Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

C6.1 No specification can anticipate all of the

unique or especially demanding applications that
Most of the provisions for proportioning may arise. The literature on specific properties
main elements are grouped by structural action: of concern and appropriate supplementary
material production or quality requirements,
 Tension and combined tension and flexure provided in the AASHTO and ASTM Material
(Article 6.8) Specifications and the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS
Bridge Welding Code, should be considered, if
 Compression and combined compression appropriate.
and flexure (Article 6.9) ASTM A 709M, Grade HPS485W, has
replaced AASHTO M 270M, Grade 485W, in
 Flexure and flexural shear: Table 1. The intent of this replacement is to
encourage the use of HPS steel over
 I-sections (Article 6.10) conventional bridge steels due to its enhanced
properties. AASHTO M 270M, Grade 485W, is
 box sections (Article 6.1 1 ) still available, but should be used only with the
owners approval. The available lengths of
 miscellaneous sections (Article 6.12) ASTM A 709M, Grade HPS485W, are a
function of the processing of the plate, with
Provisions for connections and splices are longer lengths produced as as-rolled plate.
contained in Article 6.13.
Article 6.14 contains provisions specific to C6.4.3.1
particular assemblages or structural types, e.g.,
through-girder spans, trusses, orthotropic deck The ASTM standard for A 307 bolts
systems, and arches. covers two grades of fasteners. There is no
corresponding AASHTO standard. Either grade
C6.4.1 may be used under these Specifications;
however, Grade B is intended for pipe-flange
The term "yield strength" is used in bolting, and Grade A is the quality traditionally
these Specifications as a generic term to denote used for structural applications.
either the minimum specified yield point or the
minimum specified yield stress. The purpose of the dye is to allow a
The main difference, and in most cases visual check to be made for the lubricant at the
the only difference, between AASHTO and time of field installation. Black bolts must be
ASTM requirements is the inclusion of oily to the touch when delivered and installed.
mandatory notch toughness and weldability
requirements in the AASHTO Material C6.4.3.2
Standards. Steels meeting the AASHTO
Material requirements are prequalified for use in All galvanized nuts shall be lubricated
welded bridges. with a lubricant containing a visible dye.
The yield strength in the direction
parallel to the direction of rolling is of primary C6.4.3.3
interest in the design of most steel structures. In
welded bridges, notch toughness is of equal Installation provisions for washers are
importance. Other mechanical and physical covered in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
properties of rolled steel, such as anisotropy, Construction Specifications (1998).
ductility, formability, and corrosion resistance,
may also be important to ensure the satisfactory
performance of the structure.
C6.4.3.5

C6 - 1
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

Installation provisions for load- C6.6.1.2.1

indicating devices are covered in the AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications Concrete can provide significant
(1998). resistance to tensile stress at service load levels.
Recognizing this behavior will have a
C6.4.4 significantly beneficial effect on the
computation of fatigue stress ranges in top
Physical properties, test methods and flanges in regions of stress reversal and in
certification of steel shear connectors are regions of negative flexure. By utilizing shear
covered in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge connectors in these regions to ensure composite
Construction Specifications (1998). action in combination with the required 1
percent longitudinal reinforcement wherever the
C6.4.5 longitudinal tensile stress in the slab exceeds the
factored modulus of rupture of the concrete,
The AWS designation systems are not crack length and width can be controlled so that
consistent. For example, there are differences full-depth cracks should not occur. When a crack
between the system used for designating does occur, the stress in the longitudinal
electrodes for shielded metal arc welding and the reinforcement increases until the crack is
system used for designating submerged arc arrested. Ultimately, the cracked concrete and
welding. Therefore, when specifying weld metal the reinforcement reach equilibrium. Thus, the
and/or flux by AWS designation, the applicable slab may contain a small number of staggered
specification should be reviewed to ensure a cracks at any given section. Properly placed
complete understanding of the designation longitudinal reinforcement prevents coalescence
reference. of these cracks.
It has been shown that the level of total
C6.5.2 applied stress is insignificant for a welded steel
detail. Residual stresses due to welding are
The intent of this provision is to prevent implicitly included through the specification of
permanent deformations due to localized stress range as the sole dominant stress
yielding. parameter for fatigue design. This same concept
of considering only stress range has been
C6.5.4.2 applied to rolled, bolted, and riveted details
where far different residual stress fields exist.
Base metal  as appropriate for The application to nonwelded details is
resistance under consideration. conservative.
The live load stress due to the passage
The basis for the resistance factors for of the fatigue load is approximately one-half that
driven steel piles is described in Article 6.15.2. of the heaviest truck expected to cross the bridge
in 75 years.
Indicated values of c and f for
combined axial and flexural resistance are for C6.6.1.2.2
use in interaction equations in Article 6.9.2.2.
Further limitations on usable resistance during Equation 1 may be developed by
driving are specified in Article 10.7.1.16. rewriting Equation 1.3.2.1-1 in terms of fatigue
load and resistance parameters:
C6.6.1.1

In the AASHTO Standard Specifications

for Highway Bridges (16th edition), the
provisions explicitly relating to fatigue dealt
only with load-induced fatigue.

C6 - 2
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

possible vertical misalignment and corrosion

C6.6.1.2.3 susceptibility. Intermittent tack welds inside
of the groove may be acceptable because the
Components and details susceptible to tack welds are ultimately fused with the
load-induced fatigue cracking have been groove weld material. The same
grouped into eight categories, called detail considerations apply to welded closed rib
categories, by fatigue resistance. splices.
Experience indicates that in the design
process the fatigue considerations for Detail  Bolted deck or rib splices, Case (4) - Bolted
Categories A through B' rarely, if ever, govern. deck splices are not applicable where thin
Components and details with fatigue resistances surfacings are intended. However, bolted rib
greater than Detail Category C have been splices, requiring "bolting windows", but
included in Tables 1 and 2 for completeness. having a favorable fatigue rating, combined
Investigation of details with fatigue resistance with welded deck splices, are favored in
greater than Detail Category C may be American practice.
appropriate in unusual design cases.
Category F for allowable shear stress  Welded deck and rib shop splices - Case (6)
range on the throat of a fillet weld has been corresponds to the current provision. Case
eliminated from Table 1 and replaced by (5) gives a more favorable classification for
Category E. Category F was not as well defined. welds ground flush.
Category E can be conservatively applied in
place of Category F. When fillet welds are  “Window" rib splice - Case (7) is the
properly sized for strength considerations, method favored by designers for welded
Category F should not govern. splices of closed ribs, offering the advantage
In Table 1, "Longitudinally Loaded'' of easy adjustment in the field. According to
signifies that the direction of applied stress is ECSC research, a large welding gap
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the weld. improves fatigue strength. A disadvantage of
”Transversely Loaded" signifies that the this splice is inferior quality and reduced
direction of applied stress is perpendicular to the fatigue resistance of the manual overhead
longitudinal axis of the weld. weld between the rib insert and the deck
Research on end-bolted cover plates is plate, and fatigue sensitive junction of the
discussed in Wattar et al. (1985). shop and the field deck/rib weld.
Table 2 contains special details for
orthotropic plates. These details require careful  Ribs at intersections with floorbeams – A
consideration of not only the specification distinction is made between rib walls
requirements, but also the application guidelines subjected to axial stresses only, i.e., Case
in the commentary. (8), closed ribs with internal diaphragm, or
open rib, and rib walls subjected to
 Welded deck plate field splices, Cases (1), additional out-of-plane bending, i.e., Case
(2), (3) - The current specifications (9), closed ribs without internal diaphragms,
distinguish between the transverse and the where out-of-plane bending caused by
longitudinal deck plate splices and treat the complex interaction of the closed-rib wall
transverse splices more conservatively. with the "tooth" of the floorbeam web
However, there appears to be no valid between the ribs contributes additional
reason for such differential treatment; in flexural stresses in the rib wall which should
fact, the longitudinal deck plate splices may be added to the axial stresses in calculations
be subjected to higher stresses under the of the governing stress range. Calculation of
effects of local wheel loads. Therefore, only the interaction forces and additional flexure
the governing fatigue stress range should in the rib walls is extremely complex
govern. One of the disadvantages of field because of the many geometric parameters
splices with backing bars left in place is

C6 - 3
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

involved and may be accomplished only by

a refined FEM analysis. Obviously, this is  Deck plate at the connection to the
often not a practical design option, and it is floorbeam web - For Case (12) basic
expected that the designers will choose Case considerations apply for a stress flow in the
(8) with an interior diaphragm, in which direction parallel to the floorbeam web
case there is no cantilever in- plane bending locally deviated by a longitudinal weld, for
of the floorbeam "tooth" and no associated which Category E is usually assigned.
interaction stress causing bending of the rib Tensile stress in the deck, which is relevant
wall. However, Case (9) may serve for for fatigue analysis, will occur in floorbeams
evaluation of existing decks without internal continuous over a longitudinal girder, or in a
diaphragms inside the closed ribs. floorbeam cantilever. Additional local
stresses in the deck plate in the direction of
 Floorbeam web at intersection with the rib - the floorbeam web will occur in closed-rib
Similarly, as in the cases above, distinction decks of traditional design where the deck
is made between the closed ribs with and plate is unsupported over the rib cavity.
without internal diaphragms in the plane of Resulting stress flow concentration at the
the floorbeam web. For the Case (l0), the edges of floorbeam "teeth" may cause very
stress flow in the floorbeam web is assumed high peak stresses. This has resulted in
to be uninterrupted by the cutout for the rib; severe cracking in some thin deck plates
however, an additional axial stress which were 12 mm thick or less. This
component acting on the connecting welds additional out-of-plane local stress may be
due to the tension field in the "tooth" of the reduced by extending the internal diaphragm
floorbeam web caused by shear applied at plate inside the closed rib and fitting it
the floorbeamldeck plate junction must be tightly against the underside of the deck
added to the axial stress f1. A local flexural plate to provide continuous support,
stress f2 in the floorbeam web is due to the Wolchuk (1999). Reduction of these stresses
out-of-plane bending of the web caused by in thicker deck plates remains to be studied.
the rotation of the rib in its plane under the A thick surfacing may also contribute to a
effects of unsymmetrical live loads on the wider load distribution and deck plate stress
deck. Both stresses f1, and f2 at the toe of the reduction. Fatigue tests on a full-scale
weld are directly additive; however, only prototype orthotropic deck demonstrated
stress f1, is to be included in checking the that a deck plate of 16 mm was sufficient to
load carrying capacity of filled welds by prevent any cracking after 15.5 million
Equation 6.6.1.2.5-3. The connection cycles. The applied load was 3.6 times the
between the rib wall and floorbeam web or equivalent fatigue-limit state wheel load and
rib wall and internal diaphragm plate can there was no wearing surface on the test
also be made using a combination specimen. However, the minimum deck
groove/fillet weld connection. The fatigue plate thickness allowed by these
resistance of the combination groove/fillet specifications is 14 mm. Where interior
weld connection has been found to be diaphragms are used, extending the
Category C and is not governed by Equation diaphragms to fit the underside of the deck
6.6.1.2.5-3. See also Note e), Figure is suggested as a safety precaution,
9.8.3.7.4-1. Stress f2, can be calculated from especially if large rib web spacing is used.
considerations of rib rotation under variable
live load and geometric parameters  Additional commentary on the use of
accounting for rotational restraints at the rib internal diaphragms versus cutouts in the
support, e.g., floorbeam depth, floorbeam floorbeam web can be found in Article
web thickness. For Case (11), without an C9.8.3.7.4.
internal diaphragm, the stresses in the web
are very complex and comments for Case C6.6.1.2.5
(9) apply.

C6 - 4
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

The fatigue resistance above the which the infinite life check governs, assuming a
constant amplitude fatigue threshold, in terms of 75-year design life and one cycle per truck.
cycles, is inversely proportional to the cube of
the stress range, e.g., if the stress range is
reduced by a factor of 2, the fatigue life
increases by a factor of 23.
The requirement on higher-traffic-
volume bridges that the maximum stress range
experienced by a detail be less than the constant-
amplitude fatigue threshold provides a
theoretically infinite fatigue life. The maximum
stress range is assumed to be twice the live load
stress range due to the passage of the fatigue
load, factored in accordance with the load factor
in Table 3.4.1-1 for the fatigue load
combination.
In the AASHTO 1996 Standard
Specifications, the constant amplitude fatigue
threshold was termed the allowable fatigue
stress range for more than 2 million cycles on a
redundant load path structure. The design life
has been considered to be 75 years in the overall The values in the above table have been
development of these LRFD Specifications. If a computed using the values for A and (F)TH
design life other than 75 years is sought, a specified in Tables 1 and 3, respectively. The
number other than 75 may be inserted in the resulting values of the 75-year (ADTT) SL, differ
equation for N. slightly when using the values for A and (F)TH,
Figure C1 is a graphical representation given in the Customary US Units and SI Units
of the nominal fatigue resistance for Categories versions of the specifications. The values in the
A through E'. above table represent the larger value from
either version of the specifications rounded up to
the nearest 5 trucks per day.
Equation 3 assumes no penetration at
the weld root. Development of Equation 3 is
discussed in Frank and Fisher (1979).
In the AASHTO 1996 Standard
Specifications, allowable stress ranges were
specified for both redundant and nonredundant
members. The allowables for nonredundant
members were arbitrarily specified as 80 percent
of those for redundant members due to the more
severe consequences of failure of a
nonredundant member. However, greater
fracture toughness was also specified for
nonredundant members. In combination, the
When the design stress range is less than reduction in allowable stress range and the
one-half of the constant-amplitude fatigue greater fracture toughness constitute an
threshold, the detail will theoretically provide unnecessary double penalty for nonredundant
infinite life. Except for Categories E and E', for members. The requirement for greater fracture
higher traffic volumes, the design will most toughness has been maintained. Therefore, the
often be governed by the infinite life check. allowable stress ranges represented by Equation
Table CI shows the values of (ADTT)SL, above

C6 - 5
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

6.6.1.2.5-1 are applicable to both redundant and This requirement reduces potential
nonredundant members. distortion- induced stresses in the gap between
the web or stiffener and the lateral members on
For the purpose of determining the the lateral plate. These stresses may result from
stress cycles per truck passage for continuous vibration of the lateral system.
spans, a distance equal to one-tenth the span on
each side of an interior support should be C6.6.1.3.3
considered to be near the support.
The number of cycles per passage is The purpose of this provision is to
taken as 5.0 for cantilever girders because this control distortion-induced fatigue of deck details
type of bridge is susceptible to large vibrations, subject to local secondary stresses due to out-of-
which cause additional cycles after the truck has plane bending.
left the bridge (Moses et al. 1987; Schilling
1990). C6.6.2

C6.6.1.3 Material for main load-carrying

components subjected to tensile stress require
These rigid load paths are required to supplemental impact properties as specified in
preclude the development of significant the AASHTO Material Specifications. The basis
secondary stresses that could induce fatigue and philosophy for these requirements is given
crack growth in either the longitudinal or the in AISI (1975).
transverse member (Fisher et al. 1990). The Charpy V-notch impact
requirements vary, depending on the type of
C6.6.1.3.1 steel, type of construction, whether welded or
mechanically fastened, and the applicable
These provisions appeared in previous minimum service temperature.
editions of the AASHTO Standard
Specifications in Article 10.20 "Diaphragms and FCMs shall be fabricated according to
Cross Frames" with no explanation as to the Section 12 of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5
rationale for the requirements and no reference Bridge Welding Code.
to distortion-induced fatigue.
These provisions apply to both C6.7.4.1
diaphragms between longitudinal members and
diaphragms internal to longitudinal members. The arbitrary requirement for
The 90 000 N load represents a rule of diaphragms spaced at not more than 7600 mm in
thumb for straight, nonskewed bridges. For the 16th edition of the AASHTO Standard
curved or skewed bridges, the diaphragm forces Specifications has been replaced by a
should be determined by analysis (Keating requirement for rational analysis that will often
1990). result in the elimination of fatigue-prone
attachment details.
C6.6.1.3.2
C6.7.4.3
The specified minimum distance from
the flange is intended to reduce out-of-plane Temporary diaphragms or cross-frames
distortion concentrated in the web between the in box sections may be required for
lateral connection plate and the flange to a transportation and at field splices and the Ming
tolerable magnitude. It also provides adequate points of each shipping piece. In designs outside
electrode access and moves the connection plate the limitations of Article 6.11.1.1.1, distortional
closer to the neutral axis of the girder to reduce stresses can be reduced by the introduction of
the impact of the weld termination on fatigue intermediate diaphragms or cross-frames within
strength. the girders.

C6 - 6
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

C6.7.5.2 The reduction factor, U, does not apply

when checking yielding on the gross section
Wind-load stresses in I-sections may be because yielding tends to equalize the
reduced by: nonuniform tensile stresses caused over the
cross-section by shear lag.
 Changing the flange size, Due to strain hardening, a ductile steel
loaded in axial tension can resist a force greater
 Reducing the diaphragm or cross-frame than the product of its gross area and its' yield
spacing, or strength prior to fracture. However, excessive
elongation due to uncontrolled yielding of gross
 Adding lateral bracing. area not only marks the limit of usefulness but
can precipitate failure of the structural system of
The relative economy of these methods should which it is a part. Depending on the ratio of net
be investigated. area to gross area and the mechanical properties
of the steel, the component can fracture by
C6.7.5.3 failure of the net area at a load smaller than that
required to yield the gross area. General yielding
Investigation will generally show that a of the gross area and fracture of the net area both
lateral bracing system is not required between constitute measures of component strength. The
straight multiple box sections. relative values of the resistance factors for
In box sections with sloping webs, the yielding and fracture reflect the different
horizontal component of web shear acts as a reliability indices deemed proper for the two
lateral horizontal force on the flange of the box modes.
girder. Internal lateral bracing or struts may be The part of the component occupied by
required to resist this force prior to deck the net area at fastener holes generally has a
placement. negligible length relative to the total length of
For straight box sections with spans less the member. As a result, the strain hardening is
than about 45 000 mm, at least one panel of quickly reached and, therefore, yielding of the
horizontal lateral bracing should be provided on net area at fastener holes does not constitute a
each side of a lifting point. Straight box sections strength limit of practical significance, except
with spans greater than about 45 000 mm may perhaps for some builtup members of unusual
require a full length lateral bracing system to proportions.
prevent distortions brought about by temperature For welded connections, An, is the gross
changes occurring prior to concrete slab section less any access holes in the connection
placement. region.

C6.7.6.2.1 C6.8.2.2

The development of Equation 1 is For shear lag in flexural components,

discussed in Kulicki (1983). see Article 4.6.2.6. These cases include builtup
members, wide-flange shapes, channels, tees,
and angles. For bolted connections, Munse and
Chesson (1963) observed that the loss in
efficiency at the net section due to shear lag was
C6.8.1 related to the ratio of the length, L, of the
connection and the eccentricity, x, between the
The provisions of the AISC (1993) may shear plane and the centroidal axis of the
be used to design tapered tension members. connected component. They concluded that a
decrease in joint length increases the shear lag
C6.8.2.1 effect. To approximate the efficiency of the net

C6 - 7
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

section by taking into account joint length and C6.8.3

geometry, the following expression may be used
for U in lieu of the lower bound value of 0.85: In the metric bolt standard, the hole size
for standard holes is 2 mm larger than the bolt
diameter for 24 mm and smaller bolts, and 3 mm
larger than the bolt diameter for bolts larger than
For rolled or builtup shapes, the distance 24 mm in diameter. Thus, a constant width
x is to be referred to the center of gravity of the increment of 3.2 mm applied to the bolt
material lying on either side of the centerline of diameter will not work. Also, the deduction
symmetry of the cross-section, as illustrated should be 2 mm and not 1.6 mm (the soft
below. conversion) since metric tapes and rulers are not
read to less than a mm.
The development of the "s 2/4g" rule for
estimating the effect of a chain of holes on the
tensile resistance of a section is described in
McGuire (1968). Although it has theoretical
shortcomings, it has been used for a long time
and has been found to be adequate for ordinary
connections.
In designing a tension member, it is
conservative and convenient to use the least net
width for any chain together with the full tensile
force in the member. It is sometimes possible to
achieve an acceptable, slightly less conservative
design by checking each possible chain with a
tensile force obtained by subtracting the force
removed by each bolt ahead of that chain, i.e.,
closer to midlength of the member from the full
tensile force in the member. This approach
assumes that the full force is transferred equally
by all bolts at one end.

C6.8.5.1

Perforated plates, rather than tie plates

and/or lacing, are now used almost exclusively
in builtup members. However, tie plates with or
without lacing may be used where special
C6.8.2.3
circumstances warrant. Limiting design
proportions are given in AASHTO (1996) and
Interaction equations in tension and
AISC (1994).
compression members are a design
simplification. Such equations involving
C6.8.6.1
exponents of 1.0 on the moment ratios are
usually conservative. More exact, nonlinear
Equation 6.8.2.1-2 does not control
interaction curves are also available and are
because the net section in the head is at least
discussed in Galambos (1988). If these
1.35 greater than the section in the body.
interaction equations are used, additional
investigation of service limit state stresses is
necessary to avoid premature yielding.
C6.8.6.2

C6 - 8
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

The limitation on the hole diameter for alternative formulations with the results of
steel with yield strengths above 485 MPa, which refined inelastic analyses of 82 frame sidesway
is not included in the 16th edition of the cases (Kanchanalai 1977). Pu, Mux, and Muy, are
AASHTO Standard Specifications, 1996, is simultaneous axial and flexural forces on cross-
intended to prevent dishing beyond the pin hole sections determined by analysis under factored
(AISC 1994). loads. The maximum calculated moment in the
member in each direction including the second
C6.8.6.3 order effects, should be considered. Where
maxima occur on different cross-sections, each
The eyebar assembly should be detailed should be checked.
to prevent corrosion-causing elements from
entering the joints. Eyebars sometimes vibrate C6.9.4.1
perpendicular to their plane. The intent of this
provision is to prevent repeated eyebar contact These equations are identical to the
by providing adequate spacing or by clamping. column design equations of AISC (1993). Both
are essentially the same as column strength
C6.8.7.3 curve 2P of Galambos (1988). They incorporate
an out-of-straightness criterion of L/500. The
The proportions specified in this article development of the mathematical form of these
assure that the member will not fail in the region equations is described in Tide (1985), and the
of the hole if the strength limit state is satisfied structural reliability they are intended to provide
in the main plate away from the hole. is discussed in Galambos (1988).
Singly symmetric and unsymmetric
C6.8.7.4 compression member, such as angles or tees, and
doubly symmetric compression members, such
The pin-connected assembly should be as cruciform members or builtup members with
detailed to prevent corrosion-causing elements very thin walls, may be governed by the modes
from entering the joints. of flexural-torsional buckling or torsional
buckling rather than the conventional axial
C6.9.1 buckling mode reflected by Equations 1 and 2.
The design of these members for these less
Conventional column design formulas conventional buckling modes is covered in
contain allowances for imperfections and AISC (1993).
eccentricities permissible in normal fabrication Member elements not satisfying the
and erection. The effect of any significant width/thickness requirements of Article 6.9.4.2
additional eccentricity should be accounted for should be classified as slender elements. The
in bridge design. design of members including such elements is
Torsional buckling or flexural-torsional covered in AISC (1993).
buckling of singly symmetric and unsymmetric
compression members and doubly symmetric C6.9.4.2
compression members with very thin walls
should be investigated. Pertinent provisions of The purpose of this article is to ensure
AISC (1994) can be used to design tapered that uniformly compressed components can
compression members. develop the yield strength in compression before
the onset of local buckling. This does not
C6.9.2.2 guarantee that the component has the ability to
strain inelasticity at constant stress sufficient to
These equations are identical to the permit full plastification of the cross-section for
provisions in AISC LRFD Specification (1994). which the more stringent width-to-thickness
They were selected for use in that Specification requirements of the applicable portion of Article
after being compared with a number of 6.10 apply.

C6 - 9
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

Concrete-encased shapes are not subject

The form of the width-to-thickness to the width/thickness limitations specified in
equations derives from the classical elastic Article 6.9.4.2 because it has been shown that
critical stress formula for plates: F cr = [π2kE]/ the concrete provides adequate support against
[12(1-2)(b/t)2], in which the buckling local buckling.
coefficient, k, is a function of loading and
support conditions. For a long, uniformly C6.10.1
compressed plate with one longitudinal edge
simply supported against rotation and the other Noncomposite sections are not
free, k = 0.425, and for both edges simply recommended but are permitted.
supported, k = 4.00 (Timoshenko and Gere
1961). For these conditions, the coefficients of C6.10.2.1
the b/t equation become 0.620 and 1.90l,
respectively. The coefficients specified herein The ratio of Iyc/Iy determines the location
are the result of further analyses and numerous of the shear center of a singly symmetric
tests and reflect the effect of residual stresses, section. Girders with ratios outside of the limits
initial imperfections, and actual (as opposed to specified are like a "T" section with the shear
ideal) support conditions. center located at the intersection of the larger
The Specified minimum wall flange and the web. The formulas for lateral
thicknesses of tubing are identical to those of the torsional buckling used in the Specification are
1995 AC1 Building Code. Their purpose is to not valid for such sections.
prevent buckling of the steel pipe or tubing
before yielding. C6.10.2.2

C6.9.5.1 The specified web slenderness limit for

sections without longitudinal stiffeners
The procedure for the design of corresponds to the upper limit for transversely
composite columns is the same as that for the stiffened webs in AASHTO (1996). This limit
design of steel columns, except that the yield defines an upperbound below which fatigue due
strength of structural steel, the modulus of to excessive lateral web deflections is not a
elasticity of steel, and the radius of gyration of consideration (Yen and Mueller 1966; Mueller
the steel section are modified to account for the and Yen 1968).
effect of concrete and of longitudinal reinforcing The specified web slenderness limit for
bars. Explanation of the origin of these longitudinally stiffened webs is retained from
modifications and comparison of the design the Load Factor Design portion of AASHTO
procedure, with the results of numerous tests, (1996). Static tests of large-size late girders
may be found in SSRC Task Group 20 (1979) fabricated from A 36 steel with D/t w ratios
and Galambos and Chapuis (1980). greater than 400 have demonstrated the
effectiveness of longitudinal stiffeners in
C6.9.5.2.1 minimizing lateral web deflections (Cooper
1967). Accordingly, the web slenderness limit
Little of the test data supporting the given by Equation 2 is used for girders with
development of the present provisions for design transverse and longitudinal stiffeners. The
of composite columns involved concrete specified web slenderness limit is twice that for
strengths in excess of 40 MPa. Normal density girders with transverse stiffeners only. Practical
concrete was believed to have been used in all upper limits are specified on the limiting web
tests. A lower limit of 20 MPa is specified to slenderness ratios computed from either
encourage the use of good-quality concrete. Equation 1 or 2. The upper limits are slightly
above the web slenderness limit computed from
C6.9.5.2.3 Equation 1 or 2 when fc is taken equal to 250
MPa.

C6 - 10
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

When the compression flange is at a flange may be subject to an unanticipated stress

dead-load tress of fc, considering the deck- reversal.
placement sequence, the corresponding stress in
a web of slenderness 2Dc/tw between the limit C6.10.3.1.2
specified by Equation 1 and a slenderness of
λb(E/fc,)1/2, where λb is defined in Article The yield moment, My, of a composite
6.10.4.2.6a, will be slightly above the elastic section is needed only for the strength limit state
web buckling stress. For this case, the nominal investigation of the following types of
flexural resistance of the steel section must be composite sections:
reduced accordingly by an Rb factor less than
1.0.  Compact positive bending sections in
continuous spans,
C6.10.2.3
 Negative bending sections designed by the
The minimum compression flange width Q formula,
on fabricated I-sections, given by Equation 1, is
specified to ensure that the web is adequately  Hybrid negative bending sections for which
restrained by the flanges to control web bend the neutral axis is more than 10 percent of
buckling. Equation 1 specifies an absolute the web depth from middepth of the web,
minimum width. In actuality, it would be
preferable for b, to be greater than or equal to  Compact homogeneous sections with
0.4Dc. In addition, the compression flange stiffened webs subjected to combined
thickness, tf, should preferably be greater than or moment and shear values exceeding
equal to 1.5 times the web thickness, tw. These specified limits, and
recommended proportions are based on a study
(Zureick and Shih 1994) on doubly symmetric  Noncompact sections used at the last plastic
tangent I-sections, which clearly showed that the hinge to form inelastic designs.
web bend buckling resistance was dramatically
reduced when the compression flange buckled A procedure for calculating the yield
prior to the web. Although this study was limited moment is presented in Appendix A.
to doubly symmetric I-sections, the
recommended minimum flange proportions from C6.10.3.1.3
this study are deemed to be adequate for
reasonably proportioned singly symmetric I- The plastic moment of a composite
sections by incorporating the depth of the web of section in positive flexure can be determined by:
the steel section in compression in the elastic
range, Dc, in Equation 1. The advent of  Calculating the element forces and using
composite design has led to a significant them to determine whether the plastic
reduction in the size of compression flanges in neutral axis is in the web, top flange, or slab,
regions of positive flexure. These smaller
flanges are most likely to be governed by these
 Calculating the location of the plastic neutral
proportion limits. Providing minimum
axis within the element determined in the
compression flange widths that satisfy these
first step; and
limits in these regions will help ensure a more
stable girder that is easier to handle.
 Calculating Mp. Equations for the five cases
The slenderness of tension flanges on
most likely to occur in practice are given in
fabricated I-sections is limited to a practical
Appendix A.
upper limit of 12.0 by Equation 2 to ensure the
flanges will not distort excessively when welded
The forces in the longitudinal reinforcement
to the web. Also, an upper limit on the tension
may be conservatively neglected. To do this, set
flange slenderness covers the case where the

C6 - 11
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

Prb, and Prt, equal to 0 in the equations in The location of the neutral axis may be
Appendix A. determined from the conditions listed in
The plastic moment of a composite section Appendix A.
in negative flexure can be calculated by an
analogous procedure. Equations for the two C6.10.3.2.1
cases most likely to occur in practice are also
given in Appendix A. The entire concrete deck may not be cast
in one stage; thus parts of the girders may
C6.10.3.1.4a become composite in sequential stages. If
certain deck casting sequences are followed, the
For composite sections, Dc, is a function temporary moments induced in the girders
of the algebraic sum of the stresses caused by during the deck staging can be considerably
loads acting on the steel, long-term composite, higher than the final noncomposite dead load
and short-term composite sections. Thus, D c, is a moments after the sequential casting is
function of the dead-to-live load stress ratio. At complete, and all the concrete has hardened.
sections in positive flexure, Dc, of the composite Economical composite girders normally
section will increase with increasing span have smaller top flanges than bottom flanges in
because of the increasing dead-to-live load ratio. positive bending regions. Thus, more than half
As a result, using Dc, of the short-term of the noncomposite web depth is typically in
composite section, as has been customary in the compression in these regions during deck
past, is unconservative. In lieu of computing D c, construction. If the higher moments generated
at sections in positive flexure from the stress during the deck casting sequence are not
diagrams, the following equation may be used: considered in the design, these conditions,
coupled with narrow top compression flanges,
can lead to problems during construction, such
as out-of-plane distortions of the girder
compression flanges and web. Limiting the
length of girder shipping pieces to
approximately 85 times the minimum
compression-flange width in the shipping piece
can help to minimize potential problems.
Sequentially staged concrete placement
can also result in significant tensile strains in the
previously cast deck in adjacent spans.
Temporary dead load deflections during
sequential deck casting can also be different
from final noncomposite dead load deflections.
This should be considered when establishing
camber and screed requirements. These
constructability concerns apply to deck
replacement construction as well as initial
construction.
During construction of steel girder
bridges, concrete deck overhang loads are
At sections in negative flexure, using D c, of the typically supported by cantilever forming
composite section consisting of the steel section brackets placed every 900 or 1200 mm along the
plus the longitudinal reinforcement is exterior members. Bracket loads applied
conservative. eccentrically to the exterior girder centerline
create applied torsional moments to the exterior
C6.10.3.1.4b girders at intervals in between the cross-frames,
which tend to twist the girder top flanges

C6 - 12
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

outward. As a result, two potential problems appropriate checks are made to ensure that the
arise: web has adequate postbuckling resistance.
Should the calculated maximum
 The applied torsional moments cause compressive flexural stress in a web without
additional longitudinal stresses in the longitudinal stiffeners fail to satisfy Equation 1
exterior girder flanges, and for the construction condition, the Engineer has
 The horizontal components of the resultant several options to consider. These options
loads in the cantilever-forming brackets are include providing a larger top flange or a smaller
oíten transmitted directly onto the exterior bottom flange to decrease the depth of the web
girder web. The girder web may deflect in compression, adjusting the deck-casting
laterally due to these applied loads. sequence to reduce the compressive stress in the
web, or providing a thicker web. Should these
Consideration should be given to these options not prove to be practical or cost-
effects in the design of exterior members. Where effective, a longitudinal stiffener can be
practical, forming brackets should be carried to provided.
the intersection of the bottom flange and the The derivation of the bend-buckling
web. coefficient k in Equation 1 specified for webs
with longitudinal stiffeners is discussed in
C6.10.3.2.2 C6.10.4.3.2a. An. a factor of 1.0 is
conservatively applied in the numerator of
For composite sections, the flow charts Equation 1 for webs with longitudinal stiffeners,
represented by Figures C6.10.4-1 and C6.10.4-2 which limits the maximum compressive flexural
must be used twice: first for the girder in the stress in the web during the construction
final condition when it behaves as a composite condition factored by the maximum permanent-
section, and second to investigate the load load factor of 1.25 to the elastic web bend-
constructibilitv of the girder prior to the buckling stress. As specified in Article
hardening of the concrete deck when the girder 6.10.8.3.1, the longitudinal stiffener must be
behaves as a noncomposite section. located vertically on the web to both satisfy
Equation 1 limits the maximum Equation 1 for the construction condition and to
compressive flexural stress in the web resulting ensure that the composite section has adequate
from the various stages of the deck placement factored flexural resistance at the strength limit
sequence to the theoretical elastic bend- state. For composite sections in regions of
buckling stress of the web. The bend-buckling positive flexure in particular, several locations
coefficient, k, for webs without longitudinal may need to be investigated in order to
stiffeners is calculated assuming partial determine the optimum location.
rotational restraint at the flanges and simply
supported boundary conditions at the transverse C6.10.3.2.3
stiffeners. The equation for k includes the depth
of the web in compression of the steel section, The web is investigated for the sum of
Dc, in order to address unsymmetrical sections. the factored permanent loads acting on both the
A factor α of 1.25 is applied in the numerator of noncomposite and composite sections during
Equation 1 for webs without longitudinal construction because the total shear due to these
stiffeners. The factor offsets the specified loads is critical in checking the stability of the
maximum permanent-load load factor of 1.25 web during construction. The nominal shear
applied to the component dead load flexural resistance for this check is limited to the shear
stresses in the web. Thus, for webs without buckling or shear yield force. Tension field
longitudinal stiffeners, local web buckling action is not permitted under factored dead load
during construction is essentially being checked alone. The shear force in unstiffened webs and
as a service limit state criterion. In the final in webs of hybrid sections is limited to either the
condition at the strength limit state, the shear yield or shear buckling force at the
strength limit state, consequently the

C6 - 13
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

requirement in this article need not be lateral wind moment is carried by a pair of fully
investigated for those sections. yielded widths that are discounted from the
section assumed to resist the vertical loads.
C6.10.3.3.1 Determination of the wind moment in the flange
is covered in Article 4.6.2.7.
The plastic moment of noncomposite
sections may be calculated by eliminating the C6.10.3.5.2
terms pertaining to the concrete slab and
longitudinal reinforcement from the equations in For noncompact sections, the combined
Appendix A for composite sections. effects of wind and other loadings are accounted
for by summing the elastic stresses caused in the
C6.10.3.3.2 bottom flange by the various loadings. The wind
stress in the bottom flange is equal to the wind
If the inequality is satisfied, the neutral moment divided by the section modulus of the
axis is in Fyw, the web. If it is not, the neutral flange acting in the lateral direction.
axis is in the flange, f c, and Dcp, is equal to the The peak wind stresses may be
depth of the web. conservatively combined with peak stresses
from other loadings, even though they may
C6.10.3.4 occur at different locations. This is justified
because the wind stresses are usually small and
In line with common practice, it is generally do not control the design.
specified that the stiffness of the steel section
alone be used for noncomposite sections, even For investigating wind loading on
though numerous field tests have shown that sections designed by the optional Q formula
considerable unintended composite action specified in Article 6.10.4.2.3, it is necessary to
occurs in such sections. apply the procedures specified in Article
Field tests of composite continuous 6.10.3.5.1 for compact sections, even if the
bridges have shown that there is considerable actual sections are not compact, because the
composite action in negative bending regions design using the optional Q formula is
(Baldwin et al. 1978; Roeder and Eltvik 1985). performed in terms of moment, rather than
Therefore, it is conveniently specified that the stresses.
stiffness of the full composite section may be
used over the entire bridge length, where C6.10.3.6
appropriate.
The Engineer may use other stiffness Equation 1 defines an effective area for
approximations based on sound engineering a tension flange with holes to be used to
principles. One alternative is to use the cracked- determine the section properties for a flexural
section stiffness for a distance on each side of member at the strength limit state. The equation
piers equal to 15 percent of each adjacent span replaces the 15 percent rule given in past
length. This approximation is used in Great editions of the Standard Specifications and the
Britain (Johnson and Buckby 1986). First Edition of the LRFD Specifications. If the
stress due to the factored loads on the effective
C6.10.3.5.1 area of the tension flange is limited to the yield
stress, fracture on the net section of the flange is
Compact sections are designed to theoretically prevented and need not be
sustain the plastic moment, which theoretically explicitly checked.
causes yielding of the entire cross-section. The effective area is equal to the net
Therefore, the combined effects of wind and area of the flange plus a factor ß times the gross
other loadings cannot be accounted for by area of the flange. The sum is not to exceed the
summing the elastic stresses caused by the gross area. For AASHTO M 270M, Grade 690
various loadings. Instead, it is assumed that the or 690W steels, with a yield-to-tensile strength

C6 - 14
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

ratio of approximately 0.9, the calculated value during the various phases of the deck placement
of the factor β from Equation 1 will be negative. sequence, or due to Load Combination Service
However, since β cannot be less than 0.0 II in Table 3.4.1-1 exceeds φfr. By controlling
according to Equation 1, β is to be taken as 0.0 the crack size in regions where adequate shear
for these steels resulting in an effective flange connection is also provided, the concrete slab
area equal to the net flange area. The factor is can be considered to be effective in tension for
also defined as 0.0 when the holes exceed 32 computing fatigue stress ranges, as permitted in
mm in diameter, AASHTO (1991). For all other Article 6.6.1.2.1, and flexural stresses on the
steels and when the holes are less than or equal composite section due to Load Combination
to 32 mm in diameter, the factor β depends on Service II, as permitted in Articles 6.10.5.1 and
the ratio of the tensile strength of the flange to 6.10.10.2.1.
the yield strength of the flange and on the ratio
of the net flange area to the gross flange area. C6.10.4
For compression flanges, net section
fracture is not a concern and the effective flange Article 6.10.4 is written in the form of a
area is to be taken as the gross flange area as flow chart, shown schematically in Figure C1, to
defined in Equation 2. facilitate the investigation of the flexural
resistance of a particular I-section. Figure C2
C6.10.3.7 shows the expanded flow chart when the
optional Q formula of Article 6.10.4.2.3 is
The use of 1 percent reinforcement with considered. For compact sections, the calculated
a size not exceeding No. 19 bars is intended to moments in simple and continuous spans are
provide rebar spacing that will be small enough compared with the plastic moment capacities of
to control slab cracking. Reinforcement with a the sections, even though the moments may have
yield strength of at least 420 MPa is expected to been based upon an elastic analysis.
remain elastic, even if inelastic redistribution of Nevertheless, unless an inelastic structural
negative moments occurs. Thus, elastic recovery analysis is made, it is customary to call the
is expected to occur after the live load is process an "elastic" one. The AASHTO Standard
removed, and this should tend to close the slab Specifications recognize inelastic behavior by:
cracks. Pertinent criteria for concrete crack
control are discussed in more detail in AASHTO  Utilizing the plastic moment capacity of
(1991) and in Haaijer et al. (1987). Previously, compact sections, and
the requirement for 1 percent longitudinal  Permitting an arbitrary 10 percent
reinforcement was limited to negative flexure redistribution of peak negative moments at
regions of continuous spans, which are often both overload and maximum load.
implicitly taken as the regions between points of
dead load contraflexure. Under moving live The Guide Specifications for Alternate
loads, the slab can experience significant tensile Load Factor Design (ALFD) permit inelastic
stresses outside the points of dead load calculations for compact sections (AASHTO
contraflexure. Placement of the concrete slab in 1991). Most of the provisions of those Guide
stages can also produce negative flexure during Specifications are incorporated into Article
construction in regions where the slab has 6.10.10 of these Specifications.
hardened and that are primarily subject to
positive flexure in the final condition. Thermal C6.10.4.1.1
and shrinkage stresses can also cause tensile
stresses in the slab in regions where such Two different entry points for the flow
stresses might not otherwise be anticipated. To charts are required to characterize the flexural
address at least some of these issues, the 1 resistance at the strength limit state, in part
percent longitudinal reinforcement is to be because the moment-rotation behavior of steels
placed wherever the tensile stress in the slab due having yield strengths exceeding 485 MPa has
to either factored construction loads, including not been sufficiently documented to extend

C6 - 15
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

plastic moment capacity to those materials. positive flexure in their final condition, that
Similar logic applies to flexural members of satisfy the bracing requirement of Article
variable depth section and with longitudinal 6.10.4.1.9 depends on the slenderness of the
stiffeners. At sections of flexural members with flange according to Equation 6.10.4.2.4a-2. For
holes in the tension flange, it has also not been sections without longitudinal web stiffeners, the
fully documented that complete plastification of nominal flexural resistance is also a function of
the cross-section can be achieved prior to the web slenderness. For compression-flange
fracture on the net section of the flange. slenderness ratios at or near the limit given by
In general, compression flange Equation 1, the nominal flexural resistance will
slenderness and bracing requirements need not typically be below Fyc, according to Equation
be investigated and can be considered 6.10.4.2.b-2. To utilize a nominal flexural
automatically satisfied at the strength limit state resistance at or near Fyc, a lower compression-
for both compact and noncompact composite flange slenderness ratio will be required.
sections in positive flexure because the hardened
concrete slab prevents local and lateral C6.10.4.1.6a
compression flange buckling. However, when
precast decks are used with shear connectors The slenderness interaction relationship
clustered in block-outs spaced several feet apart, for compact sections is retained from the
consideration should be given to checking the Standard Specifications. A review of the
compression flange slenderness requirement at moment-rotation test data available in the
the strength limit state and computing the literature suggests that compact sections may not
nominal flexural resistance of the flange be able to reach the plastic moment when the
according to Equation 6.10.4.2.4a-2. web and compression-flange slenderness ratios
both exceed 75 percent of the limits given in
C6.10.4.1.2 Equations 6.10.4.1.2-1 and 6.10.4.1.3-1,
respectively. The slenderness interaction
The web slenderness requirement of this relationship given in Equation 6.10.4.1.6b-1
article is adopted from AISC (1993) and gives redefines the allowable limits when this occurs
approximately the same allowable web (Grubb and Carskaddan 1981).
slenderness as specified for compact sections in
AASHTO (1996). Most composite sections in
positive flexure will qualify as compact C6.10.4.1.7
according to this criterion because the concrete
deck causes an upward shift in the neutral axis, This article provides a continuous
which greatly reduces the depth of the web in function relating unbraced length and end
compression. moment ratio. There is a substantial increase in
the allowable unbraced length if the member is
C6.10.4.1.3 bent in reverse curvature between brace points
because yielding is confined to zones close to
The compression-flange requirement for the brace points. The formula was developed to
compact negative flexural sections is retained provide inelastic rotation capacities of at least
from AASHTO (1996). three times the elastic rotation corresponding to
the plastic moment (Yura et al. 1978);
C6.10.4.1.4
C6.10.4.1.9
The slenderness is limited to a practical
upper limit of 12.0 in Equation 1 to ensure the This article defines the maximum
flange will not distort excessively when welded unbraced length for which a section can reach
to the web. The nominal flexural resistance of the specified minimum yield strength times the
the compression flange for noncompact sections, applicable flange stress reduction factors, under
other than for noncompact composite sections in a uniform moment, before the onset of lateral

C6 - 16
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

torsional buckling. Under a moment gradient, sections, as discussed in Wittry (1 993). The
sections with larger unbraced lengths can still analyses included the effect of various steel and
reach the yield strength. This larger allowable concrete stress-strain relationships, residual
unbraced length may be determined by equating stresses in the steel, and concrete crushing
Equation 6.10.4.2.5a-1 to Rb,Rh,Fyc, and solving strains. From the analyzes, the ratio of D p to D’
for Lb resulting in the following equation: was found to be the controlling variable defining
the nominal flexural resistance and ductility of
the composite sections. As the ratio of D p/D’
approached a value of 5.0, the analyses indicated
that crushing of the slab would theoretically
occur upon the attainment of first yield in the
cross-section. Thus, the reduction factor of 0.85
is included in front of My in Equation 2 because
the strength and ductility of the composite
section are controlled by crushing of the
concrete slab at higher ratios of D p/D’. For the
section to qualify as compact with adequate
C6.10.4.2.1 ductility at the computed nominal flexural
resistance, the ratio of Dp, to D’ cannot exceed
If the limiting values of Articles 5.0, as specified. Also, the value of the yield
6.10.4.1.2, 6.10.4.1.3, 6.10.4.1.6, and 6.10.4.1.7 moment My to be used in Equation 2 may be
are satisfied, flexural resistance at the strength computed as the specified minimum yield
limit state is defined as the plastic moment for strength of the beam or girder F y, times the
compact sections. section modulus of the short-term composite
section with respect to the tension flange, rather
than using the procedure specified in Article
C6.10.4.2.2a 6.10.3.1.2. The inherent conservatism of
Equation 2 is a result of the desire to ensure
For simple spans and continuous spans adequate ductility of the composite section.
with compact interior support sections, the However, in many cases, permanent deflection
equation defining the nominal flexural resistance service limit state criteria will govern the design
depends on the ratio of Dp, which is the distance of compact composite sections. Thus, it is
from the top of the slab to the neutral axis at the prudent to initially design these sections to
plastic moment to a defined depth D’. D’ is satisfy the permanent deflection service limit
specified in Article 6.10.4.2.2b and is defined as state and then check the nominal flexural
the depth at which the composite section reaches resistance of the section at the strength limit
its theoretical plastic moment capacity, M p, state.
when the maximum strain in the concrete slab is The shape factor (Mp/My,) for composite
at its theoretical crushing strain. Sections with a sections in positive flexure can be as high as 1.5.
ratio of Dp, to D’ less than or equal to 1.0 can Therefore, a considerable amount of yielding is
reach as a minimum Mp, of the composite required to reach Mp, and this yielding reduces
section. Equation 1 limits the nominal flexural the effective stiffness of the positive flexural
resistance to Mp. Sections with a ratio of Dp, to section. In continuous spans, the reduction in
D’ equal to 5.0 have a specified nominal flexural stiffness can shift moment from positive flexural
resistance of 0.85 My. For ratios in between 1.0 regions to negative flexural regions. Therefore,
and 5.0, the linear transition Equation 2 is given the actual moments in negative flexural regions
to define the nominal flexural resistance. may be higher than those predicted by an elastic
Equations 1 and 2 were derived as a result of a analysis. Negative flexural sections would have
parametric analytical study of more than 400 to have the capacity to sustain these higher
composite steel sections, including moments, unless some limits are placed on the
unsymmetrical as well as symmetrical steel extent of the yielding of the positive moment

C6 - 17
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

section. This latter approach is used in the always above the neutral axis computed using
Specification for continuous spans with the assumed strain values (Ansourian 1982).
noncompact interior-support sections. From the results of a parametric analytical study
The live loading patterns causing the of 400 different composite steel sections,
maximum elastic moments in negative flexural including unsymmetrical as well as symmetrical
sections are different than those causing steel sections, as discussed in Wittry (1993), it
maximum moments in positive flexural sections. was determined that sections utilizing 250 MPa
When the loading pattern causing maximum steel reached Mp, at a ratio of Dp/D’ equal to
positive flexural moments is applied, the approximately 0.9, and sections utilizing 345
concurrent negative flexural moments are MPa steel reached Mp, at a ratio of Dp to D’
usually below the flexural resistance of the equal to approximately 0.7. Thus, 0.9 and 0.7 are
sections in those regions. Therefore, the specified as the values to use for the factor,
specifications conservatively allow additional which is multiplied by D* to compute D’ for 250
moment above My to be applied to positive MPa and 345 MPa yield strength steels. A value
flexural sections of continuous spans with of 0.7, thought to be conservative based upon
noncompact interior support sections, not to limited data available in late 1998, is specified
exceed the nominal flexural resistance given by for ASTM A709M, Grade HPS485W, until more
Equations 1 or 2 to ensure adequate ductility of data is available. Equation 1 need not be
the composite section. Compact interior support checked at sections where the stress in either
sections have sufficient capacity to sustain the flange due to the factored loadings does not
higher moments caused by the reduction in exceed Rh, Fyf, because there will be insufficient
stiffness of the positive flexural region. Thus, strain in the steel section at or below the yield
the nominal flexural resistance of positive strength for a potential concrete crushing failure
flexural sections in members with compact of the deck to occur.
interior support sections is not limited due to the
effect of this moment shifting. C6.10.4.2.3
Note that Equation 4 requires the use of
the absolute value of the term (Mnp-Mcp). Equation 2 defines a transition in the
nominal flexural resistance from M p, to
C6.10.4.2.2b approximately 0.7 My.
The nominal flexural resistance given by
The ductility requirement specified in Equation 2 is based on the inelastic buckling
this Article is equivalent to the requirement strength of the compression flange and results
given in AASHTO (1995). from a fit to available experimental data. The
The ratio of Dp, to D' is limited to a equation considers the interaction of the web and
value of 5.0 to ensure that the tension flange of compression-flange slenderness in the
the steel section reaches strain hardening prior to determination of the resistance of the section by
crushing of the concrete slab. D' is defined as the using a flange buckling coefficient, k, = 4.92/
depth at which the composite section reaches its (2Dcp,/tw)1/2, in computing the Qfl, parameter in
theoretical plastic moment capacity Mp, when Equation 7. Qfl, is the ratio of the buckling
the maximum strain in the concrete slab is at its capacity of the flange to the yield strength of the
theoretical crushing strain. The term flange. The buckling coefficient given above
(d+ts+th)/7.5 in the definition of D', hereafter was based on the test results reported in Johnson
referred to as D', was derived by assuming that (1985) and data from other available composite
the concrete slab is at the theoretical crushing and noncomposite steel beam tests. A similar
strain of 0.3 percent and that the tension flange buckling coefficient is given in Section B5.3 of
is at the assumed strain-hardening strain of 1.2 AISC (1993). Equation 6 is specified to compute
percent. The compression depth of the Qfl, if the compression-flange slenderness Is less
composite section, Dp, was divided by a factor of than the value specified in Article 6.10.4.1.3 to
1.5 to ensure that the actual neutral axis of the effectively limit the increase in the bending
composite section at the plastic moment is resistance at a given web slenderness with a

C6 - 18
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

reduction in the compression-flange slenderness loaded sections for a given web slenderness. To
below this value. Equation 6 is obtained by achieve a value of Fcr, at or near Fyc, at more
substituting the compression-flange slenderness critical sections, a lower compression-flange
limit from Article 6.10.4.1.3 in Equation 7. slenderness ratio will be required.
Equation 2 represents a linear fit of the The nominal flexural resistance of the
experimental data between a flexural resistance compression-flange is also modified by the
of Mp, and 0.7 My. The Qp, parameter, defined as hybrid factor Rh, and the load-shedding factor
the web and compression-flange slenderness to Rb. Rh, accounts for the increase in flange stress
reach a flexural resistance of M p, was derived to resulting from web yielding in hybrid girders
ensure the equation yields a linear fit to the and is computed according to the provisions of
experimental data. Equation 2 was derived to Article 6.10.4.3.1. Rh, should be taken as 1.0 for
determine the maximum flexural resistance and constructibility checks because web yielding is
does not necessarily ensure a desired inelastic limited. Rh, accounts for the increase in
rotation capacity. Sections in negative flexure compression-flange stress resulting from local
that are required to sustain plastic rotations may web bend buckling and is computed according to
be designed according to the procedures the provisions of Article 6.10.4.3.2. Rh, is
specified in Article 6.10.10. If elastic procedures computed based on the actual stress fc, in the
are used and Equation 2 is not used to determine compression flange due to the factored loading
the nominal flexural resistance, the resistance under investigation, which should not exceed
shall be determined according to the procedures Fyc.
specified in Article 6.10.4.2.4.
C6.10.4.2.5a
C6.10.4.2.4a
The provisions for lateral-torsional
For composite noncompact sections in buckling in this article differ from those
positive flexure in their final condition, the specified in Article 6.10.4.2.6 because they
nominal flexural resistance of the compression attempt to handle the complex general problem
flange at the strength limit state is equal to the of lateral-torsional buckling of a constant or
yield stress of the flange, F yc, reduced by the variable depth section with stepped flanges
specified reduction factors. For all other constrained against lateral displacement at the
noncompact sections in their final condition and top flange by the composite concrete slab. The
for constructibility, where the limiting value of equations provided in this article are based on
Article 6.10.4.1.9 is satisfied, the nominal the assumption that only the flexural stiffness of
flexural resistance of the compression flange is the compression flange will prevent the lateral
equal to Fcr, times the specified reduction displacement of that element between brace
factors. Fcr, represents a critical compression- points, which ignores the effect of the restraint
flange local buckling stress, which cannot offered by the concrete slab (Basler and
exceed Fyc. For sections without longitudinal Thurlimann 1961). As such, the behavior of a
web stiffeners, Fcr, depends on the actual compression flange in resisting lateral buckling
compression flange and web slenderness ratios. between brace points is assumed to be analogous
This equation for Fcr, was not developed for to that of a column. These simplified equations,
application to sections with longitudinal web developed based on this assumption, are felt to
stiffeners. For those sections, the expression for yield conservative results for composite sections
Fcr, was derived from the compression- flange under the various conditions listed above.
slenderness limit for braced noncompact The effect of the variation in the
sections specified in the Load Factor Design compressive force along the length between
portion of the AASHTO Standard Specifications brace points is accounted for by using the factor
(1996). By expressing the nominal flexural Cb. If the cross-section is constant between brace
resistance of the compression flange as a points, Ml/Mh, is expressed in terms of Pl/Ph and
function of Fcr, larger compression-flange may be used in calculating Cb. The ratio is taken
slenderness ratios may be used at more lightly

C6 - 19
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

as positive when the moments cause single This formulation gives improved results
curvature within the unbraced length. for the cases of nonlinear moment gradients and
Cb has a minimum value of 1.0 when moment reversal.
the flange compressive force and corresponding The effect of a variation in the lateral
moment are constant over the unbraced length. stiffness properties, rt, between brace points can
As the compressive force at one of the brace be conservatively accounted for by using the
points is progressively reduced. Cb, becomes minimum value that occurs anywhere between
lamer and is taken as 1.75 when this force is 0.0. the brace points. Alternatively, a weighted
For the case of single curvature, it is average rt, could be used to provide a reasonable
conservative and convenient to use the but somewhat less conservative answer.
maximum moments from the moment envelope The use of the moment envelope values
at both brace points in computing the ratio of at both brace Points will be conservative for
Ml/Mh, or Pl/Ph, although the actual behavior both single and reverse curvature when this
depends on the concurrent moments at these formulation is used.
points. Other formulations for Cb, to handle
If the force at the end is then nontypical cases of compression flange bracing
progressively increased in tension, which results may be found in Galambos (1998).
in reverse curvature, the ratio is taken as
negative and, continues to increase. However, in
this case, Using the concurrent moments at the C6.10. 4.2.6a
brace points, which are not normally tracked in
the analysis, to compute the ratio in Equation 4 Much of the discussion of the lateral
gives the lowest value of Cb, Therefore, Cb, is buckling formulas in Article C6.10.4.2.5a also
conservatively limited to a maximum value of applies to this article. The formulas of this
1.75 if the moment envelope values at both article are simplifications of the formulas
brace points are used to compute the ratio in presented in AISC (1993) and Kitipornchai and
Equation 4. If the concurrent moment at the Trahair (1980) for the lateral buckling capacity
brace point with the lower compression-flange of unsymmetrical girders.
force is available from the analysis and is used The formulas predict the lateral buckling
to compute the ratio, Cb, is allowed to exceed moment within approximately 10 percent of the
1.75 up to a maximum value of 2.3. more complex Trahair equations for sections
An alternative formulation for Cb is satisfying the proportions specified in Article
given by the following formula (AISC 1993): 6.10.2.1. The formulas treat girders with slender
webs differently than girders with stocky webs.
For sections with stocky webs with a web
slenderness less than or equal to λb(E/Fyc)ln, or
with longitudinally stiffened webs, bend-
buckling of the web is theoretically prevented.
For these sections, the St. Venant torsional
stiffness and the warping torsional stiffness are
included in computing the elastic lateral
buckling moment given by Equation 1. For
sections with thinner webs or without
longitudinal stiffeners, cross-sectional distortion
is possible; thus, the St. Venant torsional
stiffness is ignored for these sections. Equation 3
is the elastic lateral torsional buckling moment
given by Equation 1 with J taken as 0.0.
Equation 2 represents a straight line
estimate of the inelastic lateral buckling
resistance between Rb Rh My and 0.5 Rb Rh My. A

C6 - 20
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

straight line transition similar to this is not flange. My may be determined as specified in
included for sections with stocky webs or Article 6.10.3.1.2. Thus,
longitudinally stiffened webs because the added
complexity is not justified.
A discussion of the derivation of the
value of λb, may be found in Article
C6.10.4.3.2a.
The equation for J herein is a special
case of Equation C4.6.2.1-1.

C6.10.4.3.1a

This factor accounts for the nonlinear

variation of stresses caused by yielding of the
lower strength steel in the web of a hybrid beam.
The formulas defining this factor are the same as
those given in AASHTO (1996) and are based
on experimental and theoretical studies of
composite and noncomposite beams and girders
(ASCE 1968; Schilling 1968; and Schilling and
Frost 1964). The factor applies to noncompact
sections in both shored and unshored Figure 1 is specifically for the case
construction. where the elastic neutral axis is above middepth
of the web and web yielding occurs only below
C6.10.4.3.1c the neutral axis. However, the same approach
can be used if web yielding occurs both above
Equation 1 approximates the reduction and below the neutral axis or only above the
in the moment resistance due to yielding for a neutral axis. The moment due to each triangular
girder with the neutral axis located at middepth stress block due to web yielding must be
of the web. For girders with the neutral axis subtracted from My.
located within 10 percent of the depth from the This approach is approximate because
middepth of the web, the change of the value of web yielding causes a small shift in the location
Rh from that given by Equation 1 is thought to of the neutral axis. The effect of this shift on
be small enough to ignore. Equation 2 gives a Myr, is almost always small enough to be
more accurate procedure to determine the neglected. The exact value of M yr, can be
reduction in the moment resistance. calculated from the stress distribution by
The following approximate method accounting for yielding (Schilling 1968).
illustrated in Figure C1 may be used in
determining the yield moment resistance, M yr,
when web yielding is accounted for. The solid
line connecting Fyf, with fr represents the
distribution of stress at M y if web yielding is
neglected. For unshored construction, this
distribution can be obtained by first applying the
proper permanent load to the steel section, then
applying the proper permanent load and live
load to the composite section, and combining the
two stress distributions. The dashed lines define
a triangular stress block whose moment about
the neutral axis is subtracted from M y to account
for the web yielding at a lower stress than the

C6 - 21
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

C6.10.4.3.2a compression-flange, which is normally the case,

the stiffener cannot be at its optimum location
The Rb factor is a postbuckling strength all along the girder. Also, the position of the
reduction factor that accounts for the nonlinear longitudinal stiffener relative to Dc, in a
variation of stresses caused by local buckling of composite girder changes due to the shift in the
slender webs subjected to flexural stresses. The location of the neutral axis after the concrete
factor recognizes the reduction in the section slab hardens. This shift in the neutral axis is
resistance caused by the resulting shedding of particularly evident in regions of positive
the compressive stresses in the web to the flexure. Thus, the specification equations for k
compression-flange. allow the Engineer to compute the web bend-
For webs without longitudinal stiffeners buckling capacity for any position of the
that satisfy Equation 1 with the compression- longitudinal stiffener with respect to D c. When
flange at a stress fc, the Rb factor is taken equal the distance from the longitudinal stiffener to the
to 1.0 since the web is below its theoretical elask compression-flange ds, is less than 0.4Dc, the
bend-buckling stress. The value of λ b, in stiffener is above its optimum location and web
Equation 1 reflects different assumptions of bend-buckling occurs in the panel between the
support provided to the web by the flanges. The stiffener and the tension flange. When d s, is
value of 4.64 for sections where Dc, is greater greater than 0.4Dc, web bend- buckling occurs in
than D/2 is based on the theoretical elastic bend- the panel between the stiffener and the
buckling coefficient k of 23.9 for simply compression-flange. When d, is equal to 0.4D c,
supported boundary conditions at the flanges. the stiffener is at its optimum location and bend-
The value of 5.76 for members where Dc, is less buckling occurs in both panels. For this case,
than or equal to D/2 is based on a value of k both equations yield a value of k equal to 129.3
between the value for simply supported for a symmetrical girder (Dubas 1948).
boundary conditions and the theoretical k value Since a longitudinally stiffened web
of 39.6 for fixed boundary conditions at the must be investigated for the stress conditions at
flanges (Timoshenko and Gere 1961). different limit states and at various locations
For webs with one or two longitudinal along the girder, it is possible that the stiffener
stiffeners that satisfy Equation 2 with the might be located at an inefficient location for a
compression-flange at a stress fc, the Rb factor is particular condition resulting in a very low
again taken equal to 1.0 since the web is below bend-buckling coefficient from Equation 4 or 5.
its theoretical elastic bend-buckling stress. Two Because simply-supported boundary conditions
different theoretical elastic bend-buckling were assumed in the development of Equations
coefficients k are specified for webs with one or 4 and 5, it is conceivable that the computed web
two longitudinal stiffeners. The value of k to be bend-buckling resistance for the longitudinally
used depends on the location of the closest stiffened web may be less than that computed
longitudinal web stiffener to the compression- for a web without longitudinal stiffeners where
flange with respect to its optimum location some rotational restraint from the flanges has
(Frank and Helwig 1995). been assumed. To prevent this anomaly, the
Equations 4 and 5 specify the value of k specifications state that the k value for a
for a longitudinally stiffened web. The equation longitudinally stiffened web must equal or
to be used depends on the location of the critical exceed a value of 9.0(D/Dc)2, which is the k
longitudinal web stiffener with respect to a value for a web without longitudinal stiffeners
theoretical optimum location of 0.4Dc, (Vincent computed assuming partial rotational restraint
1969) from the compression-flange. The from the flanges. Also, near points of dead load
specified k values and the associated optimum contraflexure, both edges of the web may be in
stiffener location assume simply supported compression when stresses in the steel and
boundary conditions at the flanges. Changes in composite sections due to moments of opposite
flange size along the girder cause Dc, to vary sign are accumulated. In this case, the neutral
along the length of the girder. If the longitudinal axis lies outside the web. Thus, the
stiffener is located a fixed distance from the specifications also limit the minimum value of k

C6 - 22
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

to 7.2, which is approximately equal to the

theoretical bend-buckling coefficient for a web
plate under uniform compression assuming fixed
boundary conditions at the flanges (Timoshenko
and Gere 1961).
Equation 3 is based on extensive For a composite section with or without
experimental and theoretical studies (Galambos a longitudinally stiffened web, Dc, must be
1988) and represents the exact formulation for calculated according to the provisions of Article
the Rb, factor given by Basler (1961). For rare 6.10.3.1.4a.
cases where Equation 3 must be used to compute
Rb, at the strength limit state for composite C6.10.4.3.2b
sections in regions of positive flexure, a separate
calculation should be performed to determine a Rb is 1.0 for tension flanges because the
more appropriate value of A c, to be used to increase in flange stresses due to web buckling
calculate ar, in Equation 6. For this particular occurs primarily in the compression flange, and
case, to be consistent with the original derivation the tension flange stress is not significantly
of Rb, it is recommended that A c, be calculated increased by the web buckling (Basler 1961).
as a combined area for the top flange and the
transformed concrete slab that gives the C6.10.4.4
calculated value of D, for the composite section.
The following equation may be used to compute This provision gives partial recognition
such an effective combined value of Ac: to the philosophy of plastic design. Figure C1
illustrates the application of this provision in a
two-span continuous beam:

In addition, when the top flange is

composite, the stresses that are shed from the
web to the flange are resisted in proportion to
the relative stiffness of the steel flange and
concrete slab. The Rb, factor is to be applied
only to the stresses in the steel flange. Thus, in
this case, a modified & factor for the top flange,
termed R’b, can be computed as follows:

C6.10.5.1

The provisions are intended to apply to

the design live load specified in Article 3.6.1.1.
If this criterion were to be applied to a permit

C6 - 23
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

load situation, a reduction in the load factor for If the provisions specified in Articles
live load should be considered. 6.10.6.3 and 6.10.6.4 are satisfied, significant
This limit state check is intended to elastic flexing of the web is not expected to
prevent objectionable permanent deflections due occur, and the member is assumed to be able to
to expected severe traffic loadings that would sustain an infinite number of smaller loadings
impair rideability. It corresponds to the overload without fatigue cracking.
check in the 1996 AASHTO Standard These provisions are included here,
Specifications and is merely an indicator of rather than in Article 6.6, because they involve a
successful past practice, the development of check of maximum web buckling stresses
which is described in Vincent (1969). instead of a check of the stress ranges caused by
Under the load combinations specified cyclic loading.
in Table 3.4.1-1, the criterion for control of
permanent deflections does not govern for C6.10.6.3
composite noncompact sections; therefore, it
need not be checked for those sections. This may The elastic bend-buckling capacity of
not be the case under a different set of load the web given by Equation 2 is based on an
combinations. elastic buckling coefficient, k, equal to 36.0.
Web bend buckling under Load This value is between the theoretical k value for
Combination Service II is controlled by limiting bending-buckling of 23.9 for simply supported
the maximum compressive flexural stress in the boundary conditions at the flanges and the
web to the elastic web bend buckling stress theoretical k value of 39.6 for fixed boundary
given by Equation 6.10.3.2.2-1. For composite conditions at the flanges (Timoshenko and Gere
sections, the appropriate value of the depth of 1961). This intermediate k value is used to
the web in compression in the elastic range, D c, reflect the rotational restraint offered by the
specified in Article 6.10.3.1.4a, is to be used in flanges. The specified web slenderness limit of
the equation. 5.70 (E/Fyw)1/2 is the web slenderness at which
Article 6.10.3.7 requires that 1 percent the section reaches the yield strength according
longitudinal reinforcement be placed wherever to Equation 2.
the tensile stress in the slab due to either Longitudinal stiffeners theoretically
factored construction loads or due to Load prevent bend-buckling of the web; thus, the
Combination Service II exceeds the factored provisions in this article do not apply to sections
modulus of rupture of the concrete. By with longitudinally stiffened webs.
controlling the crack size in regions where For the loading and load combination
adequate shear connection is also provided, the applicable to this limit state, it is assumed that
concrete slab can be considered to be effective the entire cross-section will remain elastic and,
in tension for computing flexural stresses on the therefore, Dc, can be determined as specified in
composite section due to Load Combination Article 6.10.3.1 .4a.
Service II. If the concrete slab is assumed to be
fully effective in negative flexural regions, more C6.10.6.4
than half of the web will typically be in
compression increasing the susceptibility of the The shear force in unstiffened webs and
web to bend buckling. in webs of hybrid sections is already limited to
either the shear yielding or the shear buckling
C6.10.5.2 force at the strength limit state by the provisions
of Article 6.10.7.2. Consequently, the
A resistance factor is not applied requirement in this article need not be checked
because the specified limit is a serviceability for those sections.
criterion for which the resistance factor is 1.0.
C6.10.7.1
C6.10.6.1
This article applies to:

C6 - 24
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

6.10.7.3.3b-1 or Equation 6.10.7.3.3b-2. For

 Sections without stiffeners, homogeneous sections, the nominal shear
resistance of end panels in stiffened webs is
 Sections with transverse stiffeners only, and defined by either shear yielding or shear
buckling, as specified in Article 6.10.7.3.3c. For
 Sections with both transverse and hybrid sections, the nominal shear resistance of
longitudinal stiffeners. all stiffened web panels is defined by either
shear yielding or shear buckling, as specified in
A flow chart for shear capacity of I- Article 6.10.7.3.4.
sections is shown below. Separate interaction equations are given
to define the effect of concurrent moment for
compact and noncompact sections because
compact sections are designed in terms of
moments, whereas noncompact sections are
designed in terms of stresses. For convenience,
it is conservatively specified that the maximum
moments and shears from the moment and shear
envelopes be used in the interaction equations.

C6.10.7.2

The nominal shear resistance of

unstiffened webs of hybrid and homogeneous
girders is limited to the elastic shear buckling
force given by Equation 1. The consideration of
tension-field action (Basler 1961) is not
permitted for unstiffened webs. The elastic shear
buckling force is calculated as the Product of the
constant C specified in Article 6.10.7.3.3a times
the plastic shear force, Vp, given by Equation 2.
The plastic shear force is equal to the web area
Unstiffened and stiffened interior web times the assumed shear yield strength of F yw/
panels are defined according to the maximum (3)0.5. The shear bucking coefficient, k, to be
transverse stiffener spacing requirements used in calculating the constant C is defined as
specified in this article. The nominal shear 5.0 for unstiffened web panels, which is a
resistance of unstiffened web panels in both conservative approximation of the exact value of
homogeneous and hybrid sections is defined by 5.35 for an infinitely long strip, with simply
either shear yield or shear buckling, depending supported edges (Timoshenko and Gere 1961).
on the web slenderness ratio, as specified in
Article 6.10.7.2. The nominal shear resistance of C6.10.7.3.1
stiffened interior web panels of homogeneous
sections is defined by the sum of the shear- Longitudinal stiffeners divide a web
yielding or shear-buckling resistance and the panel into subpanels. The shear resistance of the
post-buckling resistance from tension-field entire panel can be taken as the sum of the shear
action, modified as necessary by any moment- resistance of the subpanels (Cooper 1967).
shear interaction effects, as specified in Article However, the contribution of the longitudinal
6.10.7.3.3. For compact sections, this nominal stiffener at a distance of 2D c/5 from the
shear resistance is specified by either Equation compression flange is relatively small. Thus, it is
6.10.7.3.3a-1 or Equation 6.10.7.3.3a-2. For conservatively recommended that the influence
noncompact sections, this nominal shear of the longitudinal stiffener be neglected in
resistance is specified by either Equation

C6 - 25
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

computing the nominal shear resistance of the simplification of two exact equations for k that
web plate. depend on the panel aspect ratio.
When both shear and flexural moment
C6.10.7.3.2 are high in a stiffened interior panel under
tension-field action, the web plate must resist the
Transverse stiffeners are required on shear and also participate in resisting the
web panels with a slenderness ratio greater than moment. Panels whose resistance is limited to
150 in order to facilitate handling of sections the shear buckling or shear yield force are not
without longitudinal stiffeners during fabrication subject to moment-shear interaction effects.
and erection. The spacing of the transverse Basler (1961) shows that stiffened web plates in
stiffeners is arbitrarily limited by Equation 2 noncompact sections are capable of resisting
(Basler 1961). Substituting a web slenderness of both moment and shear, as long as the shear
150 into Equation 2 results in a maximum force due to the factored loadings is less than
transverse stiffener spacing of 3D, which 0.6φvVn or the flexural stress in the compression
corresponds to the maximum spacing flange due to the factored loading is less than
requirement in Article 6.10.7.1 for web panels 0.75φfFy. For compact sections, flexural
without longitudinal stiffeners. For higher web resistances are expressed in terms of moments
slenderness ratios, the maximum allowable rather than stresses. For convenience, a limiting
spacing is reduced to less than 3D. moment of 0.5φfMp is defined rather than a
The requirement in Equation 2 is not limiting moment of 0.75φfMy in determining
needed for web panels with longitudinal when the moment-shear interaction occurs by
stiffeners because maximum transverse stiffener using an assumed shape factor (Mp/My) of 1.5.
spacing is already limited to 1.5D. This eliminates the need to compute the yield
moment to simply check whether or not the
C6.10.7.3.3a interaction effect applies. When the moment due
to factored loadings exceeds 0.5φ fMp, the
Stiffened interior web panels of nominal shear resistance is taken as V n, given by
homogeneous sections may develop post- Equation 2, reduced by the specified interaction
buckling shear resistance due to tension-field factor, R.
action (Basler 1961). The action is analogous to Both upper and lower limits are placed
that of the tension diagonals of a Pratt truss. The on the nominal shear resistance in Equation 2
nominal shear resistance of these panels can be determined by applying the interaction factor, R.
computed by summing the contributions of The lower limit is either the shear yield or shear
beam action and of the post-buckling tension- buckling force. Sections with a shape factor
field action. The resulting expression is given in below 1.5 could potentially exceed Vn,
Equation 1, where the first term in the bracket according to the interaction equation at moments
relates to either the shear yield or shear buckling due to the factored loadings slightly above the
force and the second term relates to the post- defined limiting value of 0.5φ fMp. Thus, for
buckling tension-field force. compact sections, an upper limit of 1.0 is placed
The coefficient, C, is equal to the ratio on R.
of the elastic hear buckling stress of the panel, To avoid the interaction effect,
computed assuming simply supported boundary transverse stiffeners may be spaced so that the
conditions, to the shear yield strength assumed shear due to the factored loadings does not
to be equal to Fyw/(3)0.5. Equation 7 is applicable exceed the larger of:
only for C values not exceeding 0.8 (Basler
1961). Above 0.8, C values are given by  0.60φvVn, where Vn, is given by Equation 1
Equation 6 until a limiting slenderness ratio is or
reached where the shear buckling stress is equal
to the shear yield strength and C = 1.0. Equation  The factored shear buckling or shear yield
8 for the shear buckling coefficient is a resistance equal to φvCVp.

C6 - 26
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

k is known as the shear buckling coefficient. in the analysis. To satisfy this assumption, the
shear force in the deck must be developed along
C6.10.7.3.3b the entire span. An option is permitted to ignore
the concrete deck in computing the shear range
The commentary of Article 6.1 0.7.3.3a in regions of negative flexure, unless the
applies, except that for noncompact sections, concrete is considered to be fully effective in
flexural resistances are expressed in terms of computing the longitudinal range of stress, in
stress rather than moment in the interaction which case the shear force in the deck must be
equation. The upper limit of 1.0 applied to R in developed. If the concrete is ignored in these
Equation 6.10.7.3.3a-3 applies to compact regions, the specified maximum pitch must not
sections and need not be applied to Equation be exceeded.
6.10.7.3.3b-3 for noncompact sections.
C6.10.7.4.1d
C6.10.7.3.3c
Stud connectors should penetrate
The shear in end panels is limited to through the haunch between the bottom of the
either the shear yield or shear buckling force deck and top flange, if present, and into the
given by Equation I in order to provide an deck. Otherwise, the haunch should be
anchor for the tension field in adjacent interior reinforced to contain the stud connector and
panels. develop its load in the deck.

C6.10.7.3.4 C6.10.7.4.2

Tension-field action is not permitted for For development of this information, see
hybrid sections. Thus, the nominal shear Slutter and Fisher (1966).
resistance is limited to either the shear yield or
the shear buckling force given by Equation 1. C6.10.7.4.3

C6.10.7.4.1b The purpose of the additional connectors

is to develop the reinforcing bars used as part of
The parameters I and Q should be the negative flexural composite section.
determined using the deck within the effective
flange width. However, in negative flexure C6.10.7.4.4b
regions, the parameters I and Q may be
determined using the reinforcement within the Composite beams in which the
effective flange width for negative moment, longitudinal spacing of shear connectors has
unless the concrete slab is considered to be fully been varied according to the intensity of shear
effective for negative moment in computing the and duplicate beams where the number of
longitudinal range of stress, as permitted in connectors were uniformly spaced have
Article 6.6.1.2.1. exhibited essentially the same ultimate strength
The maximum fatigue shear range is and the same amount of deflection at service
produced by to the right of the point under loads. Only a slight deformation in the concrete
consideration. For the load in these positions, and the more heavily stressed connectors is
positive moments are placing the fatigue live needed to redistribute the horizontal shear to
load immediately to the left and produced over other less heavily stressed connectors. The
significant portions of the girder length. Thus, important consideration is that the total number
the use of the full composite section, including of connectors be sufficient to develop the shear,
the concrete deck, is reasonable for computing Vh, on either side of the point of maximum
the shear range along the entire span. Also, the moment.
horizontal shear force in the deck is most often In negative flexure regions, sufficient
considered to be effective along the entire span shear connectors are required to transfer the

C6 - 27
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

ultimate tensile force in the reinforcement from stiffener then need only be proportioned for
the slab to the steel section. stiffness according to Article 6.10.8.1.3 and
satisfy the projecting width requirements of
C6.10.7.4.4c Article 6.10.8.1.2. For web panels not required
to develop a tension field, this requirement need
Studies have defined stud shear not be investigated.
connector strength as a function of both the
concrete modulus of elasticity and concrete
strength (Ollgaard et al. 1971). Note that an
upper bound on stud shear strength is the C6.10.8.2.1
product of the cross-sectional area of the stud
times its ultimate tensile strength. Inadequate provision to resist
Equation 2 is a modified form of the concentrated loads has resulted in failures,
formula for the resistance of channel shear particularly in temporary construction.
connectors developed in Slutter and Driscoll If an owner chooses not to utilize
(1965), which extended its use to low-density as bearing stiffeners where specified in this article,
well as normal density concrete. the web crippling provisions of AISC (1993)
should be used to investigate the adequacy of the
C6.10.8.1.2 component to resist a concentrated load.

The requirements in this article are C6.10.8.2.2

intended to prevent local buckling of the
transverse stiffener. The provision specified in this article is
intended to prevent local buckling of the bearing
C6.10.8.1.3 stiffener plates.

For the web to adequately develop the C6.10.8.2.3

tension field, the transverse stiffener must have
sufficient rigidity to cause a node to form along To bring bearing stiffener plates tight
the line of the stiffener. For ratios of (do/D) less against the flanges, part of the stiffener must be
than 1.0, much larger values of It, are required, clipped to clear the web-to-flange fillet weld.
as discussed in Timoshenko and Gere (1961). Thus, the area of direct bearing is less than the
Lateral loads along the length of a gross area of the stiffener. The bearing resistance
longitudinal stiffener are transferred to the is based on this bearing area and the yield
adjacent transverse stiffeners as concentrated strength of the stiffener.
reactions (Cooper 1967). Equation 3 gives a
relationship between the moments of inertia of C6.10.8.2.4a
the longitudinal and transverse stiffeners to
ensure that the latter does not fail under the A portion of the web is assumed to act in
concentrated reactions. Equation 3 is equivalent combination with the bearing stiffener plates.
to Equation 10-111 in AASHTO (1996). The end restraint against column
buckling provided by the flanges allows for the
C6.10.8.1.4 use of a reduced effective length.
The web of hybrid girders is not
Transverse stiffeners need sufficient included in the computation of the radius of
area to resist the vertical component of the gyration because the web may be yielding due to
tension field. The formula for the required longitudinal flexural stress. At end supports
stiffener area can give a negative result. In that where the moment is 0.0, the web may be
case, the required area is 0.0. A negative result included.
indicates that the web alone is sufficient to resist
the vertical component of the tension field. The C6.10.8.3.1

C6 - 28
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

For composite sections in regions of between the neutral-axis locations for the steel
positive flexure, the vertical position of a and composite sections is typically not large in
longitudinal web stiffener, most often located a regions of negative flexure. Theoretical and
fixed distance from the compression- flange, experimental studies on noncomposite girders
relative to Dc, changes after the concrete slab have indicated that the optimum location of one
hardens. Thus, the computed web bend-buckling longitudinal stiffener is 2Dc/5 for bending and
resistance is different before and after the slab D/2 for shear. Tests have also shown that
hardens. As a result, an investigation of several longitudinal stiffeners located at 2D c/5 on these
trial locations of the stiffener may be necessary sections can effectively control lateral web
to determine the optimal location of the stiffener deflections under flexure (Cooper 1967). The
to provide both adequate elastic web bend- distance 2Dc/5 is recommended because shear is
buckling resistance for constructibility and always accompanied by moment and because a
adequate web postbuckling resistance at the properly proportioned longitudinal stiffener
strength limit state along the girder. The reduces lateral web deflections caused by shear.
following equation may be used to determine an Also, because Dc, may vary along the length of
initial trial stiffener location for composite the span, it is recommended that the stiffener be
sections in regions of positive flexure: located based on Dc, computed at the section
with the largest compressive flexural stress.
Thus, the stiffener may not be located at its
optimum location at other sections with a lower
stress and a different Dc. These sections should
also be examined to ensure that they satisfy the
specified limit states.
In regions where the web undergoes
stress reversal, it may be necessary, or desirable,
to use two longitudinal stiffeners on the web.
Alternately, it may be possible to place one
stiffener on the web such that the limit states are
adequately satisfied with either edge of the web
in compression.
Longitudinal stiffeners placed on the
opposite side of the web from transverse
intermediate stiffeners are preferred. At bearing
stiffeners and connection plates where the
longitudinal stiffener and transverse web
elements must intersect, the Engineer may
discontinue either the longitudinal stiffener or
the transverse web element. However, the
discontinued element should be fitted and
For composite sections in regions of attached to both sides of the continuous element
negative flexure and for noncomposite sections, with connections sufficient to develop the
it is suggested that an initial trial stiffener flexural and axial resistance of the discontinued
location of 2Dc/5 from the inner surface of the element. Preferably, the longitudinal stiffeners
compression-flange be examined, where D c, is should be made continuous. Should the
the depth of the web in compression at the longitudinal stiffener be interrupted and not be
section with the maximum flexural compressive attached to the transverse web element, its area
stress due to the factored loads. Furthermore, for should not be included when calculating section
composite sections in regions of negative properties. All interruptions must be carefully
flexure, it is suggested that D c, be computed for designed with respect to fatigue. For various
the section consisting of the steel girder plus the stiffener end details and their associated fatigue
longitudinal reinforcement since the distance

C6 - 29
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

details see (Schilling 1986). Copes should Two inelastic analytical methods are
always be provided to avoid intersecting welds. permitted for use at the strength limit state:
Longitudinal stiffeners should not be
located in yielded portions of the web of hybrid  The mechanism method (ASCE 1971), and
sections. Longitudinal stiffeners are subject to
the same flexural stress as the web at their  The unified autostress method (Schilling
vertical location on the web and must have 1991).
sufficient rigidity and strength to resist bend
buckling of the web. Thus, yielding of the Computer programs are generally required to
stiffeners should not be permitted on either utilize these methods efficiently for continuous
hybrid or nonhybrid sections. beams and girders with more than two spans.
The two methods are applicable to both
C6.10.8.3.2 compact and noncompact sections if the plastic
rotation characteristics of such sections are
This requirement is intended to prevent known. These characteristics have not yet been
local buckling of the longitudinal stiffener. adequately established for the full range of
noncompact section geometries.
C6.10.8.3.3 In plastic design, there are any number
of pairs of positive and negative flexural
The moment of inertia requirement is to sections which can support loads in a span or
ensure that the stiffener will have adequate spans. This is because equilibrium is satisfied in
rigidity to force a horizontal line of nil a collapse mechanism. Given the positive and
deflection in the web panel. The radius of negative flexural resistance for assumed hinge
gyration requirement is to ensure that the locations, which constitute a mechanism, the
longitudinal stiffener will be rigid enough to applied load corresponding to that mechanism
withstand the axial compressive stress without can be calculated directly.
lateral buckling. A partially restrained end The practical significance of this is that
condition is assumed for the stiffener acting as a it is possible, and desirable, to chose the positive
column. It is also assumed in the development of and negative flexural sections for optimum
Equation 2 that the eccentricity of the load and fabrication and economy.
initial out-of-straightness cause a 20 percent The ultimate load-carrying capacity of a
increase in stress in the stiffener. continuous member is reached when enough
A longitudinal stiffener meeting the plastic hinges occur to form a mechanism
requirements of Articles 6.10.8.3.2 and (ASCE 1971). All except the last hinge to form
6.10.8.3.3 will have sufficient area to anchor the are expected to sustain additional plastic
tension field. Therefore, no additional area rotations.
requirement is given for longitudinal stiffeners. The web slenderness, compression
flange slenderness, compression flange bracing,
C6.10.9.2.3 and bearing stiffener requirements specified in
this article ensure that the sections can sustain
Research on end-bolted cover plates is this additional plastic rotation. The slenderness
discussed in Wattar et al. (1985). and bracing requirements essentially correspond
to the requirements given previously for
C6.10.10.1.1 compact sections.
One method of performing a mechanism
The inelastic procedures are similar to analysis for moving loads can be found in
the Alternate Load Factor Design (ALFD) Dishongh (1995).
procedures adopted as guide specifications
(AASHTO 1991). C6.10.10.1.2b

C6 - 30
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

In conventional plastic design, plastic section are to be replaced by the effective yield
rotations are assumed to occur at a point (ASCE strengths specified in this Article. Usually, the
1971). However, yielding occurs over a finite effective plastic moment capacity is required
length. Thus, it is suggested that transitions be only for negative flexural sections.
located a minimum of twice the depth of the
steel section from each side of the section C6.10.10.1.3
required to sustain plastic rotations to ensure
that excess yielding will not occur at any The unified autostress method is
transition locations in this region. Transition described in Schilling (1991). In this method,
locations outside this region shall be checked the correct plastic rotations and moments at all
according to the provisions specified in Article yield locations are determined by satisfying two
6.10.10.1.2c. relationships: a continuity relationship and a
rotation relationship. The continuity relationship
C6.10.10.1.2d interrelates the plastic rotations at all yield
locations and the moments at all interior support
In the conventional mechanism method, locations; it depends on the stiffness properties
cross-sections are proportioned so that they can of the girder. The rotation relationship
sustain the full plastic moment through a interrelates the plastic rotation and moment at
sufficient plastic rotation to form a mechanism each yield location and depends on the
(ASCE 1971). Cross-sections with flange and/or properties of the cross-section at that location.
web slenderness ratios too high to satisfy this The unified autostress method differs
requirement can still be designed by the from the mechanism method in that it
mechanism method if an effective plastic determines the actual moments at all plastic
moment is used instead of the full plastic hinge locations for any given loading. In
moment (Haaijer et al. 1987; Schilling and contrast, the mechanism method uses
Morcos 1988). The effective plastic moment is conservative estimates of the plastic hinge
smaller than the full plastic moment and can be moments to determine the maximum possible
sustained through a sufficient plastic rotation to loadings for the girder. These Conservative
form a mechanism (Haaijer et al. 1987; Schilling estimates are based on the slenderness ratios for
and Morcos 1988). the section and estimates of the amount of
AASHTO (1991) gave an empirical plastic rotation required to form a mechanism.
procedure for calculating the effective plastic Also, the unified autostress method can be
moment for compact sections (Grubb and applied in both the strength and permanent-
Carskaddan 1981; Haaijer et al. 1987). In this deflection checks, but the mechanism method
procedure, the effective plastic moment is can be applied only in the strength check.
calculated by applying effective yield strengths
to the flanges and web of the section (AASHTO C6.10.10.2.2
1991; Haaijer et al. 1987). These effective yield
strengths depend on the compression flange and These limits are the same as those used
web slenderness ratios as specified. When these in the overload check in AASHTO (1996).
slenderness ratios are below limiting values, the
effective yield strengths may be taken as the C6.10.10.2.3
actual yield strengths; otherwise, the effective
yield strengths are below the actual yield Calculated steel stresses in negative
strengths, and the effective plastic moment is flexural sections at piers are not limited, but if
below the actual plastic moment. they exceed the limiting stresses specified in
The effective plastic moment of Article 6.10.5.2, the resulting redistribution
composite negative and positive flexural moments must be calculated. Thus, it is assumed
sections can be calculated by the procedures in that if the stresses in negative flexural sections
Article 6.10.3.1.3. In these procedures, the do not exceed the limiting stresses,
actual yield strengths of the elements of the

C6 - 31
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

objectionable permanent deflections will not Article 6.10.4.4 permits an arbitrary

occur. redistribution of 10 percent of the peak negative
Yielding in negative flexural sections at flexural moment. In certain types of members
piers causes small permanent deflections that under Service II loads, this article permits the
can be calculated by inelastic procedures actual redistribution to be estimated by suitable
(AASHTO 1991; Haaijer et al. 1987; Schilling inelastic procedures. Two suitable methods are
1991). AASHTO (1991) suggests that the dead specifically permitted:
load camber be increased by the amount of this
permanent deflection. This suggestion was not  Beam-line method (AASHTO 1991; Haaijer
included in this edition of the Specifications et al. 1987), and
because the calculated permanent deflection is
generally small, and the actual permanent  Unified-autostress method (Schilling 1991).
deflection is expected to be even smaller due to
various conservative assumptions in the For checking permanent deflection at the
calculation procedures. The Engineer, of course, service limit state, the resistance factor does not
may choose to include part or all of the apply, i.e., it is 1.0.
calculated permanent deflection in the dead load
camber. C6.10.10.2.4b
A full scale bridge designed to permit
inelastic redistribution of negative moments Loading two adjacent spans causes the
under the overload condition, specified in highest interior support moments and greatest
AASHTO (1996), sustained only very small amount of yielding at an internal support.
permanent deflections when tested under the Therefore, this loading is appropriate for
specified loading (Roeder and Eltvik 1985). calculating the redistribution stresses. The
It is intended that the yielding required redistribution moments are locked into the girder
for moment redistribution occur only at piers. if the load is removed. However, if the load is
Therefore, it is specified that the steel stresses, shifted to the next interior support, additional
including the redistribution stresses, at any yielding generally occurs at the first pier, and
flange transition location in negative flexural new redistribution moments develop. If this
regions be kept below the yield strength times process is repeated at all of the interior supports,
various applicable factors. The redistribution and repeated again for a few additional passes,
stresses at such locations usually subtract from the yielding will shake down to an equilibrium
the applied elastic stresses. condition, and no further yielding will occur. For
two- span bridges with only one interior support,
C6.10.10.2.4 there is, of course, no need for successive
loading. Because this section deals with
AASHTO (1991) included provisions serviceability, 4 percent should be an acceptable
for the inelastic redistribution of moments at limit for convergence.
overload; these provisions were based on the
autostress method (Haaijer et al. 1987). This C6.10.10.2.4c
edition of the Specifications utilize similar
procedures, but the terms "automoment" and Redistribution moments are formed by
"autostress" used in the past have been replaced short-term loads. Therefore, the short-term
by "redistribution moment" and "redistribution composite stiffnesses are appropriate for positive
stress," respectively. These new terms were flexural regions. The corresponding locked-in
chosen to reflect the fact that the moments and redistribution stresses caused in composite
stresses they refer to result from inelastic sections tend to decrease with time as a result of
redistribution of moments in continuous spans. creep in the concrete. However, these
redistribution stresses may be continually
C6.10.10.2.4a renewed by subsequent passages of similar

C6 - 32
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

loadings. Therefore, the redistribution stresses

are conservatively treated as long- term stresses. C6.11.1

C6.10.10.2.4d The provisions for box sections are

directly applicable to straight bridges, either
Equation 1 is a straight-line right or with moderate skew. In the case of
approximation of the higher plastic rotation bridges with large skew, additional torsional
curve, labeled noncomposite, given in AASHTO effects may occur in the girders and the lateral
(1991). It covers the loading portion of the distribution of loads may also be affected. In
plastic rotation curve, which is needed in the these cases, a more rigorous analysis of stresses
permanent deflection check (Haaijer et al. 1987; is necessary. Box section webs may be vertical
Schilling 1991). The curve is independent of the or inclined. Inclined webs are advantageous in
geometric proportions of the sections, except as reducing the width of the bottom flange.
these proportions affect the plastic moment Comprehensive information regarding
capacity. The original ALFD curve was the design of steel box girder bridges is
developed from experimental data (Haaijer et al. contained in FHWA (1980).
1987). The specified limit for use of the curve
assures that plastic rotations do not extend into For a general overview on box girder
the unloading portions of the curve to control bridges, see Wolchuk (1990).
permanent deformations at the pier section. If
available, a curve for the specific section being Painting the interior of box sections is
used is permitted. A MRAD is 1/1000 of a RAD primarily done to facilitate inspections.
and is equivalent to a slope of 1 in 1000. Therefore, the paint quality need not match that
The lower curve given in AASHTO normally used for exterior surfaces.
(1991), labeled composite, was developed from
the results of a test of the negative flexure region C6.11.1.1.1
of a composite model bridge (Carskaddan 1980).
The specimen was shored during construction. When box sections are subjected to
This resulted in an overestimation of the plastic eccentric loads, their cross-section becomes
rotation, R, used in the development of the distorted, giving rise to secondary bending
specification curve because of concrete crack stresses. Loading the opposite side of the bridge
closure, which put the slab into compression and produces reversal of stress, and, therefore,
confounded the computational procedure. possible fatigue effects. The maximum stresses
Examination of all moment rotation tests to date and stress ranges occur in the center girder of
has shown that the higher curve, labeled those bridges with an odd number of girders.
noncomposite, is satisfactory for all compact Limitations specified in this article are
noncomposite and composite pier sections. necessary because the provisions concerning
Equation 1 is a simplified straight-line lateral distribution of loads, secondary
approximation of the higher curve. Equation I is distortional bending stresses, and the
normalized with respect to Mmax, the maximum effectiveness of the bottom flange plate are
moment resistance of the section. based on an extensive study of multiple box
For unshored construction, R should be girder bridges that conform to these limitations.
computed separately for the noncomposite dead This study utilized uncracked stiffness (Johnston
load using the properties of the steel section, and and Mattock 1967). Bridges that do not conform
for the composite dead load and live load using should be investigated using one of the available
the composite section properties. If it is desired methods of refined structural analysis.
to include the calculated permanent deflection in Some limitations are placed on the
the dead load camber, separate permanent variation of distance a with respect to distance w
deflection should be computed for the steel and because the studies on which some of the
composite sections, and they should be added provisions are based were made on bridges in
together. which "w" and "a" were equal. The limitations

C6 - 33
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

given for nonparallel box sections will allow fatigue (Wright and Abdel-Samad 1968). Tests
some flexibility of layout in design while have indicated that warping stress does not
generally maintaining the validity of the affect the ultimate strength of box girders of
provisions. typical proportions. The warping constant for a
Several of the subsequent articles closed box section is approximately equal to 0.0.
incorporate simplifying assumptions and If the box is extremely wide with respect to the
simplified expressions whose validity has only span, a special investigation may be required.
been demonstrated for the type of bridge defined
in Article 6.11.1.1.1. C6.11.1.2.3
Distortional stresses and stress ranges
and local plate vibration stresses in bridges Placement of bearings is critical on
having proportions corresponding to the single box sections. Skewed bearings are apt to
specified limitations need not be considered in be difficult to construct. Placing bearings
design. outboard of the box reduces Overturning loads
The requirement that shear connectors on the bearings and may eliminate uplift.
be provided in negative moment regions of
multiple box girders is necessary to be C6.11.2.1.2a
consistent with the prototype and model bridges
that were studied in the original development of The tensile strength of the bottom flange
the live load distribution provisions for box of single box sections is affected by the torsional
sections. shear stress. The von Mises yield criterion
(Boresi et al. 1978) is used to consider the effect
C6.11.1.2.1 of shear stress. The combined effect of torsional
shear and flexure are difficult to determine, but
Placing the dead loads near the shear the worst case of either may be added to obtain a
center ensures minimal torsion. Items, such as conservative estimate.
sound barriers, on one side of the bridge may be
critical on single box bridges. Haunched girders Stress analyses of actual box girder
with inclined webs are permitted. If the bridge is bridge designs were carried out to evaluate the
to be launched, a constant depth box is effective width using a series of folded plate
recommended. equations (Goldberg and Leve 1957). Bridges
There may be exceptions, such as top for which the span-to-flange width ratio varied
flanges in negative moment regions where there from 5.65 to 35.3 were included in the study.
is adequate deck reinforcing to act as a top The effective flange width as a ratio of the total
flange, in which case the section need not be flange width covered a range of from 0.89 for
considered fracture-critical. In such cases, the bridge with the smallest span-to-width ratio
adequate shear connection must be provided. to 0.99 for the bridge with the largest span-to-
width ratio. On this basis, it is reasonable to
C6.11.1.2.2 permit the flange plate to be considered fully
effective, provided that its width does not
Significant torsional loads may occur exceed one-fifth of the span of the bridge.
during construction and under live load. Live Although the results quoted above were
loads at extremes of the deck can cause critical obtained for simply supported bridges, this
torsional loads without causing critical vertical criterion would apply equally to continuous
moments. Live load positioning should be done bridges, using the equivalent span, i.e., the
for flexure and torsion. The position of the distance between points of permanent load
bearing should be recognized in the analysis in contraflexure over the internal support.
sufficient completeness to permit direct The effective flange width is used to
computation of the reactions. calculate the flexural stress in the flange. The
Warping stresses are largest in the full flange width should be used to calculate the
corners of the box and should be considered for nominal flexural resistance of the flange.

C6 - 34
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

For multiple box sections, one-half the

distribution factor for moment should be used in
the calculation of the live load vertical shear in
C6.11.2.1.3 each box section web.

There are no specific requirements for For single box sections, web inclination
compression flange bracing at negative bending can be treated the same as for multiple box
sections of box sections for the strength limit sections, except that the shears caused by torsion
state. and flexure have to be combined.

C6.11.2.1.3a C6.11.2.2.2

The provisions for compression flanges For purpose of calculating interface

with longitudinal stiffeners only are based on the shear between the deck and girder, the entire
theory of elastic stability (Timoshenko and Gere deck is considered effective in the composite
1961). The provisions are formulated in such a section to ensure that adequate shear connection
way that, when more than one longitudinal is available.
stiffener is used, the necessary stiffener stiffness All test specimens in the test program
can be directly calculated that will result in that formed the basis of these provisions had
behavior corresponding to a selected value of the stud connectors throughout the negative flexure
buckling coefficient k. When only one region.
longitudinal stiffener is used, the minimum
stiffness specified will result in behavior C6.11.3.2.1
corresponding to a plate buckling coefficient, k,
of 4. The equation for the required
No provisions are included for the longitudinal stiffener inertia, Il, is an
design of bottom flange plates for a combination approximate expression that within its range of
of compression and of shear due to torsion of the applicability yields values close to those
girders. This arises from the results obtained in obtained by use of the exact but cumbersome
the analytical study of straight bridges of the equations of elastic stability (Timoshenko and
type covered by these provisions. It was found Gere 1961).
that when such bridges were loaded so as to The number of longitudinal flange
produce maximum moment in a particular stiffeners, n, should preferably not exceed 2.
girder, and hence maximum compression in the Equation 2 assumes that the bottom flange plate
flange plate near an intermediate support, the and the stiffeners are infinitely long and ignores
amount of twist in that girder was negligible. It the effect of any transverse bracing or stiffening.
therefore appears reasonable that, for bridges Thus, when n exceeds 2, the required moment of
conforming to the limitations set out in these inertia from Equation 2 increases dramatically
provisions, shear due to torsion need not be so as to be become nearly impractical. For
considered in the design of the bottom flange designs where an exceptionally wide box flange
plates for maximum compression loads. is required and n may exceed 2, it is suggested
For bridges whose proportions do not that additional transverse flange stiffeners be
conform to the limitations of these provisions, provided to reduce the required size of the
further study of the state of stress in the bottom longitudinal stiffeners to a more practical value.
flange should be made (FHWA 1980). A general Provisions for the design of box flanges
discussion of the problem of reduction of critical stiffened both longitudinally and transversely,
buckling stresses due to the presence of torsional which can be modified for use with Load and
shear may be found in Johnston (1966). Resistance Factor Design, are given in the
Allowable Stress Design portion of the
C6.11.2.2.1 AASHTO Standard Specifications (1996).
Included are requirements related to the

C6 - 35
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

necessary spacing and stiffness of the transverse The Designer should consider possible
stiffeners. The bottom strut of the transverse eccentric loads that may occur during
interior bracing in the box can be considered to construction. These may include uneven
act as a transverse flange stiffener for this placement of concrete and various equipment.
purpose if the strut satisfies the applicable Temporary diaphragms or cross-frames that are
stiffness requirements. not pad of the original design should be removed
because the structural behavior of the box
C6.11.3.2.2 section, including load distribution, may be
significantly affected if they are left in place.
When longitudinal compression flange Additional information on construction
stiffeners are used, it is preferable to have at of composite box sections may be found in
least one transverse stiffener placed on the Highway Structures Design Handbook (1978)
compression flange near the point of permanent and Steel/Concrete Composite Box-Girder
load contraflexure. Bridges: A Construction Manual (1978).
If the design is predicated on use of both
longitudinal and transverse stiffeners, the state C6.11.7
of stress in the bottom flange should be
investigated. This limit state check is intended to
A comprehensive discussion on box prevent objectionable permanent deflections due
girders is contained in SSRC (1988) and FHWA to expected severe traffic loadings. It affects
(1980). only serviceability and corresponds to the
overload check in the AASHTO Standard
C6.11.4 Specifications for Highway Bridges, 16th
Edition (1996). The development of the overload
If at least two intermediate diaphragms provisions is described in Vincent (1969). The
are not provided in each span, it is essential that provision applies only to positive flexural
the web flange welds be of sufficient size to regions of multiple box sections whose nominal
develop the full web section because of the bending resistance can exceed the yield strength
possibility of secondary flexural stresses of the flange at the strength limit state. This
developing in box sections as a result of check shall not apply to single box sections.
vibrations and/or distortions in the section. In
Haaijer (1981), it was demonstrated that the C6.12.1.1
transverse secondary distortional stress range at
the web-to-flange welded joint is reduced more This article covers small, rolled, or
than 50 percent when one interior intermediate builtup composite or noncomposite members
cross-frame per span is introduced and more used primarily in trusses and frames or in
than 80 percent when two cross-frames per span miscellaneous applications subjected to bending,
are introduced. Thus, if two or more interior often in combination with axial loads.
intermediate diaphragms or cross-frames are For H-shaped members Mp =1.5FyS,
used, the minimum size fillet welds on both where S is the elastic section modulus about this
sides of the web may be assumed to be adequate. axis.
It is essential that welds be deposited on
both sides of the connecting flange or web plate C6.12.2.2.2
whether full penetration or fillet welds are used.
This will reduce the bending stresses resulting The lateral-torsional resistance of box
from the transverse bending moments to a shapes is usually quite high and its effect is often
minimum and eliminate the possibility of fatigue ignored. For truss members and other situations
failure. in which long unbraced lengths are possible, this
expediency may not be adequate. Equation 1
C6.11.5.1 was derived from the elastic lateral torsional
buckling moment, Mcr, given by:

C6 - 36
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

most often used as columns or beam columns.

The provisions for circular concrete-filled tubes
also apply to concrete-filled pipes.
The equation for M, when (Pu/φcPn)>0.3
for which: is an approximate equation for the plastic
moment resistance that combines the flexural
strengths of the steel shape, the reinforcing bars,
and the reinforced concrete. These resistances
are defined in the first, second, and third terms
of the equation respectively (SSRC 1988). The
equation has been verified by extensive tests
(Galambos and Chapuis 1980).
No test data are available on the loss of
After substitution of Equations C2 and C3 into bond in composite beam columns. However,
C1: consideration of tensile cracking of concrete
suggests (Pu/φcPn) = 0.3 as a conservative limit
(AISC 1994). It is assumed that when (P u/φcPn)
is less than 0.3, the nominal flexural resistance is
reduced below the plastic moment resistance of
the composite section given by Equation 3.
It was assumed that buckling would be When there is no axial load, even with
in the inelastic range so the CRC column full encasement, it is assumed that the bond is
equation was used to estimate the effect of only capable of developing the lesser of the
inelastic buckling as: plastic moment resistance of the steel section or
the yield moment resistance of the composite
section.

C6.12.2.3.2

Substitution of Equation C4 into C5 Equations 1 and 2 represent a step

leads to Equation 1. function for nominal flexural resistance. No
accepted transition equation is available at this
C6.12.2.2.3 writing.

Equations 1 and 2 represent a step C6.13.1

function for nominal flexural resistance. No
accepted transition equation is available at this Where a section changes at a splice, the
writing. smaller section is to be used for these
requirements. These requirements are retained
C6.12.2.2.4b from AASHTO (1996).

These types of members, which are not C6.13.2.1.1

generally used as bending members, are covered
in AISC (1994). In bolted slip-critical connections
subject to shear, the load is transferred between
C6.12.2.3.1 the connected parts by friction up to a certain
level of force that is dependent upon the total
The behavior of the concrete-encased clamping force on the faying surfaces and the
shapes and concrete-filled tubes covered in this coefficient of friction of the faying surfaces. The
article is discussed extensively in Galambos connectors are not subject to shear, nor is the
(1988) and AISC (1994). Such members are connected material subject to bearing stress. As

C6 - 37
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

loading is increased to a level in excess of the Equation 1 applies to a service limit

frictional resistance between the faying surfaces, state for which the resistance factor is 1.0, and,
slip occurs, but failure in the sense of rupture hence, is not shown in the equation.
does not occur. As a result, slip- critical C6.13.2.3.2
connections are able to resist even greater loads
by shear and bearing against the connected Proper location of hardened washers is
material. The strength of the connection is not as important to the performance of the bolts as
related to the slip load. These Specifications other elements of a detail. Drawings and details
require that the slip resistance and the shear and should clearly reflect the number and disposition
bearing resistance be computed separately. of washers, especially the washers that are
Because the combined effect of frictional required for slotted-hole applications.
resistance with shear or bearing has not been
systematically studied and is uncertain, any
potential greater resistance due to combined C6.13.2.6.1
effect is ignored.
For slotted holes, perpendicular to the In uncoated weathering steel structures,
slot is defined as an angle between pack-out is not expected to occur in joints where
approximately 80 to 100 degrees to the axis of bolts satisfy the maximum spacing requirements
the slot. specified in Article 6.13.2.6.2 (Brockenbrough
1983).
The intent of this provision is to control
permanent deformations under overloads caused C6.13.2.6.3
by slip in joints that could adversely affect the
serviceability of the structure. The provisions are The intent of this provision is to ensure
intended to apply to the design live load that the parts act as a unit and, in compression
specified in Article 3.6.1.1. If this criterion were members, prevent buckling.
to be applied to a permit load situation, a
reduction in the load factor for live load should C6.13.2.6.6
be considered. Slip-critical connections must
also be checked for the strength load Edge distances shown are consistent
combinations in Table 3.4.1-1, assuming that the with AISC values. They are based on the
connection has slipped at these high loads and following:
gone into bearing against the connected material.
 Sheared Edges - 1.75 x diameter rounded to
C6.13.2.1.2 even number mm

In bolted bearing-type connections, the  Rolled Edges of Plates or Shapes, or Gas

load is resisted by shear in the fastener and Cut Edges - 1.25 x diameter rounded to even
bearing upon the connected material, plus some number mm
uncertain amount of friction between the faying
surfaces. The final failure will be by shear C6.13.2.7
failure of the connectors, by tear out of the
connected material, or by unacceptable The nominal resistance in shear is based
ovalization of the holes. Final failure load is upon the observation that the shear strength of a
independent of the clamping force provided by single high-strength bolt is about 0.60 times the
the bolts (Kulak et al. 1987). tensile strength of that bolt (Kulak et al. 1987).
However, in shear connections with more than
C6.13.2.2 two bolts in the line of force, deformation of the
connected material causes nonuniform bolt shear
force distribution so that the strength of the
connection in terms of the average bolt strength

C6 - 38
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

decreases as the joint length increases. Rather

than provide a function that reflects this decrease Extensive data developed through
in average fastener strength with joint length, a research has been statistically analyzed to
single reduction factor of 0.80 was applied to the provide improved information on slip
0.60 multiplier. Studies have shown that the probability of connections in which the bolts
allowable stress factor of safety against shear have been preloaded to the requirements of
failure ranges from 3.3 for compact, i.e., short, Table 1. Two principal variables, bolt pretension
joints to approximately 2.0 for joints with an and coefficient of friction, i.e., the surface
overall length in excess of 1270 mm. It is of condition factor of the faying surfaces, were
interest to note that the longest and often the found to have the greatest effect on the slip
most important joints had the lowest factor, resistance of connections.
indicating that a factor of safety of 2.0 has Hole size factors less than 1.0 are
proven satisfactory in service (Kulak et al. provided for bolts in oversize and slotted holes
1987). because of their effects on the induced tension in
The average value of the nominal bolts using any of the specified installation
resistance for bolts with threads in the shear methods. In the case of bolts in long-slotted
plane has been determined by a series of tests to holes, even though the slip load is the same for
be 0.833 Fub, with a standard deviation of 0.03 bolts loaded transverse or parallel to the axis of
(Yura et al. 1987). A value of about 0.80 was the slot, the values for bolts loaded parallel to
selected for the specification formula based the axis have been further reduced, based upon
upon the area corresponding to the nominal judgment, because of the greater consequences
body area of the bolt. of slip.
The shear strength of bolts is not The criteria for slip resistance are for the
affected by pretension in the fasteners, provided case of connections subject to a coaxial load. For
that the connected material is in contact at the cases in which the load tends to rotate the
faying surfaces. connection in the plane of the faying surface, a
The factored resistance equals the modified formula accounting for the placement
nominal shear resistance multiplied by a of bolts relative to the center of rotation should
resistance factor less than that used to determine be used (Kulak et al. 1987).
the factored resistance of a component. This The required tension specified for
ensures that the maximum strength of the bridge M164M (ASTM A 325M) bolts larger than M24
is limited by the strength of the main members reflects an update from the IS0 specification that
rather than by the connections. lists identical material properties for the size
The absence of design strength range from Ml6 to M36. This update has not yet
provisions specifically for the case where a bolt been applied to the customary U.S.
in double shear has a nonthreaded shank in one specifications.
shear plane and a threaded section in the other The minimum bolt tension values given
shear plane is because of the uncertainty of in Table 1 are equal to 70 percent of the
manner of sharing the load between the two minimum tensile strength of the bolts. The same
shear areas. It also recognizes that knowledge percentage of the tensile strength has been
about the bolt placement, which might leave traditionally used for the required tension of the
both shear planes in the threaded section, is not bolts.
ordinarily available to the Designer. The effect of ordinary paint coatings on
The threaded length of an A 307 bolt is limited portions of the contact area within joints
not as predictable as that of a high-strength bolt. and the effect of overspray over the total contact
The requirement to use Equation 2 reflects that area have been investigated experimentally
uncertainty. (Polyzois and Frank 1986). The tests
A 307 bolts with a long grip tend to demonstrated that the effective area for transfer
bend, thus reducing their resistance. of shear by friction between contact surfaces
was concentrated in an annular ring around and
C6.13.2.8 close to the bolts. Paint on the contact surfaces

C6 - 39
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

approximately 25 mm, but not less than the bolt The research cited in the preceding
diameter away from the edge of the hole did not paragraph also investigated the effect of varying
reduce the slip resistance. On the other hand, the time from coating the faying surfaces to
bolt pretension might not be adequate to assembly to ascertain if partially cured paint
completely flatten and pull thick material into continued to cure. It was found that all curing
tight contact around every bolt. Therefore, these ceased at the time the joint was assembled and
Specifications require that all areas between tightened and that paint coatings that were not
bolts also be free of paint. fully cured acted as lubricant. Thus, the slip
On clean mill scale, this research found resistance of the joint was severely reduced.
that even the smallest amount of overspray of On galvanized faying surfaces, research
ordinary paint, i.e., a coating not qualified as has shown that the slip factor of galvanized
Class A, within the specified paint-free area, surfaces is significantly improved by treatments,
reduced the slip resistance significantly. On such as hand wire brushing or light "brush-off'
blast-cleaned surfaces, the presence of a small grit blasting (Birkemoe and Herrschaft 1970). In
amount of overspray was not as detrimental. For either case, the treatment must be controlled in
simplicity, these Specifications prohibit any order to achieve the necessary roughening or
overspray from areas required to be free of paint scoring. Power wire brushing is unsatisfactory
in slip-critical joints, regardless of whether the because it tends to polish rather than roughen the
surface is clean mill scale or blast-cleaned. surface.
The mean value of slip coefficients from Tests on surfaces that were wire-brushed
many tests on clean mill scale, blast-cleaned after galvanizing have indicated an average
steel surfaces and galvanized and roughened value of the slip coefficient equal to 0.35 (Kulak
surfaces were taken as the basis for the three et al. 1987). Untreated surfaces with normal zinc
classes of surfaces. As a result of research by have much smaller slip coefficients. Even
Frank and Yura (1981), a test method to though the slip coefficient for Class C surfaces
determine the slip coefficient for coatings used is the same as for Class A surfaces, a separate
in bolted joints was developed (AISC 1988). class is retained to avoid potential confusion.
The method includes long-term creep test The higher value of the slip coefficient equal to
requirements to ensure reliable performance for 0.40 in previous specifications assumes that the
qualified paint coatings. The method, which surface has been blast- cleaned after galvanizing,
requires requalification if an essential variable is which is not the typical practice. Field
changed, is the sole basis for qualification of any experience and test results have indicated that
coating to be used under these Specifications. galvanized members may have a tendency to
Further, normally only two categories of surface continue to slip under sustained loading (Kulak
conditions for paints to be used in slip-critical et al. 1987). Tests of hot-dip galvanized joints
joints are recognized: Class A for coatings that subject to sustained loading show a creep-type
do not reduce the slip coefficient below that behavior. Treatments to the galvanized faying
provided by clean mill scale, and Class B for surfaces prior to assembly of the joint that
paints that do not reduce the slip coefficient caused an increase in the slip resistance under
below that of blast- cleaned steel surfaces. short-duration loads did not significantly
To cover those cases where a coefficient improve the slip behavior under sustained
of friction less than 0.33 might be adequate, the loading.
Specification provides that, subject to the Where hot-dip galvanized coatings are
approval of the Engineer, and provided that the used, and especially if the joint consists of many
mean slip coefficient is determined by the plies of thickly coated material, relaxation of
specified test procedure, faying surface coatings bolt tension may be significant and may require
providing lower slip resistance than Class A retensioning of the bolts subsequent to the initial
coating may be used. It should be noted that tightening. This loss may be allowed for in
both Class A and Class B coatings are required design or pretension may be brought back to the
to be applied to blast-cleaned steel. prescribed level by a retightening of the bolts
after an initial period of "settling-in."

C6 - 40
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

While slip-critical connections with be taken as the sum of the resistances of the
bolts pretensioned to the levels specified in individual holes. The clear distance is used to
Table 1 do not ordinarily slip into bearing when simplify the computations for oversize and
subject to anticipated loads, it is required that slotted holes.
they meet the requirements of Article 6.13.2.7 Holes may be spaced at clear distances
and Article 6.13.2.9 in order to maintain a factor less than the specified values, as long as the
of safety of 2.0, if the bolts slip into bearing as a lower value specified by Equation 2 or Equation
result of large, unforeseen loads. 4, as applicable, is used for the nominal bearing
resistance.
C6.13.2.9
C6.13.2.10.2
Bearing stress produced by a high-
strength bolt pressing against the side of the hole The recommended design strength is
in a connected part is important only as an index approximately equal to the initial tightening
to behavior of the connected part. Thus, the force; thus, when loaded to the service load,
same bearing resistance applies, regardless of high-strength bolts will experience little, if any,
bolt shear strength or the presence or absence of actual change in stress. For this reason, bolts in
threads in the bearing area. The critical value connections, in which the applied loads subject
can be derived from the case of a single bolt at the bolts to axial tension, are required to be fully
the end of a tension member. tensioned.
Using finger-tight bolts, it has been
shown that a connected plate will not fail by C6.13.2.10.3
tearing through the free edge of the material if
the distance L, measured parallel to the line of Properly tightened A 325M and A 490M
applied force from a single bolt to the free edge bolts are not adversely affected by repeated
of the member toward which the force is application of the recommended service load
directed, is not less than the diameter of the bolt tensile stress, provided that the fitting material is
multiplied by the ratio of the bearing stress to sufficiently stiff that the prying force is a
the tensile strength of the connected part (Kulak relatively small part of the applied tension. The
et al. 1987). provisions covering bolt tensile fatigue are based
The criterion for nominal bearing upon study of test reports of bolts that were
strength is subjected to repeated tensile load to failure
(Kulak et al. 1987).

C6.13.2.10.4

Equation 1 for estimating the magnitude

of the force due to prying is a simplification
given in ASCE (1971) of a semiempirical
expression (Douty and McGuire 1965). This
simplified formula tends to overestimate the
prying force and provides conservative design
In these Specifications, the nominal results (Nair et al. 1974).
bearing resistance of an interior hole is based on
the clear distance between the hole and the C6.13.2.11
adjacent hole in the direction of the bearing
force. The nominal bearing resistance of an end The nominal tensile resistance of bolts
hole is based on the clear distance between the subject to combined axial tension and shear is
hole and the end of the member. The nominal provided by elliptical interaction curves, which
bearing resistance of the connected member may account for the connection length effect on bolts
loaded in shear, the ratio of shear strength to

C6 - 41
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

tension strength of threaded bolts, and the ratios For restrictions on the use of partial
of root area to nominal body area and tensile penetration groove welds in this application, see
stress area to nominal body area (Chesson et al. Article 6.6.1.2.4.
1965). Equations 1 and 2 are conservative
simplifications of the set of elliptical curves, and C6.13.3.2.4a
represents the case for A 325M bolts where Flange-to-web fillet-welded connections
threads are not excluded from the shear plane. may be designed without regard to the tensile or
Curves for other cases may be found in AISC compressive stress in those elements parallel to
(1988). No reduction in the nominal tensile the axis of the welds.
resistance is required when the applied shear
force on the bolt due to the factored loads is less C6.13.3.2.4b
than or equal to 33 percent of the nominal shear
resistance of the bolt. The factored resistance of fillet welds
subjected to shear along the length of the weld is
C6.13.3.1 dependent upon the strength of the weld metal
and the direction of applied load, which may be
Use of undermatched weld metal is parallel or transverse to the weld. In both cases,
highly encouraged for fillet welds connecting the weld fails in shear, but the plane of rupture is
steels with yield strength greater than 345 MPa. not the same. Shear yielding is not critical in
Research has shown that undermatched welds welds because the material strain hardens
are much less sensitive to delayed hydrogen without large overall deformations occurring.
cracking and are more likely to produce sound Therefore, the factored shear resistance is based
welds on a consistent basis. on the shear strength of the weld metal
multiplied by a suitable resistance factor to
C6.13.3.2.1 ensure that the connected part will develop its
full strength without premature failure of the
The factored resistance of a welded weldment.
connection is governed by the resistance of the If fillet welds are subjected to eccentric
base metal or the deposited weld metal. The loads that produce a combination of shear and
nominal resistance of fillet welds is determined bending stresses, they must be proportioned on
from the effective throat area, whereas the the basis of a direct vector addition of the shear
nominal strength of the connected parts is forces on the weld.
governed by their respective thickness. It is seldom that weld failure will ever
The classification strength of the weld occur at the weld leg in the base metal. The
metal can conservatively be taken as the applicable effective area for the base metal is the
classification number, EXX. The letters XX weld leg which is 30 percent greater than the
stand for the minimum strength levels of the weld throat. If overstrength weld metal is used
electrodes in Kips/inch2 (multiply by 6.895 to or the weld throat has excessive convexity, the
convert to MPa). capacity can be governed by the weld leg and
the shear fracture resistance of the base metal
C6.13.3.2.2a 0.6 Fu.

In groove welds, the maximum forces C6.13.3.3

are usually tension or compression. Tests have
shown that groove welds of the same thickness Additional requirements can be found in
as the connected parts are adequate to develop the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code
the factored resistance of the connected parts. D1.5, Article 2.3.

C6.13.3.2.3a C6.13.3.4

C6 - 42
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

The requirements for minimum size of shear area(s) combined with yielding Fy on the
fillet welds are based upon the quench effect of gross tensile area.
thick material on small welds, not on strength The two formulae are consistent with
considerations. Very rapid cooling of weld metal the philosophy for tension members, where
may result in a loss of ductility. Further, the gross area is used for yielding, and the net area
restraint to weld metal shrinkage provided by is used for fracture. The controlling resistance
thick material may result in weld cracking. A 8 given by Equations I and 2 is selected by the
mm fillet weld is the largest that can be ratio of Atn to Avn.
deposited in a single pass by manual process,
but minimum preheat and interpass temperatures C6.13.5.2
are to be provided.
Tests have shown that yield will occur
C6.13.3.6 on the gross section area before the tensile
capacity of the net section is reached if the ratio
End returns should not be provided An/Ag < 0.85 (Kulak et al. 1987). Because the
around transverse stiffeners. length of the connection plate, splice plate, or
gusset plate is small compared to the member
C6.13.4 length, inelastic deformation of the gross section
is limited. Hence, the net area of the connecting
Block shear rupture is one of several element is limited to 0.85 Ag in recognition of
possible failure modes for splices, connections, the limited inelastic deformation and to provide
and gusset plates. Investigation of other failure a reserve capacity.
modes and critical sections is still required, e.g.,
a net section extending across the full plate C6.13.6.1.3
width, and, therefore, having no parallel planes,
may be a more severe requirement for a girder This is consistent with the provisions of
flange or splice plate than the block shear past editions of the Standard Specifications
rupture mode. The provisions of Articles 6.13.5, which permitted up to 50 percent of the force in
6.13.6 and 6.14.2.8 should be consulted. a compression member to be carried through a
Tests on coped beams have indicated splice by bearing on milled ends of components.
that a tearing failure mode can occur along the
perimeter of the bolt holes (Birkemoe and C6.13.6.1.4a
Gilmour 1978). This block shear failure mode is
one in which the resistance is determined by the Bolted splices located in regions of
sum of the nominal shear resistance on a failure stress reversal near points of dead-load
path(s) and the nominal tensile resistance on a contraflexure must be checked for both positive
perpendicular segment. The block shear rupture and negative flexure to determine the governing
mode is not limited to the coped ends of beams. condition.
Tension member connections are also To ensure proper alignment and stability
susceptible. The block shear rupture mode of the girder during construction, web and flange
should also be checked around the periphery of splices are not to have less than two rows of
welded connections. bolts on each side of the joint. Also, oversize or
More recent tests (Ricles and Yura 1983; slotted holes are not permitted in either the
Hardash and Bjorhovde 1985) suggest that it is member or the splice plates at bolted splices of
reasonable to add the yield strength on one plane flexural members for improved geometry
to the fracture strength of the perpendicular control during erection and because a strength
plane. Therefore, two possible block shear reduction may occur when oversize or slotted
strengths can be calculated: either fracture holes are used in eccentrically loaded bolted web
strength Fu on the net tensile section along with connections.
shear yielding, 0.58 Fy, on the gross section on Also, for improved geometry control,
the shear plane(s) or fracture 0.58 F u on the net bolted connections for both web and flange

C6 - 43
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

splices are to be proportioned to prevent slip Fatigue of the base metal adjacent to the
under the maximum actions induced during the slip critical connections in the splice plates may
erection of the steel and during the casting of the be checked as specified in Table 6.6.1.2.3-1
concrete deck. using the gross section of the splice plates and
At compact sections with holes, it has member. However, the areas of the flange and
not been fully documented that complete web splice plates will often equal or exceed the
plastification of the cross-section can occur prior areas of the flange and web to which they are
to fracture on the net section of the tension attached. The flanges and web are checked
flange. Therefore, the factored flexural separately for either equivalent or more critical
resistance of the section at a bolted splice at the fatigue category details. Therefore, fatigue will
strength limit state is to be determined by generally not govern the design of the splice
following the path for the categorization of the plates.
flexural resistance of a noncompact section that negative for compression. For sections
begins with Article 6.10.4.1.4. The stress due to where the neutral axis is located at the middepth
the factored loads in a noncompact section is not of the web, Huw, will equal zero. For all other
permitted to exceed the yield stress in either one sections, Muw, and Huw, applied together will
or both flanges at the strength limit state; the yield a combined stress distribution equivalent
web must remain elastic. As a result, this to the unsymmetrical stress distribution in the
requirement will prevent bolted splices from web.
being located near sections of maximum applied Equations 1 and 2 can also be used to
moment that qualify as compact, in which compute values of Muw and Huw, to be used when
yielding of the web is permitted. checking for slip of the web bolts. However, the
Splices for flexural members have following substitutions must first be made in
typically been designed in the past by treating both equations:
the flanges and web of the girder as individual
components and then proportioning a calculated  replace Fcf, with the maximum flexural
design moment for the splice to each stress, fs, due to Load Combination Service
component. However, for composite sections, II at the midthickness of the flange under
superposition of moments does not apply when consideration for the smaller section at the
at elastic stress levels because the moments are point of splice,
applied to different sections, whereas
superposition of stresses is valid. Thus, the use  replace fncf, with the flexural stress, f os, due
of flexural stresses to compute the actions to Load Combination Service II at the
necessary to design the splice is preferred. midthickness of the other flange at the point
Stresses due to the factored loads at the of splice concurrent with fs in the flange
point of splice at the strength limit state are to be under consideration, and
determined using the effective section defined in
Article 6.10.3.6, which is computed using an  set the factors Rh and Rcf equal to 1.0. It is
effective area for the tension flange defined by not necessary to determine a controlling and
Equation 6.10.3.6-1. By limiting the stress due noncontrolling flange when checking for
to the factored loads on the effective area of the slip. The same sign convention applies to the
tension flange to the yield stress, fracture on the stresses.
net section of the flange is theoretically
prevented and need not be explicitly checked. In areas of stress reversal, Muw, and Huw,
Stresses for checking slip of the bolted must be computed independently for both
connections under Load Combination Service II, positive and negative flexure in order to
as specified in Article 6.13.2.1.1, are to be determine the governing condition. For web
determined using the gross section, since net splices not in an area of stress reversal, Muw, and
section fracture is not a concern under this load Huw, need only be computed for the loading
combination. condition causing the maximum flexural stress
in the controlling flange at the strength limit

C6 - 44
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

state or in the flange under consideration for

Load Combination Service II.
An alternative approach whereby all the
flexural moment is assumed to be resisted by the
flange splices, provided the flanges are capable
of resisting the design moment, is presented by
Sheikh-Ibrahim and Frank (1998). This method
is only to be applied at the strength limit state;
slip of the bolts should still be checked using the
conventional approach. Should the flanges not When checking the bearing resistance of the web
be capable of resisting the full design moment, at bolt holes, the resistance of an outermost hole,
the web splice is assumed to resist the additional calculated using the clear edge distance, can
flexural moment in addition to the design shear conservatively be checked against the maximum
and the moment due to the eccentricity of the resultant force acting on the extreme bolt in the
design shear. connection. This check is conservative since the
For bolt groups subject to eccentric shear, a resultant force acts in the direction of an inclined
traditional approach is often used in which the distance that is larger than the clear edge
bolt group is subjected to a concentric shear and distance. Should the bearing resistance be
a centroidal moment. A vector analysis is exceeded, it is recommended that the edge
performed assuming there is no friction, and that distance be increased slightly in lieu of
the plates and bolts are elastic, AISC (1993). increasing the number of bolts or thickening the
The use of this traditional elastic approach is web. Other options would be to calculate the
preferred over the ultimate strength approach bearing resistance based on the inclined distance
given in AISC (1993), in which an empirical or to resolve the resultant force in the direction
load-deformation relationship of an individual parallel to the edge distance. In cases where the
bolt is considered, because it provides a more bearing resistance of the web splice plates
consistent factor of safety. controls, the smaller of the clear edge or end
To effectively utilize the traditional elastic distance on the splice plates can be used to
approach to compute the maximum resultant compute the bearing resistance of the outermost
bolt force, all actions should be applied at the hole.
middepth of the web and the polar moment of
inertia of the bolt group, Ip, should be computed
about the centroid of the connection. Shifting the
polar moment of inertia of the bolt group to the
neutral axis of the composite section, which is
typically not at the middepth of the web, may
cause the bolt forces to be underestimated unless
the location of the neutral axis is computed from
the summation of the stresses due to the
appropriate loadings acting on the respective
cross-sections supporting the loadings.
Therefore, to simplify the computations and
Web splice plates are to be symmetrical
avoid possible errors, it is recommended that all
on each side of the web and are to extend as near
calculated actions in the web be applied at the
as practical to the full depth of the web between
middepth of the web for the design of the splice.
flanges without impinging on bolt assembly
The following formula, AISC (1963), may then
clearances. The required bolt assembly
be used to compute Ip about the centroid of the
clearances are given in AISC (1993).
connection:
C6.13.6.1.4c

C6 - 45
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

Equation 1 defines a design stress to be specification would permit the use of a lower
multiplied by the smaller effective flange area value.
on either side of the splice in order to determine Equation 2 defines a design stress for
a design force for the splice on the controlling the noncontrolling flange at the strength limit
flange at the strength limit state. state. In Equation 2, the flexural stress at the
The design stress is based on the general midthickness of the noncontrolling flange,
design requirements specified in Article 6.13.1. concurrent with the stress in the controlling
The use of the effective flange area, defined in flange, is factored up in the same proportion as
Article 6.10.3.6, ensures consistency with the the flexural stress in the controlling flange in
effective section used to compute the flexural order to satisfy the general design requirements
stresses at the splice and also ensures that of Article 6.13.1. However, as a minimum, the
fracture on the net section of the tension flange factored-up stress must be equal to or greater
will theoretically be prevented at the splice. The than 0.75αFyf.
smaller value of the effective flange area on Equation 4 defines a design stress to be
either side of the splice is used to determine the used to compute a flange design force for
flange design force to ensure that the design checking slip of the bolts under Load
force does not exceed the factored resistance of Combination Service II given in Table 3.4.1-1.
the smaller flange. Since net section fracture is not a concern when
The controlling flange is defined as checking for slip under this load combination,
either the top or bottom flange for the smaller the smaller gross flange area on either side of
section at the point of splice, whichever flange the splice is used to compute the design force.
has the maximum ratio of the elastic flexural When checking the slip resistance, the use of a
stress at its midthickness due to the factored Class B surface condition is recommended
loads for the loading condition under unless:
investigation to its factored flexural resistance.
The other flange is termed the noncontrolling  Class A coatings are applied,
flange. In areas of stress reversal, the splice must
be checked independently for both positive and  unpainted clean mill scale is left on the
negative flexure. For composite sections in faying surface, or
positive flexure, the controlling flange is
typically the bottom flange. For sections in  the coating has not been properly tested to
negative flexure, either flange may qualify as the show conformance with the requirements for
controlling flange. Class B coatings.
The factor α in Equation 1 is generally
taken as 1.0, except that a lower value equal to Since flanges of hybrid girders are allowed
the ratio of Fn to Fy may be used for flanges of to reach Fyf, the applied flexural stress at the
noncompact sections where Fn is less than Fyf. midthickness of the flange in Equations 1, 2 and
Such cases include bottom flanges of I sections 4 is divided by the hybrid factor, R h, instead of
or multiple box sections in compression, or reducing Fyf by Rh. In actuality, yielding in the
bottom flanges of single box sections in tension web results in an increase in the applied flange
or compression at the point of splice. In these stress. When the flange stress is less than or
cases, the calculated Fn of the flange at the splice equal to the specified minimum yield strength of
may be significantly below Fyf making it overly the web, Rh, is taken equal to 1.0 since there is
conservative to use Fyf in Equation 1 to theoretically no yielding in the web. The load
determine the flange design force for designing shedding factor, Rb, is not included in these
the splice. For I section flanges in compression, equations since the presence of the web splice
the reduction in Fn below Fyf is typically not as plates precludes the possibility of local web
large as for box section flanges. Thus, for buckling.
simplicity, a conservative value of a equal to 1.0 Flange splice plates subjected to tension are
may be used for this case even though the to be checked for yielding on the gross section,
fracture on the net section, and block shear

C6 - 46
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

rupture at the strength limit state according to bolts in the connection. The reduction factor is
the provisions of Article 6.13.5.2. Block shear only to be applied on the side of the connection
rupture will usually not govern the design of with the fillers. The factor in Equation 1 was
splice plates of typical proportion. Flange splice developed mathematically, Sheikh-Ibrahim
plates subjected to compression at the strength (1999), and verified by comparison to the results
limit state are to be checked only for yielding on from an experimental program on axially loaded
the gross section of the plates according to bolted splice connections with undeveloped
Equation 3. Equation 3 assumes an unbraced fillers, Yura, et al, (1982). The factor is more
length of zero for the splice plates. general than a similar factor given in AISC
For a flange splice with inner and outer (1993) in that it takes into account the areas of
splice plates, the flange design force at the the main connected plate, splice plates and
strength limit state may be assumed divided fillers and can be applied to fillers of any
equally to the inner and outer plates and their thickness. Unlike the empirical AISC factor, the
connections when the areas of the inner and factor given by Equation 1 will typically be less
outer plates do not differ by more than 10 than 1.0 for connections utilizing 6.0-mm thick
percent. For this case, the connections would be fillers in order to ensure both adequate shear
proportioned assuming double shear. Should the resistance and limited deformation of the
areas of the inner and outer plates differ by more connection.
than 10 percent, the design force in each splice For slip-critical connections, the
plate and its connection at the strength limit state factored slip resistance of a bolt at the Load
should instead be determined by multiplying the Combination Service II need not be adjusted for
flange design force by the ratio of the area of the the effect of the fillers. The resistance to slip
splice plate under consideration to the total area between filler and either connected part is
of the inner and outer splice plates. For this case, comparable to that which would exist between
the shear resistance of the connection would be the connected parts if fillers were not present.
checked for the maximum calculated splice-plate
force acting on a single shear plane. When C6.13.6.2
checking for slip of the connection for a flange
splice with inner and outer splice plates, the slip Flange width transition details typically
resistance should always be determined by show the transition starting at the butt splice.
dividing the flange design force equally to the Figure 1 shows a referred detail where the splice
two slip planes regardless of the ratio of the is located a minimum of 75 mm from the
splice plate areas. Slip of the connection cannot transition for ease in fitting runoff abs. Where
occur unless slip occurs on both planes. possible, constant width flanges are referred in a
shipping piece.
C6.13.6.1.5
C6.13.7.1
Fillers are to be secured by means of
additional fasteners so that the fillers are, in The provisions for rigid frame
effect, an integral part of a shear-connected connections are well documented in Chapter 8 of
component at the strength limit state. The ASCE (1971).
integral connection results in well-defined shear The rigidity is essential to the continuity
planes and no reduction in the factored shear assumed as the basis for design.
resistance of the bolts.
In lieu of extending and developing the C6.13.7.2
fillers, the reduction factor given by Equation 1
may instead be applied to the factored resistance The provision for checking the beam or
of the bolts in shear. This factor compensates for connection web ensures adequate strength and
the reduction in the nominal shear resistance of a stiffness of the steel frame connection.
bolt caused by bending in the bolt and will In bridge structures, diagonal stiffeners
typically result in the need to provide additional of minimum thickness will provide sufficient

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Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

stiffness. Alternately, web thickness may be conventional "Method-of-Section" procedures or

increased in the connection region. by continuum methods.
The provisions for investigating a
member subjected to concentrated forces applied Plastic shape factors or other parameters
to its flange by the flanges of another member that imply plastification of the cross-section
framing into it are intended to prevent crippling should not be used.
of the web and distortions of the flange. It is
conservative to provide stiffeners of a thickness C6.14.2.9
equal to that of the flanges of the other member.
A discussion of the buckling analysis of
columns with elastic lateral supports is
C6.14.1 contained in Timoshenko and Gere (1961) and
in SSRC (1988).
This requirement may be combined with
other plate stiffening requirements. C6.14.3

C6.14.2.2 Orthotropic deck roadways may be used

as upper or lower flanges of trusses, plate girder
Chord and web truss members should or box girder bridges, stiffening members of
usually be made of H-shaped, channel shaped, or suspension or cable- stayed bridges, tension ties
box-shaped members. The member or of arch bridges, etc.
component thereof may be a rolled shape or a Detailed provisions for the design of
fabricated shape using welding or mechanical orthotropic decks are given in Article 9.8.3.
fasteners. Side plates or components should be
solid. Cover plates or web plates may be solid or C6.14.3.3.2
perforated.
Reduction of combined superimposed
In chords composed of angles in local and global effects is justified by the small
channel-shaped members, the vertical legs of the probability of a simultaneous occurrence of the
angles preferably should extend downward. maximum local and global tensile effects and
Counters are sometimes used as web large capacity of orthotropic decks for local
members of light trusses. overloads.
Counters should be rigid. If used, Global shear effects in orthotropic
adjustable counters should have open decks, acting simultaneously with global tensile
turnbuckles, and in the design of these members effects, will increase governing tension in deck.
an allowance of 70.0 MPa shall be made for This may be assessed by the Huber-Mises yield
initial stress. Only one set of diagonals in any criterion used to define the total tensile force
panel should be adjustable. Sleeve nuts and loop effect in Formula 6.14.3.3.2-2. The effect of
bars should not be used. The load factor for simultaneous shear is usually not significant in
initial stress should be taken as 1.0. orthotropic roadways of girder or truss bridges,
but it may be important in decks used as tension
C6.14.2.7.3 ties in arch or cable-stayed bridges.

Generally, full depth sway bracing is C6.14.3.3.3

easily accommodated in deck trusses, and its use
is encouraged. Elastic stability of orthotropic deck ribs
under combined loading may be evaluated by
C6.14.2.8 formulas in Appendix II of Wolchuk (1963).

Gusset plates may be designed for shear, C6.15.1

bending, and axial force effects by the

C6 - 48
Section 6 – Steel Structures (SI)

Typically, due to the lack of a detailed for axial resistance range of  = 0.70 to 0.80
soil-structure interaction analysis of pile groups accounts for both unintended load eccentricity
containing both vertical and battered piles, and pile material property variations, whereas
evaluation of combined axial and flexural the resistance factor for flexural resistance of f
loading will only be applied to pile groups = 1.00 accounts only for base flexural resistance
containing all vertical piles. This design approach is illustrated on Figure C1
which illustrates the depth to fixity as
C6.15.2 determined by P-Δ analysis.

Due to the nature of pile driving,

additional factors must be considered in
selection of resistance factors that are not
normally accounted for in steel members. The
factors considered in development of the
specified resistance factors include:

 Unintended eccentricity of applied load

about pile axis.

 Variations in material properties of pile, and

 Pile damage due to driving.

These factors are discussed by

Davisson (1983). While the resistance factors
specified herein generally conform to the
recommendations given by Davisson (1983),
they have been modified to reflect current design
philosophy.
The factored compressive resistance, Pr,
includes reduction factors for unintended load
eccentricity and material property variations, as
well as a reduction for potential damage to piles
due to driving, which is most likely to occur Figure C6.15.2-1 - Distribution of Moment and
near the tip of the pile. The resistance factors for Deflection in Vertical Piles Subjected to Lateral
computation of the factored axial pile capacity Load
near the tip of the pile are 0.50 to 0.60 and 0.60
to 0.70 for severe and good driving conditions, If an unusual situation resulted in
respectively. These factors include a base axial significant bending at the pile tip, possible pile
compression resistance factor c equal to 0.90, damage should be considered in evaluating
modified by reduction multipliers of 0.78 and resistance to combined flexure and axial load.
0.87 for eccentric loading of H-Piles and pipe
piles, respectively, and reduction multipliers of C6.15.3.3
0.75 and 0.875 for difficult and moderately
difficult driving conditions, An approximate method acceptable to
For steel piles, flexure occurs primarily the Engineer may be used in lieu of a P-Δ
toward the head of the pile. This upper zone of analysis.
the pile is less likely to experience damage due
to driving. Therefore, relative to combined axial
compression and flexure, the resistance factor

C6 - 49