -up wire two meter, shielded cable, alligator clip soldering leads.

Steps/Procedure
1. Strip off the installation from the ends of short pieces of hook up
wires AWG#22 (stranded)
2. Both ends of stripped wires are examined. Clean the ends of
hook up wires, if necessary.
3. Solder the inner conductor and shielded wire neatly, cross
points, or side points circle points terminals.
4. Test and verify the connection from end to end of hook up wire is
connected.

Assessment Method
1. Check and verify every procedure during the testing process of
training or students.
2. Practical testing and direct observation.
3. Test and review exercises.
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 Not Only Electronic Circuit Can Go Haywire, Our Body And Brain Also
Could! Don't believe? Try this Test For Yourself!
You will keep trying it to see if you can outsmart your foot - but you
can’t !

1. While sitting at your electronic repair bench lifts your right foot off the
floor and make clockwise circles with it.

2. Now, while doing this, draw the number 6 in the air with your right
hand.

Your foot will change direction!

I told you so! And there is nothing you can do about it!

Welcome to the world of body circuit!

Clean, Inspect and Care for Tools

Make it a habit to clean tools after each use before you return them to storage. Wipe
them down with a rag or old towel and be sure they are free of dust, grease and debris
before you put them into their proper places. This is also an opportunity to look for
any damage or defects. Check your tools' handles for splinters, breaks and cracks.
Also, make sure that metal parts show no signs of corrosion or rust. Repair or replace
any tools that show signs of damage.

Cold chisels, log-splitting wedges and other striking tools can be very dangerous if
they are not maintained properly. Because these types of tools are used for repeated
striking, the surface of the metal head eventually mushrooms out and spreads to form
a lip or ridge around the edge. With continued use, there is more spreading and the
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metal lip may continue to thin, split or curl until it finally breaks. If the metal head
separates from the handle while in use, this could result in a dangerous projectile. To
prevent this hazard, just grind off the metal edges with a powered grinder on a regular
basis.

Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

 What are safe working conditions and procedures?

 What procedures help protect equipment and data?
 What procedures help to properly dispose of hazardous computer
components and related material?
 What tools and software are used with personal computer components and
what is their purpose?
 What is proper tool use?

ESD and EMI

Electrostatic discharge (ESD), harsh climates, and poor-quality sources of electricity can
cause damage to computer equipment. Follow proper handling guidelines, be aware of
environmental issues, and use equipment that stabilizes power to prevent equipment
damage and data loss.

Static electricity is the buildup of an electric charge resting on a surface. Electrostatic

discharge (ESD) occurs when this buildup jumps to a component and causes damage. ESD
can be destructive to the electronics in a computer system.

At least 3000 volts of static electricity must build up before a person can feel ESD. For
example, static electricity can build up on you as you walk across a carpeted floor. When
you touch another person, you both receive a shock. If the discharge causes pain or makes
a noise, the charge was probably above 10,000 volts. By comparison, less than 30 volts of
static electricity can damage a computer component.

ESD can cause permanent damage to electrical components. Follow these

recommendations to help prevent ESD damage:

 Keep all components in antistatic bags until you are ready to install them.
 Use grounded mats on workbenches.
 Use grounded floor mats in work areas.
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  Use antistatic wrist straps when working on computers.

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is the intrusion of outside electromagnetic signals in a

transmission media, such as copper cabling. In a network environment, EMI distorts the
signals so that the receiving devices have difficulty interpreting them.

EMI does not always come from expected sources, such as cellular phones. Other types of
electric equipment can emit a silent, invisible electromagnetic field that can extend for more
than a mile (1.6 km).

There are many sources of EMI:

 Any source designed to generate electromagnetic energy

 Man-made sources like power lines or motors
 Natural events such as electrical storms, or solar and interstellar radiations

Wireless networks are affected by radio frequency interference (RFI). RFI is caused by radio
transmitters and other devices transmitting in the same frequency. For example, a cordless
telephone can cause problems with a wireless network when both devices use the same
frequency. Microwaves can also cause interference when positioned in close proximity to
wireless networking devices.

Climate
Climate affects computer equipment in a variety of ways:

 If the environment temperature is too high, equipment can overheat.

 If the humidity level is too low, the chance of ESD increases.
 If the humidity level is too high, equipment can suffer from moisture damage.

Power Fluctuation Types

Voltage is the force that moves electrons through a circuit. The movement of electrons is
called current. Computer circuits need voltage and current to operate electronic components.
When the voltage in a computer is not accurate or steady, computer components might not
operate correctly. Unsteady voltages are called power fluctuations.

The following types of AC power fluctuations can cause data loss or hardware failure:

 Blackout: Complete loss of AC power. A blown fuse, damaged transformer,

or downed power line can cause a blackout.
 Brownout: Reduced voltage level of AC power that lasts for a period of time.
Brownouts occur when the power line voltage drops below 80 percent of the
normal voltage level. Overloading electrical circuits can cause a brownout.
 Noise: Interference from generators and lightning. Noise results in poor
quality power, which can cause errors in a computer system.
 Spike: Sudden increase in voltage that lasts for a short period and exceeds
100 percent of the normal voltage on a line. Spikes can be caused by

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 lightning strikes, but can also occur when the electrical system comes back on
after a blackout.
 Power surge: Dramatic increase in voltage above the normal flow of
electrical current. A power surge lasts for a few nanoseconds, or one-billionth
of a second.

Power Protection Devices

To help shield against power fluctuation problems, use power protection devices to protect
the data and computer equipment:

 Surge suppressor: Helps protect against damage from surges and spikes. A
surge suppressor diverts extra electrical voltage that is on the line to the
ground.
 Uninterruptible power supply (UPS): Helps protect against potential
electrical power problems by supplying a consistent level of electrical power to
a computer or other device. The battery is constantly recharging while the
UPS is in use. The UPS provides a consistent quality of power when
brownouts and blackouts occur. Many UPS devices can communicate directly
with the computer operating system. This communication allows the UPS to
safely shut down the computer and save data prior to the UPS losing all
electrical power.
 Standby power supply (SPS): Helps protect against potential electrical
power problems by providing a backup battery to supply power when the
incoming voltage drops below the normal level. The battery is on standby
during normal operation. When the voltage decreases, the battery provides
DC power to a power inverter, which converts it to AC power for the computer.
This device is not as reliable as a UPS because of the time it takes to switch
over to the battery. If the switching device fails, the battery cannot supply
power to the computer.

CAUTION

UPS manufacturers suggest never plugging in a laser printer to a UPS because the printer
could overload the UPS.

Proper Use of Tools

Using tools properly helps prevent accidents and damage to equipment and people. This
section describes and covers the proper use of a variety of hardware, software, and
organizational tools specific to working with computers and peripherals.

Hardware Tools
For every job there is the right tool. Make sure that you are familiar with the correct use of
each tool and that the correct tool is used for the current task. Skilled use of tools and
software makes the job less difficult and ensures that tasks are performed properly and
safely.

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A toolkit should contain all the tools necessary to complete hardware repairs. As you gain
experience, you learn which tools to have available for different types of jobs. Hardware
tools are grouped into four categories:

 ESD tools
 Hand tools
 Cleaning tools
 Diagnostic tools

ESD Tools
There are two ESD tools: the antistatic wrist strap and the antistatic mat. The antistatic wrist
strap protects computer equipment when grounded to a computer chassis. The antistatic
mat protects computer equipment by preventing static electricity from accumulating on the
hardware or on the technician.

Hand Tools
Most tools used in the computer assembly process are small hand tools. They are available
individually or as part of a computer repair toolkit. Toolkits range widely in size, quality, and
price. Some common hand tools and their uses are:

 Flat-head screwdriver: Used to tighten or loosen slotted screws.

 Phillips-head screwdriver: Used to tighten or loosen cross-headed
screws.
 Torx screwdriver: Used to tighten or loosen screws that have a star-like
depression on the top, a feature that is mainly found on laptops.
 Hex driver: Used to tighten or loosen nuts in the same way that a
screwdriver tightens or loosens screws (sometimes called a nut driver).
 Needle-nose pliers: Used to hold small parts.
 Wire cutters: Used to strip and cut wires.
 Tweezers: Used to manipulate small parts.
 Part retriever: Used to retrieve parts from locations that are too small for
your hand to fit.
 Flashlight: Used to light up areas that you cannot see well.
 Wire stripper: A wire stripper is used to remove the insulation from wire so
that it can be twisted to other wires or crimped to connectors to make a cable.
 Crimper: Used to attach connectors to wires.
 Punch-down tool: Used to terminate wire into termination blocks. Some
cable connectors must be connected to cables using a punch down tool.

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Cleaning Tools
Having the appropriate cleaning tools is essential when maintaining and repairing computers.
Using the appropriate cleaning tools helps ensure that computer components are not
damaged during cleaning. Cleaning tools include the following:

 Soft cloth: Used to clean different computer components without scratching

or leaving debris
 Compressed air: Used to blow away dust and debris from different computer
parts without touching the components
 Cable ties: Used to bundle cables neatly inside and outside of a computer
 Parts organizer: Used to hold screws, jumpers, fasteners, and other small
parts and prevents them from getting mixed together

Diagnostic Tools
Diagnostic tools are used to test and diagnose equipment. Diagnostic tools include the
following:

 A digital multi-meter, as shown in Figure 2-3, is a device that can take

many types of measurements. It tests the integrity of circuits and the quality of
electricity in computer components. A digital multi-meter displays the
information on an LCD or LED.

Figure 2-3.Multimeter

 A loopback adapter, also called a loopback plug, tests the basic functionality
of computer ports. The adapter is specific to the port that you want to test.
 The toner probe, as shown in Figure 2-4, is a two-part tool. The toner part is
connected to a cable at one end using specific adapters, such as an RJ-45,
coaxial, or metal clips. The toner generates a tone that travels the length of
the cable. The probe part traces the cable. When the probe is in near
proximity to the cable to which the toner is attached, the tone can be heard
through a speaker in the probe.

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 Figure 2-4.Toner Probe

Although an external hard drive enclosure is not a diagnostic tool, it is often used when
diagnosing and repairing computers. The customer hard drive is placed into the external
enclosure for inspection, diagnosis, and repair using a known-working computer. Backups
can also be recorded to a drive in an external enclosure to prevent data corruption during a
computer repair.

Protection Software Tools

Each year, viruses, spyware, and other types of malicious attacks infect millions of
computers. These attacks can damage operating systems, applications, and data.
Computers that have been infected may even have problems with hardware performance or
component failure.

To protect data and the integrity of the operating system and hardware, use software
designed to guard against attacks and to remove malicious programs.

Organizational Tools
Keeping accurate records and journals during a busy workday can be challenging. Many
organizational tools, such as work-order systems, can help the technician document their
work.

Reference Tools
A technician must document all repairs and computer problems. The documentation can
then be used as a reference for future problems or for other technicians who may not have
encountered the problem before. The documents can be paper based, but electronic forms
are preferred because they can be easily searched for specific problems.

It is important that a technician document all services and repairs. These documents need to
be stored centrally and made available to all other technicians. The documentation can then
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be used as reference material for similar problems that are encountered in the future. Good
customer service includes providing the customer with a detailed description of the problem
and the solution.

Personal Reference Tools

Personal reference tools include troubleshooting guides, manufacturer manuals, quick
reference guides, and repair journals. In addition to an invoice, a technician keeps a journal
of upgrades and repairs. The documentation in the journal includes descriptions of the
problem, possible solutions that have been attempted, and the steps taken to repair the
problem. Note any configuration changes made to the equipment and any replacement parts
used in the repair. This documentation is valuable when you encounter similar situations in
the future.

 Notes: Make notes as you go through the troubleshooting and repair process.
Refer to these notes to avoid repeating previous steps and to determine what
steps to take next.
 Journal: Document the upgrades and repairs that you perform. Include
descriptions of the problem, possible solutions that have been tried to correct
the problem, and the steps taken to repair the problem. Note any
configuration changes made to the equipment and any replacement parts
used in the repair. Your journal, along with your notes, can be valuable when
you encounter similar situations in the future.
 History of repairs: Make a detailed list of problems and repairs, including the
date, replacement parts, and customer information. The history allows a
technician to determine what work has been performed on a specific
computer in the past

Internet Reference Tools

The Internet is an excellent source of information about specific hardware problems and
possible solutions:

 Internet search engines

 News groups
 Manufacturer FAQs
 Online computer manuals
 Online forums and chat
 Technical websites

Miscellaneous Tools
With experience, you will discover many additional items to add to the toolkit. Figure 2-
5shows how a roll of masking tape can be used to label parts that have been removed from
a computer when a parts organizer is not available.

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Figure 2-5.Parts Labels

A working computer is also a valuable resource to take with you on computer repairs in the
field. A working computer can be used to research information, download tools or drivers,
and communicate with other technicians.

Figure 2-6 shows the types of computer replacement parts to include in a toolkit. Make sure
that the parts are in good working order before you use them. Using known good
components to replace possible bad ones in computers helps you quickly determine which
component is not working properly.

Demonstrate Proper Tool Use

This section describes the proper use of common tools used to protect, repair, and clean
electronic product assembly.

Antistatic Wrist Strap

Safety in the workplace is everyone’s responsibility. You are much less likely to injure
yourself or damage components when using the proper tool for the job.

Before cleaning or repairing equipment, make sure that your tools are in good condition.
Clean, repair, or replace items that are not functioning adequately.

An example of ESD is the small shock that you receive when you walk across a carpeted
room and touch a doorknob. Although the small shock is harmless to you, the same
electrical charge passing from you to a computer can damage its components. Self-
grounding or wearing an antistatic wrist strap can prevent ESD damage to computer
components.

The purpose of self-grounding or wearing an antistatic wrist strap is to equalize the electrical
charge between you and the equipment. Self-grounding is done by touching a bare metal
part of a computer case. The antistatic wrist strap is a conductor that connects your body to
the equipment that you are working on. When static electricity builds up in your body, the

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 connection made by the wrist strap to the equipment, or ground, channels the electricity
through the wire that connects the strap.

As shown in Figure 2-7, the wrist strap has two parts and is easy to wear. Following is the
proper procedure for using an antistatic wrist strap:

 Step 1. Wrap the strap around your wrist and secure it using the snap or Velcro. The
metal on the back of the wrist strap must remain in contact with your skin at all times.
 Step 2. Snap the connector on the end of the wire to the wrist strap, and connect the
other end either to the equipment or to the same grounding point that the antistatic
mat is connected to. The metal skeleton of the case is a good place to connect the
wire. When connecting the wire to equipment that you are working on, choose an
unpainted metal surface. A painted surface does not conduct electricity as well as
unpainted metal.

Figure 2-7.Antistatic Wrist Strap

NOTE

Attach the wire on the same side of the equipment as the arm wearing the antistatic wrist
strap. This helps keep the wire out of the way while you are working.

Although wearing a wrist strap helps prevent ESD, you can further reduce the risks by not
wearing clothing made of silk, polyester, or wool. These fabrics are more likely to generate a
static charge.

NOTE

Technicians should roll up their sleeves, remove scarves or ties, and tuck in shirts to prevent
interference from clothing. Ensure that earrings, necklaces, and other loose jewelry are
properly secured.

CAUTION

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 Never wear an antistatic wrist strap if you are repairing a CRT monitor or a power supply
unit.

Antistatic Mat
You might not always have the option to work on a computer in a properly equipped
workspace. If you can control the environment, try to set up your workspace away from
carpeted areas. Carpets can cause the buildup of electrostatic charges. If you cannot avoid
the carpeting, ground yourself to the unpainted portion of the case of the computer on which
you are working before touching any components.

An antistatic mat is slightly conductive. It works by drawing static electricity away from a
component and transferring it safely from equipment to a grounding point, . Following is the
proper procedure for using an antistatic mat:

 Step 1. Lay the mat on the workspace next to or under the computer case.
 Step 2. Clip the mat to the case to provide a grounded surface on which you can
place parts as you remove them from the system.

Figure 2-8.Antistatic Mat

When you are working at a workbench, ground the workbench and the antistatic floor mat.
By standing on the mat and wearing the wrist strap, your body has the same charge as the
equipment and reduces the probability of ESD. Either connect the table-top mat and the floor
mat to each other, or connect both to the electrical earth ground.

Reducing the potential for ESD reduces the likelihood of damage to delicate circuits or
components.

NOTE

Always handle components by the edges.

Hand Tools (2.2.4.3)

A technician needs to be able to properly use each tool in the toolkit. This topic covers many
of the various hand tools used when repairing computers.

Screws
Match each screw with the proper screwdriver. Place the tip of the screwdriver on the head
of the screw. Turn the screwdriver clockwise to tighten the screw and counterclockwise to
loosen the screw.

Screws can become stripped if you over-tighten them with a screwdriver. A stripped screw,
as shown in Figure 2-9, may get stuck in the screw hole, or it may not tighten firmly. Discard
stripped screws.

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Figure 2-9.Stripped Screw

Flat-Head Screwdriver
Use a flat-head screwdriver when you are working with a slotted screw. Do not use a flat-
head screwdriver to remove a Phillips-head screw. Never use a screwdriver as a pry bar. If
you cannot remove a component, check to see if there is a clip or latch that is securing the
component in place.

CAUTION

If excessive force is needed to remove or add a component, something is probably wrong.

Take a second look to make sure that you have not missed a screw or a locking clip that is
holding the component in place. Refer to the device manual or diagram for additional
information.

TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: DIODE USED AS LAMP CONTROL

Performance Objectives:
1. To construct a simple lamp control device.
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2. To be able to know how to measure AC. And DC. Voltages.
3. To verify experimentally the practical application of a diode.

Materials Needed:
1 unit –VOM or equivalent meter
DIODE: rectifier diode (IN5408)
Bulb 12volts
Transformer input: 220, output 3v 4.5v 6v 7.5 9v and 12v (750ma)
Miscellaneous: Rotary switch 2 pole 6 position. Fuse 1A plug with cord.

Steps/Procedure
1. Connect the circuit 1 and 2 in accordance with the schematic
diagram using the component assigned to you by the instructor.
2. Adjust the voltage selector (rotary) switch for the maximum output
voltage.
3. Close the circuit (switch on) measures all voltages at every test
point shown in the diagram record steps 1, 2, and 3 for the circuit
no. 2.
4. State briefly the parts and function of each component.

Assessment Method
1. Check and verify every procedure during the testing process of
training or students.
2. We will collect the papers on the right answer after measured value
of the training or students.
3. Practical testing and direct observation and follow up questions.
4. Test and review exercises.

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 Types of test equipment
Basic equipment

Agilent commercial digital voltmeter checking a prototype

The following items are used for basic measurement of voltages, currents, and
components in the circuit under test.

 Voltmeter (Measures voltage)

 Ohmmeter (Measures resistance)
 Ammeter, e.g. Galvanometer or Milliameter (Measurescurrent)
 Multimeter e.g., VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliameter) or DMM (Digital Multimeter)
(Measures all of the above)
 RLC Meter e.g., RLC meter or Resistance,Inductance and capacitance
meter (measure RLC values)

The following are used for stimulus of the circuit under test:

 Power supplies
 Signal generator
 Digital pattern generator
 Pulse generator

Howard piA digital multimeter

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The following analyze the response of the circuit under test:

 Oscilloscope (Displays voltage as it changes over time)

 Frequency counter (Measures frequency)

 Test probes
Advanced or less commonly used equipment
Meters

 Solenoid voltmeter (Wiggy)

 Clamp meter (current transducer)
 Wheatstone bridge (Precisely measures resistance)
 Capacitance meter (Measures capacitance)
 LCR meter (Measures inductance, capacitance, resistance and
combinations thereof)
 EMF Meter (Measures Electric and Magnetic Fields)
 Electrometer (Measures charge)

Probes[edit]

A multi-meter with a built in clamp facility. Pushing the large button at the bottom opens
the lower jaw of the clamp, allowing the clamp to be placed around a conductor (wire).

 RF probe
 Signal tracer
Analyzers

 Logic analyzer (Tests digital circuits)

 Spectrum analyzer (SA) (Measures spectral energy of signals)

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 Protocol analyzer (Tests functionality, performance and conformance of
protocols)
 Vector signal analyzer (VSA) (Like the SA but it can also perform many
more useful digital demodulation functions)
 Time-domain reflect meter (Tests integrity of long cables)
 Semiconductor curve tracer
Signal-generating devices

Leader Instruments LSG-15 signal generator.

 Signal generator
 Frequency synthesiser
 Function generator
 Digital pattern generator
 Pulse generator
 Signal injector
Miscellaneous devices[edit]

 Boxcar averager
 Continuity tester
 Cable tester
 Hipot tester
 Network analyzer (used to characterize an electrical network of
components)
 Test light
 Transistor tester
 Tube tester

Platforms

Keithley Instruments Series 4200 CVU

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Several modular electronic instrumentation platforms are currently in common use
for configuring automated electronic test and measurement systems. These systems
are widely employed for incoming inspection, quality assurance, and production
testing of electronic devices and subassemblies. Industry-standard communication
interfaces link signal sources with measurement instruments in “rack-and-stack” or
chassis-/mainframe-based systems, often under the control of a custom software
application running on an external PC.

In electromagnetism and electronics, inductance is the property of an electrical

conductor by which a change incurrent through it induces an electromotive force in
both the conductor itself[1] and in any nearby conductors by mutual inductance.[1]
These effects are derived from two fundamental observations of physics: a steady
current creates a steady magnetic field described by Oersted's law,[2] and a time-
varying magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) in nearby conductors,
which is described byFaraday's law of induction.[3] According to Lenz's law,[4] a
changing electric current through a circuit that contains inductance induces a
proportional voltage, which opposes the change in current (self-inductance). The
varying field in this circuit may also induce an EMF in neighbouring circuits (mutual
inductance).
The term inductance was coined by Oliver Heaviside in 1886.[5] It is customary to use
the symbol L for inductance, in honour of the physicist Heinrich Lenz.[6][7] In
the SIsystem, the measurement unit for inductance is the henry, with the unit
symbol H, named in honor of Joseph Henry, who discovered inductance
independently of, but not before, Faraday.
Capacitance

Capacitance is the ability of a body to store an electricalcharge. A material with a

large capacitance holds moreelectric charge at a given voltage, than one with low
capacitance. Any object that can be electrically charged exhibits capacitance,
however the concept is particularly important for understanding the operations of
thecapacitor, one of the three fundamental electronic components (along
with resistors and inductors).
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (symbol: F), named after the English
physicist Michael Faraday. A 1 farad capacitor, when charged with 1 coulomb of
electrical charge, has a potential difference of 1 volt between its plates.[1]

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 TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION
Title: FUSE TESTING WITH VOM METER

Performance Objectives:
1. To know how to use ohmmeter for checking the condition of fuse.
2. To learn how to use the voltmeter for testing and measuring the
voltage across the fuse terminals.
3. To become familiar with the different types of the fuse, glass
cartage and amperes.

Materials Needed:
1 unit –VOM or equivalent meter, power supply
Fuse: Glass cartage or equivalent (good, Open)

Steps/Procedure
1. Set the VOM at range RX1 set the meter pointer exactly at zero by
shorting the test leads together and adjusting the zero ohm control.
2. Simply connect the test leads to the metal parts of the fuse write
the result in figure A as per instruction.
3. Repeat procedure no. 2 for the other fuse. Fill up all needed
information, and complete the illustration in figure A and B
respectively.

Assessment Method
1. Check and verify every procedure during the testing process of
training or students.
2. We will collect the papers on the right answer after measured
value of the training or students.
3. Practical testing and direct observation.
4. Test and review exercises.

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 TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: SWICTH TESTING WITH VOM

Performance Objectives:
1. To know how to use ohmmeter for checking the condition of a
switch.
2. To learn how to use the voltmeter for testing and measuring the
voltage across the switch terminals.
3. To become familiar with the different types of switch, SPST, DPDT,
TOGGLE, PUSH BUTTON, RELAY.

Materials Needed:
1 unit –VOM or equivalent meter, power supply
SWITCH: Assorted types (good or defective

Steps/Procedure
1. Set the VOM at range RX1 set the meter pointer exactly at zero by
shorting the test leads together and adjusting the zero ohm control.
2. Simply connect the test leads to the metal parts of the fuse write
the result in figure A as per instruction.
3. Repeat procedure no. 2 for the other fuse. Fill up all needed
information, and complete the illustration in figure A and B
respectively.

Assessment Method
1. Check and verify every procedure during the testing process of
training or students.
2. We will collect the papers on the right answer after measured value
of the training or students.
3. Practical testing and direct observation.
4. Test and review exercises.

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 Basic Electronics
Semiconductor —I
• Materials that permit flow of electrons are called
Conductors (e.g., gold, silver, copper, etc.).
• Materials that block flow of electrons are called
Insulators (e.g., rubber, glass, Teflon, mica, etc.).
• Materials whose conductivity falls between those
of conductors and insulators are called
Semiconductors.
• Semiconductors are “part-time” conductors
Whose conductivity can be controlled?
Germanium
Semiconductors
silicon
Semiconductor —II
• Silicon is the most common material used to build semiconductor devices.
• Si is the main ingredient of sand and it is estimated that a cubic mile of seawater
contains 15,000 tons of Si.
• Si is spun and grown into a crystalline structure and cut into wafers to make
electronic devices.
Semiconductor —III
• Atoms in a pure silicon wafer contains four electrons in outer orbit (called valence
electrons).
– Germanium is another semiconductor material with four valence electrons.
• In the crystalline lattice structure of Si, the valence electrons of every Si atom are
locked up in covalent bonds with the valence electrons of four neighboring Si atoms.
– In pure form, Si wafer does not contain any free charge carriers.
– An applied voltage across pure Si wafer does not yield electron flow through the wafer.
– A pure Si wafer is said to act as an insulator.
• In order to make useful semiconductor devices, materials such as phosphorus (P) and
boron (B) are added to Si to change Si’s conductivity.
4 valence electrons
N-Type Silicon
• Pentavalent impurities such as phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth have 5
valence electrons.
• When phosphorus impurity is added to Si, every phosphorus atom’s four valence
electrons are locked up in covalent bond with valence electrons of four neighboring
Si atoms. However, the 5th valence electron of phosphorus atom does not find a
binding electron and thus remains free to float. When a voltage is applied across the
silicon-phosphorus mixture, free electrons migrate toward the positive voltage end.
• When phosphorus is added to Si to yield the above effect, we say that Si is doped
with phosphorus. The resulting mixture is called N-type silicon (N: negative charge
carrier silicon).
• The pentavalent impurities are referred to as donor impurities.
5 valence electrons
P-Type Silicon —I
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• Trivalent impurities e.g., boron, aluminum, indium, and gallium have 3 valence
electrons.
• When boron is added to Si, every boron atom’s three valence electrons are locked up
in covalent bond with valence electrons of three neighboring Si atoms. However, a
vacant spot “hole” is created within the covalent bond between one boron atom and
a neighboring Si atom. The holes are considered to be positive charge carriers.
When a voltage is applied across the silicon-boron mixture, a hole moves toward the
negative voltage end while a neighboring electron fills in its place.
• When boron is added to Si to yield the above effect, we say that Si is doped with
boron. The resulting mixture is called P-type silicon (P: positive charge carrier
silicon).
• The trivalent impurities are referred to as acceptor impurities.
3 valence electrons
P-Type Silicon —II
• The hole of boron atom points towards the negative terminal.
• The electron of neighboring silicon atom points toward
positive terminal.
• The electron from neighboring silicon atom falls into the
boron atom filling the hole in boron atom and creating a “new”
hole in the silicon atom.
• It appears as though a hole moves toward the negative
terminal!
Diode
•A diode is a 2 lead semiconductor that acts as a one way gate to electron flow.
– Diode allows current to pass in only one direction.
•A pn-junction diode is formed by joining together n-type and p-type silicon.
•In practice, as the n-type Si crystal is being grown, the process is abruptly altered to
grow p-type Si crystal. Finally, a glass or plastic coating is placed around the joined
crystal.
•The p-side is called anode and the n-side is called cathode.
•When the anode and cathode of a pn-junction diode are connected to external voltage
such that the potential at anode is higher than the potential at cathode, the diode is said
to be forward biased.
–In a forward-biased diode current is allowed to flow through the device.
•When potential at anode is smaller than the potential at cathode, the diode is said to
be reverse biased. In a reverse-biased diode current is blocked.
+-+-
Water Analogy of Diodes
• When water pressure on left overcomes the restoring force of spring, the gate is
opened and water is allowed to flow .
• When water pressure is from right to left, the gate is pressed against the solid stop
and no water is allowed to flow.
• Spring restoring force is analogous to 0.6V needed to forward bias a Si diode.
Diode: How it Works —I
• When a diode is
connected to a battery as
shown, electrons from
the n-side and holes from
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the p-side are forced
toward the center by the
electrical field supplied
• A full-wave rectifier does not block negative swings in the i/p voltage, rather it
transforms them into positive swings at the o/p.
• To gain an understanding of device operation, follow current flow through pairs of
diodes in the bridge circuit.
• It is easily seen that one pair (D3-Rout-D2) allows current flow during the +ve half
cycle of Vin while the other pair (D4-Rout-D1) allows current flow during the -ve half
cycle of Vin.
– o/p voltage peak is 1.2V below the i/p voltage peak.
– The o/p frequency is twice the i/p frequency.
D1 D3
D2 D4
Diode Applications —AC2DC Power Supply
•An AC2DC power supply
is built using a transformer
and a full-wave rectifier.
•Transformer is used to
step down the voltage i/p.
•Rectifier converts AC to
pulsed DC.
•A filter capacitor is used
to smooth out the pulses.
•Capacitor must be large
enough to store sufficient
charge so as to provide a
steady current supply to the
load:
f is rectified signal’s
frequency (120Hz).
1/ Load R C f
Transistor
• A three lead semiconductor device that acts as:
– an electrically controlled switch, or
– a current amplifier.
• Transistor is analogous to a faucet.
– Turning faucet’s control knob alters the flow rate of water coming out from the faucet.
– A small voltage/current applied at transistor’s control lead controls a larger current flow
through its other two leads.
Water in
Water out
Transistor Types: BJT, JFET, and MOSFET
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
– NPN and PNP
• Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
– N-channel and P-channel
• Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
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– Depletion type (n- and p-channel) and enhancement type (n- and p-channel)
BJT MOSFEJFET T
BJT Types
• NPN and PNP.
– NPN: a small input current and a positive voltage applied @ its base (with VB>VE)
allows a large current to flow from collector to emitter.
– PNP: a small output current and a negative voltage @ its base (with VB<VE) allows a
much larger current to flow from emitter to collector.
NPN BJT: How it works —I
• When no voltage is applied at
transistor’s base, electrons in the
emitter are prevented from passing
to the collector side because of the
pn junction.
• If a negative voltage is applied to
the base, things get even worse as
the pn junction between the base
and emitter becomes reversebiased
resulting in the formation of
a depletion region that prevents
current flow.
NPN BJT: How it works —II
• If a positive voltage (>0.6V) is
applied to the base of an npn
transistor, the pn junction between
the base and emitter becomes
forward-biased. During forward
bias, escaping electrons are drawn
to the positive base.
• Some electrons exit through the
base, but because the p-type base
is so thin, the onslaught of
electrons that leave the emitter get
close enough to the collector side
that they begin jumping into the
collector. Increasing the base
voltage increases the emitter-tocollector
electron flow.
• Recall, positive current flow is in
the direction opposite to the
electron flow current flows from
collector to emitter.
BJT Water Analogy
NPN (VB > VE) PNP (VB < VE)
Base
Collector
Emitter
NPN Transistor in a Complete Circuit —I
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NPN: VB = VE OFF
•Normally OFF.
•No current passes from collector to emitter when base is not activated.
NPN Transistor in a Complete Circuit —II
NPN: VB > VE ON
• When VB > VE we have an operating circuit.
• Current passes from collector to emitter when base is activated.
Transistor Experiment —LED On/Off
• Turning the switch on/off turns the LED on/off.
JFET
• Junction field effect transistors like BJTs are three lead
semiconductor devices.
• JFETs are used as:
– electrically controlled switches,
– current amplifiers, and
– voltage-controlled resistors.
• Unlike BJTs, JFETs do not require a bias current and are controlled
by using only a voltage.
• JFETs are normally on when VG - VS = 0.
• When VG - VS 0, then JFETs become resistive to current flow
through the drain-source pair “JFETs are depletion devices.”
JFET Types
• Two types of JFETs:
– n-channel and p-channel.
• In n-channel JFET, a –ve voltage applied @ its gate (with VG < VS) reduces current
flow from drain to source. It operates with VD > VS.
• In p-channel JFET, a +ve voltage applied @ its gate (with VG > VS) reduces current
flow from source to drain. It operates with VS > VD.
• JFETs have very high input impedance and draw little or no input current
– if there is any circuit/component connected to the gate of a JFET, no current is drawn
away from or sunk into this circuit.
MOSFET
• Metal oxide semiconductor FET.
• Similar to JFET.
• A metal oxide insulator is placed @ the gate to obtain a high input impedance @ the
gate
– gate input impedance approx. 1014Ω.
• Use of insulator as described above yields a low gate-to-channel capacitance.
– If too much static electricity builds up on the gate, then the MOSFET may be damaged.
MOSFET Types
• Enhancement type:
– Normally off, thus no current flows through drain-source channel when VG = VS.
– When a voltage applied @ the gate causes VG VS the drain-source channel reduces
resistance to current flow.
• Depletion type:
– Normally on, thus maximum current flows through drain-source channel when VG = VS.
– When a voltage applied @ the gate causes VG VS the drain-source channel increases
resistance to current flow.
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VG < VS VG VG > VS VG < VS > VS
Current flow increases with: Current flow decreases with:
Optoelectronics
Light emitting diodes Infrared detector
• In optoelectronics we deal with 2 types of electronic devices.
• Light emitting electronic devices: ones that generate electromagnetic energy under
the action of electrical field. Example: light emitting diodes (visible and infrared
light).
• Light detecting devices: ones that transform electromagnetic energy input into
electrical current/voltage. Examples: photoresistors, photodiodes, phototransistors,
etc.
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
LED 101—I
• 2 lead semiconductor device.
• Light emitting PN-junction diode.
– Visible or infrared light.
• Has polarity.
• Recall diodes act as a one way gate to current flow.
– A forward-biased PN-junction diode allows current flow from anode to cathode.
• An LED conducts and emits light when its anode is made more positive (approx.
1.4V) than its cathode.
– With reverse polarity, LED stops conducting and emitting light.
LED 101—II
• Similar to diodes, LEDs are current-dependent devices.
– LED brightness is controlled by controlling current through LED.
• Too little current through LED LED remains OFF.
• Small current through LED dimly lit LED.
• Large current through LED brightly lit LED.
• Too much current through LED LED is destroyed.
• A resistor placed in series with LED accomplishes current control
Visible-Light LED
• Inexpensive and durable.
• Typical usage: as indicator lights.
• Common colors: green (~565nm), yellow (~585nm), orange (~615nm), and red
(~650nm).
• Maximum forward voltage: 1.8V.
• Typical operating currents: 1 to 3mA.
• Typical brightness levels: 1.0 to 3.0mcd/1mA to 3.0mcd /2mA.

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 TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR AND USE OF

OHMMETER

Performance Objectives:
1. To become familiar with the characteristics of an electrolytic
capacitor.
2. To study and understand the meter behavior in checking
electrolytic capacitor.
3. To interpret accurately the normal and abnormal condition of an
electrolytic capacitor.

Materials Needed:
1 unit –VOM or equivalent meter
CAPACITORS: Ten Assorted values of electrolytic capacitors.

Steps/Procedure
1. Draw the electrolytic capacitor and VOM with the test probes
connection and ohmmeter in the correct polarity.
2. Check the condition of the electrolytic capacitor and describe
briefly the meter behavior, dc resistance and condition as indicated
thereof.
3. Record the result as shown in the table 1.
4. Repeat the steps 1 and 3 for the following capacitors and write the
corresponding results in the table.
5. Identify the components and give the function and parts as
indicated in the table II.
6. State briefly your observation or condition.

Assessment Method
5. Check and verify every procedure during the testing process of
training or students.
6. We will collect the papers on the right answer after measured value
of the training or students.
7. Practical testing and direct observation and follow up questions.
8. Test and review exercises.

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• High-brightness LEDs exist.
– Used in high-brightness flashers (e.g., bicycle flashers).
Blinking LED
• Contain a miniature integrated circuit that causes LED to flash from 1 to 6 times/second.
• Typical usage: indicator flashers. May also be used as simple oscillators.
Tricolor LED
• Two LEDs placed in parallel facing opposite directions.
• One LED is red or orange, the other is green.
• Current flow in one direction turns one LED ON while the other remains OFF due
to reverse bias.
• Current flow in the other direction turns the first LED OFF and the second LED ON.
• Rapid switching of current flow direction will alternatively turn the two LEDs ON
giving yellow light.
• Used as a polarity indicator.
• Maximum voltage rating: 3V
• Operating range: 10 to 20mA
7-Segment LED Display
• Used for displaying numbers and other characters.
• 7 individual LEDs are used to make up the display.
• When a voltage is applied across one of the LEDs, a portion of the 8 lights up.
• Unlike liquid crystal displays (LCD), 7-segment LED displays tend to be more
rugged, but they also consume more power.
How LED Works
• The light-emitting section of an LED is made by joining n-type and p-type semiconductors
together to form a pn junction.
• When the pn junction is forward-biased, electrons in the n side are excited across the pn
junction and into the p side, where they combine with holes.
• As the electrons combine with the holes, photons are emitted.
• The pn-junction section of an LED is encased in an epoxy shell that is doped with light
scattering particles to diffuse light and make the LED appear brighter.
• Often a reflector placed beneath the semiconductor is used to direct the light upward.
Photoresistors—I
• Light sensitive variable resistors.
• Its resistance depends on the intensity of light incident upon it.
– Under dark condition, resistance is quite high (M : called dark resistance).
– Under bright condition, resistance is lowered (few hundred ).
• Response time:
– When a photoresistor is exposed to light, it takes a few milliseconds, before it
lowers its resistance.
– When a photoresistor experiences removal of light, it may take a few seconds
to return to its dark resistance.
Symbol
Photoresistors—II

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• Some photoresistors respond better to light that contains
photons within a particular wavelength of spectrum.
– Example: Cadmium-sulfide photoresistos respond to
light within 400-800nm range.
– Example: Lead-sulfide photoresistos respond to infrared
light.
How PhotoresistorWorks
• Special semiconductor crystal, such as cadmium sulfide or lead sulfide is used to make
photoresistors.
• When this semiconductor is placed in dark, electrons within its structure resist flow through
the resistor because they are too strongly bound to the crystal’s atoms.
• When this semiconductor is illuminated, incoming photons of light collide with the bound
electrons, stripping them from the binding atom, thus creating holes in the process.
• Liberated electrons contribute to the current flowing through the device.
Photoresistor Application —Light Activated Relay
• Light-sensitive voltage divider is being
used to trip a relay whenever the light
intensity change.
• Light-activated circuit:
– When the photoresistor is exposed to
light, its resistance decreases.
– Transistor’s base current and
voltage increase and if the base current
and voltage are large enough, the
collector-emitter pair of the transistor
conducts triggering the relay.
• The value of R1 in the light-activated
circuit should be around 1 KΩ but
may have to be adjusted.
• Dark-activated relay works in a similar
but opposite manner.
• R1 in the dark-activated circuit
(100KΩ) may also have to be adjusted.
• A 6 to 9-V relay with a 500Ω coil can
be used in either circuit.
Light activated relay Dark activated relay
Photodiode
• Photodiode is a 2 lead semiconductor device that transforms light energy to electric
current.
• Suppose anode and cathode of a photodiode are wired to a current meter.
– When photodiode is placed in dark, the current meter displays zero current flow.
– When the photodiode is expose to light, it acts a a current source, causing current flow
from cathode to anode of photodiode through the current meter.
• Photodiodes have very linear light v/s current characteristics.
– Commonly used as light meters in cameras.
• Photodiodes often have built-in lenses and optical filters.
• Response time of a photodiode slows with increasing surface area.
• Photodiodes are more sensitive than photoresistor.
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Symbol.

TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: FAMILIARIZATION OF COMPONENT SYMBOLS

Performance Objectives:
1. To become familiar with the different components commonly used
in electronics and electricity.
2. To describe and interpret the standard symbols for each of these
components.

Materials Needed:
RESISTORS: Assorted types (fixed and variables)
CAPACITORS: Assorted types
INDUCTORS: Assorted types
TUBES AND TRANSISTOR: Assorted types
Miscellaneous: rectifiers, transformers, fuse, switch and speaker

Steps/Procedure
1. Your instructor will assign you some electronic components, study,
then describe the physical structure or appearance of the
components you receive.
2. Draw the electronic or electrical symbols for each part.

Assessment Method
1. Check and verify every procedure during the testing process of
training or students.
2. We will collect the papers on the right answer after measured value
of the training or students.
3. Practical testing and direct observation and follow up questions.
4. Test and review exercises.

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 How Photodiode Works
• Photodiode: A thin n-type
semiconductor sandwiched with a
thicker p-type semiconductor.
• N-side is cathode, p-side is anode.
• Upon illumination, a # of photons pass
from the n-side and into the p-side of
photodiode.
– Some photons making it into p-side
collide with bound electrons within psemiconductor,
ejecting them and
creating holes.
– If these collisions are close to the pninterface,
the ejected electrons cross the
junction, yielding extra electrons on the
n-side and extra holes on the p-side.
– Segregation of +ve and -ve charges
leads to a potential difference across the
pn-junction.
– When a wire is connected between the
cathode and anode, a conventionally
positive current flow from the anode to
cathode
Photodiode Applications—Photovoltaic Current Source
• Photodiode converts light energy directly into electric current that can be
measured with meter.
• The input intensity of light and the output current are nearly linear.
• Solar cells are photodiodes with very large surface areas.
• Compared to usual photodiodes, the large surface area in photodiode of a
solar cell yields
– a device that is more sensitive to incoming light.
– a device that yields more power (larger current/volts).
• Solar cells yield more power.
• A single solar cell may provide up to 0.5V that can supply 0.1A when
exposed to bright light.
Solar Cell—I
Solar Cell—II
Solar Cell Basic Operation—Power Sources
• Each solar cell produces an
open-circuit voltage from
around 0.45 to 0.5 V and may
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generate as much as 0.1 A in
bright light.
• Similar to batteries, solar cells
can be combined in series or
parallel.
• Adding cells in series, yields
output voltage that is the sum
of the individual cell voltages.
• Adding solar cells in parallel,
yields an increased output
current vis-à-vis a single solar
cell.
Solar Cell Basic Operation—Battery Charger
• Nine solar cells placed in series can
be used to recharge two 1.5 V NiCd
cells.
• The diode is added to the circuit to
prevent the NiCd cells from
discharging through the solar cell
during times of darkness.
• It is important not to exceed the safe
charging rate of NiCd cells. To slow
the charge rate, a resistor can be
placed in series with the batteries.
Phototransistor
• Phototransistor is a light sensitive transistor.
• In one common type of phototransistor, the base lead of a BJT is replaced by a light
sensitive surface.
• When the light sensitive surface @ the base is kept in darkness, the collector-emitter
pair of the BJT does not conduct.
• When the light sensitive surface @ the base is exposed to light, a small amount of
current flows from the base to the emitter. The small base-emitter current controls
the larger collector-emitter current.
• Alternatively, one can also use a field-effect phototransistor (Photo FET).
• In a photo FET, the light exposure generates a gate voltage which controls a
drain-source current.
Phototransistor Photo FET
How Phototransistor Works
• The bipolar phototransistor resembles a
bipolar transistor that has extra large p-type
semiconductor region that is open for light
exposure.
• When photons from a light source collide
with electrons within the p-type
semiconductor, they gain enough energy to
jump across the pn-junction energy barrierprovided
the photons are of the right
frequency/energy.
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• As electrons jump from the p-region into the
lower n-region, holes are created in the ptype
semiconductor.
• The extra electrons injected into the lower ntype
slab are drawn toward the positive
terminal of the battery, while electrons from
the negative terminal of the battery are draw
into the upper n-type semiconductor and
across the np junction, where they combine
with the holes, the net result is an electrons
current that flows from the emitter to the
collector.
Phototransistor Applications—Light Activated Relay
• A phototransistor is used to control the base current supplied to a power-switching
transistor that is used to supply current to a relay.
• When light comes in contact with the phototransistor, the phototransistor turns on,
allowing current to pass from the supply into the base of the power-switching
transistor.
• This allows the power-switching transistor to turns on, and current flows through the
relay, triggering it to switch states.
• The 100K pot is used to adjust the sensitivity of device by controlling current flow
through the phototransistor.
Phototransistor Applications—Dark Activated Relay
• A phototransistor is used to control the base current supplied to a power-switching
transistor that is used to supply current to a relay.
• When light is removed from the phototransistor, the phototransistor turns off,
allowing more current to enter into the base of the power-switching transistor.
• This allows the power-switching transistor to turns on, and current flows through
the relay, triggering it to switch states.
• The 100K pot is used to adjust the sensitivity of device by controlling current flow
through the phototransistor.
Phototransistor Applications—Tachometer
• A phototransistor is being used as a frequency counter or tachometer.
• A rotating disk is connected to a rotating shaft. The rotating disk has one hole in it.
• For the given setup, the disk will allow light to pass through the hole once every
revolution.
• The light passing through the disk triggers the phototransistor into conduction.
• A frequency counter is used to count the number of electrical pulses generated.

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 TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: CHECKING MICA, MYLAR AND CERAMIC CAPACITORS

WITH VOM
Performance Objectives:
1. To verify experimentally the storing current capacity of a capacitor.
2. To determine the charging effect of mica, Mylar and ceramic
capacitor.

Materials Needed:
1 unit –VOM or equivalent
CAPACITORS: Ten assorted values of non-polar capacitor

Steps/Procedure
1. Draw the circuit connection of VOM test leads in checking the
condition of mica, Mylar and ceramic disc capacitor indicate the
range of the ohmmeter.
2. Record the result in the table 1 and describe ohmmeter pointer
behavior.
3. Identify the group of components and give the function of the VOM.
4. State briefly your observation or conclusion.

Assessment Method
1. Fill up the table of data by using VOM.
No. of Capacitance Type of Meter condition
Capacitor Value capacitor pointer
behavior
1
2
3
4
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 5
6

TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: CHECKING DIODE WITH AN OHMMETER

Performance Objectives:
1. To become familiar with the VOM (volt-ohmmeter) used as diode
tester.
2. To identify the anode and cathode and the junction of the diode.
3. To verify experimentally common troubles of a diode and its
probable cause.
4. To become familiar with the different types of the diode.

Materials Needed:
1 unit –VOM or equivalent meter
DIODE: Assorted types of solid state diode (good, open, shorted and leaky)
Miscellaneous: two pieces of connecting wires with clip

Steps/Procedure
1. Measure and record the forward and reverse resistance of silicon
diode or equivalent as show in the table.
2. Indicate the behavior of the meter pointer.
1. Identify the anode and cathode junction of the diode.
2. Test and verify the connection from end to end diode.
3. State briefly the parts and function of a diode as indicated in the
table.

Assessment Method
1. Check and verify every procedure during the testing process of
training.
2. Practical testing and direct observation.
3. Test and review exercises.

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A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter), is
an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in
one unit. A typical multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance.Analog
multimeters use a microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings. Digital
multimeters (DMM, DVOM) have a numeric display, and may also show a graphical
bar representing the measured value. Digital multimeters are now far more common
due to their cost and precision, but analog multimeters are still preferable in some
cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly varying value.

A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic faultfinding and field service
work, or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy.
They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and
household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic
appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

Operation

A multimeter is a combination of a multirange DC voltmeter, multirange AC

voltmeter, multirangeammeter, and multirange ohmmeter. An un-amplified analog
multimeter combines a meter movement, range resistors and switches.

For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is measured with a series resistor

connected between the meter movement and the circuit under test. A set of switches
allows greater resistance to be inserted for higher voltage ranges. The product of the
basic full-scale deflection current of the movement, and the sum of the series
resistance and the movement's own resistance, gives the full-scale voltage of the
range. As an example, a meter movement that required 1 milliampere for full scale
deflection, with an internal resistance of 500 ohms, would, on a 10-volt range of the
multimeter, have 9,500 ohms of series resistance.[7]

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For analog current ranges, low-resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the
meter movement to divert most of the current around the coil. Again for the case of a
hypothetical 1 mA, 500 ohm movement on a 1 ampere range, the shunt resistance
would be just over 0.5 ohms.

Moving coil instruments respond only to the average value of the current through
them. To measure alternating current, a rectifier diode is inserted in the circuit so that
the average value of current is non-zero. Since the rectified average value and the
root-mean-square value of a waveform need not be the same, simple rectifier-type
circuits may only be calibrated for sinusoidal waveforms. Other wave shapes require
a different calibration factor to relate RMS and average value. Since practical
rectifiers have non-zero voltage drop, accuracy and sensitivity is poor at low values.

To measure resistance, a small battery within the instrument passes a current

through the device under test and the meter coil. Since the current available
depends on the state of charge of the battery, a multimeter usually has an
adjustment for the ohms scale to zero it. In the usual circuit found in analog
multimeters, the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistance; so full-
scale is 0 ohms, and high resistance corresponds to smaller deflections. The ohms
scale is compressed, so resolution is better at lower resistance values.

Amplified instruments simplify the design of the series and shunt resistor networks.
The internal resistance of the coil is decoupled from the selection of the series and
shunt range resistors; the series network becomes a voltage divider. Where AC
measurements are required, the rectifier can be placed after the amplifier stage,
improving precision at low range.

Digital instruments, which necessarily incorporate amplifiers, use the same principles
as analog instruments for range resistors. For resistance measurements, usually a
small constant current is passed through the device under test and the digital
multimeter reads the resultant voltage drop; this eliminates the scale compression
found in analog meters, but requires a source of significant current. An autoranging
digital multimeter can automatically adjust the scaling network so that the
measurement uses the full precision of the A/D converter.
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In all types of multimeters, the quality of the switching elements is critical to stable
and accurate measurements. Stability of the resistors is a limiting factor in the long-
term accuracy and precision of the instrument.

Quantities measured

Contemporary multi-meters can measure many quantities. The common ones are:

 Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts.

 Current, alternating and direct, in amperes.
The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate must be
specified.
 Resistance in ohms.

Additionally, some multi-meters measure:

 Capacitance in farads.
 Conductance in Siemens.
 Decibels.
 Duty cycle as a percentage.
 Frequency in hertz.
 Inductance in henries.
 Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, with an appropriate
temperature test probe, often thermocouple.

Digital multi-meters may also include circuits for:

 Continuity tester; sounds when a circuit conducts

 Diodes (measuring forward drop of diode junctions),
and transistors (measuring current gain and other parameters)
 Battery checking for simple 1.5-volt and 9-volt batteries. This is a current loaded
voltage scale which simulates in-use voltage measurement.

Various sensors can be attached to multi-meters to take measurements such as:

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 Light level
 Acidity/Alkalinity(pH)
 Relative humidity

Resolution
Resolution and accuracy

The resolution of a multi-meter is the smallest part of the scale which can be shown,
which is scale dependent. On some digital multi-meters it can be configured, with
higher resolution measurements taking longer to complete. For example, a multi-
meter that has a 1 mV resolution on a 10 V scale can show changes in
measurements in 1 mV increments.

Absolute accuracy is the error of the measurement compared to a perfect

measurement. Relative accuracy is the error of the measurement compared to the
device used to calibrate the multi-meter. Most multi-meter datasheets provide
relative accuracy. To compute the absolute accuracy from the relative accuracy of a
multi-meter add the absolute accuracy of the device used to calibrate the multi-meter
to the relative accuracy of the multi-meter.
Digital

The resolution of a multi-meter is often specified in the number of

decimal digits resolved and displayed. If the most significant digit cannot take all
values from 0 to 9 is often termed a fractional digit. For example, a multi-meter which
can read up to 19999 (plus an embedded decimal point) is said to read 4½ digits.

By convention, if the most significant digit can be either 0 or 1, it is termed a half-

digit; if it can take higher values without reaching 9 (often 3 or 5), it may be called
three-quarters of a digit. A 5½ digit multi-meter would display one "half digit" that
could only display 0 or 1, followed by five digits taking all values from 0 to 9. [9] Such
a meter could show positive or negative values from 0 to 199,999. A 3¾ digit meter
can display a quantity from 0 to 3,999 or 5,999, depending on the manufacturer.

While a digital display can easily be extended in precision, the extra digits are of no
value if not accompanied by care in the design and calibration of the analog portions
of the multi-meter. Meaningful high-resolution measurements require a good
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understanding of the instrument specifications, good control of the measurement
conditions, and traceability of the calibration of the instrument. However, even if its
resolution exceeds the accuracy, a meter can be useful for comparing measurements.
For example, a meter reading 5½ stable digits may indicate that one nominally
100,000 ohm resistor is about 7 ohms greater than another, although the error of
each measurement is 0.2% of reading plus 0.05% of full-scale value.

Specifying "display counts" is another way to specify the resolution. Display counts
give the largest number, or the largest number plus one (so the count number looks
nicer) the multi-meter's display can show, ignoring a decimal separator. For example, a
5½ digit multi-meter can also be specified as a 199999 display count or 200000
display count multi-meter. Often the display count is just called the count in multi-
meter specifications.

The accuracy of a digital multi-meter may be stated in a two-term form, such as

"±1% of reading +2 counts", reflecting the different sources of error in the instrument.
Analog

Display face of an analog multi-meter

Analog meters are older and still preferred by many engineers. One reason for this is
that analog meters are more sensitive to changes in the circuit that is being
measured. A digital multi-meter samples the quantity being measured and then
displays it. Analog multi-meters continuously read the test value. If there are slight
changes in readings, the needle of an analog multi-meter will track them while digital
multi-meters may miss them or be difficult to read. This continuous tracking feature
becomes important when testing capacitors or coils. A properly functioning capacitor
should allow current to flow when voltage is applied, then the current slowly

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decreases to zero and this "signature" is easy to see on an analog multi-meter but
not on a digital multi-meter. This is similar when testing a coil, except the current
starts low and increases.

Resistance measurements on an analog meter, in particular, are of low precision due

to the typical resistance measurement circuit which compresses the scale heavily at
the higher resistance values. Inexpensive analog meters may have only a single
resistance scale, seriously restricting the range of precise measurements. Typically
an analog meter will have a panel adjustment to set the zero-ohms calibration of the
meter, to compensate for the varying voltage of the meter battery.

Accuracy

Digital multi-meters generally take measurements with accuracy superior to their

analog counterparts. Standard analog mult-imeters measure with typically ±3%
accuracy,[11] though instruments of higher accuracy are made. Standard portable
digital multi-meters are specified to have an accuracy of typically ±0.5% on the DC
voltage ranges. Mainstream bench-top multi-meters are available with specified
accuracy of better than ±0.01%. Laboratory grade instruments can have accuracies of
a few parts per million.

Accuracy figures need to be interpreted with care. The accuracy of an analog

instrument usually refers to full-scale deflection; a measurement of 30 V on the
100 V scale of a 3% meter is subject to an error of 3 V, 10% of the reading. Digital
meters usually specify accuracy as a percentage of reading plus a percentage of full-
scale value, sometimes expressed in counts rather than percentage terms.

Quoted accuracy is specified as being that of the lower milli-volt (mV) DC range, and
is known as the "basic DC volts accuracy" figure. Higher DC voltage ranges, current,
resistance, AC and other ranges will usually have a lower accuracy than the basic
DC volts figure. AC measurements only meet specified accuracy within a specified
range of frequencies.

Manufacturers can provide calibration services so that new meters may be purchased
with a certificate of calibration indicating the meter has been adjusted to standards

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traceable to, for example, the USNational Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
or other national standards organization.

Test equipment tends to drift out of calibration over time, and the specified accuracy
cannot be relied upon indefinitely. For more expensive equipment, manufacturers
and third parties provide calibration services so that older equipment may be
recalibrated and recertified. The cost of such services is disproportionate for
inexpensive equipment; however extreme accuracy is not required for most routine
testing. Multi-meters used for critical measurements may be part of
a metrology program to assure calibration.

A multi-meter can be assumed to be "average responding" to AC waveforms unless

stated as being a "True RMS" type. An average responding multimeter will only meet
its specified accuracy on AC volts and amps for purely sinusoidal waveforms. A True
RMS responding multimeter on the other hand will meet its specified accuracy on AC
volts and current with any waveform type up to a specified crest factor.

A meter's AC voltage and current accuracy may have different specifications for
different ranges of frequency.

Sensitivity and input impedance

When used for measuring voltage, the input impedance of the multimeter must be
very high compared to the impedance of the circuit being measured; otherwise circuit
operation may be changed, and the reading will also be inaccurate.

Meters with electronic amplifiers (all digital multimeters and some analog meters)
have a fixed input impedance that is high enough not to disturb most circuits. This is
often either one or ten megohms; thestandardization of the input resistance allows the
use of external high-resistance probes which form avoltage divider with the input
resistance to extend voltage range up to tens of thousands of volts. High-end
multimeters generally provide an input impedance >10 Gigaohms for ranges less
than or equal to 10 V. Some high-end multimeters provide >10 Gigaohms of
impedance to ranges greater than 10 V.

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Most analog multimeters of the moving-pointer type are unbuffered, and draw current
from the circuit under test to deflect the meter pointer. The impedance of the meter
varies depending on the basic sensitivity of the meter movement and the range
which is selected. For example, a meter with a typical 20,000 ohms/volt sensitivity
will have an input resistance of two million ohms on the 100-volt range (100 V *
20,000 ohms/volt = 2,000,000 ohms). On every range, at full scale voltage of the
range, the full current required to deflect the meter movement is taken from the
circuit under test. Lower sensitivity meter movements are acceptable for testing in
circuits where source impedances are low compared to the meter impedance, for
example, power circuits; these meters are more rugged mechanically. Some
measurements in signal circuits require higher sensitivity movements so as not to
load the circuit under test with the meter impedance.

Sensitivity should not be confused with resolution of a meter, which is defined as the
lowest signal change (voltage, current, resistance...) that can change the observed
reading.

For general-purpose digital multimeters, the lowest voltage range is typically several
hundred millivolts AC or DC, but the lowest current range may be several hundred
microamperes, although instruments with greater current sensitivity are available.
Multimeters designed for (mains) "electrical" use instead of general electronics
engineering use will typically forego the microamps current ranges.

Measurement of low resistance requires lead resistance (measured by touching the

test probes together) to be subtracted for best accuracy. This can be done with the
"delta", "Zero", or "null" feature of many digital multimeters.

The upper end of multimeter measurement ranges varies considerably;

measurements over perhaps 600 volts, 10 amperes, or 100 megohms may require a
specialized test instrument.

Burden voltage

Any ammeter, including a multimeter in a current range, has a certain resistance.

Most multimeters inherently measure voltage, and pass a current to be measured

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through a shunt resistance, measuring the voltage developed across it. The voltage
drop is known as the burden voltage, specified in volts per ampere. The value can
change depending on the range the meter selects, since different ranges usually use
different shunt resistors.

The burden voltage can be significant in very low-voltage circuit areas. To check for
its effect on accuracy and on external circuit operation the meter can be switched to
different ranges; the current reading should be the same and circuit operation should
not be affected if burden voltage is not a problem. If this voltage is significant it can
be reduced (also reducing the inherent accuracy and precision of the measurement)
by using a higher current range.

Alternating current sensing

Since the basic indicator system in either an analog or digital meter responds to DC
only, a multimeter includes an AC to DC conversion circuit for making alternating
current measurements. Basic meters utilize a rectifier circuit to measure the average
or peak absolute value of the voltage, but are calibrated to show the calculated root
mean square (RMS) value for a sinusoidal waveform; this will give correct readings for
alternating current as used in power distribution. User guides for some such meters
givecorrection factors for some simple non-sinusoidal waveforms, to allow the
correct root mean square(RMS) equivalent value to be calculated. More expensive
multimeters include an AC to DC converter that measures the true RMS value of the
waveform within certain limits; the user manual for the meter may indicate the limits
of the crest factor and frequency for which the meter calibration is valid. RMS sensing
is necessary for measurements on non-sinusoidal periodic waveforms, such as found
in audio signals and variable-frequency drives.

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Digital multi-meters (DMM or DVOM)

A bench-top multimeter, the Hewlett-Packard 34401.

Modern multimeters are often digital due to their accuracy, durability and extra
features. In a digital multimeter the signal under test is converted to a voltage and an
amplifier with electronically controlled gain preconditions the signal. A digital
multimeter displays the quantity measured as a number, which
eliminates parallax errors.

Modern digital multimeters may have an embedded computer, which provides a wealth
of convenience features. Measurement enhancements available include:

 Auto-ranging, which selects the correct range for the quantity under test so that
the most significant digits are shown. For example, a four-digit multimeter
would automatically select an appropriate range to display 1.234 instead of
0.012, or overloading. Auto-ranging meters usually include a facility to hold the
meter to a particular range, because a measurement that causes frequent range
changes can be distracting to the user.
 Auto-polarity for direct-current readings, shows if the applied voltage is positive
(agrees with meter lead labels) or negative (opposite polarity to meter leads).
 Sample and hold, which will latch the most recent reading for examination after
the instrument is removed from the circuit under test.

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 Current-limited tests for voltage drop across semiconductor junctions. While
not a replacement for atransistor tester, this facilitates testing diodes and a
variety of transistor types.
 A graphic representation of the quantity under test, as a bar graph. This
makes go/no-go testing easy, and also allows spotting of fast-moving trends.
 A low-bandwidth oscilloscope.[18]
 Automotive circuit testers, including tests for automotive timing and dwell
signals.[19][better source needed]
 Simple data acquisition features to record maximum and minimum readings
over a given period, or to take a number of samples at fixed intervals.[20]
 Integration with tweezers for surface-mount technology.[21][better source needed]
 A combined LCR meter for small-size SMD and through-hole components.[22]

Modern meters may be interfaced with a personal computer by IrDA links, RS-
232 connections, USB, or an instrument bus such as IEEE-488. The interface allows
the computer to record measurements as they are made. Some DMMs can store
measurements and upload them to a computer.[23]

The first digital multimeter was manufactured in 1955 by Non Linear Systems. [24][25] It
is claimed that the first handheld digital multimeter was developed by Frank Bishop
of Intron Electronics in 1977,[26] which at the time presented a major breakthrough for
servicing and fault finding in the field.

Analog multimeters

Inexpensive analog multimeter with a galvanometer needle display

A multimeter may be implemented with a galvanometer meter movement, or less often

with a bargraph or simulated pointer such as an LCD or vacuum fluorescent display.
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Analog multimeters are common; a quality analog instrument will cost about the
same as a DMM. Analog multimeters have the precision and reading accuracy
limitations described above, and so are not built to provide the same accuracy as
digital instruments.

Analog meters are also useful in situations where it is necessary to pay attention to
something other than the meter, and the swing of the pointer can be noticed without
looking directly at it. This can happen when accessing awkward locations, or when
working on cramped live circuitry.

Analog meter movements are inherently more fragile physically and electrically than
digital meters. Many analog meters have been instantly broken by connecting to the
wrong point in a circuit, or while on the wrong range, or by dropping onto the floor.
Many analog multi-meters feature a switch position marked "transit" to protect the
meter movement during transportation. This feature works by placing a low
resistance across the movement winding, resulting in dynamic braking. Sensitive
meter movements may be protected in the same manner by connecting a shorting or
jumper wire between the terminals when not in use. Meters which feature a shunt
across the winding such as an ammeter may not require further resistance to arrest
uncontrolled movements of the meter needle because of the low resistance of the
shunt.

The meter movement in a moving pointer analog multi-meter is practically always a

moving-coilgalvanometer of the d'Arsonval type, using either jeweled pivots or taut
bands to support the moving coil. In a basic analog multimeter the current to deflect
the coil and pointer is drawn from the circuit being measured; it is usually an
advantage to minimize the current drawn from the circuit. The sensitivity of an analog
multimeter is given in units of ohms per volt. For example, a very low cost multimeter
with sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt would draw 1 milliampere from a circuit at full
scale deflection.[27] More expensive, (and mechanically more delicate) multimeters
typically have sensitivities of 20,000 ohms per volt and sometimes higher, with
50,000 ohms per volt (drawing 20 microamperes at full scale) being about the upper
limit for a portable, general purpose, non-amplified analog multimeter.

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To avoid the loading of the measured circuit by the current drawn by the meter
movement, some analog multimeters use an amplifier inserted between the
measured circuit and the meter movement. While this increased the expense and
complexity of the meter, by use of vacuum tubes or field effect transistors the input
resistance can be made very high and independent of the current required to operate
the meter movement coil. Such amplified multimeters are called VTVMs (vacuum
tube voltmeters),[28] TVMs (transistor volt meters), FET-VOMs, and similar names.

The American Radio Relay League states in their Handbook for Radio
Communications that analog multimeters that have no amplification circuitry are less

Probes

A multimeter can utilize a variety of test probes to connect to the circuit or device
under test. Crocodile clips, retractable hook clips, and pointed probes are the three
most common attachments. Tweezer probes are used for closely spaced test points,
as in surface-mount devices. The connectors are attached to flexible, thickly insulated
leads that are terminated with connectors appropriate for the meter. Probes are
connected to portable meters typically by shrouded or recessed banana jacks, while
benchtop meters may use banana jacks or BNC connectors. 2 mm plugs and binding
posts have also been used at times, but are less common today.

The banana jacks are typically placed with a standardized center-to-center distance
of 0.75 in (19 mm), to allow standard adapters or devices such as voltage multiplier
or thermocouple probes to be plugged in.

Clamp meters clamp around a conductor carrying a current to measure without the
need to connect the meter in series with the circuit, or make metallic contact at all.
Types to measure AC current use the transformer principle; clamp-on meters to
measure small current or direct current require more complicated sensors.

Safety

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An example of input protection on the CAT-IV rated Fluke 28 Series II Multimeter

Most multimeters include a fuse, or two fuses, which will sometimes prevent damage
to the multimeter from a current overload on the highest current range. (For added
safety, test leads with fuses built in are available.) A common error when operating a
multimeter is to set the meter to measure resistance or current, and then connect it
directly to a low-impedance voltage source. Unfused meters are often quickly
destroyed by such errors; fused meters often survive. Fuses used in meters must
carry the maximum measuring current of the instrument, but are intended to
disconnect if operator error exposes the meter to a low-impedance fault. Meters with
inadequate or unsafe fusing were not uncommon; this situation has led to the
creation of the IEC61010 categories to rate the safety and robustness of meters.

Digital meters are rated into four categories based on their intended application, as
set forth by IEC 61010-1] and echoed by country and regional standards groups
such as the CEN EN61010 standard.

 Category I: used where equipment is not directly connected to the mains

 Category II: used on single phase mains final sub-circuits
 Category III: used on permanently installed loads such as distribution panels,
motors, and 3-phase appliance outlets
 Category IV: used on locations where fault current levels can be very high, such
as supply service entrances, main panels, supply meters, and primary over-
voltage protection equipment

Each category also specifies maximum transient voltages for selected measuring
ranges in the meter. Category-rated meters also feature protections from over-
current faults.[34] On meters that allow interfacing with computers, optical

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isolation may be used to protect attached equipment against high voltage in the
measured circuit.

Good quality multimeters designed to meet CAT II and above ratings will include
High Rupture Capacity ceramic fuses typically rated at more than 20 kA breaking
capacity.[35] They will also include high energy overvoltage MOV (Metal
Oxide Varistor) protection, and circuit over-current protection in the form of
aPolyswitch.[36]

DMM alternatives

A general-purpose electronics DMM is generally considered adequate for

measurements at signal levels greater than one millivolt or one microampere, or
below about 100 megohms—levels far from the theoretical limits of sensitivity. Other
instruments—essentially similar, but with higher sensitivity—are used for accurate
measurements of very small or very large quantities. These include
nanovoltmeters,electrometers (for very low currents, and voltages with very high
source resistance, such as one teraohm) and picoammeters. These measurements
are limited by available technology, and ultimately by inherent thermal noise.

Power supply

Analog meters can measure voltage and current using power from the test circuit,
but require internal power from the meter for resistance testing; electronic meters
always require an internal power supply. Hand-held meters use batteries, while
bench meters usually use mains power; either arrangement allows the meter to test
devices not connected to an active circuit. Testing often requires that the component
under test be isolated from the circuit, as otherwise stray or leakage current paths
may distort measurements.

Meters intended for testing in hazardous locations or for use on blasting circuits may
require use of a manufacturer-specified battery to maintain their safety rating.

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 TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: TRANSFORMER TESTING WITH VOM

Performance Objectives:
4. To learn how to use AC voltmeter for testing and measuring the
transformer voltages.
5. To know how to use the ohmmeter for testing and measuring the
terminal resistance of a transformer.

Materials Needed:
1 unit –VOM or equivalent
Transformer: Primary 0,1,3,4.5,5,6,7,9 and 12v rated current 750mA.
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 Miscellaneous: Power Cord with Plug
1pc- operating manual

Steps/Procedure
1. Connect the power cord to the input terminals a transformer.
check your AC line voltage.
2. Double check your connections.
3. Insert the power plug to the AC line outlet.
4. Set the VOM at 250v AC.
5. With connect at 0-110 or 220 mark of the transformer, measure
the AC voltage record the result in the table provided or as per
instruction.
6. Repeat procedure for the different connections of the transformer.

Assessment Method
1. Check and verify every procedure during the testing process of
training or students.
2. We will collect the papers on the right answer after measured value
of the training or students.
3. Practical testing and direct observation.

Audio & Video Products

Analog Devices Advantiv® portfolio of video and audio IC solutions are specifically
developed and optimized for advanced television and related box applications.
Whether high definition TVs, DVD players, digital video recorders, audio/video
receivers, camcorders, or cable and satellite set top boxes, the Advantiv portfolio
delivers cost effective analog, digital, and mixed-signal solutions that bring the most
advanced TVs to life.

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According to the Consumer Electronics Association, the average household
owns 24 consumer electronics products which are responsible for 12
percent of household electricity use.
ENERGY STAR certified audio/video equipment is up to 50% more efficient
than conventional models. Blu-Ray players that earn the ENERGY STAR
label are, on average, 45% more efficient than conventional models.
The ENERGY STAR can be found on a wide range of equipment such as:
Home-Theater-in-a-Box Systems
Sound bars
MP3 speaker docks
Audio Amplifiers
AV receivers
Shelf systems
Blue-ray Disc players
DVD players

What an LED TV Really Is

There has been a lot of hype and confusion surrounding the marketing of "LED" TVs.
Even many public relations representatives and sales professionals that should know
better are falsely explaining what an LED Television is to their prospective
customers.

To set the record straight, it is important to note that the LED designation refers to
the backlight system used in many LCD Televisions, not the chips that produce the
image content.
LCD chips and pixels do not produce their own light. In order for an LCD television to
produce a visible image on a TV screen the LCD's pixels have to be "backlit". For
more specifics on the backlighting process needed for LCD Televisions, refer to my
article: Demystifying CRT, Plasma, LCD, and DLP Television Technologies.
Plasma Technology
Plasma televisions, on the other hand, although employing phosphors similar to a
CRT, the phosphors are not lit by a scanning electron beam. Instead the phosphors
in a Plasma television are lit by superheated charged gas (similar to a Fluorescent
light). All the phosphor picture elements (pixels) can be lit at once, rather than having
to be scanned by an electron beam as is the case with CRTs. Also, since a scanning
electron beam is not necessary, the need for a bulky picture tube (CRT) is
eliminated, resulting in a thin cabinet profile.

For more technical details, check out How Plasma TV Works (How Stuff Works).
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LCD Technology
Taking another approach, which also results in a thin cabinet profile, unlike a
traditional CRT televisions, the images on an LCD television are also not "scanned"
by an electron beam. The picture elements (pixels) of an LCD Television are merely
turned off or on at a specific refresh rate.

In other words, the entire image is displayed (or refreshed) all at once every 24th,
30th, 60th, or 120th of a second. Actually, with LCD you can engineer refresh rates
of 24, 25, 30, 50, 60, 72, 100, 120, 240, or 480 (so far). However, the most
commonly used refresh rates used in LCD TVs is 60 or 120. Keep in mind that
refresh rate is not the same as frame rate.

For more specifics on what refresh rate is, how it works, and how it is different that
frame rate, check out my article: Video Frame Rate vs Screen Refresh Rate.
It must also be noted that LCD pixels do not produce there own light. In order for an
LCD television to produce a visible image the LCD's pixels have to be "backlit". The
backlight, in most cases is constant. What happens in this process is that the pixels
are rapidly turned on and off depending on the requirements of the image. If the
pixels are off, they don't let the backlight through, when they are on, they let the
backlight through.

For a more technical look at how this process works, check out: How LCD Works
(How Stuff Works).
It is important to note that there are new backlight technologies which enhance the
pixel on/off process, such as Global Dimming and Local Dimming. These dimming
technologies employ anLED-based backlight (either full array or edge light
system) rather than traditional Fluorescent backlighting.
Global Dimming can vary the amount of backlight hitting all of the pixels for dark or
bright scenes, while Local Dimming is designed to hit specific groups of pixels
depending on which areas of the image need to be darker or lighter than the rest of
the image. For a detailed look at Local Dimming and LED use in LCD TVs, check out
an informative article from Home Theater Magazine.
DLP Technology
Still another technology used in televisions (rear projection televisions, that is) is DLP
(Digital Light Processing), invented, developed, and licensed by Texas Instruments.

The video image is displayed on the DMD chip. The micromirrors on the chip
(remember: each micromirror represents one pixel) then tilt very rapidly as the image
changes.

This process produces the grayscale foundation for the image. Then, color is added
as light passes through a high-speed color wheel and is reflected off of the
micromirrors on the DLP chip as they rapidly tilt towards or away from the light
source. The degree of tilt of each micromirror coupled with the rapidly spinning color
wheel determines the color structure of the projected image. As the amplified light
bounces off the micromirrors, it is sent through the lens, reflected off a large single
mirror, and onto the screen.
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For further technical explanations on DLP, check out my article: Rear Projection
Televisions: DLPas well as the Texas Instruments DLP Website.
However, it must be pointed out that DLP technology, while still being used in video
projectors, is not longer being used in TVs as Rear Projection TVs, as product class,
has been retired (read my report). This means that while there are still many DLP
TVs in use, they are no longer being produced for the consumer market.
OLED
OLED is the newest TV technology available for consumers. It has been used in cell
phones, tablets, and other small screen applications for a while - but beginning in
2013 it has been successfully applied to large screen consumer TV applications.
OLED stands for Organic Light Emitting Diode. To keep it simple, the screen is made
of pixel-sized, organically-based elements (no, they are not actually alive). OLED
has some of the characteristics of both LCD and Plasma TVs.

What OLED has in common with LCD is that OLED can be laid out in very thin
layers, enabling thin TV frame design and energy efficient power consumption.
However, just like LCD, OLED is subject to dead pixel defects.

Plasma, LCD, DLP, and OLED TVs have a finite number of screen pixels, thus they
are "fixed-pixel" displays. Input signals that have higher resolutions must be scaled
to fit the pixel field count of the particular Plasma, LCD, DLP, or OLED display. For
example, a typical 1080i HDTV broadcast signal needs a native display of
1920x1080 pixels for a one-to-one point display of the HDTV image.

However, since Plasma, LCD, DLP, and OLED televisions can only display
progressive images, 1080i source signals are always either deinterlaced to 1080p for
display on a 1080p TV, or deinterlaced and scaled down to 768p, 720p, or 480p
depending on the native pixel resolution of the specific TV. Technically, there is no
such thing as a 1080i LCD, Plasma, DLP, or OLED TV.

LED/LCD TVs vs Standard LCD TVs

Since LEDs are designed differently than standard fluorescent backlight systems,
this means that the new LED backlit LCD sets offer the following differences with
standard LCD sets:

1. Lower power consumption.

2. No Mercury used as in some other LCD backlight systems.
3. More balanced color saturation.
4. In LED/LCD TVs using the Full Array blacklight method, there is little or no light
leakage in dark scenes. This contributes to even better black levels than traditional
or LED Edge-lit LCDtelevisions.
5. LCD TVs that employ Full Array or Direct LED backlighting are thicker than LCD
TVs that employ an Edge-lit LED light source. In other words, LED/LCD TVs that use
the Edge backlight method can be made thinner than both standard LCD and Full
Array LED/LCD televisions.

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 LED Television and LCD

Introduction
Television at the crossroads
Television in substantially its present form has been with us for nearly 50
years. It is a tribute to the National Television Standards Committee (NTSC)
that the color television standards agreed upon in the early 1950s have
performed remarkably well making quite efficient use of valuable radio
spectrum space and the psychovisual characteristics of the human eye-
brain system. However, HDTV (High Definition TV) will supplant and
ultimately replace the current standards. We will all come to expect its
superior resolution, freedom from noise and ghosting, and pure CD sound.
Yet, the perceived quality of TV broadcasts and cable will never likely be the
major issue with most consumers. Content will continue to be the biggest
problem.
As of June 2009, all analog broadcasting in the USA has been discontinued by law, except for
some low power local transmissions. This (so the justification goes) frees up a large amount
of electromagnetic spectrum for other (more lucrative!) applications, since the Digital TV
(DTV) channels occupy less bandwidth. Low cost DTV converter boxes enabled existing
TVs to receive the digital signals so there was no need to buy new digital TVs, though this
did make for one darn good excuse to upgrade to a 60" flat screen HDTV! :)

There is plenty of information available elsewhere with regard to the pros and cons of the
DTV conversion, the trials and tribulations of people using antennas (as opposed to cable or
optical fiber), and the ultimate benefits, real and perceived. Suffice it to say that when digital
reception is good, the picture and sound are very very good and there is essentially no
comparison with the analog system it replaced. This is true even when a converter box is used
with an analog TV in good condition and standard definition digital is better than the best
analog. HDTV with multi-channel sound is simply exquisite.

However, unlike analog TV, poor reception doesn't result in snow or ghosts, but rather the
picture (and sound) totally drops out or (in the case of the video) freezes or pixilates. For
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over-the-air reception, the type of antenna and its orientation becomes much more critical.
And even in areas close to the transmitter, local terrain and obstructions in the line-of-sight
like hills and buildings may result in problems.

Television receiver fundamentals

The basic color television receiver must perform the same functions today as
40 years ago. (Since B/W is a subset of the color standard, most references
in this document will be for color except as noted). A studio video monitor
includes all of the functions of a television receiver except the tuner and IF
(which rarely fail except for bad connections or perhaps lightning strikes to
the antenna or cable connection). Therefore most of the repair information in
this document is applicable to both TVs and studio monitors. Modern
computer monitors share many similarities with TVs but the multisync and
high scan rate deflection circuitry and more sophisticated power supplies
complicates their servicing.

TV Repair
Unlike VCRs or CD players where any disasters are likely to only affect your
pocketbook, TVs can be dangerous. Read, understand, and follow the set of
safety guidelines provided later in this section whenever working on TVs,
monitors, or other similar high voltage equipment.
If you do go inside, beware: line voltage (on large caps) and high voltage (on CRT) for long
after the plug is pulled. There is the added danger of CRT implosion for carelessly dropped
tools and often sharp sheetmetal shields which can injure if you should have a reflex reaction
upon touching something you should not touch. In inside of a TV or monitor is no place for
the careless or naive.

Having said that, a basic knowledge of how a TV set works and what can go wrong can be of
great value even if you do not attempt the repair yourself. It will enable you to intelligently
deal with the service technician. You will be more likely to be able to recognize if you are
being taken for a ride by a dishonest or just plain incompetent repair center. For example, a
faulty picture tube CANNOT be the cause of a color television only displaying shows in
black-and-white. The majority of consumers probably do not know even this simple fact.
Such a problem is usually due to a bad capacitor or other 10 cent part.

This document will provide you with the knowledge to deal with a large percentage of the
problems you are likely to encounter with your TVs. It will enable you to diagnose problems
and in many cases, correct them as well. With minor exceptions, specific manufacturers and
models will not be covered as there are so many variations that such a treatment would
require a huge and very detailed text. Rather, the most common problems will be addressed
and enough basic principles of operation will be provided to enable you to narrow the
problem down and likely determine a course of action for repair. In many cases, you will be
able to do what is required for a fraction of the cost that would be charged by a repair center.

Should you still not be able to find a solution, you will have learned a great deal and be able
to ask appropriate questions and supply relevant information if you decide to post to
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sci.electronics.repair. It will also be easier to do further research using a repair text such as
the ones listed at the end of this document. In any case, you will have the satisfaction of
knowing you did as much as you could before taking it in for professional repair. With your
new-found knowledge, you will have the upper hand and will not easily be snowed by a
dishonest or incompetent technician.

Repair or replace
If you need to send or take the TV to a service center, the repair could easily
exceed half the cost of a new TV. Service centers may charge up to $50 or
more for providing an initial estimate of repair costs but this will usually be
credited toward the total cost of the repair (of course, they may just jack this
up to compensate for their bench time).

TV Receivers
Subsystems of a television set
A TV set includes the following functional blocks:

1. Low voltage power supply (some may also be part of (2).) Most of the
lower voltages used in the TV may be derived from the horizontal
deflection circuits. Sometimes, there is a separate switching power
supply but this would be the exception. Rectifier/filter
capacitor/regulator from AC line provides the B+ to the switching
power supply or horizontal deflection system. Degauss operates off of
the line whenever power is turned on (after having been off for a few
minutes) to demagnetize the CRT.
2. Horizontal deflection. These circuits provide the waveforms needed to
sweep the electron beam in the CRT across and back some 15,734
times per second (for NTSC). The horizontal sync pulse from the sync
separator locks the horizontal deflection to the video signal.
3. Vertical deflection. These circuits provide the waveforms needed to
sweep the electron beam in the CRT from top to bottom and back 60
times per second (for NTSC). The vertical sync pulse from the sync
separator locks the vertical deflection to the video signal.
4. CRT high voltage (also part of (2).) A modern color CRT requires up to
30 kV for a crisp bright picture. Rather than having a totally separate
power supply, nearly every TV on the planet derives the HV (as well as
many other voltages) from the horizontal deflection using a special
transformer called a 'flyback' or 'Line OutPut Transformer (LOPT) for
those of you on the other side of the lake.
5. Tuner, IF, AGC, video and audio demodulators. Input is the antenna
or cable signal and output are baseband video and audio signals.
There is usually someplace inside the TV where line level video and
audio are present but it may not be accessible from the outside of the
cabinet unless you paid for the more expensive model with the A/V
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 option. Very often, the tuner is a shielded metal box positioned on the
bottom right (as viewed from the front) separate from the main circuit
board. Sometimes it is on the main circuit board. The IF section may
be in either place.

On older or cheap TVs with a knob tuner, this is usually mounted to the front panel by
itself. There are usually separate boxes for the VHF and UHF tuners.

6. Chroma demodulator. Input is the baseband video signal. Outputs are

the individual signals for the red, green, and blue video to the CRT.
7. Video drivers (RGB). These are almost always located on a little circuit
board plugged directly onto the neck of the CRT. They boost the
output of the chroma demodulator to the hundred volts or so needed
to drive the cathodes of the CRT.
8. Sync separator. Input is baseband video. Output is horizontal and
vertical sync pulses to control the deflection circuits.
9. Audio amplifier/output. The line level audio is amplified to drive a set
of speakers. If this is a stereo TV, then these circuits must also
perform the stereo demultiplexing.
10. System control. Most modern TVs actually use a microcontroller
- a fixed program microcomputer to perform all user interface and
control functions from the front panel and remote control. These are
becoming increasingly sophisticated. However, they do not fail often.
Older TVs use a bunch of knobs and switches and these are prone to
wear and dirt.

Most problems occur in the horizontal deflection and power supply sections. These run at
relatively high power levels and some components run hot. The high voltage section is prone
to breakdown and arcing as a result of hairline cracks, humidity, dirt, etc.

The tuner components are usually quite reliable unless the antenna experiences a lightning
strike. However, it seems that even after 20+ years of solid state TVs, manufacturers still
cannot reliably solder the tuner connectors and shields so that bad solder connections in these
areas are common even in new sets.

Why projection TVs are not just normal TVs in big boxes
In order to achieve the necessary brightness with a large display format,
three separate monochrome CRTs are used with optics to combine the three
images properly at the screen. This creates an entire set of additional
problems in design.
(The average projection TV has about twice as many parts as its direct-view counterpart.
Some of the extra parts are essential for projection because CRT projection tubes require
dynamic convergence. The other extra parts have to do with the fact that a more expensive
TV also should have some extra features, like Dolby ProLogic sound, a satellite tuner and
such.

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Generally, the electronics are based on a standard chassis that is also used for direct-view
CRT television. Even the deflection circuits require minor adaptations at most. The high-
voltage circuit is different because the EHT, focus and G2 voltages must be distributed over 3
CRTs. So this requires a special high-voltage part, which also includes an EHT capacitor and
bleeder.

There will be 3 CRT panels with video amplifiers. Because of the extremely high brightness,
projection tubes will burn the phosphor screen immediately in fault conditions so a protection
circuit is essential.

And last but certainly not least, there is the dynamic convergence panel. The heart is a
waveform generator IC, often of a Japanese brand but nowadays there's also a digital variant
by Philips. The old-fashioned way requires many many potentiometers to program the
waveforms. Then there's 5 or 6 convergence amplifiers and a corresponding extra power
supply. And usually this is where the single deflection circuits are distributed to the 3 CRTs.
At the same time the deflection currents are sensed for the protection circuits.

Designing a PTV from a DVTV requires several man-years of work. In the factory, a special
corner is devoted to the assembly. There you'll find specially educated people and the speed
of the assembly line is a lot lower than usual. It requires many more adjustments, e.g. 3
optical and 3 electrical focus adjustments and then convergence.

On-line tech-tips databases

A number of organizations have compiled databases covering thousands of
common problems with VCRs, TVs, computer monitors, and other electronic
equipment. Most charge for their information but a few, accessible via the
Internet, are either free or have a very minimal monthly or per-case fee. In
other cases, a limited but still useful subset of the for-fee database is freely
available.
A tech-tips database is a collection of problems and solutions accumulated by the
organization providing the information or other sources based on actual repair experiences
and case histories. Since the identical failures often occur at some point in a large percentage
of a given model or product line, checking out a tech-tips database may quickly identify your
problem and solution.

In that case, you can greatly simplify your troubleshooting or at least confirm a diagnosis
before ordering parts. My only reservation with respect to tech-tips databases in general - this
has nothing to do with any one in particular - is that symptoms can sometimes be deceiving
and a solution that works in one instance may not apply to your specific problem. Therefore,
an understanding of the hows and whys of the equipment along with some good old
fashioned testing is highly desirable to minimize the risk of replacing parts that turn out not to
be bad.

The other disadvantage - at least from one point of view - is that you do not learn much by
just following a procedure developed by others. There is no explanation of how the original
diagnosis was determined or what may have caused the failure in the first place. Nor is there
likely to be any list of other components that may have been affected by overstress and may
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fail in the future. Replacing Q701 and C725 may get your equipment going again but this will
not help you to repair a different model in the future.

Additional TV technology and repair information

CRT Basics
Note: Most of the information on TV and monitor CRT construction,
operation, interference and other problems. has been moved to the
document: TV and Monitor CRT (Picture Tube) Information. The following is
just a brief introduction with instructions on degaussing.

Color CRTs - shadow masks and aperture grills

All color CRTs utilize a shadow mask or aperture grill a fraction of an inch
(1/2" typical) behind the phosphor screen to direct the electron beams for
the red, green, and blue video signals to the proper phosphor dots. Since the
electron beams for the R, G, and B phosphors originate from slightly
different positions (individual electron guns for each) and thus arrive at
slightly different angles, only the proper phosphors are excited when the
purity is properly adjusted and the necessary magnetic field free region is
maintained inside the CRT. Note that purity determines that the correct
video signal excites the proper color while convergence determines the
geometric alignment of the 3 colors. Both are affected by magnetic fields.
Bad purity results in mottled or incorrect colors. Bad convergence results in
color fringing at edges of characters or graphics.
The shadow mask consists of a thin steel or InVar (a ferrous alloy) with a fine array of holes -
one for each trio of phosphor dots - positioned about 1/2 inch behind the surface of the
phosphor screen. With most CRTs, the phosphors are arranged in triangular formations called
triads with each of the color dots at the apex of the triangle. With many TVs and some
monitors, they are arranged as vertical slots with the phosphors for the 3 colors next to one
another.

An aperture grille, used exclusively in Sony Trinitrons (and now their clones as well),
replaces the shadow mask with an array of finely tensioned vertical wires. Along with other
characteristics of the aperture grille approach, this permits a somewhat higher possible
brightness to be achieved and is more immune to other problems like line induced moiré and
purity changes due to local heating causing distortion of the shadow mask.

However, there are some disadvantages of the aperture grille design:

 Weight - a heavy support structure must be provided for the tensioned

wires (like a piano frame).
 Price (proportional to weight).
 Always a cylindrical screen (this may be considered an advantage
depending on your preference.
 Visible stabilizing wires which may be objectionable or unacceptable
for certain applications.

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Apparently, there is no known way around the need to keep the fine wires from vibrating or
changing position due to mechanical shock in high resolution tubes and thus all Trinitron
monitors require 1, 2, or 3 stabilizing wires (depending on tube size) across the screen which
can be see as very fine lines on bright images. Some people find these wires to be
objectionable and for some critical applications, they may be unacceptable (e.g., medical
diagnosis).

Degaussing (demagnetizing) a CRT

Degaussing may be required if there are color purity problems with the
display. On rare occasions, there may be geometric distortion caused by
magnetic fields as well without color problems. The CRT can get magnetized:

 if the TV or monitor is moved or even just rotated.

 if there has been a lightning strike nearby. A friend of mine had a
lightning strike near his house which produced all of the effects of the
EMP from a nuclear bomb.
 If a permanent magnet was brought near the screen (e.g., kid's magnet
or megawatt stereo speakers).
 If some piece of electrical or electronic equipment with unshielded
magnetic fields is in the vicinity of the TV or monitor.

Degaussing should be the first thing attempted whenever color purity problems are detected.
As noted below, first try the internal degauss circuits of the TV or monitor by power cycling
a few times (on for a minute, off for at least 20 minutes, on for a minute, etc.) If this does not
help or does not completely cure the problem, then you can try manually degaussing.

Note: Some monitors have a degauss button, and monitors and TVs that are microprocessor
controlled may degauss automatically upon power-on (but may require pulling the plug to do
a hard reset) regardless of the amount of off time. However, repeated use of these 'features' in
rapid succession may result in overheating of the degauss coil or other components. The 20
minutes off/1 minute on procedure is guaranteed to be safe. (Some others may degauss upon
power-on as long as the previous degauss was not done within some predetermined amount
of time - they keep track with an internal timer.)

On portable TVs, degauss may only function when they are run on AC, not the internal
battery. If color purity problems are present, plugging the TV into an AC outlet may be
needed to enable it to degauss itself.

Commercial CRT Degausses are available from parts distributors like MCM Electronics and
consist of a hundred or so turns of magnet wire in a 6-12 inch coil. They include a line cord
and momentary switch. You flip on the switch, and bring the coil to within several inches of
the screen face. Then you slowly draw the center of the coil toward one edge of the screen
and trace the perimeter of the screen face. Then return to the original position of the coil
being flat against the center of the screen. Next, slowly decrease the field to zero by backing
straight up across the room as you hold the coil. When you are farther than 5 feet away you
can release the line switch.

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The key word here is ** slow **. Go too fast and you will freeze the instantaneous intensity
of the 50/60 Hz AC magnetic field variation into the ferrous components of the CRT and may
make the problem worse.

WARNING: Don't attempt to degauss inside or in the back of the set (near the CRT neck.
This can demagnetize the relatively weak purity and convergence magnets which may turn a
simple repair into a feature length extravaganza!

It looks really cool to do this while the CRT is powered. The kids will love the color effects
(but then lock your degaussing coil safely away so they don't try it on every TV and monitor
in the house!).

Bulk tape erasers, tape head degassers, open frame transformers, and the "butt-end" of a
Weller soldering gun can be used as CRT demagnetizers but it just takes a little longer. (Be
careful not to scratch the screen face with anything sharp. For the Weller, the tip needs to be
in place to get enough magnetic field.) It is imperative to have the CRT running when using
these whimpers approaches, so that you can see where there are still impurities. Never release
the power switch until you're 4 or 5 feet away from the screen or you'll have to start over.

I've never known of anything being damaged by excess manual degaussing as long as you
don't attempt to degauss *inside* or the back of the set - it is possible to demagnetize
geometry correction, purity, and static convergence magnets in the process! However, I
would recommend keeping really powerful bulk tape erasers-turned-degassers a couple of
inches from the CRT.

Another alternative which has been known to work is to place another similar size monitor
face-to-face with the suspect monitor (take care not to bump or scratch the screens!) and
activate degauss function on the working monitor. While not ideal, this may be enough to
also degauss the broken one.

If an AC degaussing coil or substitute is unavailable, I have even done degaussed with a

permanent magnet but this is not recommended since it is more likely to make the problem
worse than better. However, if the display is unusable as is, then using a small magnet can do
no harm. (Don't use a 20 pound speaker or magnetron magnet as you may rip the shadow
mask right out of the CRT - well at least distort it beyond repair. What I have in mind is
something about as powerful as a refrigerator magnet.)

Keep degaussing fields away from magnetic media. It is a good idea to avoid degaussing in a
room with floppies or back-up tapes. When removing media from a room remember to check
desk drawers and manuals for stray floppies, too.

It is unlikely that you could actually affect magnetic media but better safe than sorry. Of the
devices mentioned above, only a bulk eraser or strong permanent magnet are likely to have
any effect - and then only when at extremely close range (direct contact with media
container).

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All color CRTs include a built-in degaussing coil wrapped around the perimeter of the CRT
face. These are activated each time the CRT is powered up cold by a 3 terminal thermister
device or other control circuitry. This is why it is often suggested that color purity problems
may go away "in a few days". It isn't a matter of time; it's the number of cold power ups that
causes it. It takes about 15 minutes of the power being off for each cool down cycle. These
built-in coils with thermal control are never as effective as external coils.

Note that while the monochrome CRTs used in B/W and projection TVs and mono monitors
don't have anything inside to get magnetized, the chassis or other cabinet parts of the
equipment may still need degaussing. While this isn't likely from normal use or even after
being moved or reoriented, a powerful magnet (like that from a large speaker) could leave
iron, steel, or other ferrous parts with enough residual magnetism to cause a noticeable
problem.

TV Placement and Preventive Maintenance

General TV placement considerations
Proper care of a TV does not require much. Following the recommendations
below will assure long life and minimize repairs:

 Subdued lighting is preferred for best viewing conditions but I will not
attempt to tell you how to arrange your room!
 Locate the TV away from extremes of hot and cold. Avoid damp or
dusty locations if possible. (Right you say, keep dreaming!)
 Allow adequate ventilation - TVs use more power than any of your
other A/V components. Heat buildup takes its toll on electronic
components. Leave at least 3 inches on top and sides for air
circulation if the entertainment center does not have a wide open back
panel. Do not pile other components like VCRs on top of the TV if
possible (see below).
 Do not put anything on top of the TV that might block the ventilation
grill in the rear or top of the cover. This is the major avenue for the
convection needed to cool internal components.
 If possible, locate the VCR away from the TV. Some VCRs are
particularly sensitive to interference from the TV's circuitry and while
this won't usually damage anything, it may make for less than optimal
performance due to RF interference. The reverse is sometimes true as
well.

In addition, modern VCRs are NOT built like the Brooklyn Bridge! The weight of a
TV or stereo components could affect the VCR mechanically, messing up tape path
alignment or worse.

 If possible, locate your computer monitor away from the TV.

Interaction of the electromagnetic fields of the deflection systems may
result in one or both displays jiggling, wiggling, or vibrating.

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  Locate loudspeakers and other sources of magnetic fields at least a
couple of feet from the TV. This will minimize the possibility of color
purity or geometry problems.
 Make sure all input-output video and audio connections are tight and
secure to minimize intermittent or noisy pictures and sound. Use
proper high quality cable only long enough to make connections
conveniently.
 Finally, store video cassettes well away from all electronic equipment
including and especially loudspeakers. Heat and magnetic fields will
rapidly turn your priceless video collection into so much trash. The
operation of the TV depends on magnetic fields for beam deflection.
Enough said.


Preventive maintenance
Preventive maintenance for a TV is pretty simple - just keep the case clean
and free of obstructions. Clean the screen with a soft cloth just dampened
with water and at most, mild detergent. DO NOT use anything so wet that
liquid may seep inside of the set around the edge of the picture tube - you
could end up with a very expensive repair bill when the liquid shorts out the
main circuit board lurking just below. If the set has a protective flat glass
faceplate, there is usually an easy way (on newer sets with this type of
protection) of removing it to get at the inner face of the CRT. Clean both the
CRT and the protective glass with a soft damp cloth and dry thoroughly. If
you have not cleaned the screen for quite a while, you will be amazed at the
amount of black grime that collects due to the static buildup from the high
voltage CRT supply.
In really dusty situations, periodically vacuuming inside the case and the use of contact
cleaner for the controls might be a good idea but realistically, you will not do this so don't
worry about it.

For LCD TVs, LCD computer monitors, and laptop displays, the cleaning is particularly
critical. The front surface of these facing the viewer is generally not made of glass like those
in CRT displays, but rather a plastic layer or film. Thus, any cleaning method that uses harsh
chemicals can permanently damage the screen, with or without an anti-reflection coating.
Some glass cleaners, acetone (nail polish remover), and other strong solvents can attack the
plastic very quickly. By the time you realize there is damage, it may be too late. And, of
course, NEVER use anything even mildly abrasive.

Warning about using a TV as a computer or video game display

"I remember a while back (about 10 years) most home computers used to
hook up to televisions. I seem to remember them having some effect on the
TV though. I think they made the TV go blurry after a while. I was just
wondering what these computers used to do to the televisions to mess them
up like that. I thought a TV signal was a TV signal."

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The problem was screen burn. Since computers of that era were mostly text
and video games tended to use fixed patterns for scenery, patterns tended to
be burned into the phosphor such that they were noticeably darker and less
sensitive in those areas. This was exacerbated by the tendency to run those
devices at very high brightness levels.
Modern computers and video games should not be nearly as much of a risk since the displays
are so much more varied and dynamic. Nevertheless, setting the brightness at a moderate
level would be prudent.

However, projection sets with their much higher intensity CRTs may still be susceptible to
screen burn and the manufacturer will likely NOT cover the cost of repairs. There is probably
a disclaimer to this effect in the warranty.

TV Troubleshooting

SAFETY
TVs and computer or video monitors are among the more dangerous of
consumer electronic equipment when it comes to servicing. (Microwave
ovens are probably the most hazardous due to high voltage at high power.)
There are two areas which have particularly nasty electrical dangers: the non-isolated line
power supply and the CRT high voltage.

Major parts of nearly all modern TVs and many computer monitors are directly connected to
the AC line - there is no power transformer to provide the essential barrier for safety and to
minimize the risk of equipment damage. In the majority of designs, the live parts of the TV or
monitor are limited to the AC input and line filter, degauss circuit, bridge rectifier and main
filter capacitor(s), low voltage (B+) regulator (if any), horizontal output transistor and
primary side of the fly back (LOPT) transformer, and parts of the startup circuit and standby
power supply. The fly back generates most of the other voltages used in the unit and provides
an isolation barrier so that the signal circuits are not line connected and safer.

Since a bridge rectifier is generally used in the power supply, both directions of the polarized
plug result in dangerous conditions and an isolation transformer really should be used - to
protect you, your test equipment, and the TV, from serious damage. Some TVs do not have
any isolation barrier whatsoever - the entire chassis is live. These are particularly nasty.

The high voltage to the CRT, while 200 times greater than the line input, is not nearly as
dangerous for several reasons. First, it is present in a very limited area of the TV or monitor -
from the output of the fly back to the CRT anode via the fat HV wire and suction cup
connector. If you don't need to remove the main board or replace the fly back or CRT, then
leave it alone and it should not bite. Furthermore, while the shock from the HV can be quite
painful due to the capacitance of the CRT envelope, it is not nearly as likely to be lethal since
the current available from the line connected power supply is much greater.

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 Safety guidelines
These guidelines are to protect you from potentially deadly electrical shock
hazards as well as the equipment from accidental damage.
Note that the danger to you is not only in your body providing a conducting path, particularly
through your heart. Any involuntary muscle contractions caused by a shock, while perhaps
harmless in them, may cause collateral damage - there are many sharp edges inside this type
of equipment as well as other electrically live parts you may contact accidentally.

The purpose of this set of guidelines is not to frighten you but rather to make you aware of
the appropriate precautions. Repair of TVs, monitors, microwave ovens, and other consumer
and industrial equipment can be both rewarding and economical. Just be sure that it is also
safe!

 Don't work alone - in the event of an emergency another person's

presence may be essential.
 Always keep one hand in your pocket when anywhere around a
powered line-connected or high voltage system.
 Wear rubber bottom shoes or sneakers.
 Don't wear any jewelry or other articles that could accidentally contact
circuitry and conduct current, or get caught in moving parts.
 Set up your work area away from possible grounds that you may
accidentally contact.
 Know your equipment: TVs and monitors may use parts of the metal
chassis as ground return yet the chassis may be electrically live with
respect to the earth ground of the AC line. Microwave ovens use the
chassis as ground return for the high voltage. In addition, do not
assume that the chassis is a suitable ground for your test equipment!
 If circuit boards need to be removed from their mountings, put
insulating material between the boards and anything they may short
to. Hold them in place with string or electrical tape. Prop them up with
insulation sticks - plastic or wood.
 If you need to probe, solder, or otherwise touch circuits with power off,
discharge (across) large power supply filter capacitors with a 2 W or
greater resistor of 100 to 500 ohms/V approximate value (e.g., for a
200 V capacitor, use a 20K to 100K ohm resistor). Monitor while
discharging and verify that there is no residual charge with a suitable
voltmeter. In a TV or monitor, if you are removing the high voltage
connection to the CRT (to replace the fly back transformer for
example) first discharge the CRT contact (under the suction cup at the
end of the fat HV wire). Use a 1M to 10M ohm 5 W or greater wattage
(for its voltage hold off capability, not power dissipation) resistor on
the end of an insulating stick or the probe of a high voltage meter.
Discharge to the metal frame which is connected to the outside of the
CRT.
 For TVs and monitors in particular, there is the additional danger of
CRT implosion - take care not to bang the CRT envelope with your
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 tools. An implosion will scatter shards of glass at high velocity in every
direction. There is several tons of force attempting to crush the typical
CRT. While implosion is not really likely even with modest abuse, why
take chances? However, the CRT neck is relatively thin and fragile and
breaking it would be very embarrassing and costly. Always wear eye
protection when working around the back side of a CRT.
 Connect/disconnect any test leads with the equipment unpowered
and unplugged. Use clip leads or solder temporary wires to reach
cramped locations or difficult to access locations.
 If you must probe live, put electrical tape over all but the last 1/16" of
the test probes to avoid the possibility of an accidental short which
could cause damage to various components. Clip the reference end of
the meter or scope to the appropriate ground return so that you need
to only probe with one hand.
 Perform as many tests as possible with power off and the equipment
unplugged. For example, the semiconductors in the power supply
section of a TV or monitor can be tested for short circuits with an
ohmmeter.
 Use an isolation transformer if there is any chance of contacting line
connected circuits. A Variac(tm) is not an isolation transformer! The
use of a GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) protected outlet is a
good idea but will not protect you from shock from many points in a
line connected TV or monitor, or the high voltage side of a microwave
oven, for example. (Note however, that, a GFCI may nuisance trip at
power-on or at other random times due to leakage paths (like your
scope probe ground) or the highly capacitive or inductive input
characteristics of line powered equipment.) A fuse or circuit breaker is
too slow and insensitive to provide any protection for you or in many
cases, your equipment. However, these devices may save your scope
probe ground wire should you accidentally connect it to a live chassis.
 Don't attempt repair work when you are tired. Not only will you be
more careless, but your primary diagnostic tool - deductive reasoning
- will not be operating at full capacity.
 Finally, never assume anything without checking it out for yourself!
Don't take shortcuts!

Warning about disconnecting CRT neck board

Some manufacturers warn against powering a TV or monitor CRT without
the CRT neck board connected. Apparently, without something - anything -
to drain the charge resulting from the current flow due to residual gas ions
inside the CRT, the shortest path may be through the glass neck of the tube
to the yoke or from the pins outside the CRT to whatever is nearby. There
aren't many ions in a modern CRT but I suppose a few here, a few there,
and eventually they add up to enough to cause a major disaster at least on
some CRTs.

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This is probably not a problem on small CRTs but for large ones with high high voltages and
high deflection angles where the glass of the neck is very thin to allow for maximum
deflection sensitivity, the potential does exist for arcing through the glass to the yoke to
occur, destroying the CRT.

There is really no way to know which models will self destruct but it should be possible to
avoid such a disaster by providing a temporary return path to the DAG ground of the CRT
(NOT SIGNAL GROUND!!) via the focus or G2 pins preferably through a high value high
voltage rated resistor just in case one of these is shorted.

This probably applies mostly to large direct-view TVs since they use high deflection angle
CRTs but it won't hurt to take appropriate precautions with video and computer monitors as
well.

Troubleshooting tips
Many problems have simple solutions. Don't immediately assume that your
problem is some combination of esoteric complex convoluted failures. For a
TV, it may just be a bad connection or blown fuse. Remember that the
problems with the most catastrophic impact on operation like a dead TV
usually have the simplest solutions. The kind of problems we would like to
avoid at all costs are the ones that are intermittent or difficult to reproduce:
the occasional interference or a TV that refuses to play 'StarTrek Voyager'.
If you get stuck, sleep on it. Sometimes, just letting the problem bounce around in your head
will lead to a different more successful approach or solution. Don't work when you are really
tired - it is both dangerous (especially with respect to TVs) and mostly non-productive (or
possibly destructive).

Whenever working on precision equipment, make copious notes and diagrams. You will be
eternally grateful when the time comes to reassemble the unit. Most connectors are keyed
against incorrect insertion or interchange of cables, but not always. Apparently identical
screws may be of differing lengths or have slightly different thread types. Little parts may fit
in more than one place or orientation. Etc. Etc.

Pill bottles, film canisters, and plastic ice cube trays come in handy for sorting and storing
screws and other small parts after disassembly. This is particularly true if you have repairs on
multiple pieces of equipment under way simultaneously.

Select a work area which is wide open, well lighted, and where dropped parts can be located -
not on a deep pile shag rug. The best location will also be relatively dust free and allow you
to suspend your troubleshooting to eat or sleep or think without having to pile everything into
a cardboard box for storage.

Another consideration is ESD - Electro-Static Discharge. Some components (like ICs) in a

TV are vulnerable to ESD. There is no need to go overboard but taking reasonable
precautions such as getting into the habit of touching a **safe** ground point first.

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WARNING: even with an isolation transformer, a live chassis should **not** be considered
a safe ground point. When the set is unplugged, the tuner shield or other signal ground points
should be safe and effective.

A basic set of precision hand tools will be all you need to disassemble a TV and perform
most adjustments. These do not need to be really expensive but poor quality tools are worse
than useless and can cause damage. Needed tools include a selection of Philips and straight
blade screwdrivers, socket drivers, needlenose pliers, wire cutters, tweezers, and dental picks.
For adjustments, a miniature (1/16" blade) screwdriver with a non-metallic tip is desirable
both to prevent the presence of metal from altering the electrical properties of the circuit and
to minimize the possibility of shorting something from accidental contact with the circuitry.
A set of plastic alignment tools will be useful for making adjustments to coils and RF
transformers.

A low power (e.g., 25 W) fine tip soldering iron and fine rosin core solder will be needed if
you should need to disconnect any soldered wires (on purpose or by accident) or replace
soldered components. A higher power iron or small soldering gun will be needed for dealing
with larger components.

CAUTION: You can easily turn a simple repair (e.g., bad solder connections) into an
expensive mess if you use inappropriate soldering equipment and/or lack the soldering skills
to go along with it. If in doubt, find someone else to do the soldering or at least practice,
practice, practice, soldering and desoldering on a junk circuit board first! See the document:

Troubleshooting and Repair of Consumer Electronic Equipment for additional

info on soldering and rework techniques.

For thermal or warm-up problems, a can of 'cold spray' or 'circuit chiller' (they are the same)
and a heat gun or blow dryer come in handy to identify components whose characteristics
may be drifting with temperature. Using the extension tube of the spray can or making a
cardboard nozzle for the heat gun can provide very precise control of which components you
are affecting.

For info on useful chemicals, adhesives, and lubricants, see "Repair Briefs, an Introduction"
as well as other documents available at this site.

Test equipment
Don't start with the electronic test equipment, start with some analytical
thinking. Your powers of observation (and a little experience) will make a
good start. Your built in senses and that stuff between your ears represents
the most important test equipment you have.
However, some test equipment will be needed:

 Multimeter (DMM or VOM) - This is essential for checking of power

supply voltages and voltages on the pins of ICs or other components -
service literature like the Sams' Photo facts described elsewhere in

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 this document include voltage measurements at nearly every circuit
tie point for properly functioning equipment. The multimeter will also
be used to check components like transistors, resistors, and
capacitors for correct value and for shorts or opens. You do not need a
fancy instrument. A basic DMM - as long as it is reliable - will suffice
for most troubleshooting. If you want one that will last for many years,
go with a Fluke. However, even the mid range DMMs from Radio
Shack have proven to be reliable and of acceptable accuracy. For some
kinds of measurements - to deduce trends for example - an analog
VOM is preferred (though some DMMs have a bar graph scale which
almost as good).
 Oscilloscope - While many problems can be dealt with using just a
multimeter, a 'scope will be essential as you get more into advanced
troubleshooting. Basic requirements are: dual trace, 10-20 MHz
minimum vertical bandwidth, delayed sweep desirable but not
essential. A good set of proper 10X/1X probes. Higher vertical
bandwidth is desirable but most consumer electronics work can be
done with a 10 MHz scope. A storage scope or digital scope might be
desirable for certain tasks but is by no means essential for basic
troubleshooting.
 A video signal source - both RF and baseband (RCA jacks). Unless you
are troubleshooting tuner or video/audio input problems, either one
will suffice. RF sources include a pair of rabbit ears or an outdoor
antenna, a cable connection, or a VCR with a working RF modulator.
This will be more convenient than an antenna connection and will
permit you to control the program material. In fact, making some test
tapes using a camcorder or video camera to record static test patterns
will allow you full control of what is being displayed and for how long.
 Color bar/dot/crosshatch signal generator. This is a useful piece of
equipment if you are doing a lot of TV or monitor repair and need to
perform CRT convergence and chroma adjustments. However, there
are alternatives that are almost as good: a VHS recording of these test
patterns will work for TVs. A PC programmed to output a suitable set
of test patterns will be fine for monitors (and TVs if you can set up the
video card to produce an NTSC/PAL signal. This can be put through a
VCR to generate the RF (Channel 3/4) input to your TV if it does not
have direct video inputs (RCA jacks).

Incredibly Handy widgets

These are the little gadgets and homemade testers that are useful for many
repair situations. Here are just a few of the most basic:

 Series light bulb for current limiting during the testing of TVs,
monitors, switching power supplies, audio power amplifiers, etc. I
built a dual outlet box with the outlets wired in series so that a lamp
can be plugged into one outlet and the device under test into the

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 other. For added versatility, add a regular outlet and 'kill' switch using
a quad box instead. The use of a series load will prevent your
expensive replacement part like a horizontal output transistor from
blowing if there is still some fault in the circuit you have failed to
locate.
 A Variac. It doesn't need to be large - a 2 A Variac mounted with a
switch, outlet and fuse will suffice for most tasks. However, a 5 amp
or larger Variac is desirable. If you will be troubleshooting 220 VAC
equipment in the US, there are Variacs that will output 0-240 VAC
from a 115 VAC line (just make sure you don't forget that this can
easily fry your 115 VAC equipment.) By varying the line voltage, not
only can you bring up a newly repaired TV gradually to make sure
there are no problems but you can also evaluate behavior at low and
high line voltage. This can greatly aid in troubleshooting power supply
problems. Warning: a Variac is not an isolation transformer and does
not help with respect to safety. You need an isolation transformer as
well.
 Isolation transformer. This is very important for safely working on live
chassis equipment. Since all modern TVs use a line connected power
supply, it is essential. You can build one from a pair of similar power
transformers back-to-back (with their highest rated secondaries
connected together. I built mine from a couple of similar old tube type
TV power transformers mounted on a board with an outlet box
including a fuse. Their high voltage windings were connected together.
The unused low voltage windings can be put in series with the
primary or output windings to adjust voltage. Alternatively,
commercial line isolation transformers suitable for TV troubleshooting
are available for less than $100 - well worth every penny.
 Variable isolation transformer. You don't need to buy a fancy
combination unit. A Variac can be followed by a normal isolation
transformer. (The opposite order also works. There may be some
subtle differences in load capacity.).

CAUTION: Keep any large transformer of this type well away from your monitor or TV. The
magnetic field it produces may cause the picture to wiggle or the colors to become messed up
- and you to think there is an additional problem!

 Degaussing coil. Make or buy. The internal degaussing coil salvaged

from a defunct TV doubled over to half it original diameter to increase
its strength in series with a 200 W light bulb for current limiting will
work just fine. Or, buy one from a place like MCM Electronics - about
$15 for one suitable for all but the largest TVs. Also, see the
section: Degaussing (demagnetizing) a CRT.

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Safe discharging of capacitors in TVs and video monitors
It is essential - for your safety and to prevent damage to the device under
test as well as your test equipment - that large or high voltage capacitors be
fully discharged before measurements are made, soldering is attempted, or
the circuitry is touched in any way. Some of the large filter capacitors
commonly found in line operated equipment store a potentially lethal
charge.
This doesn't mean that every one of the 250 capacitors in your TV need to be discharged
every time you power off and want to make a measurement. However, the large main filter
capacitors and other capacitors in the power supplies should be checked and discharged if any
significant voltage is found after powering off (or before any testing - the CRT capacitance in
a TV or video monitor, for example, can retain a dangerous or at least painful charge for days
or longer!)

The technique I recommend is to use a high wattage resistor of about 5 to 50 ohms/V of the
working voltage of the capacitor. This isn't critical - a bit more or less will be fine but will
affect the time it takes to fully discharge the capacitor. The use of a current limiting resistor
will prevent the arc-welding associated with screwdriver discharge but will have a short
enough time constant so that the capacitor will drop to a low voltage in at most a few seconds
(dependent of course on the RC time constant and its original voltage).

Obviously, make sure that you are well insulated!

 For the main capacitors in a TV or monitor power supply which might

be 400 uF at 200 V, this would mean a 5K, 10W resistor. RC = 2
seconds. 5RC = 10 seconds. A lower wattage resistor can be used
since the total energy in not that great. If you want to be more high
tech, you can build the capacitor discharge circuit outlined in the
companion document: Capacitor Testing, Safe Discharging, and Other
Related Information. This provides a visible indication of remaining
charge and polarity.
 For the CRT, use a several M ohm resistor good for 30 kV or more (or
a string of lower value resistors to obtain this voltage rating). A 1/4
watt job will just arc over! Discharge to the chassis ground connected
to the outside of the CRT - NOT SIGNAL GROUND ON THE MAIN
BOARD as you may damage sensitive circuitry. The time constant is
very short - a ms or so. However, repeat a few times to be sure, then
use a shorting clip as these capacitors have a way of recovering a
painful charge if left alone - there have been too If you are not going to
be removing the CRT anode connection, replacing the flyback, or going
near the components on the little board on the neck of the CRT, I
would just stay away from the fat red wire and what it is connected to
including the focus and screen wires. Repeatedly shoving a
screwdriver under the anode cap risks scratching the CRT envelope
which is something you really do not want to do.

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Again, always double check with a reliable voltmeter!

Reasons to use a resistor and not a screwdriver to discharge capacitors:

1. It will not destroy screwdrivers and capacitor terminals.

2. It will not damage the capacitor (due to the current pulse).
3. It will reduce your spouse's stress level in not having to hear those
scary snaps and crackles.

Additional information on discharging CRTs

'Dag' is short for Aquadag. It is a type of paint made of a graphite pigment which is
conductive. It is painted onto the inside and outside of picture tubes to form the 2 plates of a
high voltage filter capacitor using the glass in between as dielectric. This capacitor is between
.005uF and .01uF in value. This seems like very little capacity but it can store a substantial
charge with 25,000 volts applied.

The outside "Dag" is always connected to the circuit chassis ground via a series of springs,
clips, and wires around the picture tube. The high voltage or "Ultor" terminal must be
discharged to chassis ground before working on the circuit especially with older TV's which
didn't use a voltage divider to derive the focus potential or newer TV's with a defective open
divider.

CAUTION: The Dag coating/springs/clips/etc. may not be the same as signal ground on the
main board. Discharging to that instead could result in all sorts of expensive blown
components. Discharging between the CRT anode cap and Dag should be low risk though it
is best to use a HV probe or properly rated high value resistor.

Removing the CRT HV connector

WARNING: Make sure the CRT has been discharged FIRST!
The rubber part is usually not glued down so it can be lifted rather easily. However, there
may be some silicone type grease between the rubber boot (that looks like a suction cup) and
the CRT glass to seal out dust.

A metal clip with a spring keeping it spread out attaches inside the button.

While there are a variety of types of clips actually used, pushing the connector to one side
and/or squeezing it in the appropriate direction (peel up one side of the rubber to inspect)
while gently lifting up should free it. Probably :-).

The clip (when removed) and CRT button look sort of like this:

||======= HV Cable
/\

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 Clip | |
(Removed) _| |_
(No DAG coating in vicinity of
HV connector)
____________.- -.___________
CRT ____________|______|___________ Glass
Metal Button
Replacement is done in reverse order!

This isn't rocket science and excessive force should not be needed! :-)

Safe troubleshooting techniques for line powered TVs

TVs are particularly dangerous with respect to troubleshooting due to the
fact that a substantial portion of their circuitry - sometimes all of it - is
directly line connected. Even if your are working in a totally unrelated area
like the sound circuits, awareness of the general design and location of the
line-connected circuits can prove to be a life saver.
These designs may take several forms:

1. Separate switch mode power supply (SMPS): In this case, only the
primary side of the power supply is line connected. The remainder of
the TV is usually isolated from the line by the high frequency
transformer and feedback device (transformer or opt isolator) of the
switch mode power supply.
2. On-board SMPS: A portion of the circuitry on the main board is
directly line-connected. In the best case, this is restricted to the area
around the power cord connections and well marked on both top and
bottom but don't count on it. Again, the rest of the TV may be isolated
but avoiding hazardous areas is more difficult especially in cramped
quarters.
3. Flyback derived power supply: A non-isolated linear (usually) power
supply provides B+ to the horizontal deflection (and startup circuit).
All other system power is derived from secondary windings on the
flyback transformer. Similar comments to (2) above apply.

(1) to (3) may be found in TVs with A/V inputs and outputs.

4. Full hot chassis: A bridge rectifier/filter capacitor/linear regulator

provides some voltages including B+. The fly back secondary’s provide
the remaining voltages. All share a common return which is at the
intersection of two of the diodes of the bridge rectifier. There is no
isolation.

Always use an isolation transformer, whatever kind of design is used in the equipment you
are troubleshooting. There are very few situations in which an isolation transformer will hurt.
If you use it automatically, you will never have a chance to screw up.

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Identify the appropriate ground point (return) for your multimeter or scope. These should be
marked in the Sams' Photofact or service manual. There may be several such returns such as:
non-isolated, signal, and CRT. Selecting the wrong one - even momentarily connecting to it -
can ruin your whole day.

If you are not using an isolation transformer (a no-no), connecting your scope to the wrong
ground point can result in (1) blown fuses and/or blown parts, and a very dangerous situation
and (2) readings that don't make sense generally with distorted power line frequency signals
of high amplitude.

 Use the non-isolated ground (A) (with your isolation transformer on the TV
*only* for measurements of voltage on the line-connected power supply.
 Use the signal ground (B) for all measurements of tuner, IF, video, and
sound circuits.
Whenever you get a reading or waveform that is grossly wrong, confirm that you are using
the proper ground point! Note that failures of fusible resistors in the *return* of the HOT or
power supply chopper or elsewhere can also result in points that should be near ground
floating at unexpected voltage levels.

The general arrangement of components for a typical TV using a linear B+ supply with
isolated auxiliary supplies for the signal circuits is shown below including the (linear) line-
connected power supply, horizontal deflection output (drive, horizontal output transistor,
flyback), and a typical Aux power supply output.

For this power supply, what if?:

1. You connect your scope ground clip to the non-isolated ground (A) and
you are *not* using an isolation transformer?

Answer: you blow the line fuse and/or melt your scope probe ground lead. Other parts
may be damaged as well. In effect, you have just shorted across the bottom diode of
the bridge.

2. You attempt to monitor a video signal with your scope ground

connected to the non-isolated ground (A)?

Answer: you see only a highly distorted power line waveform of roughly 100 V p-p In
effect; you are measuring across one of the diodes of the bridge rectifier, stray
capacitance, etc.

The series light bulb trick

When powering up a TV (or any other modern electronic devices with
expensive power semiconductors) that has had work done on any power
circuits, it is desirable to minimize the chance of blowing your newly
installed parts should there still be a fault. There are two ways of doing this:
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use of a Variac to bring up the AC line voltage gradually and the use of a
series load to limit current to power semiconductors.
Actually using a series load - a light bulb is just a readily available cheap load - is better than
a Variac (well both might be better still) since it will limit current to (hopefully) non-
destructive levels.

What you want to do is limit current to the critical parts - usually the horizontal output
transistor (HOT). Most of the time you will get away with putting it in series with the AC
line. However, sometimes, putting a light bulb directly in the B+ circuit will be needed to
provide adequate protection. In that location, it will limit the current to the HOT from the
main filter capacitors of line connected power supplies. This may also be required with some
switch mode power supplies as they can still supply bursts of full (or excessive) current even
if there is a light bulb in series with the AC line.

Actually, an actual power resistor is probably better as its resistance is constant as opposed to
a light bulb which will vary by 1:10 from cold to hot. The light bulb, however, provides a
nice visual indication of the current drawn by the circuit under test. For example:

 Full brightness: short circuit or extremely heavy load - a fault

probably is still present.
 Initially bright but then settles at reduced brightness: filter capacitors
charge, then lower current to rest of circuit. This is what is expected
when the equipment is operating normally. There could still be a
problem with the power circuits but it will probably not result in an
immediate catastrophic failure.
 Pulsating: power supply is trying to come up but shutting down due to
overcurrent or overvoltage condition. This could be due to a
continuing fault or the light bulb may be too small for the equipment.

Note: for a TV or monitor, it may be necessary (and desirable) to unplug the degauss coil as
this represents a heavy initial load which may prevent the unit from starting up with the light
bulb in the circuit.

The following are suggested starting wattages:

 40 W bulb for VCR or laptop computer switching power supplies.

 100 W bulb for small (i.e., B/W or 13 inch color) TVs.
 150 to 200 W bulb for large color or projection TVs.

A 50/100/150 W (or similar) 3-way bulb in an appropriate socket comes in handy for this but
mark the switch so that you know which setting is which!

Depending on the power rating of the equipment, these wattages may need to be increased.
However, start low. If the bulb lights at full brightness, you know there is still a major fault.
If it flickers or the TV (or other device) does not quite come fully up, then it should be safe to
go to a larger bulb. Resist the temptation to immediately remove the series light bulb totally

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from the circuit at this point - I have been screwed by doing this. Try a larger one first. The
behavior should improve. If it does not, there is still a fault present.

Specific considerations before poking around inside a TV or monitor

Both electrical and mechanical dangers lurk:

 Main filter capacitor(s). This is the most dangerous (not the HV as you
would expect). Fortunately, these capacitors will normally discharge in
a few minutes or less especially if the unit is basically working as the
load will normally discharge the capacitors nearly fully as power is
turned off. With TVs, the main filter capacitor is nearly always on the
mainboard. Monitors are more likely to have a separate power supply
module.

However, you should check across this capacitor - usually only one and by far the
largest in the set - with a voltmeter and discharge as suggested in the section: Safe
discharging of capacitors in TVs and video monitors if it holds more than a few volts
(or wait longer) before touching anything.

Some of these are as large as 1,000 uF charged to 160 V - about 13 w-s or a similar
amount of energy as that stored in an electronic flash. This is enough to be potentially
lethal under the wrong circumstances.

 High Voltage capacitor formed by the envelope of the CRT. It is

connected to the flyback transformer by the fat (usually red) wire at
the suction cup (well, it looks like one anyhow) attached to the CRT.
This capacitor can hold a charge for quite a while - weeks in the case
of an old tube type TV!

If you want to be doubly sure, discharge this also. However, unless you are going to
be removing the HV connector/flyback, it should not bother you.

The energy stored is about 1 w-s but if you touch it or come near to an exposed
terminal, due to the high voltage, you will likely be handed *all* the energy and you
*will* feel it. The danger is probably more in the collateral damage when you jump
ripping flesh and smashing your head against the ceiling.

Some people calibrate their jump based on voltage - about 1 inch/V. :-).

There will be some HV on the back of the circuit board on the neck of the CRT but
although you might receive a tingle but accidentally touching the focus or screen (G2)
pins, it is not likely to be dangerous.

 CRT implosion risk. Don't hammer on it. However, it is more likely

that you will break the neck off the tube since the neck is relatively
weak. This will ruin your whole day and the TV or monitor but will

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 likely not result in flying glass everywhere. Just, don't go out of your
way to find out.
 Sharp sheet metal and so forth. This is not in itself dangerous but a
reflex reaction can send your flesh into it with nasty consequences.

Dusting out the inside of a TV

The first thing you will notice when you remove the cover is how super dusty
everything is. Complements to the maid. You never dreamed there was that
much dust, dirt, and grime, in the entire house!
Use a soft brush (like a new paintbrush) and a vacuum cleaner to carefully remove the built
up dust. Blowing off the dust will likely not hurt the TV unless it gets redeposited inside
various controls or switches but will be bad for your lungs - and will spread it all over the
room. Don't turn anything - many critical adjustments masquerade as screws that just beg to
be tightened. Resist the impulse for being neat and tidy until you know exactly what you are
doing. Be especially careful around the components on the neck of the CRT - picture tube - as
some of these are easily shifted in position and control the most dreaded of adjustments - for
color purity and convergence. In particular, there will be a series of adjustable ring magnets.
It is a good idea to mark their position in any case with some white paint, 'white out', or a
Magic Marker so that if they do get moved - or you move them deliberately, you will know
where you started.

Troubleshooting a TV with the main board disconnected

There are times when it is desirable to remove the chassis or main board
and work on it in a convenient location without having to worry about the
equipment which will simulate the critical functions but this is rarely an
option for the doit-yourselfer.
My approach is usually to do as much work as possible without removing the main board and
not attempt to power it up when disconnected since there are too many unknowns.
Professionals will plug the chassis into a piece of equipment which will simulate the critical
functions.

Note that if you have a failure of the power supply - blown fuse, startup, etc., then it should
be fine to disconnect the CRT since these problems are usually totally unrelated. Tests should
be valid.

However, if you really want to do live testing with the main board removed, here are some
considerations. There are usually several connections to the CRT and cabinet:

 Deflection yoke - since the horizontal coils are part of the horizontal
flyback circuit, there could be problems running without a yoke. This
could be anything from it appearing totally dead to an overheating or
blown horizontal output transistor. There may be no problems.
Vertical and any convergence coils may or may not be problems as
well.

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  CRT video Driver board - pulling this should not usually affect
anything except possibly video output and bias voltages.
 CRT 2nd anode - without the CRT, there will be no capacitor to filter
the high voltage and you would certaily want to insulate the HV
connector **real** well. I do not know whether there are cases where
damage to flyback could result from running in thie manner, however.
 Front panel controls - disconnecting these may result in inability to
even turn the set on, erratic operation, and other unexpected
behavior.
 Degauss - you just won't have this function when disconnected. But
who cares - you are not going to be looking at the screen anyhow.
 Remote sensor - no remote control but I doubt that the floating signals
will cause problems.
 Speakers - there will be no audio but this should not cause damage.

If you do disconnect everything, make sure to label any connectors whose location or
orientation may be ambiguous. Most of the time, these will only fit one way but not always.

TV Adjustments
These include both controls accessible to the user (and often not
understood) as well as internal adjustments that may need to be touched up
due to the aging of components or following a repair.

User picture adjustment

For general viewing, subdued lighting but not total darkness is probably
best. However, for most dramatic impact, a darkened environment may be
preferred. Make the following adjustments under the expected viewing
conditions.
Tune to a strong channel or play a good quality tape.

Turn the brightness, contrast, and color controls all the way down. Center the tint control
(NTSC, may not be present on PAL sets).

Increase the brightness until a raster is just visible in the darkest (shadow) areas of the picture
and then back off until it **just** disappears.

Increase the contrast until the desired intensity of highlights is obtained.

Since brightness and contrast are not always independent, go back and forth until you get the
best picture.

Initially adjust the color control for pastel shades rather than highly saturated color. Set the
tint control for best flesh tones. Then, increase the color control to obtain the desired degree
of color saturation.

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Internal adjustments
All of the service adjustments are accomplished either using controls inside
the set (though some may be accessible by holes in the rear of the cabinet).
These are usually pots on the main board and CRT neck boards, or in newer
TVs, mostly via a service menu accessed from the remote or by using a
manufacturer specific computer interface.

Focus adjustment
On a decent TV, you should be able to make out the individual scanning
lines. If they are fuzzy, especially in bright areas, then focus may need to be
adjusted.
The focus pot is usually located on the flyback transformer or on an auxiliary panel nearby.
Where there are two adjustment knobs on the flyback transformer, the top one is generally for
focus and the bottom one is for G2.

The focus wire usually comes from the flyback or the general area or from a terminal on a
voltage the multiplier module (if used). It is usually a wire by itself going to the little board
on the neck of the CRT.

Let the set warm up for at least half an hour. Display a good quality signal. Turn the user
color control all the way down and the brightness and contrast controls all the way up. This
will be the worst case. Adjust the focus control for best overall sharpness - you may not be
able to get it perfect everywhere - center as well as corners. If best focus is at one end of the
focus pot's range and still not good enough, there may be a problem in the focus divider,
focus pot, or some related component.

Adjustment of the internal SCREEN and color controls

The screen should be adjusted with a white pattern (snow from the tuner
should do or turn the user COLOR control all the way down to get a black
and white picture). Put the set in Service mode (horizontal line) if it has such
a switch in the back or inside. If not, just use the raster in a darkened room.
Adjust screen for a dim white line (raster). If the line is not white at its
dimmest point, you will need to adjust the drive and cutoff controls for R, G,
& B.
Alternatively, you can use the following procedure:

Turn R, G, and B screen (or background) controls down. Now turn color control fully
counterclockwise -- off. Now turn up red screen until the screen just shows a red hue. Now
turn red gun down until red tint just goes away. Now do the same with the green and blue
screen controls. Now adjust the two DRIVE controls for the best black and white picture.
That`s all there is to it. I don`t like to work with just a thin "SETUP" line. Cartoons seem to
be the best thing to have on while doing the above procedure. You can also use just plain
snow (no program) if you prefer. If you can obtain a good b@w pic. when you`re done, the
tube is good and the set if most likely functioning properly. Be patient and go slow while
watching the large mirror that you are using during this procedure. (LEE)
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Optimal procedure for setting brightness/background and screen adjustments
For slight tweaks, the following is not necessary. However, if someone
turned all the internal controls or if you are making significant changes that
affect G2 (screen), then following the procedure below is desirable to achieve
best performance and maximize life of the CRT.
The typical user controls - brightness and contrast can, of course, be set arbitrarily, depending
on video content and ambient lighting conditions.

Set the user brightness and contrast controls in the middle for the following adjustments and
let the set warm up for 20 minutes or so.

The usual adjustment procedure is as follows:

 Use any low-level adjustments to set a black picture with all 3 cathode
voltages at the specified level (e.g. 130 V) above the VG1 voltage (may
be 0 V or 12 V or 20 V ?). (These are typically called RGB brightness,
bias, or background level and are often on the little board on the neck
of the CRT but not always --- sam).
 Adjust VG2 (screen) until one colour just starts too light up, turn it
back down until the screen is just black again. (Occasionally, there
are two G2 controls - one on the flyback and another on the CRT neck
board or elsewhere. If so, they control are basically in series - leave
the one on the flyback alone if the other one has enough range.)
 Now adjust 2 of the 3 low-level black controls until the other 2 colours
just light up, and then back to black again.
 Select a white picture and use 2 low-level white (RGB drive or gain,
also generally on the neck board --- sam) controls to set the proper
colour temperature for white to your own taste.
 Check your black calibration again, may have to iterate a bit.

Color balance adjustment

Color balance needs adjustment if the highlights and/or shadows of a black
and white picture (turn the color control all the way down) are not a
perfectly neutral gray.
To adjust the color balance: Turn the color control all the way down so that you get what
should be a B/W picture. Set the user brightness and contrast controls about mid-range. The
tint control should not matter (if it does at this point, you have other chroma problems or an
'autocolor' switch is on limiting the range of some controls).

Adjust the sub-brightness controls (may be called color screen, background, or the like) so
that the dark areas of the picture are just visible and neutral gray. Then, adjust the color gain
controls until the brightest areas are neutral white but not so bright that there is 'color
bleeding' in the highlights.

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This should get you close. If something is still shifting after warmup and get some cold-spray
or even a little blower and try to locate the component that is drifting. Most likely a transistor
or capacitor.

Remember:

 Brightness sets black level; it should ideally be as black as the screen

itself, no more, no less.
 Contrast sets white level. Too bright and vertical lines start to bend.

Using just these concepts, you can get REAL close to a proper alignment.

CRT purity adjustment

Purity on modern CRTs is usually set by a combination of a set of ring
magnets just behind the deflection yoke on the neck of the CRT and the
position of the yoke fore-aft. As always, mark the starting position of all the
rings and make sure you are adjusting the correct set if rings!
Use the following purity adjustment procedure as a general guide only. Depending on the
particular model TV, the following purity adjustment procedure may substitute green for red
depending on the arrangement of the guns in the CRT. This description is based on the Sams'
Photofact for the RCA CTC111C chassis which uses a slot-mask CRT. The procedures for
dot-mask and Trinitron (aperture grille) CRTs will vary slightly. See you service manual!

Obtain a white raster (sometimes there is a test point that can be grounded to force this).
Then, turn down the bias controls for blue and green so that you have a pure red raster. Let
the set warm up for a minimum of 15 minutes.

Loosen the deflection yoke clamp and move the yoke as far back as it will go,

Adjust the purity magnets to center the red vertical raster on the screen.

Move the yoke forward until you have the best overall red purity.

Now, move the yoke forward until you have the best overall red purity. Tighten the clamp
securely and reinstall the rubber wedges (if you set has these) to stabilize the yoke position.
Reset the video adjustments you touched to get a red raster.

CRT convergence adjustment

In the good old days when TVs were TVs (and not just a picture tube with a
little circuit board attached) there were literally drawers full of knobs for
setting convergence. One could spend hours and still end up with a less
than satisfactory picture. As the technology progressed, the number of
electronic adjustments went down drastically so that today there are very
few if any.

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Unless you want a lot of frustration, I would recommend not messing with convergence. You
could end up a lot worse. I have no idea what is used for convergence on your set but
convergence adjustments are never quite independent of one another. You could find an
adjustment that fixes the problem you think you have only to discover some other area of the
screen is totally screwed. In addition, there are adjustments for geometry and purity and
maybe others that you may accidentally move without even knowing it until you have
buttoned up the set.

Warning: Accurately mark the original positions - sometimes you will change something that
will not have an obvious effect but will be noticeable later on. So it is extremely important to
be able to get back to where you started. If only red/green vertical lines are offset, then it is
likely that only a single ring needs to be moved - and by just a hair. But, you may
accidentally move something else!

If you really cannot live with it, make sure you mark everything very carefully so you can get
back to your current state. A service manual is essential!

Convergence is set using a white crosshatch or dot test pattern. If you do not have a test
pattern generator, any static scene (from a camcorder or previously recorded tape, for
example) with a lot of fine detail will suffice. Turn the color control all the way down so you
have a B/W picture.

Static convergence sets the beams to be coincident in the exact center of the screen. This is
done using a set of ring magnets behind the purity magnets on the CRT neck.

Tilted picture
You have just noticed that the picture on your fancy (or cheap) TV is not
quite horizontal - not aligned with the front bezel. Note that often there is
some keystoning as well where the top and bottom or left and right edges of
the picture are not quite parallel - which you may never have noticed until
now. Since this may not be correctable, adjusting tilt may represent a
compromise at best between top/bottom or left/right alignment of the
picture edges. You may never sleep again knowing that your TV picture is
not perfect! BTW, I can sympathize with your unhappiness. Nothing is more
annoying than a just noticeable imperfection such as this. However, since
TVs always overscan, the only time you will really notice a minor tilt without
going out of your way to look for it is if there is text or graphics near the
edge of the screen.
There are several possible causes for a tilted picture:

1. Set orientation. The horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field

affects this slightly. Therefore, if you rotate the TV you may be able to
correct the tilt. Of course, it will probably want to face the wall!

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 Other external magnetic fields can sometimes cause a rotation without any other
obvious effects - have you changed the TV's location? Did an MRI scanner move in
next door?

2. Need for degaussing. Most of the time, magnetization of the CRT will
result in color problems which will be far more obvious than a slight
rotation. However, internal or external shields or other metal parts in
the set could become magnetized resulting a tilt. More extensive
treatment than provided by the built-in degaussing coil may be
needed. Even, the normal manual degaussing procedure may not be
enough to get close enough to all the affected parts.
3. You just became aware of it but nothing has changed. Don't dismiss
this offhand. It is amazing how much we ignore unless it is brought to
our attention. Are you a perfectionist?
4. There is an external tilt control which may be misadjusted. Newer
Sony monitors have this (don't know about TVs) - a most wonderful
addition. Too bad about the stabilizing wires on Trinitron CRTs. A
digital control may have lost its memory accidentally. The circuitry
could have a problem.
5. There is an internal tilt control that is misadjusted or not functioning.
The existance of such a control is becoming more common.
6. The deflection yoke on the CRT has gotten rotated or was not oriented
correctly at the time of the set's manufacture. Sometimes, the entire
yoke is glued in place in addition to being clamped adding another
complication.

If the TV was recently bumped or handled roughly, the yoke may have been knocked
out of position. But in most cases, the amount of abuse required to do this with the
yoke firmly clamped and/or glued would have totally destroyed the set in the process.

There is a risk (in addition to the risk of frying yourself on the various voltages
present inside an operating TV) of messing up the convergence or purity when
fiddling with the yoke or anything around it since the yoke position on the neck of the
tube and its tilt may affect purity and convergence. Tape any rubber wedges under the
yoke securely in place as these will maintain the proper position and tilt of the yoke
while you are messing with it. (Don't assume the existing tape will hold - the adhesive
is probably dry and brittle).

7. The CRT may have rotated slightly with respect to the front bezel.
Irrespective of the cause of the tilt, sometimes it is possible to loosen
the 4 (typical) CRT mounting screws and correct the tilt by slightly
rotating the CRT. This may be easier than rotating the yoke. Just
make sure to take proper safety precautions when reaching inside!

B/W TV size, position, and geometry adjustments

These tend to be a lot simpler and less critical than for color monitors or TV
sets.
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On a B/W TV you will probably see some of the following adjustments:

1. Position - a pair of rings with tabs on the neck of the CRT. There may
be electronic position adjustements as well though this is not that
common on small TVs.
2. Width and height (possibly linearity as well) controls. There may be
some interaction between size and linearity - a crosshatch test pattern
is best for this. Vertical adjustments are almost always pots while
horizontal (if they exist) may be pots and/or coils. Size will normally
be set for 5-10% overscan to account for line voltage fluctuations and
component drift. Confirm aspect ratio with test pattern which includes
square boxes.
3. Geometry - some little magnets either on swivels around the yoke or
glued to the CRT. If these shifted, the the edges may have gotten
messed up - wiggles, dips, concave or convex shapes. There may be a
doxen or more each mostly affecting a region around the edge of the
raster. However, they will not be totally independent.

Check at extremes of brightness/contrast as there may be some slight changes in size and
position due to imperfect HV regulation.

There may be others as well but without a service manual; there is no way of knowing for
sure. Sams' often has folders for B/W TVs.

Just mark everything carefully before changing - then you will be able to get back where you
started.

Low Voltage Power Supply Problems

Low voltage power supply fundamentals
TVs require a variety of voltages (at various power levels) to function. The
function of the low voltage power supply is to take the AC line input of either
115 VAC 60 Hz (220 VAC 50 Hz or other AC power in Europe and elsewhere)
and produce some of these DC voltages. In all cases, the power to the
horizontal output transistor of the horizontal deflection system is obtained
directly from the low voltage power supply. In some cases, a variety of other
DC voltages are derived directly from the AC line by rectification, filtering,
and regulation. In other designs, however, most of the low voltages are
derived from secondary windings on the flyback (LOPT) transformer of the
horizontal deflection system. In still other designs, there is a separate
switchmode power supply that provides some or all of these voltages. There
are also various (and sometimes convoluted) combinations of any or all of
the above.
There will always be:

1. A power switch, relay, or triac to enable main power.

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 2. A set of rectifiers - usually in a bridge configuration - to turn the AC
into DC. Small ceramic capacitors are normally placed across the
diodes to reduce RF interference.
3. One or more large filter capacitors to smooth the unregulated DC. In
the U.S., this is most often a voltage around 150-160 V DC. In
countries with 220 VAC power, it will typically be around 300-320 V
DC.
4. A discrete, hybrid, or IC regulator to provide stable DC to the
horizontal deflection system. Sometimes feedback from a secondary
output of the flyback or even the high voltage is used. This regulator
may be either a linear or switching type. In some cases, there is no
regulator.
5. Zero or more voltage dividers and/or regulators to produce additional
voltages directly from the line power. This relatively rare except for
startup circuits. These voltages will not be isolated from the line.
6. A degauss control circuit usually including a thermistor or Posistor (a
combination of a heater disk and Positive Temperature Coefficient
(PTC) thermistor in a single package). When power is turned on, a
relatively high AC current is applied to the degauss coil wrapped
around the periphery of the CRT. The PTC thermister heats up,
increases in resistance, and smoothly decreases the current to nearly
zero over a couple of seconds.
7. A startup circuit for booting the horizontal deflection if various
voltages to run the TV are derived from the flyback. This may be an IC
or discrete multivibrator or something else running off a non-isolated
voltage or the standby power supply.
8. A standby power supply for the microcontroller and remote sensor.
Usually, this is a separate low voltage power supply using a small
power transformer for line isolation. However, some sets use other
(probably cheaper) approaches. See below.

Always use an isolation transformer when working on a TV but this is especially important -
for your safety - when dealing with the non-isolated line operated power supply. Read and
follow the information in the section: Safety guidelines.

Standby power supplies

Where the TV has a remote control (which most do nowadays), there needs
to be some source of voltage(s) for the remote receiver, microcontroller, and
other circuitry that watch for the 'power on' commend. These sets are never
totally off.
The standby supply may consist of:

 A low voltage power transformer feeding one or more sets of rectifiers,

filter capacitors, and possibly regulators.

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 A power surge could cause the primary of the transformer to open up. There may also
be a thermal fuse under the outer layers of insulation which blew either due to
overheating or a power surge. However, if the primary is open, it is best to replace the
transformer rather than attempting repair it.

 One or more voltage dividers connected directly to the AC line feeding

rectifiers, filter capacitors, and possibly regulators.

Open resistors and dried up capacitors are common failures since the resistors are
often not rated adequately and run hot, in close proximity to the capacitors.

 A portion of the main (switchmode) power supply that runs all the
time.

Failures could be almost anything that would affect normal operation of the power
supply as well as problems with the control circuitry.

Typical TV power supply front end

The partial schematic below is similar to those found in the majority of TVs
sold in countries with 110 to 120 VAC power. Many parts are not shown
including the power switch or relay, RFI bypass capacitors across the
rectifier diodes, and RFI line filter.

Bypass resistor
Line fuse Main bridge Fusable +----/\/\-----+
_ rectifier resistor | +-----+ |
H o--_ --+------|>|---+---/\/\--+---+---| REG |---+---+---o B+
| | | +-----+ |
| +---|>|---+ C1 _|_ Main | _|_ Regulator
115 VAC | | 400 uF --- filter | --- output
+--|---|<|---+ 200 V | cap | | capacitor
| | | | |
+-> N o---------+---|<|---+---------+----------+----------+---o Non-
isolated
| return
+-> G - Power line earth ground via building wiring

 The line fuse is typically 2 to 4 A, usually a normal fast blow type. Even
so, it may not blow as a result of faults down the line - the fusable resistor
or regulator may fail first.
 The main bridge rectifier is often composed of 4 discrete diodes (similar to
1N400Xs) but may also be a single unit. Failures - usually shorted diodes -
are common.
 The main filter capacitor can range in size from 200 to 800 uF or more at
200 to 250 V. THIS CAN BE LETHAL! A typical TV may continue to work at
normal line voltage without any noticeable degradation in performance (hum
bars, hum in sound, or shutdown) even if this capacitor is reduced in value
by 75%. Its uF value is therefore not critical.
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 The regulator is often an IC or hybrid module. Failures resulting in no or
reduced output, or no regulation are common.
 The regulator output capacitor is needed for the B+ regulator to function
properly. If this capacitor is reduced in value or develops a high ESR,
regulation may fail resulting in instability, oscillation, or excessive B+ and
shutdown.
 The regulator bypass resistor reduces the amount of current control
needed of the regulator. Caution: even if the regulator has been pulled, the
B+ line will have substantial voltage as a result of this resistor.

Totally dead set

This can be as simple as a bad outlet (including blown fuse or tripped circuit
breaker due to some other fault), switched outlet and the switch is off, or
bad cordset.

 Plug a lamp into the outlet to make sure it is live. If the lamp works,
then the problem is the TV. It not, the outlet is defective or the fuse is
blown or the circuit breaker is tripped. There is another very simple
explanation that is sometimes overlooked: This is a switched outlet.
You always wondered what that wall switch was for that didn't seem
to do anything and you flipped randomly. :-) Well, now you know!
 Try wiggling the TV's cord both at the outlet (also push the wire
toward the plug) and TV (also push the cord toward the TV) with the
set on and/or while pressing the power-on button. If you can get a
response, even momentarily, the cord likely has broken wires
internally.

Intermittently dead set - bad corset

There are two problems which are common with the line cord on appliances.
Don't overlook these really simple things when troubleshooting your vacuum
cleaner - or fancy electronic equipment! If wiggling the cord has an effect,
then the following are likely causes:

 Repeated flexing results in the internal conductors breaking either at

the plug or appliance end. If flexing the cord/squeezing/pulling
results in the device going on and off, it is bad. If the problem is at the
plug end, cut off the old plug a couple of inches beyond the problem
area and replace just he plug. If the problem is at the appliance end,
an entire new cordset is best though you can probably cut out the bad
section and solder what remains directly to the mainboard.

In either case, observe the polarity of the cord wires - they will be marked in some
way with a ridge or stripe. It is important that the new plug be of the same type
(polarized usually) and that the cord is wired the same way.

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  The prongs do not fit snugly into older worn outlets. This can usually
be remedied by using a pointed tool like an awl or utility knife to
spread apart the pair of leaves often used to form each prong of the
plug. If the prongs are made of solid metal, it may be possible to
spread them apart - widen the space between them. Alternatively, get
a 3 to 2 prong adapter just to use as an intermediate connector.
Spread the leaves of its prongs. However, a new outlet is best.
 Bad connections on the mainboard. As you flex the cord, it is also
stressing the attachment to the mainboard and affecting some
marginal solder joints.

It is important to deal with these symptoms as soon as possible as erratic power cycling can
lead to much more serious and expensive problems down the road.

Power button on set is flakey

If the on/off (or other button) on the set itself behaves erratically but the
remote control works fine, then it could be a dirty button or cable or other
connections to the switch PCB, particularly if the buttons on the set itself
are rarely used. There could possibly be a bad pullup resistor or something
of that sort - but is it worth the effort to locate?
Why not just continue to use the remote? There is no reason to suspect that it will develop
similar symptoms. However, there is some risk that if the button is dirty, you may find the
TV coming on at random times in the middle of the night (of course!).

I think I have an older Sylvania that does that sort of thing - don't really know as I never use
the power button on the set!

If power is controlled by a hard switch - a pull or click knob, or mechanical push-push switch
and this has become erratic due to worn contacts, replacements are available but often only
directly from the original manufacturer to physically fit and (where applicable) have the
volume or other controls built in. As an alternative, consider mounting a small toggle switch
on the side of the cabinet to substitute for the broken switch. This will almost certainly be
easier and cheaper - and quite possibly, more reliable.

TV blows fuse
A blown fuse is a very common type of fault due to poor design very often
triggered by power surges due to outages or lightning storms. However, the
most likely parts to short are easily tested, usually in-circuit, with an
ohmmeter and then easily removed to confirm.
Note that it *may be* useful to replace a fuse the *first* time it blows (though it would be
better to do some basic checks for shorted components first as there is a small chance that
having a fuse blow the second time could result in additional damage which would further
complicate the troubleshooting process). However, if the new one blows, there is a real
problem and the only use in feeding the TV fuses will be to keep the fuse manufacturer in
business!

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Sometimes, a fuse will just die of old age or be zapped by a power surge that caused no
damage to the rest of the TV. However, it must be an EXACT replacement (including slo-
blow if that is what was there originally). Else, there could be safety issues (e.g., fire hazard
or equipment damage from too large a current rating) or you could be chasing a non-existent
problem (e.g., if the new fuse is not slo-blow and is blown by the degauss circuit inrush
current but nothing is actually wrong).

If the fuse really blows absolutely instantly with no indication that the circuits are functioning
(no high pitched horizontal deflection whine (if your dog hides under the couch whenever the
TV is turned on, deflection is probably working).) then this points to a short somewhere quite
near the AC power input. The most common places would be:

 Degauss Posistor - very likely.

 Horizontal output transistor.
 Power supply regulator if there is one.
 Power supply chopper (switchmode) transistor if there is one.
 Diode(s) in main bridge
 Main filter capacitor(s).

You should be able to eliminate these one by one.

Unplug the degauss coil as this will show up as a low resistance.

First, measure across the input to the main power rectifiers - it should not be that low. A
reading of only a few ohms may mean a shorted rectifier or two or a shorted Posistor.

 Test the rectifiers individually or remove and retest the resistance.

 Some sets use a Posistor for degauss control. This is a little cubical (about
1/2" x 3/4" x 1") component with 3 legs. It includes a line operated heater
disk (which often shorts out) and a PTC thermister to control current to the
degauss coil. Remove the posistor and try power. If the monitor now works,
obtain a replacement but in the meantime you just won't have the automatic
degauss.
If these test good, use an ohmmeter with the set unplugged to measure the horizontal output
transistor. Even better to remove it and measure it.

 C-E should be high in at least one direction.

 B-E may be high or around 50 ohms but should not be near 0.

If any readings are under 5 ohms, the transistor is bad. The parts sources listed at the end of
this document will have suitable replacements.

Fuse blows or TV blows up when sync is disrupted

This is a problem which is not going to be easy to identify. One possibility is
a drive problem. The messed up sync resulting from swtiching channels, or
changing input connections might be resulting in an excessively long scan
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time for just one scan line. However, this may be enough to cause a current
spike in the horizontal output circuit or an excessive voltage spike on the
collector of the horizontal output transistor. Normally, the HOT current
ramps up during scan. During flyback, the current is turned off. This
current is normally limited and the voltage spike on the collector of the HOT
is also limited by the snubber capacitors to a safe value. If scan time is too
long, current continues to increase. At some point, the flyback core
saturates and current goes way up. In addition, the voltage spike will be
much higher - perhaps destructively so.
Troubleshooting these sorts of problems is going to be tough. However, a likely area to
investigate would be:

 Drive circuitry for the HOT including the coupling components.

 The chip that generates takes the sync input and generates the horizontal
drive signal.
 A bad low voltage regulator might permit the B+ to rise to excessive levels
during black scenes (i.e., video mute during channel changing).
TVs usually have their own internal surge protection devices like MOVs (Metal Oxide
Varistors) after the fuse. So it is possible that all that is wrong is that the line fuse has blown.
Remove the cover (unplug it first!) and start at the line cord. If you find a blown fuse, remove
it and measure across the in-board side of fuse holder and the other (should be the neutral)
side of the line. The ohmmeter reading should be fairly high - well certainly not less than 100
ohms - in at least one direction. You may need to unplug the degaussing coil to get a
reasonable reading as its resistance may be 25 or 30 ohms. If the reading is really low, there
are other problems. If the resistance checks out, replace the fuse and try powering the TV.
There will be 3 possibilities:

1.
2. It will work fine, problem solved.
3. It will immediately blow the fuse. This means there is at least one
component shorted - possibilities include an MOV, line rectifiers, main
filter cap, regulator transistor, horizontal output transistor, etc. You
will need to check with your ohmmeter for shorted semiconductors.
Remove any that are suspect and see of the fuse now survives (use the
series light bulb to cut your losses - see the section: The series light
bulb trick.
4. It will not work properly or appear dead. This could mean there are
open fusable resistors other defective parts in the power supply or
elsewhere. In this case further testing will be required and at some
point you may need the schematic.

If the reading is very low or the fuse blows again, see the section: TV blows fuse.

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Fuse replaced but TV clicks with power-on but no other action
The click probably means that the power relay is working, though there
could be bad contacts.
Since the fuse doesn't blow now (you did replace it with one of the same ratings, right?), you
need to check for:

 Other blown fuses - occasionally there are more than one in a TV.

Replace with one of exactly the same ratings.

 Open fusable resistors. These sometimes blow at the same time or in

place of the fuses. They are usually low values like 2 ohms and are in
big rectangular ceramic power resistor cases or smaller blue or gray
colored cylindrical power resistors. They are supposed to protect
expensive parts like the HOT but often blow at the same time.

If any of these are bad, they will need to be replaced with flameproof resistors of the same
ratings (though you can substitute an ordinary resistor for testing purposes). Before applying
power, check: Rectifier diodes, horizontal output transistor, regulator pass or chopper
transistor (if present), and main filter capacitor for shorts.

An initial test with an ohmmeter can be done while in-circuit. The resistance across each
diode and the collector to emitter of the transistors should be relatively high - a few hundred
ohms at lest - in at least one direction (in-circuit). If there is a question, unsolder one side of
each diode and check - should be in the Megohms or higher in one direction. Removed from
the circuit, the collector-emitter resistance should be very high in one direction at least.
Depending on the type, the base-emitter resistance may be high in one direction or around 50
ohms. If any reading on a semiconductor device is under 10 ohms - then the device most
likely bad. Assuming that you do not have a schematic, you should be able to locate the
rectifiers near where the line cord is connected and trace the circuit. The transistors will be
either in a TO3 large metal can or a TOP3 plastic package - on heat sinks. The filter capacitor
should eventually measure high in one direction (it will take a while to charge from your
ohmmeter). It could still be failing at full voltage, however.

If you find one bad part, still check everything else as more than one part may fail and just
replacing one may cause it to fail again.

Assuming everything here checks out, clip a voltmeter set on its 500 V scale or higher across
the horizontal output transistor and turn the power on. Warning - never measure this point if
the horizontal deflection is operating. it is ok now since the set is dead. If the voltage here is
100-150, then there is a problem in the drive to the horizontal output circuit. If it is low or 0,
then there are still problems in the power supply or with the winding on the flyback
transformer.

Other possible problems: bad hybrid voltage regulator, bad startup circuit, bad standby power
supply (dried up filter capacitor, etc.) bad relay contacts as mentioned above. However, these
probably would not have blown the fuse in the first place so are less likely.
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Power-on tick-tick-tick or click-click-click but no other action
A variety of power supply or startup problems can result in this or similar
behavior. Possibilities include:

 Lack of startup horizontal drive - see the section: Startup problems -

nothing happens, click, or tick-tick-tick sound. The main regulator is
cycling on overvoltage due to lack of load.
 Excessive load or faulty power supply cycling on its overcurrent
protection circuit.
 High voltage shutdown, or some other system detecting an out of
regulation condition. However, in this case, there should be some
indication that the deflection and HV is attempting to come up -
momentary whine, static on the screen, etc.
 A dried up main filter capacitor or other filter capacitor in the low
voltage power supply that is producing an out-of-regulation condition
until it warms up. A bad filter capacitor on the output of a series
regulator may result in excessive voltage and subsequent shutdown.
 A problem with the microcontroller, relay or its driver, or standby
power supply.

One possible test would be to vary the line voltage and observe the set's behavior. It may
work fine at one extreme (usually low) or the other. This might give clues as to what is
wrong.

Also see the section: Dead TV with periodic tweet-tweet, flub-flub, or low-low voltage.

No picture or raster and no sound

The screen is blank with no raster at all. There are indications that the
channel numbers are changing in the display. This indicates that some of
the low voltages are present but these may be derived from the standby
supply.
Assuming there is no deflection and no HV, you either have a low voltage power supply
problem, bad startup circuit, or bad horizontal output transistor (HOT) or other bad parts in
the horizontal deflection.

Check for bad fuses.

(If you have HV as indicated by static electricity on the front of the screen and you hear the
high pitched whine of the horizontal deflection when it is turned on, then the following does
not apply).

1. Use an ohmmeter to test the HOT for shorts. If it is bad, look for open
fusable resistors or other fuses you did not catch.
2. Assuming it is good, measure the voltage on the collector-emitter of
the HOT (this is safe if there is no deflection). You should see the B+ -
probably between 100 and 150 V.
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 3. If there is no voltage, you have a low voltage power supply problem
and/or you have not found all the bad/open parts.
4. If there is voltage and no deflection (no high pitched whine and no
HV), you probably have a startup problem - all TVs need some kind of
circuit to kick start the horizontal deflection until the auxiliary power
outputs of the flyback are available. Some Zeniths use a simple
multivibrator for this - a couple of transistors. Others power the
horizontal osc. IC from a special line-derived voltage. The
multivibrator type are sometimes designed to fail if someone keeps
turning the set on and off (like kids playing) since the power rating is
inadequate.

Test the transistors if it is that type with an ohmmeter. If one is shorted, you have a
problem. The usual way a TV service person would test for startup problems is to
inject a signal to the base of the HOT of about 15.75 kHz. If the TV then starts and
runs once this signal is removed, the diagnosis is confirmed. This is risky - you can
blow things up if not careful (including yourself). See the section: Bypassing the
Startup Circuit for details.

If you hear the high pitched whine of the deflection and/or feel some static on the scree,
confirm that the horizontal deflection and high voltage are working by adjusting the
SCREEN control (probably on the flyback). If you can get a raster then your problem is
probably in the video or chroma circuits, not the deflection or high voltage.

Reduced width picture and/or hum bars in picture and/or hum in sound
The most likely cause is a dried up main filter capacitor. Once the effective
capacitance drops low enough, 120 Hz (or 100 Hz in countries with 50 Hz
power) ripple will make its way into the regulated DC supply (assuming full
wave rectification).
Another likely cause of similar symptoms is a defective low voltage regulator allowing
excessive ripple. The regulator IC could be bad or filter capacitor following the IC could be
dried up.

Either of these faults may cause:

1. A pair of wiggles and/or hum bars in the picture which will float up
the screen. For NTSC where the power line is 60 Hz but the frame rate
is 59.94 Hz, it will take about 8 seconds for each bar to pass a given
point on the screen. (On some sets, a half wave recitifier is used
resulting in a single wiggle or hum bar).
2. Hum in the sound. This may or may not be noticeable with the volume
turned down.
3. Possible regulation problems resulting in HV or total shutdown or
power cycling on and off.

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The best approach to testing the capacitors is to clip a good capacitor of approximately the
same uF rating and at least the same voltage rating across the suspect capacitor (with the
power off). A capacitor meter can also be used but the capacitor may need to be removed
from the circuit.

Once the capacitors have been confirmed to be good, voltage measurements on the regulator
should be able to narrow down the problem to a bad IC or other component.

Excessive B+ from fixed regulator like STR30123/STR30130/STR30135

These are fixed regulators that do fail but the problem may be elsewhere.
If the B+ goes to high, the X-ray protection circuitry may kick in and shut down the
horizontal deflection.

If there is little or no load (horizontal deflection not running at all), all bets are off as well -
the resistor that is likely across input-output will dominate and boost the voltage above the
proper output for the regulator chip. Use a Variac to bring up the voltage to the TV. If the
deflection does not start up at any voltage even with the B+ ramping up past its normal value,
the problem is probably in the horizontal deflection/startup circuitry, not the regulator.

Some of these may go out of regulation if the output electrolytics are dried up. There might a
a 10 uF 200 V or so electrolytic across the output to ground. Test it or substitute a known
good one of about the same uF rating and at least equal voltage rating. If you can get the TV
to work at reduced voltage using a Variac (but possibly with hum bars in the picture and hum
in the audio), check the output capacitor.

Otherwise, it could be the regulator or one of its biasing components (sets current to B input -
the voltage at this input should be close to the output voltage value). Also check to be sure
the input voltage is solid - main filter capacitor is not dried up.

TV power cycling on and off

The power light may be flashing or if you are runing with a series light bulb
it may be cycling on and off continuously. There may be a chirping or
clicking sound from inside the set. (Note: using too small a series light bulb
load during testing for the size of the TV may also result in this condition.)
If there is a low voltage regulator or separate switching supply, it could be cycling on and off
if the horizontal output, flyback, or one of its secondary loads were defective.

Does this TV have a separate low voltage regulator and/or switching power supply or is it all
part of the flyback circuit? For the following, I assume it is all in one (most common).

Some simple things to try first:

Verify that the main filter capacitor is doing its job. Excessive ripple on the rectified line
voltage bus can cause various forms of shutdown behavior. An easy test is to jumper across
the capacitor with one of at least equal voltage rating and similar capacitance (make
connections with power off!).
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Use a Variac, if possible, to bring up the input voltage slowly and see if the TV works at any
point without shutting down. If it does, this could be an indication of X-ray protection circuit
kicking in, though this will usually latch and keep the set shut off if excessive HV were
detected.

Dead TV with periodic tweet-tweet, flub-flub, or low-low voltage

A TV which appears to be dead except for a once a second or so tweet or flub
usually indicates an overload fault in the power supply or a short in one of
its load circuits. In some cases, the low voltage (including B+) will just be
reduced to a fraction of their normal value as a result of an overload on one
of the outputs - usually the main B+.
This may be caused by a shorted rectifier in the power supply, flyback, or even the yoke, but
check the the loads first. Wait a few minutes for the filter caps to discharge (but stay away
from the CRT HV connector as it may retain a dangerous and painful charge for a long time),
use an ohmmeter across the various diodes in the power supply. Using an ohmmeter on the
rectifier diodes, the resistance in at least one direction should be greater than 100 ohms. If it
is much less (like 0 or 5 ohms), then the diode is probably bad. Unsolder and check again - it
should test infinite (greater than 1M ohms) in one direction.

Summary of possible causes:

 Bad solder connections.

 Other shorted components like capacitors.
 Other problems in the power supply or its controller.
 Bad flyback.
 Short or excessive load on secondary supplies fed from flyback.
 Short in horizontal yoke windings.
 Problem with startup drive (cycling on overvoltage).

Bypassing the Startup Circuit

Where the TV is dead and a startup problem is suspected, a TV service
person would test for startup problems by injecting a signal into the base of
the HOT of about 15.75 kHz. If the TV then starts and runs once this signal
is removed, the diagnosis is confirmed. This is risky - you can blow things
up if not careful (including yourself). A 555 timer based circuit will work fine
as a signal source for this.
WARNING: be careful if you do this. The HOT circuit may be line-connected and it is
possible to destroy the HOT and related components if this is not done properly. I once
managed to kill not only the HOT but the chopper transistor as well while working in this
area. An expensive lesson.

You can reduce the risk somewhat (to the TV at least) by using a series light bulb load and/or
running on reduced line voltage. The most important thing to avoid is putting in an
excessively long drive pulse which will result in the flyback transformer saturating, huge
amounts of current, and likely a dead HOT and possibly other parts if there is nothing to limit
the current. For NTSC/PAL, it is fairly safe to assume that a 50 percent duty cycle 15 to 16
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kHz drive signal will not result in fireworks as long as there aren't other problems (like a
shorted flyback/LOPT).

If after a second or so, the TV fires up (not literally!) and stays happy until it is turned off, a
startup problem is almost certain. It could be the standby supply (if used) or a dedicated
startup circuit that has failed.

But, don't push your luck - if the TV starts after a second or so of your drive signal but
doesn't continue to run when it is removed, don't be tempted to leave your circuit connected -
it could still be stressing other parts. Find out why the normal horizontal drive is not being
generated - possibly a power supply or horizontal oscillator problem.

If nothing happens, either startup is not the problem or there are other components that have
failed preventing the HOT drive signal from having any effect.

Shorted Components
A failure of the horizontal output transistor or power supply switchmode
transistor will blow a fuse or fusable resistor.
Look for blown fuses and test for open fusable resistors in the power circuits. If you find one,
then test the HOT and/or switchmode transistor for shorts.

Other possibilities: rectifier diodes or main filter capacitor.

While you are at it, check for bad connections - prod the circuit board with an insulated stick
when the problem reoccurs - as these can cause parts to fail.

Startup problems - nothing happens, click, or tick-tick-tick sound

TVs and monitors usually incorporate some kind of startup circuit to
provide drive to the horizontal output transistor (HOT) until the flyback
power supply is running. Yes, TVs and monitors boot just like computers.
There are two typical kinds of symptoms: power on click but nothing else happens or a tick-
tick-tick sound indicating cycling of the low voltage (line regulator) but lack of startup
horizontal drive.

Check the voltage on the horizontal output transistor (HOT). If no voltage is present, there
may be a blown fuse or open fusable resistor - and probably a shorted HOT.

However, if the voltage is normal (or high) - usually 100-150 V, then there is likely a
problem with the startup circuit not providing initial base drive to the HOT.

The startup circuits may take several forms:

1. Discrete multivibrator or other simple transistor circuit to provide

base drive to the HOT.
2. IC which is part of deflection chain powered off of a voltage divider or
transformer.
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 3. Other type of circuit which operates off of the line which provides
some kind of drive to the HOT.

TV turns off after warming up

If you can turn it back on with the s momentary key or power button:
When it shuts off, do you need to push the power button once or twice to get it back on?
Also, does anything else about the picture or sound change as it warms up?

1. If once, then the controller is shutting the TV down either as a result

of a (thermally induced) fault in the controller or it sensing some other
problem. Monitoring the voltage on the relay coil (assuming these is
one) could help determine what is happening. The controller thinks it
is in charge.
2. If twice, then the power supply is shutting down as the controller still
thinks it is on and you are resetting it. A couple of possibilities here
would be low voltage or high voltage regulation error (excessive high
voltage is sensed and causes shutdown to prevent dangerous X-ray
emission). A partially dried up main filter capacitor could also cause a
shutdown but there might be other symptoms like hum bars in the
picture just before this happened. Clipping a good capacitor across
the suspect (with power off!) would confirm or eliminate this
possibility.

If it uses a pull-knob (or other hard on/off switch), then this may be like pulling the plug and
would reset any abnormal condition.

TV doesn't power up immediately

The TV may do nothing, cycle on and off for a while, power up and then
shutdown in an endless cycle - or at least for a while. Then it comes on and
operates normally until it is turned off.
A couple of possibilities:

1. The main filter capacitor or other filter capacitors in the low voltage
power supply is dried up and this can cause all kinds of regulation
problems.
2. The power supply regulator is defective (or marginal) allowing
excessive voltage on its output and then the X-ray protection circuitry
shuts you down.

TV shuts down with bright picture or when brightness is turned up

This is probably a protection circuit kicking in especially if turning power off
or pulling the plug is required to restore operation.

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The detection circuit could be in the power supply or horizontal deflection output circuit. It
may be defective or the current may be too high for some other reason. A couple of tests can
be performed to confirm that it is due to beam current:

 Determine if behavior is similar when adjusting the user brightness

control and the screen (G2) pot (on the flyback) or master brightness
control. If the TV quits at about the same brightness level, overcurrent
protection is likely.
 Disconnect the filaments to the CRT (unsolder a pin on the CRT
socket) and see if it still shuts down under the same conditions. If it is
overcurrent protection, shut down should now *not* take place since
there is no beam current.

Relays in the Power Circuitry of TVs

Where power on or power off is erratic or only seems to work part way (e.g.,
the picture goes off but not the sound), it may just be a sticking or dirty
relay. Of course, general on/off problems could also be relay related but
could also be a lot of other things.
For erratic on/off problems, gently tapping on the relay when the problem occurs will
confirm that the relay is at fault - if the set then switches on or off properly, it's almost
certainly the relay and replacing it will fix the problem. But double check its solder
connections to make sure it isn't a simple bad connection to the relay or in its vicinity.

What is a posistor?
A posistor is a combination of a PTC (positive temperature coefficient)
resistor and another resistor-element to heat it up and keep it hot.
Sometimes, these will go by the name posister or thermistor. The heater is a
disk shaped resistor across the power line and the themister is a disk
shaped device in series with the degauss coil. They are in clamped together
to be in close contact thermally. You can pry off the lid and see for yourself.
The most common failure mode is for the part to short across the line.

Its function is to control degauss, so the only thing you lose when you remove one of these is
the degauss function on power-on. When you turn the TV or monitor on, the PTC resistor is
cold and low resistance. When heated, it becomes very high resistance and turns off the
degauss coil but gradually - the current ramps down to zero rather than being abruptly cut
off..

Computer Component Source stocks a wide variety, I believe but it may be cheaper to go
direct to the manufacturer if they will sell you one.

Flameproof Resistors
Flameproof Resistor or Fusable Resistor are often designated by the symbol
'FR'. They are basically the same. The designation "Flameproof" means that
if they fail due to excessive current, there will be no chance of, well, them

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going up in flames. :) They will also have a power rating and thus can act as
a protective device, though a specific circuit may not depend on a precise
fuse rating, rather that the resistor will open with massively excessive
current.
if you find one bad part - many components can fail or cause other components to fail if you
don't locate them all. Check resistors as well, even if they look ok.

Since they function as fuses, flameproof resistors should not be replaced with higher wattage
types unless specifically allowed by the manufacturer. These would not blow at the same
level of overload possibly resulting in damage to other parts of the circuitry and increasing
the risk of fire.

Then, with a load on the output of the power supply use a Variac to bring up the voltage
slowly and observe what happens. At 50 VAC or less, the switcher should kick in and
produce some output though correct regulation may not occur until 80 VAC or more. The
outputs voltages may even be greater than spec'd with a small load before regulation is
correct.

Width and height change with warmup

Since both width and height are affected, this points to something common
like the low voltage power supply. If there are any indications of hum bars,
first check the main filter capacitor(s) or substitute a known good one. There
might even be other symptoms like faint retrace lines on at least part of the
screen.
Start by monitoring the B+ to the flyback (feeding the HOT) to see if this drifts at all. If it
does, then there is probably a low voltage regulator problem - bad capacitor, resistor, or chip.
Use freeze spray to narrow it down. If this is solid, then there could be a high voltage drift but
this would be somewhat unusual without other symptoms (like arcing) since the HV is nearly
always tracks the low voltage supply.

Problems with SCR based regulators

Here are typical symptoms:
"Sharp TV has a short blast of high voltage and sound then shuts down. All
components in regulator area test good. I have two of these sets." Is there a
good sharp tech out there thats seen this problem?"
(From: Mr. Caldwell ([email protected]).)

There is a bulletin from Sharp on troubleshooting *any* SCR regulated TV, this can easily be
adapted to RCA, GE, Emerson and Panasonic sets that have similar circuits given a little
thought but the technician.

You are going to need to figure part of this out as I no longer have the schematics available.
All this will do is allow you to rule out either the regulator or the horizontal section.

Don't plug this in until you've read the whole list.

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Figure out how to bypass the turn on circuit from the microprocessor (unless it's a manual
one). This is usually just jumpering the relay but sometimes Sharp puts a horizontal Vcc turn
on transistor that also must be jumpered.

Next jumper across the SCR anode to cathode.

Now using an *variable isolation transformer* turn the voltage on it down and plug the set in.
Bring the voltage up slowly, if you can bring the AC up so that the DC on the jumper across
the SCR is within the regulated voltage you should have a picture and this rules out the
horizontal section as the culprit.

If the set shuts down prior to getting the DC up enough then you've got problems in the
horizontal section. Either you have something wrong with the high voltage transformer or the
tuning caps or there is a problem with the x-ray protect pick off voltage to the deflection IC.

If it's the horizontal section you can set the AC at approx. 25v and look at the waveforms in
the horizontal output section for defects like ringing.

I've never gotten a good troubleshooting technique down for the regulator since it's an active
circuit the waveforms and voltages are not stable when it's failed. A good diode, transistor
and capacitor checker will help.

It would help to get the service manual for that set, the training manual for that chassis and
the bulletin dealing with troubleshooting SCR regulators.

TV shuts down with dark picture or when changing channels

This may happen at any time or possibly after being on for awhile in which
something heats up and drifts out of spec.
The low voltage regulator may be letting the voltage rise excessively. Then, a dark picture or
video muting during a channel change triggers the X-ray or power supply overvoltage
protection.

Monitor the output of the low voltage power supply B+ to see if it is stable as the
brightness/scene changes.

Deflection Problems
Deflection fundamentals
Note: the following is just a brief introduction. For more detailed deflection
system theory of operation and sample circuits, see the document: TV and
Monitor Deflection Systems.
The electron beams in the CRT need to be scanned horizontally and vertically in a very
precise manner to produce a raster - and a picture.

For NTSC and PAL, the horizontal scan rates are 15,734 and 15,625 Hz respectively.

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For NTSC and PAL, the vertical scan rates are 60 and 50 Hz (approximately) respectively.

The deflection yoke includes sets of coils for horizontal and vertical scanning oriented at 90
degrees with respect to each other. Additional coils are needed to correct for pincushion and
other geometric defects.

The deflection circuits must be synchronized and phase locked to the incoming video signal.

Therefore, we have the following functions:

1. Sync separator to obtain horizontal and vertical synchronization

pulses.
2. Horizontal oscillator which locks to horizontal sync pulses.
3. Horizontal drive followed by horizontal output which feeds deflection
yoke (and flyback for HV and other voltages), Yoke requires a sawtooth
current waveform for linear horizontal deflection. Horizontal output in
all but the smaller TVs is a large discrete power transistor, most often
an NPN bipolar type.
4. Vertical oscillator which locks to vertical sync pulses. Yoke requires
sawtooth waveform for linear vertical deflection.
5. Vertical drive/output which feeds vertical deflection yoke. Newer TVs
use ICs for vertical drive and output.
6. Various additional deflection signals to correct for the imperfections in
the geometry of large angle deflection CRTs. These may be fed into the
normal deflection coils and/or there may be separate coils mounted
on the neck of the CRT.

About the vertical scan rate

Some people believe that the TV scan rate is locked to the local power line.
TVs never ever used the line frequency for vertical rate. The vertical rate is
not even equal to line frequency, actually 59.94 Hz (NTSC). It was set
originally to 60 Hz to minimize the visibility of interference between the
deflection and power transformer. When NTSC added color, it changed to
59.94 Hz for highly technical reasons. And, TVs no longer have power
transformers.

Picture squeezed in then died

You were watching 'Knight Rider' reruns and all of a sudden, the picture
"squeezed in" slowly from the right hand side. It "squeezed in" about 2
inches or so when the entire picture went dead - has remained like this
since. Sound is fine, but no activity at all from the tube. Has it died? How
much time, effort, and expense to fix?
No, it's not dead, at least it certainly is not the picture tube.

Your set probably didn't like Knight Rider - at least that episode!

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Seriously, how old is the set? Is it a totally solid state chassis or are there tubes in the
deflection circuits?

Is there any indication of light on the screen? Any indication of the 15735 Hz horizontal
running at all? (You would normally hear the high pitch sound).

Newer TVs almost always derive voltages for the sound circuits from the horizontal
deflection but older hybrids may run the sound off of its own power.

In any case, there is a problem in the horizontal deflection and you probably have no high
voltage as well assuming no light on the screen.

The fact that it squeezed in first indicates that a partial short or other fault may have
developed in the horizontal deflection circuits - possibly the deflection yoke or flyback
transformer. It could also have been a bad connection letting loose. Once it failed completely,
the horizontal output transistor may have bought the farm or blown a fuse.

TV non-linearity
Most modern TVs are nearly perfect with respect to linearity. There are never
any user adjustments and there may not even be any internal adjustments.
See the sections: Horizontal position, size, and linearity
adjustment and/or Vertical position, size, and linearity adjustment.
A sudden change in linearity or a TV that requires a warmup period before linearity becomes
acceptable may have a bad component - probably a capacitor in the horizontal deflection
circuits. For the latter, try some cold spray or a heatgun to see if you can locate the bad part.

Horizontal deflection shutting down

Confirm that the horizontal deflection is shutting down (along with the high
voltage since it is derived from horizontal deflection: listen for the high
pitched deflection whine, test for static on the screen, see if the CRT
filaments are lit, turn up the brightness and/or screen control to see if you
can get a raster) and then why:

1. Power is failing to the horizontal output transistor - this could be due

to a low voltage power supply problem, bad connection, etc.
2. Base drive to the horizontal output transistor is failing - could be a
fault in the horizontal oscillator or bad connection.
3. Problem with the flyback transformer or its secondary loads (flyback
may provide other power voltages).
4. X-ray protection is activating - either due to excess HV or due to a
fault in the X-ray protection circuitry.

If the problem comes and goes erratically it sounds like a bad connection, especially if
whacking has an effect. If it comes and goes periodically, then a component could be heating
up and failing, then cooling, etc.

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 TV will not sync
There are a wide variety of causes for a TV that will not display a stable or
properly configured picture. Among the symptoms are:

 Lack of sync horizontal - drifts smoothly horizontally. Depending on

the difference between the video horizontal rate and the free-run
frequency of the horizontal oscillator, the picture may be torn left or
right (as shown in Symptoms of Some Common Deflection Problems or
have multiple images superimposed horizontally. The situation where
the picture is neatly split horizontally (which is what you might
expect) is a special case where the frequencies are virtually the same.
The key symptom common to all these is that there IS vertical lock (no
blanking bar visible) AND there is no evidence that the deflection is
even attempting to lock horizontally.

This may mean that the horizontal sync signal is missing due to a sync separator
problem or that there is some other fault in the sync processing circuitry.

 Incorrect lock horizontal - a more-or-less stable torn picture. This

means that the sync signal is reaching the deflection system but that
it is having problem locking to it. The horizontal oscillator free-run
frequency may be too far from what it is supposed to be (15,734 or
15,625 for NTSC and PAL, respectively).
 Lack of sync vertical - rolls smoothly vertically. This may mean that
the vertical sync signal is missing or the deflection system is ignoring
it.
 Lock not stable vertical - jumps or vibrates vertically. This may be a
fault in the vertical sync circuitry.
 Multiple or repeated images horizontally or vertically. Problems in
sync processing circuitry.

Additional comments on some of these problems follow in the next few sections.

Horizontal lock lost

A TV which loses horizontal lock when changing channels, momentarily
losing the signal, or switching inputs may have a horizontal oscillator that is
way out of adjustment or has drifted in frequency due to aging components.
Note that the characteristics of this are distinctly different than for total loss of sync. In the
latter case, the picture will drift sideways and/or up and down while with an off frequency
oscillator, the torn up picture will try at least to remain stationary.

This could be a capacitor or other similar part. Or, the oscillator frequency may just need to
be tweaked (particularly with older sets). There may be an internal horizontal frequency
adjustment - either a pot or a coil - which may need a slight tweak. If a coil, use a plastic
alignment tool, not metal to avoid cracking the fragile core.

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 Vertical lock lost
This indicates a picture that is correct but rolling vertically.
If the picture is rolling down the screen the frequency of the vertical oscillator is incorrect -
too high - and this may be the problem. Generally, the free run frequency of the vertical
oscillator should be a little below the video rate (of around 50 or 60 Hz depending on where
you live).

If it is rolling continuously without jumping, then there is a loss of sync from the sync
separator or faulty components in the vertical oscillator causing it to totally ignore the sync
pulses.

If it is rolling up rapidly and not quite able to remain locked, the free run frequency may be
too low or there could be a fault in the sync circuits resulting in an inadequate vertical pull-in
range.

On older sets, there was actually a vertical hold (and possibly even a separate vertical
frequency) control. On anything made in the last decade, this is unlikely. There may be
Vertical Frequency and Vertical Pull-in Range adjustments (and others) accessible via the
service menu. However, if any of these ever change, it indicates a possible problem with the
EEPROM losing its memory as component drift is unlikely.

As with everything else, bad connections are possible as well. You will need a schematic and
possibly setup info to go beyond this.

Vertical squashed
This is a vertical deflection problem - possibly a bad capacitor, bad
connection, flyback/pumpup diode, or other component. None of these
should be very expensive (in a relative sort of way).
If the symptoms change - particularly if they become less severe - as the set warms up, a
dried up electrolytic capacitor is most likely. If they get worse, it could be a bad
semiconductor. Freeze spray or a heat gun may be useful in identifying the defective
component.

It is often easiest to substitute a good capacitor for each electrolytic in the vertical output
circuit. Look for bad connections (particularly to the deflection yoke), then consider replacing
the vertical output IC or transistor(s).

A defective deflection yoke is also possible or in rare cases, a bad yoke damping resistor
(e.g., 500 ohms, may be mounted on the yoke assembly itself).

Where the entire top half or botton half of the picture is squashed into into the center (i.g.,
only half the picture shows), a missing power supply voltage, defective vertical output IC, or
a component associated with it is likely bad. A bad connection or blown fusable resistor may
be the cause of a missing power supply voltage.

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The following are NOT possible: CRT, flyback (except possibly where it's the source for a
missing voltage but this is more likely just a bad solder connection at a flyback pin), tuner
(except for the famous RCA/GE/Proscan or Sony models where the controller is at fault - see
the sections on these specific brands). I am just trying to think of really expensive parts that
cannot possibly be at fault :-).

Note that some movies or laser karaoke discs are recorded in 'letterbox' format which at first
glance looks like a squashed vertical problem. However, the picture aspect ratio will be
correct and turning up the brightness will reveal a perfectly normal raster above and below
the picture.

Part of picture cut off

The following applies if the part of the picture is missing but not otherwise
squashed or distorted. For example, 85% is missing but the portion still
visible is normal size.

<="" a="">
CAUTION: To prevent damage to the CRT phosphors, immediately turn down
the brightness so the line is just barely visible. If the user controls do not
have enough range, you will have to locate and adjust the master brightness
or screen/G2 pots.
Since you have high voltage, the horizontal deflection circuits are almost certainly working
(unless there is a separate high voltage power supply - almost unheard of in modern TVs and
very uncommon in all but the most expensive monitors).

Check for bad solder connections between the main board and the deflection yoke. Could
also be a bad horizontal coil in the yoke, linearity coil, etc. There is not that much to go bad
based on these symptoms assuming the high voltage and the horizontal deflection use the
same flyback. It is almost certainly not an IC or transistor that is bad.

Single Horizontal Line

CAUTION: To prevent damage to the CRT phosphors, immediately turn down
the brightness so the line is just barely visible. If the user controls do not
have enough range, you will have to locate and adjust the master brightness
or screen/G2 pots.
A single horizontal line means that you have lost vertical deflection. High voltage is most
likely fine since there is something on the screen.

This could be due to:

1. Dirty service switches contacts. There is often a small switch located

inside on the main board or perhaps accessible from the back. This is
used during setup to set the color background levels. (On some sets,
this is located on the CRT neck board and may be a jumper plug or
other means of selecting service mode - not an actual switch.)

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 When moved to the 'service' position, it kills vertical deflection and video to the CRT.
If the switch somehow changed position or got dirty or corroded contacts, you will
have this symptom. Flip the switch back and forth a couple of times. If there is some
change, then replace, clean, resolder, or even bypass it as appropriate.

2. Bad connection to deflection yoke or other parts in vertical output

circuit. Bad connections are common in TVs and monitors. Check
around the pins of large components like transformers, power
transistors and resistors, or connectors for hairline cracks in the
solder. Reseat internal connectors. Check particularly around the
connector to the deflection yoke on the CRT.
3. Bad vertical deflection IC or transistor. You will probably need the
service manual for this and the following. However, if the vertical
deflection is done with an IC, the ECG Semiconductor Master
Substitution guide may have its pinout which may be enough to test it
with a scope.
4. Other bad parts in vertical deflection circuit though there are not that
many parts that would kill the deflection entirely.
5. Loss of power to vertical deflection circuits. Check for blown fusable
resistors/fuses and bad connections.
6. Loss of vertical oscillator or vertical drive signals.

The most likely possibilities are in the deflection output stage or bad connections to the yoke.

Keystone shaped picture

This means that the size of the picture is not constant from top to bottom
(width changes) or left to right (height changes). Note that some slight
amount of keystoning is probably just within the manufacturing tolerance of
the deflection yoke and factory setup (geometry magnet placement, if any).
On a TV, this is only noticeable with scenes having straight edges (e.g., video
games) in relationship to the CRT bezel.

Loss of Horizontal Sync (also applies to vertical) after Warm-up

The problem lies either in the horizontal oscillator or in the sync system. If it
really is a problem with sync pulses not reaching the oscillator, the picture
will move around horizontally and can be brought to hold momentarily with
the hold control. If the picture breaks up into strips, there is a problem in
the horizontal oscillator. Rotate the hold control: if the frequency is too far
off, the picture will not settle into place at any adjustment of the hold
control. Look around the horizontal oscillator circuit: all of the oscillator
parts will be right there, or check on the horizontal oscillator module.
Another horizontal problem can occur if the set is an RCA made from
around 1972-1980: these sets are designed to slip very far off sync if the
high voltage is too high, to protect against radiation. Turning up the
brightness will decrease the number of bars if this system is in question, as
the high voltage is decreasing. In this case, check around the high-voltage

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regulation system on the deflection systems board. I've had 2 1970's RCA's
with this problem.

Intermittent jumping or jittering of picture or other random behavior

This has all the classic symptoms of a loose connection internal to the TV or
monitor - probably where the deflection yoke plugs into the main PCB or at
the base of the flyback transformer. TVs and monitors are notorious for both
poor quality soldering and bad connections near high wattage components
which just develop over time from temperature cycling. The problem may
happen any time or more when cold or hot.
The following is not very scientific, but it works: Have you tried whacking the TV when this
happened and did it have any effect? If yes, this would be further confirmation of loose
connections.

What you need to do is examine the solder connections on the PCBs in the monitor,
particularly in the area of the deflection circuits and power supply. Look for hairline cracks
between the solder and the component pins - mostly the fat pins of transformers, connectors,
and high wattage resistors. Any that are found will need to be reflowed with a medium
wattage (like 40W) or temperature controlled soldering iron.

It could also be a component momentarily breaking down in the power supply or deflection
circuits.

One other possibility is that there is arcing or corona as a result of humid weather. This could
trigger the power supply to shut down perhaps with a squeak, but there would probably be
additional symptoms including possibly partial loss of brightness or focus before it shut
down. You may also hear a sizzling sound accompanied by noise or snow in the picture,
static in the sounds, and/or a smell of ozone.

Horizontal output transistors keep blowing (or excessively hot)

Unfortunately, these sorts of problems are often difficult to definitively
diagnose and repair and will often involve expensive component swapping.
You have just replaced an obviously blown (shorted) horizontal output transistor (HOT) and
an hour (or a minute) later the same symptoms appear. Or, you notice that the new HOT is
hotter than expected:

Would the next logical step be a new flyback (LOPT)? Not necessarily.

If the set performed normally until it died, there are other possible causes. However, it could
be the flyback failing under load or when it warms up. I would expect some warning though -
like the picture shrinks for a few seconds before the poof.

Other possible causes:

1. Improper drive to horizontal output transistor (HOT). A weak drive

might cause the HOT to turn on or (more likely) shut off too slowly
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 (greatly increasing heat dissipation. Check driver and HOT base
circuit components. Dried up capacitors, open resistors or chokes,
bad connections, or a driver transformer with shorted windings or
broken or loose core can all affect drive waveforms.
2. Excessive voltage on HOT collector - check LV regulator (and line
voltage if this is a field repair), if any.
3. Defective safety capacitors or damper diode around HOT. (Though this
usually results in instant destruction with little heating).
4. New transistor not mounted properly to heat sink - probably needs
mica washer and heat sink compound.
5. Replacement transistor not correct or inferior cross reference.
Sometimes, the horizontal deflection is designed based on the quirks
of a particular transistor. Substitutes may not work reliably.
6. CRT shorting internally. If this happens only once in two weeks, it
may be diffuclt to track down :-(.

The HOT should not run hot if properly mounted to the heat sink (using heatsink compound).
It should not be too hot to touch (CAREFUL - don't touch with power on - it is at over a
hundred volts with nasty multihundred volt spikes and line connected - discharge power
supply filter caps first after unplugging). If it is scorching hot after a few minutes, then you
need to check the other possibilities.

It is also possible that a defective flyback - perhaps one shorted turn - would not cause an
immediate failure and only affect the picture slightly. This would be unusual, however. See
the section:Testing of flyback (LOPT) transformers.

Note that running the set with a series light bulb may allow the HOT to survive long enough
for you to gather some of the information needed to identify the bad component.

Horizontal output transistors blowing at random intervals

The HOT may last a few months or years but then blow again.
These are among the hardest problems to locate. It could even be some peculiar combination
of user cockpit error - customer abuse - that you will never identify. Yes, this should not
happen with a properly designed TV though newer horizontal processor chips are quite smart
about preventing HOT killing signals from reaching the horizontal driver.

However, a combination of channel changing, loss of sync when switching video sources,
and frequent power cycles, could test the TV in ways never dreamed of by the designers. It
may take only one scan line that is too long to blow the HOT.

On the other hand, the cause may be along the lines of those listed in the section: Horizontal
output transistors keep blowing (or excessively hot) and just not as obvious - blowing in a
few days or weeks instead of a few seconds but in this case, the HOT will likely be running
very hot even after only a few minutes.

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Another possible cause for random failures of the HOT are bad solder connections in the
vicinity of the flyback and HOT (very common due to the large hot high power components)
as well as the horizontal driver and even possibly the sync and horizontal oscillator circuits,
power supply, or elsewhere.

Vertical fold over

The picture is squashed vertically and a part of it may be flipped over and
distorted.
This usually indicates a fault in the vertical output circuit. If it uses an IC for this, then the
chip could be bad. It could also be a bad capacitor or other component in this circuit. It is
probably caused by a fault in the flyback portion of the vertical deflection circuit - a charge
pump that generates a high voltage spike to return the beam to the top of the screen.

Test components in the vertical output stage or substitute for good ones.

In particular, this sounds like a pincushion problem - to correct for pincushion, a signal from
the vertical deflection that looks something like a rectified sinewave is used to modify width
based on vertical position. There is usually a control to adjust the magnitude of this signal
and also often, its phase. It would seem that this circuit has ceased to function.

If you have the schematics, check them for 'pincushion' adjustments and check signals and
voltages. If not, try to find the 'pincushion' magnitude and phase adjustments and look for bad
parts or bad connections in in the general area. Even if there are no adjustment pots, there
may still be pincushion correction circuitry.

If the internal controls have absolutely no effect, then the circuit is faulty. With modern
digital setup adjustments, then it is even tougher to diagnose since these control a D/A
somewhere linked via a microprocessor.

Pincushion adjustment adds a signal to the horizontal deflection to compensate for the
geometry of the CRT/deflection yoke. If you have knobs, then tracing the circuitry may be
possible. With luck, you have a bad part that can be identified with an ohmmeter - shorted or
open. For example, if the pincushion correction driver transistor is shorted, it will have no
effect and the picture will be too wide and distorted as shown above.

However, without a schematic even this will be difficult. If the adjustments are digital this is
especially difficult to diagnose since you don't even have any idea of where the circuitry
would be located.

Faulty capacitors in the horizontal deflection power supplies often cause a similar set of
symptoms.

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Deflection yoke testing
A faulty deflection yoke can affect the geometry (size and shape) of the
raster, result in insufficient high voltage and/or other auxiliary power
problems, and blow various components in the low voltage power supply or
elsewhere.

 A simple test to determine if the yoke is at fault for a major geometry

problem (e.g., a keystone shaped picture) is to interchange the
connections to the yoke for the axis that is not affected (i.e., the
vertical coils if the width is varying from top to bottom). If the
raster/picture flips (indicating that you swapped the proper
connections) but the shape of the raster remains the same - the
geometry is unchanged, the problem is almost certainly in the
deflection yoke.
 Where high voltage (and other flyback derived voltages) are reduced
and other problems have been ruled out, unplugging the deflection
yoke (assuming no interlock) may reveal whether it is likely at fault. If
this results in high voltage and a relatively clean deflection waveform
or returns the power supply or deflection chip load to something
reasonable, a defective yoke is quite possible.

CAUTION: powering a TV or monitor with a disconnected yoke must be done with

care for several reasons:

o The CRT electron beam(s) will not be deflected. If it turns out

that the yoke is the problem, this may result in a very bright
spot in the center of the screen (which will turn into a very dark
permanent spot quite quickly) :-(. Disconnecting only the
winding that is suspect is better. Then, the other direction will
still scan resulting in a very bright line instead of a super bright
spot. In any case, make sure the brightness is turned all the
way down (using the screen/G2 control on the flyback if
necessary). Keep an eye on the front of the screen ready to kill
power at the first sign of a spot or line. Disconnecting the CRT
heater as an added precaution would be even better unless you
need to determine if there is a beam.
o Removing the yoke (which is effectively in parallel with the
flyback) increases the inductance and the peak flyback voltage
on the HOT. In the extreme, this may blow the HOT if run at full
line voltage/normal B+. It is better to perform these tests using
a Variac at reduced line voltage if possible.
o The deflection system will be detuned since the yoke inductance
plays a very significant role in setting the resonance point in
most designs. Don't expect to see totally normal behavior with
respect to high voltage. However, it should be much better than
with the faulty yoke.

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 o Resistance check - This may be possible without removing the
yoke from the CRT if the terminal block is accessible.
Disconnect the individual windings from each other and
determine if the resistances are nearly equal. Check for shorts
between windings and between the horizontal and vertical
windings as well.

Typical resistance of the intact windings (at the yoke connector assuming no
other components): TV or NTSC/PAL monitor - a few ohms (3 ohms typical),
SVGA monitor - less than an ohm (.5 ohms typical).

o Inspection - Look for charring or other evidence of insulation

breakdown due to arcing or overheating. For the horizontal
windings, this will require removing the yoke from the CRT since
little if any of the windings are visible from the outside.
However, even then, most of the windings are hidden under
layers of wire or behind the ferrite core.
o Ring test. See the document "Testing of Flyback (LOPT)
Transformers". This deals with flyback transformers but the
principles are the same. Disconnecting the windings may help
isolate the location of a fault. However, for windings wound on
the same core, the inductive coupling will result in a short
anywhere on that core reducing the Q.
 Vertical - The vertical section is usually manufactured as a pair of
windings wired in parallel (or maybe in series) though for high vertical
scan rate monitors, multiple parallel/interleaved windings are also
possible.

The vertical windings will be oriented with the coil's axis horizontal and wound on the
outside of the yoke. The wire used for the vertical winding may be thinner than that
used for the horizontal windings.

o Resistance check - This may be possible without removing the

yoke from the CRT if the terminal block is accessible.
Disconnect the individual windings from each other and
determine if the resistances are nearly equal. Check for shorts
between windings and between the horizontal and vertical
windings as well.

Typical resistance of the intact windings (at the yoke connector assuming no
other components): TV or NTSC/PAL monitor - more than 10 ohms (15 ohms
typical), SVGA monitor - at least a few ohms (5 ohms typical).

o Inspection - Look for charring or other evidence of insulation

breakdown due to arcing or overheating. The accessible portions
of the vertical windings are mostly visible without removing the

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 yoke from the CRT. However, most of the windings are hidden
under layers of wire or behind the ferrite core.
o Ring test - Since the vertical windings have significant
resistance and very low Q, a ring test may be of limited value.

Deflection yoke repair

So you found a big black charred area in/on one of the yoke windings. What
can be done? Is it possible to repair it? What about using it for testing to
confirm that there are no other problems before ordering a new yoke?
If the damage is minor - only a few wires are involved, it may be possible to separate them
from each other and the rest of the winding, thoroughly clean the area, and then insulate the
wires with high temperature varnish. Then, check the resistances of each of the
parallel/interleaved windings to make sure that you caught all the damage.

Simple plastic electrical tape can probably be used for as insulation for testing purposes - it
has worked for me - but would not likely survive very long as a permanent repair due to the
possible high temperatures involved. A new yoke will almost certainly be needed.

Testing of fly back (LOPT) transformers

How and why do fly back transformers fail?
Fly backs fail in several ways:

1. Overheating leading to cracks in the plastic and external arcing. These

can often be fixed by cleaning and coating with multiple layers of high
voltage sealer, corona dope, or even plastic electrical tape (as a
temporary repair in a pinch).
2. Cracked or otherwise damaged core will effect the flyback
characteristics to the point where it may not work correctly or even
blow the horizontal output transistor.
3. Internal shorts in the FOCUS/SCREEN divider network, if present.
One sign of this may be arcover of the FOCUS or SCREEN sparkgaps
on the PCB on the neck of the CRT.
4. Internal short circuits in the windings.
5. Open windings.

More than one of these may apply in any given case.

First, perform a careful visual inspection with power off. Look for cracks, bulging or melted
plastic, and discoloration, Look for bad solder connections at the pins of the flyback as well.
If the TV or monitor can be powered safely, check for arcing or corona around the flyback
and in its vicinity,

Horizontal or vertical flipped picture

The picture is flipped left-to-right or is upside-down or both. This cannot
happen as a result of a failure. For a CRT-based TV or monitor, it almost

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certainly means that the wires to the horizontal or vertical deflection yoke
have been swapped to enable the picture to appear correct when viewed via
a mirror (horizontal only) or if the unit were mounted base-up to a ceiling
(both). The remedy is simply to swap the two wires to the relevant deflection
yoke(s). There may even be obvious splices to guide you. There is usually a
connector with 4 relatively fat wires that go to the deflection yoke on the
CRT neck (NOT the PCB attached to the tube base). If you don't have a
schematic, trace these on the main PCB back to their origin. The horizontal
will originate somewhere in the vicinity of the flyback transformer. It may be
possible to disengage the wires from the connector shell and swap them
there. If not, cut, splice, and solder. Adjustment of the appropriate centering
controls may be needed.
For flat panel displays, it is even more unlikely this would happen as a result of a hardware
failure. Most likely, there is a mode setting in the one of the setup menus for the TV or
monitor itself. It could also be in the receiver for the TV, or the driver or application software
of the PC. If the source is a video projector, the menu setting is likely there, to select between
front and rear projection (horizontal) or table or ceiling mount (both). So, don't bother to open
up the flat panel TV or monitor. The problem is not there! :)

High Voltage Power Supply Problems

HV power supply fundamentals
Most, if not all, TVs derive the high voltage for the CRT second anode, focus,
and (sometimes) screen (G2) from the horizontal deflection system. This
technique was developed quite early in the history of commercial TV and has
stuck for a very simple reason - it is very cost effective. A side effect is that if
the horizontal deflection fails and threatens to burn a (vertical) line into the
CRT phosphors, the high voltage dies as well.
Most TV high voltage supplies operate as follows:

1. Horizontal output transistor (HOT) turns on during scan. Current

increases linearly in primary of flyback transformer since it appears as
an inductor. Magnetic field also increases linearly. Note: flyback is
constructed with air gap in core. This makes it behave more like an
inductor as far as the primary drive is concerned.
2. HOT shuts off at end of scan. Current decreases rapidly. Magnetic
field collapses inductively coupling to secondary and generates HV
pulse. Inductance and capacitance of flyback, snubber capacitors, and
parasitic capacitance of circuitry and yoke form a resonant circuit.
Ideally, voltage waveform across HOT during flyback (retrace) period
will be a single half cycle and is clamped by damper diode across HOT
to prevent undershoot.
3. Secondary of flyback is either a single large HV winding with HV
rectifiers built in (most often) or an intermediate voltage winding and a

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 voltage multiplier built in or a separate unit (see the section: What is a
tripler?. The output will be DC HV pulses.
4. The capacitance of the CRT envelope provides the needed filtering to
adequately smooth the HV pulses into a DC voltage.
5. A high resistance voltage divider provides the several kV focus voltage
and sometimes the several hundred volt screen (G2) voltage as well.
Often, the adjustments for these voltages are built into the flyback.
Sometimes they are mounted separately. The focus and screen are
generally the top and bottom knobs, respectively.

What is a tripler?
In some TVs, the flyback transformer only generates about 6-10 kV AC
which is then boosted by a diode-capacitor ladder to the 18-30 kV needed
for modern color CRTs. The unit that does this is commonly called a tripler
since it multiplies the flyback output by about 3 times. Some TVs use a
quadrupler instead. However, many TVs generate the required HV directly
with a winding with the required number of turns inside the flyback
transformer.
Triplers use a diode-capacitor ladder to multiply the 6-10 kV AC to 18-30 kV DC. Many
triplers are separate units, roughly cubical, and are not repairable. Some triplers are built in to
the flyback - it is probably cheaper to manufacture the HV diodes and capacitors than to wind
a direct high voltage secondary on the flyback core. In either case, failure requires
replacement of the entire unit.

For external multipliers, the terminals are typically marked:

 IN - from flyback (6-10 kV AC).

 OUT - HV to CRT (20-30 kV DC).
 F - focus to CRT (2-8 kV).
 CTL - focus pot (many megohm to ground).
 G, GND, or COM - ground.

Symptoms of tripler failure are: lack of high voltage or insufficient high voltage, arcing at
focus protection spark gap, incorrect focus voltage, other arcing, overload of HOT and/or
flyback, or focus adjustment affecting brightness (screen) setting or vice-versa. Where there
is overloading, if you disconnect the tripler and everything else comes back to life (obviously,
there will be no HV or picture), then it is very likely bad.

High voltage shutdown due to X-ray protection circuits

A TV that runs for a while or starts to come on but then shuts down may
have a problem with the X-ray protection circuitry correctly or incorrectly
determining that the high voltage (HV) is too great (risking excessive X-ray
emission) and shutting everything down.
A side effect of activation of this circuitry is that resetting may require pulling the plug or
turning off the real (hard) power switch.

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Was there anything else unusual about the picture lately that would indicate an actual
problem with the HV? If this is the case, then there may be some problem with the HV
regulation. If not, the shutdown circuit may be overly sensitive or one of its components may
be defective - a bad connection of leaky cap (or zener).

If the horizontal frequency is not correct (probably low) due to a faulty horizontal oscillator
or sync circuit or bad horizontal hold control (should one exist!), HV may increase and
trigger shutdown. Of course, the picture won't be worth much either!

Modern television receivers and video monitors are all equipped with a safety circuit to shut
down the high voltage feeding the anode of the picture tube if that high voltage becomes
excessive. (This is to prevent dangerous x-rays emitted when electrons with too much energy
strike the metal shadow mask just inside the TV screen.) Unfortunately, high voltage
shutdown problems can be very difficult to diagnose because, once shutdown has occurred,
the horizontal pulses used to generate the high voltage are turned off, and with them the high
voltage itself.

In many cases I have encountered, the high voltage is not excessive, but the shutdown circuit
itself has failed and falsely triggers. A common cause of this is failure of the circuitry that
samples the high voltage and feeds a portion back to the input of the shutdown circuit.
Typically, a tap from the flyback transformer feeds a diode and a filter capacitor to produce a
sample DC voltage proportional to the high voltage. As the high voltage increases, so does
this sample. It is usually further reduced by a voltage divider, then sent through a series zener
diode to the "horizontal shutdown" input of a video processor chip, so that, if the divided
down voltage exceeds the rating of the zener diode, the latter will conduct and trigger the
shutdown input, which then latches off the horizontal pulses. Now if the bottom resistor in
the voltage divider opens, or increases above its nominal value (common for high value
carbon resistors), the sampled voltage will increase, possibly enough to falsely trip the
shutdown input. Check it with an ohmmeter.

Incidentally, if you don't have a schematic, you can still attempt to diagnose and repair your
shutdown problem. Start with the video processor IC, a huge chip that controls most of the
TV functions. Get the pinout from this web site, the ECG semiconductor replacement guide,
or data sheet archives on the Internet. Find the horizontal output and horizontal shutdown
pins, and attach oscilloscope probes to verify that you have a shutdown problem. If you do,
you will see horizontal pulses for a brief instant on power up, but suddenly disappearing as
the shutdown input voltage goes up and turns them off. (This is a latching circuit, so the
shutdown voltage will normally stay high until the power is turned off.)

the voltage back up where it belongs. But that raises all the other output voltages as well,
making them higher than they should be, including the one powering the high voltage supply!
And that will trip the shutdown circuit.

When replacing filter capacitors, be sure to use good ones rated for 105 (not 85) degrees C,
and able to withstand the high frequency pulses they are getting hammered by in these
circuits.

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Low or no high voltage
Most of these problems are due to faults in the horizontal deflection system -
shorted HOT, shorted windings or HV rectifiers in the flyback, defective
tripler, or other bad parts on the primary side of the flyback.
However, if you discover an inch layer of filth inside the TV, the HV could simply be
shorting out - clean it first.

In most cases, these sorts of faults will put an excessive load on the horizontal output circuits
so there may be excessive heating of the HOT or other components. You may hear an audible
arcing or sizzling sound from internal shorts in the flyback or tripler. Either of these may bet
hot, crack, bulge, or exhibit visible damage if left on with the fault present.

Most modern TVs do not regulate HV directly but rather set it via control of the low voltage
power supply to the HOT (B+), by snubber capacitors across the HOT, and the turns ratio of
the flyback. The HV is directly related to the B+ so if this is low, the HV will be low as well.
Faulty snubber capacitors will generally do the opposite - increase the HV and the X-ray
protection circuits may kick in. However, low HV is also a possibility. The only way the
turns ratio of the flyback can change is from a short which will manifest its presence in other
ways as well - excessive heating and load on the horizontal output circuits.

While a shorted second anode connection to the CRT is theoretically possible, this is quite
unlikely (except, as noted, due to dirt).

Excessive high voltage

Any significant increase in HV should cause the X-ray protection circuits to
kick in and either shut down the set or modify the deflection in such a way
as to render it harmless.
Symptoms include arcing/sparking of HV, smaller than normal picture, and under certain
scenarios, possible excessive brightness.

Causes of the HV being too high are:

1. Excess B+ voltage to the HOT. The likely cause is to a low voltage

regulator failure.
2. Open snubber capacitors across the HOT. These are under a lot of
stress and are located near hot components so failure is possible.
3. Incorrect excessively long scan drive to HOT caused by failure of
horizontal oscillator/sync circuits. However, other things like the HOT
will probably blow up first. The picture will definitely be messed up.
4. Failure of HV regulator (tube sets and a few solid state sets - actual
HV regulators are relatively uncommon today.) This may result in an
underscanned (smaller than normal) picture.

Snaps, crackles, and other HV breakdown

Various problems can result in occasional or sustained sparking or arcing
sounds from inside the monitor. Note that a static electricity buildup is
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common on the front of the screen. It is harmless and there iss nothing you
can do about it anyhow.
The following may result in occasional or sustained sounds not commonly associated with a
properly working TV or monitor. There may or may not be flashes or blanking of the screen
at the same time as the audible noise. See the same-named sections that follow for details.

 Arcing, sparking, or corona from CRT HV anode (red wire/suction

cup).
 Arcing at CRT sparkgaps.
 Arcing from flyback or vicinity.
 Arcing due to bad connections to or disconnected CRT return.
 Flashovers inside the CRT.

Arcing, sparking, or corona from CRT HV anode (red wire/suction cup)

Symptoms could include a sizzling corona or more likely, an occasional or
rapid series of sharp snaps - possibly quite loud and quite visible - from the
anode connection (at the suction cup) on the CRT to the grounded coating
on the outside of the CRT or a chassis ground point (or any other conductor
nearby). Corona is a high resistance leakage through the air without total
breakdown. The snapping is caused by the sudden and nearly complete
discharge of the CRT anode capacitance through a low resistance ionized
path similar to lightning.
There are two likely causes:

1. Dirt, dust, grime, around and under the suction cup on the CRT are
providing a discharge path. This may be more severe in humid
weather. Safely discharge the HV and then remove and thoroughly
clean the HV suction cup and the area under it and on the CRT for
several inches around the HV connection. Make sure there are no
loose wires or other possible places for the HV to discharge to in the
vicinity.
2. The high voltage has gone through the roof. Usually, the X-ray
protection circuitry should kick in but it can fail. If cleaning does not
help, this is a likely possibility. See the sections: "High voltage
shutdown due to X-ray protection circuits" and "Excessive high
voltage".

Arcing from flyback or vicinity

Arcing may be visible or audible and result in readily detectable levels of
ozone. Note that very slight traces of ozone may not indicate anything
significant but if the TV smells like an office copier, there is probably some
discharge taking place.
WARNING: It is possible for arcing to develop as a result of excessive high voltage.
Symptoms might be a smaller than normal excessively bright picture but this may not be able

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to be confirmed until the flyback is repaired or replaced. See the section: Excessive high
voltage.

 On the HV output, it will probably be a loud snapping sound (due to

the capacitance of the CRT) with associated blue/white sparks up to
an inch or more in length. If the arc length is short enough, this may
turn into a nearly continuous sizzling sound with yellow/orange arc
and melting/burning plastic.
 Prior to the HV rectifier, it will likely be a continuous sizzle with
orange/yellow/white arc and melting/burning plastic or circuit board
material.
 Internal arcing in the flyback may be audible and eventually result in
a bulging and/or cracked case (if some other component doesn't fail
first as this would take some time to develop).
 A corona discharge without actual sparks or a visible well defined arc
is also possible. This may be visible in a totally dark room, possibly
more likely when the humidity is high. A thorough cleaning to remove
all dust and grime may be all that is needed in this case.
 If the arc is coming from a specific point on the flyback - a crack or
pinhole - this may be patched well enough to confirm that the rest of
the TV is operational and a new flyback is worth the money.
Otherwise, there is no way of knowing if the arcing may have damaged
other circuitry until a replacement flyback - possibly money wasted -
arrives.

To attempt a repair, scrape off any dirt or carbon that is present along the path of the
arcing and its vicinity. Then, clean the area thoroughly with alcohol and dry
completely. Otherwise, the dirt and carbon will just act as a good conductor and the
arcing will continue under your repair! Several layers of plastic electrical tape may be
adequate for testing. Multiple coats of high voltage sealer or non-corroding RTV
silicone (if it smells like vinegar - acetic acid - as it cures, this may get in and affect
the windings) would be better if the objective is an actual repair. A thick layer of
Epoxy may be even better and affected less by possible HV corona. Either of these
may prove to be a permanent fix although starting the search for a source for a new
flyback would not hurt just in case. The arc most likely did damage the insulation
internally which may or may not be a problem in the future.

Procedure for repair of an arcing flyback

First I clean the afflicted area with Electromotive spray from Autozone. It's for cleaning
alternators. On Z-line I remove the focus control and wash with the alternator cleaner and a
tooth brush until all dirt and carbon deposits are removed. Then I take an xacto knife and
carve out the carbonized hole where the arcing broke through. Then take your soldering iron
and close the hole by melting adjacent plastic into it. (clean any solder off your iron with
solder-wick first). Then cut some plastic off of some other part off the flyback where it wont
be needed and use this to plastic weld (with your iron) a hump of a patch into and over the arc

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hole. Smooth and seal with iron. Next apply as thick a layer of silicone rubber as you can and
let dry overnight.

Arcing at spark gaps and gas discharge tubes on CRT neck board or elsewhere
These are protective devices intended to breakdown and divert excessive
voltage away from the CRT (usually).
This is rarely due to a defective sparkgap or gas discharge tube but rather is a safety
mechanism like a fuse designed to protect the internal electrodes of the CRT if the focus or
screen voltage should become excessive. The sparkgap breaks down first and prevents
internal arcing in the CRT. These sparkgaps may be built into the CRT socket as well.

Arcing at a sparkgap or a glowing or flashing discharge tube may be accompanied by total

loss of picture or bad focus, brightness or focus fluctuations, or any of a number of similar
symptoms. A common cause is a breakdown inside the focus divider (usually part of the
flyback or tripler) but could also be due to excessive uncontrolled high voltage due to a
failure of the B+ regulator or HOT snubber capacitor, or (ironically) even a short inside the
CRT.

 Spark gaps may be actual two or three pin devices with seemingly no
insides, part of the CRT socket, or printed on the circuit board itself.
 Gas discharge tubes look like small neon lamps (e.g., NE2) but could
be filled with some other gas mixture to provide a controlled higher
breakdown voltage.

Therefore, like a fuse, don't just replace or disable these devices, locate and correct
underlying problem. The CRT makes an expensive fuse!

Arcing due to bad connections to or disconnected CRT return

The Aquadag coating on the outside of the CRT is the negative plate of the
HV filter capacitor. If this is not solidly connected to the HV return, you will
have your 25 kV+ trying to go where it should not be. There should be a wire
solidly attached to the CRT neck board or chassis. Without this, voltage will
build up until it is able to take some other path - possibly resulting in
damage to sensitive solid state components in the process. Therefore, is is
important to rectify the situation.
Warning: If you find this disconnected, don't just attach it anywhere. You may instantly kill
ICs or other solid state components. It must be connected to the proper return point on the
CRT neck board or chassis.

Ozone smell and/or smoke from TV

Smoking is just as bad for TVs as for people and usually more quickly
terminal.
White acrid smoke may indicate a failed electrolytic capacitor in the power supply probably
in conjunction with a shorted rectifier. Needless to say, pull the plug at once.

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 Blooming or breathing problems
There are several symptoms that are basically similar:

 Blooming is defined as an expansion of the raster or horizontal

sections of the raster with bright material. For example, switching
between dark and light picture causes the size of the picture to
expand by 10%. A slight change in size is unavoidable but if it is
greater than 1 or 2 percent from a totally black image to a full white
one, this is either an indication of a defective TV or one that is badly
designed. The cause is poor low or high voltage regulation.

Check the B+ to the horizontal deflection. This is usually well regulated. If it is

varying in sympathy to the size changes, trace back to determine why the low voltage
regulator is not doing its job. The reason for the size change is that the high voltage is
dropping and reducing the stiffness of the electron beam.

 Expansion of the raster width in areas of bright imagery is an

indication of short term regulation problems. The video drive may be
interacting with the other power supplies. Check for ripple - this
would be at the vertical scan rate - in the various regulated power
supplies. The cause may be a dried up electrolytic capacitor - once
you locate the offending voltage, test or substitute capacitors in that
supply.

In both these cases, if this just started after some work was done to the TV, the brightness
limiter and/or video drive may simply be set so high that the TV cannot supply enough
current to the high voltage. If the brightness is acceptable with these turned down slightly and
still have acceptable brightness, then there may be nothing wrong.

 Breathing is defined as a periodic change in the size of the raster

which may be independent of what is displayed or its severity or
frequency may be related to the brightness or darkness of the image.
This is another type of regulation problem and may be caused by bad
electrolytic capacitors or other components in the low voltage power
supplies.

If the TV uses a switchmode power supply or low voltage regulator separate from the
horizontal deflection, first check its output(s) for a variation in voltage at the
breathing rate. Test with a light bulb or resistor load to confirm that the problem is
here and not the deflection or other subsystem of the TV.

 A condition with somewhat similar symptoms is bad focus - fuzzy

picture - but only with bright (high beam current) scenes. This could
be just a matter of adjusting the focus control but may also indicate
sub-optimal filament voltage due to bad connections or components in
the filament circuit, or a tired worn CRT. You won't get high beam

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 current without some serious spot blooming (a fat beam because too
much cathode area is used) and you will get cathode 'poisoning' after
prolonged use.

Visually inspect the neck of the CRT for the normal orange glow of the filaments and
check for bad connections and bad parts.

Erratic focus or screen (G2) voltage and/or controls on flyback

Symptoms may include fluctuating focus or brightness. In extreme cases,
the result may be a too bright or dark picture or other behavior caused by
breakdown in the Focus/Screen(G2) divider network.
Usually, this will require flyback replacement to repair reliably. Sometimes, the section with
the controls can be snapped apart and cleaned but this is not common.

First, just try rotating the screen (G2) control back and forth a few times. This may clean up
the contacts and eliminate the erratic behavior. Possibly, positioning it a bit to one side of the
original location will help. Then, use the individual or other master background/bias
adjustments to compensate for the improper brightness.

Focus/Screen divider bypass surgery

This is kludge number 41256 but may be the difference between a bit more
life and the dumpster.
If the previous extreme measures don't help, then it may be possible to simply substitute a
good divider network externally.

Note that if there is evidence of internal breakdown in the divider of the original flyback
(hissing, cracks, overheating, bulging case, etc.), this will not work unless you can disconnect
it from its HV connection.

There are two issues:

1. Is this a stable situation? Even if you provide an external substitute,

the parts inside the flyback may continue to deteriorate eventually
resulting in other more total failure of the flyback or worse.
2. If you provide an external focus/screen divider, it must be done is
such a manner (including proper mounting and super insulation)
such that it cannot be called into question should there be a fire
where the monitor is even the slightest bit suspect.

Various size external focus/screen divider networks can be purchased but whether this is truly
a cost effective solution is not obvious.

Decaying or erratic focus or screen (G2) voltages

The following applies to both CRT focus voltage (which should be a few kV)
and screen or G2 voltage (which should be several hundred V).

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"The screen voltage will come up to normal after sitting over night, 400 V or
so. After approximately 5 minutes or slightly longer, I hear a slight arcing.
From that point on, the screen voltage will wander anywhere from 75 V up
to maybe 150 V. Adjustment of the screen control on the flyback has only a
small effect and is not permanent. Removing the CRT pcb results in the
screen voltage returning to normal."
This is very likely a short between electrodes inside the CRT unless there is something on the
neck board that is breaking down as a result of some connection to the CRT. The flyback
should largely not know the difference with the socket plugged into the CRT. However, on
rare occasions, there is contamination within the 'plastic alignment base' on the end of the
CRT neck. (It is possible to *carefully* remove the plastic piece and clean the CRT
glass/pins. Reinstall the plastic piece if it is still intact or leave it off - just take care in
replacing the CRT neck board.)

One possibility is that glue used to hold components down on some circuit boards has
deteriorated and turned conductive. Check for tan to brown stuff shorting traces on the CRT
neck board. If this is present on the focus or screen traces or wires, it may just be your
problem. Scrape off all of the old glue and then clean thoroughly. Repair any damaged traces.

What happens to the HV? A HV breakdown possibly inside the CRT would result in all the
voltages being dragged down.

What happens to the picture?

If you connect a charged HV capacitor (guessing a couple hundred volts, a couple

microfarads) between G2 and G1 or focus, you **will** know if tapping the neck results in a
momentary short! I cannot predict whether this will be a temporary cure or permanent killer.
See the section: Rescuing a shorted CRT.

Here is another thing to try: put a 100 M ohm or so resistor between SCREEN and the CRT
socket. This should not affect the behavior much until the failure occurs. Then, check the
voltage on both sides with a high impedance voltmeter (1000 M). If the CRT is arcing, it will
be much lower on the CRT side and will probably fluctuate. You can play similar games with
focus voltage.

Disconnecting flyback wire(s) from CRT driver board

In some cases, there may be one or more separate wires running to directly
to the CRT socket. These are typically for focus which has a relatively high
voltage so better insulation is needed but there may be no obvious means of
removal should flyback replacement be needed.
One alternative is simply to cut the wire(s) in a location that is well away from any place to
short out, solder, and then do a most excellent job of insulating the splice. If there is more
than one wire, make sure to label them first if they aren't color coded.

However, you may find that the cap on the CRT socket snaps off using a thin knife blade or
screwdriver. The wire may be soldered or just pressed in place in such a way that pulling it
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out is difficult or impossible without removing the cover. If there is more than one wire, label
them before removal unless the locations are clearly marked. Sometimes the color is stamped
on the plastic but there may just be a designation like "A" and "B".

Raster, Color, and Video Problems

No color - black and white picture
This means absolutely no color - equivalent to a black and white picture.
Not even a hint of color.
First, confirm that the source is actually in color - try another channel or input device.

Next, check the settings of the color control - it may have accidentally been turned down. If
your TV has some kind of automatic picture mode, try turning if off and adjusting the color
control. Try adjusting fine tuning if you have such a control and the problem is with a
broadcast or cable transmission.

At this point with a confirmed color signal source, there is a problem with the chroma
circuitry.

Note that to the average person, the obvious question becomes: is my color picture tube bad?
The answer is a definitive NO. It is virtually impossible for a defective CRT to cause a total
loss of color. A defective CRT can cause a lack of a primary color - R, G, or, B or a short
between two colors which will mess up the color but is not likely to result in a black and
white picture.

Some possibilities in no particular order:

1. Weak signal or defect in tuner/IF causing loss of signal strength.

2. Coler killer set too high (internal control) if it has one.
3. Defective part around the chroma chip/circuit. Faulty color oscillator.
4. Bad connections in area of chroma chip/circuit.
5. Defective chroma chip (don't suspect this first just because it is
probably very expensive).

A service manual or Sams', DMM, and scope will help greatly in attempting to troubleshoot
this unless it is an obvious bad connection. Try prodding the main board around the chroma
chip with an insulated tool to see if you can make the color come and go.

I had one set where a $.02 resistor decided to open up causing just this problem - perfect BW
picture, no color. Another had a coil with a broken wire.

Saturated color but almost no brightness

This means you have lost the luminance input to the chroma decoder or
final video chip. A failure of the brightness limiter may result in similar
symptoms.
A few common causes are:
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  Check the service switch (if any). Its contacts may be dirty and moving
it back and forth a few times or using contact cleaner may be all that
is needed.
 Check for open high value resistors around the chroma decoder IC.
 Check for open high value resistors in the brightness limiter circuit.

With a scope and schematic (or even just a pinout for the chip), you should be able to trace
the luminance signal to see where it is getting lost.

I have had several TVs and monitors where the delay line in the luminance circuitry has
failed. Usually it's made out of glass, and inherently is fragile. Sometimes whacking the
monitor would make it come back, leading to the thought of connectoritis or a cold solder
joint -- where in fact it was the delay line (long rectangular unit with two to four leads).
Replacing the delay line was the solution, but to check it first it'd be a good idea to look for
'in' and 'out' on the line and short the pins. The picture may be shifted, colours may not line
up, but it'll tell you that it's the delay line if the picture comes back at all. It's better than
looking at a saturated picture with no luminance! :)

Brightness control has no effect

The following assumes that the picture is fine but the brightness is fixed -
probably at too high a level. However, there could be several interrelated
problems if a common supply voltage were missing, for example.
If it is a knob, then it should be varying the control grid (G1) voltages relative to the cathodes
(K) of the CRT. This is not likely to be a very complex circuit. If you do not have a
schematic, I would start by tracing from the control, check continuity and solder connections.
Check the control itself for proper operation with an ohmmeter. A power supply going to one
side of the control (negative probably) may be missing. Tbe control grid voltage will end up
on the little board on the neck of the CRT - check there as well for bad solder connections or
open resistors.

If brightness is a digital control, then you will need a schematic unless there is an obvious bad
connection.

One color is too weak or too strong

If the problem is slight and/or has gradually gotten worse, this may just
require an adjustment of the color brightness/background/bias and/or
color gain/drive controls inside the TV. See the section: Color balance
adjustment.
Note that if it is possible to obtain a good black and white picture with the user color control
set to its minimum, then this is not likely a problem with one of the primary color channels
(red, green, or blue) but with the chroma decoding circuitry. Or, perhaps, you are just
watching MTV!

Even if it appears as though there is an excess, this may actually be a reduction in one of the
primary colors. For example, a magenta tinge is represents a reduction in the strength of the
green signal.
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  Too high an intensity for one of the color channels will result in a tint
of one of the primaries: red, green or blue.
 Too low an intensity for one of the color channels will result in a tint
of the complement of one of the primaries: yellow, cyan, or magenta.
 Problems mainly in the shadows or dark areas of the picture usually
represent a fault with brightness/bias/background.
 Problems mainly in the highlights or bright areas of the picture
usually represent a fault with the gain/drive.

Once these have been eliminated, you are left with the following possibilities:

1. Defective part around the chroma chip/circuit. Misadjusted color

oscillator.
2. Bad connections or short circuit in area of chroma chip/circuit.
3. Defective chroma chip (don't suspect this first just because it is
probably very expensive).
4. Bad degauss circuit resulting in lack of degauss or abrupt termination
of degauss current rather than smooth tail off. The CRT is not being
properly demagnetized and color purity is totally messed up.
5. Bad CRT - the shadow mask has been damaged and it is impossible to
properly adjust purity No picture/dark picture/erratic picture

Where the picture is erratic - coming and going entirely or changing brightness suddenly,
with power off, remove the picture tube socket (carefully!) and clean the pins with fine
sandpaper and use contact cleaner on the socket. This source of bad connections can result in
a variety of erratic symptoms. Check for bad solder connections on the CRT neck board.

TV and monitor manufacturing quality and cold solder joints

Any intermittent problems with monitors that cause random sudden
changes in the picture brightness, color, size, or position are often a result
of bad connections. Strategically placed bad connections can also cause
parts to blow. For example, a bad connection to the SCR anode in a phase
controlled power supply can result in all the current passing through the
startup resistor, blowing it as well as other components. I had a TV like this
- the real problem was a bad solder joint at a pin on the flyback. Thus,
erratic problems, especially where they are power or deflection related,
should not be ignored!

Why can't TV manufacturers learn to solder properly?

I can think of several potential reasons - all solvable but at higher
manufacturing cost.

1. Mass of large component leads (like shields) does not get adequately
heated during manufacture leading to latent cold solder joints. While
they may look ok, the solder never actually 'wetted' the heavy pins and
therefore did not form a good mechanical or electrical bond.
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 2. Thermal cycles and differential thermal coefficients of circuit boards,
traces, and solder. While it is not easy to do anything about the
material properties, using plated through-holes or a similar
mechanical via would greatly increase the surface area of the joint and
prevent the formation of cracks.
3. Vibration. This is also directly related to the single sided circuit
boards without plated through-holes to strengthen the joints.
4. Lack of adquate mechanical support (single sided circuit boards
without plated through-holes (vias).

I believe that the single most significantimprovement would come about by using plated
trhough-holes but this would add to the cost and apparently the consumer is not willing to pay
more for better quality and reliability! Some designs have used rivlets - mechanical vias
instead of plated ones. While this is good in principle, the execution has often been flawed
where cold solder joints resulted between the rivlets and the circuit board traces due to lack of
adequate process control.

The Sony and RCA/GE tuner shield problem is interesting because this could have been
solved years ago at essentially no additional cost as other manufacturers - and their own
repair procedures - have proven.

Intermittent or missing colors

This is a catch-all for some of the most common TV and monitor problems.
Note that due to the additive color scheme used in all emissive color displays like CRT or flat
panel TV sets and video monitors, a single missing primary color (red, green, or blue) will
result in the following appearance (for a white screen):

Missing Color Appearance

------------------------------------------------
Red Cyan (blue-green)
Green Magenta (reddish-purple)
Blue Yellow
Which color is affected may be even more obvious if the set has a color on-screen display for
which you recall the proper colors.

 If gently whacking the set can make the color(s) come and go
suddenly, then bad connections are probable. The most likely place
for these are solder pads on the little circuit board on the neck of the
CRT or even dirty CRT socket pins that are not making solid contact.
Try prodding the CRT neck board with an insulated stick to see if you
can affect the colors.

Although not impossible, this is not likely to be a CRT problem.

 If the color fades in and out with a delay of about 10-15 seconds, it is
probably intermittent power to the CRT filament for that color and
probably means a bad CRT since the three filaments are wired in
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 parallel inside the CRT. One of the internal connections has come
loose.

Look in the neck of the CRT to make sure all three filaments are glowing orange. If
one is out or goes on and off, toss the set. Replacing the CRT is probably not worth it.
However, if they all go on and off together (all colors would be fading in and out
though perhaps not quite in unison), then bad connections for the CRT filaments on
the CRT neck board are indicated.

To narrow down the problem:

 Locate the output for the bad color on the video driver board on the
neck of the CRT. This will probably read a significantly higher voltage
than the corresponding pins for the good colors. A circuit problem is
likely - probably on this board.
 Test components on this board for the good and bad color channels. A
shorted transistor or open resistor can kill one channel. Swap parts
between good and bad colors to confirm.
 Gently pull the CRT neck board off of the CRT and replace it. This will
tend to clean the contacts.
 Connect an output of the video/chroma circuit/chip that is working
(i.e., a color that appears on the screen) to *all* three color drivers on
the CRT neck board.
o If you now get a more-or-less black and white picture (there may
be a moderate color tint as the relative intensities of R,G,B may
not be balanced), the problem is likely with the chroma decoder
or its support circuitry.

Note: the picture will be the intensity of only one color channel so it will not
be quite *normal* in any case.

o If you still have missing or messed up colors, the problem is on

the CRT neck board or with the CRT.

Retrace lines in picture

During the time the electron beam is returning from right to left at the end
of a line and bottom to top (over the course of multiple lines), it is supposed
to be result in no visible light on the screen. However, a number of faults
can result in visible retrace lines.
The appearance will likely be a general reduction in contrast from the visible horizontal
retrace on every scan line and two dozen or so diagonal lines lines (lower left to upper right)
resulting from the vertical retrace.

The retrace lines may be either white or gray (possibly with a slight color tint due to unequal
settings of the color adjustments) or a primary color - red, green, or blue. Anything in
between is also possible but less likely.
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 White/gray retrace lines
Where all colors are involved - the lines are essentially white or gray (or with
a slight tint due to slight unequal settings of the color adjustments), look for
something common like an incorrectly adjusted screen (G2) or master
brightness/background/bias control or a problem in one of these circuits, a
defective power supply or a problem in the blanking circuitry:

 Screen (G2) or master brightness/background/bias control - mark

setting and then see if a slight adjustment removes the retrace lines.
See the chapter: "TV Adjustments". Of course, if this happened
suddenly, the problem is not due to a misadjusted control though a
dirty pot is possible - turn it back and forth - this might clean it and
restore normal operation.
 Power supply or connection to CRT neck board - insufficient voltage
will result in the CRT never totally blanking. Check (usually scan
derived) power supply components (from flyback).
 General power supply - check B+ for correct value and ripple. A main
power supply fault might result in these symptoms (and usually many
others).
 Blanking circuit - this may be a part of the video/chroma chip or
separate. Check waveforms to determine if the blanking pulses are
making it to the video output.

Red, green, or blue retrace lines

Where only one color is showing, suspect an incorrectly adjusted individual
background/bias control or bad part on the CRT neck board for that color.
There is a slight possibility that a bad CRT may result in visible retrace lines. To eliminate
this possibility:

 Disconnect the filament - all evidence of a picture, raster, and retrace

lines should disappear once the filaments/cathodes have cooled (15
seconds or so. If there are still visible retrace lines, the CRT is
suffering from cold or field emission from someplace (may not even be
the cathode).
 Turn down the screen (G2) control on the flyback (usually). If one color
remains no matter how you set the control, again there is some kind
of weird emission from the CRT. However, if white/gray retrace lines
remain, the problem may be in the screen supply.

The TV which I bought last started developing retrace lines after a month or so of use. I took
it back to the lab for warranty (special deal) and had it examined by the real experts. They
found that even with the filament supply disconnected and VG2 at 0V the screen would still
light up. They could even see that the electrons weren't even coming from the cathode. That
was with only the picture tube in a test rig. So in this case the obvious conclusion had to be
that the tube was bad, and it was replaced (32" 16:9 SF, very $$). It had something to do with
processing problems during manufacturing of the electron guns.
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So even if this was a rare case, it *can* happen that retrace lines are due to a bad picture tube.
It's more usual to suspect the VG2 (screen voltage) or a defect somewhere in the RGB video
path.

Providing isolation for a CRT H-K short

This procedure will substitute a winding of your own for the one that is built
in to the flyback to isolate the shorted filament from the ground or voltage
reference. Note that if you have a schematic and can determine where to
disconnect the ground or voltage reference connection to the filament
winding, try this instead.
The flyback is the thing with the fat red wire coming out of it (and perhaps a couple of others
going to the CRT board or it is near this component if your set has a separate tripler) and may
have a couple of controls for focus and screen. It should have some exposed parts with a
ferrite core about 1/2-3/4" diameter.

The filament of the CRT is the internal heater for each gun - it is what glows orange when the
set is on. What has happened is that a part of the fine wire of the bad color's filament
(assuming this is indeed your problem) has shorted to the cathode - the part that actually
emits the electrons. Normally, the heater circuit is grounded or tied to a reference voltage so
when it shorts to the cathode, the cathode voltage level is pulled to ground or this reference.

You will need some well insulated wire, fairly thick (say #18-22). Find a spot on the flyback
where you can stick this around the core. Wrap two turns around the core and solder to the
CRT filament pins after cutting the connections to the original filament source (scribe the
traces on the board to break them). Make sure you do not accidentally disconnect anything
else.

This winding should cause the filaments to glow about the same brightness as before but now
isolated from ground. If they are too dim, put another turn on the flyback to boost the voltage
as this will result in low emission, blooming, and possible damage to the cathodes after
awhile. (Don't go overboard as you may blow the filament totally if you put too many turns
on the core - you then toss the TV.)

Rescuing a shorted CRT

If the short is filament-cathode (H-K), you don't want to use the following
approach since you may blow out the filament in the process. If this is the
case, you may be able to float the filament and live with the short (see the
section on: "Red, green, or blue full on - fog over picture".
Shorts in the CRT that are between directly accessible electrodes can be dealt with in a more
direct way than for H-K shorts. At this point you have nothing to loose. A shorted CRT is not
real useful.

If the fault is intermittent, you will, of course, need to catch the CRT with the socket
disconnected and the short still present. Try some gentle tapping if necessary. If you do this
with the charged capacitor across the suspect electrode, you **will** know when the short
occurs!
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Also see the section: High voltage to focus short.

Picture tube replacement

It is possible to replace the picture tube. However, this is likely to be both
expensive and possibly time consuming with respect to adjustments like
purity and convergence. When replacing:

 Discharge both the old and new tubes before you start to be sure you
won't have any unpleasant surprises.
 Take extreme care when handling - at the very least, a slip can result
in a broken neck and a bad and expensive day.

"The 25VCXP22 picture tube of my RCA Accutouch XL-100 CCU-942 TV

start fading. Its 100% transistorized, everything still works perfectly after
about 20 years service. But:

 Can I still buy new RCA 25VCXP22 picture tube? What is the
approximate cost?
 Any equivalent tube for direct replacement? Cost?
 If no replacement picture tube is available, what is other option?"

(From: Chris Jardine ([email protected]).)

The important thing here is that the tube begins with 25V. If it does it should work in your
set. The only thing you have to know is whether the tube has 'ears' attached permanently. The
25V comes both with and without these mounting ears permanently attached. I know that you
can still get one of these from any of a number of suppliers. I know that Channel Master and
RCA (Thomson, whatever!) still make them available as well as any of a number of local
CRT rebuilders.

High voltage to focus short

Symptoms would be (with the unit powered and high voltage present):

 With the CRT neck board plugged into the CRT, the focus spark gap is
likely arcing.
 With the socket unplugged, putting anything connected to ground (or
any other circuitry) near the focus pin would result in a juicy spark or
arc. WARNING: Removing the CRT socket and powering the set may
destroy the CRT on some models. See the section: Warning about
disconnecting CRT neck board.

If the CRT is gassy or up to air, forget it - it might make a decent fish tank :-). In this case,
there would be visible arcing INSIDE the CRT probably not confined to a single location.

However, if there is just a metal whisker between the F and HV, that might be able to be
cleared by careful tapping or a charged capacitor. You may even be able to see it if you were

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to remove the yoke - the gap is pretty large, about 1-2 mm - the last gap between electrodes
before the start of the internal (Dag) coating.

See the section: Rescuing a shorted CRT.

Note that other damage may have been done as

Other components including the flyback, HOT, and parts on the CRT neck board and beyond,
may have been damaged as a result of the short. Zapping the CRT may be just the beginning
of what is required to repair it all.

Dark picture
A TV or monitor with a picture that is too dark may have a fault or the CRT
may just be near the end of its useful life.
First, confirm that your video source - computer, camera, etc. - is producing a proper signal.

Is the brightness at all erratic? Does whacking the monitor have any effect? If so, then you
may have bad connections on the CRT driver card or elsewhere. If the brightness tends to
fade in and out over a 10 to 20 second period, a bad filament connection is likely. Check for
the normal orange glow of the filaments in the neck of the CRT. There should be 3 orange
glows. If they are excessively reddish, very dim, or fade in and out, you have located a
problem. See the section: Picture fades in and out.

Common causes of brightness problems:

1. Dirty CRT faceplate or safety glass. Don't laugh. It sounds obvious,

but have you tried cleaning the screen with suitable screen cleaner? It
is amazing how dirty screens can get after a few years - especially
around smokers!

Wipe gently with a slightly dampened cloth - not soaking or you may end up with real
problems when the water drips down inside and hits the electronics! On TVs with a
separate protective faceplate, clean both the front and rear surfaces of this plate as
well as the CRT itself.

2. Old CRT. The brightness of the CRT deteriorates with on-time. It does
not matter much how bright your run your TV. An indication of a
weak CRT would be that turning up the SCREEN (G2) or master
brightness control only results in a not terribly bright gray raster
before the retrace lines show up. There may be indications of poor
focus and silvery highlights as well. A CRT brightener may help. See
the section: Brightening an old CRT.

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 3. Bad component in filament circuit or bad connection reducing
filament voltage. This should be easy to check - there are only a few
parts involved. If it is erratic, bad connections are likely.
4. Brightness control faulty - bad pot, bad connections, or problem with
its power supply. Depending on specific problem, control may or may
not have any effect. If digitally adjusted, there could be a problem with
the logic or control chip. If the button or menu item has no effect at
all, then a logic or control problem is likely.
5. Improperly set SCREEN (G2) voltage (usually on flyback) or faulty
divider network. See the section: Adjustment of the internal SCREEN
and color controls.
6. Improperly set video bias (background) levels or fault in video drive
circuitry. See the sections starting with: "Optimal procedure for
setting brightness/background and screen adjustments".
7. Fault in video amplifiers. With all three color affected equally, this
would most likely be a power supply problem. A video amplifier
problem is likely if turning up the SCREEN (G2) or master brightenss
control results in a very bright raster before the retrace lines appear.
Cheack signals out of the video/chroma(IC.
8. Fault in beam or brightness limiter. Many TVs and monitors measure
the beam current (possibly indirectly) and limit the maximum to a safe
value. The purpose of this may be to protect the CRT phosphors,
and/or to assure that the power supply does not go out of regulation,
and/or to limit X-ray emission. If this circuit screws up, a dark
picture may result. Checking the signals and voltages at the CRT
socket should determine if this is the problem.
9. High voltage is low. However, this would likely result in other
symptoms as well with focus, size, and geometry.

Brightening an old CRT

If performing adjustments of the internal background and/or screen
controls still results in a dark picture even after a long warmup period, the
CRT may simply be near the end of its useful life. In the old days of TVs with
short lived CRTs, the CRT brightener was a common item (sold in every
corner drugstore, it seemed!).
You can try a similar approach. Caution: this may shorten the life of the CRT - possibly quite
dramatically (like it will blow in a couple of seconds or minutes). However, if the monitor or
TV is otherwise destined for the scrap heap, it is worth a try.

The approach is simple: you are going to increase the voltage to the filaments of the electron
guns making them run hotter. Hopefully, just hotter enough to increase the brightness without
blowing them out.

Voltage for the CRT filament is usually obtained from a couple of turns on the flyback
transformer. It is usually easy to add an extra turn or two which will increase the voltage and
thus the current making the filaments run hotter. This will also shorten the CRT life - perhaps
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rather drastically. However, if the TV or monitor was headed for the dumpster anyhow, you
have nothing to lose.

Picture tube brightener

Try a CRT brightener from MCM Electronics about $20. It boosts the filament voltage a volt
or two. I have used them before and they help. You can also try running a power supply on
the filament with the monitor OFF. Set the supply at the filament voltage and slowly bring
the voltage up. If the filament is 6.3 volt bring it up gradually to 10 -12 volts for about a half
hour. This will brighten it up some. Be careful because too much voltage can open the
filament !

Before doing this did you check the screen voltage setting and the RGB settings for drive and
background ?

There are also commercial CRT rejuvenators that supposedly zap the cathodes of the electron
guns. A TV repair shop may be able to provide this service, though it is, at best, a short term
fix.

More drastic measures to brighten CRT

As a start, I crank the brightness control all of the way up. I then turn the color control all of
the way up. I let the set run with a bright screen for around 15 min. This procedure cleans up
the cathode surfaces so that they can emit more electrons. Now turn the controls back to
normal and see if any improvement took place. If not, Wrap 2 or 3 turns of around 18 gauge
insulated wire around the flyback and add this extra power in series with existing filament
leads from flyback. You can experiment with the number of turns etc. to get brighter
filaments. do not run the filaments white - just a brightened yellow. This will probably turn
out to be around 8-9v in most cases. I had to do this on two different Sanyo replacement
flybacks as they had low filament voltage from the factory. (flakey replacement parts). I`ve
been running one of these Sanyos for around 4 years now with a nice bright picture (13")

Left portion of screen is dark or faded

"I've got an old TV where the left 1/3 of the screen is 'faded'. It is especially
noticable when a dark picture is showing (like a night time scene)."
This is normally caused by a bad filter capacitor on the power supply line (typically 200 V)
that feeds the RGB output transistors. It is usually a scan derived voltage off of the flyback.
Look for an electrolytic capacitor of around 4.7 to 10 uF, 160 to 250 V fed from a rectifier
diode on this supply.

Color balance changes across screen from left to right

The characteristics are that a solid white screen will tend to be blue tinted
on one side and red tinted on the other. This is usually a subtle effect and
may be unavoidable with some designs.
There are several possibilities:

1. Purity - this means the beams are landing on the wrong phosphor
dots. This is what would be affected by moving from one location to
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 another or even rotating the TV on its base without degaussing. If the
problem just appeared, degaussing may be needed.

What do you have near the TV or monitor? Loudspeakers or other devices which
generate magnetic fields can easily cause all sorts of color purity problems. Relocate
the offending device(s) or the TV or monitor and then degauss it.

See the section: Degaussing (demagnetizing) a CRT.

If the problem still persists, purity adjustment may be needed. However, this isn't
likely to have changed so look for other causes before tackling these adjustments.

2. Unequal electron gun to shadowmask/screen distance - the electron

beams for the red and blue video travel slightly different distances on
the left and right sides of the screen so their intensity (due to focus
not being optimal and other factors) in each case may differ slightly
affecting color balance.
3. Doming - This would only happen in very bright areas and causes the
shadow mask to expand and distort. (Doming should not be a problem
with Trinitron CRTs which use tensioned wires in their aperture grill.)
This would also not really affect left-right color balance in particular.

I don't really know how much of a problem (2) is in practice or whether some manufacturers
compensate for it.

Bleeding highlights
On very bright areas of the picture, one or more colors may bleed to the
right resulting in a trail of those colors. The difference between this problem
and the section: Trailing lines in one or more colors is that in this case, only
highlights are affected.
One cause of this is that the color gain, contrast, or intensity controls (whatever they are
called on your set) are set too high. See the section on: "Color balance adjustment". Check
the settings of any brightness limiter controls as well.

Trailing lines in one or more colors

Assuming this is not a form of ghosting resulting from poor reception
conditions, then it could be any of the following:

 Poor decoupling in the power supplies for the video drive circuits -
probably on the CRT neck board. Check for bad (low uF or high ESR)
filter capacitors (electrolytic mostly) on this board or the power
supplies feeding it.
 Insufficient CRT filament voltage. This could be a result of bad
connections or a bad component in the filament power supply
(probably from the flyback). Check to see if the filaments are glowing
bright orange and check the voltage if possible (though this can be
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 tricky since it is often fed from a winding on the flyback and is a pulse
waveform, not DC or a sinusoid. The service manual (or Sams'
Photofact) will probably have info and waveforms.
 Bad CRT (more likely if only one color is affected). A weak electron gun
can result in this behavior. Swap it with one that work properly. If the
same color is still bad, that CRT gun is weak. The CRT will need
rejuvenation or need to be replaced (more likely, the entire TV will be
tossed into the dumpster).

One simple test would be to swap two of the color outputs to the CRT pins. If the behavior
moves with the swap (i.e., from red to blue), then it is likely an electronic problem. If it is still
the same colors, it is probably the CRT.

Brightness changes from left-to-right across screen

Slight variations in brightness across the face of the CRT are not unusual.
In fact, if you used a photometer to actually measure the brightness, you
might be amazed at the actual variance even with the best monitor or TV -
you just don't notice it. However, a major variation - usually a decay from
left to right but could be the other way indicate a component failure. Of
course, make sure the face of the screen is clean!

 A fault in the power supplies to the video amplifier and/or video

output circuits. Most likely, an electrolytic capacitor has dried up and
is not adequately filtering the power derived from the flyback which
then has ripple at the horizontal scan rate and thus locked to the
screen. The voltage decays from left-to-right between horizontal
flyback pulses.

The most likely location for these capacitors is in the vicinity of the flyback
transformer on the mainboard or on the CRT neck board. Check the capacitors with
capacitor tester or ESR meter and/or take a look at the power right at the video
amplifier and video output drivers.

 Horizontal linearity is bad - this may actually be a horizontal geometry

problem and not a brightness problem.

See if objects on left side of the screen are stretched compared to those on the right
(or vice-versa). If they are, the problem is in the horizontal deflection circuits -
possibly a bad S correction capacitor or linearity coil.

 Inoperative degauss circuit, TV moved or rotated without degaussing,

or magnetic field from some other device (like a permanent magnet) is
affecting CRT - slight amounts of magnetization may reduce
brightness (by moving the beams into the black space between
phosphor dots) before affecting color purity (where the beams land on
the wrong phosphor dots).

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 Try deguassing manually. See the section: Degaussing (demagnetizing) a CRT.

Picture fades in and out

If the picture faded away on the order of 10-20 seconds (and if it comes
back, also comes up to full brightness in same time frame - possibly with
the persuasion of some careful whacking) AND with NO other significant
changes such as size, focus, etc., then take a look in the back of the tube for
the filament to be lit - the orange glow near the CRT socket. If there is none,
then you probably have a bad solder connection on the circuit board on the
neck of the CRT. Look for fine cracks around pins on that board. Try
prodding it with an insulating stick to see if the picture comes back.
Resolder if necessary. Dirty or corroded CRT pins/socket contacts can also
do this - remove, inspect, clean, and replace the neck board. It is probably
not a bad CRT as the filaments are usually wired in parallel and all would
not likely go bad at the same time.
However, if only a single color fades in and out, then a bad connection inside the CRT is a
distinct possibility - look for only one of the filament's glow to be coming and going. This is
probably not worth fixing.

If the picture faded away with other symptoms, then there is probably a fault in the video
amplifier/output one of its power supplies - still probably a loose connection if you are able to
get it back by whacking.

Occasional brightness flashes

These may last only a fraction of a scan line or much much longer.
This could mean an intermittent fault in a variety of places including the video circuitry and
SCREEN power supply:

 Brightness circuitry - SCREEN, master background or its power

supply. Could be in or around flyback or focus/screen divider. Could
perhaps be in the CRT, but probably less likely.
 Video amp before or at chroma demodulator - since after this point,
you would most likely get colored flashes since only one of the RGB
signals would likely be effected.

If you get it from all sources, then tuner/IF is ruled out.

Suppose you just have no signal to a direct video input. What do you get? If you still get
flashes, it should be real easy to monitor either the video outputs or SCREEN supply (with a
HV divider on your scope) for noise. Then trace back to power or noise source.

Bad focus (fuzzy picture)

Focus voltage on the CRT is usually in the range of 2-8 kV DC and should
be controllable over a fairly wide range by the focus pot - usually located on
the flyback or a little panel in its vicinity:
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  If adjusting the pot results in a position of acceptable focus, you may
be done. It is not unusual for the focus setting to drift a over time.
 If the setting is already as good as possible but not really good
enough, the CRT may be tired. Alternatively, the filament voltage may
be too low. Check for bad connections in the filament circuit.
 If the optimal setting is out of range of the focus pot, the problem is
likely leakage in the focus divider in the flyback or one of the
components on the CRT neck board.

Also see the sections: "Focus adjustment" and "Focus drifts with warmup".

The focus wire usually comes from the flyback or if the general area or from a terminal on a
voltage multiplier module in some cases. It is usually a wire by itself going to the little board
on the neck of the CRT.

If a sparkgap (a little 2 terminal device with a 1/8" gap in the middle) is arcing with power
on, then the resistive divider has shorted inside the flyback, focus board, or HV multiplier -
whatever you TV has - and the this unit will need to be replaced. Ditto if the SCREEN
control affects focus and/or vice-versa.

Using a suitable high voltage meter (range at least 10 kVDC, 1000 M ohm or greater input
impedance), you should be able to measure it connected and disconnected. The ground return
will be the outside coating of the CRT which may or may not be the same as the metal
chassis parts. If the voltage is very low (less than 2 kV) or too high and the pot has little
effect:

 When measured right off of the source disconnected from the CRT
neck board, then the problem is probably in the focus network in the
flyback (or wherever it originates). Sometimes these can be
disassembled and cleaned or repaired but usually requires
replacement of the entire flyback or voltage multiplier. Note: you may
need to add a HV (10 kV) capacitor between the focus wire and DAG
ground to provide filtering so you get a DC level for your meter.
 When measured with the focus wire attached to the CRT neck board
with the CRT connected but reasonable with the CRT unplugged,
there is probably a short between the focus and another electrode
inside the CRT. See the section: Rescuing a shorted CRT.
 When measured with the focus wire attached to the CRT neck board
with the CRT unplugged, there is likely a component on the CRT neck
board that is leaky or breaking down. Also, check for decayed (tan or
brown) glue which may turn leaky with age.

Focus drift with warmup

This could be due to a problem with the focus voltage power supply,
components on the CRT neck board, or a tired worn CRT.

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Focus is controlled by a voltage of 2-8 kV DC usually derived from the flyback transformer
and includes some resistors and capacitors. One of these could be changing value as it warms
up. (assuming nothing else changes significantly as the unit warms up - e.g., the brightness
does not decrease.)

Focus voltage is derived from a subset of the high voltage winding on the flyback using a
resistive voltage divider which includes the focus pot. These are extremely high value
resistors - 200 M ohm is common - and so leakage of any kind can reduce or increase the
focus voltage. All other things being ok - i.e., the picture is otherwise fine - I would suspect
this type of failure rather than the CRT.

The connection to the CRT is usually a separate wire running from the flyback or its
neighborhood to the CRT neck board. Look for components in this general area. Use cold
spray or a heat gun to isolate the one that is drifting. If you have access to a high voltage
meter, you should be able to see the voltage change as the TV or monitor warms up - and
when you cool the faulty part. If it is in the flyback, then sometimes the part with the
adjustments clips off and can be repaired or cleaned. Most often, you will need to replace the
flyback as a unit.

 If the optimal adjustment point of the focus control doesn't change

that much but the best focus is simply not as good as it should be,
the CRT is probably the problem. However, if the optimal point
produces acceptable focus but it changes (and possibly moves off of
one end of the adjustment knob range) as the unit warms up, the
flyback or one of the components on the CRT neck board are likely
drifting.
 If you have a high voltage meter, you can measure the focus voltage to
determine if it is being changed by the focus pot and if it is in the ball
park (2-8 kV typical). Sometimes, the part of the flyback with the
focus pot can be snapped off and cleaned or parts replaced but
usually you need to replace the whole unit. There may a capacitor or
two on the PCB on the neck of the CRT that could have increased
leakage as well thus reducing the focus voltage.
 To determine if the CRT is the problem, for sharp focus after the unit
has warmed up. Power-off for an hour or so and carefully pull the CRT
neck board off of the CRT. Then, power up the unit. Let it run long
enough such that there would have been a detectable focus drift. Now,
power-down, plug the CRT neck board back in, and power-up. Watch
the image as it appears on the screen:
o If the focus starts out fuzzy and sharpens up as the image
appears and gradually becomes sharper as the CRT warms up
the CRT is likely tired.

The only catch here is that plugging the CRT neck board into the CRT results
in an additional load on the flyback due to the picture beam current which
heats it more as well. Thus, if the problem takes a few minutes to appear, keep

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 the brightness turned down except to check the appearance of the picture from
time to time.

You can set the focus control for optimum when warmed up and just turn the
TV on in well in advance of your favorite shows or add a user focus
adjustment by drilling a hole in the plastic case for an *insulated* screwdriver
or flyback focus knob extender :-). The CRT may continue to function for
quite a while so this is not impending doom.

o If the focus is relatively stable as the image appears and

increases in brightness *and* is about as sharp as it would be
with the TV warmed up, the problem is most likely in the
flyback. However, also check for bad components or decayed
(tan or brown) glue on the CRT neck board. A drifting flyback
will need to be replaced as it will probably get worse and fail
completely. Clean the surface of the circuit board and CRT
socket in the vicinity of the focus and screen terminals and
traces. Contamination or just dirt and grime can easily cause
problems especially on humid days since the resistance of these
circuits is extremely high (100s of M ohms).
o If the focus is relatively stable as the image appears and
increases in brightness *and* is similar to what it would be with
the monitor cold, you have a very strange situation where some
load on the high voltage power supply, perhaps, is causing a
thermal problem. This would be rare.

Bad focus and adjustment changes brightness

This is the classic symptom of a short between the focus and screen
supplies - probably in focus/screen divider which is part of the flyback or
tripler. If you have a high voltage meter, measuring the focus voltage will
show that (1) it is low and (2) it is affected by the SCREEN control Similarly,
the SCREEN voltage will be affected by the FOCUS control (which is what is
changing the brightness.

Blank picture, good channel tuning and sound

Since the tuner and sound are ok, horizontal deflection which usually
generates power for most of the set is also working.
Does 'blank picture' means a totally black screen with the brightness and contrast controls
having no effect whatsoever? Or, is there is no picture but there is a raster - scan lines on the
screen? The direction in which troubleshooting should proceed differ significantly depending
the answer.

Here are some questions:

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 1. As above, is there any light on the screen at any settings of the
brightness and contrast controls, and/or when switching channels?
Can you see any raster scanning lines?
2. Can you hear the high pitched (15735 Hz) of the horizontal deflection?
3. Looking in the back of the set, can you see the glow of the CRT
filament?
4. Do you get that static on the front of the tube that would indicate that
there is high voltage? Any cracking or other normal or abnormal
sounds or smells?

Possible causes of no raster:

 No or low high voltage (low voltage, deflection, or high voltage power

supply failure).
 Fault with other voltages like G1 or screen (G2) to CRT.
 Filament to CRT not getting powered.
 Drive to CRT bad/shut off as a result of fault elsewhere. For example,
failure of the vertical deflection may disable HV or blank the screem to
protect the CRT from burn-in due to the very bright horizontal line
that would result. With some sets, it is possible that the X-ray
protection circuitry will blank the screen without affecting tuning or
audio.

Color TV only displays one color

I assume that now you have no other colors at all - no picture and no raster.
Let us say it is red - R.
It is probably not the CRT. Do you have a scope? Check for the R, G, and B video signals at
the CRT. You will probably find no signals for the defective colors.

This is almost certainly a chroma circuit problem as any failure of the CRT or a video driver
would cause it to lose a single color - the other two would be ok. Therefore, it is probably
NOT the CRT or a driver on the little board on the neck of the CRT.

Try turning up the SCREEN control to see if you can get a G and B raster just to confirm that
the CRT is ok.

Locate the video drive from the mainboard for the good and a bad color. Interchange them
and see if the problem moves. If so, then there is a video signal problem. If not, it is on the
little CRT board.

It could be a defective chroma IC or something else in the chroma decoder.

Disappearing Red (or other color)

Problem: I have been given an old colour TV. The reception is good, but very
often, when the contrast and brightness of the TV image is low (e.g. when a

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night scene is shown), the red colour slowly disappears, leaving behind the
green and blue image and many red lines.
The remaining red retrace are the giveaway that this is most likely not a CRT problem.

(If there were no red lines, it could be the filament for the red gun of the CRT going on and
off due to a bad connection inside the CRT - bad news.)

How is a black and white picture? (Turn down the color control).

If B/W picture is good, then the problem is somewhere back in the chroma decoder circuitry.

Check the video input to the CRT video driver board and signals on that board. If B/W
picture is also bad, then you can compare red and green signals to determine where they are
becoming different. The red lines in your description sounds like the red video output circuit
is drifting and messing up the background level, blanking, screen, or other setting. Could be a
capacitor or other component.

Vertical brightness or color bars

These are typically more or less equally spaced possibly more evident at the
left side of the screen. They result only in brightness or color variations, not
deflection speed. Diagonal lines are straight and not squiggly.
Note that the appearance of these bars differs from those caused by ringing in the deflection
circuits where diagonal lines will show a squiggling stair-step appearance.

The most likely cause is a dried up electrolytic capacitor in the scan derived power supply for
the video or chroma circuits or video output. Check for this ripple with a scope or test/replace
any suspect capacitors.

Tuner, AGC, and Sync Problems

No reception from antenna or cable
Make sure your source is providing a signal and that the cable connectors
are good (center pin not broken or bent). Try another TV if possible.
Make sure you source select switch or mode is set correctly. Someone may have accidentally
set it to direct video or AUX input.

Are all bands affected? If so, the tuner or IF is faulty. If there is a lot of snow, then it is
probably toward the front (circuitry wise) of the tuner. If it is just a black screen, then it could
be in the IF or video amplifier.

If only certain bands are bad - channels 2-6 for example, then certain parts of the tuner
circuitry are faulty. However, make sure the CATV mode is set correctly as this affects
reception on a band-by-band basis.

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The problems may be due to bad solder connections of the tuner shields, connectors, coils,
and other components. Try prodding the tuner to see if you can make the problem come and
go or at least change.

Picture is overloaded, washed out, or noisy

This indicates an Automatic Gain Control (AGC) problem often caused by a
dried up capacitor. You will probably need a schematic to go much further.
This could be a problem in the tuner, IF, or video amplifiers.
The following assumes you are sure the signal source is strong - try a VCR or other local one
(channel 3/4, not the RCA jacks).

(From: Glenn Watkins ([email protected]).) Substitute a variable voltage source for

the tuner's AGC voltage. Most of the time the range of AGC is from 1 to 7 volts. If you can
get a decent snow free picture with an external AGC source, then the tuner is probably OK.

Jumping picture on white scenes

This could be an AGC problem if the picture appears overloaded. However, if
the picture is normal except unstable, the sync separate is the place to look:
White screens are a worst case video pattern for sync separators, and will cause an erratic
shift in the vertical multivibrator trigger level unless the horizontal and video information is
filtered out [integrated] prior to driving the vertical sync input of the processor IC.

This will show up with a scope as high frequency noise going into the vertical sync input.

Look for a small electrolytic [in fact, all of them], around 1-10 uF or so near the
deflection/sync processor IC. Often simply increasing the value of this cap will help.

Interference when using VCR RF connection

(Some of these comments also apply to use of LaserDisc players, satellite
receivers, video games, or other sources with RF modulator (Channel 3/4)
outputs).
This may consist of patterns or lines in the picture.

If this only happens on the antenna or cable, it may be a problem with these sources or the
tuner in the VCR rather than the TV. As a test, try the connecting the TV directly to the
antenna or cable.

If it only happens on cable, there may be a (temporary) problem with cable transmission -
contact your cable company.

If it happens on playback of good quality (commercial) recordings, then it could be a

compatibility problem between the VCR and TV.

Make sure your patch cable connections are secure and that the cables are not damaged - in
particular that the center pin is intact.
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 1. Do these bars show up on other TV's connected to the same cable?
2. Is your TV connected to anything else? A/V receiver? VCR?

If so, unplug *all* the equipment and plug it in one-at-a-time until the hum appears. If
you have an AV receiver in the system, try running a jumper wire from the incoming
CATV ground at the TV to the receivers chassis ground (usually the "phono ground
screw").

If you have any devices with un-polarized plugs, unplug them and rotate them 180
degrees, and plug them back in.

3. If you connect a temporary antenna and view "off-the-air" signals, are

the bars still there?

If you still cannot eliminate the hum, try building a simple "ground isolator" out of two 75-
300 ohm baluns, as described in the link below:

Place it as close to the TV as possible.

Missing or noisy channel or block of channels

If you are unable to receive certain channels or blocks of channels, this is a
tuner problem - could be as simple as bad connections - or even simpler:.
First, check to see that the tuning mode is correct - TV, CATV, as this is the most common
cause of channels 'disappearing'.

Loss of Channel after Warmup

If there is a general loss of picture and sound but there is light on the
screen, then most likely the tuner or IF stage is pooping out.
With both no sound and no picture but a raster and static, it is most likely a problem in the
tuner, power to the tuner, or its controller (if non-knob type).

If it recovers after being off for a while, then you need to try a cold spray in the
tuner/controller to identify the component that is failing. Take appropriate safety precautions
while working in there!

If it stays broken, then most likely some component in the tuner, its controller, or its power
supply as failed. There is a slight chance that it could be a bad solder connection - I have seen
these in the tuner modules of RCAs on several occasions (and many other manufacturers -
apparently not a solved manufacturing problem even after 40+ years!

Channel tuning drifts as set warms up

This may be a slight drift - like someone is messing with the fine tuning or
such a substantial change in tuning frequency that the channels go by as
though you are surfing.
Possible causes depend on tuner type:
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 1. Quartz tuner (10 button direct access digital synthesizer) - For a slight
drift, a component is probably changing value, possibly the crystal in
the reference oscillator. For gross changes - flipping through channels
- it is more likely to be a digital control problem - the microcontroller
is misdirecting the synthesizer to change frequency.
2. Varactor tuner (buttons but not direct channel access) - If only a
single pushbutton selection is the problem, the the varactor tuning
diode for that button is probably changing capacitance. If all channels
in a band (Vl, Vh, U) are having a problem, it is more likely to be a
drifting D/A or faulty AFT (Automatic Fine Tuning) circuit or power
supply.
3. Turret or switch tuner (Knobs) - A component like a capacitor is
changing value.

You will have to get in there with a heat gun or cold spray and track it down the old
fashioned way. At least, the problem is almost certainly localized to the tuner box (and
possibly the controller if applicable).

As noted, gradual slight changes in tuning are likely due to frequency determining
components drifting.

Uncontrolled channel surfing is probably a logic problem. For the quartz tuner, this could still
be marginal connections causing the microprocessor to misdirect the synthesizer to change
channels.

For the latter case, particularly, the cause may still be bad connections resulting in loss of
channel memory and/or erratic behavior.

Noise in picture and sound due to bright scene

When a bright scene comes, the screen flashes and there is a lot of noise in
the sound. When a dark scene comes, there is no flash or noise. Changing
channel does not help. The noise persists even when the sound is muted.
(The following is from: [email protected] (Sam Lattuca))

When the video detector level is adjusted too high, you will get noise in the sound while
screen contains a lot of white information (i.e. letters) but won't when only dark scenes are
present. The video level adjust is usually a small coil normally located near the IF section.
Since your set is several years old, this wouldn't be uncommon. It can be adjusted while
watching the picture and listening to the sound.

Internal interference - switchmode power supplies and digital circuitry

On virtually all newer televisions and in particular Mitsubishi televisions there is a problem
with interference being emitted by the switched mode power supply.

The common symptom of this 'fault' is snake like dotted 'S' lines on channels 2-6. It doesn't
matter if it's cable, antenna or satellite(channel 3/4), this symptom can occur.
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The common cause of this interference being allowed into the tuner is cabling. The super
cheap 'suitable for garbage tie' cable that comes with even the most expensive VCR's is the
culprit in most cases. The second is a set of rabbit ears the least common is an open or high
resistance to ground connection (usually at a connector) on the incoming cable line.

To fix this there is only one reliable solution. All cabling must be hand made RG-6 cable.
Make as follows:

1. Strip the outer sheath of the cable to expose the braid and *fold the
braid* away from the end so that it covers the unstripped outer braid.
2. Strip the inner conductor to it's proper length.
3. Install a good quality RG-6 connector *over the folded* braid.
4. Crimp with the proper RG-6 attachment to the cable crimpers, don't
use a set of pliers or other -crushing- device.

If the cable company doesn't waterproof the outside connectors, Radio Shack sells a 'sealing
tape' just for this purpose. Most cable companies use self sealing 'o-ring' connectors.

There is also interference from internal microprocessors and digital text generators (on-screen
display, close captioning, teletext). And with 100 Hz digital television there is a wealth of
sources...

Using only high quality shielded cable as described above seems like really good advise,
FWIW I'd like to second that. I wish that everyone would take antenna cables as seriously as
you.

Generally, double-braided cable (using copper foil for second shield) and coaxially
constructed connectors are recommended. But I think that the hand-mountable F-type
connectors (Radio Shack) would be equally good, though less robust, if mounted properly.

As far as antennas go, a decent rooftop antenna should always be better than whatever rabbit
ear construction you might think of. In this case, distance counts too, the antenna WILL pick
up interference.

Those darn rabbit ears

So you bought a high performance TV and a set of $20.00 rabbit ears and
there are lines on channels 2 to 6. Go buy a set of rabbit ears that has
*only* a coax connector on the back, throw the cable supplied with it in the
bin for 'twist ties'. Also buy an inexpensive surge suppressor that has a
cable protector, enough RG-6 cable and connectors for two cables.

 Make one cable long enough to get the antenna away from the set
(12ft) and the other to connect the antenna to the surge suppressor.
 Connect the long cable to the set and the other end to the surge
suppressor.
 Find an outlet away from the set and plug the surge suppressor in
(pick the most sane order for all of this.)
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  Connect the shorter cable to the surge suppressor and connect the
other end to the antenna.

You're done and if you thought carefully you would have put the antenna near your easy chair
so you can adjust the picture or put the antenna where you'll get the best reception and
prevent interference. The surge suppressor was needed to ground the other end of the coax so
as not to make the outer shield an antenna for the interference from the TV's power supply.
This method can also help allevate 'dead spots' when using rabbit ears.

Audio Problems
Picture fine, no audio
First check that any muting control is not activated. This might be a button
on the remote or set itself. If you have a headphone jack, it may have dirty
contacts as plugging in a headphone usually mutes the speaker.
If the set is mono or only one channel of a stereo set is out, then check for bad connections to
the loudspeaker. Test the loudspeaker by disconnecting one of the wires (with the power off!)
and measuring its resistance with an ohmmeter (it should be less than 100 ohms - probably
less than 8 ohms). Or momentarily touch a 1.5 volt battery to the speaker terminals - you
should get a click or pop from the speaker.

Next, trace back from the speaker output terminals to the circuit board and look for bad
solder connections or a loose or dirty connector.

If these tests do not reveal anything, you probably need a scope (or audio signal tracer) and
schematic. Or at least the part number off of the chip. Is the final amp a chip also or just a
transistor? Have you tested the transistor? If there is little or no buzz from the speaker, that
would indicate a problem fairly near the output. If the tuner/if were bad, I would expect some
noise/humm pickup from the low level audio stages. Get the part number off of the chip. If it
is in a socket, check the contacts for corrosion or looseness.

Weak or distorted audio

Assuming you are not attempting to play it at ear shattering levels, this may
be due to an alignment problem in the IF/audio demodulator, a bad audio
IC or other circuitry, bad connection, or a defective speaker.
If your TV has an earphone or audio line out jack, try this to see if it is clear. If so, then your
problem is in the final audio amp or speaker(s).

If only one channel of a stereo TV is affected, it is almost certainly the audio amp or speaker
for that channel. Interchange connection to the two speakers temporarily and see if the
problem moves.

If the problem is at all intermittent - try gently whacking the TV - then it is likely a bad
connection - either a cold solder joint or a dirty or tired IC socket.
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The audio amplifiers in newer TVs are almost always ICs and replacements are usually
readily available. If the IC is in a socket, remove the IC, clean the pins and socket contacts
and reinstall it. Sometimes, the contacts on old socket lose their springiness and do not
provide solid connections. Such a socket will need to be replaced.

If your TV is fairly old - 10 years or so - this may be an alignment problem requiring

tweaking of a coil in the sound IF. See your service manual. It may be possible to have
similar problems with newer TVs but this is relatively rare.

There could also be bad electrolytic capacitors, probably in the power supply area. Even
though you might think this would result in hum and there is none (even when there is no
audio in the program or the sound is turned down) dried up caps can result in distorted sound
that may sound like a sort of clipping. An ESR meter is best for testing (with power off!) but
carefully jumpering known good caps across suspect ones (again with power off, then turn on
the set and check), will eventually find the bad one(s).

High pitched whine or squeal from TV with no other symptoms

First, make sure it is not coming from the loudspeaker itself. If it is, then we
are looking at an unusual electronic interference problem rather than simply
mechanical vibration.
If it is a new set and think the sounds will drive you insane, returning it for a refund or
replacement may be best alternative. However, you may get used to it in time. I don't know
about returning a set to a store that doesn't take refunds (I won't even ask about that!).

In most cases, this sound, while annoying, does not indicate an impending failure (at least not
to the set - perhaps to your mental health) or signify anything about the expected reliability of
the set though this is not always the case. Intermittent or poor connections in the deflection or
power supply subsystems can also result in similar sounds. However, it is more likely that
some part is just vibrating in response to a high frequency electric current.

There are several parts inside the TV that can potentially make this noise. These include the
horizontal flyback transformer, deflection yoke, other transformers, even ferrite beads in the
horizontal deflection circuits. In addition, transformers or chokes in the switching power
supply if this is distinct from the horizontal deflection circuitry. Or even a portion of the
sheetmetal used for shielding if in close proximity to a magnetic component.

You have several options before resorting to a 12 pound hammer:

 As much as you would like to dunk the TV in sound deadening

insulation, this should be avoided as it will interfere with with proper
cooling. However, the interior of the entertainment center cabinet can
be lined with a non-flammable sound absorbing material, perhaps
acoustic ceiling tiles. Hopefully, not a lot of sound energy is coming
from the front of the set.
 Move the TV out of a corner if that is where it is located - the corner
will focus sound energy into the room.

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  Anything soft like carpeting, drapes, etc. will do a good job of
absorbing sound energy in this band. Here is your justification for
purchasing those antique Persian rugs you always wanted :-).

If you are desperate and want to check the inside of the set:

 Using appropriate safety precautions, you can try prodding the

various suspect parts (flyback, deflection yoke, other transformers),
even lowly ferrite beads, with an insulated tool such as a dry wooden
stick. Listen through a cardboard tube to try to localizing the source.
If the sounds changes, you know what part to go after.
 Once you have located the guilty party, some careful repositioning, a
strategically wedged wooden toothpick, or a dab of RTV silicone or
hot-melt glue may keep it quiet. Where the yoke is the guilty party, see
the section: Reducing/eliminating yoke noise.
 It is possible to coat the flyback transformer, but this is used mostly
when there a loose core or windings and you are getting not only the
15,735 Hz horizontal (NTSC) but also various subharmonics of this.
This is probably acceptable but may increase the temperature of the
flyback.
 A replacement flyback (or whatever part) may cure the problem unless
it is a design flaw or manufacturing quality problem. However, the
replacement part could be noisier. You really do not want to replace
the yoke (aside from the cost) as convergence and other service
adjustments would need to be performed. Other transformers can be
replaced.

Note that the deflection frequency - just over 15 kHz for NTSC and PAL - is on the border of
audible for adults but will likely be loud to younger people possibly to the point of being
terribly annoying - or worse. If you are over 40 (men more so than women), you may not be
able to hear the fundamental at all (at least you can look forward to silence in the future!). So,
even sending the TV back for repair may be hopeless if the technician cannot hear what you
are complaining about!

BTW, if you have a really old tube type TV, the power tubes (damper and horizontal output)
can also whine but these sets are few and far between these days :-).

Reducing/eliminating yoke noise

Carefully look under vertical core next to plastic liner, on top and bottom is a plate called the
astigmatism shunt, it has come loose. Work RTV, epoxy, or service cement onto it to glue it
down and noise should quit.

yokes by removing the yokes and using motor armature spray sealant.

If you carefully mark the EXACT position of everything (yoke, purity magnets), and slide the
yoke off the CRT, then once the yoke has been sealed with motor armature spray sealant and

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has dried thoroughly, put the yoke back EXACTLY where it was, there should be no
problems.

The only thing I have had to do was set the purity on one set, but it was off a little to begin
with.

Whining when off?

Many TVs actually run their switchmode power supplies even when off to
power the standby stuff like the remote control receiver, real time clock or
timer, and channel memory. Depending on the design of the regulator, the
power supply may be running at a low chopper frequency due to the light
load. Some people, dogs, and rodents are then annoyed. It could also be an
indication of a fault like a bad capacitor or loosened transformer core if this
symptom just developed - your hearing isn't likely improving :-(.
There is so much running nowadays in 'off' electronics!

Miscellaneous Problems
General erratic behavior
You press VOLUME UP and the channel changes or a setup menu appears
all by itself just at the climax of your mystery story.
Before you break out the screwdriver (or 12 pound hammer), cover up the IR remote sensor.
Some types of electronic ballasted fluorescent lights may confuse the remote control receiver.
Someone or something may be sitting on the remote hand unit or it may be defective and
continuously issuing a bad command. Or, the kids across the street may have nothing better
to do than to drive your TV (and you) nuts with their remote!

Assuming this is not the source of the problem:

Check for bad connections - see if gently whacking the TV makes any difference or triggers
the errant behavior. Bad connections in the power supply, system controller, or tuner, may
result in this sort of behavior. See the section: TV and monitor manufacturing quality and
cold solder joints. See the sections and separate documents on problems with
RCA/GE/Proscan and Sony TVs if yours is made by one of these companies.

A microcontroller or other electronic problem is also possible. If the symptoms only develop
after the set warms up, it may be heat related (though simple bad connections are more
likely). Use 'circuit chiller' or a heat gun to identify the bad part.

Wiring transmitted interference

The power that comes from the wall outlet is supposed to be a nice sinusoid
at 60 Hz (in the U.S.) and it probably is coming out of the power plant.
However, equipment using electric motors (e.g., vacuum cleaners),
fluorescent lamps, lamp dimmers or motor speed controls (shop tools), and
other high power devices, may result in a variety of effects.
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 SELF-TEST EXAMINATION

1. Television Diagnoses 2. TV. Parts at least

(20)

Defective section _____________ 1._________________

Defective parts_______________ 2._________________
______ 3._________________
Defective section _____________4._________________
Defective parts_______________ 5._________________
6._________________
Defective section _____________7.________________
Defective parts_______________ 8.________________
9.________________
Defective section _____________10._______________
Defective parts_______________ 11._______________
Defective section _____________12._______________
Defective parts_______________ 13._______________
14._______________
Defective section _____________15._______________
Defective parts_______________ 16._______________
17._______________
Defective section _____________18._______________
Defective parts_______________ 19._______________
20._______________

PARTS AND FUNCTION OF POWER SUPPLY

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The power supply is the heart of all electronic equipment or appliances. It
supplies the electronic equipment all the voltages and current needed foe
each operations.
Functions of each parts:
AC. Plug- with the plug we can easily plug in and plug out our converter
from the supply voltages source.
Switch- with the switch we can conveniently connect and disconnect the
converter to or supply source. The types of switch is slide or single pole
single throw switch (spst) .
Fuse- the fuse protects the converter or power supplies the amplifier, radio,
television or computer device.
Types of converter
1. Half-wave converter
2. Full-wave converter
3. Split type converter
4. Multiple converter

Types of transformer
1. Step-down – input AC. 220v, 110v, 0v and output 12v DC.
2. Step- up- input DC. 12v or 24v 0v and output 100v AC.,110v, or 220v
AC.
3. Multiple output transformer- input 0vAC. 220vAC, and 110v AC. And
output 3vdc,4.5vdc 6v, 7.5v, 9v, and 12v dc.

Parts list to build converter

1. Fuse
2. Switch
3. Rotary switch
4. Step-down or step up transformer
5. Rectifier diode
6. Filter capacitor or electrolytic
7. Resistor
8. Hook-up wire
9. Line cord or AC. Cord
10. And basic tools and equipment

TROUBLE SHOOTING OF GUIDE

Symptom 1. No voltages output.

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 Possible causes:

1. No contact or loose connection in the selector switch. Solder all

wires at the selector adjusted.
2. Open diode, check the diode for the possible problem
a. Leaky
b. Open
c. Shorted
d. Loose contact

3. Test and verify the components and primary winding of

transformer.
4. Double check the ac cord and other possible trouble and possible
cause and remedies are the same as in project one.

Symptom2. Very low output voltages

Possible causes:
1. Loose contact points in the selector switch. Remedy. Clean the
contact point of the selector switch with contact cleaner or fluid.
2. Loose connection from selector switch to secondary winding of the
transformer. Remedy resolders all connection from selector switch
to the secondary winding.
3. Check and verify the components and circuit.
4. Replace the possible components defect and shorted.

Symptom3. Output voltage is present only in the range of 12 and

9v but no voltage output 6volt ranges.

Possible cause:
1. Loose connection or loose contact of the selector switch at 6v
range check the contact points and apply necessary remedies.
2. Check all components for circuit connection.
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 Symptom4. Humming sound but the voltages is ok
Possible causes:
1. Check the connection for no shortage circuit
2. Check the filter capacitor
3. Check the diode

TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: CONSTRUCTION OF SWITCH MODE POWER

SUPPLY (SMPS)

Performance Objectives:
1. To identify the electronic components used in a regulated power
supply.
4. To learn how to make an etching printed circuit board for the
regulated power supply projects and new switch mode device.
5. To assemble the power supply, and then measure its output
voltage

Materials Needed:
PCB-printed circuit board
UNIVERSAL POWER SUPPLY: SMPS

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 Etching solution with PCB board
SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING TOOLS
Measuring equipments: VOM

Steps/Procedure:
1. Your instructor will give you a simple project and schematic
diagram study then draw the circuit diagrams in the PCB layout
labels all parts.
2. Make an etching printed circuit board for mounting the electronic
components
3. Disassembly and transfer all components to the new PBC circuit
check and verify.
4. In the following assembly steps, the components will be installed
on the components side of the board the leads passed through the
corresponding holes, and the board turned to solder the
components terminals to the printed side. Solder each component
immediately after it has been installed on the board.
5. Verify and check the connection of the circuit and testing for
measuring tools.

Assessment Method:
2. Check and verify every procedure during the testing process of
training or students.
3. We will collect the papers on the right answer after measured value
of the training or students.
4. Practical testing and direct observation and follow up questions.
5. Test and review exercises.

Radio Receiver set

Two type of radio receiver set

1. Amplitude modulation
2. Frequency modulation

Basic parts
1. Antenna- to receive and collect radio signals coming from
radio broadcasting network
2. Tuning condenser or tuning capacitor-to select and collect
the signal coming from antenna

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 3. Mixer converter- to covert audio information or also called
demodulator
4. Detector- to detect audio information and voltage signals
5. Local oscillator-

Two parts of AM/FM

1. Audio amplifier section
2. Tuning section

 As seen in the previous section, it is incredibly easy to transmit with static. All
radios today, however, use continuous sine waves to transmit information
(audio, video, data). The reason that we use continuous sine waves today is
because there are so many different people and devices that want to use radio
waves at the same time. If you had some way to see them, you would find that
there are literally thousands of different radio waves (in the form of sine waves)
around you right now -- TV broadcasts, AM and FM radio broadcasts, police and
fire radios, satellite transmissions, cell phone conversations, GPS signals, and so
on. It is amazing how many uses there are for radio waves today (see How the
Radio Spectrum Works to get an idea). Each different radio signal uses a different
sine wave frequency, and that is how they are all separated.

 Any radio setup has two parts:


o Tuning: Broadband tuning is applied to the RF stage. The purpose
of this is to reject the signals on the image frequency and accept
those on the wanted frequency. It must also be able to track the local
oscillator so that as the receiver is tuned, so the RF tuning remains
on the required frequency. Typically the selectivity provided at this
stage is not high. Its main purpose is to reject signals on the image
frequency which is at a frequency equal to twice that of the IF away
from the wanted frequency. As the tuning within this block provides
all the rejection for the image response, it must be at a sufficiently
sharp to reduce the image to an acceptable level. However the RF
tuning may also help in preventing strong off-channel signals from

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 entering the receiver and overloading elements of the receiver, in
particular the mixer or possibly even the RF amplifier.
o Amplification: In terms of amplification, the level is carefully chosen
so that it does not overload the mixer when strong signals are
present, but enables the signals to be amplified sufficiently to ensure
a good signal to noise ratio is achieved. The amplifier must also be a
low noise design. Any noise introduced in this block will be amplified
later in the receiver.
 Mixer / frequency translator block: The tuned and amplified signal then
enters one port of the mixer. The local oscillator signal enters the other
port. The performance of the mixer is crucial to many elements of the
overall receiver performance. It should eb as linear as possible. If not, then
spurious signals will be generated and these may appear as 'phantom'
received signals.
 Local oscillator: The local oscillator may consist of a variable frequency
oscillator that can be tuned by altering the setting on a variable capacitor.
Alternatively it may be a frequency synthesizer that will enable greater
levels of stability and setting accuracy.
 Intermediate frequency amplifier, IF block : Once the signals leave the
mixer they enter the IF stages. These stages contain most of the
amplification in the receiver as well as the filtering that enables signals on
one frequency to be separated from those on the next. Filters may consist
simply of LC tuned transformers providing inter-stage coupling, or they may
be much higher performance ceramic or even crystal filters, dependent
upon what is required.
 Detector / demodulator stage: Once the signals have passed through
the IF stages of the superheterodyne receiver, they need to be
demodulated. Different demodulators are required for different types of
transmission, and as a result some receivers may have a variety of
demodulators that can be switched in to accommodate the different types
of transmission that are to be encountered. Different demodulators used
may include:

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o AM diode detector: This is the most basic form of detector and this
circuit block would simple consist of a diode and possibly a small
capacitor to remove any remaining RF. The detector is cheap and its
performance is adequate, requiring a sufficient voltage to overcome
the diode forward drop. It is also not particularly linear, and finally it is
subject to the effects of selective fading that can be apparent,
especially on the HF bands.
o Synchronous AM detector: This form of AM detector block is used
in where improved performance is needed. It mixes the incoming AM
signal with another on the same frequency as the carrier. This
second signal can be developed by passing the whole signal through
a squaring amplifier. The advantages of the synchronous AM
detector are that it provides a far more linear demodulation
performance and it is far less subject to the problems of selective
fading.

o SSB product detector: The SSB product detector block consists of a

mixer and a local oscillator, often termed a beat frequency oscillator,
BFO or carrier insertion oscillator, CIO. This form of detector is used
for Morse code transmissions where the BFO is used to create an
audible tone in line with the on-off keying of the transmitted carrier.
Without this the carrier without modulation is difficult to detect. For
SSB, the CIO re-inserts the carrier to make the modulation
comprehensible.

o Basic FM detector: As an FM signal carries no amplitude variations

a demodulator block that senses frequency variations is required. It
should also be insensitive to amplitude variations as these could add
extra noise. Simple FM detectors such as the Foster Seeley or ratio
detectors can be made from discrete components although they do
require the use of transformers.

o PLL FM detector: A phase locked loop can be used to make a very

good FM demodulator. The incoming FM signal can be fed into the
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 reference input, and the VCO drive voltage used to provide the
detected audio output.
o Quadrature FM detector: This form of FM detector block is widely
used within ICs. IT is simple to implement and provides a good linear
output.
 Audio amplifier: The output from the demodulator is the recovered
audio. This is passed into the audio stages where they are amplified and
presented to the headphones or loudspeaker.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. What colors are commonly used to identify the following
a. Local oscillator coil
b. First intermediate frequency (IF)
c. Second intermediate frequency (IF)
d. Third intermediate frequency (IF)
2. What parts or components of the radio tuner to intercept and
collect the signals
3. What are the common parts of the section in the radio tuner?
4. Name the components and each parts and functions.
5. Why is the intermediate frequency transformer important?
6. From the detector, where does the audio signal go?
7. What are the two type of receiver?
8. Draw the circuit diagram.
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 Answer for Self-Test Question
1. Red color
2. Yellow
3. White
4. Black
3. The antenna intercepts and collects the radio signals.
4. Antenna, mixer converter, intermediate frequency, detector, local
oscillator
5. Tuning section, and amplifier section
6. The intermediate frequency transformer is important because it
prevent interference.
7. Amplitude modulation, frequency modulation
8. diagram

AM-FM RECIEVER TROUBLE SHOOTING

Trouble symptom1. No Radio signal, but the audio amplifier section is good.
Possible causes:
1. disconnected components into the radio tuner section
2. open shorted detector diode of components or any wire
connection
3. open or shorted IF transformer transistor
4. open or disconnected antenna coil
5. shorted coupling capacitor connected at the emitter of the mixer
converter transistor.
6. Shorted ceramic capacitor
7. Shorted bypass capacitor at the base of the IF amplifier
transistor.
8. Shorted tuning capacitor
9. Open primary winding of the local oscillator coil.
10. Open primary winding third IF transformer

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Trouble Symptom 2. Weak sound, but audio amplifier section is good.
Possible causes:
1. Loose connection in the radio tuner section
2. Shorted emitter stabilizing of mixer converter transistor.
3. Shorted coupling capacitor connected at the emitter of the
mixer converter transistor.
4. Shorted ceramic capacitor
5. Shorted bypass capacitor at the base of the IF amplifier
transistor.
6. Shorted tuning capacitor
7. Open primary winding of the local oscillator coil.
8. Open primary winding third IF transformer

Trouble symptom 3. No audio, No sound indicating no signals or no output

at all
Possible causes:
1. Loose connection and power supply is open. Check and verify
2. Open transformer and power transistor is shorted
3. Replace any components that connected to system board
amplifier or tuner section.

AUDIO AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS BY WATTS

4. 15 WATTS AMPLIFIER 2. 50 WATTS MONO

AMPLIFIER

AUDIO MIXER WITH AMPLIFIER

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 SERVICE PRODUCT ELECTRONIC GUIDE
Guidelines for service
1. Observe and prepare the guidelines the trainers must be observe the
situation and condition of any domestic appliances before start for
repairing and diagnosis, possible question before start.

a. What are the symptoms?

b. What conditions existed at the time of failure?
c. What action was in the progress?
d. What functions still works?
2. Apply your planning- before start be plan for repair and condition

a. Use the proper test and equipment

b. Don’t panic or any action
3. Use your senses- look any smell. is there any odor present that
suggest overheated components does any parts of electronic
components.

Microprocessor Programming

The “vocabulary” of instructions which any particular microprocessor chip

possesses is specific to that model of chip. An Intel 80386, for example, uses a
completely different set of binary codes than a Motorola 68020, for designating
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equivalent functions. Unfortunately, there are no standards in place for

microprocessor instructions. This makes programming at the very lowest level

very confusing and specialized.

When a human programmer develops a set of instructions to directly tell a

microprocessor how to do something (like automatically control the fuel injection

rate to an engine), they’re programming in the CPU’s own “language.” This

language, which consists of the very same binary codes which the Control Unit
inside the CPU chip decodes to perform tasks, is often referred to as machine

language. While machine language software can be “worded” in binary notation, it

is often written in hexadecimal form, because it is easier for human beings to work

with. For example, I’ll present just a few of the common instruction codes for the
Intel 8080 micro-processor chip:

Hexadecimal Binary Instruction description

----------- -------- -----------------------------------------
| 7B 01111011 Move contents of register A to register E
|
| 87 10000111 Add contents of register A to register D
|
| 1C 00011100 Increment the contents of register E by 1
|
| D3 11010011 Output byte of data to data bus

Even with hexadecimal notation, these instructions can be easily confused and
forgotten. For this purpose, another aid for programmers exists called assembly

language. With assembly language, two to four letter mnemonic words are used in

place of the actual hex or binary code for describing program steps. For example,
the instruction 7B for the Intel 8080 would be “MOV A,E” in assembly language. The
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mnemonics, of course, are useless to the microprocessor, which can only

understand binary codes, but it is an expedient way for programmers to manage

the writing of their programs on paper or text editor (word processor). There are
even programs written for computers called assemblers which understand these

mnemonics, translating them to the appropriate binary codes for a specified target

microprocessor, so that the programmer can write a program in the computer’s

native language without ever having to deal with strange hex or tedious binary

code notation.
Once a program is developed by a person, it must be written into memory before a microprocessor
can execute it. If the program is to be stored in ROM (which some are), this can be done with a
special machine called a ROM programmer, or (if you’re masochistic), by plugging the ROM chip into
a breadboard, powering it up with the appropriate voltages, and writing data by making the right
wire connections to the address and data lines, one at a time, for each instruction. If the program is
to be stored in volatile memory, such as the operating computer’s RAM memory, there may be a
way to type it in by hand through that computer’s keyboard (some computers have a mini-program
stored in ROM which tells the microprocessor how to accept keystrokes from a keyboard and store
them as commands in RAM), even if it is too dumb to do anything else. Many “hobby” computer kits
work like this. If the computer to be programmed is a fully-functional personal computer with an
operating system, disk drives, and the whole works, you can simply command the assembler to store
your finished program onto a disk for later retrieval. To “run” your program, you would simply type
your program’s filename at the prompt, press the Enter key, and the microprocessor’s Program
Counter register would be set to point to the location (“address”) on the disk where the first
instruction is stored, and your program would run from there.
Although programming in machine language or assembly language makes for fast and highly efficient
programs, it takes a lot of time and skill to do so for anything but the simplest tasks, because each
machine language instruction is so crude. The answer to this is to develop ways for programmers to
write in “high level” languages, which can more efficiently express human thought. Instead of typing
in dozens of cryptic assembly language codes, a programmer writing in a high-level language would
be able to write something like this . . .
Print "Hello, world!"

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 How to Set Up Home Theater System
(A Simple Guide)

Miles of wires, acres of poorly-labeled connections, inputs, outputs, it can all

be quite daunting. Setting up a home theater system doesn’t have to be, though.

In fact, it can be quite easy. No matter what gear you have, this guide should help you
get everything set up correctly. Even if your system is already connected, it’s probably
worth skimming this article to make sure it’s connected right. You may not be getting
the most out of your system and not even know it.

Follow the signal

The first thing to understand is something called signal flow. Wait, don’t click away!
It’s not as tetchy as it sounds.

The flow of the signal. If you can get this part, the rest is easy. The signal is the movie
on your Blu-ray, the TV show from Netflix NFLX +2.18%, or the music from
Pandora. Following the flow of the signal will help you figure out the right inputs and
outputs on your gear.
Note: I’m going to say “Blu-ray” as my source example, but the setup is the same if you’ve
got a Roku, Apple AAPL -0.64% TV, Amazon Fire TV, or any cable/satellite box.
Speaker Configurations

Audio accounts for 50 percent of the cinema experience, and a

surround sound system can create a complete audio environment
around you.
A good 5.1-channel system will give you a full surround sound
experience. Most DVD and Blu-ray™ media, some Super Audio CDs
(SACDs), broadcast TV, and many streaming sources are in 5.1-
channel format.

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Going to 7.1 channels improves the directionality of sound effects
and adds to the audio ambience of 3D. Some Blu-ray Disc™ and
premium streaming sources feature 7.1. (They will sound fine on a
5.1 system, too.)
A 9.1-channel system adds front height speakers to take advantage
of Dolby Pro Logic® IIz, which derives height information from the
signal.

Audio Video Setup

Audio setup

Application
1. Connect the identified connection coming from television to audio by
using RF or RCA jack
2. Try to test the input video and input audio connection
3. Same color standard coding by polarity
4. The RED color is positive
5. The Black color is Negative Connectivity
6. Double check and verify to test audio video connection

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 CCTV Installation and Wiring Options
Today there are a lot of options when it comes to choosing a quality
CCTV security system. You may decide to go with a traditional analog
system, HD-SDI, HD-CVI or even an IP network based security products.
One thing all of these options have in common is you will probably have to run
some sort wire to the cameras. Yes, there are some “Wireless Security
Camera” solutions available on the market today, but if you do some research
you will find that there are a lot of limitations to wireless security cameras.
Most CCTV professionals would probably not recommend a wireless system
in an environment where up-time and security are critical.

I do want to mention that it is possible to reliably transmit video wirelessly

using a device such as the TP-LocoM5 – Wireless Access Point/Bridge But even
then you would still need to have a power wire run to the camera or a local
power source near the camera and it only works with IP Cameras. That being
said, we will be talking about a fully-wired system in conjunction with a storage
device such as a DVR (Digital Video Recorder) or NVR (Network Video
Recorder).

NEWINSTALLATION
when installing a completely new security system you may want to have the
video and power wires come from a single location located near the storage
device (DVR or NVR) as shown below.
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ANALOG SYSTEMS
Analog, HD-SDI and HD-CVI cameras will need two wires run to them. One
for video transmission and a set of power wires in order to power the camera.
You could run a coax wire and separate power wires but most CCTV
professionals choose to use “Siamese Cable”. Siamese Cable is a manufactured
coax cable with a set of power wires attached to it. The power wires can be
split off from the coax in cases where your power source may not be in a close
proximity to your recording device.

NETWORK IP SYSTEMS
IP cameras use digital video transmission over CAT5 or CAT6 cable. In most
cases you run your video and power to and from the camera on the same
CAT5 or CAT6 wire, assuming you are using a POE (Power Over Ethernet)
power source such as a POE injector or POE Switch.

Some NVRs come with built in POE, but in most cases it is recommended to
use an external POE switch like the POE-
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8MB1G from SecurityCameraKing.com. When using an external POE switch all
of your CAT5 or CAT6 will run directly from each camera to a POE switch that
is connected to your local network. Then you simply connect your NVR to the
network and you are all set.

Most IP cameras also come with an additional power wire if you choose not to
use POE and power them with 12v or 24v power as shown below.

If you are going to power your IP camera with 12v /24v power you will still run
all of your CAT5 or CAT6 from the camera to a Non-POE switch (usually
significantly less expensive than a POE switch) but you will run an extra set of
power wires from a power source to each camera.

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RUNNING YOUR CABLES

Now it’s time to run your cable. The following will cover 2 popular scenarios.

Scenario 1: Running your cable through your attic and mounting your
cameras to the soffit. This is a common installation option, provided you have
access to your attic and your soffits are also accessible.

First you have to choose the placement of you recorder and power supply.
Some people simply have them located in an office or a room within their
home. Others prefer having them in a more secure location such as in a
lockbox, hidden in a closet, or even in the attic itself.

The image below shows the recorder and power supply inside a room of the
home. Power and video wires run up the wall into the attic to the location
where the camera will be located and out a small hole in the soffit were the
camera will be mounted.

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Scenario 2: Another option is to run your cable through an exterior wall and
then use conduit on the exterior of your structure to run your cables from one
camera to another. This is a great option for those who do not have an attic or
limited access to one.

Mounting Your Cameras

Once you have run your wires to the desired location you can connect your
camera. In some cases where the cables are coming out of the soffit it is
possible to connect your wires together and tuck the connections up into the
hollow area of the soffit, then mount the camera directly to the soffit.

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In situations where you’re running your wires through a solid concrete or brick
wall that the connections cannot be tucked into, it is common to mount a
junction box.

Junction Boxes and Conduit

Junction boxes are particularly useful when running your cable through
conduit on the exterior of your structure as they serve as a weather proof
container protect your power and video connections from the elements and
also provide you with a flat surface to mount your cameras to.

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First you will pull your wires through the access hole on the back of the
junction box. Then mount the junction box to the wall. You may have to drill a
hole in the junction box cover big enough to feed your camera connections
through. Next, connect the camera to the power and video connection(s).
Then screw the cover on to the junction box. Now you can mount you camera
to the junction box. See the diagram below.

CCTV Cables | BNC | RG59 Siamese Coax

CCTV Camera Pros provides every type of cable that you will need for a
professional security camera system installation. Please choose from the
below cable categories to jump to the page that you need or browse this page
for all cables that we offer. All of our cables are professional grade and easy
to use for installation.

Plug & Play RG59 RG59 Cable Power Cable

BNC Audio Cable
CCTV Siamese &BNC & Power
Jumper and
Cables Cable Connector Leads
Cables Connectors
Kits

Application

Tools needed:
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 RG-59 BNC connectors
 RG-59 crimping tool
 RG-59 stripping tool
 RG-59 Siamese wire
 BNC barrel
 Wire cutter
 Standard wire crimp tool
 22-16 AWG insulated butt splice connectors
 Electrical tape

CCTV Training

Training is generally a fairly dull and uninspiring process you have to go through to satisfy
your bosses. This was the process I was tasked with! However we choose Tavcom Training
and their Foundation CCTV course – designed to be a good introduction to CCTV. That’s
exactly what I needed to improve me knowledge of CCTV from the bottom up.
Day 1
After travelling down from Leeds the night before I was a little out of sorts, but on arrival I
was greeted in the training building by many of the staff at Tavcom with a smile and a
coffee. After signing in we were taken to a dedicated room crammed with equipment. I was
handed a quick “light-hearted quiz” – well i couldn’t answer one question! Was hoping this
was not a sign of things to come.

The tutorage was led by a chap called Andy and he was very friendly and clear in how he
taught. The process was generally theory and then practice – a process that suits me very
well.
Day 1 was basic stuff, but for myself and the other students it was quite a challenge. We set
up a camera and used an oscilloscope. The practical side was very good – the equipment
was modern and things were explained clearly.
Looked at the “light hearted quiz” at the end of Day 1 and found I could now understand
and answer all the questions. A good sign.
For the evening we were set a task of using a Lens Calculator. Before tea and the bar of
course!
Day 2
After a quick revision session we moved onto Lighting, Ohms Law and Housings among
other things. This was the session I enjoyed the most, as i am not so technical but enjoy the
application side.
We bounced through quite a lot of information in Day 2 – with any questions being
answered at every stage.
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Day 3
The morning session was given over to the more modern cctv systems of IP and DVR
technology. We built a 4 camera system, ran it though a DVR and learnt how to record, set
up spot monitors and play with different recording setups. Then we built an IP Camera
system which was an interesting experience seeing the differences between old and new
technology – which isn’t always as good!

After a brief revision session it was onto lunch. The afternoon was an exam which was
difficult. I felt the training had covered more or less everything and it was obviously down to
me whether I passed or now… update to come.
Conclusion
Tavcom are obviously well set up with masses of equipment, knowledge and friendly staff.
The training centre is clean, modern and stocked with coffee and jelly babies. The course I
went on was fun, but had a serious side – I learnt a lot and felt tired at the end of each day –
a good sign you have worked hard.

Remote control

A standard remote control symbol used on many TVs, video equipment and remote
controls
In consumer electronics, a remote control is a component of an electronic device
such as a television set, DVD player, or other home appliance, used to operate the
device wirelessly from a short distance. Remote control is a convenience
feature[dubious – discuss] for the consumer, and can allow operation of devices that are out
of convenient reach for direct operation of controls.
Commonly, remote controls are Consumer IR devices which sends digitally-coded
pulses of infrared radiation to control functions such as power, volume, tuning,
temperature set point, fan speed, or other features. Remote controls for these
devices are usually small wireless handheld objects with an array of buttons for
adjusting various settings such as television channel, track number, and volume. For
many devices, the remote control contains all the function controls while the
controlled device itself has only a handful of essential primary controls.
Earlier remote controls in 1973 used ultrasonic tones. The remote control code, and
thus the required remote control device, is usually specific to a product line, but there
areuniversal remotes, which emulate the remote control made for most major brand
devices.
Remote control has continually evolved and advanced over recent years to
includeBluetooth connectivity, motion sensor-enabled capabilities and voice control.[1][2]

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Television remote controls[edit]

Remote controls for TV, VHS and DVD devices

The first remote intended to control a television was developed by Zenith Radio Corporation in
1950. The remote, called "Lazy Bones", was connected to the television by a wire. A wireless
remote control, the "Flashmatic", was developed in 1955 by Eugene Polley. It worked by shining a
beam of light onto aphotoelectric cell, but the cell did not distinguish between light from the remote
and light from other sources. The Flashmatic also had to be pointed very precisely at the receiver
in order to work.[8]

The Zenith Space Commander Six hundred remote control

A Toshiba TV remote
In 1956, Robert Adler developed "Zenith Space Command", a wireless remote.[9] It was
mechanical and used ultrasound to change the channel and volume. When the user pushed a
button on the remote control, it clicked and struck a bar, hence the term "clicker". Each bar
emitted a different frequency and circuits in the television detected this sound. The invention of
thetransistor made possible cheaper electronic remotes that contained a piezoelectric crystal that
was fed by an oscillatingelectric current at a frequency near or above the upper threshold ofhuman
hearing, though still audible to dogs. The receiver contained a microphone attached to a circuit that
was tuned to the same frequency. Some problems with this method were that the receiver could
be triggered accidentally by naturally occurring noises, and some people could hear the piercing
ultrasonic signals. There was an incident in which a toy xylophone changed the channels on such
sets because some of the overtones from the xylophone matched the remote's ultrasonic
frequency.[citation needed]
The impetus for a more complex type of television remote control came in 1973, with the
development of the Ceefax teletext service by theBBC. Most commercial remote controls at that
time had a limited number of functions, sometimes as few as three: next channel, previous
channel, and volume/off. This type of control did not meet the needs of teletext sets, where
pages were identified with three-digit numbers. A remote control to select teletext pages would
need buttons for each numeral from zero to nine, as well as other control functions, such as
switching from text to picture, and the normal television controls of volume, channel, brightness,
colour intensity, etc. Early teletext sets used wired remote controls to select pages, but the
continuous use of the remote control required for teletext quickly indicated the need for a
wireless device. So BBC engineers began talks with one or two television manufacturers, which
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led to early prototypes in around 1977–1978 that could control many more functions. ITT was
one of the companies and later gave its name to the ITT protocol of infrared communication.[10]
In 1980, a Canadian company, Viewstar, Inc., was formed by engineer Paul Hrivnak and started
producing a cable TV converter with an infrared remote control. The product was sold through
Philips for approximately $190 CAD. At the time the most popular remote control was the
Starcom of Jerrold (a division of General Instruments) which used 40-kHz sound to change
channels. The Viewstar converter was an immediate success, the millionth converter being sold
on March 21, 1985, with 1.6 million sold by 1989.[11]
Some television manufacturers now include Bluetooth remotes to control the television without
requiring line of sight, overcoming the limited range in IR-based remotes.
Other remote control]
The Blab Off was a wired remote control created in 1952 that turned a TV's sound on or off.[12]
In the 1980s Steve Wozniak of Apple started a company named CL 9. The purpose of this
company was to create a remote control that could operate multiple electronic devices. The
CORE unit (Controller Of Remote Equipment) was introduced in the fall of 1987. The advantage
to this remote controller was that it could "learn" remote signals from different devices. It had the
ability to perform specific or multiple functions at various times with its built-in clock. It was the
first remote control that could be linked to a computer and loaded with updated software code as
needed.
The CORE unit never made a huge impact on the market. It was much too cumbersome for the
average user to program, but it received rave reviews from those who could.[citation needed] These
obstacles eventually led to the demise of CL 9, but two of its employees continued the business
under the name Celadon. This was one of the first computer-controlled learning remote controls
on the market.[13]
In 2006, Hillcrest Labs introduced the Loop pointer, a remote control that used Hillcrest's
Freespace motion control technology to allow users to control their televisions with natural
gestures. The Loop had just four buttons and a scroll wheel.[14][15][16][17] Freespace-enabled
remote controls use radio waves to communicate with a USB antenna connected to a computer
that is also connected to the television, so they do not need to be pointed at the PC, or even
have a direct line of sight.[18][19][20]
In the 2010s, cars are increasingly sold with remote control door locks. These remotes transmit a
signal to the car which locks or unlocks the door locks or unlocks the trunk. An aftermarket
device sold in some countries is the remote starter. This enables a car owner to remotely start
their car. This feature is most associated with countries with winter climates, where users may
wish to start the car for several minutes before they intend to use it, so that the car heater and
defrost systems can remove ice and snow from the windows.
The proliferation of remote controls

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used remote controls for sale in a market in Hong Kong.
By the early 2000s, the number of consumer electronic devices in most homes greatly increased,
along with the number of remotes to control those devices. According to the Consumer Electronics
Association, an average US home has four remotes.[citation needed] To operate a home theater as many
as five or six remotes may be required, including one for cable or satellite receiver, VCR or digital
video recorder (DVR/PVR),DVD player, TV and audio amplifier. Several of these remotes may need
to be used sequentially but, as there are no accepted interface guidelines, the process is
increasingly cumbersome. One solution used to reduce the number of remotes that have to be
used is the universal remote, a remote control which is programmed with the operation codes for
most major brands of TVs, DVD players, etc. In the early 2010s, many smartphone manufacturers
began incorporating infrared emitters into their devices, thereby enabling their use as universal
remotes via an included or downloadable app.[21]

Technique
The main technology used in home remote controls is infrared (IR) light. The signal between a
remote control handset and the device it controls consists of pulses of infrared light, which is
invisible to the human eye, but can be seen through a digital camera, video camera or a phone
camera. The transmitter in the remote control handset sends out a stream of pulses of infrared
light when the user presses a button on the handset. A transmitter is often a light emitting
diode (LED) which is built into the pointing end of the remote control handset. The infrared light
pulses form a pattern unique to that button. The receiver in the device recognizes the pattern and
causes the device to respond accordingly.
Opto components, and circuits

The emission spectrum of a typical sound system remote control is in the near infrared.

The infrared diode modulates at a speed corresponding to a particular function. When

seen through a digital camera, the diode appears to be emitting pulses of purple light.
Most remote controls for electronic appliances use a nearinfrared diode to emit a beam of light
that reaches the device. A 940 nm wavelength LED is typical. This infrared light is invisible to the

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human eye, but picked up by sensors on the receiving device. Video cameras see the diode as if
it produces visible purple light.
With a single channel (single-function, one-button) remote control the presence of a carrier
signal can be used to trigger a function. For multi-channel (normal multi-function) remote controls
more sophisticated procedures are necessary: one consists of modulating the carrier with signals
of different frequency. After the receiver demodulates the received signal, it applies the
appropriate frequency filters to separate the respective signals. One can often hear the signals
being modulated on the infrared carrier by operating a remote control in very close proximity to
an AM radio not tuned to a station. Today, IR remote controls almost always use a pulse width
modulated code, encoded and decoded by digital computer: a command from a remote control
consists of a short train of pulses of carrier-present and carrier-not-present of varying widths.
Consumer electronics infrared protocols
Different manufacturers of infrared remote controls use different protocols to transmit the infrared
commands. The RC-5 protocol that has its origins within Philips, uses, for instance, a total of 14
bits for each button press. The bit pattern is modulated onto acarrier frequency that, again, can be
different for different manufacturers and standards, in the case of RC-5, the carrier is 36 kHz.
Other consumer infrared protocols include the various versions of SIRCS used by Sony, the RC-
6 from Philips, the Ruwido R-Step, and the NEC TC101 protocol.
Infrared, line of sight and operating angle
Since infrared (IR) remote controls use light, they require line of sight to operate the destination
device. The signal can, however, be reflected by mirrors, just like any other light source.
If operation is required where no line of sight is possible, for instance when controlling equipment
in another room or installed in a cabinet, many brands of IR extenders are available for this on
the market. Most of these have an IR receiver, picking up the IR signal and relaying it via radio
waves to the remote part, which has an IR transmitter mimicking the original IR control.
Infrared receivers also tend to have a more or less limited operating angle, which mainly
depends on the optical characteristics of the phototransistor. However, it's easy to increase the
operating angle using a matte transparent object in front of the receiver.
Radio remote control systems

The exterior and interior layout of the remote control for a garage door opener
Radio remote control (RF remote control) is used to control distant objects using a variety of
radio signals transmitted by the remote control device. As a complementary method to infrared
remote controls, the radio remote control is used with electric garage door or gate openers,
automatic barrier systems, burglar alarms and industrial automation systems.
Standards used for RF remotes are: Bluetooth AVRCP,ZigBee (RF4CE), Z-Wave.

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Most remote controls use their own coding, transmitting from 8 to 100 or more pulses, fixed
or Rolling code, usingOOK or FSK modulation.
Also, transmitters or receivers can be universal, meaning they are able to work with many
different codings. In this case, the transmitter is normally called Universal remote control
duplicator because it's able to copy existing remote controls, while the receiver is called Universal
receiver because it works with almost any remote control in the market.

Motor controller
A motor controller is a device or group of devices that serves to govern in some
predetermined manner the performance of an electric motor.[1] A motor controller
might include a manual or automatic means for starting and stopping the motor,
selecting forward or reverse rotation, selecting and regulating the speed, regulating
or limiting the torque, and protecting against overloads and faults.[2]
There are many types of starters:
1) Direct On Line (DOL)
2) Star delta starter
3) Auto transformer starter

Servo controllers are a wide category of motor control. Common features are:

 precise closed loop position control

 fast acceleration rates
 precise speed control Servo motors may be made from several motor types, the
most common being:
 brushed DC motor
 brushless DC motors
 AC servo motors
Light-emitting diode

Light-emitting diode

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 Blue, green, and red LEDs in 5 mm
diffused case

Working Electroluminescence
principle

Invented Oleg Losev (1927)[1]

James R.
Biard (1961)[2]
Nick
Holonyak (1962)[3]

First October 1962

production

Pin Anode and cathode

configuration

Electronic symbol

Parts of an LED. Although unlabeled, the flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post
embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being
forcefully pulled out via mechanical strain or vibration.

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Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[6]the earliest LEDs
emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as
transmitting elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote
controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs
were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available
across thevisible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness. Types

LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often
the same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic
is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have colorless housings.
Modern high-power LEDs such as those used for lighting and backlighting are generally
found in surface-mount technology (SMT) packages (not shown).

The main types of LEDs are miniature, high-power devices and custom
designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.

Electric Fan
Parts of the Electric Fan

Front Guard. It is a protective metal mesh wire used to prevent the fan
blade from any physical contact with foreign objects.

Power Controller. It is a circuit that controls the amount of power supplied

to the motor.

Sensor. It is the input receiver that detects input signal coming

from remote control.

Manual Control. It is a push button switch that controls manually

operation of the electric fan.

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 Non-polarized Capacitor. A low reactance non-polar capacitor connected in
series with the start winding of an electric fan.

Timer. It is used to switch on or off automatically with

predetermined time.

Comparator. It is a processing circuit that accepts the input signal

coming from remote control, manual switch or timer switch. This circuit provides the
triggering voltage to the power controller.

AC Motor. It is rotating electric machine which changes applied

electrical energy or power into mechanical output energy or power.

AC Plug. It is a connector intended for connecting to the main

source 220 V.

Washing Machine
Parts of the Washing Machine and their Working

 Let us see the important parts of the washing machine; this will also help us
understand the working of the washing machine. Please refer to the image below.
1) Water inlet control valve: Near the water inlet point of the washing there is water
inlet control valve. When you load the clothes in washing machine, this valve gets
opened automatically and it closes automatically depending on the total quantity of
the water required. The water control valve is actually the solenoid valve.
2) Water pump: The water pump circulates water through the washing machine. It
works in two directions, re-circulating the water during wash cycle and draining the
water during the spin cycle.
3) Tub: There are two types of tubs in the washing washing machine: inner and
outer. The clothes are loaded in the inner tub, where the clothes are washed, rinsed
and dried. The inner tub has small holes for draining the water. The external tub
covers theinner tub and supports it during various cycles of clothes washing.
4) Agitator or rotating disc: The agitator is located inside the tub of the washing
machine. It is the important part of the washing machine that actually performs the
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cleaning operation of the clothes. During the wash cycle the agitator rotates
continuously and produces strong rotating currents within the water due to which the
clothes also rotate inside the tub. The rotation of the clothes within water containing
the detergent enables the removal of the dirt particles from the fabric of the clothes.
Thus the agitator produces most important function of rubbing the clothes with each
other as well as with water.

TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: Terminate the connection of the following Domestic appliances.

Objective:
1. To learn about the basic connectivity and identify the connection.
2. To be able to learn and identifying the parts
3. To be able to diagnoses the possible defect and problem
4. And also learning for assembly and disassembly the system product

Materials needed:

1 Set of screw driver

1 set of soldering material
1 set of wire striper
VOM or meter
Flat iron
Electric fan and washing machine

Document No. EPAS-01

Date Developed: Issued by:
December 2015
Electronic Products
Assembly and Developed by: Page
Servicing NC II
Nolito Carreras Revision # 1
Joel N. Coralde
 Procedure:
1. Disassembly the product identify the parts and list the basic components
2. Identify the connection and terminate the polarity or color coding of wires
connection.
3. Assembly the system product and terminate the connection
4. Test and verify

Assessment Method:
1. Check the instructor all products for functionally or good condition of each
system product observe the connectivity of each task, each trainers
individual perform list the name of trainers to the progress chart.
2. We will check the instructor before testing and verify the connection, check
the achievement chart.
3. Direct observation and motivation

Electric Iron

The Invention of the Electric Iron

The electric iron is one of the most important, extremely popular and widely used
domestic electric appliance. The electric iron is based on the heating effect of electric
current. Find out more about the invention of the electric iron and how it works.

Document No. EPAS-01

Date Developed: Issued by:
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 Introduction
There are various electrical inventions used for domestic purposes such as the
electric fire, electric iron, and electric water heater that all depend on one common
principle; when a current is passed through a piece of wire, the wire heats up and
emits heat radiation. This heat is distributed and used for various purposes. Learn
more about how this works with information on the electric iron invention. In this
article, we will discuss about the various types, parts, and theory of operation.

 The Electric Iron

An electric Iron is a general household appliance used to press the wrinkles out of
the clothes. This works on the basis that the combination of heat and pressure
removes wrinkles. The principle of the electric iron is that when current is passed
through a coil, the coil gets red hot and transfers the heat to the base plate of the
electric iron through conduction.
In the earlier days steam irons were used, but now the electric iron is preferred over
the steam ones. Steam irons have some maintenance issues due to clogging. Steam
irons usually have vents through which the water passes. As the steam iron gets
used, slowly the minerals from the water accumulate at the vents and blocks the
water from passing through. Thus the efficiency of the steam iron is compromised.
So the steam iron has to be cleaned and maintained regularly to ensure its proper
working. If you live in an area where hard water is used, then clogging is a major
problem.

This drawback is eliminated in electric iron as it uses a heating element and there
are no vents in it. There is considerably less maintenance in an electric iron when
compared to a steam iron.

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Servicing NC II
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Joel N. Coralde
 There are basically two types of electric irons:
 Automatic
 Non-Automatic
There is not much difference between the two types. The former has one regulator to
control the temperature of the element and in-turn the temperature of the iron.
Now you may ask, why do we need to control the temperature of the iron?

 Parts of an Electric Iron

Sole Plate
The sole plate is the thick, triangular-shaped slab of iron that forms the base over
which the electric iron is built up. The bottom surface and edges are heavily
chromium plated, to prevent it from rusting. The base plate should hold the iron
pressure plate and cover plate in position. For this purpose we can see two or
sometimes three studs in the base plate. These studs aid in holding the position of
cover plate and pressure plate.
Pressure Plate
This plate is generally called the top plate as it follows the shape of sole plate. The
pressure plate has some holes through which the studs form the base plate passes
through. We should tighten the nuts on the studs in such a way that the pressure
plate and sole plate are pressed tight against each other. In some iron the pressure
plate is heavy and made of cast iron while in some other cases, it is a thin sheet of
steel, about ¼ cm thick.
In automatic type of electric iron, the pressure plate has a rectangular or circular hole
for locating the thermostat.

 Learn various facts and information about the electric iron invention including the
working parts of an electric iron and a typical schematic. The various parts include
heating element, pilot lamp, handle, cover plate, thermostat, capacitor, bimetallic
switch, and others are explained. Learn these facts of the electric iron including
diagrams and pictures.
Document No. EPAS-01
Date Developed: Issued by:
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Servicing NC II
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Joel N. Coralde
 Parts of electric Iron [contd...]
The Heating Element
The heating element is present between the sole plate and pressure plate. It is
pressed hard between the two plates. The heating element consists of nichrome wire
wound around a sheet of mica. The two ends of the nichrome wire are connected to
the contact strips. The contact strips are connected to the terminals of the iron.
There are two reasons for which mica is chosen in the heating material. Mica is a
very good insulating material. Besides that mica can also withstand very high
temperatures. The entire assembly of mica sheet, nichrome wire and contact strips
are riveted together resulting in a mechanically sound and robust construction. There
is an asbestos sheet, which separates and thermally insulates the top plate from the
heating element.

The Cover Plate

The cover plate is made of thin sheet of iron. It is placed on top of the base plate and
it covers all the internal parts of the iron. The handle and connector are only attached
to the cover plate.
Handle
The handle can be made either with wood or with plastic. The handle is attached to
the cover plate with the aid of screws. Studs can also be used for this purpose.
Pilot Lamp
The pilot lamp is housed in the cover plate of the electric iron. One end of the pilot
lamp is connected to supply, while the other end is connected to the heating
element. A shunt resistance is provided across the pilot lamp which assists in
providing a voltage drop. The shunt is designed to provide a voltage drop of 2-5
volts.
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Joel N. Coralde
Thermostat
When it comes to an automatic electric iron, the thermostat is the most important
item. It uses a bimetallic strip to operate the switch which is connected in series with
the resistance (or) heating element.
The bimetallic strip is a simple element which converts a temperature change into
mechanical displacement. A bimetallic strip consists of two different metals bonded
together. The two metals should have a different coefficient of expansion. If such a
strip is heated, it starts to curve towards the metal having the lower co-efficient of
expansion. On cooling, it straightens and comes back to the normal position.
Now we might wonder why such an element is used in iron. What is the purpose of
this element in an electric iron?
The bimetallic strip is attached to a contact spring through small pins. The contact
point between the strip and contact points remains closed. When the temperature
rises significantly, the unusual expansion causes the strip to curve and the contact
between strip and contact spring opens. Thus the supply to heating element is
temporarily stopped (until the temperature goes down to normal). A special device
called the cam is placed is placed near the contact spring, with which we specify the
amount of curving of bimetallic strip required to separate the contact.
Thus using bimetallic strip the temperature is kept constant within certain limits.

Capacitor

Document No. EPAS-01

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 The thermostat helps in maintaining the temperature within limits. But frequent
making and breaking of circuit damages the contact points and it may also result in
interference with radio reception. To avoid this, a capacitor of certain range is
connected across the two contact points.

 Working
When a current is passed through the heating element which is placed between the
sole plate and pressure plate, the element gets heated up and transfers its heat to
the sole plate through conduction and in-turn the sole plate also gets heated up. Now
to remove the wrinkles in clothing, we should apply heat and pressure. Heat is
formed due to the coil and when we press the clothes with iron, the wrinkles are
removed. For maintaining the optimum temperature, a thermostat is used along with
pilot lamp which serves as an indicator.

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Electrical installation rules, standards

 Definition of voltage ranges

 Electrical regulations and standards
 Quality and safety of an electrical installation
 Environmental directives

Installed power loads - Characteristics

 Induction motors
 Resistive-type heating appliances and incandescent lamps
(conventional or halogen)
 Fluorescent lamps
 Discharge lamps
 LED lamps & fixtures

Power loading of an installation

 Installed power (kW)

 Installed apparent power (kVA)
 Estimation of actual maximum kVA demand
 Example of application of factors ku and ks

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 Choice of transformer rating
 Choice of power-supply sources

Simple sequential lights

Sequential circuit (sequential machine) A logic circuit whose outputs at
a specified time are a function of the inputs at that time, and also at a finite
number of preceding times. In practice, any physically realizable
sequential circuit will have a finite transit time, or delay, between the
inputs changing and the outputs changing (one or more of these inputs
may be clock signals); the intention of the term sequential is to include not
only combinational circuits but also (explicitly) memory elements such as
flip-flops. Analysis and synthesis of sequential circuits is facilitated
by state diagrams.

Sequential Diagram

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 Solar

Solar energy is a dynamic illumination and temperature from the Sun controlled by
applying numerous ever-evolving alternative technologies similar to solar power
heating system, photovoltaic, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and man-
made photosynthesis.
It happens to be a significant method of obtaining sustainable energy and their
concepts are widely epitomized as a choice between passive solar or vibrant solar
determined by the means they harness and deliver solar power or process it into
photo voltaic energy. Vigorous solar strategies can include the utilization of
photovoltaic products, focused solar powered energy and solar water heating system
to funnel the electricity. Passive solar approaches comprise of orienting a house to
the Sunlight, deciding upon elements with preferred thermal volume or daylight
dispersing characteristics, and developing spots that organically disperse air flow.

Battery Chargers
A battery charger, or recharger, is equipment accustomed to supply electric power
into a supplementary cell or rechargeable battery pack by pressuring an electric
current into it.The recharging decorum is determined by the specifications and nature
of the battery getting charged. A number of battery categories possess large
tolerance for overcharging which enables them to be recharged by attaching to a
constant voltage supply or a constant current supply; ordinary chargers of this nature
necessitate hand cut-off at the finish of the charge cycle, or perhaps might well have
a timer device to discontinue charging current at a specified duration. Various other
Document No. EPAS-01
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battery classes are not able to endure prolonged high-rate over-charging; the
charger might need warmth or voltage sensing circuits and a microprocessor
controller to regulate the charging current, establish the status of charge, and
deactivate at the conclusion of charge.
Inverters
Some of the best square wave and sine wave inverter designs have been presented
on, specifically designed and researched by me.

But before that you may want to take a peek regarding what a sine wave inverter
concept is all about from the following discussion, the later section walks you through
the various sine wave inverter circuit links of your choice.
The following link will take you to some most interesting and useful LED related
circuits, such as LED drivers, LED formulas, LED hobby circuits and many more.

Flashing LED Battery Low Indicator Circuit

The post explains a simple low/normal battery voltage status indicator circuit through
a flashing and a constant LED, where the flashing LED indicates...

Battery Charger Circuit with 4 LED Indicator

A universal current controlled automatic battery charger circuit with 4 LED indicators
can be learned in the following post. The design also includes
LED
This page presents a huge collection of LED related circuit links, meticulously
designed and compiled by me. Here we exclusively deal with the various LED
driver circuits, consisting of articles explaining how to make LED drivers for
high watt LEDs through SMPS concepts and also using capacitive power
supplies.

We also learn regarding the various safety related parameters essentially

stipulated for these LEDs, this includes detailed instruction regarding how to
make precise current control circuits and also regarding how to wire the LEDs
correctly such that the SMPS and the LeDs become perfectly compatible with
each other and render an optimal performance and maximum operating life
span.

Document No. EPAS-01

Date Developed: Issued by:
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 SOLAR PANEL SETUP

Document No. EPAS-01

Date Developed: Issued by:
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 Tools Required
➢ Table Saw – Not an absolute requirement but will make the job of cutting the
wood and acrylic a lot easier. Use a 60 tooth blade for the wood and an 80 tooth
blade for the acrylic.
➢ Electric Drill – For drilling the panel frame, acrylic etc.
➢ Clamps Various - To hold the panel frame pieces together during construction
➢ Soldering Iron – You will need to experiment to find the soldering iron that works
for you. See www.diypvsolarenergy.com for some recommendations.
➢ Multimeter – You will need a meter to measure DC voltage up to 24V and DC
current up to 5A. Most meters won't measure high currents so you may need to
borrow or purchase one that does.
➢ 3/16” drill bit for plastics – It is important to use a drill bit designed for drilling
plastic. If you don't you will likely crack your sheet of acrylic. The drill has a
distinctively different pitch and a pilot tip. Source – Aircraft Tool Supply P/N DDPD-
3/16
➢ Philips screwdriver –
Various screws
➢ Regular Screwdriver – Various screws
➢ Electrical side cutters – Small for delicate work, mid size for cutting 12 gage wire
➢ Electrical crimping toll – To crimp the #8 connectors in the junction box
➢ Electrical wire strippers – To strip the 12 gage wire

Document No. EPAS-01

Date Developed: Issued by:
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Electronic Products
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Servicing NC II
Nolito Carreras Revision # 1
Joel N. Coralde
 TASK SHEET AND INSTRUCTION

Title: Terminate the connection of solar panel

Objective:
1. To identify the connection of each solar panel components
2. To learn basic function of the input voltage and output voltage
from DC. To AC. Isolation
3. To perform and actual application of the following product
assembly.
Materials Needed:
Set of screw driver
Measuring tools and drill bit
Wires striper and solar panel components
VOM or meter

Procedures:
1. Apply OHS before start the task list the components and prepare
the system installation.
2. Connect each components verify the connectivity
3. Before testing try to verify the polarity and connectivity
4. Test and measure the output voltage.
Assessment Method:
1. The instructor checks all components for a good condition and
functionally good components.
2. List the actual demonstration of the trainers and check the
progress chart.
3. Actual observe direct motivation the trainers.

Document No. EPAS-01

Date Developed: Issued by:
December 2015
Electronic Products
Assembly and Developed by: Page
Servicing NC II
Nolito Carreras Revision # 1
Joel N. Coralde