THE SWISS RESONANCE MONOCHORD TABLE:

INQUIRY INTO THE HEALING COMPLEXITY AND TRANSFORMATIVE

POWER OF SOUND

by

Annette M. Kearl

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of

the California Institute of Integral Studies

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Transformative Studies

California Institute of Integral Studies

San Francisco, CA

2017




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 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

I certify that I have read THE SWISS RESONANCE MONOCHORD

TABLE: INQUIRY INTO THE HEALING COMPLEXITY AND

TRANSFORMATIVE POWER OF SOUND by Annette M. Kearl, and that in my

opinion this work meets the criteria for approving a dissertation submitted in

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Psychology in Clinical

Psychology at the California Institute of Integral Studies.

_____________________________________

Allan Leslie Combs, PhD, Chair

Core Faculty, Transformative Inquiry

_____________________________________

David H. Bradshaw, PhD

Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Utah

____________________________________

Brian Abrams, PhD

Associate Professor, Montclair State University
© 2017 by Annette M. Kearl
13 Mar 2014

To Whom it May Concern,

I give Annette Kearl permission to use the photos I took of her demonstrating the overtone table for use
in her dissertation proposal.

Sincerely,

Alice Martini Drogin

Maria Loftus <[email protected]>
To
Annette Kearl
06/03/16 at 8:55 AM
Many thanks for contacting Inner Traditions/Bear & Company.

We received your permissions request and hereby give you permission to use the
requested image – diagram 32 “The Human Bioenergetic System” on page 420 –
from the work listed below. Please format your citation as such:

Vibrational Medicine By Richard Gerber, M.D. published by Inner Traditions

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Date: Fri, 18 Dec 2015 10:23:31 -0500
From: Maria Loftus <[email protected]>
To: [email protected]

Dear Annette Kearl, Ph.D., MT-BC,

Many thanks for contacting Inner Traditions/Bear & Company.

We received your permissions request and hereby give you permission to use the
requested image – diagram 17 “The Human Energy Field” on page 160 – from the
work listed below. Please format your citation as such:

Vibrational Medicine By Richard Gerber, M.D. published by Inner Traditions

International and Bear & Company, ©2001. All rights reserved.
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 ABSTRACT

This research investigates the effects of music vibration defined in terms

of harmonic sound relationships emitted by way of the Swiss Resonance

Monochord Table on health-promoting change in physiological response, anxiety,

mood and subjective experience in undergraduate musicians. Physiological

measures include electromyography, temperature, skin conductance, heart rate,

respiration, and immune system. Anxiety and mood are assessed by the

Spielberger State Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg,

& Jacobs, 1983) and the Profile of Mood States (McNair, Lorr, & Doppleman,

1971). Subjective rating scales measure tension-relaxation and enjoyment.

Themes from participant descriptions are extracted borrowing from

procedures developed by Moustakas (1994) and Colaizzi (1978) and placed into

categories defined by Murphy (1992) that suggest access to one's extraordinary

functioning and transformative capacity. A cross-over design is applied where

participants serve as their own control, randomly assigned to both vibrational

sound and no sound conditions. A mixed-methods embedded design is also

employed. Quantitative data is subject to statistical analyses and qualitative data is

subject to content analyses.

Findings reflect statistically significant positive physiological change to

include electromyography, skin conductance, and respiration rate during

vibrational sound conditions in comparison to conditions of silence. Anxiety,

mood, and subjective ratings also reflect positive change. Thematic comments

favor receiving vibrational sound within the physical, emotional, cognitive,

viii
auditory perception, visual imagery, mental-consciousness, somatic experience,

aesthetic experience, and individuation of self and higher self domains.

This research addresses a gap in scientific knowledge about the links

between physiological and psychological constructs to include states of

consciousness as affected by vibrational sound. Findings reflect positive change

effects across multiple domains within the perspectives of integral health and

wellness addressing a call for a paradigm shift from the Western allopathic

approach and model of illness to a health, wellness, and integral model. This

research addresses the increasing trend in health care as individuals seek to

understand and participate in maintaining their health and well-being. This

research will interest professionals and researchers in music therapy, sound

healing, psychophysiology, nursing, health care, psychoneuroimmunology,

integrative medicine, energy medicine, transpersonal psychology, consciousness

studies, and transformative inquiry.

ix
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First, I would like to acknowledge the work of Fabian Maman, Wolfgang

Deinhert, and Hans Hasegi-Santana, all of whom are involved in some way in my

learning and use of the SRMT. Without their creative exploration and invention,

this study would not have been possible.

There are many people to extend my gratitude toward that have been

involved over the course of my doctoral studies. First and foremost, I sincerely

appreciate the ongoing support of my current committee chair, Leslie Alan

Combs, who was my advisor as I began the program, later taking on the role as

my chair at a critical point in time.

Further, I wish to thank David Bradshaw, PhD, for his consistent

availability to meet with me in person, providing his excellent advice and support.

David, being an accomplished musician, psychophysiologist, researcher, and

Kundalini yoga practitioner was an amazing and synchronous find when

circumstances required that I move to Salt Lake City, Utah.

Likewise, I appreciate Brian Abrams, PhD, a prominent presence in the

music therapy profession who interestingly was familiar with my study from the

onset as he was the director of the music therapy program at Utah State for a

portion of the time I was there. Though now an assistant professor at Montclair

State University, Brian was willing to take on a more substantial role on my

committee at a point when I needed it. His expertise relative to mixed-methods

research and Ken Wilber’s AQAL framework was essential in guiding the

organization and integration of the numerous aspects of my inquiry.

x
 I further extend my appreciation to other professors who served as chair of

my committee on a temporary basis, namely, Kundan Singh, whose contribution

led me into areas of inquiry where I discovered significant connections. I am

grateful for the doctoral program in Transformative Studies, developed by the

California Institute of Integral Studies, Transformative Inquiry Department. A

unique group of faculty members and staff guided my cohorts and me through this

scholarly endeavor, including Bradford Keeney, Alfonso Montuori, Leslie Allan

Combs, Constance Jones, Robin Robertson, Philip Slater, Daniel Deslauriers, Dan

Crowe, Joanne Gozawa, Urusa Fahim, and Kathy Littles.

I especially want to acknowledge Martha Brumbaugh, who has been

involved throughout this entire process and is familiar with the numerous

obstacles I encountered along the way. With her encouragement and guidance, I

was able to navigate through these challenges.

The expertise of my statistician, Greg Stoddard, was statistically

significant (pun intended) and included an educational component to assist in my

understanding of the analyses he employed. I appreciate the assistance from

editors along the way, and especially the expertise of Adam Robbert, who assisted

in the final editing process. Thanks also to William Pollett for his assistance in

recruitment and Trisha Riley for her assistance in scoring. I sincerely appreciate

Professor Kristen Paul who referred two of her students, Paige and Holly, who

agreed to be my independent reviewers.

I extend my gratitude to the participants who volunteered for this study,

some of whom, I’ve heard through the grapevine, still remember their experience

xi
of the SRMT, though the study took place over a decade ago. Without their

willingness to experience something new, the study would not have taken place.

I would also like to express heartfelt appreciation to my friends and

housemates who provided support while I pursued this degree. Blessed be my

friend June Gifford who was able to follow and relate to my tendency to write in a

non-linear (stream of consciousness) fashion, which presented a challenge to

some readers. Being a right/left brain instructor, June was able to help me

integrate the two styles of writing. Housemate and fabulous musician, Leraine

Horstmanshoff, did you know that in our sound healing collaborations and kirtan

(sacred singing) gatherings, your introduction of me as Professor Kearl served as

a motivational force that moved me forward? I also want to thank George Grant,

vocal toning facilitator and creator of Drum Talk, and who has been encouraging

me throughout this entire process.

Last, but by no means least, I acknowledge the influence of my maternal

grandmother, Audrey Boyd, whose influence beginning from childhood was most

instrumental in me finding my life's purpose. And my mother, Jeanne, now 92

years old, whose life-long intellectual and artistic interests and pursuits served as

a role model for the contributions women can make within the scientific world.

I further acknowledge the indigenous peoples and practices of the world

with whom I’ve been blessed to be involved with and learn from. Finally, I thank

the support I felt from the deep silence and transformational experiences I had

while seeking answers, sending me on journeys into the deserts where the ancient

Anasazi lived.

xii
 DEDICATION

To my father, Ross, whose lifelong commitment to the service of others

and perseverance required to run a family business, served as a role model. My

father passed away about two years ago. Just prior to his final transition, he and I

were singing together, which is a testimonial that he believed and supported my

work. And also to my only brother, Steve, who died at the young age of 47 from

pancreatic cancer. At that time, I was completing my master’s degree. His passing

motivated my continued exploration of mind–body medicine. And to my older

sister, Renee, who has also experienced cancer (now in remission), and who has

honored my work through her willingness to step outside the boundaries of

Western medicine and experience my music therapy and sound healing sessions.

xiii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... viii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................... x

DEDICATION ..................................................................................................... xiii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................... xxvii

LIST OF FIGURES ...........................................................................................xxix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1

Intent of the Research Inquiry: Problem Statement .................................... 8

Researcher’s Context of the Problem ....................................................... 13

Significance of the Research Inquiry ........................................................ 15

How Does This Research Inquiry Reflect Transdisciplinarity? ... 16

Why a Transdisciplinary Focus? ................................................... 18

Academic Significance ................................................................. 19

Clinical Significance ..................................................................... 21

Health Care Reform and Integral Health Care .............................. 21

What is Integral Medicine? ........................................................... 23

Audiences For This Research Inquiry........................................... 24

CHAPTER 2: THE SWISS RESONANCE MONOCHORD TABLE:

DESCRIPTION..................................................................................................... 25

The Swiss Resonance Monochord Table (SRMT) ................................... 25

The Overtone Series and the Physical Body ............................................. 27

Mechanoreceptors ......................................................................... 28

Overtones and the Limbic System ................................................ 29

xiv
 Chapter Summary ..................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER 3: HISTORICAL CONTEXTS FOR MUSIC AND SOUND

THERAPIES ......................................................................................................... 32

Music as a Source of Knowledge.............................................................. 32

What is Number Mysticism and Right Measure? ..................................... 33

Music as a Way of Worship ...................................................................... 36

Music and Sound for Healing and Therapy .............................................. 37

Two Ideas: Content and Context................................................... 37

The content of healing. ................................................................. 37

The context of health. ................................................................... 39

The Development of Music Therapy as a Profession ............................... 41

Music in Medicine Prior to the 20th Century ............................... 41

Shift in Worldview........................................................................ 42

Music in Medicine in the 20th Century ........................................ 43

Music as Therapy in the 20th Century .......................................... 44

Music as Therapy for Veterans ..................................................... 46

The Activities Therapy Movement ............................................... 47

Further Evolution .......................................................................... 47

Music Therapy Defined ............................................................................ 49

Historical Context for Sound Healing....................................................... 50

Theoretical Principles of Sound Healing .................................................. 51

The Phenomena of Resonance ...................................................... 51

Biophysical Resonance ................................................................. 53

Subtle Energy Fields and Biophysical Anatomy .......................... 54

xv
 Sound Healing Defined ............................................................................. 58

Distinguishing Structured Music and Vibrational Sound ......................... 59

CHAPTER 4: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................ 61

Part I: Literature Directly Related to This Research Inquiry .................... 61

The SRMT and SHE ..................................................................... 61

Medical music therapy. ..................................................... 62

Music medicine. ................................................................ 63

Music as medicine............................................................. 63

Table of comparison. ........................................................ 64

Medical Music Therapy ................................................................ 65

Common characteristics. ................................................... 65

Distinct differences. .......................................................... 66

Music Medicine ............................................................................ 66

Common characteristics. ................................................... 66

Distinct differences. .......................................................... 66

Music as Medicine ........................................................................ 67

Common characteristics. ................................................... 67

Distinct differences. .......................................................... 67

Live versus recorded music. ............................................. 68

Wave forms. ...................................................................... 68

Therapeutic Techniques in Music Therapy Similar to the SRMT 70

Vibroacoustic music therapy............................................. 70

Background and history. ................................................... 71

xvi
 Acoustic and vibrational characteristics. .......................... 72

Vibration and music together. ........................................... 73

VibroAcoustic Therapy (VAT). ........................................ 73

Select VAT studies. .......................................................... 75

Comparison between VAT and the SRMT. ...................... 77

Physioacoustic therapy (PT). ............................................ 78

Select PT studies. .............................................................. 78

Comparison between PT and the SRMT. ......................... 80

Somatron Vibroacoustic Therapy (SVT). ......................... 80

Select SVT studies. ........................................................... 81

Comparison between SVT and the SRMT........................ 86

Music Vibration Table Therapy (MVT). .......................... 86

Background of the invention. ............................................ 87

Select MVT studies. .......................................................... 88

Comparison between MVT and the SRMT. ..................... 89

Other vibrational apparatus. .............................................. 90

Summary of vibrational therapies. .................................... 91

Another study applying similar measures. ........................ 92

The Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music ...................... 93

Background on transpersonal theoretical approach. ......... 94

Select GIM studies. ........................................................... 95

Comparison of GIM with SHE. ........................................ 98

Final summary. ................................................................. 98

xvii
 Sound Healing Methods and Approaches: Literature and Published
Books ............................................................................................ 98

Self-Generated Sound for Healing ................................................ 99

Projecting Sound into the Body .................................................. 104

Sounding the Body...................................................................... 105

Listening Technologies ............................................................... 109

Compositions and Specific Sound Combinations for Healing ... 111

Musical intervals, tunings, and pitches. .......................... 111

Rhythmic drumming. ...................................................... 111

Sound-harmonic timbre. ................................................. 113

Healing songs and chants. ............................................... 115

Sound environments........................................................ 116

Concluding Summary ................................................................. 116

Ken Bruscia’s Categorical Descriptions ..................................... 117

Vibrational healing.......................................................... 117

Sound healing: The auxiliary level. ................................ 118

Music healing: The augmentative level. ......................... 119

Music therapy in healing: The intensive level. ............... 120

Concluding statement...................................................... 121

Part I: Final Summary ................................................................. 121

Part II: Additional Literature Related to Practices and Phenomenon in

Music and Sound Healing Therapies ...................................................... 122

Neuroscience and Music Therapy............................................... 122

Neurologic music therapy and entrainment. ................... 123

xviii
 Types of entrainment. ..................................................... 124

Entrainment within the context of sound healing theory. 125

Sonic entrainment. .......................................................... 126

Music and brainwave entrainment. ................................. 126

Living Systems Modified With Sound ....................................... 129

Music, Vibration, and DNA ........................................................ 130

Chapter Comments.................................................................................. 133

CHAPTER 5: PURPOSE.................................................................................... 135

Research Questions ................................................................................. 135

Primary Data Set Hypotheses ................................................................. 137

Quantitative–Physiological Data ................................................ 137

Self-Report Questionnaires and Subjective Experience Rating

Scales .......................................................................................... 138

Secondary Data Set Hypotheses ............................................................. 138

Murphy’s Transformative Outcome Categories ......................... 138

Physical domain. ............................................................. 139

The emotional domain. ................................................... 140

The cognitive domain. .................................................... 140

The auditory perception domain. .................................... 141

The visual perception domain. ........................................ 141

The mental–consciousness domain. ................................ 141

Individuation and sense of self domain. ......................... 142

Chapter Summary .................................................................................. 143

CHAPTER 6: METHOD .................................................................................... 144

xix
Internal Validity ...................................................................................... 145

USU Study Description........................................................................... 146

Participants .............................................................................................. 146

Demographics ............................................................................. 147

Recruitment ................................................................................. 147

Inclusion Criteria ........................................................................ 148

Ethical Considerations ............................................................................ 149

Relevant Terms, Physical Setting, and Equipment ................................. 150

Relevant Terms ........................................................................... 150

Physical Setting and Equipment ................................................. 152

Dependent Variable Measures ................................................................ 153

Physiological Recording ............................................................. 153

Electromyography (EMG). ............................................. 154

Skin temperature. ............................................................ 155

Electrodermography. ....................................................... 155

Heart rate. ........................................................................ 156

Respiration. ..................................................................... 157

Salivary Immunoglobulin-A (s-IgA) collection procedures.

......................................................................................... 158

Standardized self-report inventories and subjective

experience rating scales. ................................................. 159

Procedure ................................................................................................ 162

Session Protocol .......................................................................... 162

Data Analyses: Primary Quantitative Data Set ........................... 163

xx
 Standardized Self-Report Inventories and Subjective Experience
Rating Scales ............................................................................... 167

POMS.............................................................................. 167

STAI (Form Y-1). ........................................................... 167

Subjective experience rating scales. ............................... 167

The Qualitative Data Set Method and Design ........................................ 168

Data Analyses: Secondary Qualitative Data Set ..................................... 172

CHAPTER 7: RESULTS .................................................................................... 174

Section One: Quantitative Results .......................................................... 174

Physiological Data ...................................................................... 174

Salivary Immunoglobulin A (sIgA) ............................................ 174

Pre- and post-sound data. ................................................ 175

Pre- and post-no sound data. ........................................... 175

24 hour post-conditions data. .......................................... 175

Standardized Self-Report Inventory Scales ................................ 175

Profile of mood states (POMS). ...................................... 175

State-anxiety inventory form Y-1 (STAI)....................... 178

Subjective experience rating scales. ............................... 180

Section Two: Qualitative Results............................................................ 183

Thematic Data ............................................................................. 183

Physical domain. ............................................................. 184

Somatic domain. ............................................................. 187

Emotional domain. .......................................................... 189

Aesthetic experience. ...................................................... 193

xxi
 Cognitive domain. ........................................................... 195

Effort/trying. ................................................................... 198

Auditory domain. ............................................................ 200

Visual domain. ................................................................ 203

Mental–consciousness domain........................................ 205

Sleeping/dreaming. ......................................................... 208

Individuation of self and higher self. .............................. 209

Feelings of communion................................................... 210

Expansion of creative ability. ......................................... 212

Composite Textural Descriptions ........................................................... 214

CHAPTER 8: DISCUSSION.............................................................................. 216

Physiological Response Measure Hypotheses ........................................ 216

Summary of the Physiological Measures ................................................ 222

Standardized Self-Report Inventory Measure Hypotheses ..................... 223

POMS.......................................................................................... 223

State-Anxiety Inventory Form Y-1 ............................................. 225

Self-Report Experiential Rating Scales ...................................... 227

Relaxation–tension rating scale. ..................................... 227

Enjoyment rating scale. ................................................... 230

Summarizing the standardized self-report measures. ..... 230

Descriptive Thematic Content: Inquiry of the Qualitative Experience of

the SRMT ................................................................................................ 231

Three Hypotheses........................................................................ 231

Physical/somatic awareness domain. .............................. 232

xxii
 The emotional domain. ................................................... 232

The cognitive domain. .................................................... 232

Effort/trying. ................................................................... 233

The auditory domain. ...................................................... 233

The visual imagery domain. ............................................ 234

The mental/consciousness domain. ................................. 234

Sleeping/dreaming. ......................................................... 234

Somatic experience. ........................................................ 235

The aesthetic experience. ................................................ 235

Individuation of self and higher self domain. ................. 235

Feelings of communion................................................... 236

Observer consciousness. ................................................. 236

Expansion of one’s creative ability. ................................ 236

Summarizing the domains............................................... 237

Comparing themes found in the USU study with other

studies. ............................................................................ 237

Concluding summary statement. ..................................... 239

Implications for Health Promotion ............................................. 239

Vibrational healing within the context of health and

wellness. .......................................................................... 239

Summary of health benefits. ........................................... 248

Final summary. ............................................................... 248

Ken Bruscia’s Types of Change ............................................................. 249

Clinical Implications for Music Therapy .................................... 250

xxiii
 Implications for the Music Therapy Profession: Education and
Training ....................................................................................... 251

Implications for the Sound Healing Profession .......................... 254

Critique of the Research Process ................................................ 254

The Learning Curve: Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Data

..................................................................................................... 256

What Language to Use? .............................................................. 257

Validation Process ...................................................................... 258

Future Research, More Learning, and What Would I Do

Differently ................................................................................... 258

Methodological Considerations .................................................. 258

Profile of mood states. .................................................... 258

Auditory domain. ............................................................ 259

Salivary immunoglobulin A (sIgA). ............................... 259

The phenomenological method. ...................................... 260

Potential intervening variables. ....................................... 261

Skin conductance and temperature. ................................ 261

Participant commitment to music. .................................. 262

Involvement of the researcher. ........................................ 262

Tension at the boundaries and commonality without

boundaries. ...................................................................... 263

Limitations of the Study.......................................................................... 264

Reflections on Future Research .............................................................. 265

Full Use of the Integral Model ................................................................ 267

Ken Bruscia’s Six Dynamic Models ....................................................... 269

xxiv
 Recommendations for Future Research .................................................. 270

Implications for Music Therapy Research .................................. 270

Physiological Measures .............................................................. 271

Psychological States.................................................................... 273

States of Consciousness .............................................................. 273

Other Populations........................................................................ 273

Clinical Populations: Therapy-Induced Change ......................... 274

Visioning Future Research for Myself ........................................ 274

Chapter Summary ................................................................................... 277

Concluding Statement ............................................................................. 278

REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 280

APPENDIX A: THE SOUND HEALING ENVIRONMENT (SHE) ................ 309

APPENDIX B: KEY TENETS OF INTEGRAL MEDICINE ........................... 311

APPENDIX C: SUGGESTED READING ......................................................... 313

APPENDIX D: SEGMENTS IN A GIM SESSION........................................... 314

Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) ..................................................... 316

The Power of Intention ........................................................................... 317

APPENDIX E: HEMI-SYNC ............................................................................. 318

APPENDIX F: MURPHY’S TRANSFORMATIVE OUTCOME CATEGORIES

............................................................................................................................. 320

APPENDIX G: REVIEWER PROCEDURE ..................................................... 326

Instructions for Reviewers ...................................................................... 327

Reviewer Recording Key ........................................................................ 329

Thematic Recording Form ...................................................................... 331

xxv
APPENDIX H: EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES AND ECOLOGICAL THREATS
............................................................................................................................. 349

APPENDIX I: SCREENING QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................. 352

APPENDIX J: SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE RATING SCALES ................... 357

APPENDIX K: BIOFEEDBACK MONITORING PLACEMENT PROCEDURE

............................................................................................................................. 358

APPENDIX L: RESEARCHER AS INSTRUMENT TEMPLATE AND

RESEARCHER ASSUMPTIONS ...................................................................... 359

My Personal Experience ......................................................................... 359

My Assumptions ..................................................................................... 360

APPENDIX M: GIM METAPHORICAL THEMES ......................................... 364

APPENDIX N: IMMUNE SYSTEM RESPONSE TO NOVEL STIMULI ...... 370

APPENDIX O: EXPLANATION OF RESULTS .............................................. 372

APPENDIX P: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES COMPARISON ..................... 379

xxvi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Characteristics of Medical Music Therapy, Music Medicine, Music as

Medicine, and SHE ............................................................................................... 64

Table 2. EEG Brainwave Bandwidths Used for Clinical Purposes .................... 128

Table 3. Physiological Measures ........................................................................ 153

Table 4. Standardized Self-Report Measures Utilized and Timing of Measurement

............................................................................................................................. 160

Table 5. Timing of Physiological Measures ....................................................... 164

Table 6. Time Periods Subject to Statistical Analyses ....................................... 165

Table 7. Physiological Measurements Multivariable Mixed Effects Linear

Regression Models .............................................................................................. 176

Table 8. Profile of Mood States Results ............................................................. 177

Table 9. State-Anxiety Inventory (STAI Form Y-1) Results From Two-Way

Repeated Measures Model .................................................................................. 179

Table 10. Subjective Experience Rating Scale Means, Confidence Intervals and P
Values ................................................................................................................. 181

Table 11 Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived

Theme Frequency: Physical ................................................................................ 185

Table 12. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis

Derived Theme Frequency: Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External
Events: Somatic .................................................................................................. 188

Table 13. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis

Derived Theme Frequency: Emotional .............................................................. 191

Table 14. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis

Derived Theme Frequency: Perception of Aesthetic Themes ............................ 194

Table 15. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis

Derived Theme Frequency .................................................................................. 196

Table 16. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis

Derived Theme Frequency: Effort/Trying .......................................................... 199

xxvii
Table 17. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis
Derived Theme Frequency: Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External
Events: Auditory ................................................................................................. 201

Table 18. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis

Derived Theme Frequency: Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External
Events: Visual ..................................................................................................... 204

Table 19. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis

Derived Theme Frequency: Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External
Events: Mental/Consciousness............................................................................ 206

Table 20. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis

Derived Theme Frequency: Sleeping/Dreaming ................................................ 208

Table 21. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis

Derived Theme Frequency: Individuation of Self and Higher Self: Feelings of
Communion......................................................................................................... 211

Table 22. Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis

Derived Theme Frequency: Individuation of Self and Higher Self: Expansion of
Creative Ability................................................................................................... 213

Table 23. USU Study Composite Textural Descriptions .................................... 215

Table F1. Murphy’s Transformative Outcome Categories ................................. 320

Table G1. Percentage of Agreement Between Reviewers and Researcher Relative

to Comment Categories: Female Participants ..................................................... 334

Table G2. Percentage of Agreement Between Reviewers and Researcher Relative

to Comment Categories: Male Participants ........................................................ 341

Table H1. Extraneous Variables ......................................................................... 349

Table H2. Ecological Threats to Validity ........................................................... 350

Table M1. Comparison of Thematic Descriptions: GIM and the SRMT ........... 364

Table P1. Two Verbatim Descriptions of the SRMT ......................................... 379

Table P2. USU Study Composite Textural Descriptions ................................... 380

xxviii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Photograph of the client receiving vibrations as the therapist plays the
Swiss Resonance Monochord Table ..................................................................... 26

Figure 2. The overtone series. ............................................................................... 27

Figure 3. The human energy field. ........................................................................ 55

Figure 4. The human bioenergetic system. ........................................................... 57

Figure 5. Embedded design flowchart. ............................................................... 145

Figure 6. Flowchart of participant selection and randomization. ....................... 149

Figure 7. Physiological measurements expressed as standardized scores. ......... 174

Figure 8. Total sample POMS ............................................................................ 178

Figure 9. STAI Y-1 results from two-way repeated measures model. ............... 180

Figure 10. Subjective experience of relaxation/tension, p-value, and difference.

............................................................................................................................. 182

Figure 11. Subjective experience of enjoyment, p-value, and difference ........... 183

Figure 12. Content analysis: Physical ................................................................. 186

Figure 13. Content analysis: Altered/enhanced perception of internal/external

events: Somatic ................................................................................................... 189

Figure 14. Content analysis: Emotional .............................................................. 192

Figure 15. Content analysis: Perception of aesthetic themes .............................. 194

Figure 16. Content analysis: Cognitive............................................................... 197

Figure 17. Content analysis: Effort/trying .......................................................... 200

Figure 18. Altered/enhanced perception of internal/external events: Auditory .. 202

Figure 19. Altered/enhanced perception of internal/external events: Visual ...... 205

Figure 20. Content analysis: Altered/enhanced perception of internal/external

events: Mental/consciousness ............................................................................. 207

xxix
Figure 21. Content analysis: Sleeping/dreaming ................................................ 209

Figure 22. Individuation of self and higher self: Feelings of communion.......... 211

Figure 23. Individuation of self and higher self: Expansion of creative ability . 214

Figure 24. The 4 domains of evidence by Abrams (2010) as informed by Wilber’s

AQAL. ................................................................................................................ 266

Figure 25. Ken Bruscia’s six dynamic models. .................................................. 270

xxx
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The medicine of the future will be music and sound.

–Cayce (Stearn & Lazar, 1967)

As a prelude to the work that follows, I present a proverb found in Luke

4:23, “Physician, heal thyself.” One possible meaning of this proverb is this:

Suppose that a man should attempt to heal another when he was himself
diseased in the same manner; it would be natural to ask him first to cure
himself and thus to render it manifest that he was worthy of confidence.
(Barnes, 1834, para. 23)

In the below paragraphs, I share a personal narrative that has driven this inquiry.

It wasn’t until adulthood that I realized music and sound were healing and

transformational for me. In retrospect, I believe my healing process began in early

childhood. Though I have no conscious memory of it, I was told that my mother’s

emotional and physical condition during pregnancy required that she take

alternate trials of anti-depressant and anti-anxiety medications. My mother and I

nearly died during the birthing process. Recently, she shared with me that it was

the voice and prompting of her mother Audrey that engaged her will to live. Many

in my family refer to Audrey as a healer. As a child, I remember sitting with her

in quiet meditation to ask questions of the Spirit world. As a teenager, she sent me

books about the powers of the mind, the early psychedelic drug experiments with

LSD, and the spiritual perspectives and practices of Hinduism, Buddhism,

Judaism, Sufism, Native American spirituality, and Christianity. This was unusual

since we were both born into the Mormon faith. She also introduced me to natural

healing remedies and foods.

1
 Later, in my adult life, as I continued to reflect on my birth and as my life

experience and education progressed, I came to realize that my chemically

induced roller-coaster ride within the womb had affected my physiology. It

challenged me to learn to manage an energy inside me that encouraged

impulsivity, emotional sensitivity, and social withdrawal. In early life, I felt

disconnected from the world, my use of language was delayed in comparison to

others of my age, and I was a sleep walker. Instead of engaging socially with

others, I felt more comfortable when off by myself, where I listened to music

while looking at picture story books. I was so shy and fearful that my mother

needed to walk with me to the elementary school, one block away, where the

crossing guard would give me a nickel if I would proceed on my own to the

school entrance.

Though not knowing of their healing effects at the time, my mother

engaged me in activities as a youth that provided a way for me to express and

manage the energy I felt inside. She coached a competitive racing swim team and

a water ballet team. At five years of age, I joined both. I believe the rhythmic

breathing and cross-patterning performed while training for racing competitions

facilitated an experience of calmness and stimulated neurological pathways within

my brain. During these competitions, I was able to direct the high energy

adrenalin bursts that I experienced. During water ballet practice, I felt how the

music played through underwater speakers simulated for me a safe and calm

womb-like experience.

2
 As I moved my body into inverted water ballet shapes and positions, I

learned where and how my body was located in space (an ability known as

proprioception). The water element became a vibrational conductor of sound and

music that stimulated my vestibular system. In 2003, while being trained as a

neurodevelopmental evaluator by Robert Doman, founder of the National

Association for Child Development, I became aware of these neurological

connection possibilities, as I learned about brain neuroplasticity, cross-patterning,

and proprioception.

Then, at the age of 27, I had an experience of self healing. Though surgery

was advised for an ovarian cyst, I gave myself three months to heal on my own. I

was living in Moab, a small and aesthetically beautiful place in south eastern

Utah. I chose alternative health-promoting practices that included chiropractic

therapy, music, chanting, meditation, prayer, herbs, and a conscious connection

with Nature that included a solo backpacking trip in Arches National Park. While

meditating in the beauty and quietness of the desert, I felt and heard a vibration. It

was as if the rocks and the Earth had a vibrational voice, a subtle humming that

did not stop. This phenomenon seemed to alter my consciousness as I lost track of

time and felt a merging with Nature and a heightened state of awareness.

I believe that this particular experience, combined with my alternative

health practices, facilitated a deep connection with what Tedlock (2005) refers to

as “the physician who resides within,” adding that “research has shown that the

use of songs, chants, prayers, spells, and music produce emotional states in a

patient that affect the way the immune system responds to illness” (p. 15). I

3
returned to follow-up with the doctor in Salt Lake City after 3 months to discover

that the cyst was gone. The doctor commented that he had never seen a cyst of

that size dissolve on its own. I remember him to jokingly ask, “What medicine

man did you see down there in Moab?” I thought to myself, “the medicine woman

within, attuned with the natural world.”

This desert experience was significant in ways I have only come to realize

after engaging my doctoral studies in Transformative Inquiry at the California

Institute of Integral Studies (CIIS). The experience contained elements of

transformational phenomena.

Referring back to my grandmother, Audrey, then deceased but continuing

her influence from the unseen world, I’ll share what also occurred on this

backpacking trip. Before departing, a small book Audrey had sent me years prior

fell off the bookshelf, landing next to my backpack. Note that this was not the

first time something similar had occurred at certain crossroads in my life. Without

opening the book to investigate its content, I tucked it in my backpack. The only

criterion I had for taking it along was its lightness in weight. While the book was

light, I soon realized its significance. As I read the words, hearing the sounds of

them in my mind, my consciousness seemed to alter even more than before.

The book was about the practices of George Ivanovich Gurdjieff (1866–

1949), a mystic and a spiritual teacher, and it made reference to vibration and

mathematics, showing how the formless comes into form through vibration and

movement. Circumstances present in my life at that time included feeling out of

sorts and frustrated with my marriage, with my career as a para-legal and real

4
estate agent, and most of all with the fact that I was not fully expressing myself

musically. I was taking a creative writing class and this desert experience inspired

a personal essay that I titled Maybe I Think Too Much, which brought about a

realization that, during this trip, I had asked on some internal level certain

existential questions. What is it to be human? Who am I? What is my life’s

purpose? An awareness of this internal inquiry emerged as I wrote the essay.

What was opened or presented to me upon my return from the desert was

extraordinary. Though I wanted to share this experience with my husband, my

friends, and my family, I could not put it into words that they could understand or

relate to. I did not myself fully understand nor have a context within which to

place the experience.

As the months passed, seemingly out of nowhere, synchronously and

effortlessly, I learned of a program at Utah State University (USU) that offered a

bachelors of science degree in music therapy. My life changed dramatically as I

followed the direction I felt was divinely guided and intended for my future. I left

Moab alone to embark on a new journey to study. Since that time, I can attest to

Socrates statement that,

Musical training is a more potent instrument than any other, because

rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the Soul, on
which they mightily fasten imparting grace, and making the Soul of him
that is rightly educated graceful. (Plato, trans. 2001, The Republic of Plato.
Millis, MA: Agora Publishers, p. 88.)

This and other transformational experiences influenced my choices in master’s

and doctoral level study.

Since beginning my career, my vision has been to reintegrate music and

sound therapies into Western medicine. I chose an internship in general medicine

5
and a master’s program in psychology that emphasized behavioral medicine and

psychophysiology. My master’s thesis focused on stress reduction, immune

response, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) where a 10-week treatment

protocol combined biofeedback training with music, relaxation, and guided

imagery (Kearl, 1990). I have since studied mind–body and Ayurvedic medicine.

In 1996, after some years of practice as a music therapist and behavioral

counselor, I attended a sound healing conference at Sunrise Ranch in Colorado.

There I met Fabien Maman, French musician, composer, acupuncturist,

bioenergetician, and martial artist. Upon learning of his research on the effects of

sound and scale tones on the body at a cellular level, I set the intention that I

would study with him someday. At Fabien’s presentation, I learned of the Swiss

Resonance Monochord Table (SRMT), which is identical to the one used in this

research inquiry and is described in Chapter 2.

At this conference, Barbara J. Crowe, then president of the National

Association for Music Therapy (NAMT) and Director of Music Therapy at

Arizona State University, and I were the only music therapists in attendance. I

pondered on the reasons why and sensed a feeling of separation and territorialism

between the professions of music therapy and sound healing. Though I didn’t

directly ask Professor Crowe if she felt the same way, in my opinion, her work

reflects her devotion to the integration and validation of both music therapy and

sound healing. I make reference throughout this dissertation to her book published

in 2004 titled Music and Soul Making: Toward a New Theory of Music Therapy.

6
Likewise, I felt drawn to facilitate an open dialogue between and mutual

acknowledgment of the two disciplines.

During the summer years of 2000 and 2001, while employed as the

Clinical Instructor of Music Therapy at Utah State University, my intention to

study with Fabien Maman came to fruition. My study and residency with Fabien

included experiencing the SRMT along with other vibrational instruments to

include the Sound Pyramid and Arch of Sound. I attempted to design and conduct

a study as to the effects of these instruments, but found there to be many variables

that could confound the data. For example, I needed to seek advice from an

associate of mine in the United States with expertise in psychophysiology on how

to accommodate for the electrical current differences in France and other artifacts.

Another challenge involved the presence of wandering goats that would curiously

venture into the huge open outdoor tent when hearing the instruments.

The Academy of Sound, Color, and Movement residencies took place in a

magnificent setting in the hills of Provence at the Domaine de Courmettes,

formerly an 18th century monastery that in the 20th century became a location for

the sharing of enlightenment activities and nature pedagogy. To overcome the

environmental challenges problematic to an experimental design, upon my return

to USU, I purchased the SRMT to conduct a controlled experimental study. Later,

I acquired the Columns of Sound from Germany that are included in my current

practice along with the SRMT in the Sound Healing Environment (SHE;

described in Appendix A).

7
 Finally, as a doctoral student at CIIS, I found a context within which to

place my personal experiences of transformation. I learned of methodologies,

perspectives, and frameworks that could assist in the realization of my vision to

integrate music and sound modalities into Western medicine.

To conclude this section, and in reference to the proverb “Physician, heal

thyself,” I can attest with confidence through personal experience that music and

sound have the power to transform and heal. My life’s work since realizing my

life’s purpose, a consequence of my experience out in the desert, has been to

empower others to access that potential within themselves—to access their inner

healer. Further, I can relate to Proust’s descriptive experience, “Music . . . helped

me descend into myself, to discover new things” (as cited in Storr, 1992, p. 118). I

feel that the vibrational frequencies experienced while in the desert facilitated a

deep connection within myself, where I discovered my life’s purpose and

transformative capacity.

My educational journey to include advanced study at the doctoral level has

led me to further explore and identify areas problematic to the acknowledgement,

validation, and integration of music and sound therapies into Western medicine,

be they methodological or otherwise.

Intent of the Research Inquiry: Problem Statement

Researchers and scholars in music therapy are dissatisfied with the

methodologies that continue to dominate their research endeavors (Crowe, 2004).

These methods are grounded in a positivist worldview where the goal in obtaining

knowledge is to describe phenomena in terms of what can be observed and

8
measured empirically. In determining the multidimensional effects of the music

and sound therapy experience, the empirical method is undeniably important but

inadequate when used exclusively (Crowe, 2004).

According to W. B. Davis, Gfeller, and Thaut (2008), music therapists

have an ethical and professional responsibility to provide the highest quality care

possible to their patients. High-quality care is guided by evidence-based practice

standards that integrate the most current findings available when making research

decisions. Some in the scientific community who focus on evidence-based

practice consider results obtained from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) as the

best evidence; however, S. Bradt, Burns, and Creswell (2013) suggest that RCTs

provide incomplete evidence when attempting to implement interventions into

clinical settings. Aigen (2015) points out foundational flaws of RCTs in general

and their placement at the most significant level in the evidence based medical–

practice hierarchy. He believes that such placement is only applicable in medical

arenas and is limiting within the context of music therapy. Aigen states:

I cannot emphasize strongly enough that is not the idea of evidence that I
am arguing against, nor do I argue against any particular type of research.
Instead, the crux of my critique is threefold: (1) The argument for its
particular hierarchy of methods that constitute evidence-based practice
(EBP) are flawed; (2) The injunction to combine research evidence with
clinical judgment is not sufficiently followed; and (3) The notion that the
practice of music therapy is or should be congruent enough with medical
practice to warrant a strictly defined implementation of EBP is flawed. (p.
14)

In addition, W. B. Davis (1987) reported finding evidence in medical journals and

dissertations dating back to the 18th century that advocate for the use of music

and sound in providing patients an alternative, more holistic approach to

9
treatment. From a clinical perspective, it is clear that no particular medication,

medical procedure, or therapeutic strategy works for everyone. Important

components to be considered in determining the efficacy of any treatment

modality should include the individual’s needs, perspective, prior experiences,

belief system, and cultural upbringing. It is here where the therapeutic potential of

music and sound as healing modalities emerges. As Bittman (1999) indicates,

“While numerous relaxation or mind–body strategies exist, none from a patient

perspective receives the widespread acceptance of music” (p. 12).

I have witnessed in my own clinical work the positive effects of music and

sound on numerous populations, but the traditional empirical analyses applied

have yielded no statistically significant evidence in support of my observations.

My research inquiry applies a more comprehensive methodology that addresses

this problem and includes the qualitative, subjectively described lived experience

of participants; needed components I feel are missed within a strictly empirical

approach.

The term lived experience is used in phenomenological studies to

emphasize the importance of an individual’s experience as a conscious human

being (Moustakas, 1994). This research is not purely phenomenological; however,

I borrow from its procedural method to extract common themes found in

participants’ qualitative descriptions. Bruscia (1995) also comments on human

subjectivity, the lived experience, and our ability to experience ourselves as

subjects. With this in mind, I agree with Bruscia that a full understanding of the

10
complexities of lived experience is essential when conducting music therapy

research.

This research inquiry is an approach to music therapy research based on

the principles of complexity science. As such, it seeks understanding rather than

exclusive causes alone and aims to illuminate rather than predict and control. I

seek to understand more fully the vibrational effects individuals experience by

way of the SRMT by including quantifiable data as well as qualitative data that

describe the lived experience of participants. I inquire into what occurred within

undergraduate musicians who participated in a group study (n = 44) as they

received vibrational sound by way of the SRMT. Particularly, I seek to determine

if what occurred suggests an experience of transcendence, transformation, or

healing within or across the domains of mind, body, emotion, and spirit.

In this research, quantified data consists of physiological responses

monitored via biofeedback to include electromyography, skin conductance,

temperature, heart rate, and thoracic and diaphragmatic breathing. Biofeedback in

the context of this inquiry is considered to measure human energy fields (human

bio-energy anatomy) and supports the basic tenet of energy medicine that such

energy fields are not only influential but through regulation can facilitate healing

on the physical level. Quantitative standardized measures include McNair’s

Profile of Mood States (POMS; McNair, Lorr, & Doppleman, 1971) and

Spielberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Scale (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene,

Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983). In addition, two subjective rating scales measured

11
tension-relaxation and enjoyment. All quantitative data were subject to statistical

analysis.

The written descriptions of participants’ lived experience give voice to

their inner experience. As a means of extracting themes amongst these

descriptions, I employed techniques borrowed from the procedural steps

developed by Moustakas (1994) and Colaizzi (1978). By positioning the

subjective lived experience to include physiological and psychological measures

and possible connections between these measures, this research inquiry seeks to

provide through various forms of analysis an integrated and complete

understanding of the data. By utilizing a mixed-methods embedded design, I

integrate two ways of knowing and forms of evidence. In the embedded design,

one data set serves a supportive, secondary role in relation to the primarily data

set. In this research, I place the qualitative data set as secondary which supports

my interest in evaluating how the qualitative experiential data contributes to a

more complete and holistic understanding of the primary quantitative data set. In

summary, in this research inquiry, I explore

• the measureable physiological and psychological changes that occur

relative to the sound vibrations received;

• the individuals’ subjective, lived experiences of the SRMT as related

to outcomes categorized by Murphy (1992), suggesting access to one’s

extraordinary functioning and transformative capacity; and

• the connections between the quantitative and qualitative data.

12
 Researcher’s Context of the Problem

Today, humankind, including most scientists, physicians, nurses,

integrative health practitioners, expressive arts therapists, and individuals in

general, are presented an opportunity to co-create a paradigm shift related to the

future evolution of health care. Over the past 300 years, Western civilization has

predominantly been shaped by a reductionist, mechanistic worldview that draws

conclusions strictly from measureable outcomes.

Although Western medicine has shown some movement away from the

Cartesian paradigm and its mind–body split, moving toward a quantum paradigm

of holistic approaches to wellness (Benson, 1996; Crowe, 2004; Eagle, 1991;

Lippin, 1992; Krout, 2007; Roskam & Reuer, 1999; Schlitz, 2008), traditional

assumptions continue to dominate. Some of these assumptions are (a) in disease,

there is an absence of connection between physical illness and the mind; (b)

consciousness and volition reside exclusively in the central nervous system; and

(c) the body is essentially responsive only to the cognitions and emotions of the

brain and does not respond to other aspects of the person (Tart, 1975).

Engel (1977) in his seminal paper points out the significant limitations to a

medical model that explains and treats physical health problems solely or even

primarily in terms of biological or genetic factors, while neglecting the role of

psychological, social, and environmental factors in determining health outcomes.

Despite decades of research conducted within health psychology, behavioral

medicine, and sociology, Western medicine by and large has not wholly embraced

the biopsychosocial approach or other more inclusive models (Gulbrandsen,

13
Hjortdahl, & Fugelli, 1997; Roter et al., 1997). In short, despite any positive

findings relative to music and sound therapies, some produced more than 30 years

ago, the traditional stance of conventional Western medicine continues to

challenge their integration as valid therapeutic treatment modalities within the

health care system.

In this research inquiry, then, I explore the therapeutic potential of

vibrational sound. I focus on an integrative, holistic, and wellness approach that

supports a mind–body–spirit relationship. Through this relationship, all aspects of

the individual (mind, body, and spirit) act as connected—acting in concert, so to

speak—thereby creating a flow of energy that facilitates a process of healing. I

view healing as equally valid along with diagnosis and allopathic cures, all three

acting in unison to achieve positive outcomes.

The potential of music and sound applied as a part of a whole-person

strategy within conventional health care can shape the medicine of the future and

can contribute to an all-inclusive and integrated model of health care through

which healing as an art and science can be reestablished. To paraphrase Plato,

music gives wings to the mind, a soul to the universe, flight to the imagination,

charm to sadness, and life to everything (Plato, trans. 2001, The Republic of Plato.

Millis, MA: Agora Publishers). Inspired by Plato’s words, my personal healing

experiences, and my 27 years as a music therapist, further questions emerge.

Some of these questions are beyond the scope of this research inquiry; however,

some are not, including

14
 • Can acoustically produced vibrational sound be instrumental in

facilitating transformation and healing?

• What experiential effects does acoustically produced vibrational sound

have on the mind, body, emotions, and Spirit?

• Do these experiences give wings to the body–mind, allowing it to take

flight and soar through the imagination and emotions beyond time to

ultimately connect with the mysterious, with a nondual–nonlinear

reality, which is viewed by some as a particular state of

consciousness?

• Does an experience of union of self through vibrational sound produce

a shift in human perception from feelings of separateness to feelings of

relatedness with all things?

• What vibrational sound components or temporal qualities of the sound

experience are influential? Will the overtone series or the proportional

and mathematically related ratios of vibration prove to be significant?

Significance of the Research Inquiry

This research inquiry is transdisciplinary in nature. As Montuori (2005)

argues, transdisciplinary research differs in several ways from inter- and

multidisciplinary approaches. The following sections describe the nature of

transdisciplinary research and the reasons for choosing a transdisciplinary stance

in this dissertation.

15
How Does This Research Inquiry Reflect Transdisciplinarity?

This research inquiry, rather than being driven exclusively by a

disciplinary approach, is inquiry driven. The fundamental questions that drive this

dissertation have emerged from my lived experience of the topic. As such, I

engage in the dissertation with knowledge from my own areas of disciplinary

specialization (music therapy, psychophysiology, sound healing, and mind-body

medicine) and through the development of a plurality of perspectives potentially

discover something new and original.

Further, my research inquiry is meta-paradigmatic rather than intra-

paradigmatic. Charles Eagle (1991), PhD, Professor of Music Therapy and

Department Head of Music Therapy: Medicine & Health at Southern Methodist

University, advocates for a meta-paradigmatic approach as he discusses the

principles of quantum physics, which he correlates to the music therapy

profession. Eagle emphasizes the importance of recognizing the meaning music

therapists bring to clinical sessions and how this meaning affects each session.

Further, Eagle brings attention to the fact that the model or theory presented

within the music therapy discipline affects how therapists observe, sense,

perceive, interpret musical behaviors, and learn, concluding that the discipline of

music therapy “must assume a greater role in interfacing science, especially

quantum science, and music” (p. 60).

I feel it critical that research endeavors include components that inquire

into how researchers influenced by their discipline of study come to know—how

they come to construct what is considered pertinent knowledge—and simply put,

16
what they bring with them to the research process that can affect many aspects of

the research. In my case, for example, the bachelor’s program at USU emphasized

predominately a behavioral approach, which can potentially influence how I

perceive and interpret the results of music therapy research. I have since studied

other music therapy and sound healing approaches and perspectives.

Researchers do not come to research void of assumptions as a blank slate.

Rather, the slate includes the underlying assumptions and views important to them

as researchers. These assumptions are integral to the process of establishing

pertinent knowledge. In recognizing this, there is a move from what Nicolescu

(2008) describes as a disciplinary in vitro approach—which is framed as

analytical, as oriented toward power and ownership, and as focused on objective

knowledge—to a transdisciplinary in vivo approach that integrates the analytical,

the subjective, and the lived experience. As Montuori (2005) states: “The lived

experience occurs in a context, in a network of relationships, in ecology” (p. 153).

Finally, as a transdisciplinary researcher, I present the underlying

assumptions and paradigms of the disciplinary approaches that are pertinent to the

research. My research inquiry focuses on the subjectivity of the researcher as it

includes my personal relationship to the topic and my biases, assumptions, and

beliefs. This research inquiry is self-reflective as it is my intention to engage in a

“kind of creative thinking that contextualizes and connects, distinguishes rather

than separates” (Montuori, 2005, p. 155).

17
Why a Transdisciplinary Focus?

As mentioned before, researchers in music therapy are dissatisfied with

the predominant theoretical approaches used in conducting music therapy

research. As far back as 1988, Maranto suggested that:

The enormous diversity that is now the discipline of music therapy will
give rise to a movement that will seek a theoretical paradigm large enough
to embrace it, yet specific enough to allow for a means to define it clearly
and, at the same time, allow for possible growth. If this does not happen,
the discipline may become fragmented into numerous specialties,
organized around various populations, theoretical models, or clinical
techniques. (p. 16)

Crowe (2004) states that the empirical method is inadequate when used alone to

address the complexities involved in music as therapy.

Time and time again, I got “no significant results” as determined by

inferential statistics. The research actually “proves” that what I observed,
had known deeply and absolutely through my experience of the effects of
the music therapy, was wrong. Can my experience be that inaccurate? (p.
xiii)

According to Edelman (1992) and Rider (1997b), new theoretical approaches or

combinations thereof are needed that more adequately address issues of

complexity. Some of the areas are addressed in this research (e.g., neuroscience,

psychoacoustics).

In telling the story of music as therapy, information and insights from

many disciplines—physics, biology, chemistry, neuroscience, psychology,
sociology, musicology, acoustics, psychoacoustics, cognitive sciences,
education, wisdom, and spiritual traditions and the new science of
quantum physics and especially complexity science, the new physics
science of the macro-world—are needed. Theories from all of these
disciplines are needed to deal with the immense complexity of human
functioning. Any one theory may be necessary yet insufficient to explain a
phenomenon. (Edelman, 1992, as cited in Crowe, 2004, p. xiii)

18
Abram (1996) and Crowe (2004) contend that rather than seeking to explain what

occurs via a set of finished reasons a story must be told that requires insights and

theories from many disciplines. Ruud (1998) and Kenny (1998) also advocate for

a more holistic approach. Kenny identifies eight “cultures of inquiry”—

phenomenological, hermeneutic, theoretical, empirical/analytical, evaluation,

action, historical/comparative, and ethnographic—and states that, “To assume one

approach is ‘it’ is dishonoring the wholeness, the complexity, and richness of

being” (p. 215).

In summary, a transdisciplinary stance focuses on a process that embraces

the complexities involved in the musical experience, is specific and rigorous

enough to allow clear results, and allows for further growth and expansion in the

ongoing exploration of the transformative power of music, sound, and the human

being—a harmonic triad of healing.

In the sections that follow, I discuss the significance of this research

inquiry academically and clinically for the music therapy profession. Then, I

speak to its significance for health care reform and integrative medicine.

Academic Significance

Within the discipline of music therapy, I consider this research inquiry to

be significant for the following reasons.

1. The dissertation is an advanced inquiry into whether music vibration,

defined in terms of harmonic sound relationships emitted by way of the SRMT,

elicits significant measureable health-promoting changes in physiological

19
response, anxiety, mood, and subjective experience in undergraduate musicians in

comparison to no sound.

2. The project addresses a call within the profession for a more complete,

holistic, and integrated understanding of the multi-dimensional changes that occur

in individuals when experiencing music vibration by applying the mixed method

embedded design.

3. The results contribute to the recognition of music therapy nationally

and internationally by pursuing research that crosses disciplines and include

applied psychophysiology and biofeedback, psychoneuroimmunology, integrative

and complementary medicine, psychosomatic medicine, energy medicine,

transpersonal psychology, and transformative inquiry.

4. The results move the field of music therapy forward by bringing an

increased understanding of the therapeutic context through which evidence-based

positive outcomes can be achieved.

Finally, this inquiry addresses a gap in scientific knowledge about the

links between physiology and psychology as affected by sound and music.

According to Fry:

Modern science has relatively little information about the links between
physics, physiology, and psychology and is certainly not in a position to
specify how the effects are related in music, but most scientists would
recognize here a gap in scientific knowledge and would not want to deny
the fact of a connection. (1971, as cited in Aldridge, 1996, p. 23)

20
Clinical Significance

This research is clinically significant for several reasons, listed below.

1. The research will improve music therapists’ understanding of how

vibrational elements and the experience of them can potentially effect change

across multiple domains.

2. The results will influence how music therapists apply and adapt other

receptive sound therapy techniques to achieve optimal therapeutic benefit.

3. The dissertation contributes to an understanding of the transformation,

health, and wellness improvement achieved through vibrational sound. When

advocating for the inclusion of sound and music, the research supports, the

wellness model categorized by the American Music Therapy Association

(AMTA, 2015) in their Standards of Clinical Practice state: “Music [sound]

therapy in wellness involves the specialized use of music [sound] to enhance

quality of life, maximize well being and potential, and increase self-awareness in

individuals seeking music [sound] therapy service” (para. 2).

Health Care Reform and Integral Health Care

This research inquiry also has significance for health care reform and

integral health care. In late February 2009, the US Senate Committee on Health,

Education, and Pensions conducted a hearing called Integrative Medicine: A

Pathway to a Healthier Nation. In addition, leading scientists, clinicians, policy

experts, and health care providers gathered at a summit on Integrative Medicine

and the Health of the Public, hosted by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the

Bravewell Collaborative, whose purpose was to identify factors critical to health

21
care reform. Vesela Simic (2009), senior editor of Shift magazine and instructor at

the Institute of Noetic Sciences, reported these critical factors:

• The new system must focus on prevention and wellness and put the

patient at the center of care.

• Lifestyle modification programs have been proven, not only to improve

people’s overall health and well-being, but also to mitigate and

sometimes completely heal chronic diseases.

• Genetics is not destiny. Recent research shows that gene expression can

be turned on or off by nutritional choices, levels of social support, and

stress-reduction activities such as meditation and exercise.

• All health care practitioners should be educated in the importance of

compassionate care that addresses the biopsychosocial dimensions of

health.

• Evidence-based medicine, which emphasizes the need for research and

testing that expand the evidence for integrative models of care, is the

only acceptable standard. (p. 7)

Furthermore, in a press release from the Institute of Noetic Sciences, Marilyn

Schlitz (2005), PhD, Vice-President of Research at the Institute of Noetic

Sciences, stated,

What is needed is a full system change, a new framework that can

embrace our experience of health and illness within a lifelong process that
is embedded in biological, psychological, social, environmental, and
spiritual contexts alike. In other words, we need to put together everything
that we know about health and healing. And we need to do it now. (para.
5)

22
What is Integral Medicine?

According to Schlitz (2008) integral medicine holds the perspective that

human beings have a powerful and innate healing system. The efficacy of integral

medicine rests on the premise that brain, mind, and spirit act in concert in order

for healing to occur. (Key tenets of integral medicine and healing are noted in

Appendix B.) According to the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS, 2012),

more and more adults and children are using complementary and alternative

medicine (CAM) approaches. The NHIS is the main source of information on US

health and is administered by the National Center of Health Statistics (NCHS),

part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. In 2002, 2007, and 2012,

the NHIS included a section, developed by the NCHS and the National Center for

Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), on the use of complementary

and integrative health approaches. Information was collected on adults in all three

years and on children in 2007 and 2012. The survey includes data taken from

35,000–40,000 household interviews. Results reflect a rising trend in the

utilization of complementary medical approaches.

A similar trend is found within the UK and the rest of the developed world

(Heller, Lee-Treweek, Katz, Stone & Spurr, 2005; Institute of Medicine, 2005;

Kelmer, Wellman, & Saks, 2003). In the last 20 years, CAM use in the UK has

increased dramatically as reflected in facts found in a survey by the Department

of Health. In the year 2000, there were approximately 50,000 CAM practitioners

and 10,000 conventional health care professionals involved in the practice of

CAM in some way (Department of Health, 2017).

23
 Finally, findings from my research inquiry are significant and of interest to

those individuals and practitioners who align themselves with integrative

medicine and who take into account the whole person, including all aspects of

lifestyle and a grounding in integrative principles.

Audiences For This Research Inquiry

This research inquiry speaks to audiences within various disciplines and

includes scholars, researchers, and therapists in the fields of music therapy,

medicine, applied psychophysiology and biofeedback, nursing,

psychoneuroimmunology, psychosomatic medicine, energy medicine, sound

healing, ethnomusicology, transpersonal psychology, transformative inquiry, and

integrative medicine. Further, the research speaks to individuals who have the

desire, positive attitude and mind towards being actively involved in maintaining

their health and well-being. These individuals seek to fully realize their full

creative potential and engage on multiple levels an internal process that facilitates

life supporting acts of creative expression, healing, and transformation.

24
 CHAPTER 2: THE SWISS RESONANCE MONOCHORD TABLE:
DESCRIPTION

Cottrell (2008) writes in A Brief History of the Monochord that the

monochord was initially a single string stretched over a sound box. Its use dates

back to 300 BCE. In 500 BCE, Pythagoras began to use the monochord in

mathematics while studying ratio relationships. Ptolemy indicates that

Pythagoras’s work led philosophers to believe that certain ratios governed the

movement of planets and other cosmic matters, and that they provided a bridge

between the world of physical experience and the cosmos (Cottrell, 2008). In the

Western world, mathematical physics was born from Pythagoras’s work.

In the 11th century BCE, the monochord was used to teach choir boys how

to sing and chant. Marchetto of Padua used the monochord in ways that

contributed to the philosophy of music, semiotics, numerology, and mathematics

(Cottrell, 2008). The monochord inspired the creation of the European clavichord,

harpsichord, and fortepiano; they are predecessors to the modern day piano

(Cottrell, 2008). The monochord has since evolved from a single-stringed

instrument to the 55-stringed monochord vibrational instrument used in this

research inquiry.

The Swiss Resonance Monochord Table (SRMT)

After learning of Pythagoras’s concept of a single-string monochord,

Swiss musician, inventor, and luthier Hans Hasegi-Santana (n.d.) began building

monochord tables. As a performer and sound therapist, Hans’s aim was to create

an instrument that produced high-quality harmonics. In 2000, resonance therapist

25
Teresa Mia Navarro joined Hasegi-Santana, and their combined expertise in

harmonic frequency and color theory resulted in the construction of the SRMT.

The SRMT is a wooden resonating chamber the size of a massage table on

which the client can be viewed by the therapist at all times (see Figure 1). The

client reclines on the sand pad that covers the table. Fifty-five piano strings of

equal gauge are stretched across two wooden bridges located on the underside of

the table. The 55 strings are tuned to the same fundamental frequency (pitch). The

continuous strumming motion of the therapist produces the overtone series, the

complex sounds that are heard and felt by the client through the resonating table.

Figure 1. Photograph of the client receiving vibrations as the therapist plays the Swiss
Resonance Monochord Table. Photo reproduced with permission of Alice Drogin.

Complex sounds are created from the overtone series and include sounds

produced by natural phenomena (e.g., a guitar string being plucked, a person

singing a tone, a tuba sounding a note, ocean waves, wind, and other nature

sounds). Relative to the guitar, when the string is plucked, the string vibrates as a

whole producing its fundamental frequency. Simultaneously, the whole string

vibrates in halves, quarters, thirds, and so forth. The overtone series is produced

26
from these vibrational patterns. Although humans mostly hear the tone associated

with the length of the whole string as the fundamental pitch, it is also possible to

hear the overtones. Simplified, overtones are higher ratios of frequency vibrations

(pitches) that sound along with the fundamental frequency. Figure 2 illustrates the

fundamental and harmonic divisions of the overtone. The fundamental frequency

and the overtones combined are called partials. Partials are harmonic frequencies

that are whole-number multiples of the fundamental. When played, the 55 strings

of the SRMT vibrate as wholes, halves, thirds, quarters, fifths, sixths, and

sevenths, creating complex vibrational frequencies. These vibrations transfer

through the table and massage the physical

body.

Figure 2. The overtone series. The fundamental and harmonic divisions of the overtone
(Frank, 2010).

The Overtone Series and the Physical Body

According to Laskow (1992), the physical body is composed of

interacting, pulsating energy fields and has its own set of vibrating patterns. Like

the overtone series, these vibrational patterns are natural and resonant with the

body. Laskow concludes, “Since all notes have higher harmonics [overtones], we

27
can assume the body does as well” (p. 40). Crowe (2004) suggests that a whole-

body vibrotactile experience of specific frequencies or the harmonics of complex

sound may produce an electromagnetic energy field and may release energetic

information in particular areas. Because sound and music form a complex

energetic system, their influence on the energetic system of the body is a means

through which music, sound, and vibrational therapies can interface with physical

functioning. According to Fernandez (1997),

A complex tone stimulates whole and partial vibration of a body, causing

an effect in the human being of a perception of vibration in specific
locations, and also general vibration in the body, experienced as a whole
body vibration. Mechano-receptors sensitive to vibration are responsive in
specific frequency bands, and therefore the sensation of vibration will vary
depending on the frequency and upon the overtones above the
fundamental tone.

Mechanoreceptors

Mechanoreceptors are specialized cells that provide information via action

potentials to the central nervous system. They respond to external mechanical

stimuli to include touch, pressure, vibration, and sound. There are four major

types, and collectively they are referred to as low threshold or high sensitivity

mechanoreceptors because even the weakest mechanical stimulation of the skin or

skeleton induces them to produce action. For example, low frequency vibrations

(30–50 Hz) will cause action potential in the Meissner type receptor, while high

frequencies (250–350 Hz) cause action potential in the Pacinian type (Purves,

2001). In the Literature Review, I present studies that pertain to specific

frequencies applied for therapeutic purposes by way of various vibroacoustic

apparatus that affect these specialized cells.

28
Overtones and the Limbic System

According to Altenmüller (2004), the limbic system, often referred to as

“the emotional brain” can be activated by environmental stimuli to include

vibrational sound and music. The thalamus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and other

structures are part of the limbic system (Pinel, 2006). The amygdala is considered

to be especially important as it is in part responsible for behavioral reactions to

stimuli perceived by the individual to have biological significance (Englert,

2004). Because the amygdala receives information from the temporal regions of

the cortex, which gathers information from visual, auditory and somatosensory

association areas of the brain, it has been described as being well informed about

conditions within the surrounding environment, which would be important when

the environment includes music (Altenmüller, 2004).

Tomaino (1988) suggests that high-frequency overtones and timing may

act on important amygdala functions in the brain. The amygdala, the seat of social

and emotional intelligence serves as an emotional–motor interface so that limbic

needs and impulses may be acted upon in a flexible manner (MacLean, 1990;

Mogenson & Yang, 1991). According to Phan, Wagner, S. F. Taylor, and

Liberzon (2002) the amygdala is strongly associated with fear and the processing

of unpleasant emotional stimuli to include aversive, unpleasant, or fearful musical

stimuli. Chanda and Levitin (2013) and Koelsch, Fritz, von Cramon, Müller, and

Freiderici (2006) found the amygdala to be activated when listening to unpleasant

music and deactivated in response to pleasant music listening.

29
 However, additional research suggests that the amygdala is a mediator of

positive emotions as well, particularly in providing a positive stimulus for

increased arousal (M. Davis & Whalen, 2001). Other researchers have found the

amygdala to (a) enable us to hear “sweet sounds,” or determine if something is

spiritually significant (Gloor, 1960, 1986; Halgren 1992; Joseph, 1982, 1992,

1994; Rolls, 1992; Ursin & Kaada, 1960) and (b) make it possible to experience

the “spiritually sublime,” emotions such as love and “religious rapture”; and (c)

allow us to store affective experiences in memory or even to re-experience them

when awake or during the course of a dream in the form of visual, auditory, or

religious/spiritual imagery (D. M. Bear, 1979; D’Aquili & Newberg, 1993; Gloor,

1986; Joseph, 1990, 1992).

Some individuals have reported communing with spirits, or receiving

profound knowledge from the hereafter, following amygdala and hippocampal–

temporal stimulation (MacLean, 1990; Penfield & Perot, 1963; Williams, 1956).

Further reference to the amygdala is included in Appendix C suggested readings

where evidence is suggested for additional neurobiological mechanisms involving

music therapy interventions are provided.

Chapter Summary

In summary, the reader has been informed of the SRMT and its unique

characteristics. Additionally, relevant descriptions were presented. In Chapter 3, I

present a historical context for music and sound therapies from earlier times to the

20th Century. Included are sections on the development of music therapy as a

profession. Within the context of sound healing, the reader is informed about

30
resonance, subtle energy, and biophysical anatomy. I view these areas of

discussion relevant to this research. The SRMT and techniques applied herein are

evident in both music therapy and sound healing. Finally, I present an integrated

definition of music therapy and sound healing within the context of this

dissertation.

31
 CHAPTER 3: HISTORICAL CONTEXTS FOR MUSIC AND SOUND
THERAPIES

The developmental roots of music therapy can be discovered by

investigating how music and sound were perceived and by studying the roles they

played in ancient times. Crowe (2004) presents three roles: (a) music as a source

of knowledge; (b) music as a way of worship; (c) music and sound as methods for

healing and therapy. Throughout this chapter, I include what I consider to be

aesthetic and poignant quotes from philosophers that relate to these roles. My

purpose in doing so is to remind us of the ways music and sound were viewed and

used by philosophers and physicians in earlier days. A central claim of this

dissertation reflects my position that it is the time to reintegrate such views into

the music therapy approaches of the 21st century. As Corrine Heline (1965),

American author, Christian mystic, and lifelong student of the ancient mysteries

notes,

The famous Greek physician Hippocrates administered musical treatment

to his patients in 400 B.C. Although this type of treatment did not
originate with him, it found in him an exponent of the highest order. With
the increasing materialism of Western civilization, the major tenants of
ancient musical therapy have been either forgotten or discarded. (p. 100)

Music as a Source of Knowledge

As an introduction to the material that follows, I quote the 17th century

poet William Congreve from his work The Mourning Bride. “Music has charms to

sooth a savage breast, to soften rocks or bend a knotted oak. I’ve read that things

inanimate have moved, and as with living Souls, have been informed by magic

numbers and persuasive sound” (Congreve, et al., 1815). Most of us are familiar

32
with Congreve’s often quoted phrase, music soothes a savage breast, but as his

words continue, questions come to mind, What does he mean by magic numbers

and persuasive sound? Is he referring to number mysticism? I address these

questions in the paragraphs that follow.

Many ancient cultures held the worldview that numbers, mathematics, and

sound were interrelated and represented mystical vehicles, keys to attaining

knowledge about the manifestation of natural law (Crowe, 2004). Most applicable

to this research inquiry is the Greek worldview and influence of Pythagoras (570

BCE–495 BCE), the philosopher, mathematician, and musician who is considered

the inventor of Western mathematics, science, and music theory (Crowe, 2004).

Pythagoras’s work took number mysticism and right measure into account

when connecting math, science, and music. During his time, music, mathematics,

medicine, metaphysics, and the art of healing were treated as mutually inclusive

fields of study and practice. Crowe (2004) explains, “As Pythagoras searched for

the order in numbers, he saw the earthly manifestation of that order in the

movement of heavenly bodies, the laws of music, and the physical and mental

worlds of human beings” (p. 5).

What is Number Mysticism and Right Measure?

Rothstein (1995) describes number mysticism as the view that “each

integer [has] a metaphysical significance . . . This went along with the mysticism

about music, which was itself linked to number and to the character of emotional

and intellectual life” (p. 20). During these times, the study of numbers and their

mathematical relationships were believed be a direct path to the Divine mind and

33
that God’s perfect order could be found in the measurement of nature. An

important point to understand here is how the measurement of nature was viewed

during these times in comparison to views of it today. For the Greeks, right

measure was an inner (or internal) measure; whereas today most scientists view

right measure as an external measure (Crowe, 2004). Physicist David Bohm

(1980), however, refers to right measure as an inner measure,

which played an essential role in everything. When something went

beyond its proper measure this meant not merely that it was not
conforming to some external standard of what was right, but much more,
that it was inwardly out of harmony, so that it was bound to lose its
integrity and break up into fragments. (p. 20)

The Greeks determined right measure by calculating ratios and

proportions. The term ratio implies the use of numbers when comparing two

objects in the universe where a comparison is made between one object and

another in terms of their relationship to each other, as opposed to a set standard

that applies to both objects, and to how those objects are different from or similar

to each other. Pythagoras sought to find Divine order in numbers by calculating

ratios and proportions (Crowe, 2004). This marks Pythagoras’s significant

contribution—the Divine order of numbers—which led him to develop and use

the monochord, detailed in Chapter 2, in healing and science.

Crowe (2004) refers to right measure and links the relationship between

right measure, ratio, and proportion to health. Crowe indicates that in order to lead

a healthy and productive life, a person must achieve a perfect balance through

right measurement of ratio. Crowe states, “This is the Greek belief in harmony.

Since the Divine’s perfect order was inherent in the ratio relationships that

34
expressed right measure, such a state of harmony was inevitable and the basis of

health” (p. 5).

Supporting these views, Joscelyn Godwin (1993) in her book The

Harmony of the Spheres: A Sourcebook of the Pythagorean Tradition in Music

indicates, “The harmony of tone with number became for the Pythagoreans a kind

of Grand Unified Theory, an archetype of harmony which permeates and unites

both the greater and lesser worlds” (p. 9). Godwin makes reference to a

monochord and indicates the ancients understood music more through ratios than

aural sense. “Thus Pythagoras, in replacing death with life, recommended the use

of a monochord to his pupils . . . for he taught that the most sublime music is

understood more by the intellect than the sense of hearing. He suitably maintained

this teaching as he also drew its beginning from the universe.” (p. 184)

Likewise, Plato (429–347 BCE) said,

“Man’s music is seen as a means of restoring the soul, as well as confused

and discordant bodily afflictions, to the harmonic proportions that it shares
with the world soul of the cosmos” (Plato, trans 1998, Timaeus, B. Jowett,
Project Gutenburg.)

Pythagoras’s study of ratio and interval relationships has significantly

influenced my current research as I inquire into the effects of the overtone series

as provided by the playing of the SRMT. Moreover, it apples to my current work

in exploring the effects of Pythagorean fifth tone intervals as produced by the

Columns of Sound; unfortunately not included in this dissertation as it is

preliminary (discussed in Chapter 8).

35
 Music as a Way of Worship

Other cultures not only held the worldview that music and sound were

direct connections to the Divine; they also believed both were responsible for

creating and bringing the physical world into form. Vescelius (1918) has noted

that Pythagoras believed that the octave formed a circle and gave the earth its

form. According to Crowe (2004), references to sound have been found in

creation myths and stories in Egypt, in the Rig-Veda (an ancient Hindu text), in

the Gospel of John, in Tibetan Buddhism, in Sufism, in indigenous frameworks

(e.g., Aborigine, Anasazi), in the Keres, and in Athanbasan. These cultures

engaged in ritual practices and temple ceremonies with the intent to connect to

Divine creation.

John Beaulieu (1987), a naturopathic doctor, counseling psychologist,

composer, and music–sound therapist, makes reference to the monochord and

indicates that during the Renaissance period, mathematician and theologian

Johannes Kepler visualized the whole universe as the vibrating string of the

monochord, “The vibration of the string was analogous to the word of God or the

sound of sounds from which everything arises, including man” (p. 15).

Another reference made by Margo Drohan in her 1999 article “From Myth

to Reality: How Music Changes Matter” is to the Cabala, the ancient book of

Jewish mysticism, where three vibrational sound patterns of the Hebrew letters

aleph, mem, and sheen constructed the universe through the interplay of Spirit,

matter, and consciousness.

Consciousness, instantaneous and beyond time was created by these

vibrational patterns. Sound had two different functions: One was the

36
 formation of ordinary words and the other the formation of sacred sounds.
When sounds were produced, a resonance of some kind would put the
speaker in “tune” with the universe and be able to change matter. (Wolf,
1991, as cited in Drohan, 1999, p. 26).

Is it possible that scientific research supports a shift from myth to reality,

from magical explanations to factual explanations? I asked this question as I

explored the work of Ernst Chladni and Hans Jenny, the Swiss physician, artist,

and natural scientist. Jenny (1972) found that vibrational frequencies moved and

organized physical matter into symmetrical shapes and recognizable forms. These

forms are present in nature and the human body (discussed further in Chapter 4).

Music as a way of worship in current times is heard in the singing of

hymns, sacred sounds, prayers, and chants. In addition, it is used for healing and

therapy—a third role.

Music and Sound for Healing and Therapy

Since music and sound were associated with creative forces that connected

the physical world to the Divine, they were also used in healing and therapy. In

most ancient cultures, both were perceived to have the power to enhance

conscious awareness and to promote equilibrium between the self and the

environment (Crowe, 2004).

Two Ideas: Content and Context

In music therapy, reference is made to two basic ideas that relate to the use

of music and sound for healing and therapy—the content of healing and the

context of healing. My research inquiry next addresses both ideas.

The content of healing. The first idea, the content of healing, involves the

method through which music and sound are applied by the practitioner to the

37
patient’s physical or energetic body. These methods include Shamanic practices,

medicine songs, scale patterns, modes, ragas, and tones (Crowe, 2004). More

research is needed to give these methods more widespread acceptance. My

research inquiry seeks to provide this kind of evidence, as I combine quantitative,

qualitative and phenomenological methods in the study of the effects of

acoustically produced vibrational sound.

Within Western traditional medicine, the content of healing has addressed

the physical body primarily from a chemical perspective and includes surgery,

chemotherapy, medication, and gene therapy. However, recent interest in the

mind–body connection, psychoneuroimmunology, and energy medicine has

gradually influenced the emergence of a new view. For example, according to

Gerber (2001), the West is “on the verge of a major paradigm shift that extends

across the sciences. This shift involves a transition from the mechanistic

Newtonian model to the acceptance of the Einsteinian paradigm of a complex, yet

interconnected energetic-field-like universe” (p. 464). In this context, I quote

Einstein (n.d.) “If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often

think in music. I live my day dreams in music. I see my life in terms of music.”

(para 1).

The Newtonian model, which the majority of biological researchers and

physicians currently work from, views the world as an intricate mechanism

(Gerber, 2001). In this view, the human body is conceptualized as a machine or as

a cellular mechanism. This machine is controlled by the brain and peripheral

nervous system. In this model, the modification of bioenergetic fields shown to

38
influence cellular patterns of growth and physical expression is not fully

recognized (Gerber, 2001). The Newtonian model, derived from observations of

nature (gravity in particularly), was considered quite advanced for its time;

however, it could not explain the behavior of particular energetic phenomena

discovered later, namely, electricity and magnetism (Gerber, 2001).

In contrast, the Einsteinian paradigm views all matter as energy, which is

foundational for the understanding that human beings are dynamic energetic

systems. Einstein, through his famous equation E = , proved that “energy and

matter are dual expressions of the same universal substance. That universal

substance is a primal energy or vibration of which we are all composed” (Gerber,

2001, p. 40). From this perspective, and applied within the context of this research

inquiry (vibrational medicine), human beings are viewed as networks of complex

energy fields that interface with physical and cellular systems. These energy fields

are organized and nourished by subtle energetic systems that function to

coordinate the life-force with the body (Gerber, 2001). Later in this chapter, I

discuss the subtle energy fields and biophysical anatomy. In addition, in Chapter

4, studies are reviewed that document the presence of such fields and how they

can be affected by vibration.

The context of health. The second idea, the context of health, refers to the

therapeutic outcomes experienced by the patient in response to the method

applied—a state of being that takes into account both the patient’s internal state

(e.g., emotions, spiritual beliefs, and sense of hope) and external environment

39
(e.g., physical surroundings, cultural worldview, outside societal beliefs, and

attitudes toward healing and toward the patient). Crowe (2004) claims,

Health involves proper attunement of the body and soul to the universe.
Melody and rhythm can assist in restoring the soul to order and harmony,
thus supporting the body’s return to health. This state of harmony
constitutes the context for health. (p. 9)

As Porphyry (233–309 BC), a second generation disciple of Pythagoras,

notes:

Pythagoras based musical education in the first place on certain melodies

and rhythm that exercised a healing, a purifying influence on the human
actions and passions, restoring “Pristine Harmony” of the soul’s faculties.
He applied the same means to the curing of diseases of both body and
mind. (Rome & Rome (2010).

Extrapolating from the discourses of Bohm (1980), Crowe (2004),

Godwin (1993), Beaulieu (1987), and Gerber (2001), and additionally from my

personal experience, I believe from a mind–body perspective that disease implies

conditions within the body–mind physiology that are disharmonious or out of

balance. Under such conditions, body systems may lose their integrity, their sense

of unity and interrelatedness, and become fragmented (dis-eased). My research

inquiry explores whether the tones and overtones sounding in pure proportion and

ratio, as experienced by way of the SRMT create conditions that bring the body

back into a state of harmony and balance.

To summarize this section, I discussed the origins of music therapy dating

back to the ancients. I focused on the contributions of Pythagoras, as the SRMT

used in this research inquiry seems to be an evolution of the original monochord

that Pythagoras was thought to have used. In the following section, I continue to

discuss the evolutionary process related to the use of music and sound from

40
earlier centuries to the 20th century, where music therapy became an organized

and clinical profession.

The Development of Music Therapy as a Profession

Music in Medicine Prior to the 20th Century

According to the AMTA (2015), the earliest known reference to music

therapy appeared in 1789 in an unsigned article in Columbian Magazine titled

“Music Physically Considered.” Other writings include those of Edwin Atlee

(1804) and Samuel Mathews (1806), who make reference to medical dissertations

on the therapeutic value of music. Atlee and Mathews were students of Dr.

Benjamin Rush, a physician and psychiatrist who was a strong proponent for the

use of music to treat medical diseases. The 1800s also saw the first recorded

music therapy intervention at Blackwell’s Island in New York and the first

recorded systematic experiment in music therapy that used music to alter dream

states during psychotherapy (AMTA, 2015).

Crowe (2004) presents a more comprehensive history of the use of music

in medicine that dates back to 1621, sourcing a book by Robert Burton titled The

Anatomy of a Melancholy who wrote of music as the remedy for despair (Peters,

1987). Later, in the early to mid-1700s, doctors who were also musicians used

music in their practices. Richard Brown in 1729 reported on the use of music in

medicine in a publication titled Medicina Musica (Musical Medicine; Crowe,

2004). Additionally, McClellan (1988) found a work by Dr. Louis Roger from

1778 titled A Treatise on the Effects of Music on the Human Body that established

some basic principles of the psychology of music, acoustics (the science of

41
sound), and sound perception. Roger speculated that the vibrational effects of

music were foundational in treating patients.

Crowe (2004) cites a seminal work by the physician Richard Brocklesby

published in 1749 and titled Reflections on Antient and Modern Musick, With the

Application to the Cure of Diseases that speaks to the application of ancient and

modern music in the cure of disease. Brocklesby hypothesized that frequent

applications of music would cure or mitigate various disorders. Crowe also

references other books, publications, and writings. In the London Journal of

Medicine she found an article that referenced a book written in 1806 (no author

noted) titled On the Effect of Music in Curing and Palliative Disease. Crowe also

cites a publication from 1875 by Chomet titled The Influence of Music on Health

and Life, and a writing from 1918 by Pothey titled The Power of Music and the

Healing Arts.

Shift in Worldview

Significant to the discussion of music and medicine is the emergence of

the scientific approach to health and healing, which also marked a shift in

worldview that occurred in the mid-1800s, as physicians in the Western world

began to rely heavily upon experimentation and observation (Boxberger, 1962).

Due to the separation of scientific subjects (objectivism) that occurred in the

natural sciences and humanities, prior relationships between music and medicine

were forgotten and the credibility of music as a curative agent was challenged.

Carapetyan in his seminal overview of music in medicine from the Renaissance

through the eighteenth century states, “A number of these writers (physicians)

42
reject[ed] the well-known legends and . . . [strove] to establish a more plausible

and scientific place for music in the cure of psychopathic cases and of nervous

diseases” (as cited in Boxberger, 1962, p. 146). Boxberger further comments,

“Music as therapy began to be examined more critically, and gradually the

circumstances of its use were disclosed in special cases rather than as a part of the

general theory and practice of medicine” (p. 163).

Music in Medicine in the 20th Century

Music in medicine re-emerged in the early twentieth century with the

invention of the phonograph, enabling the playing of music in hospitals, clinics,

surgery theaters, and for rehabilitation. In 1914, Dr. Evan O’Neil wrote to the

American Medical Association, stating that music “mitigate[d] the dread of

operations” (as cited in Boxberger, 1962, p. 139). It is important to keep in mind

here that as the development of music as therapy was progressing, the re-

emergence of music in medicine acquired new distinctions disconnected from its

ancient roots.

For example, Dileo (1999) distinguishes music in medicine interventions

as being an adjunct to various medical treatments or situations to including

background music in waiting rooms or others areas of the hospital treatment

environment. These interventions are typically used by medical personnel,

including by physicians, nurses, dentists, and allied health professionals, in an

attempt to provide the medical patient with nonpharmacological adjunct therapies

for stress, anxiety, or pain.

43
 Music in medicine interventions rely primarily on receptive musical

experiences, including pre-recorded music, low frequency sounds, womb sounds,

and specialized vibroacoustic equipment (Dileo-Maranto, 1995). Chapter 4 further

distinguishes music in medicine and discusses where the SRMT fit within this

context.

Music as Therapy in the 20th Century

The earliest instances of music used as therapy can be found in the work

of three female pioneers, Eva Augusta Vescelius, Isa Maud Ilsen, and Harriet

Ayer Seymour (W. B. Davis, 1993). In his article “Keeping the Dream Alive:

Profiles of Three Early Twentieth Century Music Therapists,” W. B. Davis (1993)

credits these women as being three of the most important figures in early 20th

century music therapy, stating, “these three women provided the impetus for the

continued growth and development of music therapy during the second half of the

twentieth century” (p. 43). Eva Augusta Vescelius was the first to apply music as

therapy. Her lecture, titled Musical Vibration in the Healing of the Sick, was given

in 1913, at the second annual meeting of the International Metaphysical League,

where she was given a brief 12 minutes to present (W. B. Davis, 1993). I find it

interesting that her audience were people who had a metaphysical perspective,

suggesting her attempt to reconnect music and sound to their ancient roots.

Vescelius established the National Society for Music Therapeutics and

was involved in a group called New Thought, a controversial mental and

therapeutics movement that flourished during that time (W. B. Davis, 1993). Of

particular interest to this research inquiry was Vescelius’s continued commitment

44
to some of the classic ideas about music for healing. She believed that music

“based on the law of harmonious rhythmic vibration” cured disease (Vescelius,

1918, as cited in W. B. Davis, 1993, p. 37). W. B. Davis (1993) notes that

Vescelius’s greatest contribution to music therapy was the first American music

therapy journal Music in Health, though only three issues were published. W. B.

Davis speculates,

One reason for the journal’s early demise may have been its questionable
quality; it contained poems, anecdotes culled from music and medical
periodicals (many of which were old), and a few testimonials from
musicians and physicians but very few substantial articles. (p. 37)

I suggest that the journal’s early demise is potentially linked to the shift

mentioned earlier, where scientific medicine and empirical methods became the

dominant paradigm in determining what was considered substantial or not. This

paradigm invalidates qualitative and phenomenological experiences—the lived

experiences of music and the expression of those experiences in alternative ways,

such as through anecdotal or other creative means. My research inquiry through

the embedded design (detailed in Chapter 6) gives credence to the lived

experience.

According to W. B. Davis (1993), in 1918, Isa Maud Ilsen, a second

pioneer, promoted the use of music as therapy for injured American soldiers. She

was the director of music in reconstruction hospitals for the Red Cross and was

the first to teach as lecturer in Musico–Therapy at Columbia University in New

York City. She founded the National Association for Music in Hospitals and

developed specific rules of conduct, some of which are in use today. She

organized a group of philanthropic women who raised funds to support

45
scholarships for musicians to be trained as musical therapists, yet to be formally

defined. Though she and the association received attention in the media, the last

reference to her work was in 1930.

W. B. Davis (1993) continues, describing the life of pianist Harriet Ayer

Seymour, the third pioneer, who taught at the Institute of Musical Art, later

renamed the Juilliard School of Music. Seymour provided music therapy services

to American soldiers returning from Europe during WWII under the title Music

for Shellshock. Seymour also published a number of books on music education

and music therapy. Different from Vesculius and Ilsen were Seymour’s thoughts

on spirituality, which were influenced by the New Thought Movement. Davis

indicates, “The cornerstone of Seymour’s treatment philosophy was music used in

conjunction with constructive thought” (p. 43). Influenced by the spiritual

teachings of the Unity Church, Seymour used musical meditation to reach the

emotions of her students and clients (W. B. Davis, 1993). Her music meditations

asked clients to repeat a phrase out loud or silently such as “infinite goodness”

while she improvised on the piano. She founded The National Foundation of

Musical Therapy, trained more than 500 “musical doctors” to work with WWII

veterans in New York City hospitals, and published the first music therapy text

(W. B. Davis, 1993, p. 43).

Music as Therapy for Veterans

Both Ilsen and Seymour were the first to provide music as therapy for

veterans within the medical field. Rorke (1996) presents 50 published sources,

dating from 1944 through the early 1950s that report on music used as therapy for

46
veterans. Most are anecdotal in nature, written by military officers, well-informed

civilian volunteers, and wounded veterans. Rorke states,

Due to the tireless efforts of many dedicated physicians and musicians

during World II and its aftermath, the healing powers of music were
witnessed on an unparalleled scale. For the first time in history, a military,
the American Service Forces, recognized music as an agent capable of
helping its mentally and physically wounded. (p. 190)

The Activities Therapy Movement

Despite the historical precedents for the application of music in medicine

and therapy, the activities therapy movement had greater influence on the

development of music therapy as a professional discipline (Unkefer, 1961).

Activity therapies, such as arts and crafts, were introduced to patients with mental

illness; these therapies eventually came to include music, bringing musicians and

music teachers into hospitals and institutions to perform and teach music skills.

These individuals mostly worked in Veterans Administration Hospital activities

departments, and by late 1940 music therapy in the United States was considered

an activity-based therapeutic intervention (Unkefer, 1961). At the same time,

music therapy came to be viewed as a therapeutic activity in institutions for the

developmentally disabled and in special education programs (Solomon, 1981).

Further Evolution

During the 1940s, early music therapy practitioners came to recognize the

need to establish a professional organization that included formal education and

research. Three persons are considered instrumental in the development of music

therapy as an organized clinical profession. For over 30 years, psychiatrist and

music therapist Ira Altshuler of the Eloise State Hospital advocated for music

47
therapy, feeling that music therapists would eventually compose prescriptive

music like a pharmacist would prescribe medicine. Willem van de Wall pioneered

the use of music therapy in state-funded facilities and wrote the first pedagogical

music therapy text titled Music in Institutions. E. Thayer Gaston, known as the

“father of music therapy,” moved the profession forward in terms of its

organizational and educational goals (American Music Therapy Association,

AMTA, 2013). In 1944, the first academic music therapy program was established

at Michigan State University. Other programs followed and included the

University of Kansas, Chicago Musical College, the University of the Pacific, and

Alverno College (AMTA, 2013).

In 1950, the National Association for Music Therapy (NAMT) was

formed with goal to “make music applicable to the scientific aspects of medicine

in the twentieth century” (Boxberger, 1963, p. 133). NAMT began its quarterly

publication of the Journal of Music Therapy in 1968, which continues today. In

1971, the American Association for Music Therapy (AAMT) was formed with

similar goals. The two organizations merged in 1998 to become the American

Music Therapy Association (AMTA). Currently, there are 73 approved music

therapy programs in the United States and one in Canada. Practices or programs

in various stages of development can also be found in England, France, Germany,

Denmark, Norway, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, Canada, Australia, Japan,

Korea, Israel, Turkey, and South Africa (AMTA, 2013).

During the mid-20th Century, the concept of music as therapy continued

to evolve as more research accumulated on the physical and psychological effects

48
of music and as various clinical applications were developed (D. B. Taylor, 1981).

Today, clinical applications of music therapy with adults, adolescents, and

children are quite diverse.

Music Therapy Defined

Music therapy is applied across diverse clinical populations and is viewed

differently depending on perspective (e.g., behavioral, psychoanalytic,

humanistic, phenomenological, existential, transpersonal), so definitions can vary

widely. The National Association for Music Therapy (NAMT) first defined music

therapy in 1960 as “the scientific application of the art of music to accomplish

therapeutic aims. It is the use of music and the therapist’s self to influence

changes in behavior” (Bruscia, 1989, p. 177).

In 1983, NAMT published another definition, “Music therapy is the

specialized use of music in the service of persons with needs in mental health,

physical health, habilitation, rehabilitation, or special education. The purpose is to

help individuals attain and maintain their maximum level of functioning”

(Bruscia, 1989, p. 177).

Bruscia (1998b) defined music therapy as “a systematic process of

intervention wherein the therapist helps the client to promote health, using music

experiences and the relationships that develop through them as dynamic forces of

change.” (p. 20).

The most recent definition came in 2011 after the World Federation of

Music Therapy (WFMT; 2011) conducted a search that revealed 16 definitions

49
from member websites and scholarly publications. As keywords and core

concepts were identified, music therapy was defined as follows:

The professional use of music and its elements as an intervention in

medical, educational, and everyday environments with individuals,
groups, families, or communities who seek to optimize their quality of life
and improve their physical, social, communicative, emotional, intellectual,
and spiritual health and well-being. Research, practice, education, and
clinical training in music therapy are based on professional standards
according to cultural, social, and political contexts. (para. 3)

Historical Context for Sound Healing

In addition to music, sound has been used within many ancient cultures for

healing and therapy (Crowe & Scovel, 1996). Most music therapy research

investigates the effects of highly organized sound combinations called music

(e.g., instrumental compositions without lyrics). According to Goldman (n.d.), the

curative effects of sound, which is considered less structurally organized than

music, have gained more interest over the last 25 years. As a result, various sound

healing techniques have been developed or re-discovered from ancient times,

where Shamans chanted and drummed, and when sound, along with music, was

considered a sacred science in the ancient mystery schools (e.g., in Egypt, Greece,

and India, and in other centers of knowledge). According to Boyce-Tillman

(2000) many forms of sound healing are “syntheses of ancient traditions and

contemporary ideas” (p. 199). Within the perspectives of traditional (allopathic)

and complementary medicine, however, sound healing is perceived as relatively

new (Goldman, n.d.).

50
 Theoretical Principles of Sound Healing

Sound healing methods are grounded in two theoretical principles. One is

based on the idea of biophysical resonance, the other on subtle energy fields and

the bio-energetic anatomy (Crowe & Scovel, 1996). Prior to discussing these

principles, it is important to have a basic understanding of resonance.

The Phenomena of Resonance

Resonance is a well-established principle taught in any basic physics

course on the properties of sound waves. Though difficult to witness directly, the

world is in a state of constant motion. Where solid objects are concerned, this

motion manifests as vibration. As explained by Simon Heather (2004), sound

healer and founder of the Sound Healers Association and College of Sound

Healing in the UK, “Everything that exists, whether the thing is physical,

emotional or spiritual, is the product of the movement or oscillation of energy

between a positively charged pole and a negatively charged pole. This oscillation

is called ‘vibration’” (p. 27).

Also referred to as wave forms, these oscillations move through air, water

and other materials. Examples in our bodies include our vocal chords and ear

drums. Wave forms are created by our vocal chords with we speak, sing, or tone

and our ear drums are set into motion by sound waves. Sound wave movement

(frequency) is measured in cycles per second and perceived as pitch.

Anything that vibrates—potentially everything—has a specific resonant

frequency. That frequency can be acted upon from the outside when matched.

51
Resonance occurs when a vibration comes into alignment with that of another

object, when a sound or vibration produced from one object causes another object

to vibrate. It is a matter of one object or force getting in tune with another object

or force. This alignment can be gentle and simple as when one tuning fork struck

and as a consequence begins to vibrate at a specific frequency causes another

tuning fork of the same frequency and within close proximity to vibrate on its

own. This phenomenon can also be dramatic, as in the shattering of a wine glass

when a tone matches the natural frequency of the glass; or it can be devastating,

as in the destruction in 1940 of the world’s third longest Tacoma Narrows

Suspension Bridge located on Puget Sound.

Resonance is also present throughout nature in the movement of electrons

from one energy level to another (Gerber, 1988). Gerber (2001) refers to the

principle of resonance where tuned oscillators will only accept energy within a

narrow frequency band. Through the process of resonance, energy of the proper

(or resonant) frequency will excite the electron to move to a higher level or

energy state in its orbit around the nucleus. Relating this to the human body,

Gerber suggests that the body may contain structures that behave like electrons

where their energetic subcomponents occupy different vibrational modes (orbits).

One mode Gerber calls a health orbit and the other a dis-eased orbit, “For the

human being whose energetic systems are in an orbit of dis-ease, only subtle

energy of the proper [resonant] frequency will be accepted to shift the body into a

new orbit or steady state of health” (p. 85).

52
Biophysical Resonance

Biophysical resonance maintains that biological systems and emotional

and mental states are interrelated; if one is out of balance, the others are affected.

McClellan (1991) refers to these systems as being vibrational systems of various

frequencies and densities that are interdependent and interlocked. “The substance

of the body is a virtual symphony of frequencies, sounds, and biological rhythms

in a state of continuous flow which seek to achieve and maintain the state of

perfect balance and equilibrium” (p. 38).

Resonant frequency is determined by the objects (e.g., the physical

body’s) size, weight, and density. Within the context of music therapy and

vibrational healing, resonance is important in perceiving the sound element of

pitch. Musical instruments (objects) are constructed to produce resonance in

characteristic ways typical for each instrument (Jourdain, 1997). Jourdain (1997)

suggests that if all objects have a resonant frequency, then the human body and its

structures also do. Jourdain states,

Listening not only grabs our complete mental activity but takes over our
bodies as well . . . We use our bodies as resonators for auditory
experience. The listener becomes a musical instrument, places himself in
the hands of the music, allows himself to be played. Deep music listening
becomes a whole body experience. (p. 83)

In agreement with McClellan (1991) and Jourdain (1997), Heather (2004)

refers to our bodies as a complex system or multi-leveled vibrational forces,

which are constantly in motion. These forces vibrate at different speeds, and thus

at different frequencies. All the different materials and systems of our body—

53
from bones, blood and organs to pulmonary, digestive and immune systems, make

up this totality, and result in a complex composite of different frequencies.

My research inquiry seeks to determine if the vibrational frequencies

produced by way of the SRMT favorably impact the vibrational state of the

human mind-body system, shifting the body from an unbalanced state of dis-ease

to a more balance state of ease and well-being. I believe the SRMT functions to

elicit a whole body experience involving the phenomena of resonance. In terms of

healing and the human body, a state of ‘resonance’ is considered to be a state of

balance and health.

Subtle Energy Fields and Biophysical Anatomy

The second principle in sound healing is based on the presence of subtle

energy fields that surround the physical body (Gerber, 1988). These fields are also

referred to as the subtle energy body or bio-energetic anatomy. It is believed that

these energy fields are not separate from systems within the physical body (e.g.,

central, sympathetic, and parasympathetic nervous systems; Gerber, 1988).

Based on the human bio-energetic field theory, illness and disease are a

result of disruption or disharmony in the energetic body. According to Collinge

(1998), the human bio-energetic body is composed of

Multiple, interacting energy fields that envelop and penetrate our physical
body, govern its functioning, and extend out into the world around us.
This anatomy serves as a vehicle for the circulation of vital energies that
enliven and animate our lives. (p. 20)

In Western medical approaches,

These energy fields [EKG, EMG, EEG] are usually considered by-
products (almost waste products) of the biochemical reactions in the body
and are not considered by most [Western] biomedical researchers to be

54
 involved with the basic functioning (or healing) of the body. The basic
tenet of energy medicine is that these fields are not only involved with the
functioning of the physical/chemical body but regulate these processes.
(Rein, n.d., p. 7)

Researchers from various disciplines have validated the existence of subtle energy

fields. These disciplines include biophysics (Burr, 1972), biomedical research

(Becker & Selden, 1985), and subtle energy system field research (Benor, 1994;

Gerber, 1988; McClellan, 1991; Motoyama & Brown, 1978; Rein, 1996;

Srinivasan, 1988).

Figure 3 displays the Human Energy Field (Gerber, 2001). The discussion

that follows focuses on the etheric body and its interface with the physical body.

Figure 3. The human energy field. Vibrational Medicine By Richard Gerber, M.D.
published by Inner Traditions International and Bear & Company, ©2001. All rights
reserved. http://www.Innertraditions.com. Reprinted with permission of publisher.

55
Gerber (2001) points out that

We can see the full energetic expression of the multidimensional human

being. Not all of these higher subtle bodies are photographable; however,
it is quite likely that the etheric and possibly the astral may be captured
and measured with sophisticated imaging systems such as the EMR
Scanner or its forerunners. (p. 160)

The etheric body is the first and lowest (nearest) energy field to the physical body.

It is believed that the etheric body can influence the physical body in ways that

sustain and connect it with the higher energy bodies. McClellan (1991) indicates

that the etheric body emerges from and surrounds the physical body by about

three inches. Burr (1972) refers to the energetic etheric field as the life-field or L-

field and has measured it as electromagnetic energy. Healing practices in other

cultures, such as the meridians in Chinese medicine and the chakras and nadi

systems in India, provide evidence as to the link between the etheric and physical

body. Motoyama and Brown (1978) confirmed the presence of the chakra system

in the body as did Prayag, Gandi, Nilkanth, and Dandekar (2001) at the Centre for

Biofield Sciences in Puna, India. In addition, F. Maman and C. R. Maman (1997)

make reference to the etheric field as one field within the subtle body anatomy

that also includes the astral, the mental, the causal, the Buddhic, and the Atmic

fields. F. Maman and C. R. Maman indicate, “the physical body merely duplicates

the program which resides in the etheric and higher bodies. This theory means

that the health of the physical body depends entirely upon the health and vitality

of the subtle bodies” (p. 7).

Gerber (2001) makes further reference to the physical–etheric interface, an

etheric–energetic map that carries information that guides the cellular growth of

56
the physical structure of the body. Gerber suggests that the physical body, because

so interdependent upon the etheric body for guidance, cannot exist without the

etheric body. “Many illnesses begin first in the etheric body and are then later

manifested in the physical body as organ pathology” (p. 121).

As presented by Gerber (2001), Figure 4 shows the interface that regulates

the flow of higher energies into the physical framework made up of the Indian

chakra-nadi system and the Chinese acupuncture meridian system, working in

conjunction with the body’s biocrystaline and bioelectronic networks.

Figure 4. The human bioenergetic system. Vibrational Medicine By Richard Gerber,

M.D. published by Inner Traditions International and Bear & Company, ©2001. All
rights reserved. http://www.Innertraditions.com. Reprinted with permission of publisher

Gerber (2001) states, “Human beings are mind/body/spirit complexes which exist

in continuous dynamic equilibrium with higher energy dimensions of reality.

These higher energies endow the physical vehicle with the properties of life and

creative expression” (p. 464).

57
 Some key points to remember, in summation of this subsection include:

• all matter, both physical and subtle, has a resonant frequency;

• matter of different frequencies can coexist in the same space;

• the subtle energy fields that surround the physical body are not

separate from the physical body, rather they overlap, coexist, and

are interdependent;

• the etheric and physical bodies, being of different frequencies,

overlap and coexist within the same space;

• energy disturbances in the etheric body precede the physical or

cellular manifestation of illness;

• the health of the physical body is dependent upon the health and

vitality of the subtle bodies; and

• modifications with the etheric interface are possible by way of the

phenomena of resonance (Gerber, 2001, p. 171).

Sound Healing Defined

Like music therapy, there are numerous definitions for and descriptions of

sound healing. Jonathon S. Goldman (n.d.), an internationally recognized sound

healing authority, defines sound healing as

the use of sound to create balance and alignment in the physical body, the
energy centers called chakras and/or the etheric fields. Sound may be
applied by an instrument or by the human voice. Sound healing is a
vibrational therapy and can be understood as being energy medicine. (p. 1)

Bruscia (1998b) and Goldman (n.d.) agree that sound healing usually

involves the direct impact of physical and acoustical vibrations and their effects

on bodily structures, functioning, and neural activity. Further, Zacciah Blackburn

58
(2005), from the World Sound Healing Organization, defines sound healing as

“the intentional use of sound to create an environment which becomes a catalyst

for healing in the physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual aspects of our being”

(p. 1).

Distinguishing Structured Music and Vibrational Sound

To conclude Chapter 3, and prior to proceeding to discussing the various

music therapy and vibrational sound techniques in Chapter 4, I feel it important to

make a clear distinction between what is referred to as structured music and

vibrational sound.

Within the context of this research, the vibration experienced by way of

the SRMT is not considered the same as structured music. Structured music

involves elements of rhythm, melody, and harmony, as one would find in classical

and other composed musical forms that could for example include changes in key

signatures, tempos, meter, transitional phrasing, melodic themes, and variations.

Music, regardless of how structured it may be, involves an aesthetic intention

within some temporal framework (B. Abrams, personal communication, January

24, 2017).

Though music is most typically expressed through sound, vibrational

sound as applied here is a study of the experiences and impact of the application

of the physical medium of sound. It involves (a) the direct transmission of

physical and acoustical vibrations on the body and (b) my interpersonal

involvement as therapist to influence change through the intentional use of

vibrational sound and its elements (e.g., overtones, resonant frequencies) to create

59
a receptive vibrational environment that becomes a catalyst for healing in the

physical, biophysical, emotional, and spiritual domains of the human being.

60
 CHAPTER 4: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

I categorize this literature review first into material that is directly related

to my research and second into material beyond the scope of the research but that

is important to consider. The review is organized as follows. In Part I, I discuss

(a) where the SRMT and the SHE (described in Appendix A) fit within the

context of the music therapy profession, (b) the therapeutic techniques in music

therapy that are similar to those of the SRMT and SHE, (c) where the SRMT fits

within the context of sound healing, and (d) the therapeutic techniques used in

sound healing that are similar to those of the SRMT.

In Part II, I discuss (a) neuroscience and music therapy; (b) entrainment

(resonance, sonic, and brainwaves); and (c) how living systems (DNA) can be

modified through sound. Relevant studies are presented throughout Parts I and II.

Part I: Literature Directly Related to This Research Inquiry

The SRMT and SHE

A secondary aim of this study was to determine where the SRMT and

SHE fit within the professions of music therapy and sound healing. Related to the

music therapy profession, I discuss three categories: (a) medical music therapy,

(b) music medicine, and (c) music as medicine (Dileo, 1999). A table listing

characteristics for inclusion into one or multiple categories is also provided (see

Table 1). Also, in this section, I discuss the effects of live music in comparison to

recorded music and sound wave forms.

61
 Medical music therapy. According to Dileo (1999), the main quality that

determines whether an intervention involving music is categorized as medical

music therapy or otherwise is the presence of an interactive process between the

therapist and the client in which the therapeutic relationship is established,

developed, and maintained through music and through creating music together.

The music can be structured or improvised.

Further, Maranto (1992) describes two factors that relate to the

classification of medical music therapy. These two factors are (a) the type of goal

and (b) the level of intervention applied. In reference to both, Engel (1977)

advocates for the biopsychosocial model in classifying goals, wherein various

medical music therapy interventions are applied. In this model, medical music

therapy goals may be biomedical or psychosocial in nature. Examples of

biomedical music therapy goals include music that (a) influences physiological

response, (b) facilitates rhythmic and deep breathing, (c) suppresses pain, and (d)

modifies hormone levels. In my research, two of these areas are explored relative

to vibrational sound and its effect on physiological response and breathing.

According to Maranto (1992), music experiences are also classified as

passive or active. Passive experiences include music-facilitated biofeedback,

music listening for stress reduction, music reminiscence, and vibrational therapy,

which is more closely related to my research. Active experiences include

instrument playing or improvisation, singing or vocal improvisation, music and

movement, song writing, and song discussion.

62
 Music medicine. In contrast, music medicine is used by medical

personnel who are not music therapists, including physicians, nurses, dentists, and

allied health professionals. Music in medicine is considered an adjunct to various

medical treatments in the reduction of stress, anxiety, and pain. Examples of

music medicine include background music in waiting rooms where patients can

choose musical programs prior to surgery or diagnostic medical procedures,

music to enhance patient mood during kidney dialysis, music to arouse patients

following surgery, music to reduce length of labor, and music-electro-acupuncture

(Maranto, 1992). Music medicine interventions are primarily receptive–passive

musical experiences involving prerecorded music, which is preselected by

medical staff or selected by the patient from available music programs (Dileo,

1999). Distinct from medical music therapy, Dileo (1999) points out:

In music medicine, there may certainly be a therapeutic relationship

between the patient and the medical staff member(s) involved; however,
this relationship does not develop through the music, nor is there a
definable process that occurs in relationship to the music. (p. 5)

Music as medicine. A third categorization refers to the use of music or

sound vibration to directly affect health. When used in this way, music is

primarily the sound vibration that facilitates a therapeutic change on biomedical

or psychosocial levels. An example of music as medicine is the use of music as an

audio-analgesia in which music listening may reduce pain. Vibrational therapies

named VibroAcoustic Therapy (VAT), Physioacoustic Therapy (PT), Somatron

Vibroacoustic Therapy, and Music Vibration Table (MVT) Therapy use music

combined with predetermined frequencies and specially composed sounds (e.g.,

womb sounds, heart beats) to elicit physiological changes that include decreased

63
blood pressure, heart rate, and muscle tension. Additional examples of

physiological change include music listening to increase immune function and

peak air flow and to decrease adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels

(Maranto, 1992).

Table of comparison. Table 1 presents the categorical characteristics of

medical music therapy and music medicine (Dileo, 1999). I added the music as

medicine category and the characteristics of the SHE, which includes the SRMT.

Comparisons are made based on when these techniques are applied within a

therapeutic context, which was not the case in the USU study. Additionally,

please note that the protocol applied in this research does not include all

components of SHE (as described in Appendix A), rather it solely involves the

SRMT.

Table 1

Characteristics of Medical Music Therapy, Music Medicine, Music as Medicine,

and SHE

Medical Music Music Music As Sound Healing

Characteristics
Therapy Medicine Medicine Environment

Music is selected by staff

Yes Yes Yes Yes
or self
Uses prerecorded music
Not usually Yes Yes No
or sound
Relationship established
Yes No No Yes
with music
Involvement of a music
Yes No Sometimes Yes
therapist
Therapeutic relationship Yes No Yes Yes
Assessment process Yes Sometimes Sometimes Yes
Evaluation Yes Sometimes Sometimes Yes
Stated goals Yes Not usually Sometimes Yes

64
 Medical Music Music Music As Sound Healing
Characteristics
Therapy Medicine Medicine Environment
Biopsychosocial model
Yes No Yes Yes
process
Types of Music
Experiences
Receptive–passive Yes Yes Yes Yes
Improvisational Yes No No Partially
Recreative Yes No No No
Mental imagery Yes No No Yes
Composition Yes No No Sometimes
Active Yes No No Sometimes
Combined arts Yes No No Yes
Note: SHE includes the SRMT. Again, it is important for the reader to keep in mind that
these comparisons relate to SHE which includes the SRMT and only when applied within
a therapeutic context.

In the following subsections, I provide rationale for including SHE within

each category and point out common characteristics and distinct differences.

Medical Music Therapy

Common characteristics. SHE and medical music therapy have several

characteristics in common. Both involve the following primary features.

1. A music therapist is involved and a relationship is established between

the therapist and the client through music or sound. In SHE, clients, though not

always engaged in creating music, are encouraged and given the choice to use

their voice in response to the vibrational tones. They are also given the choice to

share their experience during the session. At the end of the session, clients can

share their experience through description, art, poetry, music, or movement.

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 2. An interactive process as the session begins. In SHE, clients are asked if

they are sensitive to certain sounds or have instrument preferences. The client’s

needs are assessed. The power of intention, defined as the purposeful projection

of awareness toward specific positive outcomes, is discussed, and intentions

(goals) are established. (Note: the power of intention and other unique aspects of

SHE, are detailed in Appendix D.)

Distinct differences. Distinct from medical music therapy, SHE is passive

and receptive in nature. In medical music therapy, a process of co-creating an

interactive musical composition occurs. In SHE, there is no observable individual

or interactive musical composition produced unless clients use their voice during

the session or choose to engage in musical expression after the session.

Music Medicine

Common characteristics. The SRMT, SHE, and music medicine

techniques are all considered passive and receptive. Both can assist other medical

treatments.

Distinct differences. Distinct from music medicine, a music therapist is

present during the experience of SHE. For example, as the music therapist, I

facilitate a therapeutic relationship that includes an assessment of goals and an

ongoing evaluation about the achievement of those goals. In addition, in SHE all

sound vibrations are acoustically produced, absent of electronic components, the

significance of which is applicable here and discussed further in the following

section, where it is equally applicable.

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Music as Medicine

Therapies that include a vibrational apparatus are placed in this category

in which it is the music or vibration that facilitates change on biomedical or

psychosocial levels.

Common characteristics. Both the SRMT and music as medicine

techniques provide vibrational stimuli to directly affect health through the

modification of physiological response. The purpose of this research is to

determine whether the SRMT does elicit positive changes in physiological

response as well as other psychological measures.

Distinct differences. Distinct from both music medicine and music as

medicine, the SRMT and SHE administrator only acoustic sounds and tones

played live, absent from any possible influences that may result from electronic or

digital sound production or amplification. No prerecorded music is used. Based

on the writings of Rudolf Steiner and Maria Renold, I consider this important

(Renold, 2004). Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925), founder of bio-dynamics, was a

highly trained scientist and respected philosopher. Steiner’s spiritual scientific

methods and insights have generated practical holistic innovations in many fields,

including in agriculture, architecture, education, banking, medicine, psychology,

art, and music (Matherne, 2002).

According to Steiner, though frequencies and wave characteristics can be

reproduced with precision electronically, their individual quality is lost. “In its

place, a consistent, erosive quality arises in the structure of the notes and intervals

produced, which must be due to the electricity” (as cited in Renold, 2004, p. 1).

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Renold (2004) indicates, “Only with tones produced on musical instruments (e.g.,

tuning forks, monochords, chimes, wind instruments, piano, lyre, etc.) is the

individual quality of single tones observable” (p. 73).

While this study does not compare acoustically produced sounds with

those that are electronically produced, I support the claims of Steiner and Renold

based on my background in psychophysiology and biofeedback in which

electrical current is considered (Renold, 2004). For example, biofeedback

measuring systems are designed to filter out electrical artifacts to ensure accurate

physiological measurements. In addition, tones acoustically produced on the

musical instruments mentioned above produce a pure sine wave. This wave

pattern occurs often in nature (e.g., in ocean, sound, and light waves). The sine

wave (2009), or sinusoid, is a mathematical function that describes a smooth

repetitive oscillation.

Live versus recorded music. Exploring differences in live versus

recorded music, Standley (1986) reviewed over 98 empirical studies. Using effect

size as a basis for comparison across multiple dependent and independent

variables, 30 studies were found amenable to a comprehensive meta-analysis of

characteristics and results. Though only a small number of live music studies

were available, the meta-analysis confirmed that live music was more effective

than recorded music.

Wave forms. In further support that acoustically produced sounds are

more likely to elicit positive health outcomes than those produced electronically, I

discuss what I understand about electronic or digital sound production or

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amplification. Sounds that have a definite pitch have a repeating waveform. All

four basic audio wave forms can be generated electronically with audio oscillators

and include the sine (sinusoid), triangle, square, and saw-tooth waves. In that

order, these waveforms represent a steadily increasing complexity of shape and

timbre as the number and strength of the harmonics for each wave form increases.

The sine wave represents the fundamental frequency or pure tone. In the

triangle wave, the fundamental frequency is joined by the odd harmonics. The

square wave is similar to the triangle wave in that only odd harmonics are present;

however, the harmonics are louder relative to the fundamental frequency and so

have a greater impact on the timbre (quality) of the wave. The saw tooth wave is

the most complex of the basic wave shapes. The more complicated shape

generates more overtones; in this case every harmonic is present at gradually

decreasing levels.

My concern lies in the fact that there is no mention of which wave forms

are present in digital and electronically produced music, nor has there been any

research as to any positive or negative effects on listeners. To me this is like

buying food with no nutritional labeling. From my perspective, music and sound

are nutrients for the mind, body, and soul. Because the sine wave is found in the

natural world and is unaltered electronically on the SRMT, I contend that it is a

vibrational instrument more aligned with the natural world, consequently having

inherent healing qualities. However, it is beyond the scope of this dissertation to

substantiate any rigorous claims in this regard.

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Therapeutic Techniques in Music Therapy Similar to the SRMT

Within the discipline of music therapy, an umbrella under which fall

medical music therapy, music medicine, and music as medicine, there are five

therapeutic techniques similar to the SRMT. Four of these therapies, namely

VibroAcoustic Therapy (VAT), Physioacoustic Therapy (PT), Somatron

Vibroacoustic Therapy, and Music Vibrational Table Therapy (MVT), are

categorized as music as medicine and more specifically as vibroacoustic music

therapy. As the field of vibroacoustics in general has evolved, each of these

therapies has gained a particular technology associated with it.

The fifth technique, named the Helen Bonny Method of Guided Imagery

in Music (GIM), has not been categorized as medical music therapy, music

medicine, music as medicine, or vibroacoustic music therapy. GIM is considered

a receptive music therapy approach in which the music is used and viewed as a

co-therapist. The orientation of GIM is humanistic and transpersonal. GIM is used

in therapeutic practices by music therapists and others who have completed

extensive training in GIM (Bruscia, 1998a).

Prior to a more in-depth discussion of each of these therapies, I define

vibroacoustic music therapy, provide some historical background, and present key

principles associated with it.

Vibroacoustic music therapy. Wigram and Dileo (1997) define

vibroacoustic music therapy as “the use of music and sound (as auditory and

vibratory stimuli) transmitted to the body to achieve physical and psychological

therapeutic goals” (p. 7). The foundational theory supporting vibroacoustic music

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therapy describes illness as an energetic imbalance of the human organism as a

whole. Sound or music is used to shift the vibratory frequencies that are out of

resonance, causing illness. Vibroacoustic music therapy uses the vibrations of

musical sound occurring at certain frequencies to set the entire human body (or

particular organs) into vibration through resonance (previously discussed in

Chapter 3). Eagle (1996) reports that research in radionics (a specific aspect of

vibration to the body) shows that human beings are sensitive to sound, not only

through hearing, but also through the entire body. According to Parker (1998)

“Music becomes the means to shift the vibratory frequencies that are out of

resonance and give rise to disease” (as cited in Crowe, 2001, p. 192).

Background and history. In many cultures, vibrational frequencies in the

audible range have been used to help bring patients who experience mental,

physical, and emotional imbalances into a more balanced state (Crowe, 1991;

Goldman, 1992a). Vibrational frequencies are measured in Hertz (Hz). The Hz

represents the number of cycles per second at which something vibrates. For

instance, the lowest key on the piano vibrates at 18.5 Hz. Vibrational frequencies

can also be inaudible (both above and below the audible range). Frequencies

above audible range assist with diagnoses by way of ultrasound technology, while

very-high-frequency vibrations are used to shatter kidney stones and treat tissue

contractures (Boyd-Brewer, 2013).

In addition, Boyd-Brewer (2003) notes that inaudible frequencies—those

below 20 Hz, as in infrasonic vibratory treatments—are used by complementary

health practitioners. For example, chiropractors use sound wave frequencies to

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relieve joint and muscle pain. Effects of such infrasound frequencies on humans

have been studied by Alford et al. (1966); Yamada, Ilugi, Fujikata, Watanabe, and

Kosaka (1983); and Moller (1984). Study measures were varied and included

cardiographic alterations and specific locations within the body where vibrational

sensations were felt.

Acoustic and vibrational characteristics. According to Chesky, Michel,

and Kondraske (1996), vibroacoustic technology is based on certain key acoustic

principles, one of which involves sound frequencies that are input into

vibroacoustic devices that then become mechanical vibrations felt by the body.

An important acoustic consideration in the design of these devices is how patients

receive and experience vibrations. Other important factors include the resonance

characteristics of the vibratory surface (e.g., the quality of the surface), how the

vibration is distributed (e.g., the placement of the speakers or transducers that

determine which parts of the body receive the vibration), and the density (the

weight) of the person’s body.

The sound stimulus may use specific frequencies in which the properties

of the sound (the wave forms) can be manipulated to elicit specific experiences.

The sine wave, also referred to as the sinusoidal wave, has been considered to

have unique health benefits (Boyd-Brewer & McCaffrey, 2004). Some

vibroacoustic models use the sine wave, or pure tone, that characteristically flows

with a precisely matched increase and decrease in amplitude (wave height and

depth). Visually, these waves have a smoothly rising and falling contour,

replicated with each vibrational (Hz) cycle.

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 Vibration and music together. Research has shown that live and

recorded music can be used in treating illness and maintaining health. In certain

instances, combining the two may be more powerful than using either alone.

Chesky et al. (1996) present a conceptual model of vibroacoustics that highlights

the powerful synergy created from integrating sound vibration with the

psychological stimulation elicited by music listening. In music, a wider range of

frequencies occurs naturally and can include frequencies that are selected in the

low-frequency range of some vibroacoustic designs.

Overtones (previously detailed in Chapter 2) represent the wider range of

frequencies present in music that may be beneficial or problematic, as opposed to

the pure sine wave used in some devices. Most vibroacoustic devices use music

for listening in addition to low-frequency vibrations to achieve the benefit of both.

Music used as the primary stimulus for enjoyment motivates patients to engage in

the vibrational treatment. The Music Vibration Table (MVT), developed by

Chesky and Michel (1991) and detailed later, is one device that has the ability to

process frequencies within all music, thus enabling patients to choose their

musical preference for more effective treatment.

Vibroacoustic designs focus on various sound frequency ranges dependent

on what the researchers want to target. In the following sections, specific

frequency applications and select studies are presented in relationship to the four

vibrational therapies previously mentioned.

VibroAcoustic Therapy (VAT). Discussions on the theoretical

foundations of VAT began with Pontvik and Teirich in 1955. Both reported it as a

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process for conveying musical vibrations through bodily contact between the

patient and the sound source. The vibratory sensations have “proven to be fruitful

in the field of healing through the use of music” (as cited in Skille, 1989, p. 64).

In VAT, it is assumed that sound waves create a calming effect physically and

emotionally, reduce sensory motor hyperactivity, and shift attention from outer to

inner experience. Pontvik (1955) made reference to “I-body experiences,”

meaning that the “sounds were being pulled into the inner belly” (as cited in

Skille, 1989, p. 64). Teirich found VAT to have lasting effects when applied in

palliative care (1955, as cited by Skille, 1989).

Prior to being named VAT, vibroacoustic equipment was developed

between 1970 and the late 1980s, involving Norwegian educator and therapist

Olav Skille, who experimented with selected low-frequency (SLF) sound

vibrations between 20 and 120 Hz and their effects on children with severe

physical and mental handicaps. SLF systems are designed to provide relaxation

and to treat pain and other disorders. Frequencies in SLF systems are computer

generated during treatment or are prerecorded. Skille developed the first

vibroacoustic chair in the late 1980s, using a one-pulsed, sinusoidal frequency

sound source for generating vibrations, blending the vibrations with music for

listening (Skille, 1991)

VAT, as it was later named, uses vibroacoustic equipment and software

that emit low-frequency sound signals (SLFs) and sinus tones. In combination

with selected music, these sound signals and tones are applied directly to the body

for therapeutic purposes (Skille, 1989). When music is used, it is generally slow,

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harmonious, and relaxing in nature. VAT technology is placed in mattresses,

chairs, recliners, tables, or soft furniture. The technology includes built-in sound

sources (speakers or transducers) that transmit sound impulses (vibrations)

intended to cause or inhibit activity in the body.

Skille (1989) named these impulses signal units. The impulses pass

through the unit and are felt by the client lying over or sitting against the signal

units. Skille claims that these impulses are perceived by acoustical and

vibrotactile receptors in the human organism (discussed in Chapter 2). Skille

studied the effects of pure tones (without rhythm), overtones, and harmonics. He

found that the majority of beneficial effects proved to be located in the octave

between 30 and 80 Hz.

Select VAT studies. Skille (1989) also presents an overview of numerous

patient-related conditions in which positive effects were observed through VAT

(e.g., muscle relaxation, increased blood circulation, and autonomic regulation).

Skille suggests that positive results may be linked to “a reduction in sympathicus/

parasympathicus and/or stimulation of blood circulation” (p. 69). Skille and other

therapists working with his method have gathered data from more than 40,000

hours of SLF treatment, showing its effectiveness for use in reducing tension, in

physical therapy, in pain management, and in the treatment of various disorders.

Wigram (1997d) notes a few counterindications or negative effects in

VAT, which include feelings of nausea, changes in equilibrium, and slight

drowsiness. These symptoms disappeared through repeated sessions (3–4) by

adjusting the chair into a upright position and by using less vibrational power.

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 Several objective studies have involved individuals with cerebral palsy

and other motor dysfunction (Skille, Wigram, & Weekes, 1989; Wigram, 1997a,

1997b, 1997c). One study investigated the effects of VAT in reducing muscle

activity and spasticity in adult patients with cerebral palsy (Wigram, 1997a). In

the treatment condition, three male and seven female subjects experienced 30

minutes of VAT, which included a tape of sedative music along with a pulsed 44-

Hz low-frequency sinusoidal tone. In the placebo condition, the subjects received

the same music on VAT absent from the pulsed low-frequency tone. Each

randomly assigned subject received six trials in each condition. Subjects in the

VAT group with pulsed frequency and music showed a greater reduction in

muscle tone and greater range of movement (flexion and extension of arms),

which are typically inhibited by flexor spasms. In another VAT study Wigram

(1997c) conducted, people with Rett syndrome experienced improvements in

relaxed muscle tone and muscle control.

Further, Wigram (1997d) measured mood and physiological responses to

VAT in nonclinical subjects. He hypothesized that depressed mood and arousal

levels (energy, tension, and hedonic tone measured by UWIST-MACL), blood

pressure, and heart rate would be reduced in subjects who experienced VAT

compared with subjects who received relaxing music only and those in a no-

vibration and no music control group. Hospital staff—30 females and 30 males,

including nurses, social workers, psychologists, therapists, administrators,

secretaries, nursing assistants, teachers, and maintenance crew who worked with

and around people with learning disabilities—volunteered for the study. Subjects

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were randomly assigned to three different groups. Group 1 received 30 minutes of

sedative “New Age” music and a pulsed 40-Hz sinusoidal frequency sound played

through the vibroacoustic bed. Group 2 received 30 minutes of music alone,

played through the bed without the pulsed 40-Hz tone. Control Group 3 rested on

the bed for 30 minutes without any stimulus. Results showed significant decreases

in energetic, general, and tension-related arousal levels in the VAT group

compared with the music-alone and control groups. Differences in hedonic tone

(feelings of pleasure) between groups were not statistically significant, though

results suggested a positive direction in that regard. Planned comparisons of heart

rate showed a significant reduction over time in the VAT with music Group 1 and

the music-alone Group 2 compared with the control group.

Comparison between VAT and the SRMT. Both VAT and the SRMT

are processes for (a) conveying musical vibrations through bodily contact between

the patient and the sound source, (b) producing a shift of attention from outer to

inner experiences, and (c) applying musical sound wave energy directly to the

body to elicit physiological and psychological change. What distinguishes the

SRMT from VAT relates to the use of electronically produced sound conveyed

via low-frequency impulse units and recorded music as in VAT. The SRMT does

not contain low-frequency impulse units, nor is there recorded music. As

previously noted, the SRMT provides live acoustically produced sounds,

eliminating any possible effects or modifications that may result from electronic

production and amplification.

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 Physioacoustic therapy (PT). C. Butler (1999), after studying the effects

of low-frequency sound on human beings for over 10 years, developed

physioacoustic therapy (PT). Butler describes physioacoustics as a new

therapeutic science in which researchers use pure sinusoidal sound waves within

the low-frequency range of 27–113 Hz to achieve various desirable physiological

and psychological effects.

A physioacoustic system usually consists of four speakers mounted in

either a recliner or a mattress and a computer that generates the selected program.

The clinical process includes an assessment made by the therapist to determine an

appropriate physioacoustic program, an introduction to the recliner or bed, which

may include an explanation of the purpose and use of low-frequency sine wave

stimulation, and a request that the patient initiate the program at a comfortable

volume level. PT programs (e.g., musculoskeletal pain reduction, increased REM

sleep, reduction in blood pressure) scan the body and provide frequencies within

an empirically established range, producing a resonance frequency response.

Resonance frequency response relates to what occurs when one frequency is

activated in response to another when both frequencies are matched (e.g., two

tuning forks of the same frequency; when one is struck, the other is activated in

response.)

Select PT studies. C. Butler and P. J. Butler (1997) conducted a pilot

study involving PT after elective open-heart surgery. Eight patients who chose 20

minutes of PT treatment needed less pain medication, required less time on the

ventilator (reduced from 78 to 7 hours), left intensive care sooner (reduced from

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36 to 18 hours), and went home earlier (reduced from 9 to 5 days) than patients

without PT.

PT has also been used to reduce pain after total knee replacement during

physical therapy rehabilitation sessions (Burke & Thomas, 1997). In this study, 19

patients over the age of 55 who were receiving physical therapy to assist them in

regaining maximum functioning participated. The study was conducted by a

music therapist and several physical therapists. Research questions explored (a)

whether patients receiving PT before, during, and after physical therapy sessions

report less pain at the end of their sessions than those receiving physical therapy

alone, and (b) whether patients receiving PT in conjunction with physical therapy

achieve greater passive range of motion than those in the control group. Of the 19

subjects, 18 completed the study (experimental group, n = 9; control group, n =

9). Compared with the control group, physiological measures of pain and passive

range of motion improved for those in the experimental group who received 10

minutes of music and low-frequency vibrations by way of the PT physioacoustic

system. Improvement continued throughout the remaining 20–30 minute physical

therapy session. In addition, subjects in the experimental group were more able to

reach a 90-degree bend (66%) than those in the control group (44%). The

experimental group was discharged slightly sooner than the control group.

Subjective descriptions included words such as “relaxed, comfortable, pleasant,

and great” (p. 104).

Results from other studies indicate (a) that patients with severe anxiety

experienced significant decreases in psychosomatic pain, tension, and anxiety

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(Lehikoinen, Naukkarinun, Paakkari, & Saukkonnen, 1990) and (b) that 54

patients experienced a statistically significant decrease in blood pressure

(Nissenen & Kivinen, 1990, as cited in C. Butler, 1999).

Comparison between PT and the SRMT. Similarities between PT and

the SRMT mirror those found in the previous comparison. Again, what

distinguishes the SRMT from PT relates to the use of electronically produced

sound, low-frequency tones, and recorded music as applied in PT versus live

acoustically produced sound as applied by the SRMT.

Somatron Vibroacoustic Therapy (SVT). Distinct from VAT and PT,

Somatron technology uses full-frequency music (FFM), as opposed to selected

low frequencies (SLF) alone as applied in VibroAcoustic and Physioacoustic

Therapies (Somatron Corporation, 2017). FFM systems use multiple speakers or

transducers that transmit vibrations to the body from a single source. Vibrations

felt in FFM designs are not processed or monitored beyond the standard amplifier

adjustments that are commonly used in commercial sound systems. In addition,

the vibrations are not measured, and doses cannot be determined. FFM systems

are capable of responding to a wide range of frequencies as well as overtones

produced by the music composed. The musical compositions function to

maximize vibrational effects and qualities via specific low frequencies, pulsed

sound, pulsation, scanning, and directional sound movement.

The Somatron Corporation was founded in 1985 by inventor Byron Eakin.

His patented products are currently the mostly widely used and included in

hospitals, universities, and private and government facilities (Eakin, n.d.). The

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Somatron apparatus includes recliner chairs, mattresses, body pillows, and

massage tables. The client sits in the chair or lies on the mattress, pillow, or table

to receive the vibrotactile stimulation. SVT was initially developed to promote

relaxation in clinical settings (Eakin, n.d.). More recently, clinical studies

involving Somatron designs have been conducted in engineering, medicine, and

biology, applying interventions related to pain reduction, Alzheimer’s, dementia,

autism, medical procedures, psychological well-being, developmental disabilities,

physiological disabilities, relaxation and stress management, and bone loss

(Somatron Corporation, n.d.).

Select SVT studies. In 1992, George Patrick, PhD, developed a relaxation

program at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Clinical Center that included

four Somatron FFM vibroacoustic therapy beds. Patrick (1999) gathered data on

the treatment effects from 272 adult patients in a major research hospital. Patients

were referred by physicians or recreation therapists or were recruited through

patient response when they provided information about the relaxation room.

Patients had varying diagnoses: cancer (n = 97); heart, lung, and blood disorders

(n = 55); infectious disease (n = 54); mood disorders (n = 32); and miscellaneous

conditions (n = 34). Because the purpose of the study was solely to evaluate a

relaxation program, no control group was included. The program took place in

what was called a relaxation room. Patients received a single 45-minute guided

session with a recreation therapist that included 10 minutes of introduction, 25

minutes of music or vibration, and 10 minutes of debriefing. Descriptive findings

included data from all 272 patients who completed a self-report rating scale for

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tension and relaxation. Results showed a statistically significant improvement in

the state of relaxation from pre- to post-test.

In addition, open-ended questions related to symptoms were asked of

patients. The most frequently identified symptoms were tension-anxiety, pain,

fatigue, nausea, headache, and depression. Symptom data showed an average

participant pre-vibration rating of 67.20 and a post-rating of 31.55, a 53%

reduction in cumulated symptoms (p. 3). The intensity of symptoms was reduced

from pre- to posttest: a 61% reduction in nausea (n = 16), a 55% reduction in

headache (n = 24), a 54% reduction in tension-anxiety (n = 74), a 53% reduction

in pain (n = 46), a 49% reduction in depressed mood (n = 19), and a 47%

reduction in fatigue (n = 60) (pp. 3–4). Data from this study were not analyzed by

diagnostic group.

Both tension and pain symptoms were reduced for a diagnostic group on a

chemotherapy unit. A study conducted by Boyd-Brewer (2000, cited in Brewer-

Boyd & McCaffrey 2004), found that 41 cancer patients experienced a 34%

reduction in tension and a 61-74% reduction in pain symptoms when receiving

vibroacoustic sessions in addition to chemotherapy (p.114).

In another medical study, Walters (1996) investigated the effects of

vibrotactile stimulation by way of a Somatron mattress on patients awaiting

gynecological surgery. Walters used a three-sample experimental design in which

39 women were assigned to one of three experimental groups: (a) a vibrotactile

treatment group, (b) a music-only group, and (c) a no-treatment control group.

Measures pre- and post-treatment included systolic and diastolic blood pressure,

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mean arterial pressure, pulse rate, and temperature. Self-reported psychological

data were collected from a patient self-rating form comprised of five 8-point

visual analog scales that recorded levels of tension, anxiety, relaxation, stress, and

general mood state. No significant differences were observed with regard to

physiological data, though pulse rates tended to decrease in the vibrotactile

treatment and music-only groups. Blood pressure tended to be less variable in the

vibrotactile treatment group. Positive changes in subject ratings of apprehension,

representing the combination of scores from the five scales, were statistically

significant in the vibrotactile group compared with the control group (p ,

and both the vibrotactile group and music-only group required significantly less

postoperative medication than the control group.

Other studies that apply Somatron technology include populations with (a)

profound disabilities (Pujol, 1994); (b) children with hearing impairment (Darrow

& Goll, 1989); (c) musicians with performance anxiety (Brodsky & Sloboda,

1997); (d) musicians and nonmusicians (Madsen, Standley, & Gregory, 1991);

and (e) music students (Standley, 1991).

Pujol (1994) looked at vocalization and respiration changes in 15 children

and adults considered to be profoundly retarded. Each subject received four music

therapy treatments, two with vibroacoustic stimulation and two without. Each

treatment consisted of four prerecorded music conditions that included pentatonic

melodies and bells, pentatonic melodies and flute, major melodies and bells, and

major melodies and flute. A pentatonic melody is one that contains only five scale

tones at certain intervals (e.g., intervals on the black keys of the piano).

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Physiological measures included respiration and pulse rate. Eye movement, facial

expression, vocalizations, and motor movement were noted as behavioral

measures. Deep inhalations were shown to increase significantly during

conditions in which any music stimulation was present. Pulse rate variability,

though not statistically significant, was enough to suggest that pentatonic

melodies were more relaxing than major melodies. Significant increases in

vocalizations occurred during the major flute melody compared with the same

melody played on the bells. In addition, subjects vocalized more significantly

when the major flute melody was combined with the vibro-stimulation from the

Somatron sound therapy table.

In a study by Darrow and Goll (1989), hearing-impaired children (n = 29)

were able to identify a greater number of rhythmic changes while involved in

auditory skills training supported by the Somatron platform mattress. Data

supported the tactile sense as being a valuable channel through which hearing-

impaired children can process rhythmic stimuli and, furthermore, that the

Somatron platform mattress is a reliable and effective vibrotactile device in

working with this population.

The purpose of the Madsen et al. (1991) study was (a) to assess heart rate

changes across time in response to vibrotactile stimulation (via the Somatron

couch) and music labeled stimulative or sedative; and (b) to determine whether, if

by gradually changing the tempo of the music, the heart rate would entrain to the

music. (Entrainment is discussed in more detail later in this chapter.) In addition,

these researchers were interested in how subjects perceived the experience. In the

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study, 30 musicians and 30 non-musicians participated, and each received 10

minutes of Somatron vibration and two musical listening selections considered to

be either sedative or stimulative (Wagner, 1975). Half of the subjects (n = 15

musicians; n = 15 non-musicians) received the same music in which the tempo

was gradually changed as applicable to the musical selection (decreased during

stimulative music or increased during sedative music). Heart rate responses were

assessed via the Heart Speedometer (Computer Instruments Corporation) across

the various experimental conditions. Analyses indicated no difference in heart rate

in any of the experimental conditions. Both musicians and non-musicians (n = 60)

completed a self-report effect-related response questionnaire in which results

were positive. Subjects reported that they would like to listen to music on the

Somatron couch again (88%; p. 20), they liked the experience (87%; p. 20), they

did not want to get up (72%; p. 20), and found it relaxing (83%; p. 20). Noted as a

most interesting result was that none of the subjects, trained musicians or

otherwise, correctly perceived the 20% gradual tempo changes across the 10-

minute music conditions (p. 19).

In 1991, Standley conducted a larger study to investigate the effect of

music versus the sound of a dental drill, paired with or without the vibrotactile

stimulation of the Somatron bed on subjects’ perception of comfort. Comfort

levels were measured by the Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI)

system in which subjects by simply moving a lever continuously rated levels of

comfort without talking or writing. Music majors (n = 130) were divided into five

groups: (a) Somatron vibration with music followed by dental drill, (b) Somatron

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vibration with dental drill followed by music, (c) free-field music followed by

dental drill (no Somatron vibration), (d) free-field dental drill followed by music

(no Somatron vibration), and (e) a no-music, drill, or vibration control group.

Results indicated a perceived reduction in both comfort and discomfort (“blunted”

effect) in the Somatron vibration groups. Temperature increased significantly in

both music and drill conditions that included the Somatron vibration. No

consistent heart rate response was evident in any group.

Comparison between SVT and the SRMT. SVT and the SRMT are

similar in that both convey musical vibrations through bodily contact between the

client and the sound source and apply musical stimuli directly to the body to elicit

physiological and psychological change. Both produce full-frequency sound and

the overtones that accompany it. A distinct difference lies in the fact that the

SRMT is tuned to one single fundamental frequency. The strumming of the table,

as previously described, produces the overtone series. There are no musical

selections combined along with the vibrations received on the SRMT. In addition,

the sound vibration on the SRMT does not represent a structured musical form, as

most prerecorded, composed, or client-preferred music would. However, the

sounds produced by the SRMT are not unstructured (noise), and are harmonically

organized. Still these vibrations would not considered the same as structured

music as applied in Somatron apparatus. Like in other comparisons, the sound

vibration on the SRMT is purely acoustic.

Music Vibration Table Therapy (MVT). The Music Vibration Table

(MVT) was developed for pain research by Kris Chesky and Donald Michel.

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Support for its development was provided by the Department of Physics and the

Division of Music Education of the University of North Texas, the Music Therapy

program of the Texas Woman’s University, the Departments of Psychiatry and

Internal Medicine of the Texas College of Osteopathic Medicine, Apple

Computers, Inc., National Instruments, Hydro-Fitness, Inc., Rickman Association,

and Stillwater Designs (Chesky & Michel, 1991). MVT was patented in the US in

1991.

Background of the invention. In Chapter 2, specialized cells named

mechanoreceptors were mentioned to include the Pacinian corpuscle. Discussed in

the patent submitted by Chesky (1992), these are vibrations that when directly

applied to the body stimulate the Pacinian corpuscle in particular. Pacinian

corpuscles are mediated by large-diameter afferent fibers and, when activated,

inhibit the transmission of pain from the smaller diameter afferent. Confirmed

electroneurologically, behaviorally, and clinically,

prolonged exposure to a non-changing vibration . . . music, fluctuating

frequencies and amplitudes of sound, when used as the source of
mechanical vibration prolongs or possibly eliminates the onset of
accommodation in the Pacinian corpuscle. When the large Pacinian
corpuscles cease to accommodate, continued activation and firing causes
prolonged and great analgesia. The selected music must contain in its
composition those frequencies that have been determined to be in the
tracking range of the Pacinian corpuscle. This range includes frequencies
between 60–600Hz. (Chesky & Michel, 1996, p. 2)

MVT is the most complex technology compared with the other musical

vibrotactile equipment previously discussed. It includes quantified mechanical

vibration (QMV), thus providing more precise measurements. MVT has three

distinct features.

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 1. It can quantify and monitor vibration parameters at the delivery point

rather than the source point (vibrational measurement parameters are based on

National and International Standards for Human Vibration; Chesky et al., 1996).

2. It allows for the control of frequency characteristics that include the

equalization of selected frequencies, which minimizes the chance of exposing the

patient to one or more frequencies at a higher level than others, and it provides the

measurement and application of frequency-specific vibration doses especially at

60–600 Hz (Chesky et al., 1996).

3. It has improved membrane resonance and a more even distribution of

vibration across the vibrating surface, thereby increasing dosage accuracy. It

consists of a base table, a sound system, a vibrating membrane (a tabletop), and a

computerized vibrational feedback-processing system that measures and controls

the transmission of the vibrations as they affect the body in terms of frequency

(pitch), amplitude (volume), and duration (length of time).

Select MVT studies. Quantified mechanical vibration (QMV) technology,

like that found in MVT, has been used in pain reduction. Chesky and Michel

(1991) present three case studies in which music vibration sessions brought

reduction in perception of pain as measured by the McGill pain questionnaire.

Developed by Melzak (1975), the McGill pain questionnaire intends to measure

subjects’ perception of pain within multiple dimensions (sensory, evaluative,

affective, miscellaneous, and total score). Pain perception scores were lowest in

the sensory dimension.

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 In another study by Chesky (1992), results indicated that patients with

rheumatoid arthritis who listened to music combined with MTV had a 64%

reduction in pain, whereas patients receiving music alone had a 24% reduction in

pain. A 2% increase in pain was experienced by patients in the placebo group (p.

93). Not all studies show positive outcomes related to pain reduction. In a double-

blind, placebo-controlled pilot study using the MVT, patients with fibromyalgia

tender point pain experienced no change in pain perception; however, they were

able to tolerate greater pressure on tender points (Chesky, Russell, Lopez, &

Kondraske, 1997).

Comparison between MVT and the SRMT. In comparing MVT, the

SRMT is distinctly different. The SRMT does not have a computerized

vibrational feedback-processing system, nor does it provide the continuous

quantified measurement of frequency-specific vibrational doses. One fundamental

frequency is established by manually tuning the 55 strings underneath the SRMT.

These strings can be tuned to vibrate between 60–600 Hz, but, once the

fundamental frequency is set at the beginning of the session, it cannot be changed

midsession. Like MVT, the SRMT provides an even distribution of vibration

across the vibrating surface; however, decisions related to the vibrational

transmission (amplitude and duration) become the responsibility of the therapist

based on subtle but observable behavioral responses (e.g., eye lid fluttering,

breathing rate, and physical movements) or based on verbal feedback provided by

the client.

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 Other vibrational apparatus. Thus far in this literature review, I

presented studies that included vibrational therapies referenced within the

discipline of music therapy. Most of these studies are not current. However,

during this process, I found a more recent clinical study conducted in 2015 by

Naghdi, Ahonen, Macrio, and Bartel. This study investigated the effect of low-

frequency sound stimulation on patients with fibromyalgia. In personal

communication with Dr. Branon Dewitz at Nexneuro, USA (November, 2015), I

obtained the description of the vibrational lounge used in the study. The Nexneuro

SL5 Lounge has four transducers (motion speakers) that transmit low-frequency

sound through the lounge to be received by the person sitting in it. The low-

frequency sound is produced by way of an mp3 player. Nineteen female

volunteers (median age 51) with fibromyalgia (median duration of 5.76 years)

participated in the study. The study was a repeated-measures design but was

limited in the following ways: there was no control group, no initial baseline data,

no comparison group, and limited follow-up. The researchers involved considered

the study to be a pilot and recommended follow-up research to include a blinded

controlled trial. Participants received 10 treatments, twice per week for five

weeks. Treatments involved 23 minutes of low-frequency sound at 40 Hz

delivered by way of the SL5 Lounge. Pre- and post-treatment measures were

taken to include the Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire (FIQ), the Jenkins Sleep

Scale (JSS), the Pain Disability Index (PDI), the number of minutes sitting and

standing without pain, the cervical range of motion (ROM), and the cervical tone.

Results were significant: (a) the FIQ pretreatment score (88.8%) to post-treatment

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score (16.8%) reflected an 81% reduction of pain impact (median days of missed

work were reduced by one day per week after treatment; pp. 7–8); (b) a 49%

reduction in pain pre- to post-treatment as measured by the PDI (pp. 7–8); (c) a

90% reduction in sleep disturbance as measured by JSS reflected in the median

score (pretest 20% to posttest 2%; pp. 7–8); (d) both length of time sitting and

standing without pain increased significantly (p 0.001); (e) at baseline, 11 of 19

patients had 25% ROM and none had full ROM, whereas, after treatment, 9 of 19

patients had 75% ROM and 3 had 25% ROM (pp. 8–9); (f) at baseline, 13 of

19 patients were more hypertonic, and none had normal tone. After treatment,

seven patients had normal tone, six were hypertonic, and none were more

hypertonic. Though these data show significance, benefits were not long lasting.

Over time (7–14 days), symptoms returned. Only three patients (15.8%) reported

no recurrence of symptoms within 14 days (p. 10); 68.4% of patients reported

experiencing a recurrence of pain, and 17.8% reported a recurrence of sleep

disturbance within 7-10 days (p. 10). When asked, Dr. Dewitz was not aware of

any plans for future research on the Nexneuro SL5 Lounge.

Summary of vibrational therapies. Summarizing this section, four

therapies classified within music therapy, namely the VibroAcoustic Therapy

(VAT), Physioacoustic Therapy (PT), Somatron Vibroacoustic Therapy (SVT),

and Music Vibrational Table Therapy (MVT), have been discussed. In addition, a

more recent study involving the Nexneuro SL 5 lounge was reviewed.

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 In the following subsection, I present one last study where similar

physiological measures as applied in the USU study were obtained. In addition,

this study included university students.

Another study applying similar measures. Distinct from the previous

studies reviewed, this study does not include vibrational apparatus; however,

similar measures were obtained. Davis and Thaut (1989) measured physiological

and psychological responses in non-musician university students (n = 18). The

purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of subject-selected relaxing

music on measures of state anxiety, self-perceived relaxation, and physiological

response measures. Additionally, the study sought to determine if subjects'

physiological responses were consistent with or individually distinct from each

other. Physiological data collected included vascular constriction, heart rate,

muscle tension, and finger temperature. Psychological data were assessed by the

STAI (Spielberger et al., 1983). It was found that state anxiety decreased

significantly (p .05), and that self-reported relaxation increased (not reaching

significance) from pre- to post-test music-listening conditions. Reflected in the

physiological data, music aroused and excited rather than soothed autonomic and

muscular activity. Significant subject x time effects for muscle tension and

vascular constriction and significant differences between subjects for finger

temperature were found, providing evidence for the existence of distinct

individual physiological responses within subjects.

Continuing on from this subsection, I devote an entire section that focuses

on the fifth therapeutic technique, the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and

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Music (GIM), where similar measures as collected in the USU study were

obtained.

The Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music

GIM is defined as “a music centered, transformational therapy which uses

specifically programmed classical music to stimulate and support a dynamic

unfolding of inner experiences in service of physical, psychological, and spiritual

wholeness” (Toomey, 1996–1997, p. 75). Helen Bonny, PhD, RMT, CMT (1921–

2010) developed the GIM process in mid-1970s for the purposes of personal and

spiritual growth (Toomey, 1996–1997). Bonny founded the Institute for

Consciousness and Music, the Bonny Foundation for Music Centered Therapies,

and was Director of Music Therapy at Catholic University in Washington, DC.

GIM’s orientation is “humanistic and transpersonal; interpretation is

client-centered; music is the generating stimulus and, with a guide [GIM

facilitator] the music serves as therapist and healer” (Bonny, 1994, p. 70). It is

based on the underlying belief that “all healing is ultimately self-healing” (Bonny

1980a, p. 4). As a method, Bonny (1980b) further describes GIM as:

A technique which involves listening in a relaxed state to selected music .

. . in order to elicit mental imagery, symbols, and deep feelings arising
from the deeper conscious self. The GIM process refers to a process which
uses the GIM technique in conjunction with other ASC [altered states of
consciousness] facilitating agents in a series of sessions to foster
creativity, therapeutic intervention, self-understanding, aesthetic imprint,
religious and transpersonal experience, holistic healing and personal
growth. (p. 5)

GIM facilitators, who are not necessarily music therapists, complete three levels

of training, requiring at least three years that includes personal experience of GIM

and supervised sessions with others. GIM is described as “an inherently musical

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process, in which music is both a tool for therapeutic intervention as well as the

matrix for it” (Justice & Kasayka, 1999, p. 28).

Background on transpersonal theoretical approach. The transpersonal

realm of experience includes aspects of “becoming, intuitive consciousness, self-

actualization, transcendence of the self, and individual synergy” (Justice &

Kasayka, 1999, p. 24). Most of us have experiences of ordinary or normal

consciousness that include perceptions and processes involving rational and

logical thinking. Transpersonal therapies, however, function on levels of

consciousness defined as “other than ordinary” or “altered” (Tart, 1975, as cited

in Justice & Kasayka, 1999, p. 24). Transpersonal therapies address experiences

not commonly explored in other psychological frameworks.

One can find the roots of transpersonal theory in the writings of William

James, Carl Jung, and Abraham Maslow. For example, Maslow (1968), in his

exploration of the phenomena of peak experience, identified characteristics in

himself and others he studied that became the basis for transpersonal work. These

characteristics are reflected in GIM. According to Justice and Kasayka (1999),

these characteristics include: (a) perceptions that can be relatively ego-

transcending, self-forgetful, or egoless; (b) emotional reactions of special wonder,

awe, humility, and surrender; (c) view of the world as a single, rich, live unity; (d)

fusion, transcendence, or a resolution of dichotomies, conflicts, and polarities; and

(e) a loss of fear, anxiety, inhibition, defense, and control (p. 24).

GIM has been shown to induce altered states of consciousness that can

then elicit insightful experiences, summon healing forces and new ways of

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looking at problems, impart a sense of unity among people and things, and create

a sensitivity for the divine (Bonny & Savary, 1973). Segments in a GIM session

are detailed in Appendix D and compared to segments in SHE.

Select GIM studies. Some of the studies reviewed in this section used the

same measures included in my research, namely the POMs (McNair et al., 1971)

and the STAI (Spielberger et al., l983). In D. S. Burns’s (2001) study, GIM was

found to be effective in improving mood and quality of life in patients who had a

history of cancer. Eight volunteers were randomly assigned to either an

experimental group (n = 4) in which they received 10 weekly GIM sessions or a

wait-list control group (n = 4). All participants completed POMS (McNair et al.,

1971) and the Quality of Life–Cancer Scale (QOL–CA; Padilla, Grant, Presant, &

Ferrell, 1996) pre-test and post-test, at 1-week after session 10 and 6 weeks post

intervention. A decrease in POMS Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) scores was

found in the experimental group, whereas TMD scores remained stable

(unchanged) in the control group. POMS subscores for the experimental group

reflected a decrease in negative emotional states and a slight increase in vigor or

activity from pretest to posttest. At follow-up, subscores continued to show

improvements; however, there was a slight increase in depression and confusion

subscores. Furthermore, quality of life data from the experimental group reflected

an increase from pretest to posttest, which continued with additional gains from

posttest to postintervention follow-up at 6 weeks.

Other studies involving healthy adults also illustrate positive changes as a

result of GIM sessions (Maack & Nolan, 1999; McKinney, Antoni, Kumar, Tims,

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& McCabe, 1997; Wrangsjo & Korlin, 1995, as cited in D. S. Burns, 2001).

Maack and Nolan (1999) explored the main changes gained from GIM therapy as

described by former clients and whether these gains were integrated and stabilized

into clients’ lives over time. Questionnaires were sent to former GIM clients

considered to be high-functioning normal adults who had been successful GIM

clients. Twenty-five respondents reported long-term gains that included getting

more in touch with one’s emotions, having more insight into problems,

experiencing spiritual growth, increased relaxation, and discovering new parts of

themselves.

In a randomized trial conducted by McKinney et al. (1997), a short series

of GIM sessions produced positive changes in mood, as measured by the POMS

and reduced cortisol levels in healthy adults (n = 28). Both GIM participants and

those on a waiting list completed the POMS and gave 15 cc of blood before and

after the 13-week interventions and again at a 6-week follow-up. Results as

determined by split-plot factorial and post hoc analyses demonstrated that, after

receiving six biweekly GIM sessions, participants reported significant decreases

in depression, fatigue, and total mood disturbance and significant decreases in

cortisol level by follow-up. In addition, decreases in cortisol levels were

associated with decreases in mood disturbance from pretest to follow-up.

Hammer (1996) conducted a study to investigate the effects of GIM

combined with relaxation techniques and state and trait anxiety levels. Sixteen

volunteers from a chemical rehabilitation center, including staff members and

residents, were assigned to an experimental or control group. In the experimental

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group, participants (n = 8) received 10 treatment sessions that included breathing

techniques, progressive relaxation instruction, and GIM. The control group (n =

8) received no treatment. All participants completed the STAI before and after

treatment or no treatment. Results reflected a significant improvement in state

score anxiety levels in the experimental group. Trait anxiety raw data indicated a

slight reduction, not reaching significance. Subjective reporting from the

experimental group suggested an increase in individuals’ general contentment,

calmness, and ability to concentrate.

A more recent study by B. D. Beck, Hansen, and Gold (2015) examined

the effects of GIM on biopsychosocial measures of work-related stress. Twenty

Danish workers on sick leave were randomly assigned to receive GIM or to be on

a wait-list control group. Outcome measures included biological stress symptoms.

Saliva samples were obtained to assess the hormones cortisol, testosterone, and

melatonin in relation to stress recovery.

A battery of standardized tests cited in B. D. Beck et al. (2015) measured

psychological stress symptoms that included the Perceived Stress Scale-10, the

POMS-37 short form, the Karolinska Sleep Diary, the Generalized Anxiety

Disorder-7, and the Major Depression Inventory. Results demonstrated

significantly decreased biological and psychological stress symptoms

immediately after 9 weeks of treatment in the GIM group. Biologically, the

change in cortisol was the most significant (p = 0.04). Psychologically, the most

significant change was reflected in mood disturbance (p = 0.006). Significant

changes were also found in immediate stress measures before and after a single

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GIM session. Results of this study suggest that GIM seems to have a strong

impact on mood-related measures.

Comparison of GIM with SHE. GIM is more comparable to SHE, which

includes the SRMT along with other vibrational instruments described in

Appendix A. For this reason, a comparison between GIM and SHE is presented

separately in Appendix D.

Final summary. Summarizing this section in its entirety, I presented

vibrational therapies and techniques recognized within the music therapy

discipline that are similar to the SRMT and SHE. Included were subsections that

provided details, comparisons, and select studies related to these techniques. In

addition, a table of comparison was presented. My aim in doing so was to

determine where the SRMT and SHE may fit within the categories currently

established in the profession.

In the sections that follow, I focus on the sound healing profession,

covering related techniques, providing reference to any research and/or published

books, and making connections to my study. As in the previous section, I also

attempt to determine where the SRMT and SHE may fit within the context of

sound healing as presented by Bruscia (1998b).

Sound Healing Methods and Approaches: Literature and Published Books

In previous sections, numerous music therapy studies were reviewed. To

date, sound healing is not yet established as a health care modality, though there

are associations of sound healers, annual meetings, one university certification

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program at CIIS, and various training programs in sound healing for those seeking

a certificate.

Sound healing research is still in its infancy, and no professional journals

yet exist that focus solely on sound healing. However, individual sound healing

experts have published their own books that present their methods and approaches

to sound healing and provide anecdotal evidence. Some of these sound healing

experts include, but are not limited to Fabian Maman (1997), John Beaulieu

(1987), Steven Halpern (1985), and Don Campbell (1993). I mention them, as

I’ve had the opportunity to study with them and/or speak with them in person at

conferences or over the phone. Each indicated that their motivation to publish

books was, in part, due to the fact that their work was not considered evidence

based. Methods described in these books include self administered sound healing,

toning, overtone singing, mantra chanting, and sound healing for others.

In the following paragraphs, I discuss these techniques through six main

categories. Please note that there are likely other techniques I do not mention.

This is not intentional; rather, it is due to my not knowing about them. In addition,

some categories relate to the USU study while others do not. I include these

categories as informational.

Self-Generated Sound for Healing

Included in this category are techniques that use the voice.

Though not widely practiced or included in music therapy study programs,

toning is the most familiar technique known of by music therapists. Toning was

introduced by Keyes (1973) in her book titled Toning: The Creative Power of the

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Voice, considered a seminal work in the sound healing literature. Keyes is also

considered one of the earliest pioneers of modern-day sound healing (S. Snow,

2011). Other pioneers and advocates in the United States and the United Kingdom

include Maman (1997), Halpern and Savary (1985), Goldman (1992a, 2008),

Gardner (1997), Gardner-Gordon (1993), Campbell, (1993), Purce (1995), and

Heather (2001, 2004). I consider myself fortunate to have studied toning and

overtone singing with four of these pioneers (Maman, Purce, Gardner, and

Campbell). As part of my studies with Maman in France, I learned and practiced

overtone singing with Nestor Kornblum, co-director and co-founder of the

International Association of Sound Therapy. At CIIS, I learned and practiced the

Tibetan form of overtone singing with Jill Purce, and while on retreat with Don

Campbell, I learned the Mongolian form.

Overtone singing is found in many ancient healing practices around the

world. Also known as overtone chanting or harmonic singing, it is a type of

singing that occurs when a practiced overtone singer produces two tones (the

fundamental and a selected overtone) that can be heard at the same time. This

phenomenon occurs by subtly changing the shape of the lips and the location of

the tongue in the mouth (Goldman, 1992a). According to Goldman, this form of

sound healing, when self-generated, affects energy balancing, resonates with brain

structures, and improves the flow of cerebral–cranial fluid.

Overtones are credited by many to be the most healing aspect of sound

(Nielson, 2000; Goldman, 1992a). In the following ways, overtone singing

practices (a) have the ability to induce a meditative state as the singing stimulates

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and opens the chakras centers, considered in the traditions of India to represent

higher spiritual centers; and (b) are beneficial physically and emotionally

(Gardner, 1997; Goldman, 1992a; Nielson, 2000; Purce, 1995).

Most evidence attesting to the beneficial effects of overtone singing are

anecdotal. In addition, “There is little information to draw on with regard to either

how overtone chanting might be applied in a therapeutic setting or what physical,

emotional, and spiritual responses might be generated and under what conditions”

(Nielsen, 2000, p. 41). Overtone singing was not included in the USU study;

however, I belief the overtones produced by the SRMT have healing properties

similar to those associated with overtone singing.

As of this writing I found two studies conducted by music therapists in

which toning as a self-administered healing intervention was included. In one of

these studies, Rider, Mickey, Weldin, and Hawkinson (1991) found that there

were more significant positive changes in heart rate during conditions where 17

musically trained subjects toned (improvisationally) on a comfortable pitch for 10

minutes in comparison to when subjects engaged in singing familiar songs.

In another study, Rider (1997a) used toning in a clinical setting to treat

chronic pain. The approach he used included finding a tone that would “at first

resonate with or enhance the pain. Then, alter the pitch and vocal format slightly

and tone ‘around’ the pain until the pain ‘moves and sometimes disappears

altogether’” (p. 86). To date, I was not able to inquire of Rider as to whether the

patient was sounding the tones or whether the therapist was.

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 Other forms of vocal sound healing have been applied in other disciplines

outside of the music therapy profession. Two forms of vocal sound healing named

overtone chanting and microtonal singing were explored by Nielson (2000). She

was interested in the qualitative experiential responses to these techniques in

terms of well-being. She defined overtone chanting as “an ancient practice of

producing overtones while chanting one note,” indicating that “overtones are the

harmonics that arise in a series of mathematical ratios from the sounding of a

single tone.” And further stating that the overtones are “consciously produced,”

and “can sound like flute music floating around the room” (p. 39).

Distinct from overtone chanting, microtonal singing involves a smaller

interval (a quarter tone) in comparison to the diatonic scale intervals used in

Western music. This kind of singing is heard when listening to classical ragas

from East India. Nielson (2000), being interested in both techniques, taught

overtone chanting to one group of five individuals and microtonal singing to

another group of five. For one month, individuals practiced for 10–20 minutes per

day for one month. Individuals completed weekly questionnaires and kept

personal journals. At the end of four weeks, individuals were interviewed. Nielsen

concluded that both practices provided access to the emotional realm, but in

different ways. “Microtonal singing tended to be an emotional practice

accompanied by resolution of issues as they arose. Overtone chanting

accommodated mental processes, and emotional issues arose after chanting” (p.

166). She further discovered that the kinds of insights individuals experienced

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varied between the two practices. Microtonal singers tended to have insights

regarding “life processes.”

They noticed the unpredictability of life from moment to moment, the

peaks and valleys, and the silent spaces between events . . . Those who
practiced overtone chanting tended to become aware of their role in
relationships with others rather than notice the flow of life process. (p.
166)

Relative to my research, the significance of Nielsen’s (2000) study lies in

the how vibrations produced by the voice in both forms can be applied within a

transformational context. Nielson claims that both practices facilitate transitions

from states of “imbalance” to states of “balance.” Her premise “that healing

occurs in a place ‘between’ where the potential for transformation to well being

exists” (p. 47) is interesting as it seems to echo what I assert in my research that

vibrational sound as experienced via the SRMT can access a transformational

space within ourselves that can assist in our healing process, and thus enhancing a

state of well being.

In further search for studies related to overtone singing or chanting, I

found a case study conducted by Lightmark (2003) that included throat singing (a

form of overtone singing that originated amongst the indigenous Turko-Mongol

tribes of the Altai and Sayan mountains of southern Siberia and western

Mongolia) along with a wide variety of holistic interventions designed to assist a

cancer patient with recovery. The patient was a 68-year-old male who was led in a

daily practice by the researcher over a period of one month. The intervention was

designed to facilitate the expansion of the chest, introduce the vibration into the

body, exercise the lungs, and increase the patient’s ability to produce and hear the

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overtones in the tones he was producing. The practice lasted between 5 and 7

minutes as that was the maximum the patient could perform. At the end of the

study, the patient reported he liked the toning and said he continued it on his own.

He commented that he had heard people who sing live longer, which served as a

motivator for continuing the practice. He also reported feeling his voice was

stronger, feeling a release of tension, and made reference to being reminded of

how much he loved music, perhaps suggesting an aesthetic experience. Lightmark

concluded that throat singing was one of two of the various interventions applied

that he considered most successful.

Projecting Sound into the Body

Techniques in this category involve the projection or application of sound

vibration directly on or over a part of the body. Though not exactly the same, the

SRMT provides direct vibration through the back body of the person.

The majority of these techniques utilize electronic devices to produce the

sound. Osteopathic Dr. Peter Guy Master’s Cymatic Therapy is an example based

on the work of Dr. Hans Jenny (1972), previously mentioned in Chapter 3. A

Cymatic instrument consisting of the computer that selects the vibration for

healing and a sound generator with hammer-like vibrators applies the sound

directly on the body and is used in Europe in the treatment of physical and

emotional problems (McClellan, 1991). As of this writing, I have not found any

research related to Cymatic Therapy. As of 1996, the Cymatic instrument had not

been approved for use in the United States (Crowe & Scoval, 1996).

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 Another technique to include in this category involves the use of tuning

forks tuned in the Pythagorean scale (Beaulieu, 1987). According to naturopathic

physician and musician John Beaulieu, specific intervals are needed to produce

healing effects by stimulating the vestibular system, which functions to realign

body structures and increase the flow of the cerebral–cranial fluid. In this method,

two tuning forks are taped together and then circled around the head. To date, I’m

unaware of any research that has been conducted on the technique; though I am

aware of the trainings that Beaulieu offers and the books he has written.

While in France in the year 2000, I became certified in two techniques

developed by Fabien Maman that use tuning forks. One he named The Musical

Spine, the other Shu-Point (Maman & Maman, 1997). Being an acupuncturist,

musician, and chi-gong master, Maman has determined frequencies to apply along

the spinal cord or shu points (points related to the meridians in Chinese medicine)

functioning to either stimulate or calm depending on a comprehensive diagnostic

assessment (also grounded in Chinese medicine). Maman has provided many

trainings of these techniques that continue today. Trainees include, but are not

limited to, acupuncturists, chiropractors, nurses, and integrated health

practitioners. At the time of my study with Maman in 2002, he had not certified

any music therapists in these techniques. To date, I am unaware of any published

research as to the efficacy of these techniques.

Sounding the Body

In these techniques, the practitioner uses their voice to scan, detect, and

isolate certain areas of imbalance or resistance in the client’s body or energy field.

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After finding the tone, he or she sounds the tone and intentionally projects it into

the unbalanced area (Goldman, 1992a). Techniques in this area include music

therapist, Susan Gallagher Borg’s Resonant Kinesiology, Sharry Edwards’s Bio-

Acoustics, musician Sarah Benson’s Siren Technique, and Simon Heather’s vocal

sound healing method.

Borg’s (1994) Resonant Kinesiology (RK) is a bodywork method that is

based on the notion that “the nature of reality is much closer to music than to a

machine” (Capra, 1982 p. xii). Foundationally, RK is a meditative state called

inclusive attention, where the practitioner begins the work by going into a mindful

state where it is possible to tune in to (attend to) oneself and another at the same

time. Within the context of experiencing reality as a vibrational phenomenon and

after extensive training, practitioners are skilled in monitoring their own sensory

experiences and translate information received from their clients into vibrational

responses in the form of touch, movement, or sound. As of 1993, there had been

no scientific papers written about RK, though Borg (1993) hoped there would be

in the future. As of this writing, I have been unable to contact her to inquire as to

any research. In 1993, she co-published a book titled Sing Your Body Activity

Book (Borg, McHose, & Nissen, 1993).

Sharry Edwards (1992) developed a system named BioAcoustics Voice

Spectral Analysis that according to Edwards can detect hidden or underlying

stresses in the body that are expressed as disease. Through voice analysis, a

frequency is identified that is then provided for the client to listen to (a computer

generated frequency, recorded and provided to the client). These proper frequency

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sounds have been shown to control pain, body temperature, heart rhythm, and

blood pressure. In some cases they been shown to regenerate body tissue and

alleviate the symptoms of many diseases. Edwards method is being used and

further researched at the Institute of BioAcoustic Biology in Albany, Ohio. Her

work is now included in The Duke University Encyclopedia of New Medicine

(Liebowitz & Smith, 2006) and The Scientific Basis of Integrative Medicine

(Wisneski & Anderson, 2009).

Persons trained in Sarah Benson’s Siren Technique use their voice to scan

up and down the client’s energy field. Based on their perception of changes or

areas of resistance, the practitioner will tone, projecting the sound into the

unbalanced area in order to resonate and bring the problem area into balance

(Goldman, 1992a). Goldman (1992a) refined Benson’s technique in a process that

he calls overtoning. I was unable to find any research on Benson’s technique.

Benson passed away in 2007.

Music therapist Shelly Snow (2011) conducted a phenomenological study

for her dissertation where she explored participants’ experience of Simon

Heather’s (2004) vocal sound healing method where the healer uses their voice to

scan, detect, and isolate certain areas of imbalance or resistance in the client’s

body or energy field. After finding the tone, he or she sounds the tone and

intentionally projects it into the unbalanced area. S. Snow shaped her

phenomenological investigation into the form of a narrative inquiry and used a

two-step process of interviewing that included a life story interview and then a

second interview to explore what was experienced during the sound healing

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treatments (what sense or meaning the experience had for the person). A total of

13 participants were recruited for the study ranging in age from 27 to 65. These

were people who had received sound healing at Simon’s College of Healing

trainings in Great Britain. (The reader is referred to S. Snow’s, 2011, dissertation,

pp. 106–111, for a comprehensive description of Simon’s Basic Sound Healing

Method applied in her study.)

S. Snow (2011) found themes in the descriptive data of her participants

that are similar to those found in the USU study. These themes were placed in

categories to include:

• physical effects (relaxing, calming, energizing, healing on the

molecular level);

• emotional (emotional release, cleansing, letting go, release of trauma);

• mental (a way of changing thought patterns);

• insight (deeper perceptions of life situations, whole seeing, receiving

psychological understandings);

• spiritual (experiences of deep meditation, harmony, feeling inner

peace, blissful, feeling connected to oneself, an open heart, out-of-

body experiences, experiences with angels, spiritual rebirth, journeys

through the stars);

• sensorial (visual: colors, images; haptic: heat, melting, tingling,

vibration, resonance, feeling cells coming apart and being reformed;

hearing: nada yoga; hearing sounds that were not being made by the

sound healer, such as very high voices; olfactory: smells; heightened

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 senses: experienced after sound healing treatments, mainly hearing,

but also sight).

In my view, themes found in common between my study and S. Snow’s

(2011) serve to validate the phenomenological aspects of my study, though I

cannot claim that my study was purely representative of the method. Full

application of the method requires an interactive interview process as well as the

determination of emergent themes and categories. In the USU study, I borrowed

from the method and procedural steps were slightly modified as described in the

methods chapter.

Listening Technologies

As I am a trained provider of The Listening Program, I am the most

familiar with the work of French physician and otolaryngologist Dr. Alfred

Tomatis (The Tomatis Method and the Electronic Ear), which has been adapted

for daily home use and named The Listening Program. Robert Doman, founder of

the National Association for Child Development, and his son Alex Doman, with

Advanced Brain Technology, collaborated extensively with Tomatis, and as a

result The Listening Program was created.

Based on an individual’s audio logical profile and a comprehensive

assessment, a specific listening program is designed for the client. The Tomatis

Method provides direct stimulation to important ear mechanisms by way of the

electronic ear; whereas, The Listening Program does the same through high

quality standard or bone conduction headphones. Tomatis identified three

functions of the ear mechanism, emphasizing the importance of listening as an

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active process of focusing the ear to attune to particular sound signals. These

functions are (a) to assume balance by establishing equilibrium, body tone, and

integration of motor and sensory information; (b) to analyze and decode

movements external to the ear (sound vibrations) by the cochlea and internal

movements from the vestibular system so that auditory-vocal control can be

established; and (b) to energetically charge the central nervous system and the

cortex by receiving high frequency sounds in the range of 2,000 to 8,000 Hz,

which is the upper frequency end of speech (Tomatis, 1991, 1996).

I contend that the overtones created by the SRMT provide cochlear

stimulation in specific frequency ranges related to sensory/motor, speech and

language, and higher cognitive functioning. There is a growing body of evidence

and research demonstrating that The Tomatis Method and The Listening Program

is effective in helping people whose problems stem from deficiencies in

communication skills, language acquisition, learning ability, and social

adjustment. Clients using these methods include children with delayed or

disordered language development, hyperactivity, behavioral and emotional

problems, learning disabilities, and autism and adults with adjustment problems,

depression, fatigue, and social withdrawal.

Both methods have been used to remediate short attention span, lack of

concentration, poor organizational skills, impaired memory, and problems with

motor functioning and balance (Gilmour, Madaule, & Thompson, 1989). People

who are highly creative have used The Listening Program to enhance their

abilities in that regard. (The reader is referred to Advanced Brain Technology

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website [email protected] for current documented research on The

Listening Program).

Compositions and Specific Sound Combinations for Healing

Musical sound tools within this category include several combinations: (a)

musical intervals, tunings, and pitches; (b) rhythmic drumming; (c) sound-

harmonic timbre; (d) healing songs and chants; and (e) sound environments.

Musical intervals, tunings, and pitches. Pythagorean tuning is included

in this category. Beaulieu (1987) uses tuning forks tuned in the Pythagorean scale

as mentioned above. Crowe and Scovel (1996) identify Barbara Hero as the most

prominent researcher investigating Pythagorean tuning. Hero claims to have

rediscovered the Pythagorean Lambdoma, a mathematical table of ratios based on

the overtone series, representing a formula for healing with sound. This table of

ratios corresponds to specific frequencies used to balance the chakras and energy

systems of the body and to resonate with specific organs. (For more information

on the Lambdoma contact Scott Eggert at www.scotteggert.org or

Barbara Hero at www.lambdoma.com)

Rhythmic drumming. Many Western drummers have used rhythmic

drumming in healing for a number of years (Flatischer, 1992; Hart, 1990, as cited

in Crowe & Scovel, 1996). A person’s external experience of rhythmic drumming

can cause mutual phase-locking and entrainment. Mutual phase-locking and

entrainment occurs when two vibrating sources within close physical proximity

synchronize with each other (Berendt, 1987).

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 According to Malik (1995), Goldman (1992b), McClellan (1991), and

Harner (1990), a monotonous, steady drum beat can be used for phase-locking

and entrainment and can increase mental alertness, improve problem solving and

creativity, create an overall sense of well-being, and alter consciousness. Rider

and Eagle (1986) postulate that rhythmic entrainment can be a mechanism for

learning. In addition, Thaut, McIntosh, Prassas, and Rice (1993) found that

rhythmic phase-locking through rhythmic stimuli may be a factor that assists in

recovering normal gait in stroke recovery.

With over 40 years of research on the effects of sound on brain wave

production, HemiSync, the work of the Monroe Institute, is the most

commercially successful technique that employs mutual phase-locking of the

electrical activity relative to the cerebral hemispheres of the brain (Malik, 1995).

As an example, a Monroe tape would contain quiet, soothing music coupled with

an additional frequency pulse of 100 Hz in one ear and 108 Hz in the other. The

beat frequency difference of 8 Hz, causing what is named a binaural beat (J.

Thompson, 2007), is claimed to synchronize the brain wave to that of the Alpha

brain wave, associated with relaxation (Malik, 1995). A variety of tapes are

provided for various purposes (e.g., weight loss, sleep, and mental clarity).

Because entrainment is an important topic, I designate a separate section

in Part II of this literature review that concentrates on entrainment, as applied

within neurologically associated contexts to include neurological music therapy,

sonic entrainment, and sonic entrainment.

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 Sound-harmonic timbre. Sound healing instruments recognized from

ancient times as having healing properties are considered in this category and

include Tibetan singing bowls and meditation gongs. As Andrews (1992)

indicates, “The Tibetan singing bowl is one of the most powerful instruments of

sound vibration . . . It is generally recognized that it was created specifically to

elicit tones for healing and ritual” (p. 157).

Moreno (1989) refers to the origin of the gong over 2,000 years ago in

Indonesia (Bali and Java) and later in other parts of Asia (Thailand, China,

Burma, and Japan). The gong is significant in Gamelan music and has a hypnotic

and shamanic quality with its repeated cycles, regular pulse, and novel and unique

sound-harmonic timbre. According to Lindsay (1979, as cited in Moreno, 1989),

the gong is considered a sacred instrument associated with an experience of peace

and detachment, an alpha brainwave state that share similarities with shamanic

trance. Moreno (1989) suggests that these experiences are like the “semi-hypnotic

state associated with such shamanically derived music therapy techniques in our

own culture such as music and guided imagery” (p. 77). He refers to the high-

quality Paiste Sounding Creation Gongs that have been applied in clinical

facilities throughout West Germany and in music therapy training programs in

Heidelberg.

I found one study conducted in Germany that would be placed in this

category. I present it as findings are similar to those found in the USU study.

Further, similar analyses were employed. In addition, at first notice in the article

title (in German) reference was made to a monochord, which, I learned after some

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welcomed translation assistance from my German friend, was not really

comparable to the SRMT. This study (considered a pilot study by the researchers)

was conducted by Rose and Weiss (2008) at the Klinik fur Tumorbiologie,

Freiburg i.Br., Deutschland (English translation: Clinic for Tumor Biology in

Freiburg, Germany) on the effects of sound meditation in oncological

rehabilitation. A single-group pre-post study design was employed where patients

received 4 receptive music therapy sessions during a 3-week rehabilitation period.

Sound meditation instruments included singing bowls, gongs, and what was

named a monochord.

The monochord referred to the sounding of the practitioner’s voice on a

single monotone pitch moving from one single monotone pitch to another. During

one of the four sessions, an affirmation presented in a pleasing monotone voice

was part of the treatment, replacing the pitched monotone sound. The other

instruments were included in all sessions. Patients completed a bipolar mood

questionnaire before and after each session. Additionally, patients completed

the EORTC Quality of Life Questionnaire (EORTC QLQ-C-30) before all 4

sessions began and at the completion of the study. Mood and quality of life data

were analyzed by repeated-measures ANOVA. Results from 105 patients (mostly

female) demonstrated significant positive change in mood and quality of life over

the course of the sessions. Patients felt more balanced, less nervous and less

exhausted. Upon completion of the final session, patients answered open ended

questions. These data were subject to qualitative content analyses.

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 Patients reported positive body sensations during the intervention such as

feelings of heaviness or warmth of the limbs and a pleasant soothing flow

throughout the body (75.6%, p.335). Other effects included feeling less isolated,

feeling they had better communication with family and other patients, feeling

more hope and less fear, less dizziness, and less nausea. Patients made further

reference to loving and accepting themselves. Ninety-one of the patients made

reference to an experience of psychic well-being experienced within the silence

achieved by the intervention (e.g., engagement with life, spiritual experiences,

and relaxed thoughts related to the illness and death process). The researchers

indicated that a second group was intended as control group, but because it was so

small, it could not function as such and consequently a valid comparison could

not be made. An interesting finding was discovered in the data relative to time of

day--more positive effects were found when treatments were administered in the

afternoon in comparison to those administered in the morning.

Healing songs and chants. In many ancient and indigenous cultures

songs and chants were used for healing. The singing of medicine songs continues

to be prominent in the work of traditional healers in native north and south

American tribes, India, Korea, Africa, and Tibet (Cook, 1997). My experience

with these practices were facilitated by traditional healers in the Inipi (sweat

lodge) and Sundance (Lakota) ceremonies. Though not included in the USU

study, I was given permission to sing healing chants and play healing melodies on

the native flute in my private work.

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 Sound environments. Within the sound healing community, vibratory

equipment in the form of beds, pads, and chairs are included in this category. I

have described these and reviewed studies related to these equipment in the

previous sections. According to Crowe and Scovel (1996), and within the context

of sound healing, such equipment is designed to provide vibrotactile and auditory

stimulation to assist in relaxation, problem solving, shifting psychological

attitudes and responses, and subtle energy balancing, thereby accessing the body’s

innate capacity to heal itself.

Crowe and Scovel (1996) have concerns that some equipment used within

the sound healing community may be “designed and built by electronic

technicians who do not have musical or therapeutic backgrounds” (p. 27). She

cautions that harmful effects can occur physically and psychologically when

vibrational sound is applied without a full understanding of its effects. I share

Crowe’s concern in this regard, not only in relationship to electronic apparatus,

but also in relation to those who promote themselves as sound healers and play

singing bowls, gongs, drums, and rattles in their “sound baths.” These people are

not experts, nor have they studied with those considered to be experts and are

unaware of how these powerful vibrations can elicit negative responses.

Vibrational sound may be contraindicated for some people.

Concluding Summary

In these sections, I have described sound healing techniques and methods

found to be practiced within sound healing community. I have presented some

research and made reference to books written by experts in the field. There is

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definitely a need for more research as to the efficacy of these techniques. I

reiterate that this is not a complete review of what is currently being practiced.

In the following section, I present additional categorical descriptions as

determined by Bruscia (1998b) that warrant discussion. Some of these

categorizations are considered sound healing, thus, falling outside the boundaries

of music therapy. My intent is to determine where the SRMT may be categorized.

within Bruscia’s framework. Some of these categorical descriptions bring insight

into how sound healing methods and techniques are viewed within the profession,

and suggest ways that when employing a systematic and therapeutic approach can

bring about their inclusion.

Ken Bruscia’s Categorical Descriptions

Bruscia (1998b) distinguishes, names, and defines additional

categorizations that I feel relate to this study. In the second edition of his book

titled Defining Music Therapy, he makes reference to vibrational healing, sound

healing, music healing, and music therapy in healing. When considering these

categorical definitions, it seems that the SRMT as applied in this study would fit

within some of these categories, contingent upon agreement amongst experts and

researchers in both the music therapy and the sound healing community that

harmonically organized sounds are considered music; thereby, enabling the two to

stand alongside each other. These categorizations are discussed in the following

paragraphs.

Vibrational healing. Bruscia makes reference to vibrational healing

approaches not considered part of music therapy and include radionics, Cymatics,

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ultrasonics, Tomatis Method of ear training, and tuning fork resonance (Bruscia,

1998b, p. 203). Reasons why these practices are not considered music therapy

include, in part, because they require a trained specialist (physician, medical

sound technician, or healer with vibrational expertise) as opposed to a music

therapist. Second, the relationship between the client and the vibrational sounds is

more significant than the relationship to the healer. Last, in vibrational sound

experiences, the organizational elements inherent in music are not considered,

rather, in vibrational healing no music whatsoever is involved. The SRMT as

applied in the USU study presented vibrational sound only, absent of structured

music as defined by Bruscia. In addition, the relationship between the participant

and the sound was more significant than the relationship between the

researcher/music therapist and participant.

Sound healing: The auxiliary level. When vibrational frequencies or

sounds are combined with music or any of its organizational elements to include

rhythm, melody, and harmony it is considered sound healing. Functioning at an

auxiliary level, the healer or therapist takes a supportive role.

In these practices, either the client can engage in the sound healing
without the help of a therapist, or a therapist is needed to administer the
sounds, but the healing effects of the sounds are not dependent upon the
client-therapist relationship. (Bruscia, 1998b, p. 204)

Examples include the vibrational therapies previously discussed.

Bruscia (1998b) mentions others, including mantra meditations, drum

trances, toning, vocal harmonics, breath and voice work, voice energetics, and

healing gongs. He provides definitions of these techniques, indicating that when

practiced as defined these techniques fall outside the boundaries of music therapy.

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Bruscia does suggest, however, that when these techniques are practiced any of

these techniques could be considered augmentative and within the boundaries of

music therapy. I contend that the SRMT could be categorized as sound healing at

the augmentative level when including a systematic process of treatment.

Music healing: The augmentative level. I further assert that the SRMT

situates within the music healing category. Bruscia (1998b) defines music healing

as “the use of music experiences [active and receptive] and the universal energy

forms inherent in them to heal mind, body, and spirit” (p. 207). Distinct from

sound healing, music healing considers the aesthetic properties of music to be as

important in healing as is the music itself. “The healing results from both the

experience of music in and for itself, as an aesthetic object, as well as the

experience of the universal energy forms within the music.” (p. 207).

Music healing is more aligned with music therapy as it is considered

augmentative, meaning that it employs a purpose, method, and additional

expertise. Music healing is not classified at the intensive level of practice

discussed in the next section, because the healing may not involve or depend upon

a relationship between the therapist and the client where both agree to engage in

addressing the client’s therapeutic goals (e.g., in a clinical setting). At the

augmentative level, even when music healing does involve a therapeutic client-

therapist relationship through which client goals are established and addressed,

this relationship is not considered primary in determining the effectiveness of the

healing process (Bruscia, 1998b). At the intensive level, the therapeutic client-

relationship is considered primary.

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 Bruscia further differentiates the use of music as music as healing and

music in healing. Examples of music as healing include emotional or spiritual

healing experiences, somatic music listening, voice healing, and instrument

healing. Through sound, the SRMT represents somatic music listening and

experience as defined by Bruscia (1998b) “The use of vibrations, sounds, and

music in various elemental and combined forms to directly influence the client’s

body and its relationship to other facets of the client” (p. 121.) In addition, I

contend that the SRMT is an instrument that facilitates healing.

Examples of music in healing include music rituals, music trances, music

in Shamanism, and music in energetic and body work. (More detailed descriptions

of these sub-categories are provided in Bruscia’s, 1998b, book on pp. 208–209.)

Music therapy in healing: The intensive level. Bruscia (1998b) defines

music therapy in healing at the intensive level as “the use of music experiences

and the relationships that develop through them to heal the mind, body, and spirit,

to induce self-healing, or to promote wellness” (p. 209). At this level, a systematic

approach with therapeutic intent is implemented. He further indicates that healing

takes place through the experience of music with the guidance of a therapist or

healer, and within the client-therapist relationship. In this relationship,

the therapist’s aim is to assist the client through his/her own natural
healing process by providing continual support and guidance . . .
Essentially, the therapist respects the integrity of the self-healing process
and the powerful role of music, and avoids imposing anything foreign or
nonessential onto that process. (p. 209).

Currently, within the discipline of music therapy, Helen Bonny’s (1978)

GIM method and Nordoff Robbins’s (1977) Creative Music Therapy technique

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are considered within this category. The Nordoff Robbins approach involves

active musical improvisation between client and therapist, which can be

therapeutically healing. The improvisational process employed engages the

client’s inner resources for self-healing.

A systematic approach was not intended in the USU study. I contend,

however, that when applied within a therapeutic context, the SRMT could be

considered music therapy in healing at the intensive level.

Concluding statement. Based on results from the USU study as presented

in Chapter 7, I argue for the inclusion of not only experiences of music, but

experiences of harmonically organized sound within these categorizations.

Though the sounds produced on the SRMT are not considered structured music,

containing organizational elements to include rhythm, melody, and harmony, the

overtones produced are harmonically organized, and certainly would not be

considered as noise. When the SRMT or other similar vibrational techniques are

applied within a therapeutic context (involving a music therapist with vibrational

expertise implementing a systematic process of treatment) all levels and

components at the intensive level would be addressed.

Part I: Final Summary

To summarize Part I of this literature review, the reader has been informed

of a secondary aim of the study related to where the SRMT would be categorized

within the discipline of music therapy as well as within the sound healing

community. Techniques, methods, and apparatus were described and comparisons

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made in both music therapy and sound healing, and relevant studies were

publications reviewed.

In Part II, I elaborate further on areas pertinent to but not directly explored

or measured in this research. However, these areas reflect those that I recommend

researchers and music therapists familiarize themselves with to include

neuroscience and music therapy, entrainment, and the modification of living

systems through sound.

Part II: Additional Literature Related to Practices and Phenomenon in

Music and Sound Healing Therapies

Neuroscience and Music Therapy

Due to its flexible nature as a cognitive–perceptual stimulus, music has

traditionally played a role in neuroscience research. Neuroscientists have

frequently used music in brain imaging research to explore how (a) the brain

perceives verbal versus nonverbal information, (b) the brain processes time

information, and (c) a musically trained brain performs complex motor tasks

while in the process of creating music (Levitin & Tirovolas, 2009, as cited in de

l’Etoile & LaGasse, 2013; Thaut & McIntosh, 2010). In 2005, Cortex, an

international journal devoted to the study of cognition and the relationship

between the nervous system and mental processes, published a special issue on

The Rhythmic Brain presenting numerous studies (see Appendix B for suggested

additional reading.)

The biomedical theory of music therapy and the model of neurologic

music therapy integrate neuroscience, music cognition, and rehabilitation into

music therapy methods and practice (de l’Etoile & LaGasse, 2013). The merging

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and collaboration between the fields of neuroscience and music therapy aim to

better understand how music affects brain functioning, thereby expanding

therapeutic possibilities (Thaut, Gardiner et al., 2009; Thaut, Peterson, &

McIntosh, 2005; Thaut, Stephan, et al., 2009; Wan, Demaine, Zipse, Norton, &

Schlaug, 2010). Currently, the behavioral and cognitive divisions of neuroscience

may be of most interest to music therapists, as evidenced in the many

collaborative studies that directly involve neuroscientists, neurologists,

neurophysiologists, and music therapists (e.g., Thaut, Gardner et al., 2009; Thaut

& McIntosh, 2010; Thaut, Peterson, & McIntosh, 2005; Thaut, Stephan, &

Wunderlich et al., 2009; Wan et al., 2010). Such collaboration supports the

systematic investigation of music in therapy specifically concentrating on

neurological processes. The behavioral neuroscientist explores how neural

systems work and interact with each other and with the environment to influence

learned, reflexive, or spontaneously generated behaviors (M. F. Bear, Connors, &

Paradiso, 2007; Squire, Berg, & Bloom, 2008) Behavioral research also focuses

on higher mental activity overlapping with cognitive neuroscience that aims to

identify brain networks that support cognitive functions (e.g., memory, attention,

language, motivation, emotion, and motor activity; M. F. Bear et al., 2007; Squire

et al., 2008; Raichle, 2003).

Neurologic music therapy and entrainment. In the early 1990s, the use

of entrainment for therapeutic purposes appeared for the first time as Michael

Thaut, Director of the Center for Biomedical Research in Music, Colorado State

University, and his colleagues conducted several studies showing that the

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periodicity of auditory rhythmic patterns would entrain movement patterns in

patients with movement disorders that include stroke, Parkinson’s disease,

traumatic brain injury, and cerebral palsy (Thaut, Kenyon, Schauer, & McIntosh,

1999). As a result of Thaut’s extensive work in this area, music therapists can

now expand their training and become certified in neurologic music therapy

(NMT). NMT provides an excellent standardized repertoire of evidence-based

techniques, including rhythmic auditory stimulation (RAS), patterned sensory

enhancement (PSI), and melodic intonation therapy, all of which are based on

rhythmic entrainment mechanisms. The phenomenon of auditory entrainment is a

key element of RAS. It is the body’s ability to synchronize its movements

rhythmically. Thaut (2013) mentions how the term entrainment is used loosely in

making positive health-related claims with little or no scientific evidence. He

gives some examples that include brainwave entrainment, altered states of

consciousness, trance, drum circles, and binaural beat entrainment.

Types of entrainment. Entrainment is common in the physical world and

in nature. There are two types of entrainment: exogenous and endogenous.

Exogenous rhythmic entrainment occurs outside the body. Examples include ways

people adjust the rhythm of their speech patterns to more closely match those with

whom they are in communication, or the rhythmic unison of an audience clapping

(Neda, Ravasz, Brechet, Vicsek, & Barabsi, 2000). In addition, breathing rates,

subtle expressive motor movements, and rhythmic speech patterns have been

observed to synchronize and entrain in response to auditory stimuli, such as a

piece of music with a consistent rhythm (Safranek, Koshland, & Raymond, 1982;

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Thaut, McIntosh, Prassas, & Rice, 1993; Thaut, McIntosh, McIntosh, &

Hoemberg, 2001; Thaut, McIntosh, Prassas, & Rice, 1992; Thaut, Schleiffers, &

Davis, 1992). Examples in the physical world include entrainment between

coupled oscillators and fluid waves. In nature, the entrainment phenomenon is

evident in the synchronized illumination of fireflies or circadian rhythms

entraining to light-dark 24-hour cycles, distinguished as endogenous entrainment

(Clayton, Sager, & Will, 2005; Goldman, 1992b; Neda et al., 2000; Thaut, 2013).

Entrainment within the context of sound healing theory. Resonance is

considered an aspect of entrainment. A well known discovery by Dutch scientist

Christian Huygens in 1665 demonstrates the phenomenon of entrainment.

Huygens set grandfather clocks in a room together and set their pendulums

swinging at different times. When he returned the next day, he found all

pendulums swinging together at the same rate. This experiment has been repeated

by others (Bentov, 1977). According to Heather (2004) and Goldman (1992b) the

principle of entrainment explains how music can affect our heart rate and

breathing.

Goldman (1992b) distinguishes resonance from entrainment and views it

as a cooperative phenomenon, passive in nature, whereas entrainment he views as

more active.

With resonance, you stimulate the natural frequencies of an object with its
own vibration frequency and thus set it into motion. With entrainment you
are changing the natural oscillatory patterns of one object and replacing
them with the different oscillatory patterns of another object. You are
actively changing the vibrations (the frequency or rhythm) of one object to
another rate. (p. 196)

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 Sonic entrainment. Goldman (1992b) refers to sonic entrainment,

indicating that sound can be understood as being rhythmic.

Sonic entrainment has been used by medicine men and shamans from
different cultures since the beginning of time. The ability to create altered
states of consciousness through drumming, chanting and music is nothing
new . . . The ability to create specific changes in brainwaves through exact
intervals or beat frequencies is merely a refinement of the process. (p. 194)

Goldman (1992b) also makes reference to Robert Monroe, noted pioneer

in the investigation of human consciousness, inventor of Hemi-Sync, and founder

of the Monroe Institute, a worldwide organization dedicated to expanding human

potential. The Monroe Institute is recognized for its audio-guidance technology,

known as hemispheric synchronization. The Hemi-Sync method is claimed to

alter and entrain brainwaves through sound. A more in-depth description of the

method is presented in Appendix E. Leeds (2001) suggests that certain forms of

musical production that include the use of gongs and singing bowls can

potentially create similar effects as those found by the Monroe Institute. I assert

that the SRMT could be considered as one of these forms.

Music and brainwave entrainment. As previously mentioned, sound takes

the form of different wave forms measured in cycles per second (Hz). The number

of cycles per second that make the vibration of that frequency creates a rhythm or

pulse. Recall the use of specific frequency ranges for therapeutic purposes as

applied in VAT, PT, MVT, and Somatron technologies. Related to specific sound

frequencies for brainwave entrainment, brainwaves pulsate and oscillate at

particular frequencies and, like sound waves, are measureable in Hz.

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Eric B. Miller, PhD, in his 2011 book Bio-Guided Music Therapy: A

Practitioner’s Guide to Clinical Integration of Music and Biofeedback provides a

table that displays the typical smaller subdivisions of EEG brainwave bandwidths

used for clinical purposes (see Table 2).

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Table 2

EEG Brainwave Bandwidths Used for Clinical Purposes

Bandwidth Name Frequency Range Speed Category Clinical Association

Delta 0.05–4.00 Hz Slow wave Sleep, healing

Creativity, mystical
experience, inattention,
Theta 4–7 Hz Slow wave
or spacing out (in
ADHD)

Light meditation,
Alpha 8–12 Hz Slow wave
eyes closed

12–15 Hz Internal focus,

Sensorimotor rhythm
13.5–14.5 Hz Medium wave reduced motor activity
(SMR)
(tight band) with SMR increase

Beta 16–24 Hz Fast wave

35–45 Hz Intentional Function

Gamma Fast wave

Note. EEG bandwidths used for clinical purposes. Bio-Guided Music Therapy: A
Practitioner’s Guide to Clinical Integration of Music and Biofeedback By Eric B. Miller,
PhD published by Jessica Kingsley Publishers Limited, ©2011. All rights reserved.
Reprinted with permission of publisher.

Music has been shown to potentially entrain desired brain rhythms. In

some studies, music has reduced high alpha in the frontal cortex of depressed

adolescents (Field, Martinez, & Schanberg, 1998; as cited in Miller, 2011). Iwaki,

Hayashi, and Hori (1997, as cited in Miller, 2011) also found frontal cortex

changes in alpha band EEG activity following stimulation with music. Weeks

(2002, as cited in Miller, 2011) in a pilot study presented data that suggested

significant changes in SMR and theta EEG bandwidth amplitudes in response to

different musical stimuli. SMR was found to increase with slow melodic New
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Age music, coupled with alpha and theta suppression. Theta was also shown to be

suppressed with drum rhythms. Final results indicated that presentations of

classical music and drumming can have a significant impact on the EEG

bandwidths associated with executive functioning and attention (beta and theta).

In addition, Wagner (1975, as cited in Miller, 2011) found that musicians who

were passively listening to music produced more alpha brainwave activity than

nonmusicians. I found no studies that investigate the effects of sound alone on

brainwave states.

Living Systems Modified With Sound

Certain sounds have a healing influence on the body through the

modification of geometric patterns and cell organization. Hans Jenny, previously

mentioned in Chapter 3, was one of the earliest researchers to investigate the links

between sound and form. Jenny found that certain sound frequencies caused

vibrating droplets of water or piles of powder situated on special plates to form

into shapes and patterns that resembled living cells and complex organisms

(Gerber, 2001). For example, a droplet of water, when vibrated with one sound

frequency, formed the shape of a maple leaf, but, when vibrated with a different

frequency, its shape changed into that of a sand dollar.

Others influenced by Jenny have explored how frequencies of sound can

therapeutically alter the vibratory and physical structures of living systems. For

example, Gerber (2001) makes reference to Dr. Peter Guy Manners, an osteopath

from Britain whose explorations found that the application of ultrasonic waves

matched to frequencies of specific acupuncture points produced significant

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improvement in various physical disorders. To date, efficacy is mainly anecdotal.

In addition, the Sonopuncture technique developed by Dr. Irving Oyle has been

successful in treating pain in musculoskeletal conditions. The technique applies

ultrasonic stimulation to classical acupuncture points. Likewise, more evidence

based research is needed, especially since ultrasound is currently the most

common application of therapeutic vibration in Western medicine hospitals for

pain management.

Music, Vibration, and DNA

Research has verified that DNA and human cells have certain modes of

vibration (Eyster & Prokofsky, 1977; Frohlich, 1977). Based on the phenomena of

resonance, anything that vibrates has a specific resonant frequency that can be

acted on and modified from the outside if that frequency is matched. Researcher

and physicist Joel Sternheimer (1983, as cited in Crowe, 2004) and Maman

(1997) discovered that each molecule in the body has a corresponding melody,

and, therefore, each of these molecules can be reactivated through external

resonance when it “hears” its corresponding molecular melody. For example,

within Beethoven’s compositions are melodies that influence the production of

specific hormone molecules associated with the kidney (adrenocorticotropic), the

lung (antitrypsin), and liver (cytochrome). Music from Ghana has been shown to

produce the collagen molecule, which can have an effect on skin and hair.

Our current scientific point of view on how the brain and nervous systems

are initially developed is through the construction codes and chemical compounds

found in our genetic makeup (our DNA). Atoms are the building blocks of all

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matter, including DNA. Sternheimer (1983, as cited in Crowe, 2004) found that

“each atomic particle has a corresponding frequency, which is inversely

proportional to its mass and creates a harmonic relationship” (Crowe, 2004, p.

101). According to Maman and Maman (1997), “This ‘music’ of the elementary

particles means that we, who are composed of these elementary particles, are also

composed of musical frequencies” (p. 15). Swicord and Davis (1983) indicate that

DNA has acoustic (i.e., periodic) oscillations because the helix itself is vibrating

and undulating. Therefore, it seems probable that, at this basic level, musical

principles can have an effect on the helix, even if small. When the principles of

complexity science are taken into account, even small microscopic effects that

have quantum properties can produce macroscopic consequences (Brophy, 1999).

My studies with Deepak Chopra, MD related to the quantum mechanical

body remind me of what he and others offer as a challenge to the predominant

allopathic model that sees reality as solely material and external. Chopra et al.

(2013) asks:

What if there is physical evidence that the brain is a quantum device and
that its design reflects the cosmos in an uncanny way that cannot be by
chance? In the Vedic tradition of India, it is held that “as is the smallest, so
is the greatest. As is the microcosm, so is the macrocosm.” We’re using
modern terminology, but the concept is timeless: Nature is coherent from
its subtlest level to its grossest. Some clues to this truth are visual—the
helix that appears in DNA and in spiral nebulas, for example. (p. 2)

Drawing on the insights of complexity science and recursive organization,

I believe that sound has the potential to influence functioning on the cellular and

structural level of DNA. According to Crowe (2004), there are no music therapy

techniques that have specifically attempted to intervene or measure changes at the

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cellular level. Within the sound healing community, however, differences in

frequency, melody, and timbre have been used to affect the cellular level of

functioning (Goldman, 1992a; Hado Music Corporation, 1996; Leeds, 2001;

Maman & Maman, 1997; McClellan, 1988; Rael, 1993). Due to my personal

study with Maman from whom I learned of the SRMT, I focus on his experiments

in the paragraphs that follow.

Maman (1997), along with biologist Helene Grimal from the National

Center for Scientific Research in Paris, observed that sound had an impact on cell

nuclei and the electromagnetic fields of both healthy hemoglobin cells and cancer

cells examined and photographed under a microscope. The cancer cells examined,

called Hela cells, are from a cellular lineage that has been cultivated in

laboratories throughout the world and is used as the biological base for many

different research projects. Maman described his experiments, “In the first

experiments [involving the Hela cells] I mounted a camera on the top of the

microscope to photograph the inside structure of each cell as it reacted to the

different sounds I produced” (p. 48). In one experiment, the Hela cancer cell was

exposed to 21 minutes of gong, struck once each minute. The sound of the gong is

rich in overtones. Maman claims, “These overtones produced the same effect as if

I had many different dissonant frequencies. The sound progressively destabilized

the structure of the cells, ultimately leading to their explosion” (p. 50). In another

experiment, the Hela cancer cell was exposed to the Ionian scale played on the

xylophone: C-D-E-F-G-A-B and C and D in the next octave. One photograph was

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taken per note per minute. After 14 minutes, the cell structure destabilized and

was destroyed.

In the second group of experiments involving healthy cells, Maman and

Grimal documented changes in the electromagnetic fields. Using Kirilian

photography (electrophotography), they showed that different frequencies altered

the color of the magnetic field surrounding the cell. In addition, the shape of the

energy field around the cell would vary depending on whether the sound was

played on a metal, wood, wind, or stringed instrument. Maman and Grimal’s

research also documents the effects of various instruments and modal scales on

the Hela cancer cell. Experiments like that of Maman and Grimal provide support

for the effects of sound at the cellular level; however, no other researchers have

attempted to replicate these experiments.

Chapter Comments

Covering many areas, this literature review is extensive. Some of these

areas are directly related to my current exploration, some are not. However, I’ve

found it beneficial throughout my career and educational pursuits to allow an

organic process to emerge. In completing this dissertation, circumstances required

changes in committee chairs on more than one occasion. Though challenging at

the time, each occupying the position, on a temporary basis, asked certain

questions that resulted in my delving more deeply into the historical roots from

where the instruments applied herein originated. In addition, I’ve come to more

fully integrate my personal experience of the phenomenon explored. In so doing, I

can more fully own, through academic study and embodied experience, that I am,

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so to speak, an expert in progress. This process has not only assisted me in

placing my work into the discipline of music therapy as it exists now, but sets in

motion aspirations for the future.

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 CHAPTER 5: PURPOSE

The purpose of this research was to investigate the vibrational effects of

the SRMT on measureable health-promoting changes in physiological response,

anxiety, mood, and experience rating scales in USU undergraduate musicians.

Music vibration was defined in terms of harmonic sound relationships emitted by

way of the SRMT. A mixed methods embedded research design (detailed in the

next chapter) was applied. In this design one data set serves a supportive function,

taking a secondary role in a study that is based primarily on another data set. In

this research, I considered the quantitative data set as primary and the qualitative

descriptions of participants’ lived experience of the SRMT as secondary.

Research Questions

Questions posed included:

Does vibrational sound as produced by way of the SRMT affect change in

physiological responses (EMG, temperature, skin conductance, heart rate,

respiration rate and amplitude, and immune response) in healthy undergraduate

musicians?

Does lying in silence on the SRMT (no sound condition) effect change on

physiological responses (EMG, temperature, skin conductance, heart rate,

respiration rate and amplitude, and immune response) in healthy undergraduate

musicians?

Are there more significant effect differences found in the vibrational

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition?

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 Is there an effect of SRMT on mood as measured by the POMS (McNair

et al., 1971) pre- to post-study?

Is there an effect of SRMT on pre-posttest measures of state anxiety as

measured by the STAI Form Y-1 (Spielberger et al., 1983)?

Is there an effect of lying in silence on the SRMT on pre-posttest measures

of state anxiety as measured by STAI Form Y-1?

Are there more significant effect differences found in the vibrational

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition?

Is there an effect of SRMT on pre posttest measures of subjective

experience ratings of relaxation–tension and enjoyment?

Is there an effect of lying in silence on the SRMT on pre posttest measures

of subjective experience ratings of relaxation–tension and enjoyment?

Are there more significant effect differences found in the vibrational

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition?

Are there common themes found in the written descriptions of

undergraduate musicians who experience the SRMT?

Are there common themes found in their experience of lying in silence on

the SRMT?

Do common themes suggest that participants have achieved an internal

state of being that enables experiences of extraordinary functioning as defined by

Murphy (1992) (see Appendix F)?

How do participants’ combined descriptions differ in the sound and no

sound condition?

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 Primary Data Set Hypotheses

Quantitative–Physiological Data

Hypotheses related to the primary–quantitative physiological data set

included:

Hypothesis 1: There will be a greater reduction in muscle tension at the

mandible as measured by EMG in the sound condition in comparison to the no

sound condition.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a greater reduction in muscle tension at the

trapezius as measured by EMG in the sound condition in comparison to the no

sound condition.

Hypothesis 3: There will be a greater increase in fingertip temperature in

the sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

Hypothesis 4: There will be a greater reduction in skin conductance in the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

Hypothesis 5: There will be a greater decrease in heart rate as measured by

way of PPG in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

Hypothesis 6: There will be a greater increase in diaphragmatic breathing,

measured by way of an abdominal stretch band, in the sound condition in

comparison to the no sound condition.

Hypothesis 7: There will be a greater decrease in thoracic breathing,

measured by way of a thoracic stretch band, placed in the sound condition in

comparison to the no sound condition.

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 Hypothesis 8: There will be a positive immune response, measured by way

of s-IgA ring diameters.

Self-Report Questionnaires and Subjective Experience Rating Scales

Hypotheses pertaining to the standardized self report questionnaires

include the POMS, the STAI Y-1, and two subjective experience rating scales:

Hypothesis 1: There will be more positive change in mood state as

measured by the POMS, pre- to post-study.

Hypothesis 2: There will be more positive change in anxiety as measured

by the STAI form Y-1 pre- to post-test within session in the sound condition in

comparison to the no sound condition

Hypothesis 3: Subjective experience rating scales of relaxation and tension

within the sound condition pre-post-test will show greater ratings in relaxation

and lesser ratings of tension in comparison to the no sound condition.

Hypothesis 4: Subjective experience ratings of enjoyment within the

sound condition pre-posttest will be greater in comparison to the no sound

condition.

Secondary Data Set Hypotheses

Murphy’s Transformative Outcome Categories

Additional hypotheses pertain to transformative outcomes as categorized

by Murphy (1992) (see Appendix F) which suggest that individuals have achieved

an internal state of being that enables experiences of extraordinary functioning.

These categories are described in his book titled The Future of the Body:

Explorations into the Further Evolution of Human Nature. Murphy’s

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categorizations represent an attempt to verify and connect the various kinds of

evidence for extraordinary functioning (one’s transformative capacity) across

disciplines to include the natural and human sciences, psychical research,

religious studies, and other fields.

I formulated the hypotheses for this research to address some of Murphy’s

twelve categorizations (detailed in Appendix F). These categories included (a)

bodily structures and processes (physiological response measures); (b) altered and

enhanced perception of internal and external events in the physical, emotional,

cognitive, somatic, auditory, visual, and mental consciousness domains; and (c)

the individuation and sense of self. Definitions of these categories follow.

Physical domain. The physical domain was defined as muscle relaxation

and tension. Examples include references to feeling tingly, feeling a flow of

energy flow, feeling relaxed, soothed, vital, warm, discomfort, pain, cold, and

need to make an effort. Three hypotheses included:

Hypothesis 1: More participants will make a comment of any kind

(unpleasant or pleasant) in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition.

Hypothesis 2: More participants will make pleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

Hypothesis 3: More participants will make unpleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

The somatic experience was placed within the physical domain and was

defined as feelings (a) of being out of one’s body and (b) that one’s body has

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levitated or been transported. One hypothesis was applied: Within participants’

subjective descriptions, more comments of any kind will be found in the sound

condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

The emotional domain. The emotional domain was defined as any

emotional response. Examples include, but were not limited to, feeling happiness,

joy, contentment, openness, peace, and fear. Three hypotheses included:

Hypothesis 1: More participants will make a comment of any kind

(unpleasant or pleasant) in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition.

Hypothesis 2: More participants will make pleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

Hypothesis 3: More participants will make unpleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

The aesthetic experience was placed within the emotional domain and was

defined as an encounter with beauty, the unique pleasure and satisfaction of

perceiving something that is beautiful (Salas, 1990). One hypothesis was applied:

Hypothesis: More participants will make a comment of any kind that

makes reference to having an aesthetic experience in the sound condition in

comparison to the no sound condition.

The cognitive domain. The cognitive domain was defined as the quieting

of mental activity involving mental processing. Examples include making

reference to an analyzing process, an associative memory process, a racing mind,

and an efforting process. Three hypotheses included:

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 Hypothesis 1: More participants will make a comment of any kind

(unpleasant or pleasant) in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition.

Hypothesis 2: More participants will make pleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

Hypothesis 3: More participants will make unpleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

The auditory perception domain. The auditory perception domain was

defined as enhanced auditory experiences. Examples of auditory experiences in

this category included references to flowing perception of sound and the hearing

of many tones. One hypothesis was applied:

Hypothesis: Within participants’ subjective descriptions, more comments

of any kind will be found in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition.

The visual perception domain. The visual perception domain was

defined as synesthesia, a sensation or image of a sense other than the one being

stimulated. Examples include making reference to seeing imagery, colors, scenes,

and people. One hypothesis was applied:

Hypothesis: Within participants’ subjective descriptions, more comments

of any kind will be found in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition.

The mental–consciousness domain. Relative to the mental–

consciousness domain, shifts in mental consciousness were defined as access to

141
subliminal depths of the mind and body including dream states. Examples include

making reference to an altered sense of time, to going somewhere deep, to going

somewhere that is difficult to describe, to dreaming, dozing and falling asleep.

Hypotheses included:

Hypothesis 1: Within participants’ subjective descriptions, more

comments of any kind related to deep states of consciousness will be found in the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

Hypothesis 2: Within participants’ subjective descriptions, more

comments of any kind related to dream states will be found in the sound condition

in comparison to the no sound condition.

Hypothesis 3: Within participants’ subjective descriptions, more

comments of any kind related to an altered sense of time will be found in the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

Individuation and sense of self domain. The domain relative to the

individuation and sense of self was defined as (a) feelings of communion with a

transcendent presence power or principle that produces an identity beyond one’s

ordinary sense of self (e.g., feeling connected, unified, or one with all); (b) the

noticing of thoughts, images, emotions, sensations, and conflicting volitions that

are relinquished (come and go) as in witness meditation (observer consciousness);

and (c) the expansion of one’s creative ability. One hypothesis was applied to

each definition:

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 Hypothesis: Within participants’ subjective descriptions, more comments

of any kind will be found in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition.

Chapter Summary

In Chapter 5, I presented the purpose of this research, its questions and

hypotheses. In Chapter 6, I present the method and design utilized to address and

test these questions and hypotheses. I talk about validity issues, and provide a

description of the study to include its participants, how they were recruited,

included and randomized. Relevant terms are noted and the physical setting and

equipment described. Readers are informed of the dependent variables measured

and the procedural steps applied. Finally, data analyses procedures are detailed.

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 CHAPTER 6: METHOD

Two types of data, quantitative and qualitative, were collected in this

research, and thus a mix methods design was required. A mixed methods design

supports using both qualitative and quantitative methods for collecting, analyzing,

and integrating findings in a study (Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007). The embedded

design was chosen as the major design as it best addressed my research

hypotheses and questions. In the embedded design, one data set serves a

supportive and secondary role in relation to the primary data set. In this study, the

qualitative data set served the secondary role and supported a more complete and

holistic understanding of the quantitative data set.

Other reasons influenced my choice of the embedded design. First,

because the primary data set remains attached to the quantitative approach,

funding for future research is more likely and results and conclusions may be

better understood across disciplines. Second, qualitative results can inform the

future development of the SRMT protocol within a therapeutic context.

Sub-designs specific to each data set included a cross-over design and a

simple pre- and post-study design. All sub-designs are detailed in the applicable

sections that follow. In addition, as a means of extracting themes amongst these

descriptions, I employed techniques borrowed from the procedural steps

developed by Moustakas (1994) and Colaizzi (1978).

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Figure 5 displays a flowchart of the basic procedures in the embedded design to

include specifics pertinent to this study.

Embedded Design

Quantitative Study (Primary)

Swiss Resonance Monochord Table

Qualitative data (secondary) obtained during the study

following vibrations received from SRMT to provide a
more complete understanding of study effects through
participants’ experiential descriptions.

Figure 5. Embedded design flowchart. The SRMT placed within the embedded design.
Author’s figure based on a model in Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods
Research, J. W. Creswell and V. L. Plano Clark, 2011, p. 70.

Internal Validity

Potential threats to validity within the embedded design (e.g., to data

collection, analysis, presentation, and interpretation) were minimized in this

research. Relative to data collection, the quantitative and qualitative data were

drawn from the same population. In addition, sample sizes were equal. Relative to

data analysis (a) the data were transformed by coding and counting themes, (b) an

Excel file matrix was used to converge both types of data, (c) the two types of

data addressed similar hypotheses, and (d) two independent peer reviewers served

to ensure validity of the qualitative themes through triangulation procedures (see

Appendix G). Relative to presenting and interpreting the data, results from both

145
data sets are displayed in graphs and procedures were implemented to ensure as

much as possible that both data sets received equal emphasis.

Additional potential threats to validity that informed my choice of design

(e.g., extraneous and ecological) are discussed in Appendix H.

USU Study Description

The USU study was titled “The Effects of Overtone Vibrational Massage

on Physiological and Psychological Measures of Stress in Musician University

Students.” As principle investigator, I conducted the study while employed as

clinical instructor in music therapy at USU.

Participants

Participants consisted of 44 USU undergraduate musicians (22 females

and 22 males), ranging in age from 18 to 41 years (mean age of 23.6). The

majority of participants were middle-class Caucasian students, with the exception

of one female, who was from Korea and, one male, who was from South America,

reflecting minimal diversity in the sample. Female participants consisted of eight

music therapy majors and four music performance or education majors. Other

female participants meeting the musicianship criterion for inclusion had declared

majors in social work, art education, public health, liberal arts, and wildlife. Male

participants consisted of 10 music performance, composition, or education

majors. Others had declared majors in public relations, business, social work, and

computer science.

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Demographics

USU is located in Logan, Utah, a suburban university community, 86

miles north of Salt Lake City. From 1878 to 1926, Logan was home to Brigham

Young College, a college run by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

(LDS). Its library and papers were given to USU when Brigham Young

University was later established in Provo, Utah. Though the screening

questionnaire did not request information as to participants’ religious affiliation, it

is likely that they were of the LDS faith.

When founded in 1888, programs at USU focused on agriculture, domestic

arts, and mechanic arts. Currently, USU offers programs in liberal arts,

engineering, business, economics, natural resource science, elementary and

secondary education, humanities (music performance, composition, therapy, and

education), social sciences, and STEM areas (science, technology, engineering,

and mathematics). USU is the largest public residential campus in Utah with

nearly 18,000 students living on or near campus. As of fall 2015, student

enrollment totaled 28,622. USU also reflects diversity as it has the highest

percentage of out-of-state students of any public university in Utah, totaling 23%

of the student body. In addition, USU has an active diversity council.

Recruitment

Participants were recruited through (a) verbal announcements in music

and general education courses, (b) poster announcements placed in the USU

music department, and (c) referrals from USU faculty.

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Inclusion Criteria

Interested participants (n = 121) obtained the screening and music-stress

management assessment questionnaires (Appendix I). Participants were selected

based on meeting criteria obtained from the questionnaires. Criteria included that

participants (a) have a declared major or minor in music, music education, music

performance, composition, or therapy; (b) have a minimum of 8 years of recent

and consistent involvement with music (e.g., in music performance or

instruction); (c) have no formal training or regular practice of meditation, yoga,

pranayama breathing, or relaxation techniques; and (d) have no current use of

prescribed medications for acute or chronic pain and illness.

Using a random numbers table, participants meeting the criteria for

inclusion were assigned to receive the sound at the first or second session. The

second session (either sound or no sound) was scheduled for the same time on the

following day. Participants knew they would receive both a sound and no sound

session; however, until arrival at their first session, they were blind as to whether

or not they would receive sound at the first or second session. Figure 6 displays a

flow chart of participant selection, randomization, and participant data subjective

to final analyses.

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Figure 6. Flowchart of participant selection and randomization. Author’s image.

Ethical Considerations

The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board for Proposed

Research Involving Human Subjects at USU and was accepted by CIIS for

analyses of the archival data. All participant information and data files were kept
149
secure and confidential. Original data files were de-identified and assigned

numbers, removing any reference to participant names. De-identified files were

submitted for statistical analyses.

Relevant Terms, Physical Setting, and Equipment

Relevant Terms

Terms relative to the physiological measures are defined as follows.

Artifact. Inaccurate readings due to an extraneous source not intentionally

measured (Schwartz, 1987).

Biofeedback. The use of electronic instrumentation to monitor, measure,

and provide feedback (physiological information) to clients in training voluntary

control over specific physiological events and processes. (Note: The biofeedback

instrumentation used in this research was for measuring physiological response

changes. Participants were not engaged in biofeedback training.)

Electrode-sensor. Small disc placed with conductive gels or pastes on

select skin surfaces to monitor physiological signals.

Electrodermography (EDR). A highly sensitive measurement tool

typically used to measure anxiety that detects changes in the conductivity of the

skin caused by changes in sweat gland activity.

Electromyography (EMG). Instrumentation that measures the electrical

activity of skeletal muscle groups.

Mandible. An electrode site used in this research to measure

electromyographic activity (EMG) in the jaw muscle.

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 Micromho. A unit of electrical conductance commonly used in the

measurement of electrodermal activity.

Microvolt. A unit (one millionth of a volt) used in measuring EMG.

Phase in–baseline period. A period wherein patient status is measured

absent of any stimulus event. These data are used for the purpose of comparison

within session relative to the baseline measure to evaluate the effect of the

treatment or stimulus prior to its introduction.

Plethysmography. A term used to describe various techniques of

measuring blood volume pulse changes in a limb or segment of tissue (Brown,

1967). A photoplethysmograph (PPG) monitored heart rate in this research.

Skin temperature. An indirect measurement of blood flow to a selected

area (more pronounced in the fingers and toes) that is associated with the warmth

or coolness of the skin.

Thermistor. A highly sensitive, insulated and thin wire temperature probe

with a white epoxy-covered sensor tip used to measure temperature changes.

Vasoconstriction. A constriction of the peripheral blood vessels,

particularly evident in the extremities such as the fingers and toes.

Vasoconstriction is associated with sympathetic arousal. As blood vessels

constrict, blood flow decreases causing the surrounding tissues to cool (Franchini

& Cowley, 2011; Kistler, Mariauzouls, & von Berlepsch 1998; Stoyva &

Budzynski, 1993).

Vasodilation. A dilation of the peripheral blood vessels particularly

evident in the extremities such as the fingers and toes. Vasodilation is associated

151
with parasympathetic activation and the relaxation response. As the blood vessels

dilate, blood flow increases, causing the surrounding tissues to warm (Franchini

& Cowley, 2011; Kistler et al., 1998; Stoyva & Budzynski, 1993).

Physical Setting and Equipment

Sessions were conducted in the music therapy lab at USU. Furniture

included a desk, office chairs, a file cabinet, and piano. The room was softly lit

with full color spectrum bulbs intentionally chosen to reduce a potential

confounding artifact caused by florescent bulbs. A temperature range of 74–77

degrees farenheit was maintained.

The SRMT was situated in a quiet area of the lab, a distance away from a J

& J Engineering I-330 System, manufactured by J & J Engineering in Poulsbo,

Washington, which measured the physiological dependent variables. The I-330 is

a complete system for computerized physiological monitoring and biofeedback. It

supports simultaneous and continuous measurement of physiological signals and

includes sensor cables and a computer interface. Software for the I-330 controls

the instrumentation with menu-driven programs and allows for individualized

biofeedback protocols. I designed the on-screen protocol for prompting data

collection periods (e.g., baseline, sound or no sound, return to basement) with

accompanying verbal instructions read to the participants.

The system operates the physiological instrumentation and stores the raw

signal data on disc, which can be reviewed. One printed report option can show

the means, standard deviations, maximums, and minimums, which were

152
calculated from the raw data. Analyses of the data in this research were performed

on the raw data.

Modules allowed the monitoring of two channels of electromyography

(EMG), one channel of electrodermography, one channel of skin temperature, one

channel of heart pulse wave forms measured via PPG, and one channel that

measured thoracic and abdominal respiration rate and amplitude by way of J & J

respiration sensors (RS-300) for use with the R-301 pnemograph module. The I-

330 system (currently outdated, but upgraded) sent filtered root mean square

(RMS) power measurement data to an Everex computer (Laptop Solutions, Inc.

CA; EXD-14701A) at 100 samples per second having no effect on data amplitude

(J. Hoover, personal communication, July 13, 2016).

Dependent Variable Measures

Physiological Recording

Table 3 lists the physiological measures obtained.

Table 3

Physiological Measures

EMG-1, muscle tension at mandible

EMG-2, muscle tension at trapezius
Temperature at fingertip
Skin conductance
Heart rate
Thoracic breathing rate and amplitude
Abdominal breathing rate and amplitude
Immune system
Note. Physiological measurements recorded during both the sound and no sound
conditions. Author’s table.

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 Physiological data collected included continuous measurements of

physiological responses comprising (a) two channels of EMG, monitoring muscle

tension at the mandible (aka masseter) and trapezius 1; (b) fingertip skin

temperature; (c) skin conductance; (d) heart rate, by way of PPG; (e) respiration

rate and amplitude (thoracic and abdominal); and (f) immune system.

In the following paragraphs, I provide brief description of and rationale for

selecting these physiological measures as dependent variables.

Electromyography (EMG). According to Schwartz (1987),

electromyographic biofeedback is the favored method of monitoring muscle

activity because of its practicality and high correlation in measuring muscle

contraction. It is commonly used for relaxation training (Schwartz & Schwartz,

1993). EMG measures an electrical aspect of muscle contraction that occurs when

muscle fibers synchronously contract. Surface electrode EMG measures were

obtained in this research, as opposed to the more invasive thin needle electrodes

that are inserted into muscle tissue. Surface EMG records the electrical activity of

many motor units, which occur prior to the contraction of a muscle (R. F.

Thompson, Lindsley, & Eason, 1966).

Surface electrodes placed on the skin over the target muscle record the

algebraic sum of a large number of depolarizations that occur when a group of

motor units are activated (Lippold, 1967). The muscle activity is measured in

electrical units called microvolts, which increase or decrease in magnitude

according to the level of electrical activity detected. In this research, two EMG

channels were used to measure two distinct muscle groups. Skin preparation, to

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reduce skin impedance, involved the use of alcohol wipes to clean the area and

the drying of the area with sterile gauze. Bilateral recordings were made using

self-adhesive disposable surface electrodes (J & J SE-25).The electrodes were

placed on the right and left mandible and the right and left trapezius 1 sites (two

active and one inactive electrode ground at the wrist). Signa electrode cream was

applied on the velcro wrist band ground electrode.

Skin temperature. Skin temperature is another commonly used

biofeedback modality that indirectly measures peripheral vasoconstriction.

Vasoconstriction is associated with over-arousal, sympathetic nervous system

activation, and psychophysiological stress and anxiety. In vasoconstriction there

is less warm blood flow, which causes a reduction in temperature in the

surrounding tissues. The opposite occurs in vasodilation.

Peripheral vasodilation is associated with the relaxation response and with

parasympathetic activation (Schwartz, 1987). These phenomena are best

measured at the fingers and toes (i.e., the extremities), where changes in vascular

diameter are pronounced. In this research, temperature was monitored via a

thermistor, a thin insulated wire with a white epoxy-covered sensor tip (J & J).

After the cleaning and drying of the monitoring site, the sensor was placed on the

tissue pulp of the right index finger using surgical tape. Temperature units were in

degrees Fahrenheit.

Electrodermography. Electrodermal activity (EDA) is now the preferred

term for changes in electrical conductance of the skin. It is a sensitive

psychophysiological index of changes in autonomic sympathetic arousal that are

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integrated with emotional and cognitive states (Critchley, 2007). Increases in

electrodermal response indicate sympathetic arousal while decreases indicate

activation of parasympathetic activity which occurs during a relaxation response

(Schwartz, 1987).

Measurement of skin conductance is achieved via skin conductance

sensors, which apply a small electrical voltage to the skin. The amount of

electrical current that the skin allows to pass represents its conductance. Skin

conductance activity correlates with sweat gland activity as sweaty skin is more

conductive to electricity than dry skin (Schwartz, 1987). Measurement sites are

typically the volar surface of the fingers or the palmar surface of the hand, where

the sweat glands are plentiful. The overall magnitude of the electrical signal is an

indication of sweat gland activity and is measured in units of electrical

conductance called micromhos.

In this research, skin conductance (SC) was recorded by means of surface

electrodes applied on the index and medius fingers of the left hand using Signa

electrode cream (Skin conductance J & J non-polarized finger style silver/silver

chloride electrodes SE-35). According to Venables and Christie (1973), such

placement allows recording from areas innervated by the same spinal nerve.

Heart rate. A slower heart rate is associated with the relaxation response

(Wallace, Benson, & Wilson, 1971). A PPG was used to monitor heart rate in this

research. The PPG sensor was placed on the thumb with a velcro band. In this

system a light is shown through a digit while a photosensitive plate on the other

side of the finger records how much light passes through. Variations in light

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intensity are associated with changes in the blood vessel volume. An increase in

blood volume indicates a decrease in light intensity and vice versa (Reisner,

Shaltis, McCombie & Asada, as cited in Elgendi, 2012).

Traditionally, PPG is used to measure oxygen saturation, blood pressure,

cardiac output, and to assess autonomic functions. Cook (1974) noted that there

are two measurable components of plethysmographic change. Blood volume

reflects the slow enlargement of the monitored area, whereas pulse volume or

pulse amplitude is more rapid, reflecting the pumping action of the heart as

represented in local blood vessels. Both slow and rapid components can be

measured with the same device; however, different coupling and gain settings and

separate channels are required. In this research only pulse volume was measured,

requiring an AC coupling of the amplifier to record the rapid changes.

Respiration. Respiration, the rhythm of the breath, is one of the oldest

psychophysiological measures (Hassett, 1978) and involves the direct

measurement of air volume with each inhalation and exhalation (changes in the

girth of the upper and lower chest). Breathing is a whole-body process and is

evident early in life when observing the respiration of infants and young children.

According to van Dixhoorn (2007), when a person feels safe, optimum breathing

should be effortless. In this research, respiration was recorded by means of two

respiration belts with strain gauges filled with conduction fluid (Respiration-J & J

sensor) placed around the participant’s thorax just above the sternum and

abdomen two inches below the naval. The respiration module was connected to

the I-330 feedback system, as previously described.

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 All physiological measures were continuously recorded for a 5-minute

accommodation phase-in-rest period, followed by 20 minutes of sound or no

sound, and then a 2-minute phase-out rest period (no sound). These measurement

periods are detailed in the analysis section.

Salivary Immunoglobulin-A (s-IgA) collection procedures. Samples of

human saliva were obtained from 13 males and 18 females to measure immune

response. Five samples were obtained: (a) pre-and post the sound and no sound

conditions; (b) 24 hours post conditions. After the second session, participants

were given a kit to provide the 24-hour-post-session measure of immune response

that included instructions on how to maintain the integrity of the sample.

Each sample was delivered after collection to the biology department at

USU for analysis and subject to the following procedures:

1. Add 200-300 ul 1X Phosphate-buffered Saline (PBS) solution into

sample cotton tip.

2. 2x dilution each sample (undiluted, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, and 1/32).

3. Wet 0.45 um nitrocellulose membrane first with water and then with 1x

phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution.

4. 5 ul diluted sample each blot to the nitrocellulose membrane (include

undiluted sample).

5. Incubate nitrocellulose membrane in 10% Carnation milk at least 30

minutes with gentle rocking and wash with 1x PBS solution 3 times for 5 minutes

each time.

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 6. Add Alkaline Phosphatase-second antibody (1:8000) or horseradish

peroxidase-second antibody (1:1000), and wash with 1x PBS solution 3 times for

5 minutes each time.

7. Add alkaline phosphatase or horseradish peroxidase substrate to

develop color.

8. Measure ring diameters.

S-IgA samples were not subject to statistical analysis; however, results as

reported by the biology department are noted in the results chapter.

Standardized self-report inventories and subjective experience rating

scales. Table 4 displays the names of the self-report inventories and

questionnaires requested from participants. When the measurements were

obtained is also noted.

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Table 4

Standardized Self-Report Measures Utilized and Timing of Measurement

Instrument Instrument Subscales When Measured

Tension/Anxiety
Depression/Dejection
Collected day of arrival
Profile of Mood States Anger/Hostility
to participate in study—
(POMS) (McNair et al., Vigor/Activity
1971) Fatigue/Inertia
Repeated post-study
Confusion/Bewilderment
Total Mood Disturbance
Spielberger State-Trait
Anxiety Inventory-Trait Screening appointment
Trait anxiety
(STAI-T) (Spielberger only
et al., 1983)
Spielberger State-Trait
Before and after both the
Anxiety Inventory-Trait
State anxiety sound and no sound
(STAI-S) (Spielberger et
conditions
al., 1983)
Rating of tension and
Before and after both the
Subjective Experience relaxation (see Appendix
sound and no sound
Rating Scale J).
conditions
Before and after both the
Subjective Experience Rating of enjoyment (see
sound and no sound
Rating Scale Appendix J)
conditions
Note. Subjective measures of mood, anxiety, tension, relaxation and enjoyment
obtained during study. Author’s table.

Measures consisted of:

1. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Y form (STAI-Y; Spielberger,

1990; Spielberger et al., 1983) is a 40-item questionnaire divided in two 20-item

subscales measuring current STAI-Y1, and trait or dispositional, anxiety (STAI-

Y2). Scores range from 20 to 80, and higher scores reflect greater anxiety levels.

The essential qualities evaluated by the S-anxiety scale are feelings of

apprehension, tension, nervousness, and worry. Trait anxiety refers to the stability

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of an individual’s tendency to experience anxiety; the stronger the anxiety trait,

the more probable the individual will experience more intense elevations in state

anxiety in a threatening situation.

2. The POMS (McNair et al., 1971). The POMS asks for ratings

pertaining to mood states. Respondents are instructed to rate how they have been

feeling during the past week, including that day. USU participants provided mood

ratings for the week prior to the study and the week following the study. The

POMS, a standardized and validated measure, is a 65-item 5-point adjective rating

scale to assess affective states. The six clearly defined POMS factors are tension–

anxiety (T), depression–dejection (D), anger–hostility (A), vigor–activity (V),

fatigue–inertia (F), and confusion–bewilderment (C). A total mood disturbance

(TMD) score may be obtained by summing the scores (with vigor weighted

negatively) on the six primary mood factors. The TMD score is typically used to

provide a single global estimate of affective states. The TMD score is presumed to

be reliable because of the correlations among the six primary POMS factors.

3. Degrees of enjoyment: I developed subjective experience scale, rating

degrees of enjoyment for purposes of participant self reporting (see Appendix J).

4. Degrees of relaxation and tension: I developed a subjective experience

scale, rating degrees of relaxation and tension where participants wrote their own

anchors (see Appendix J).

5. Written descriptions of participants’ lived experience of receiving

vibrations produced by the SRMT (the sound condition) or lying in silence on the

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SRMT (the no sound condition) obtained through an open-ended request, “Please

make comments that describe your experience.”

Procedure

Session Protocol

Applicable to session one (sound or no sound) participants (a) completed

the POMS (McNair et al., 1971), measuring mood for the week prior to include

the present day; and (b) completed a one-time assessment of trait anxiety utilizing

the STAI Form Y-2 (Spielberger et al., 1983) to assess how respondents generally

feel. Applicable to both sessions (sound and no sound) participants

1. provided a saliva sample;

2. completed the STAI Form Y-1 (Spielberger et al., 1983) measure of

state anxiety that assesses how respondents feel “right now, at this moment”; and

3. completed the subjective experience scales rating degree of enjoyment,

relaxation, and tension.

4. Next, the temperature of the room was noted.

5. Next, physiological measurement apparatuses were placed on

participants accompanied by a verbal explanation as to their function (see

Appendix K).

6. Next, partcipants reclined on the SRMT. After an accommodation–

baseline data collection period, participants either (a) received 20 minutes of

sound or (b) reclined in silence for 20 minutes.

After 20 minutes of the sound condition or no sound condition,

participants were asked to,

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 7. gradually become more alert;

8. provide the second saliva sample;

9. come to a sitting or standing position during removal of physiological

measurement sensors;

10. sit at a desk;

11. provide written descriptions of their experience;

12. complete the subjective experience rating scales;

13. complete the second measure of state anxiety;

14. schedule the second session; and

15. given instructions and saliva sample kit for 24-hour post-measure of

immune response.

Data Analyses: Primary Quantitative Data Set

A cross-over design was applied to the physiological data set and was used

to analyze it. As mentioned previously, participants were randomized to receive

either a sound or a no sound at their first session. This was followed by a wash-

out period of 24 hours. Participants were then crossed over into the opposite

condition for the second session. The second session was intentionally scheduled

24 hours later at the same time of day in an attempt to control for potential

confounds.

The comparison of the sound treatment to no sound treatment required a

paired sample statistical approach, as each participant was being compared to him

or herself in a repeated measurements fashion. A random-intercept mixed-effects

linear regression model was fit to the data. The outcome variable used the 20

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repeated measurements collected in either treatment condition. The sound or no

sound treatment condition was the primary predictor variable in the cross-over

design. The baseline variable was included as a covariate to ensure that the two

treatment period baselines were equal.

To control for any order effect, order of the condition (receiving sound at

the first or second session) was included as a second covariate. The regression

coefficient for the treatment period variable represented the mean difference in

the outcome between the sound and no sound treatment conditions. The

significance test for this regression coefficient was then used to test the hypothesis

that the sound treatment condition created physiological effects in the body.

Repeated measures of physiological outcomes were collected in each

session condition. Table 5 shows the timing of the physiological measures and

Table 6 shows the time periods subject to statistical analyses.

Table 5

Timing of Physiological Measures

Time
What is happening Number of measurements
elapsed
Subject lying quietly 10 (each measurement obtained
5 minutes
while monitoring from a 30-second sweep)
40 (each measurement obtained
Sound or no sound 20 minutes
from a 30-second sweep)
4 (each measurement obtained
Subject lying quietly 2 minutes*
from a 30-second sweep)
Subject waking up 10 (each measurement obtained
5 minutes*
period from a 30-second sweep)
Note. Measurements (repeated twice, once with sound condition and once without
sound condition). Author’s table.
*Not subject to statistical analyses. Kept monitoring to assess possible adverse
responses when returning to active state.

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Table 6

Time Periods Subject to Statistical Analyses

Time
Crossover 5 min 1-1/2 min 3-1/2 10 min
Period min
Sound accommodation* baseline phase therapeutic
(n = 3 data in* period
points) (n = 20 data
points)
No Sound accommodation* baseline phase therapeutic
(n = 3 data in* period
points) (n = 20 data
points)
Note. The mean of the first 3 measurements (1.5 minutes) of the phase in period
was used as the baseline measurement (this mean being a single value) and as the
covariate in a mixed effects linear regression. In this regression model, all 20
measurements of the therapeutic period were included in the model as repeated
measurements. Author’s table.
* These data points were not used in the analysis.

After placement of the measurement apparatus, there was a 5-minute

accommodation period where participants reclined quietly to ensure that baseline

measurements were collected in a relaxed state. Next, three repeated

measurements were collected at 30-second intervals, representing a 1.5-minute

baseline period. These three measurements were averaged using the arithmetic

mean to provide a stable single number for the baseline value.

The next seven repeated measurements (3.5 minutes) were collected but

were not used in the analysis. They were instead considered as a phase-in period

before a deep therapeutic state could be achieved. Finally, 10 minutes of the

therapeutic state measurements were collected at 30-second intervals. These were

not averaged but were used as 20 repeated measurements in the analysis. A

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random intercept mixed effects linear regression model was used fit to the data.

The outcome variable was the 20 repeated measurements collected in a

therapeutic state.

The primary predictor variable was the treatment session of the cross-over

design (1 = sound, 0 = no sound). The baseline variable was included as a

covariate to achieve participant equivalency at the two treatment session

baselines. To control for any existing session effect, where perhaps the order of

the sound and no sound sessions could influence the results, the session order for

each participant was included as a second covariate (order: 1 = sound first, 0 = no

sound first). With measurements nested within participants, this provided a paired

sample comparison, with each participant compared to him or herself in a sound

and no sound state.

The regression coefficient for the treatment session variable represented

the mean difference in the outcome between the sound and no sound conditions.

The significance test for this regression coefficient was then used to test the study

hypothesis that the sound condition created a physiological effect in the body.

Stated more simply, the data collected during the middle 10 minutes of the sound

crossover period was compared with the final 10 minutes of the no sound

crossover period and was subject to statistical analysis.

These points represented data collected for both conditions where the

timing for accommodation and phase in for each condition (sound or no sound)

was equal. In addition, I felt these data points would better represent the time

interval where the most therapeutic effect could be found.

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Standardized Self-Report Inventories and Subjective Experience Rating
Scales

POMS. A pre-post study design was used to analyze subscale measures of

mood, representing continuous or interval scaled variables and total mood scores

collected by way of the POMS (McNair et al., 1971). Participants completed the

POMS upon arrival at their first session and were asked to rate their mood state

for the entire past week, including the arrival day. The second POMS was

completed and returned one week after the study, where participants were asked

to rate their mood state for the entire week following and including the remainder

of the day of their last session. For analysis, a paired sample t-test was used.

STAI (Form Y-1). Participants completed the STAI (Form Y-1)

(Spielberger et al., 1983) pre- and post- sound or no sound conditions rating “how

you feel right now, at this moment” with the change in the two conditions

compared using the interaction term of a two-way repeated measures analysis of

covariance model while adjusting for the session order.

Subjective experience rating scales. Participants provided subjective

experience ratings of enjoyment at the end of each session (sound and no sound).

Ratings were statistically compared with a paired sample t-test. Participants also

provided subjective ratings of tension, expressed as relaxation at the beginning

and end of each session. A tension change score (end score subtracted from the

beginning score) was then computed for each session. The two session change

scores were then compared using a paired sample t-test. The p value for this test is

identical to the interaction term of a two-way repeated measures analysis of

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variance as both approaches test to see if change occurred for one type of session

over that of another type.

The Qualitative Data Set Method and Design

This research takes the form of qualitative inquiry as informed by

phenomenology. According to Aigen (2008), phenomenology, due to its

relatedness to psychology, is the most common qualitative approach applied in the

field of music therapy when researchers want to explore the inner experiences of

people. In this research, I used phenomenology in two ways. First, I used it as a

methodological guide to finding the meanings and essences of participants’

written descriptions of their lived experiences of the vibrations emitted via the

SRMT and their experiences of silence while reclined on the SRMT.

Second, I used it as a philosophical approach that includes a process of

bracketing one’s assumptions through epoché, which means to “suspend, refrain,

bracket” (Lewis & Staehler, 2010, p. 14). Constructing an epoché “involves a

reflective process that may draw on the motivation to conduct the study, previous

experiences of the phenomenon, recognizing possible biases, the implications of

the relationship between the researcher and the participants, among others”

(Aigen, 2005, p. 215). In this research, I identified assumptions and biases related

to personal experiences of transformation through music and sound and my

worldview relative to humans living in a participatory universe (see Appendix L).

However, this research does not entirely represent a phenomenological

approach. Interviews are the most common method for collecting data (Englander,

2012; Forinash & Grocke, 2005; McFerran & Grocke, 2007); however, in the

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present research, no interactive interviewing process occurred. Absent from any

feedback or prompting from me, participants provided written responses to two

open-ended requests, Please describe your experience of the Swiss Resonance

Monochord Table, and, Please describe your experience of lying in silence on the

Swiss Resonance Monochord Table.

As a means of extracting themes amongst these descriptions, I employed

techniques borrowed from the procedural steps developed of Moustakas (1994)

and Colaizzi (1978, as cited in Wheeler, 1995, pp. 373–374). These procedural

steps with an acceptable variation (Step 10) are detailed below.

The procedural steps included:

1. Constructing an epoché describing my personal experience of the

power of music and sound within the context of transformation and healing

(presented in the introduction). Through reflection, I developed a researcher-as-

instrument template that includes pre-assumptions and bias brought to this

research aiding the bracketing process;

2. Reading all participant descriptions to acquire a sense of the whole;

3. Re-reading participant descriptions several times while simultaneously

reflecting upon my experience to further apply the bracketing process;

4. Highlighting of significant comments from participant descriptions;

5. Transferring these comments to a list;

6. Color coding the comments (e.g., yellow = physical; blue = emotional,

etc.), which helped me categorize the comments into themes or meaning units that

were predetermined;

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 7. Removing overlapping and repetitive comments (culling);

8. Formulating clusters of meaning;

9. Identifying common themes that would locate into predetermined

categories and my looking for common emergent themes;

10. Determining if common themes or emergent themes fit into pre-

determined outcome categories as defined by Murphy (1992) (see Appendix F);

11. Referring back to original descriptions to validate common themes and

meanings by including two independent peer reviewers (see Appendix G);

12. Including additional themes if such were found after the review

process;

13. Converting meaning units into a narrative (composite textural

description) that conveyed the participants’ experience as fully as possible.

In the following paragraphs, I provide one example that describes the

procedure. Female participant #3 described her experience of receiving the

vibrations from the SRMT table:

It was like I sort of lost myself, sort of drifted and came in and out of the
awareness of the sound. I felt tingling sensations all over and regretted that
it had to stop. I did feel some pressure at the end around my sacrum.

After reading her description a few times I identified comments I thought

were significant and listed them.

1. Lost myself

2. Drifted

3. In and out of awareness of the sound

4. Tingling sensations all over

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 5. Regretted in had to stop

6. Pressure on sacrum

I then placed these comments into categories of experience to include decisions as

to whether these experiences were pleasant, unpleasant, indeterminate, or

reflected a progression from pleasant to unpleasant or visa versa.

Comments 1, 2, and 3 were placed in the mental/consciousness domain

and determined as pleasant. Comment 4 was placed in the physical domain, also

determined as pleasant. Comment 5 was placed in the emotional domain and

considered unpleasant. Comment 6 was placed in the physical domain and

considered unpleasant.

Female participant #3 described her experience of lying in silence on the

SRMT: “It was nice to lie down for a while. I drifted for a few minutes at first, but

then I got a little chilly. I noticed discomfort around my sacrum and felt the

hardness and bumpiness of the table.” As above, I read the description a few times

and identified comments thought to be significant and listed them.

1. Nice to lie down

2. Drifted

3. Chilled

4. Discomfort around sacrum

5. Felt hardness and bumpiness

I then, as above, placed her comments into categories of experience.

Comment 1 was placed in the physical domain and considered pleasant.

Comment 2 was placed in the mental/consciousness domain and considered

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pleasant; however, this comment was also considered to represent a progression

from pleasant in the consciousness domain to unpleasant in the physical domain.

Comment 3 and 4 were placed in the physical domain and considered unpleasant.

Data Analyses: Secondary Qualitative Data Set

As previously noted, hypotheses addressed domains that include

emotional; physical; cognitive; altered/enhanced perception of internal/external

events (visual, auditory, somatic, mental consciousness, aesthetic); and

individuation of self and/or higher self. Other themes found included

sleeping/dreaming and efforting/trying. These were tested while controlling for

whether or not the sound condition was given first.

For comments made after each period, a content analysis reduced the

comments into experiential themes. The themes were compared in a paired

sample fashion between the no sound and sound conditions using paired sample

Poisson regression models, fit with a generalized estimating equations (GEE)

algorithm.

A paired sample analysis was applied, as the two crossover periods were

nested, or clustered, within the same participant. In these models, the primary

predictor was sound (1 = sound, 0 = no sound). In crossover studies where the

participant is blinded to the intervention, a period effect is usually tested for and

kept in the model if significant. In this un-blinded study, a larger confounding

effect is likely to come from the period where the sound was provided (1 = sound

in first period, 0 = sound in second period).

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 For example, if sound is provided in the first session, the participant might

be sensitized to notice the absence of their response when experiencing no sound

in the second session. Or the opposite might occur, when the participant notices a

response in the second session due to being sensitized to the sound received in the

first session. In a mixed effects model, with the two sessions nested or clustered

with the same participants, the sound first variable (with the period and sound

variables taken as a set) was found to be perfectly collinear. Thus, only one

covariate could be included.

The variable sound first was selected as it was likely to be a better

measure of the confounding mechanism than would the crossover period variable.

When outcomes were all zeros for one of the groups, the paired sample Poisson

regression model was not adequate to converge on a solution. In these instances, a

paired exact Poisson regression model was applied.

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 CHAPTER 7: RESULTS

I present the results from this research in two sections. Quantitative results

are presented in section one and qualitative results in section two.

Section One: Quantitative Results

Physiological Data

Physiological response parameters including two channels of EMG,

temperature, skin conductance, heart rate, and respiration rate and amplitude were

measured continuously while participants either received 20 minutes of vibration

on the SRMT or reclined in silence on the SRMT. These data were analyzed using

multivariable mixed effects linear regression models to answer three research

questions: Does a vibrational sound session on the SRMT effect change in

physiological response measures in healthy undergraduate musicians? Does lying

in silence on the SRMT effect change in physiological response measures in

healthy undergraduate musicians? Are there more significant differences found in

the vibrational sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition?

Physiological results are shown in Table 7. Models were fit using original

scores and repeated using standardized scores. In the second model the data were

first transformed to standardized scores which provided measures that could be

compared, being the same and aimed at determining which measures were most

affected by the sound.

These data support the hypotheses of significant change differences in

favor of the sound condition. Specifically, the findings indicated a decrease in

skin conductance (p < .001); a decrease in thoracic breathing (p < .001); an

174
increase in abdominal breathing (p < .001); and a decrease in muscle tension at the

trapezius (p < 001). These data failed to support hypotheses of significant change

differences, reflected in a decrease in muscle tension at the mandible (p = .82); an

increase in temperature (p = .006 decrease); and a decrease in heart rate (p = .22).

Figure 7 displays the baseline changes between the sound and no sound

conditions.

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Table 7

Physiological Measurements Multivariable Mixed Effects Linear Regression Models (n = 42)

Original Units Standard Deviation Units

Predicted effect on Change Adjusted mean 95% Adjusted mean 95% Confidence
measurement Effect Difference** Confidence Difference# Interval
Measure
considered to be (P value)* Interval
therapeutic
Electromyography:
no change
muscle tension at decrease 0.01 (-0.05 , 0.07) 0.01 -0.06 , 0.08
(p=.82)
mandible
decreased
Skin conductance decrease -0.63 (-0.82 , -0.45) -0.14 (-0.18 , -0.10)
(p<.001)
Temperature at decreased
increase -0.20 (-0.35 , -0.06) -0.03 (-0.06 , -0.01)
fingertip (p=.006)
no change
Heart rate decrease 0.18 (-0.10 , 0.46) 0.02 (-0.01 , 0.05)
(p=.22)
decreased
Thoracic breathing decrease -7.41 (-8.48 , -6.34) -0.30 (-0.34 , -0.26)
(p<.001)
increased
Abdominal breathing increase 1.12 (0.62 , 1.62) 0.05 (0.03 , 0.07)
(p<.001)
Electromyography:
decreased
muscle tension at decrease -0.39 (-0.50 , -0.29) -0.06 (-0.07 , -0.04)
(p<.001)
trapezius
Note. Author’s table.
* Comparison of during treatment repeated measurements between sound condition and no sound condition, adjusted for baseline mean of three
measurements and order effect.
** The adjusted mean difference is the regression coefficient for the sound vs. no sound predictor variable.
# Expressed in standardized scores which represent standard deviation units.

176
Figure 7. Physiological measurements expressed as standardized scores. Shown are the
changes from baseline differences between the sound and no sound conditions in standard
deviation units. The error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. The x-axis is in
absolute value, as sometimes an increase is better and sometimes a decrease is better.

Salivary Immunoglobulin A (sIgA)

Results from sIgA samples were not subject to statistical analysis;

however, the biology department at USU reported the following findings.

Samples of human saliva were obtained from 13 males and 18 females to

measure immune response via a salivary immunoglobulin-A (s-IgA) test and

delivered for analysis in the biology department at Utah State University. Five

samples were obtained:

(a) pre-sound post-sound,

(b) pre-no sound; post- no sound, and

(c) 24 hours post, sound and no sound.

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 Pre- and post-sound data. For 21 participants (13 female and 8 male)

post-treatment s-IgA was greater than pre-treatment s-IgA (2- 8 times increase).

For 6 participants (2 female and 4 male) post- treatment s-IgA was less than pre-

treatment s-IgA. No change in s-IgA was found in 4 participants (3 female and 1

male).

Pre- and post-no sound data. For 8 participants (6 female and 2 male),

post-no treatment s-IgA was greater than pre-no treatment s-IgA. The remaining

23 participants had no change in s-IgA.

24 hour post-conditions data. S-IgA from 4 participants (2 male and 2

female) reflected a positive increase 24 hours post conditions. Three of those

participants also experienced an increase immediately following the sound

condition. One participant experienced a decrease in s-IgA post-sound conditions

and an increase after 24 hours. There was no change evidenced in the remaining

21 participants.

Standardized Self-Report Inventory Scales

Profile of mood states (POMS). Thirty-four of the 42 participants (n =

16 females; n = 18 males) completed the POMS (McNair et al., 1971) assessing

mood relative to the week prior to and the week after the study. These data were

analyzed using a paired-sample t test to answer the research question: Is there an

effect of SRMT on mood as measured by the POMS pre to post-study? Table 8

shows positive change on all scales as hypothesized: Tension/Anxiety for the total

sample (p < .001), for females (p = 0.021), for males (p = .002); Depression/

Dejection for the total sample (p = .009), for females (p = .037), for males (p =

175
.13); Anger/ Hostility for total sample (p = .006), for females (p = 0.042), for

males (p = .07); Vigor/Activity (negative weighting) for the total sample

(p=.002), for females (p = 0.08), for males (p = .006); Fatigue/Inertia for the total

sample (p < .001), for females (p < .001), for males (p = .002); Confusion/

Bewilderment for the total sample (p < .001), for females (p = .001), for males (p

= .07); Total Mood Disturbance for the total sample (p < .001), for females (p =

.002), for males (p = .003). The data displayed in Figure 8 show the means and

error bars.

176
Table 8

Profile of Mood States Results

Mood State Total Sample* Females Males

Scales (n = 34) (n = 16) (n = 18)

Tension/Anxiety
After 8.4 (6.5 , 10.2) 8.1 (5.6 , 10.5) 8.6 (5.6 , 11.7)
Before 13.4 (11.1 , 15.7) 12.7 (9.9 , 15.5) 14.0 (10.1 , 17.9)
Change -5.0 (-7.3 , -2.7) -4.6 (-8.4 , -0.8) -5.4 (-8.5 , -2.3)
p<.001 p=0.021 p=.002
Depression/Dejection
After 8.5 (6.0 , 11.0) 8.4 (5.2 , 11.7) 8.6 (4.6 , 12.5)
Before 13.0 (9.6 , 16.3) 14.3 (9.0 , 19.6) 11.8 (7.1 , 16.5)
Change -4.5 (-7.7 , -1.2) -5.9 (-11.4 , -0.4) -3.2 (-7.5 , 1.0)
p=.009 p=.037 p=.13
Anger/Hostility
After 5.5 (3.5 , 7.5) 5.3 (1.9 , 8.7) 5.7 (3.1 , 8.3)
Before 9.2 (6.8 , 11.6) 9.9 (5.8 , 14.0) 8.5 (5.4 , 11.6)
Change -3.7 (-6.2 , -1.2) -4.6 (-9.0 , -0.2) -2.8 (-5.9 , 0.3)
p=.006 p=0.042 p=.07
Vigor/Activity
After 17.3 (15.8 , 18.8) 17.6 (15.2 , 19.9) 17.0 (14.9 , 19.1)
Before 13.9 (11.9 , 15.8) 14.1 (10.4 , 17.7) 13.7 (11.6 , 15.8)
Change 3.4 (1.3 , 5.5) 3.5 (-0.5 , 7.5) 3.3 (1.1 , 5.5)
p=.002 p=0.08 p=.006
Fatigue/Inertia
After 6.7 (5.4 , 8.0) 6.5 (5.0 , 8.0) 6.9 (4.6 , 9.2)
Before 12.1 (10.0 , 14.2) 12.6 (10.0 , 15.3) 11.7 (8.3 , 15.1)
Change -5.4 (-7.2 , -3.6) -6.1 (-8.5 , -3.7) -4.8 (-7.6 , -2.0)
p<.001 p<.001 p=.002
Confusion/Bewilderment
After 5.9 (4.5 , 7.4) 5.6 (3.7 , 7.6) 6.2 (4.0 , 8.4)
Before 9.4 (7.5 , 11.3) 10.6 (8.3 , 12.9) 8.3 (5.2 , 11.4)
Change -3.4 (-5.2 , -1.7) -5.0 (-7.7 , -2.3) -2.1 (-4.3 , 0.2)
p<.001 p=.001 p=.07
Total Mood Disturbance
After 17.7 (9.1 , 26.4) 16.4 (5.3 , 27.5) 18.9 (4.9 , 33.0)
Before 43.1 (32.8 , 53.5) 46.1 (31.3 , 61.0) 40.5 (24.6 , 56.4)
Change -25.4 (-35.7 , -15.1) -29.8 (-47.1 , -12.4) -21.6 (-34.9 , -8.2)
p<.001 p=.002 p=.003
Note. Before and after study data. Mean, 95% confidence interval, p-value, paired sample
t-test. Author’s table. *Thirty-four participants completed POMS for both weeks.

177
Figure 8. Total sample POMS (mood state for entire week prior to study and mood state
for entire week after study). Shown are means with error bars representing 95%
confidence intervals. Author’s figure.

State-anxiety inventory form Y-1 (STAI). Forty-two participants

completed two measures of STAI (Spielberger et al., 1983). These measures were

obtained prior to and after participants either received 20 minutes of vibration on

the SRMT or lay in silence on the SRMT. A two-way repeated measures model

was used in analyzing state anxiety to answer three research questions: Is there an

effect of SRMT on pre-post test measures of state anxiety as measured by the

STAI Form Y-1? Is there an effect of lying in silence on the SRMT on pre-

posttest measures of state anxiety? Are there more significant effect differences

found in the vibrational sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition?

In confirmation of the hypothesis, STAI scores significantly decreased from pre to

178
posttest during the sound condition (p < .001), as shown in Table 9. Results also

showed a significant reduction in STAI scores for the no sound condition (p <

.001); however, more was found in the sound condition (-13.8) in than in the no

sound condition (-6.5). STAI results are also displayed in Figure 9.

Table 9

State-Anxiety Inventory (STAI Form Y-1) Results From Two-Way Repeated

Measures Model (n = 42)

Adjusted State Anxiety 95% Confidence

Period P value
Mean Interval
Sound Pre 40.4 23.5 , 29.7

Post 26.6 37.3 , 43.5

Change -13.8 -16.9 , -10.7 <.001

No sound Pre 38.3 28.7 , 34.8

Post 31.7 35.2 , 41.3

Change -6.5 -9.6 , -3.5 <.001

Difference in
-7.3 -11.6 , -2.9 <.001
change**
Note. State anxiety “how do you feel right now at this moment” was measured pre and
post sound and no sound conditions. Author’s table.
*Adjusted for order effect (1 = sound period first, 0 = no sound period first) in a mixed
effects linear regression model.
** Comes from sound (1=sound, 0=no sound) × post (1= post, 0 = pre) interaction term.
This model agrees closely with a mixed effects model of the post scores, adjusting for the
pre scores and order effect [difference (sound minus no sound): -6.0, 95% CI, -8.4, -3.7,
p<.001].

179
Figure 9. STAI Y-1 results from two-way repeated measures model. Error bars represent
precision of the resulting estimates (n = 42). State-Anxiety Inventory (STAI Form Y-1,
“how do you feel right now at this moment”). Adjusted for order effect (1 = sound period
first, 0 = no sound period first) in a mixed effects linear regression model. Error bars
represent 95% confidence intervals. Author’s figure.

Subjective experience rating scales. Table 10 and Figures 10 and 11

display results from 42 participants who completed the subjective experience

rating scales. These measures were obtained prior to and after participants either

received 20 minutes of vibration on the SRMT or lay in silence on the SRMT.

Paired sample t-tests were used on the change scores in analysis to answer three

research questions: Is there an effect of SRMT on pre to posttest measures of

subjective experience ratings of relaxation-tension and enjoyment? Is there an

effect of lying in silence on the SRMT on pre to posttest measures of subjective

experience ratings of relaxation-tension and enjoyment? Are there more

significant effect differences found in the vibrational sound condition in

comparison to the no sound condition?

180
Table 10

Subjective Experience Rating Scale Means, Confidence Intervals and P Values (n

= 42)

Relaxation/Tension: How relaxed are you right now? (0 to 100 scale)

0 = most relaxed you can imagine, 100 = most tense you can imagine.
Participants wrote their own anchor descriptions at 0, 25, 50, 75, 100.*

Change from before to

Study Period after each condition P value**
Mean (95% confidence interval)
Sound condition -32 (-37 , -26)
No sound -13 (-20 , -8)
condition
Difference -18 (-24 , -12) <.001

Enjoyment: Please rate how enjoyable the sound/or no sound session was
for you. (0 to 9 scale)
1 = not at all enjoyable, 3 = somewhat enjoyable, 5= enjoyable,
7 = very enjoyable, 9 = completely enjoyable
Rating after each condition
Study Period P value***
Mean (95% confidence interval)
With Sound 7.9 (7.6 , 8.2)
Without Sound 5.2 (4.7 , 5.7)
Difference 2.7 (2.1 , 3.2) <.001
Note. Subjective rating scale of relaxation/tension and enjoyment were obtained pre and
post sound and no sound conditions. Author’s table.
* See Appendix J for an example of participant descriptive anchors.
** paired sample t-test on change scores
*** paired sample t-test on original scores

181
Figure 10. Subjective experience of relaxation/tension, p-value, and difference. (n = 42).
A graph displaying participant subjective experience of relaxation/ tension. How relaxed
are you right now? (0 to 100 scale) 0 = most relaxed you can imagine, 100 = most tense
you can imagine. A negative number represents an improvement in relaxation, and a
negative difference represents more improvement in relaxation with sound. Author’s
figure.

These data support the hypothesis of a higher ratings of relaxation pre to

posttest in favor of the sound condition (p < .001).

182
Figure 11. Subjective experience of enjoyment, p-value, and difference (n = 42). A graph
displaying data of participant subjective experience of enjoyment. Please rate how
enjoyable the sound/or no sound session was for you. (1 to 9 scale) 1 = not at all
enjoyable, 9 = completely enjoyable. Author’s figure.

These data support the hypothesis of higher ratings of enjoyment pre to

posttest in favor of the sound condition (p < .001).

Section Two: Qualitative Results

In this section, I present results relative to the qualitative thematic data.

Thematic Data

Thematic data were obtained from participant written responses to two-

opened requests: (1) Please describe your experience of the Swiss Resonance

Monochord Table, and (2) Please describe your experience of lying in silence on

the Swiss Resonance Monochord Table. Comments were considered a way of

measuring participant experience based on their perception of it. Results in all

183
domains support that the SRMT elicited more pleasant experiences in USU

undergraduate musicians in comparison to lying on the SRMT in silence.

Thematic results are organized in categories and domains as follows: (1)

altered/enhanced perception of internal/external events including the

physical/somatic; emotional/aesthetic; cognitive, effort/trying; auditory; visual;

mental/consciousness, sleeping/dreaming; the individuation of self and higher

self, feelings of communion, expansion of creative ability.

Physical domain. Table 11 and Figure 12 display results related to the

physical domain as described using terms that generally can be associated with

parasympathetic nervous system activity and somatic muscle relaxation (e.g.,

tingly, energy flow, relaxing, soothing, vitality, warmth, tension, discomfort, pain,

cold). Forty-three participants provided written descriptions of either their

experience of receiving 20 minutes of vibration on the SRMT or lying in silence

on the SRMT. These descriptions were obtained after either condition. A content

analysis was applied to identify themes and then tested for statistical significance

between the two conditions to see if themes appeared more frequently in one

condition over the other. These analyses were performed to address the research

questions: Are there common themes found in participants’ descriptions of their

20 minute experience of the SRMT? Are there common themes found in

participants’ descriptions of their 20 minute experience of lying in silence on the

SRMT? Do themes suggest that participants achieved an internal state of being

that enables experiences of extraordinary function as defined by Murphy (1992)

184
(see Appendix F)? What thematic differences are found when comparing the two

experiences?

Table 11

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Physical (n = 43)

Three Paired Sample Poisson

Observed Data*
hypotheses Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
P
Sound n Sound n Risk Confidence
value
(%) (%) Ratio*** Interval
any Yes 33 (77) 25 (58) 1.32 0.82 , 2.12 .25
comment No 10 (23) 18 (42)
pleasant Yes 32 (74) 12 (28) 2.67 1.42, 5.01 .002
comment No 11 (26) 31 (72)
unpleasant Yes 3 (7) 17 (40) 0.18 0.05 , 0.61 .006
comment No 40 (93) 26 (60)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample Poisson regression model, controlling for
sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in second period).
*** adjusted risk ratio = adjusted comment percent ratio = (% yes with sound) / (% yes
without sound) after adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately the ratio of the
two observed data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk ratio).

185
Figure 12. Content analysis: Physical (n = 43). Shown are observed percentages, with p
values from paired sample mixed effects Poisson regression models while adjusting for
whether or not the sound period was given first. Author’s figure.

These data support

Hypothesis 1: More participants will make a comment of any kind

(unpleasant or pleasant) in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition (p = .25);

Hypothesis 2: More participants will make pleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition (p = .002).

These data failed to support

Hypothesis 3: More participants will make unpleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition (p = .006).

In summary, common themes were found in participant descriptions of the

SRMT and common themes were found in their descriptions of lying in silence.

186
While receiving the vibrations emitted by way of the SRMT, participants

experienced pleasant physical sensations that generally can be associated with the

relaxation response. Comments included feeling tingly sensations, flowing

vibrations, melting into sand, deeper breathing, warmth, surging energy across

body in waves, and rejuvenation. Participants’ experience of lying in silence on

the SRMT were unpleasant. Comments included feeling chilly, discomfort,

muscle tension, sluggishness, pain, jaw clenching, head ache, and unnatural

breathing.

Somatic domain. The somatic experience was placed within the physical

domain. Table 12 and Figure 13 display results related to somatic experiences

(e.g., out of body, transported, levitation). Forty-three participants provided

written descriptions of either their experience of receiving 20 minutes of vibration

on the SRMT or lying in silence on the SRMT. These descriptions were obtained

after either condition. A content analysis was applied to identify themes and then

tested for statistical significance between the two conditions to see if themes

appeared more frequently in one condition over the other. These analyses were

performed to address the research question: Will there be more comments made in

reference to having a somatic experience found in participant’ descriptions of the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition?

187
Table 12

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Somatic
(n = 43)

Paired Sample Exact Poisson

Hypothesis Observed Data*
Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
any Yes 15 (35) 0 (0) 21.14 3.59 , +∞ <.001
comment No 28 (65) 43 (100)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample exact Poisson regression model,
controlling for sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in second period).
*** adjusted risk ratio = adjusted comment percent ratio = (% yes with sound) / (% yes
without sound) after adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately the ratio of the
two observed data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk ratio).

188
Figure 13. Content analysis: Altered/enhanced perception of internal/external events:
Somatic (n = 43). Shown are observed percentages, with p values from a paired sample
exact Poisson regression model while adjusting for whether or not the sound period was
given first. Author’s figure.

Participants’ comments made reference to out of body and body levitation as well

as feelings of being transported. No such comments were found in descriptions

relative to lying in silence. These data support the hypothesis that more

participants will make comments of any kind relative to this category in the sound

condition in comparison to the no sound condition (p < .001).

Emotional domain. Table 13 and Figure 14 display results related to the

emotional domain, defined as (a) any emotional response (e.g., happiness,

contentment, openness, peaceful, sadness, fear); and (b) the lifting, resolving,

reducing, or unblocking of defenses against strong feelings or draining emotions,

conflicting volitions, or chronic tensions. Forty-three participants provided written

189
descriptions of either their experience of receiving 20 minutes of vibration on the

SRMT or lying in silence on the SRMT. These descriptions were obtained after

either condition. A content analysis was applied to identify themes and then tested

for statistical significance between the two conditions to see if themes appeared

more frequently in one condition over the other. These analyses were performed

to address the research questions: Are there common themes found in

participants’ descriptions of their 20 minute experience of the SRMT? Are there

common themes found in participants’ descriptions of their 20 minute experience

of lying in silence on the SRMT? Do themes suggest that participants have

achieved an internal state of being that enables experiences of extraordinary

function as defined by Murphy (1992) (see Appendix F)? What thematic

differences are found when comparing the two experiences?

190
Table 13

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Emotional

Three Paired Sample Poisson

Observed Data*
hypotheses Regression**

With Without Adjusted 95%

P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
(1) any Yes 19 (44) 11 (26) 1.72 0.82 , 3.65 .15
comment No 24 (56) 32 (74)
(2) pleasant Yes 18 (42) 7 (16) 2.57 1.08 , 6.11 .03
comment No 25 (58) 36 (84)
(3) unpleasant Yes 4 (9) 5 (12) 0.80 0.22 , 2.89 .73
comment No 39 (91) 38 (88)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for effect in a paired sample mixed effects Poisson regression model,
controlling sound given first (1=sound in first period, 0=sound in second period)
*** adjusted risk ratio = (% yes with sound) / (% yes without sound) adjusting for sound
given first. It is approximately the ratio of the two observed data percentages (which are
the unadjusted risk ratio).

191
Figure 14. Content analysis: Emotional (n = 43). Shown are observed percentages, with
p values from paired sample Poisson regression models while adjusting for whether or
not the sound period was given first. Author’s figure.

These data support

Hypothesis 1: More participants will make a comment of any kind

(unpleasant or pleasant) in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition (p = .15);

Hypothesis 2: More participants will make pleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition (p = .03).

These data failed to support

Hypothesis 3: More participants will make unpleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition (p = .73).

In summary, common themes were found in participant descriptions of the

SRMT and common themes were found in their descriptions of lying in silence.

192
While receiving the vibrations emitted by way of the SRMT, participants

experienced pleasant emotions and feelings. Comments included feeling

happiness, peace, contentment, joy, love, that everything was working out, and

the giving over to sensations and emotions. Participants’ experience of lying on

the SRMT in silence were unpleasant. Comments included feeling bugged,

fearful, worried, and disconcerted knowing that someone was watching them.

Aesthetic experience. The aesthetic experience was placed within the

emotional domain and defined as an encounter with beauty, the unique pleasure

and satisfaction of perceiving something that is beautiful (Salas, 1990). Table 14

and Figure 15 display results related to the aesthetic experience. Forty-three

participants provided written descriptions of either their experience of receiving

20 minutes of vibration on the SRMT or lying in silence on the SRMT. These

descriptions were obtained after either condition. A content analysis was applied

to identify themes and then tested for statistical significance between the two

conditions to see if themes appeared more frequently in one condition over the

other. These analyses were performed to address the research question: Will there

be more comments made in reference to having an aesthetic experience found in

participant’ descriptions of the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition?

193
Table 14

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Perception of Aesthetic Themes (n = 43)

One Paired Sample Exact Poisson

Observed Data*
hypothesis Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
any Yes 2 (5) 0 (0) 2.41 0.19 , +∞ .50
comment No 41 (95) 43 (100)
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample exact Poisson regression model,
controlling for sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in second
period).
*** adjusted risk ratio = (% yes with sound)/ (% yes without sound) after
adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately the ratio of the two observed
data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk ratio). Author’s table.

Figure 15. Content analysis: Perception of aesthetic themes (n = 43).

Shown are observed percentages, with the p value from a paired sample exact Poisson
regression model while adjusting for whether or not the sound period was given first.
Author’s figure.

194
 Participants’ comments made reference to experiencing the SRMT as

beautiful (e.g., so many beautiful sounds). No references in that regard were made

relative to lying in silence. These data support the hypothesis that more

participants will make a comment of any kind relative to this category in the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition (p = .50).

Cognitive domain. Table 15 and Figure 16 display results related to the

cognitive domain defined as (a) the quieting of mental activity involving mental

processing (e.g., analyzing, associative memories, racing mind); and (b) the

recalling of repressed imagery so that such imagery enriches mental processing.

Forty-three participants provided written descriptions of either their experience of

receiving 20 minutes of vibration on the SRMT or lying in silence on the SRMT.

These descriptions were obtained after either condition. A content analysis was

applied to identify themes and then tested for statistical significance between the

two conditions to see if themes appeared more frequently in one condition over

the other. These analyses were performed to address the research questions: Are

there common themes found in participants’ descriptions of their 20 minute

experience of the SRMT? Are there common themes found in participants’

descriptions of their 20 minute experience of lying in silence on the SRMT? Do

themes suggest that participants have achieved an internal state of being that

enables experiences of extraordinary function as defined by Murphy (1992) (see

Appendix F)? What thematic differences are found when comparing the two

experiences?

195
Table 15

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Cognitive (n = 43)

Three Paired Sample mixed Poisson

Observed Data*
hypotheses Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
any Yes 16 (37) 18 (42) 0.89 0.47 , 1.67 .71
comment No 27 (63) 25 (58)
pleasant Yes 14 (33) 6 (14) 2.33 0.84 , 6.46 .10
comment No 29 (67) 37 (86)
unpleasant Yes 3 (7) 16 (37) 0.19 0.06 , 0.55 .002
comment No 40 (93) 27 (63)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample Poisson regression model,
controlling for sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in second
period).
*** adjusted risk ratio = adjusted comment percent ratio = (% yes with sound) /
(% yes without sound) after adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately the
ratio of the two observed data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk ratio).

196
Figure 16. Content analysis: Cognitive (n = 43). Shown are observed percentages, with p
values from paired sample mixed effects Poisson regression models while adjusting for
whether or not the sound period was given first. Author’s figure.

These data support

Hypothesis 1: More participants will make a comment of any kind

(unpleasant or pleasant) in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition (p = .71).

Hypothesis 2: More participants will make a pleasant comment about the

sound condition in comparison with the no sound condition (p = .10).

These data failed to support

Hypothesis 3: More participants will make unpleasant comments about the

sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition (p =.002).

In summary, common themes were found in participant descriptions of the

SRMT and common themes were found in their descriptions of lying in silence.

197
While receiving the vibrations emitted by way of the SRMT, participants reported

experiencing pleasant memories of friends, thoughts of a wonderful future, and a

quieting of the mind. Participants’ experience of lying in silence on the SRMT

were unpleasant. Comments included references to the mind moving from topic to

topic and busy with thoughts.

Effort/trying. A theme related to the experience of making an effort or

trying to make something happen emerged from the data and was placed in the

cognitive domain. A content analysis was subsequently performed testing for

statistical significance between the two conditions to see if themes appeared more

frequently in one condition over the other. Table 16 and Figure 17 display results

related to such an experience.

198
Table 16

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Effort/Trying (n = 43)

Paired Sample Exact Poisson

Observed Data*
Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
any Yes 0 (0) 13 (30) 0.05 0 , 0.33 <.001
comment No 43 (100) 30 (70)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample exact Poisson regression model,
controlling for sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in second
period)
*** adjusted risk ratio = (% yes with sound) / (% yes without sound) after
adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately the ratio of the two observed
data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk ratio).

199
Figure 17. Content analysis: Effort/trying (n = 43). Shown are observed percentages,
with the p value from a paired exact Poisson regression model while adjusting for
whether or not the sound period was given first. Author’s figure.

Comments related to making an effort or trying were found only while

participants were lying in silence. Comments included trying to still and calm my

thoughts, and trying to relax. These data support that more participants made

more comments related to making an effort or trying in the no sound condition in

comparison to the sound condition (p < .001).

Auditory domain. Table 17 and Figure 18 display results related to

auditory experiences (e.g., flowing perception of sound, hearing many tones).

Forty-three participants provided written descriptions of either their experience of

receiving 20 minutes of vibration on the SRMT or lying in silence on the SRMT.

These descriptions were obtained prior to and after either condition. A content

analysis was applied to identify themes and then tested for statistical significance
200
between the two conditions to see if themes appeared more frequently in one

condition over the other. These analyses were performed to address the research

question: Will there be more comments made in reference to having an auditory

experience found in participant’ descriptions of the sound condition in

comparison to the no sound condition?

Table 17

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Auditory
(n = 43)

Paired Sample Exact Poisson

Hypothesis Observed Data*
Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
any Yes 15 (35) 0 (0) 21.14 3.59 , +∞ <.001
comment No 28 (65) 43 (100)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample exact Poisson regression model,
controlling for sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in second
period).
*** adjusted risk ratio = adjusted comment percent ratio = (% yes with sound) /
(% yes without sound) after adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately
the ratio of the two observed data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk
ratio).

201
Figure 18. Altered/enhanced perception of internal/external events: Auditory (n = 43).
Shown are observed percentages, with p values from a paired sample exact Poisson
regression model while adjusting for whether or not the sound period was given first.
Author’s figure.

In the domain of auditory perception, participant comments made

reference to the overtone series. Comments included, I listened to the sounds and

picked out the overtones; my consciousness would shift its focus from overtone to

overtone (5th, 3rd, flat 7th, octave); I heard music being played even though the

strings were tuned to the same note; I heard so many beautiful sounds; my mind

focused on the nature of the overtones. Because there was no sound produced by

the SRMT during silence, the perception of overtones was not possible. Auditory

perception of any sound while in conditions of silence could only relate to

environment sounds within the music therapy lab. No references were made by

participants in that regard. In addition, no references were made relative to the

absence of sound or wanting to hear sounds. Obviously then, these data support
202
the hypothesis that more participants will make comments of any kind relative to

this category in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition (p <

.001).

Visual domain. Table 18 and Figure 19 display results related to visual

experiences defined as synesthesia, a concomitant sensation, a sensation or image

of a sense other than the one being stimulated (e.g., imagery, seeing colors,

scenes, brightness). Forty-three participants provided written descriptions of

either their experience of receiving 20 minutes of vibration on the SRMT or lying

in silence on the SRMT. These descriptions were obtained prior to and after either

condition. A content analysis was applied to identify themes and then tested for

statistical significance between the two conditions to see if themes appeared more

frequently in one condition over the other. These analyses were performed to

address the research question: Will there be more comments made in reference to

having a visual experience found in participant’ descriptions of the sound

condition in comparison to the no sound condition?

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Table 18

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Visual
(n = 43)

Paired Sample Exact Poisson

Hypothesis Observed Data*
Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
Yes 5 (12) 0 (0) 6.73 0.92 , +∞ 0.062
any comment
No 38 (88) 43 (100)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample exact Poisson regression model,
controlling for sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in second
period).
*** adjusted risk ratio = adjusted comment percent ratio = (% yes with sound) /
(% yes without sound) after adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately
the ratio of the two observed data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk
ratio).

204
Figure 19. Altered/enhanced perception of internal/external events: Visual
(n = 43). Shown are observed percentages, with p values from a paired sample exact
Poisson regression model while adjusting for whether or not the sound period was given
first. Author’s table.

Participants while on the SRMT made comments related to experiencing

visual imagery. Comments included seeing rainbows, seeing many different

colors, a mountain village scene, and imagining throat singers. One male

participant reported some unpleasant imagery. No imagery was reported relative

to lying in silence. These data support the hypothesis that more participants will

make comments of any kind relative to this category in the sound condition in

comparison to the no sound condition (p = .062).

Mental–consciousness domain. Table 19 and Figure 20 display results

suggesting (a) access to subliminal depths of the mind (e.g., drifting, dozing); and

(b) an altered perception of the passage of time. Forty-three participants provided

written descriptions of either their experience of receiving 20 minutes of vibration

205
on the SRMT or lying in silence on the SRMT. These descriptions were obtained

prior to and after either condition. A content analysis was applied to identify

themes and then tested for statistical significance between the two conditions to

see if themes appeared more frequently in one condition over the other. These

analyses were performed to address the research question: Will there be more

comments made in reference to having a shift in consciousness as defined found

in participant’ descriptions of the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition?

Table 19

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events:
Mental/Consciousness (n = 43)

Paired Sample Poisson

Hypothesis Observed Data*
Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
One P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
hypothesis value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
any Yes 20 (47) 4 (9) 5.00 1.61 , 15.54 .005
comment No 23 (53) 39 (91)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample Poisson regression model,
controlling for sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in second
period).
*** adjusted risk ratio = (% yes with sound) / (% yes without sound) after
adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately the ratio of the two observed
data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk ratio).

206
Figure 20. Content analysis: Altered/enhanced perception of internal/external events:
Mental/consciousness (n = 43). Shown are observed percentages, with p values from a
paired sample Poisson regression model while adjusting for whether or not the sound
period was given first. Author’s figure.

Shifts in mental-consciousness were defined as gaining access to

subliminal depths of the mind and body to include dream states and an altered

perception of time. Participants' comments within their experiential descriptions

of the SRMT reflect these phenomenon. Comments included, I felt as if I were

somewhere else, deep inside; I was put in an unfamiliar, but comfortable state of

mind; I felt lost in a very relaxing world inside; I felt like I completely escaped

from wherever I was before; I was gone; I lost track of time; time seemed to

disappear.

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These data support the hypothesis that more participants will make comments of

any kind relative to this category in the sound condition in comparison to the no

sound condition (p = .005).

Sleeping/dreaming. A theme related to the experience of sleeping,

dreaming, and dozing emerged from the data and placed in the mental–

consciousness domain. A content analysis was subsequently performed testing for

statistical significance between the two conditions to see if themes appeared more

frequently in one condition over the other. Table 20 and Figure 21 display results

related to such an experience.

Table 20

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Sleeping/Dreaming (n = 43)

Paired Sample Poisson

Observed Data*
Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
any Yes 14 (33) 12 (28) 1.17 0.62, 2.18 .63
comment No 29 (67) 31 (72)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample mixed effects Poisson regression
model, controlling for sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in
second period).
*** adjusted risk ratio = (% yes with sound) / (% yes without sound) after
adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately the ratio of the two observed
data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk ratio).

208
Figure 21. Content analysis: Sleeping/dreaming (n = 43). Shown are observed
percentages, with the p value from a paired sample mixed effects Poisson regression
model while adjusting for whether or not the sound period was given first. Author’s
figure.

Participants made reference to these phenomena while experiencing both

the SRMT with vibration and without, though comments related to the SRMT

suggested deeper dream states in comparison to lying in silence. Select

participants made reference to experiencing a very relaxed, deep sleep; whereas,

in the no sound condition participants made reference to experiencing a brief nap.

Results did not reach significance, supporting that more participants made

comments relative to this category in the sound condition in comparison to the no

sound condition (p = .63).

Individuation of self and higher self. Individuation of self and higher

self was defined as (a) feelings of communion with a transcendent presence power

or principle that produces an identity beyond one’s ordinary sense of self; (b) the
209
noticing of thoughts, images, emotions, sensations and conflicting volitions that

are relinquished (come and go) as in witness meditation (observer consciousness)

and (c) the expansion of one’s creative ability.

Feelings of communion. Table 21 and Figure 22 display results related to

feelings of communion with a transcendent presence, power or principle that

produces an identity beyond one’s ordinary sense of self (transcending the ego).

Forty-three participants provided written descriptions of either their experience of

receiving 20 minutes of vibration on the SRMT or lying in silence on the SRMT.

These descriptions were obtained prior to and after either condition. A content

analysis was applied to identify themes and then tested for statistical significance

between the two conditions to see if themes appeared more frequently in one

condition over the other. These analyses were performed to address the research

question: Will there be more comments made in reference to experiencing

feelings of communion as defined found in participant’ descriptions of the sound

condition in comparison to the no sound condition?

210
Table 21

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Individuation of Self and Higher Self: Feelings of Communion
(n = 43)

One Paired Sample Exact Poisson

Observed Data*
hypothesis Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
any Yes 5 (12) 0 (0) 6.73 0.92 , +∞ .062
comment No 38 (88) 43 (100)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample exact Poisson regression model,
controlling for sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in second
period).
*** adjusted risk ratio = (% yes with sound) / (% yes without sound) after
adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately the ratio of the two observed
data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk ratio).

Figure 22. Individuation of self and higher self: Feelings of communion (n = 43).
Shown are observed percentages, with the p value from a paired sample exact Poisson
regression model while adjusting for whether or not the sound period was given first.
Author’s figure.
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 The SRMT experience elicited some comments made by participants to

having feelings of communion. Comments included, I felt connected and together;

it felt enlightening; my body and mind reached a complete stillness, a silence, and

I felt as one; it felt like a white light focus in my forehead followed by a spiritual

awareness, a different capacity of awareness. These data support the hypothesis

that more participants will make comments relative to this category in the sound

condition in comparison to the no sound condition (p = .062).

Expansion of creative ability. Table 22 and Figure 23 display results

related to the expansion of one’s creative abilities. Forty-three participants

provided written descriptions of either their experience of receiving 20 minutes of

vibration on the SRMT or lying in silence on the SRMT. These descriptions were

obtained prior to and after either condition. A content analysis was applied to

identify themes and then tested for statistical significance between the two

conditions to see if themes appeared more frequently in one condition over the

other. These analyses were performed to address the research question: Will there

be more comments made in reference to an expansion of creative abilities found

in participant’ descriptions of the sound condition in comparison to the no sound

condition?

212
Table 22

Content Analysis & Statistical Comparison of Content Analysis Derived Theme

Frequency: Individuation of Self and Higher Self: Expansion of Creative Ability
(n = 43)

One Paired Sample Exact Poisson

Observed Data*
hypothesis Regression**
With Without Adjusted 95%
P
Sound Sound Risk Confidence
value
n (%) n (%) Ratio*** Interval
any Yes 3 (7) 0 (0) 6.73 0.91 , +∞ .062
comment No 40 (93) 43 (100)
Note. Author’s table.
* observed counts shown in nonpaired cross-tabulation fashion.
** adjusted for period effect in a paired sample exact Poisson regression model,
controlling for sound given first (1 = sound in first period, 0 = sound in second
period).
*** adjusted risk ratio = (% yes with sound) / (% yes without sound) after
adjusting for sound given first. It is approximately the ratio of the two observed
data percentages (which are the unadjusted risk ratio).

213
Figure 23. Individuation of self and higher self: Expansion of creative ability (n = 43).
Shown are observed percentages, with the p value from a paired sample exact Poisson
regression model while adjusting for whether or not the sound period was given first.
Author’s figure.

The SRMT experience elicited some comments made by participants that

suggested an expansion of one’s creative expression. Comments included, I

considered how to orchestrate the music I felt; I felt very available to experiences

of a different nature than I usually do; I felt the urge to find something of my own

in the sounds. No references to these experiences were noted relative to lying in

silence. These data support the hypothesis that more participants will make

comments of any kind relative to this category in the sound condition in

comparison to the no sound condition (p = .062).

Composite Textural Descriptions

From 43 written descriptions, significant comments were extracted, and

meanings were formulated and clustered into Murphy’s (1992) categories as

214
detailed in the previous section. Significant comments (females and males), their

categorical placement, as well as the percentages of agreement are presented in

Appendix G. Two composite textural descriptions were developed based on

thematic percentages to address the research question: How do participant’

composite textural descriptions differ in the sound condition in comparison to no

sound condition. Table 23 displays two composite textural descriptions.

Table 23

USU Study Composite Textural Descriptions

Composite Textural Description Composite Textural Description

Sound Condition No Sound Condition
The experience of the SRMT is The experience of lying in silence on the
predominantly pleasant physically and SRMT is mostly unpleasant physically
somatically. Shifts in mental and emotionally, requiring effort. Shifts in
consciousness are experienced as are mental consciousness occur, but are
pleasant emotions and mental quietness. minimal. No change is experienced in
Auditory perception is enhanced and auditory perception, visualization, or
some visualization experienced. Feelings feelings of communion, nor is there an
of communion and an expansion of one’s experience of the expansion of one’s
creative ability are part of the experience. creative ability.
Note. Author’s table.

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 CHAPTER 8: DISCUSSION

My purpose in conducting this study was to arrive at an integrated and

holistic understanding of the experience of vibrational sound as administered by

the SRMT. To this end, I decided to explore the experience from two

perspectives, quantitative and qualitative, bringing forth distinct sets of questions

and hypotheses. I was interested in knowing the measureable effects of the SRMT

and how participants would describe their experience. I was also interested in how

these effects and descriptions would differ in comparison to receiving no sound.

Due to my expertise in psychophysiology, biofeedback, and mind–body

medicine, I gravitated toward including physiological response measures. In

addition, I felt that standardized questionnaires and rating scales would assist in

addressing my hypotheses and research questions. To satisfy my query about how

participants would describe their experience, I decided to look for common

themes and meaning units that would fit into defined domains and categories

related to one’s transformational capacity (as noted in Chapter 5).

In the upcoming sections, I present my hypotheses and questions and

discuss results related to the physiological response measures, the standardized

self-report inventory and rating measures, and the descriptive thematic content.

Physiological Response Measure Hypotheses

The physiological measures I monitored included muscle tension at the

mandible and trapezius, skin conductance, finger temperature, heart rate, and

thoracic and abdominal breathing. I hypothesized that more positive change

216
would occur while participants received vibrational sound in comparison to the no

sound condition.

Related to muscle tension at the mandible, I hypothesized that there would

be a greater reduction in muscle tension found in the sound condition in

comparison to no sound. On the contrary, mandible tension did not reduce, failing

to support my hypothesis. Looking to the literature, I found no vibrational or

music therapy studies that have monitored this site. I found that most researchers

favor the measurement of facial tension at the frontalis or temporalis muscle sites,

due to the confounds that can affect measures at the mandible (Davis & Thaut,

1989; Matheson, Edelson, Haitrides, Twinem, & Thurston, 1976; Scartelli, 1984).

However, muscle tension at the trapezius 1 muscle site did reduce, as

hypothesized. Within the music therapy discipline, the SRMT is considered a

receptive listening experience. Other studies implementing receptive listening

music conditions demonstrated significant reductions in trapezius muscle tension.

For example, results from Rider’s (1985) clinical study involving spinal injury

patients demonstrated significant reductions in trapezius muscle tension during

entrainment music. In addition, Kelly (2001) found that listening to three styles of

music—classical, new age, and native American—produced significant

reductions in cervical-trapezius EMG in high-anxiety and low-anxiety subjects.

Studies where comparisons were made between sound–music conditions

and silence in clinical or non-clinical settings are limited. I found no studies using

vibroacoustic equipment (e.g., Somatron, VAT, and MVT), nor did I find studies

that included healthy college musicians. Thus, the USU study may be unique in

217
that it included vibrational stimuli, measured trapezius muscle tension, included

healthy college students, and made comparisons between sound and no sound

conditions. Considering that the USU study may be a first study in this regard, it

contributes to the field of music therapy and vibrational sound healing.

Further, the literature reflects that EMG biofeedback with placement at the

trapezius is commonly used to train the relaxation response (Schwartz &

Schwartz, 1993). Biofeedback training, which requires active participation, was

not included in my study. Rather, participants passively received the vibrations of

the SRMT, which elicited a reduction in muscle tension.

Related to skin conductance (SC), I hypothesized that there would be a

greater reduction in SC in the vibrational sound condition when compared with no

sound. This hypothesis was confirmed.

Other studies reported results similar to those in the USU study; however,

some of these did not include conditions of silence. For example, Kelly (2001)

reported greater reductions in SC in high-anxiety and low-anxiety subjects who

listened to native American music in comparison to classical or new age music. In

addition, measures of SC taken prior to listening to operatic music decreased

significantly in 37 healthy Romanian female volunteers in their twenties during

the music listening period (Baltes, Avram, Miclea, & Miu, 2011). Contrary to

these findings, measures of skin conductance did not differ between adult patients

who listened to self-selected music through headphones prior to surgery in

comparison to a no music control group (Wang, Kulkarni, Dolev, & Kain, 2002).

218
 Few music therapy studies have included SC as an outcome measure in

both clinical and non-clinical settings. None were reported in two Cochrane

reviews conducted by J. Bradt, Dileo, and Grocke (2010). In addition, no

vibroacoustic studies were found that measured SC, nor were any found that

included healthy college students. The USU study, as noted in the previous

paragraph, may contribute unique findings here, as it provided vibrational stimuli,

measured SC, included healthy college students, and made comparisons between

vibrational sound and no sound conditions.

For fingertip temperature, I hypothesized that temperatures would increase

more significantly during the vibrational sound condition as compared to no

sound. Findings related to temperature measures are inconsistent in other music

therapy studies. In J. Burns, Labbe, Williams, and McCall’s (1999) study, 56

students were randomly assigned to groups that included listening to 35 minutes

of classical, hard rock, and self-selected relaxing music. The study included a no

music control group. Temperature was expected to increase while listening to the

self-selected relaxing music. Temperature in the room was kept between 72 and

76 degrees Fahrenheit. Temperature decreased in all groups (a range of 1.5–

2.0 ); the least decrease occurring in the hard rock listening group (00.01 ).

In addition, Davis and Thaut (1989) reported a slight increase in

temperature during baseline (no music) and a gradual and continued decrease

during the music listening period in university students who listened to self-

selected, preferred music.

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 Conversely, in Standley’s (1991) study, detailed in Chapter 4, it was

hypothesized that if music and music and vibrotactile stimulation via the

Somatron bed were perceived as positive or as comfortable stimuli, peripheral

finger temperatures would rise. Finger temperature was recorded intermittently.

Results demonstrated a significant increase in temperature when vibrotactile

stimulation was combined with music, but not during vibrotactile stimulation

alone. No other studies measuring temperature were found that included

vibrotactile stimulation via a vibrational bed, chair, or pad.

Results found in the USU study, failing to demonstrate what was

expected, are like results found in the Standley (1991) study since the SRMT was

not combined with music. In addition, the failure to demonstrate an increase in

temperature may not be of much concern as inconsistent results were found in

other studies, as noted above.

For heart rate measures, I hypothesized that a greater decrease in heart rate

as measured by way of PPG would be found in the vibrational sound condition in

comparison to no sound. Such results may not be of major concern due to the

mixed results found in other studies. In fact, Davis and Thaut (1989) found that

heart rate increased in university students at the onset of self-selected preferred

music and remained above baseline throughout the music listening.

No control group was included in this study. Instead, comparisons were

made between baseline measures and music conditions. In addition, results from

Madsen, Standley, and Gregory’s (1991) study, also detailed in Chapter 4, found

no significant differences in heart rate across various experimental conditions

220
combining vibrotactile stimulation via the Somatron couch with music labeled as

stimulative or sedative.

In clinical studies, the impacts of music therapy interventions on heart rate

are also inconsistent. J. Bradt, Dileo, and Groke (2010) in both the cardiac and

mechanical ventilation Cochrane reviews reported significant decreases in heart

rate for music medicine interventions. However, included in the same ventilation

review, Phillips reported no significant difference in heart rate between

experimental and control groups.

The most significant findings from the USU study consistent with other

studies relate to measures of respiration. My hypotheses were two-fold, where I

expected measurements to reflect a decrease in thoracic breathing while at the

same time an increase in diaphragmatic breathing.

In a non-clinical setting, Baltes, Avram, Miclea, and Miu (2011) found

significant positive respiration changes related to operatic music listening.

Further, in Pujol’s (1994) study (see Chapter 4 for details), deep inhalations were

found to increase significantly in children and adults considered to be profoundly

retarded when music stimulation of any kind was present.

In clinical settings that include cardiac and mechanical ventilation, music

listening was shown to have significant positive effects on respiration (Dileo & J.

Bradt, 2005; J. Bradt & Dileo, 2009; J. Bradt, Dileo, & Grocke, 2010). Further,

Han et al. (2010) found a significant reduction in respiration rate over time for

mechanically ventilated patients in comparison to a no music control group. In

221
addition, J. Bradt and Dileo (2014) reported that music listening has consistently

reduced respiration rates, which was beneficial for these patients.

In cardiac care, positive respiration changes were significant for ICU

patients who listened to music played via earphones on an MP3 player during a c-

clamp procedure in comparison to a no music control group (Chan et al., 2006).

Other cardiac studies have found significant change in respiration rate beneficial

for patients receiving music treatment versus standard care (J. Bradt & Dileo,

2009).

To date, I’ve found no research on the effects of vibroacoustic stimuli on

respiration. Further, no music studies involving healthy college students were

found that included measures of respiration. It was encouraging to realize that my

study may be “one of a kind” and represents a starting point for similar research.

Summary of the Physiological Measures

In summary, results found in the USU study affirmed my hypotheses that,

when compared to no sound, the SRMT elicited greater positive effects on certain

physiological responses, reflecting a profile of measures in healthy college

musicians. This profile included muscle tension at the trapezius, skin

conductance, and thoracic and abdominal breathing rate and amplitude. Other

measures failing to support my hypotheses are not of major concern when

considering the mixed and inconsistent results found in other studies. I contend

that the USU study is significant and contributory in that it presents results

demonstrating the positive vibrational effects of the SRMT on a number of

physiological measures in healthy college musicians.

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 In the section that follows, I discuss my hypotheses relative to the

standardized self-report inventory measures.

Standardized Self-Report Inventory Measure Hypotheses

In this study, I was interested in the effects of the SRMT on mood and

anxiety states. In addition, I wanted to know how participants would rate their

experience of tension/relaxation and enjoyment. I chose the POMS and the

State/Trait Anxiety Inventory because (a) they are standardized tests, (b) I have

used them in past research, and (c) they are commonly used in other music

therapy studies. I designed two rating scales specifically for this study purporting

to measure tension/relaxation and enjoyment (see Appendix J). One is unique as

participants wrote their own descriptive anchors detailing circumstances that

represented either tension or relaxation (also in Appendix J). These scales, though

not standardized, can be used in other studies.

POMS

Relative to mood, I hypothesized that the experience of the SRMT would

bring about more significant positive mood changes when comparing mood

ratings pre- and post-study. Results suggest support for my hypothesis on all

POMS scales, including the total mood disturbance (TMD) scale. However,

results should be interpreted with caution due to a methodological issue explained

later in this chapter.

Other study results reflect positive change as measured by the POMS.

Many of these were studies of guided imagery in music (GIM) that included a

series of sessions. In McKinney’s (2002) review of randomized controlled studies

223
involving GIM, disturbed mood, anxiety, and depression were significantly

changed in both clinical and non-clinical populations who received 6 to 10

sessions. Results from McKinney et al.’s (1997) randomized trial demonstrated

that a six-week series of individual GIM sessions produced significant decreases

in POMS subscale scores (depression and fatigue) and total mood disturbance

(TMD) scores in healthy adults.

In D. S. Burns’s (2001) study involving cancer patients, detailed in

Chapter 4, 10 weekly individual sessions of GIM elicited reductions in negative

emotional states and a slight increase in the vigor-activity sub-score in the

experimental group while scores remained unchanged in the waiting list control

group. A study by B. D. Beck et al. (2015), also detailed in Chapter 4, examined

the effects of a modified version of GIM on biopsychosocial measures of work-

related stress. The POMS-37 short form (McNair et al., 1971) was used in the B.

D. Beck study along with other psychological and physiological measures. The

most significant change was reflected in TMD scores.

In another clinical study by Patrick (1999), detailed in Chapter 4, open-

ended questions related to tension, anxiety, and depressed mood were asked of

patients who received 25 minutes of music or vibration via Somatron technology

as part of a relaxation program. Results indicated a 49% reduction in depressed

mood from pre- to post-measure (p. 98). Finally, in the Walters (1996) study,

detailed in Chapter 4, subjective ratings of tension, anxiety, relaxation, stress, and

general mood state were significantly more positive in patients awaiting

224
gynecological surgery who received vibrotactile stimulation by way of a

Somatron mattress.

Further, Rider, Achterberg et al. (1990) used the POMS in a non-clinical

setting involving 55 students where they investigated the effects of

physiologically oriented and music-mediated mental imagery on mood. Of the

possible 18 comparisons, seven yielded significant differences among treatment

groups. The Rider et al. study did not include a no imagery control group.

Findings from both clinical and non-clinical studies measuring mood

reflect similar results as those of the USU study in that mood was improved.

However, though music or vibrational components were involved (in this case,

the Somatron mattress), they were not exactly the same as those produced by the

SRMT. Despite these differences, I assert that results from these other studies

lend support for those found in the USU study.

State-Anxiety Inventory Form Y-1

Relative to state anxiety, I hypothesized that scores would be more

significantly reduced after experiencing the SRMT in comparison to the

experience of no sound. Scores from the STAI were significantly reduced in both

the vibrational sound and no sound conditions pre- and post-test. Surprised by

these results, I decided to have my statistician conduct further analysis, which

revealed there to be larger decrease in STAI scores after receiving the vibration in

comparison to receiving no sound.

In clinical studies, STAI mean scores have decreased. In one music

medicine study, for example, significant decreases in mean scores of state anxiety

225
were found for cardiac-ICU patients who listened to 20 minutes of classical and

movie-pop music selections at 70/80 bpm (Moradipanah, Mohammadi, &

Mohammadi, 2009, as cited in Shultis, 2012).

In Twiss, Seaver, and McCaffrey’s (2006) study, state anxiety scores were

significantly lower for 60 adults over the age of 65 in response to music listening

during and after cardiovascular surgery in comparison to those who received

standard postoperative care. Further, more significance was found in the reduction

of anxiety in persons scheduled to receive vascular angiography procedures who

listened to preferred music in comparison to those who did not listen to music

(Buffum et al., 2006).

Findings from Wang et al. (2002) reflect significant reductions in state

anxiety in patients who listened to self-selected music through headphones before

surgery in comparison to a control group who wore headphones without music.

Sendelbach, Halm, Doran, Miller, and Gaillard (2006) conducted a study

that used the State Personality Inventory (SPI) constructed from its parent

instrument (STAI). Six sub-scales measured anxiety, anger, and curiosity states.

State anxiety was found to be significantly lower for surgical cardiac patients in

the music therapy intervention group in comparison to a resting in bed control

group. The music intervention involved 20 minutes of music listening twice per

day. Patients chose music that they felt would be the most relaxing. Music

selection genres included easy listening, classical, and jazz. Measures of anxiety

were obtained from both groups immediately before and after each 20-minute

listening or resting in bed condition.

226
 Positive STAI change results in studies that include university students are

inconsistent. No significant differences were found in STAI scores for university

students (n = 60) when comparing music-assisted progressive relaxation,

progressive relaxation, music listening, and silence (Robb, 2000). Conversely, W.

B. Davis and Thaut (1989) measured state anxiety and found significant decreases

in state anxiety scores in 18 non-musician college students when comparing no

music baseline periods with music listening periods.

As of this writing, I’ve found no vibrational studies that included measures

of state anxiety in either clinical or non-clinical settings. The USU study may be

the first to do so, thereby contributing to the existing research.

Self-Report Experiential Rating Scales

Two subjective experiential rating scales were used in this research to

measure ratings of relaxation–tension and enjoyment.

Relaxation–tension rating scale. I designed an individualized rating scale

purporting to measure the construct of relaxation and tension and asked three

questions: (a) How do ratings of relaxation–tension obtained before and after

experiencing the SRMT change? (b) How do the same ratings change relative to

experiencing no sound? and (c) Are there more significant change differences

found after experiencing the SRMT in comparison to no sound? Answers to these

questions significantly favored the experience of the SRMT.

Studies reviewed in the following paragraphs relate to the USU study in

some manner, either the study (a) used a scale designed to evaluate a similar

construct, (b) included similar participants, or (c) used a vibrational table.

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 Contrary to results found in the USU study, results were insignificant in

other research assessing a similar construct (comfort and discomfort). A perceived

comfort/discomfort scale was used by Standley (1991) in a study, detailed in

Chapter 4, that included the Somatron vibrational bed. The comfort/discomfort

scale functioned to assess respondents’ perception of comfort and discomfort

during various conditions that included the Somatron bed with and without music

and with the aversive stimuli of a dental drill. Though this scale differed from the

one used in the USU study, I contend that ratings of comfort and discomfort and

relaxation–tension are similar.

Different from the USU study, where ratings of relaxation–tension were

self-reported pre- and post- 20 minutes of vibrational sound or no sound, Standley

(1991) obtained ratings of comfort and discomfort at 30-second intervals during

the vibration via the continuous response digital interface (CRDI). The CRDI

used in the Standley study records information without talking or writing. Instead,

participants provide a rating of experience by simply moving a lever (Madsen et

al., 1990). Results were considered blunted as both the perception of comfort and

discomfort were reduced in both Somatron stimulation groups. Cumulative mean

group ratings of comfort demonstrated that music without the Somatron vibration

was preferred over music with the Somatron vibration. Only when conditions

included the aversive stimuli of the dental drill did participants prefer music

combined with the Somatron vibration.

In another study conducted by Robb (2002), 60 university students (health

science, counseling, and law students) completed a pre- post- measure of

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perceived relaxation using a visual analog scale (VAS). The VAS, as described by

Thaut and W. B. Davis (1993), consists of a horizontal 10 cm line with one end

presenting the maximum and the other end the minimum of the variable to be

measured. The right anchor of the scale is identified as “completely relaxed,” and

the left as “completely un-relaxed.” Participants were assigned to one of four

groups. Group 1 listened to a 15-minute audio instructional tape on progressive

muscle relaxation (PMR) without music. Group 2 listened to the same

instructional tape with music. Group 3 listened to music with an audio tape that

instructed them to find a comfortable position and relax. Group 4 received

instructions to relax during 15 minutes of silence. Analysis of VAS scores

demonstrated no significant differences between groups; however, visual

inspection of mean scores demonstrated an increase in one’s perception of

relaxation for all groups with the greatest amount noted when music was

combined with PMR.

Results from these studies, though not showing support for the positive

changes found in the USU study, do not challenge or contradict them. These

studies are distinct. In the Standley (1991) study, an aversive stimulus was

included where mean results reflected the effectiveness of the Somatron vibration

with music on perceptions of comfort. The Robb study also included additional

stimuli that guided participants through a progressive relaxation exercise. The

USU study was unique in that participants were passively receiving the vibrations.

Despite having biofeedback monitoring sensors attached to their bodies, which

could be perceived as aversive, they still rated their experience as more relaxing

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and less tense. It is possible that the no sound condition allowed them to be more

aware of the biofeedback sensors, and thus showed less improvement. In fact, a

few participants commented that while in silence they felt annoyed by the sensors.

Enjoyment rating scale. Identical questions were asked about ratings of

enjoyment, which also favored the experience of the SRMT.

Similar to ratings of enjoyment, subjective comments related to

experiences of pleasure were obtained in the Standley (1991) study mentioned

above. I consider enjoyment and pleasure to be similar and comparable

constructs. Results from the Standley study demonstrated that most respondents

experienced pleasure, usually in response to music and often when combined with

the Somatron vibration. Both of these conditions included music. Again, unique to

the USU study was the vibrational component of the SRMT (absent of recorded

music), thereby contributing to the recognition of the growing field of vibrational

medicine (Gerber, 2001).

Summarizing the standardized self-report measures. To summarize

this section, I discussed results from the POMS, STAI, and subjective rating

scales applied in the USU study, affirming my hypotheses and answering my

questions. The SRMT elicited greater positive effects for healthy college

musicians when compared to no sound on mood, anxiety states, measures of

relaxation–tension, and enjoyment. The USU study results are distinct from what

other studies have found in terms of a vibrational experience. As in the previous

section, I contend that the USU study is significant and contributory in that it

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presents the first study research relative to solely the use of vibrations and their

effects on the aforementioned measures.

In the following section, I discuss the descriptive thematic content in the

qualitative data. To satisfy my query as to how participants would describe their

experience, I decided to look for common themes and meaning units, which

would fit into specifically defined domains and categories related to one’s

transformational capacity (Murphy, 1992; see Appendix F).

Descriptive Thematic Content: Inquiry of the Qualitative Experience of the

SRMT

Thematic comments found in the USU study addressed the following

domains: physical, emotional, cognitive, auditory, visual, mental/consciousness

and individuation of self and higher self. In the following paragraphs, I first

discuss each thematic domain followed by a separate section where I present other

studies with similar themes.

Three Hypotheses

My hypotheses for the majority of these domains were three in number:

Hypothesis 1: More participants will make a comment of any kind

(unpleasant or pleasant) about the vibrational sound experience in comparison to

experiencing no sound.

Hypothesis 2: More participants will make pleasant comments about the

vibrational sound experience in comparison to experiencing no sound.

Hypothesis 3: More participants will make unpleasant comments about the

vibrational sound experience in comparison to experiencing no sound.

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 Physical/somatic awareness domain. In this domain, after experiencing

the SRMT, participants commented feeling tingly, a flow of vibration, like

melting into sand, deeper breathing, warmth, a surging of energy across the body

in waves, and rejuvenation, all of which are considered pleasant comments.

Participants also described their experiences of receiving no sound as unpleasant.

Comments included feeling chilly, discomfort, muscle tension, sluggish, pain, jaw

clenching, headache, and unnatural breathing. These comments confirmed

hypothesis 1 and 2 and failed to confirm hypothesis 3.

The emotional domain. Participants after their experience with the

SRMT commented they felt pleasant emotions that included happiness, peace,

contentment, joy, and love. In addition, one participant commented that he felt

everything was working out, while another experienced a feeling of giving over to

pleasant sensations and emotions. On the contrary, participants reported their

experience of receiving no sound as unpleasant, feeling bugged, fearful, worried,

disconcerted knowing that someone was watching them, and annoyed by the

biofeedback sensors. These comments confirmed hypothesis 1 and 2 and failed to

confirm hypothesis 3.

The cognitive domain. Participants after their experience of the SRMT

reported having pleasant memories of friends, having thoughts about a wonderful

future, and experiencing a quieting of the mind. Participants reported their

experience of silence as unpleasant, stating that their minds moved from topic to

topic and were busy with thoughts. These comments confirmed hypothesis 1 and

2 and failed to confirm hypothesis 3.

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 Effort/trying. Through the process of thematic analysis, an additional

theme emerged related to making an effort or trying to make something happen.

This theme was labeled effort/trying and was placed within the cognitive domain.

Specific comments included trying to quiet and calm one’s thoughts and trying to

relax, confirming one hypothesis that more comments would be made during

conditions of silence. No comments were made relative to the vibrational

experience.

The auditory domain. Relative to the auditory domain, I was interested

in comments that would suggest an extraordinary auditory experience. After their

experience of the SRMT, participants reported being aware of the overtone series.

Select participants reported listening to the sounds; picking out the overtones,

feeling their consciousness shift to focus on each overtone; making reference to

the 5th, 3rd, flat 7th, and octave; hearing music being played even though they

were aware that the strings on the SRMT were tuned to the same pitch; hearing so

many beautiful sounds, and focusing their mind on the nature of the overtones.

These comments my hypothesis that there would be more comments made

suggesting an extraordinary auditory experience in the vibrational sound

condition. However, because there was no vibrational sound produced during

conditions of silence, similar perceptions were not possible; thus, a valid

comparison could not be made. However, it is worth noting that in the no sound

experience, no comments were made relative to the absence of sound, wanting to

hear sounds, or hearing unpleasant sounds (e.g., computer sounds from

monitoring equipment in the music therapy lab.)

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 The visual imagery domain. As in the auditory domain, I was interested

in comments suggesting an experience of visual imagery, also confirming one

hypothesis: more comments will be found relative to experiencing visual imagery

while receiving vibrational sound in comparison to experiencing no sound.

Participants after their experience of the SRMT reported pleasant imagery, seeing

rainbows, many colors, a mountain village scene, and throat singers. One male

participant experienced unpleasant imagery, making reference to the movie Pet

Cemetery. No participants reported experiencing visual imagery during silence.

The mental/consciousness domain. In this domain, more comments were

made suggesting mental shifts in consciousness during the experience of the

SRMT in comparison to the experience of no sound. Participants’ descriptions not

only suggested shifts in mental consciousness, but additionally, access to

subliminal depths of the mind and body to include dream states and an altered

perception of time. Select participants reported feeling as if they were somewhere

else, deep inside; put in an unfamiliar, but comfortable state of mind; feeling lost

in a very relaxing world inside; feeling like they completely escaped from

wherever they were before; and like time disappeared. No such references to these

experiences were made while in silence.

Sleeping/dreaming. Through the process of analysis, two additional

themes emerged in the descriptions, inferring experiences of falling asleep or

dreaming. These themes were labeled sleeping/dreaming and placed within the

mental/consciousness domain. Participants reported experiencing dreams and

falling asleep while on the SRMT and during silence; however, participants’

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comments while receiving the vibrations of the SRMT suggested these states were

deeper. During the vibrational sound experience, select participants made

reference to experiencing a “very relaxed, very deep sleep,” whereas while in

silence, participants made reference to experiencing a “brief nap.”

Somatic experience. Examples of somatic experiential comments made

by participants included being out of one’s body and feeling the body levitate or

be transported. Because such comments from my perspective suggest an altered

mind state, I included the somatic experience within the mental/consciousness

domain. All experiential comments related to the somatic experience were found

relative to receiving vibrations, supporting one hypothesis that there would be

more comments made in that regard. No such comments were found in

descriptions relative to conditions of silence.

The aesthetic experience. Viewing the aesthetic experience within the

context of transcendence (discussed later in this chapter) was influential in my

placing it for discussion within the mental/consciousness domain. Some

participants described their experience of the SRMT as beautiful (e.g., so many

beautiful sounds, and feelings of ecstasy). No comments in this regard were made

during conditions of silence. Participants’ comments suggested an aesthetic

response while receiving the vibrations of the SRMT. The aesthetic response is a

human response to “the beautiful” in nature (Crowe, 2004).

Individuation of self and higher self domain. The individuation of self

and higher self was defined threefold as (a) feelings of communion with a

transcendent presence, power, or principle that produces an identity beyond one’s

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ordinary sense of self; (b) the noticing of thoughts, images, emotions, sensations,

and conflicting volitions that are relinquished (come and go), as in witness

meditation (observer consciousness); and (c) the expansion of creative ability.

Feelings of communion. Select participant comments related to this

domain included feeling connected and together, enlightened, at one with all, and

a spiritual awareness, all of which were made in response to the experience of the

SRMT supporting one hypothesis: there will be more comments made in this

regard while receiving the vibrational sound. Participants while in silence did not

report such feelings.

Observer consciousness. Some participant comments suggested an

indirect reference to this theme (e.g., “letting go,” suggesting that they may have

noticed something to let go of); however, no direct references were determined to

reflect this theme. Recall that the screening process excluded those participants

who had a regular practice of meditation. Perhaps participants were noticing their

thoughts, images, sensations come and go, but did not have a context wherein

they could describe it as observer consciousness, also named witnessing.

According to Ram Dass (2013), the ability to witness oneself (observer

consciousness) requires regular meditative practice: “One way to get free of

attachment is to cultivate the witness consciousness, to become a neutral observer

of your own life . . . which calls for daily practice, such as through meditation.”

(Para 1).

Expansion of one’s creative ability. More comments were found

favoring the vibrational sound experience over the no sound experience relative to

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engaging one’s creativity. Select participants when hearing the sounds produced

by the SRMT considered how to orchestrate the music they felt, felt more

available and open for new creative experiences, and felt the urge to find

something of their own in the sounds. No comments in this regard were made

relative to conditions of silence.

Summarizing the domains. Findings related to the descriptive themes

favor the SRMT experience supporting my hypotheses, further suggesting that the

SRMT may elicit experiences relative to one’s transformative capacity as

categorized by Murphy (1992) (see Appendix F). University student musicians

found the experience of the SRMT to be pleasant on the physical level, bringing

forth positive emotions, memories, images, and an enhanced perception of sound.

They found the experience to be quieting for the mind, to induce shifts in

consciousness, and to include sleep and dream states. The SRMT also seemed to

elicit the somatic experience and an aesthetic response for these musicians.

Musicians felt a “oneness with all” while also at times felt their focus shift to

themselves as individuals, contemplating how they could engage their musical

creativity in relationship to the sounds they were hearing.

Comparing themes found in the USU study with other studies. Other

studies using various phenomenological methods have included thematic data

collection and analyses similar to the USU study (J. Lee, 2014; Quiroga, 2015;

Robb, 2000; Zanders, 2008). Themes from these analyses and those found in the

USU study are similar.

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 Robb (2000) conducted a study where respondents listened to recorded

music and were asked to respond to two open-ended questions: “Please describe

your thoughts or state of mind while listening to this tape” and “Describe your

overall reaction to this tape.” Responses were classified into themes or patterns

and grouped into 10 categories. A content analysis of participant responses

revealed four trends. Response categories similar to those in the USU study

addressed the physical (relaxing, soothing); emotional (enjoyment); cognitive

(random wandering thoughts, quieting the mind); and mental/consciousness

domains (sleep).

In addition, thematic findings in a study by Zanders (2008) suggest

similarities between the experience of GIM and the experience of the SRMT.

Metaphorical themes were determined from GIM client descriptions, making

reference to the support of the earth, walking away, being liquid, turning inward,

a dream, a story, being in the cosmos, a switch, surrender, floating, a space of

silence, returning from space, cradling, a quiet reentry, being in love, and a

web/tapestry. In Appendix M, I present participant comments from the USU study

found similar to those in the GIM study. These similarities suggest that

experiences on the SRMT may be transpersonal in nature as are those in GIM.

Dr. Helen Bonny’s GIM technique (detailed in Appendix D) is considered

the most well-established music imaging intervention in the music therapy

profession (Crowe, 2004). In GIM sessions, the client experiences visual,

auditory, and visceral images evoked by musical programs, while interactively

being guided in the process by a GIM therapist. A psychotherapy approach is then

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used in part for interpretation of the experience. However, the process employed

in GIM is different from the protocol implemented in the USU study. In the USU

study no interactive dialogue occurred during either the vibrational sound or no

sound condition; rather, images evoked while experiencing the SRMT were

spontaneous and did not include a therapeutic process to explore the meaning of

the imagery.

Concluding summary statement. In this study, I sought to explore how

different findings from different types of data (quantitative and qualitative) would

support each other or not. Looking at the combined data, findings suggest, in part,

relations with an important psychophysiological principle

Every change in the physiological state is accompanied by an appropriate

change in the mental emotional state, conscious or unconscious, and
conversely, every change in the mental and emotional state, conscious or
unconscious, is accompanied by an appropriate change in the
physiological state. (Green, Green, & Walters, p. 3)

Implications for Health Promotion

What important health implications can be drawn relative to each domain?

I organize this section by first discussing implications within the context of health

and wellness, providing what other researchers and authors say in support of such

implications. I then proceed to talk about what types of change are implied. Next,

I present implications as related to the music therapy profession (clinically and

educationally), after which I present implications related to the sound healing

profession.

Vibrational healing within the context of health and wellness. Within

the physical domain, findings support a profile of physiological responses that

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correlate with other findings and techniques that elicit the relaxation response

(Benson, Arns, & Hoffman, 1981), suggesting conditions of homeostasis and the

engagement of the parasympathetic nervous system.

According to Wolf (1986), wellness on the physical level involves a

correlation or resonance among all cells in the body. It involves the creation of

homeostasis for the individual by finding a balance between both internal and

external environments (Edlin & Golanty, 1992). Further, et al. (1981) make

reference to four basic elements found in techniques that elicit the relaxation

response: (a) a mental device in the form of a constant stimulus such as a sound,

word, or phrase; (b) a passive attitude that allows distracting thoughts to be

disregarded; (c) a decreased muscle tonus or a comfortable position; and (d) a

quiet environment with decreased sensory stimulation. Implications are that the

SRMT could be considered one of those techniques, addressing three of these

elements.

The SRMT provided a constant sound stimulus where participants

passively received vibrations while reclined in a comfortable position;

participants’ comments suggested having a passive attitude (e.g., letting go,

surrendering); and muscle tonus as measured by EMG and subjective ratings of

tension were reduced while ratings of relaxation increased.

Respiration, the rhythm of the breath, is one of the oldest psycho-

physiological measures (Hassett, 1978). Findings in this study imply the

effectiveness of the SRMT in promoting a balanced and diaphragmatic breathing

pattern in university musicians. Such patterns are indicative of the relaxation

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response and are associated with an increased sense of well being (Allen, Frame,

& Murray, 2002). Breathing research provides significant evidence supporting the

importance of a balanced pattern of breathing for individuals in maintaining

wellness (Harvard University, 2016; Northern Michigan University, 2016).

Also, reduced respiration rates coupled with increases in diaphragmatic

breathing correlate with shifts in autonomic balance that reflect reduced

sympathetic and increased parasympathetic activity (H. Benson, Beary, & Carol;

1974; Hoffman et al., 1982; Peper, Harvey, Lin, Tylova, & Moss, 2007). And,

diaphragmatic breathing has been shown to have benefits that include an

increased awareness of the body–mind connection, an awareness that can enhance

one’s participation in creating conditions of well being. Benefits include (a) the

release of endorphins, (b) increased oxygenation of the cells, (c) reduced muscle

tension, (d) a strengthening of the immune system, (e) the maintenance of good

posture and core muscle strength, (f) lowering of blood pressure and heart rate,

(g) gentle massage of the internal organs, (h) an aid in digestion and lymphatic

drainage, (i) the reduction of negative emotions, and (j) improved concentration

(Harvard University, 2016; Northern Michigan University, 2016).

Within the emotional domain, I combine findings to include mood and

anxiety states and ratings of enjoyment. Findings reflect that the experience of the

SRMT brought about positive changes in mood, anxiety states, and ratings of

enjoyment, implying conditions associated with optimal health and well being

(Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016).

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 As previously mentioned, the SRMT considered as a receptive technique

could be affecting emotions beyond conscious awareness. According to LeDoux

(1996) emotions are more easily influenced when the person is not aware that

they are being influenced. In addition, Kenyon (1994) indicates that a true

experience of emotion and feeling is visceral. It is possible that the SRMT may

evoke a true experience of emotion as the vibrations (visceral sensations) are felt

throughout the entire body. In these ways, sound as received by way of the SRMT

contributed to the emotional well being of undergraduate musicians.

Within the cognitive domain, findings suggest that the experience of the

SRMT facilitated a quieting of the mind. Other techniques that quiet the mind,

and more specifically meditation, have been shown to improve health (H. Benson,

1996; Cuthbert, Kristeller, Simons, & Lang, 1981; Shapiro, 1990; J. A. Taylor,

Barry, & Walls, 1997; Walsh, 1979, 1983). Meditation also generally improves

psychological function, the sense of well being (Walsh, 1999; West, 1987), and a

better understanding of psychological needs and attributes (Carrington, 1987).

I consider the vibrational sound as applied by way of the SRMT to be

noninvasive, unfamiliar, and novel. The strumming of the strings provides a quiet

dynamic with an underlying, but not dominant, rhythmic structure, which

according to Wise (2002) may indicate the presence of alpha brainwave states.

“Music that is noninvasive and unfamiliar melodically with a quiet dynamic and

with an underlying, but not prominent, rhythmic structure fosters the alpha brain

waves of the meditative state” (Wise, 2002, as cited in Crowe, 2004 p. 324).

Findings suggest that the SRMT may have facilitated a meditative state.

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 Within the auditory domain, participants after their experience of the

SRMT made reference to the overtone series. As previously explained, the

strumming of the SRMT produced complex sounds to include high frequency

overtones. It has been suggested that high frequency overtones, complex sounds,

and the timing elements of music can have an effect on midbrain structures,

including on the hippocampus and the amygdala (Tomaino, 1998). Further

discussion related to the auditory domain is made within the mental/consciousness

domain and is referred to as auditory consciousness.

Within the imagery domain, USU study results indicate that participants

experienced pleasant imagery during the vibrational sound condition. These

experiences were spontaneous and unguided. Imagery as a guided process can

have positive effects on one’s health and well being. Guided imagery studies by

Bartlett, Kaufman, and Smeltekop (1993), Rider, Floyd, and Kirkpatrick (1985),

and Rider and Weldin (1990) have included music and healing imagery with

scripts written for healing purposes.

Though unguided, findings in this study imply that pleasant images as

elicited by the SRMT could have similar positive health-related benefits. As

previously noted, GIM is considered the most well-established transpersonal

music imaging intervention in the music therapy profession (Crowe, 2004). GIM

studies in many areas, as noted in the review of the literature, provide evidence of

positive therapeutic health and wellness related outcomes.

Within the mental/consciousness domain, combined themes from the USU

study imply experiences of altered states of consciousness, including

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transcendent, mystical, and peak experience. In addition to positive change in

mood and anxiety states, and references to feelings of unity, being transported,

and experiences previously noted implying effects across multiple domains, the

most prominent thematic data in the USU study associated with the transcendent,

mystical, and peak experience relates to the passage of time. Thirty-four of the 44

participants made comments suggesting that their perception of time was altered

during their experience of the SRMT. Some examples include, time was not

existent, transported to a world where I didn’t care about time, timeless sensation,

completely lost track of time, almost like a time travel experience, a world

without time, and time seemed irrelevant.

According to Crowe (1991), there are five music/sound elements used to

alter consciousness. In the USU study, the sounds produced by the strumming of

the SRMT suggest a connection to two of them (a) the rhythmic element that

encompasses monotonous sound; and (b) the sound timbre element, reflecting the

unique complexity of sound (e.g., overtones). In the following paragraphs, I

elaborate on the transcendent, mystical, and peak experience in relation to the

USU study.

Walsh, Elgin, Vaughan, and Wilber (1980) define the transcendent

experience as an altered state of consciousness—a state different from the usual

state of awareness. Certain subjective qualities about experiences of

transcendence found common among researchers include (a) the transcendence of

linear time, (b) the body consciousness extending outwards beyond one’s physical

body, (c) feelings of unity, and (d) experiences across multiple modalities to

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include visual, auditory, and proprioceptive (Grof, 2005; Hunt, 1995; Mikula,

n.d.; Walsh et al., 1980). Similar qualities are characteristic of the mystical

experience. Pahnke and Richards (1966) list them to include feelings of oneness,

transcendence of time and space, feelings of sacredness, and deeply felt positive

mood states. Such experiences have been indicators of positive mental health.

People who have had these experiences report that their lives are more

meaningful, hopeful, and purposeful (Counsel on Spiritual Practices, 1977; Hruby

1996; Lukoff & Lu, 1988). According to Privette (2001), peak experiences

potentially can (a) enhance personal awareness and understanding and can be a

turning point in a person’s life, (b) generate feeling positive emotions and are

intrinsically rewarding, (c) elicit feelings of oneness with the world, and (d) alter

one’s perception of the passage of time.

The aesthetic experience within the context of transcendence warrants

further mention. To some degree, USU participant descriptions imply an aesthetic

moment while on the SRMT. Participant descriptions made reference to an

enhanced auditory focus on the musical experience, hearing the overtones, and so

many beautiful sounds. They also reported feelings of ecstasy and feelings of

being transported.

According to Gaston (1968) and Maslow (1970), the aesthetic response is

a fundamental human experience and has all the qualities of a transcendent event

or peak experience.

In an aesthetic experience, attention is completely focused on the musical

experience at hand. In the aesthetic moment, we are then overpowered
with strong positive emotions, a feeling of ecstasy, a feeling of being

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 overwhelmed, but in a wonderful and transporting way. (Crowe, 2004, p.
274)

Crowe (2004) suggests that the aesthetic reaction to music can provide some of

the first transcendent experiences, some of which may include near death

experiences, spontaneous visions, and deep dreams that can be frightening and

uncontrollable. However, physiological findings in this study seem to correlate

with those characteristic of the relaxation response. Thus, the vibrational sound,

as applied by way of the SRMT, not only potentially evoked a transcendent

experience, but also provided a safe and structured container for it.

Finally, Bruscia (1998b) when distinguishing music in healing makes

reference to the aesthetic properties of music being as important in healing as the

music itself “the healing results from both the experience of music in and for

itself, as an aesthetic object, as well as the experience of the universal energy

forms within the music” (p. 207). Does the aesthetic experience contribute to

one’s well being? According to Salas (1990), the aesthetic experience facilitates

and enhances the therapeutic process, “Healing takes place within the aesthetic

experience itself” (p. 9). In addition, Aigen (1995) states, “The aesthetic is

essential to our healthful embrace of life” (p. 242).

Shifts in consciousness are further implied when comparing the data found

in GIM with those found in the USU study. As previously mentioned, these

similarities suggest that experiences on the SRMT may be transpersonal in nature.

Transpersonal therapies function on the levels of consciousness defined as “other

than ordinary” or “altered” (Tart, 1975, as cited in Justice & Kasayka, 1999, p.

24). They address experiences not commonly explored in other psychological

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frameworks. Transpersonal experiences include aspects of “becoming, intuitive

consciousness, and self-actualization, transcendence of the self and individual

synergy” (Justice & Kasayka, 1999, p.24).

Further discussion related to auditory consciousness is relevant within the

context of transcendence as experiential themes from participant descriptions of

the SRMT suggest an enhancement of their perception of sound. Some USU

participants commented about picking out the overtones heard in the sounds

produced by the SRMT, feeling their consciousness shift to focus on each

overtone. Comments like these suggest that participants experienced what Berendt

refers to as a

multidimensional awareness of time and space, a nonlinear reaction that is

unitary in nature. The consciousness of the listening is continuous, ever
present, and unavoidable. It is an awareness of wholeness and,
simultaneously, of the constantly changing and evolving moving
relationships inherent in sound. (1998, as cited in Crowe, 2004, p. 169)

Additionally, participants commented about the recollection of past

memories and associated emotional states, suggesting neurophysiological effects

on mid-brain structures, including on the hippocampus and amygdala. A recent

study conducted by S. E. Lee, Han, and Park (2016) provides evidence of the

effects of GIM on midbrain structures measured by way of functional magnetic

resonance imaging (fMRI). Retrieval of such memories or emotional states

provides areas for therapeutic intervention. As previously noted, Tomaino (1998)

suggested that high frequency overtones, complex sounds, and the timing

elements of music may have an effect on the hippocampus and amygdala as well;

however, no research has investigated such effects.

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 Also, neurophysiologically, the auditory nerve has a direct connection to

both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. During altered states

of consciousness, accomplished through monotonous auditory stimuli like

repetitive drumming, harmonic shifts, and subcortical pitch processing,

parasympathetic responses dominate (Harner, 1982; Maxfield, 1994; Neher, 1962;

Winkelman, 2000). Based on the combination of the quantitative and thematic

data collected in the USU study, I would add the SRMT to that list.

Summary of health benefits. As presented in the previous paragraphs,

many health benefits associated with optimal health and well being are implied as

findings that (a) correlate with those associated with the relaxation response and

conditions of homeostasis; (b) reflect positive changes in mood, anxiety, and

cognitive states; (c) reflect pleasant imagery; (d) suggest the altering of

consciousness to include the transcendent, mystical, peak, and aesthetic

experience; and (e) suggest effects on neurophysiological mechanisms.

Final summary. As stated in Chapter 1, there is a strong call for the

Western allopathic model of illness to shift to a more health, wellness, and

integral approach (Schlitz, 2005). The term wellness was first conceptualized by

H. L. Dunn in 1961 and was first defined as “an integrated method of functioning

which is oriented toward maximizing the potential of which the individual is

capable” (as cited in Bezner, 2013, p. 26).

Though a universally accepted definition of wellness is difficult to find, it

is agreed that wellness is multi-dimensional and includes the physical, emotional,

mental, spiritual, social, environmental, intellectual, occupational, and financial

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aspects of a person’s life (Bezner, 2013; National Wellness Institute, 2016).

Wellness fits within the perspective of integral health, a perspective on well being

that incorporates the entire range of human experience, including physical,

mental, emotional, spiritual, interpersonal, and sociocultural dimensions (Schlitz,

2008). Some of these dimensions were addressed in the USU study.

To conclude this section, outcomes obtained in the USU study imply

positive change effects of the SRMT across multiple dimensions within the

perspectives of integral health and wellness, namely the physical, emotional,

cognitive, auditory, visual, aesthetic, and mental/consciousness domains.

In the section that follows, I talk about what types of changes are implied and find

Bruscia’s (1998b) discourse helpful in this regard.

Ken Bruscia’s Types of Change

Various types of change occurred in the USU study. Though implications

relative to types of change were outside the scope of my research questions, I later

felt it important to explore what types of change could have occurred. Bruscia

(1998b) in his text Defining Music Therapy refers to three organizing principles of

change: change in general, health-enhancing change, and therapeutic change. I

contend that measures obtained in the USU study reflect what Bruscia identifies

as objective determinants of general change (healthy or unhealthy). Findings

support evidence of healthy change in (a) physiological measures and

psychophysiological measures (e.g., levels of arousal, levels of consciousness,

state of tension or relaxation, and levels of energy or fatigue); and (b) emotions

(e.g., vitality, anxiety, aggressiveness, and depression).

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 Further, USU study findings suggest that the SRMT facilitated

preventative and homeopathic change. Bruscia (1998b) regards these types of

change as health-enhancing or therapeutic. According to Bruscia, preventative

change assists clients in decreasing health risks or in building resistances against

health problems. In the USU study, anxiety and muscle tension levels were

reduced and relaxed response indicators improved along with positive mood

states. All of these measures are beneficial for health.

In addition, results found in this study suggest that the experience of the

SRMT may have facilitated conditions within the body-mind physiology where

natural healing processes are possible. Such conditions suggest homeopathic

change, which, according to Bruscia (1998b), assists in creating health conditions

wherein the natural healing processes of clients are stimulated; consequently,

these processes operate more efficiently. To conclude, USU findings imply the

occurrence of healthy general change, objectively determined, as well as

preventative and homeopathic change.

Clinical Implications for Music Therapy

Vibrational sound as applied in this study is considered receptive in

nature. Simply through receiving harmonically organized vibrational sound,

findings give credence to the benefits that healthy musicians can realize. Music

therapists who have acquired expertise in vibrational healing may be encouraged

by these results and want to implement other receptive forms of acoustical

vibrational sound techniques in clinical settings, and more particularly in settings

where clients are less actively involved. More easily transportable instruments

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could include body harps, harmonic tone bars, harmonically arranged singing

bowls, and tuning forks.

Positive findings from this study relative to the reduction of muscle

tension at the trapezius suggest that vibrational sound similarly applied may

benefit musicians who experience playing-related musculoskeletal disorders

(PRMDs). The prevalence of PRMDs among violin and viola players is high

(Berque & Gray, 2002). However, PRMDs are not isolated only to violinists or

violists. Performance art medicine clinics working with various instrumentalists

(guitar players, drummers, etc.) can be found in Minneapolis, New Orleans, and

the San Francisco Bay area, to name a few. Music therapists interested in this area

may want to consider expanding their practice to include educational in-services

for clinic staff, potentially leading to future clinical and research opportunities.

Implications for the Music Therapy Profession: Education and Training

Results in this study suggest that experiences of the SRMT were

transpersonal in nature. Therapists interested in vibrational medicine and the

transpersonal perspective in general need to be knowledgeable about and

experience the work on a personal level. Academic study, perhaps beyond a

bachelor’s degree in music therapy, would essentially focus on how to work with

clients experiencing nonordinary states of consciousness, where the therapist’s

role would be that of being a supportive witness and a bridge back to ordinary

reality (Bruscia, 1998b).

According to Bruscia (1998b), in transpersonal work the client is

perceived as actively doing the healing; consequently, the traditional titles

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therapist and client and their meanings may not be as appropriate. In addition,

music therapists would need to extend their education to include studying with

those who have expertise in vibrational sound healing, most likely requiring study

outside what is currently available in music therapy programs.

While completing my academic studies at CIIS, I had the opportunity to

present the preliminary findings of this research at music therapy and integrative

health conferences. During those presentations, I found that most practicing music

therapists and other health practitioners were uninformed of the effects of pure

vibrational tones on human physiology. Attendees asked poignant questions that

informed me of their interest in knowing more.

In addition, as recent as November, 2016, and arranged by internship

supervisor Tony Ollerton, MT-BC, four music therapy interns came to my sound

studio to experience the SHE. After their experience, they expressed their desire

to learn more, wishing that music therapy program curriculums included more

education about vibrational sound healing. Further, the e-mails I receive are on

the rise, reflecting a growing interest among students to learn more about the

techniques applied in sound healing. Music therapy students express that they are

at a loss as to where to turn. In response, and based on the findings in this study, I

feel it important to consider curriculum that focuses on vibrational healing within

the context of a therapist–client approach, which may not to be present in sound

healing workshops or trainings.

Toning is the most familiar method of vibrational sound applied in the

music therapy profession where the client and therapist use the voice. As

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previously mentioned, S. Snow (2011) suggested that toning could also be called

vocal sound healing. Though toning as practiced within the music therapy

profession is more of a technique as opposed to a well-developed method, some

music therapists have conducted small studies on toning where clients actively

used their voices (Rider, 1997a; Rider et al., 1991).

In addition, other music therapists have incorporated toning into their

clinical practices (Austin, 2009; Maranto, 1993; Montello, 2002). S. Snow (2011)

argued that, “the time has come to integrate vocal sound healing into music

therapy practice in a much more substantial way” (p. 210). She makes reference

to the drum circle model that was once considered separate from music therapy,

but now is integrated as various drumming techniques have been adapted to fit

specific settings and populations (S. Snow & D’Amico, 2010). I agree with S.

Snow and feel it is time to consider other sound healing techniques applied within

a therapeutic context that implement singing bowls, gongs, tuning forks, and

resonating tone bars.

The SRMT and these other instruments produce a sustained vibrational

sound, like the sustained tones produced by the voice. However, in comparison to

the voice, the SRMT and the others produce a longer sustained vibration. Also,

there would be timbre differences in the voice in comparison to the vibrational

instruments. Combining the two (toning along with the instruments) would make

for an interesting study.

As a final comment, when working with these instruments, I’ve found my

expertise as a therapist to be essential. Effects of these instruments have elicited

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intense emotions associated with traumatic memories requiring therapeutic

processing and intervention. My master’s-level study in psychology, behavioral

medicine, and psychophysiology has been extremely valuable in this regard.

Implications for the Sound Healing Profession

To date, applied research studies conducted by sound healers are few or

non-existent. However, many have written texts that describe their techniques and

methods, providing anecdotal evidence. Within both the music therapy and sound

healing professions, it is agreed that more research in sound healing is needed. As

recent as November, 2016, Jonathan Goldman featured guest Shelley Snow, PhD

on his Healing Sounds Radio show. S. Snow talked about her collaboration with

neuroscientists at the International Laboratory for Music, Sound, and Brain

Research at McGill and the University of Montreal, while studying toning.

After learning of S. Snow for the first time and listening to the radio show,

I phoned her. In conversation, we found common interests, experienced similar

challenges and frustrations, and talked about plans for the future. I was delighted

to learn that there was another music therapist conducting evidence-based

research related to sound healing. Results from S. Snow’s research and my own

will perhaps set the stage for future research where music therapists,

neuroscientists, and sound healing experts will work in collaboration.

Critique of the Research Process

Because much of my focus and learning revolved around the research

process and method, this section is quite lengthy; however, what I learned is

deserving of attention and may benefit others in their own research endeavors.

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 “In the Beginning was the Word and the Word was Perseverance.”

Overall, completing this dissertation was from the onset challenging,

requiring the reorganization of my committee on several occasions. My initial

chair resigned from CIIS during the early stages, which sent me on a search for a

replacement. My current chair, Leslie Alan Combs, PhD, having been consistently

present throughout this process as my advisor and second committee member,

made suggestions as to other potential chair occupants. At that time, Combs did

not have the time to serve as chair.

My chair prior to Combs recommended that I include a substantial amount

of background information related to the discipline and history of music therapy,

sound healing, and other areas not directly explored in this study. He informed me

that I should assume that my audience would not be familiar with music therapy

and vibrational sound healing. Thus, it was challenging, though rewarding from a

learning standpoint, to provide such extensive detail, consequently affecting the

length, chapter organization, and flow within and between sections.

I felt lost in a maze at times, moving sections around, eliminating some,

and placing some in appendices to prevent the reader from getting lost. One

committee member commented, “Annette, you seem to be a non-linear writer.” I

remember having a disconcerting thought about the meaning of his words: “does

he mean there is no beginning, middle, or end?” In that regard, I was more

concerned about there being no end to this process. I also remember waking up

during the night with the song lyrics by The Police repeating in my head: “too

much information, runnin’ round my brain—too much information, drivin’ me

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insane.” I reassured myself by thinking that others of my cohorts in the

dissertation process may be having a similar experience, which was validated on

occasion over the phone or via e-mail.

The Learning Curve: Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Data

The learning curve I experienced was steep at times, and was mostly

related to the qualitative/thematic aspects of the study, as it was my first attempt

at conducting qualitative research. As mentioned, my master’s thesis was

quantitative, and the program of study I was schooled in was predominantly

behaviorally focused. I don’t regret having a behavioral grounding; however, at

the core of my being, I feel a have an experiential nature. In psychology classes, I

was always attracted to existentialism, the transpersonal perspective, and

experiences of altered states of consciousness. One might say I have one foot in

the behavioral camp and one in the experiential, aiming to bridge the two, like

bridging the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

In the process of examining the philosophical points of view presented

throughout the chapters, I found instances where I seemed to contradict myself.

As an example, in the introduction, I criticized randomized controlled studies and

the view that quantitative analysis was the gold standard in determining what

works or doesn’t work. However, I then proceeded to apply the embedded design,

giving primary focus to the quantitative data to include procedures of

randomization and implications of cause-and-effect relationships.

I reflected on how this may have occurred and decided on two

possibilities. Either this choice was influenced by my educational background

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rooted in behaviorism, perhaps reflecting an unconscious conditioned bias, or

perhaps it was fear based, as I was unfamiliar with conducting qualitative

research. Throughout the research, I became more aware that my primary interest

was to understand the nature of the SRMT experience, including how it manifests

in consciousness. I see consciousness as a central aspect of our inner world that

really cannot be exclusively based on what can be quantified.

Capra (1982) wrote about how quantified research is limited in

understanding new modalities emerging from the holistic perspective, arguing for

a need for qualitative research that includes the exploration of experience, quality,

and value. I considered other designs at one point, but decided to continue with

the embedded design. My final choice could also be a reflection of the on-going

quantitative–qualitative debate within the music therapy discipline, where there is

still pressure for researchers to quantify evidence of efficacy.

What Language to Use?

Related to the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the design, I found it

challenging to know how to language the final document. Do I use quantitative

language? like in this research that would speak more to the listening of the

empirically minded, or do I use qualitative language? like in this inquiry that

would speak to the listening of the transdisciplinary minded. I was also

challenged in this way due to varied stances of my committee members. One

committee member may gravitate toward the quantitative methods while another

may resonate with the qualitative.

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 I initially thought this study was phenomenological, being informed later

by a welcomed new committee member that it was not. I was relieved to learn that

Abrams felt it acceptable that I had borrowed from the method to extract themes,

since this is what I had already done in the process of analyses.

Validation Process

Another major realization involved the complex process required to

validate themes and meaning units found in the study. I included two independent

reviewers, providing them with instructions to complete the procedural steps

required. The amount of time required to accomplish this task was enormous (e.g.,

coordinating meetings, multiple revisions in designing tables to display the

thematic data and validation process).

Future Research, More Learning, and What Would I Do Differently

At the master’s level, my study conducted at the University of the Pacific

included an overabundance of dependent variables and questions; however, I must

have forgotten about the challenges presented in that regard as the same was

repeated in this study. In the future, I intend to practice meditation that includes as

a mental device the repetition of the mantras “less is more” and “simplify.”

In the following paragraphs I discuss other areas of importance when

conducting future research. I label these areas as methodological considerations

and intervening variables.

Methodological Considerations

Profile of mood states. As noted in discussing POMS results, positive

change was not clearly linked to the SRMT experience alone. As described in the

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procedures section, mood was assessed by way of POMS pre- and post-study,

evaluating mood states experienced one week prior and one week following the

study. Consequently, evidence found in this study merely suggests that

participation in the study in general produced significant positive mood changes.

Barring the occurrence of life changing circumstances post-study affecting all

participants (which is highly unlikely), results could reflect that the SRMT had a

positive effect on mood.

Auditory domain. Another methodological consideration relates to results

found in the auditory domain. Because there was no sound produced by the

SRMT during silence, the perception of overtones was not possible; consequently,

a valid between conditions assessment could not be made. Auditory perception of

any sound while in conditions of silence could only relate to environment sounds

within the music therapy lab. No references were made by participants in that

regard. In addition, no references were made relative to the absence of sound or

wanting to hear sounds.

Salivary immunoglobulin A (sIgA). SIgA results were not subject to

statistical analyses. This was due in part to collection procedures where sIgA

samples were obtained pre- and post- the sound and no sound conditions. As a

result, the saliva sample collected 24 hours post-condition could not accurately

assess any delayed response elicited by the sound condition alone. In addition, the

original data linking each saliva sample to its owner participant by number was

unintentionally lost; however, this loss did not present an ethical issue as the lost

data was not associated with participant names. Had I been able to perform

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statistical analyses on these data, perhaps significance could have been found

relative to the no change data. As reported by the USU biology department, 23

participants experienced no change whatsoever while receiving no sound, whereas

in the vibrational condition only 4 participants experienced no change.

The phenomenological method. In this study, I wanted to explore the

lived experience within a transformational context. I also wanted to address what

Husserl, founder of phenomenology, referred to as somatology, “a new science

that would integrate a methodological study of subjective experiences of the body

with the objectivist sciences” (Husserl, 1980, as cited in Johnson, 2005, p. 105).

The USU study was not purely phenomenological as such a study requires

an interactive interviewing process involving fewer participants. Rather,

participants in the USU study were asked to write a description of their

experiences of both conditions (sound and no sound). As researcher, I had no

dialogue with them during this process. As a result, some of the procedural steps

in my analyses were modified. I extracted themes from 44 participant descriptions

for both conditions. Because the descriptions were short, and the number of

participants many, the procedural step requiring the writing of a textural

description for each participant was eliminated. Instead I wrote a composite

description based on the percentage of group responses determined to reflect

specific categorical themes.

What I found in combining all the data; however, was that significant

details and individual differences were lost (a comparative example is presented

in Appendix P). Another modification from the procedural steps typically used

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involved placing themes within pre-determined categories as defined by Murphy

(1992) (see Appendix F); however, some emergent themes were included as well.

Due to the amount of elapsed time since the USU study, it was not

possible to locate participants and include them in the validation process that

would determine whether they agreed with the themes and meaning units that I

found in their descriptions. Instead, I included two independent reviewers in the

validation process, as described in Appendix G.

Potential intervening variables. Important for me in this study was to

more fully understand why some of the physiological measures did not support

my hypotheses. What I learned relative to measures of muscle tension at the

mandible, temperature at the fingertip, and heart rate was quite extensive. Due to

the length required to report such learning, instead of presenting it here, I place it

in Appendix O for those interested. In the following paragraphs, I mention other

intervening variables that need to be considered.

Skin conductance and temperature. Skin conductance results found in

the USU study should be interpreted with caution when combined with

temperature results. According to Venables and Christie (1980), hand temperature

may lower or raise EDA values. SC can potentially decrease when subjects are

cold. As previously discussed, participant temperatures were low, which could

have influenced SC.

In addition, it is relevant for clinicians to know that core body

temperatures vary according to the time of day due to endogenous circadian

rhythm. Temperatures are lower in the early morning, whereas in the late

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afternoon and early evening temperatures are higher and more easily attained

(Duffy, Dirk, Klerman, & Czeisler, 1998).

Participant commitment to music. Participant responses were likely to

be influenced by their commitment to music, valuing its use in their daily lives.

Authors Mitchel, MacDonald, and Knussen (2007) suggested that those who feel

music is important are more likely to use it and find its effectiveness. In this

regard, findings may not generalize to other populations less committed to music.

In addition, eight of the female participants were music therapy majors and were

enrolled my music therapy courses. This student–instructor relationship could

have influenced findings, leading to participant bias, since students were aware of

my views on healing through music.

Involvement of the researcher. As the researcher, I was directly involved

with participants throughout all phases of the study, including recruitment,

informed consent, administering subjective measures, placing biofeedback

apparatus, playing of the SRMT. To address the possibility of researcher bias, I

employed the expertise of a statistician. Researcher bias relative to thematic data

was addressed through developing the researcher as instrument template that

included my assumptions, thereby serving as an aid in the bracketing process, as

required in the method applied (see Appendix L). In addition, a triangulation

strategy was employed that involved two independent reviewers serving to

validate themes, their meanings, and categorical placement.

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 Tension at the boundaries and commonality without boundaries.

During this process, I became aware of the tensions that still exist between the

professions of music therapy and sound healing. It seems the sound healing

culture has an anti-intellectual bias, perhaps perceiving intellectuals as

researchers. Healers do not tend to call themselves intellectuals and vice versa.

Possibly relieving some of this tension, Suzanne B. Hanser, PhD, chair of

the Music Therapy Department at Berkeley College of Music and past president

of the American Music Therapy Association and World Federation of Music

Therapy, prefaces the following in her 2016 book Integrative Health Through

Music Therapy: Accompanying the Journey from Illness to Wellness:

This book is about healing—there I’ve said it. I have avoided the word
“healing” for my entire career as a music therapist, and I have balked at
the use of the term from my clients, colleagues, and students. The word
“healing” promises too much. It implies much more than treatment or
cure, and tends to be associated with the inexplicable and often
spontaneous transformation of individuals to a new state of mind, body,
and spirit. Throughout my career, I have limited my professional
vocabulary to Western medical vernacular, but in writing this book, I have
learned that the historic meaning of the word “health” has been far more
holistic and integrated . . . So I feel as though I am reclaiming my
birthright in dedicating this book to the healing art of music therapy . . .
Now that I have established my newfound identity as a healer, I will admit
that I am also a scientist. (pp. xi–xiii)

With a positive sigh, I began reading Hanser’s book, where she presents some

evidence-based strategies, not tested in clinical trials, but having passed the test of

time “that is, those ancient techniques from indigenous and traditional forms of

medicine that have been practiced for thousands of years” (Hanser, 2016, p. xiii).

Music therapists and sound healing experts do share a common belief. As

Maranto (1991) stated, music affects “all aspects of the individual simultaneously,

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i.e., affective, cognitive, physiological, spiritual, etc.” (p. 131). This statement

reflects a widely held belief amongst sound healing experts as well (Campbell,

1993; Gardner-Gordon, 1993; Goldman, 1992a; Heather, 2004; Perry, 2007).

Though seeming to inhabit very different worlds, I feel it is time to bridge the

two. As far back as 1996 Crowe and Scovel in their article on sound healing

called upon music therapists to dialogue with sound healers in order learn about

their work. Based on the inquiries I receive from music therapy students, I feel the

interest is there. A select few are actively exploring sound healing techniques

outside of their academic programs.

Limitations of the Study

This study can best be described as exploratory. Though the USU study

included a larger number of participants than some, generalization claims could

be strengthened when involving a larger group. In addition, group participants had

specialized skills, representing a homogenous group (university student

musicians); consequently, without replication involving a less specialized group,

findings cannot extend to other populations. For example, the auditory perception

of the overtone series would most likely represent the listening of a musician.

I feel another limitation of this study relates to evidence-based data in

general. Being group data, averaging individual responses, individual differences

are not taken into account. Individuals have a unique way of responding. For

example, some people are considered high or low responders, affecting measures

of response. The tendency to respond in unique ways gets lost in the averaging.

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 Reflections on Future Research

My interest in exploring the effects of the SRMT from at least two

different perspectives, observable and experiential, informed my choice of

method. Such interest provided the basis, in part, for why I asked the research

questions in two different ways, and why I chose a mixed-methods approach.

Mixed-methods research presents a framework that addresses different paradigms

of evaluation (Abrams, 2005).

There are other frameworks designed to further enhance the understanding

of phenomena from different perspectives and ways of knowing. Ken Wilber’s

(2000) integral methodological pluralism, all quadrants, all levels (AQAL)

approach is one of them. Given that the USU study occurred before I had learned

of AQAL, sufficient data needed to adequately address all quadrants was not

obtained. According to Wilber, truth or knowledge has individual and collective

components as well as subjective and objective components. When these

components are placed in a 2x2 matrix, we get four quadrants: individual-

subjective, individual-objective, collective-subjective, and collective-objective.

Some music therapy professionals and researchers are familiar with

AQAL and acknowledge the need to investigate the experience of music through

multiple perspectives in order to produce a more complete and integrated

understanding of its effects (Abrams, 2010; Bruscia, 1995, 1998a, 1998b; Crowe,

2004; Dileo-Maranto, 1995; Edelman, 1992; Kenny, 1998; Maranto, 1988; Rider,

1997b; Rugenstein, 1996; Ruud, 1998). According to Abrams (2010), an integral

understanding of evidence-based music therapy practice within the context of

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AQAL will “establish more than one legitimate basis and foundation for the value

of music therapy practice” (p. 374). Abrams presents an integral understanding of

evidence-based music therapy practice informed by Wilber and rooted in the four

quadrants of AQAL, noted in Figure 24, as subjective music therapy evidence,

objective music therapy evidence, inter-subjective music therapy evidence, and

inter-objective music therapy evidence. Abrams further indicates that the inter-

relationships among these perspectives and how they inform the practice of music

therapy have not been explored.

Interior Exterior

Subjective Music Therapy

Objective Music Therapy
Evidence
Evidence
Individual

“I Work”
“It Works”
The Beautiful
The True (Local)
Art
Science (Conventional)
Intentional
Behavioral

Inter-Subjective Music Therapy Inter-Objective Music Therapy

Evidence Evidence
Collective

“We Work Together” “It All Works Together”

The Good The True (Global)

Morals Science (Complexity)
Communal Systemic

Figure 24. The figure displays the 4 domains of evidence as informed by Wilber’s
AQAL. Evidence-based music therapy practice: An integral understanding By Brian
Abrams, Ph. D. published by the American Music Therapy Association, ©2010. All
rights reserved. Reprinted with permission of publisher.

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 In Wilber’s (2000) model, inquiry is approached within the context of four

quadrants. The two on the left are considered axiological, addressing the aesthetic

experience of the participant, the self, and the psyche. Axiology is the theory of

value or worth, placing emphasis on how much the evidence found is meaningful

and beautiful in terms of aesthetic construction, including in terms of visual

appearance and audible sound (expressed in terms of beauty or ugliness).

Axiology questions what is intrinsically worthwhile, putting at issue

“values of being are to be valued simply because of what they are” (Heron &

Reason, 1997, p. 287). Placing emphasis on morals and ethics, axiology guides

the values on the left of Wilber’s (2000) framework. The two dimensions on the

right are considered epistemological, addressing the organism and the brain—the

participant’s cognition and physiological expression (facts and matter).

Epistemology is the theory of truth or knowledge and asks the question,

What is true and how do we come to know that truth? We can have an

epistemology about qualitative data; however, it is based on facts. Guba and

Lincoln (1994) claimed that

orthodox science, because of its belief in a real world that can be known,
requires the knower to adopt a posture of objective detachment in order to
discover how things really are. The search for truth is sought in objective
and quantifiable terms, holding the empirical data in the highest esteem.
(p. 108)

Full Use of the Integral Model

As mentioned previously, the data collected in the USU study was limited,

addressing only the upper two quadrants. The qualitative and thematic data would

be located in the upper left quadrant, as subjective music therapy evidence. The

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quantitative physiological response measures would be located in the upper right

hand quadrant, as objective music therapy evidence.

Full use of the integral model would include the lower left and right

quadrants. The lower left quadrant considers the collective consciousness, values,

intersubjective backgrounds, and cultural contexts of the “We.” It considers what

the participant and the researcher bring to the research based on their cultural

background (or collective belief system). For example, the majority of

participants in the USU study were of the Mormon faith, which could have had an

effect on their experience.

The lower-right quadrant considers the inter-objective domain,

representing social systems, the collective systems of the collective exteriors of

individual organisms. This quadrant places emphasis on the fact that every living

organism is inseparably interconnected with its environment in dynamic webs of

relationships and ecosystems, all of which can be seen in the exterior. An example

may be that an individual or group of participants, as a result of their experience

of the SRMT, may display a significant shift in their actions that affect not only

their lives, but may also have a social impact.

In conclusion, Wilber’s (2000) framework and this type of integral

thinking fits within the perspective of integral health and wellness, a perspective

on well being and personal development that incorporates a significant range of

human experience, including physical, mental, emotional, interpersonal, and

sociocultural dimensions (Schlitz, 2008). I contend that full use of Wilber’s

(2000) IMP–AQAL approach in future music therapy and music in medicine

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studies will facilitate a more complete, holistic, and integrated discussion of the

topic, achieving “a balance between rigor and imagination” (Montuori, 2005, p.

156). I agree with Wilber (2007) when he states “Nowhere is the Integral Model

more immediately applicable than in medicine” (p. 26).

Ken Bruscia’s Six Dynamic Models

As I continued in the interpretation process, I discovered an additional

adaptation of Wilber’s AQAL that, along with that of Abrams (2010), assisted in

my making sense of the USU data. Bruscia (1998b) identifies six dynamic models

that relate to whether the client’s experience is focused on specific properties of

the music: the objective, universal, subjective, collective, aesthetic, or

transpersonal. Shown in Figure 25, Bruscia diagramed four of the six dynamic

models within Wilber’s framework: the exterior and interior realms (the right and

left halves) of the individual and the collective (the upper and lower halves). He

also added the aesthetic and transpersonal models within Wilber’s model.

The combined data obtained in the USU study suggest relations with four

of these models to include the subjective, objective, aesthetic and transpersonal.

My assumption; however, is that Bruscia is referring more to music as an

organized form and its therapeutic effects as opposed to a harmonically organized

vibrational sound, like that of the SRMT and its healing potential. Bruscia may

consider that the level of music/sound experience associated with the SRMT, in

part, would be what he describes as pre-musical, where vibrational forms function

as communicative signals eliciting autonomic and reflexive responses as well as

changes in consciousness.

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Figure 25. Ken Bruscia’s six dynamic models. The diagram displays six dynamic models
within AQAL. Defining Music Therapy (2nd ed) By Kenneth E. Bruscia published by
Barcelona Publishers ©1998. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission of publisher.

Findings from this study suggest that changes in reflexive response as well

as states of consciousness occurred. In previous sections, I have discussed the

implications found in USU study that relate to the transpersonal model and the

aesthetic experience.

Recommendations for Future Research

Implications for Music Therapy Research

Research methods that exclusively focus on quantitative measures without

considering the subjective, internal experience as valid place limits on music

therapy research. The present study introduced an approach that included the

experience of the participant in order to study aspects of the experience that are

difficult to observe and quantify.

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 Phenomenological analysis, as applied in the present study, attempted to

acknowledge and attend to the interrelated aspects of the experience within its

lived context. Its purpose was to include both quantitative and qualitative data in

order to provide a more integrated and holistic understanding of the effects of

vibrational sound. The findings reflect a useful starting point for other forms of

mixed-methods designs. For example, the convergent design places both

quantitative and qualitative data on equal ground. In the present study, using the

embedded design, the quantitative data was considered primary and the

qualitative as secondary. These primary and secondary considerations could be

reversed within the embedded design, placing the qualitative data as primary.

In honor of the human experience, and based on the findings within the

transpersonal realm, transpersonal research methods could be applied. Likewise,

relative to the aesthetic experience, music therapists exploring vibrational

phenomenon may want to consider arts-based research (ABR), a relatively new

methodology applied in music therapy. Viega (2016) gives a special focus on

ABR in a recent publication of Music Therapy Perspectives.

Physiological Measures

Findings from this study and others give credence to including trapezius

EMG, skin conductance, and respiration as quantitative outcome measures when

exploring the effects of sound on physiological response. Skin temperature results

found in this study do not necessarily confirm it as an unreliable measure in future

studies when taking into account certain variables that when addressed could

enhance its reliability. Due to mixed results found in other studies measuring

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heart rate, assessing heart rate variability may better demonstrate subtle response

changes and is recommended in future studies (Peper et al., 2007).

When considering the relationship of the mind and body in terms of

wellness and desired physiological states, such as the relaxation response, I am

also looking into the science of psychoneuroimmunology (Crowe, 2004; Scartelli,

1992). Though not substantiated in this study due to methodological problems,

other studies give credence to including s-IgA as a measure in future vibrational

studies. Briefly, within the context of psychoneuroimmunology, which sees the

emotions, the limbic system, and immunology as interdependent and studies how

the immune and other related systems respond to novel stimuli such as music and

sound, I contend that the vibrations produced from the SRMT could certainly be

perceived and experienced as novel (see Appendix N).

According to Jourdain (1997), our emotional and physiological responses

to music may be meditated by structures of the limbic system working together

with cortical networks of cognition and conscious thought. The limbic system is

located close to the auditory cortex where music and sound is processed

(Lemonick, 2003, cited in Krout, 2007). In addition, Schneider (1992) points out

that the emotional and imaginative power of music is derived from the interplay

of more primitive parts of the brain, such as the brain stem and the limbic system.

He goes on to say that sounds (sampled or synthesized) can be applied

therapeutically and makes reference to tonal space and dimensions of sound,

suggesting that certain soundscapes may be used to induce a process of

imagination in order to reestablish blocked patterns of experience.

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 Based on results found in the USU study, I consider the SRMT, and more

particularly the SHE to be a soundscape. Future research into music cognition

involving acoustical vibration could explore the mechanisms involved that induce

music imagery to include measurements obtained by way of fMRI (S. E. Lee et

al., 2016).

Psychological States

Further research on positive psychological states considered important for

musicians relative to vibrational sound could include more specific measures

designed to assess psychological flow and mindfulness; namely, the Dispositional

Flow Scale (DFS-2; Jackson & Eklund, 2002) and the Five Facet Mindfulness

Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006),

which assesses five distinct facets of mindfulness: observing, describing,

awareness, non-judgment of experience, and non-reactivity to inner experience.

States of Consciousness

Future research is recommended to include measures of brain wave

activity via EEG and consciousness ratings assessed by the Altered States of

Consciousness Rating Scale (OAV; Studerus, Gamma, & Vollenweider, 2010) or

other validated measures.

Other Populations

Future research is recommended to include non-musicians and/or a

random selection of participants more representative of the general population.

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Clinical Populations: Therapy-Induced Change

Important for the future would be studies within clinical settings. Such

research would address a final change-related question Bruscia (1998b) presents

that is often difficult to determine since “therapy always takes place within the

context of a client’s complete life experience at the time, which may include other

forms of therapy as well as other important life events or changes” (p. 156). Can

any change be attributed to a therapeutic process?

Bruscia (1998b) discusses four conditions as necessary in making strong

claims in that regard: (a) the change required help of some kind; (b) the help

could only be provided by a qualified music therapist within the context of a

therapist-client relationship; (c) the intervention provided was of a therapeutic

nature; and (d) the change that the client made can be attributed to the specific

interventions made by the therapist.

Visioning Future Research for Myself

Relative to Edgar Cayce’s quote presented in the introduction, I believe

music and sound will have a significant role for future medicine. Gaynor (1999)

calls it the “next frontier”:

Sound intervention for emotional expression and resolution is a powerful

modality that, in my view, can represent a virtual short-cut toward
psychological well-being. Put simply, using the bowls, other instruments,
or our voices in tandem with meditation practice can help us move through
burdensome emotional states far more rapidly than is often possible in
standard psychotherapy or counseling. (p. 169)

In conducting future research, I would like to be one that contributes to such a

frontier by continuing to incorporate sound healing as an evidence-based method

into my own work. The evidence I am referring to, however, is not solely

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quantitative research, rather I would employ a more integrated method, more

inclusively using Wilber’s (2000) AQAL method.

As mentioned and described in Appendix A, the SHE includes other

vibrational instruments in addition to the SRMT. In the future, I would like to

conduct a purely phenomenological study of the lived experience of the SHE,

ensuring that all aspects of the method are followed. By doing so, I can more

purely address the purpose of phenomenological research.

In addition, I am particularly interested in the effects of the Columns of

Sound, which are tuned in perfect fifth intervals (the 2:3 ratio), named the mood

of the fifth or the scale of the twelve fifths (Steiner, 1986; Renold, 2004). This

interval was considered to be sacred in ancient Greece. Goldman (2008) indicated

that Pythagoras believed that the 2:3 ratio was very therapeutic. Further, Beaulieu

(1987) presented anecdotal evidence on the health benefits of receiving the 2:3

ratio intervals produced by tuning forks. He indicates that

through the act of taping two tuning forks together we can hear the sacred
ratios. These ratios are found in nature and are considered by the ancients
to be a fundamental part of the human soul or psyche. Each interval can
potentially awaken within us a deep universal archetype. (p. 90)

According to Beaulieu, the therapeutic benefits include the unblocking of areas in

the body where energy is stuck, restoring a flow of energy. In addition, there is a

balancing of the hemispheres of the brain, the cranial-sacral system, and the

nervous system.

The Columns of Sound in SHE are significantly larger than tuning forks

and their timbre is most likely different; however, the perfect fifth ratio intervals

of 2:3 are the same. I feel that Beaulieu’s (1987) work lends support in pursuing

275
scientific research as to the effects of the sound columns. Other instruments in the

SHE include a gong, a crystal singing bowl, an Australian aboriginal didgeridoo,

a native flute, a rain stick, a powwow drum, and rattles. In ancient cultures, these

instruments were used for healing. In addition, SHE includes overtone singing

and healing chants. My research inquiry would look to whether and how

traditional healing systems can integrate with music therapy.

Currently, I have some preliminary findings from case studies where

clients felt that their experience of SHE brought about an expansion of their

creative abilities. One client (an artist) saw displays of color throughout the SHE

session and created five paintings with verbal descriptions of each one that

represented her experience. Another client (a composer) whose intention for the

session was to open and remove any obstacles that were inhibiting her musical

compositions claims that after three sessions she effortlessly began to compose

and produce two music healing compact discs. Another client (an acupuncturist),

having an awareness of the Chinese meridian system, was able to physically feel

and describe the vibrational flow within certain meridians. One of her comments

after a session was: “shamanism meets neuroscience.”

In light of the preliminary findings described above involving creative

expression, I would like to consider ABR as a method in future studies, which

Viega and Forinash defined as being “an umbrella term for the use of the arts as a

research method—where the art forms are primary in the research process—and

as an overall methodology—where a creative worldview forms the philosophical

276
foundation for an inquiry” (as cited in Viega, 2016, p. 12). I would have much to

learn in designing such research.

Chapter Summary

My intent in this chapter was to weave together all the aspects of this

study by reflecting upon and analyzing its many components. The efficacy of the

experience of the SRMT was examined and supportive quantitative and

qualitative evidenced was provided. Experiential themes relative to multiple

domains were discussed along with a discussion of the implied, transcendent,

aesthetic, and transpersonal nature of the experience.

I discussed types of change implied, making reference to Bruscia’s

(1998b) research. Further implications were presented relative to the music

therapy profession clinically and educationally. Similarly, implications were

discussed relative to the sound healing profession. Reflections Upon the Research

process brought about the discussion of the many things I learned as I progressed,

including further explanations as to why certain measures did not respond as

hypothesized and the identification of methodological issues, intervening

variables, and limitations.

The Learning Curve reflected upon the personal challenges in combining

quantitative and qualitative date and the validation process required. Through self

reflection, I found it interesting to become aware of a possible conditioned bias on

my behalf as I noticed contradictions. In the section Tension at the Boundaries or

Commonality Without Boundaries, I made a stand for finding commonality

277
between the music therapy and sound healing professions, establishing

collaborative research.

Further reflections on the research relative to the current study and

recommended for the future discussed two models by Abrams (2010) and Bruscia

(1998b), both informed by Wilber’s (2000) AQAL. In recommendations for

future research, I discussed other research methods in our profession to consider

in furthering our understanding of the effects of pure vibration on physiological

and psychological levels and on states of consciousness.

Research should be extended to other populations to include clinical

settings where changes are considered to be therapy induced. In Visioning Future

Research For Myself, I hope to play a significant role in the integration of

vibrational medicine within Western medicine. Last, in this chapter, I felt it

perfect to share what I have already begun to explore related to the SHE.

Concluding Statement

Throughout this process, many songs have repeatedly come to mind. The

one coming to mind at this present moment is “All You Need Is Love” composed

by John Lennon and credited to Lennon–McCartney in 1967. At critical times

during this process, I’ve noticed the presence of this song in my mind. According

to Brian Epstein, The Beatles really wanted to give the world a message. The

message they wanted to convey was “love is everything.”

I have a passionate love of music therapy. The completion of this research

certainly reflects a labor of love and further reflects my desire to give a message

to the world that says: Music and sound is transformational as we (humanity)

278
unify, respect, and embrace our connection with the Earth and all of her

inhabitants. When embodying the experience of the interconnectedness of all

things, as I shared in story of my personal backpacking journey in the Anasazi

desert and in my relationships with native American peoples, we behave in ways

that honor life itself and as a consequence live in perfect harmony and alignment

with each other and nature, manifesting perfect health.

My life experience is unique. I feel privileged to have studied and

experienced the power of sound and vibration within various traditions and

indigenous cultures. Through the process of completing this research, I’ve learned

more about our Western heritage, beginning with Pythagoras and continuing into

our current times, including an exploration of quantum physics, subtle energy

bodies, and the biology of belief, all within the context of health and wellness. I

hope this research speaks to the listening of others engaged in a similar quest to

be empowered and/or empower others through music and sound to access the

healer within. Omitakquiasin, All My Relations.

279
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 APPENDIX A: THE SOUND HEALING ENVIRONMENT (SHE)

The SHE includes the SRMT, acoustical vibrational instruments, and

voice. No recorded music or electronic components are used. Nature sounds are

imitated on flute, didgeridoo, and drum. Instruments include a gong, 16 Columns

of Sound, a rain stick, a Native American pentatonic flute, rattles, a crystal

singing bowl, and a Native American powwow drum.

Two Sanskrit healing chants are sung and overtone singing is included.

Sanskrit is an ancient language of Hinduism, the Vedas, and is the classical

literary language of India. Overtone singing, also known as overtone chanting or

harmonic singing, is a type of singing that occurs when a practiced overtone

singer produces two tones (the fundamental and a selected overtone) that can be

heard at the same time.

The columns of sound in the SHE were designed by Wolfgang Deinert,

founder of Klangfarben Studio fur Klangkorper, in Ebersberg, Germany.

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Figure A1. Music therapist playing the columns of sound suspended over the client’s
body. Photo reproduced with permission of Alice Drogin.

The 16 resonating columns are made of high-quality brass and range in

size from 2 to 3 centimeters in diameter and 15 to 123 centimeters in length. The

length of the column determines its pitch. The columns are tuned in mathematical

ratios that represent true fifth tone intervals.1 Deinert (n.d.) designs instruments

and sound sculptures with the vision and intent to explore their effects on natural

organisms. His interest in music and sound, together with a profound education in

metals, led Wolfgang to his present work. The deafness of his son inspired his

inquiry into the effects of sounds, not only as perceived through hearing but also

as experienced through the entire body. Wolfgang established the Klangfarben

studio in 1989 and began to develop instruments and structures that he envisioned

would effect change within multiple domains of experience, including the

physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual.

1
True intervals, also known as Pythagorean or twelfth-tone and fifth-tone intervals, refer
exclusively to intervals where both tones belong to the true-tone row (Renold, 2004).

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 APPENDIX B: KEY TENETS OF INTEGRAL MEDICINE

Marilyn Schlitz (2005) presents several key tenets of integral medicine,

prepared from the essays included in Consciousness & Healing: Integral

Approaches to Mind-Body Medicine. I quote these below:

1. Integral medicine does not just refer to the science of

diagnosing, treating, or preventing disease and damage of the body or
mind, but to a medicine that heals. It is a dynamic, holistic, life-long
process that exists in widening and deepening relationships with self,
culture, and nature. Integral medicine is about transformation, growth, and
the restoration of wholeness. Health is seen as not the absence of disease,
but as a process by which individuals maintain their ability to develop
meaning systems that allow them to function, heal, and grow in the face of
changes in themselves, their relationships, and the world.
2. Consciousness is a process that involves our awareness of
ourselves and the world, including our thoughts, feelings, sensations,
identity, and worldviews. In essence, consciousness involves the
fundamental characteristics of human nature and experience and therefore
shapes our understanding of disease, illness, health, and well-being. Body,
mind, and spirit interact in shaping the individual, developmental, and
evolutionary potentials of human beings.
3. An integral perspective requires a deep examination of our core
assumptions about reality and or place in it. Standard science holds that
objective truth is arrived at through discovery of causal laws of the natural
world that exists independently for all time, and for all human beings.
When it comes to the human condition, an integral perspective suggests
that so-called objectivity may need to be fundamentally transformed and
that, in fact, no science and no medicine is possible independent of
consciousness.
4. An integral methodology includes both objective, subjective,
and intersubjective approaches to understanding human experience. A
conjoining of divergent methods and approaches is needed to map the role
of consciousness in health and healing—science has a place just as self-
reflection and inner knowing have parts to play. This viewpoint
necessarily dismisses dogmatic reduction of reality to only that which can
be seen and measured. Indeed, the integral perspective emphasizes that a
focus on the material basis of reality may not be the only or even the best
way to look at issues inherent in healing.
5. Integral medicine involves a deep appreciation for the multiple
cultural perspectives and approaches that contribute to the fullness of
healing as a complex, dynamic, and multifaceted phenomenon. Therefore,

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it is crucial to honor and appropriately integrate the world’s wisdom and
healing traditions and their diverse and often contradictory epistemologies.
6. Harnessing our desire for health and healing as well as their will
to live is as significant to an integral medicine as the role of scientific,
information and technology.
7. The key to an integral approach is not the contents of the
medical bag, but the holder of the bag--one who has opened herself to the
multi-dimensional nature of healing, including body, mind, soul, spirit,
culture, and nature. This includes opening to the experience of suffering as
it provides a catalyst for transformation; this is true for patients, health
professionals, society and the institutions that serve us, and ultimately—
our relationship to our sacred ground of being. An expanded view of the
person is called for in which the biological, phenomenological, cultural,
and transpersonal come together in meaningful synergy.
8. The well-being of the planet’s ecosystems is required for the
well-being of the human. Despite medical science and technology, humans
cannot be well in a sick society or on a sick planet. Integral medicine is
concerned with transformation human consciousness to create life
enhancing ways of being in the world. This calls for deep social and
ecological healing.
9. Life is the greatest teacher. Our ability to see the way to a new
approach requires deep humility in the face of wonder and mystery.
Gratefulness, love, and compassion are essential to an inclusive and full-
hearted healing system. (pp. xl–xli)

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 APPENDIX C: SUGGESTED READING

Avanzini, G., Lopez, L., & Koelsche, S. (Eds.). (2005). The neurosciences and
music II: From perception to performance. Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences (vol. 1060). New York, NY: The New York
Academy of Sciences.

Della Sala, S., & Grafman, J. (Eds.). (2005). The rhythmic brain [Special issue].
Cortex, 45(1), 1–46.

Goldman, J. S. (1992b). Sonic entrainment. In R. Spintge & R. Droh (Eds.),

MusicMedicine (pp. 194–208). International Society for Music in
Medicine IV. International MusicMedicine Symposium. Annerenberg
Center for Health Sciences at Eisenhower, Rancho Mirage, California,
October, 25–29, 1989. St. Louis, MO: MMB Music.

Grocke, D., & Wigram, T. (2007). Vibroacoustic therapy in receptive music

therapy. In D. Grocke & T. Wigram (Eds.), Receptive methods in music
therapy: Techniques and clinical applications for music therapy
clinicians, educators, and students (pp. 214–235). Philadelphia, PA:
Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Horden, P. (Ed.). (2000). Music as medicine: The history of music therapy since
antiquity. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company.

Spintge, R., & Droh, R. (Eds.). (1992). MusicMedicine. International Society for
Music in Medicine IV. International MusicMedicine Symposium.
Annerenberg Center for Health Sciences at Eisenhower, Rancho Mirage,
California, October 25–29, 1989. St. Louis, MO: MMB Music.

Thorell, T. (2014). Psychological health effects of musical experiences: Theories,

studies, and reflections in music health science. Rotterdam, the
Netherlands: Springer Netherlands.

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 APPENDIX D: SEGMENTS IN A GIM SESSION

This appendix provides segment descriptions of a GIM session that are

then compared with SHE sessions.

1. A preliminary conversation, called a prelude, is used to gather personal

information, explain the process, set goals, and select the music program for the

session. The prelude may include client artwork, creative writing, musical

improvisation, or movement. Comparison: Related to the prelude segment, a

preliminary conversation to gather information occurs in GIM and SHE. The

client first identifies an intention, a session goal. (Note: the power of intention is

defined and further explained below.) This intention can address the mind, body,

emotions, and spiritual domains or can be directed toward creative endeavors.

Similar to the program selection process in GIM, client outcome needs and sound

sensitivities are identified to determine the choice of instruments played in SHE.

2. An induction of relaxation and focus is used in which the client reclines

on a mat with the therapist sitting close by. Usually there is no music used during

this segment. The induction generally involves creating an initial image to begin

the process. Comparison: An induction segment that includes relaxation

techniques (GIM) does not occur in SHE. Rather, the sound is introduced

immediately to facilitate the entering of an altered state of consciousness.

3. The playing of the GIM music program. GIM programs are selections

of Western art music from the Baroque period through the 20th century. Bonny

(1994) refers to affective contour and suggests that the music has qualities that

facilitate internal exploration. CD program names suggest the emotional

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characteristics that the music portrays, such as comforting, positive affect, affect

release, imagery, and peak experience. Music programs are played through high-

quality sound equipment. The therapist guides and interacts with the client during

the 20–40 minute music program by using interventions designed to support and

validate the client’s experiences. This process helps the client connect as fully as

possible with the music and his or her experience (Justice & Kasayka, 1999).

The therapist takes notes during the session of the observable

responses, the client’s descriptions of their visual images, kinesthetic, energetic,

and emotional experiences, and the client’s thoughts and memories. Kasayka (as

cited in Justice & Kasayka, 1999) reports that, in this segment, transformational

experiences can occur and may include the following: (a) body or space

enlargement; (b) a sense of union with the music, the universe, and all people; (c)

transcendence of time and space; (d) deeply felt positive moods; (e) a great sense

of awe or reverence; (f) instant insights; (g) ineffable feelings of beauty or

emotion; and (h) a sense of healing or deep peace.

Comparison: The music program in SHE consists of playing acoustical

instruments live and in the moment (intermittently or continually) in which

intuitive, improvisational musical decisions are made that guide the progression

of the session. These decisions are based on client feedback, dialogue, and

observable responses (e.g., eye lid fluttering, emotional releases, body movement,

and breathing). There is minimal guidance or interaction on a verbal level unless

this is the desire of the client. Rather than written notes, mental notes are made

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based on therapist observations throughout the session. These observations are

explored during a postlude conversation between client and therapist.

4. A postlude follows in which the client’s experience is integrated and

processed. Here the client returns to a normal state of consciousness and reports

on the imagery experienced verbally and in a mandala drawing. The client then

reflects on personal and session goals.

Comparison: Distinct from GIM, SHE includes a form of the NLP

anchoring process discussed below with its limitations. The client is asked to

allow an image, kinesthetic feeling, or auditory sound to come to their awareness

prior to their return to a normal state of consciousness. The client can then use this

as an anchor to achieve a similar state when needed. Similar to the postlude in

GIM, the client’s experience of SHE and the goals they set for the session are

explored through reflection and interactive dialogue between the client and the

therapist. In addition, the client is invited to further express their experience of

SHE through art, prose, poetry, music, or movement.

Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP)

A unique feature within SHE, and which makes it distinct from GIM,

involves an adaptation of a useful neurolinguistic programming (NLP) technique

called anchoring, which can induce a certain frame of mind or emotion for

therapeutic purposes. NLP was born under the influence of two prominent figures

of this century, Milton H. Erickson (1901–1980) and Gregory Bateson (1904–

1980; Dilts, 1999). Anchoring is a biomedical approach that refers to the process

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of associating an internal response with some external or internal trigger so that

the response may be quickly and covertly accessed (Dilts, 1999).

Anchors employ the process of association to focus awareness, re-access

cognitive knowledge and internal states, connect experiences in order to enrich

meaning or consolidate knowledge, and transfer learning and experiences to other

contexts (Dilts, 1999). Anchors can be visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, or

gustatory. When an NLP anchor is created, a stimulus response pattern is set up,

so the experience can be accessed when desired by the client to aid them in the

future. Applicable to SHE, anchoring would enable the client to later access the

experience of relaxation or state of consciousness achieved during the session. In

NLP, keys to successful anchoring include the intensity of the experiential state,

the repetition of the anchor, and the consciousness state one wants to anchor. The

optimal anchoring period is directly connected to when the client would be at the

peak of their experience.

The Power of Intention

The power of intention, defined as the purposeful projection of awareness

toward specific positive outcomes, is discussed, and intentions (goals) are

established. Intentions can address the mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual

domains but are not limited to those domains. For example, some clients intend to

have insights into creative endeavors (e.g., art, prose, and musical composition).

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 APPENDIX E: HEMI-SYNC

Robert Monroe is noted as a pioneer in the investigation of human

consciousness. He is the inventor of Hemi-Sync and is the founder of the Monroe

Institute, a worldwide organization dedicated to expanding human potential.

Monroe’s investigations initially began in 1956 when he, as part of his successful

broadcasting firm, set up a research and development division to study the effects

of various sound patterns on human consciousness.

Overtime, Monroe and a growing group of fellow researchers came to

develop a noninvasive and easy to use audio guidance technology known as

hemispheric synchronization, or Hemi-Sync. In 1975, Monroe was issued the first

of three patents for Frequency Following Response (FFR), part of the Hemi-Sync

method of altering brain states through sound. Monroe used frequencies for

entrainment within the same spectrum as the brainwaves themselves (.5 Hz–20

Hz), frequencies that are not within the range of human hearing.

Monroe found that when working with the psychoacoustic phenomenon

called beat frequencies, he could create very low frequencies from much higher

sounds. This beat phenomena occurs when two (or more) sounds are present that

have a frequency difference of less than about 20–30 Hz, causing the listener to

hear a beat, pulse or “wah-wah-wah” sound. Perception of such phenomena can

readily be recognized when tuning musical instruments that produce sustained

tones (e.g., stringed instruments). When tuning two tones to match in unison an

interesting phenomenon occurs: when the two tones are close to unison, but are

not exact, the difference in frequencies generates the beating, pulsing, or tremolo

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sound as the amplitude in the wave form varies. In this case, the sounds are

alternately interfering with each other. As the tones (strings) gradually approach

unison the beat–pulsing–tremolo slows down and may become so slow as to be

imperceptible.

Monroe purposefully applied different frequencies where the

mathematical difference between the two frequencies was equal to the specific

brain wave ranges he wanted to entrain. For example, to entrain the brain to 8Hz,

he would have one frequency tone at 100 Hz and the other at 108 Hz; thus,

equaling a difference of 8 Hz after subtraction. The independent frequencies (100

Hz and 108 Hz) then given through headphones to right and left ears caused the

binaural beat frequency of 8 Hz to occur as both brain hemispheres worked

simultaneously to process the sound. Monroe had found a way to synchronize

sonically the left and right hemispheres of the brain. His experiments using EEG

to monitor brainwaves validated that binaural beats could entrain brainwaves.

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APPENDIX F: MURPHY’S TRANSFORMATIVE OUTCOME CATEGORIES

Table F1

Murphy’s Transformative Outcome Categories

Murphy’s Named Descriptions of Category Hypotheses /Anticipated

Category Results

Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/ External Events

Does the experience (a) enhance physical (a) in subjective descriptions of

of SRMT or SHE awareness defined as a the experience:
function in the combination of • Hypothesis 1: More
physical domain to parasympathetic nervous participants will make a
system activity and somatic comment of any kind
muscle relaxation (e.g., tingly, (unpleasant or pleasant) in
energy flow, relaxing, the sound treatment
soothing, vitality, warmth, condition in comparison to
tension, effort, discomfort, the no sound treatment
pain, cold)? condition.
• Hypothesis 2: More
participants will make
pleasant comments about
the sound condition in
comparison to the no
sound condition.
• Hypothesis 3: More
participants will make
unpleasant comments
about the sound treatment
condition in comparison to
the no sound treatment
condition.
Does the experience (a) elicit an emotional (a) in subjective descriptions of
of SRMT or SHE response defined as any the experience:
function in the emotional response (e.g.,
emotional domain to happiness, contentment, Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 as noted
openness, peaceful, sadness, above.
fear)?
(b) When comparing
(b) give rise to feelings of subjective experience
enjoyment? reports, the sound
treatment condition will
reflect a greater increase in
ratings of enjoyment from
pre to posttest within
session.

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Murphy’s Named Descriptions of Category Hypotheses /Anticipated
Category Results

(c) give rise to the aesthetic

(c) There will be:
experience defined as an • Hypothesis 1: More
encounter with beauty, the participants will make a
unique pleasure and comment of any kind in
satisfaction of perceiving subjective descriptions
something that is beautiful of the sound treatment
(Salas, 1990)? condition in comparison
to no sound condition.
(d) lift resolve, reduce or (d) There will be:
unblock defenses against • more positive change in
strong feelings or draining mood state as measured
emotions, conflicting by the Profile of Mood
volitions, or chronic States (POMS) pre to
tensions? post study.
• more positive change in
anxiety as measured by
the Spielberger State-
Trait Anxiety Inventory
(STAI, Form Y-1) pre-
posttest within session in
the sound treatment
condition in comparison
to the no sound
treatment condition.
Does the experience (a) quiet mental activity (a) in subjective descriptions
of SRMT or SHE defined as involving mental of the SRMT experience
function in processing (e.g., analyzing, there will be:
cognitive perception associative memories, and Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 as
to efforting/racing mind)? noted above.
(b) elicit the recollection of (b) There will be more
repressed imagery so that subjective reports of
such imagery enriches visualizations reflecting the
mental processing? past in the sound treatment
condition in comparison to
the no sound treatment
condition.
(c) elicit an altered (c) In subjective descriptions
perception of the passage of of the SRMT experience
time? there will be more reports of
losing track of the passage
of time during the sound
treatment condition in
comparison to the no sound

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Murphy’s Named Descriptions of Category Hypotheses /Anticipated
Category Results
treatment condition.
Does the experience elicit somatic experiences In subjective
of SRMT or SHE (e.g., out of body, descriptions of the
function in somatic transported, levitation)? SRMT experience:
perception to • Hypothesis 1: More
participants will make a
comment of any kind
relative to the sound
treatment condition in
comparison no sound
treatment condition.
Does the experience elicit auditory experiences In subjective
of SRMT or SHE (e.g., flowing perception of descriptions of the
function in auditory sound, hearing many experience:
perception to tones)? • Hypothesis 1: More
participants will make a
comment of any kind
relative to the sound
treatment condition in
comparison to no sound
treatment condition.
Does the experience elicit synesthesia a In subjective
of SRMT or SHE concomitant sensation; a descriptions of the
function in visual sensation or image of a experience:
perception to sense (as of color) other • Hypothesis 1: There will
than the one (of sound) be more subjective
being stimulated? experiential comments
of any kind relative to
seeing colors during the
sound treatment
condition in comparison
to the no sound
treatment condition.
Does the experience (a) suggest access to In subjective
of SRMT or SHE subliminal depths of the descriptions of the
function in the mind and body (e.g. went experience:
domain of mental somewhere, but can’t • Hypothesis 1: There will
consciousness to describe; somewhere be more subjective
deep)? experiential comments
of any kind relating to
deep states of
consciousness found in
the sound treatment
condition in comparison

322
Murphy’s Named Descriptions of Category Hypotheses /Anticipated
Category Results
to no sound treatment.
(b) suggest dream states? In subjective
descriptions of the
experience:
• Hypothesis 1: There will
be more subjective
experiential comments
of any kind relative to
dreaming, sleeping,
drifting, and dozing
found in descriptions of
the sound treatment
condition as compared to
the no sound treatment
condition.

Individuation and Sense of Self

Does the experience (a) elicit feelings of In subjective descriptions of

of the SRMT or communion with a the experience:
SHE function to transcendent presence, • Hypothesis 1: There will
power or principle that be more subjective
produces an identify experiential comments
beyond one’s ordinary of any kind relative to
sense of self (transcending feeling connected,
the ego)? unified “at one with all”
in the sound treatment
condition in comparison
to the no sound
treatment condition.
(b) the process of noticing In subjective descriptions of
thoughts, images, emotions, the experience:
sensations and conflicting • Hypothesis 1: There will
volitions that are be more subjective
relinquished as in witness experiential comments
meditation? of any kind relative
noticing/witnessing
thoughts images,
emotions, sensations,
conflicting volitions as
coming and going, free
from personal identity in
the sound treatment
condition in comparison

323
Murphy’s Named Descriptions of Category Hypotheses /Anticipated
Category Results
to no sound condition.
(c) the expansion of one’s In subjective descriptions of
creative abilities? the experience:
• Hypothesis 1: There will
be more references to
enhanced creative
abilities evidenced in
descriptions or in
permanent products
(e.g., art, music) in the
sound treatment
condition in comparison
to the no sound
treatment condition.

Bodily Structures and Processes (USU Study)

Does the experience (a) elicit measureable (a) in comparing the two
of the SRMT results within the body- treatment conditions, there
function to mind physiology will be more positive
(sympathetic and physiological response
parasympathetic nervous found in the sound treatment
systems) promoting condition. There will more
regenerative relaxation? of
• a reduction in EMG
muscle tension at the
mandible and trapezius;
• an increase in
temperature at the
fingertip;
• a reduction in skin
conductance;
• a decrease in heart rate;
• an increase in
diaphragmatic breathing;
• a decrease in thoracic
breathing
• an enhanced immune
response as measured by
salivary
immunoglobulin-A.
(b) elicit experiences of (b) within the sound
relaxation? treatment condition (pre-
posttest within session)
324
Murphy’s Named Descriptions of Category Hypotheses /Anticipated
Category Results
subjective experience
ratings will show greater
improvement in relaxation
and reduction in tension in
comparison with the no
sound treatment condition.

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 APPENDIX G: REVIEWER PROCEDURE

Two university student reviewers were referred by a professor in the

Department of Special Education, College of Education to assist. One reviewer

was pursuing a PhD in early childhood development. One reviewer had a

Bachelor’s of Science in Special Education with an emphasis in early childhood

development. Both reviewers had limited experience with thematic analyses.

Three meetings took place. During our first meeting, written instructions

and participant descriptions were provided. Instructions for determining themes

were reviewed and reviewers were able to ask questions for clarification.

Reviewers were given some examples for practice that were not included in this

study. Also, during this meeting, additional categories for thematic placement

were identified to include: (a) other (OT) sleep; (b) other (OT) dream; (c) other

(OT) try (trying to relax); and (d) across categories (AC). One reviewer asked to

complete the categorization of themes while at the first meeting. The other

reviewer left with the materials to complete and returned in one week’s time.

Upon receipt of reviewer data, I documented categorizations made by the

reviewers and compared them with those I had made. A second meeting was

scheduled to clarify with reviewers the meaning units and thematic categories.

After discussion, consensus changes were made to eliminate the across categories

option as it lacked a clear distinction as to which categories were crossed. A

rating of progression (unpleasant to pleasant) was added. Further discussion

focused on areas where there was disagreement. Reviewers were allowed to

provide rationale for their decisions and I provided my rationale. Any changes

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that were agreed upon were made. Table G1 displays the percentage of agreement

after the changes that were made.

Instructions for Reviewers

Thank you for your assistance in analyzing the phenomenological data

collected in my study. The study involves 21 female and 21 male participants that

describe both an experience of receiving acoustic vibration while lying on the

Swiss Resonance Monochord Table and an experience of lying in silence on the

table. Both data sets (with vibration and without) require your analyses. Follow

the instructions below.

From participant transcripts, complete the following steps.

1. Listing and Preliminary Grouping. Read through the transcript 3 times

being receptive to every comment about the participant’s experience. List every

comment relevant to the experience (Horizontalization).

2. Reduction and Elimination. To determine which comments are

significant in describing the experience, ask the following question: Does the

comment describe something about the experience that is necessary to understand

it? If the answer to this question is “Yes” then include that comment. If “No”

then eliminate that comment.

The significant comments that you’ve decided to include are called

invariant constituents, meaning they don’t vary. Invariant constituents point to the

unique qualities of an experience--those that stand out. Invariant constituents are

also referred to as horizons or meaning units. In addition eliminate overlapping,

repetitive and vague comments (aka culling). Vague comments are those that

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cannot be presented in more exact descriptive terms. Make a list of all the

invariant constituents/meaning units you found.

3. Clustering and Thematizing the Invariant Constituents/Meaning Units.

Cluster the invariant constituents/meaning units of the experience that are related

into a thematic label. The clustered and labeled constituents are the core themes of

the experience. Thematic labels could include, but are not limited to the following

domains:

a. Emotional, defined as any emotional response (e.g., happiness,

contentment, openness, peaceful, sadness, fear). Please separate pleasant emotions

from unpleasant ones.

b. Physical/somatic awareness, defined as a combination of

parasympathetic nervous system activity and somatic muscle relaxation. Please

separate pleasant sensations from unpleasant ones (e.g., tingly, energy flow,

relaxing, soothing, vitality, warmth, tension, effort, discomfort, pain, cold).

c. Cognitive, defined as mental activity that involves mental processing

(e.g., analyzing, associative memories, quiet mind, racing mind. Please separate

pleasant mental activity from unpleasant mental activity.

d. Altered/enhanced perception of internal and/or external events to

include: (1) visual experience (e.g., imagery, seeing colors, scenes, brightness);

(2) somatic experience (e.g., out of body, transported, levitation); (3) auditory

experience (e.g., hearing of many tones); and/or (4) an aesthetic experience (e.g.,

an encounter with beauty, the unique pleasure and satisfaction of perceiving

something that is beautiful; Salas, 1990).

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 e. Individuation and sense of self and/or Higher Self, defined as (1)

feelings of communion (e.g., feeling at one with) and/or awareness of a

transcendent presence, power or principle (e.g., God, Nature, Spirit, Guides,

Higher Self, Source) and/or (2) an expansion of one’s ability to creatively express.

f. Other themes found within the descriptions. Please suggest a label for

other themes.

4. Final Identification of the Invariant Constituents and Themes by

Application: Validation Check the invariant constituents and their accompanying

themes against the complete record of the participant. Do you need to make any

changes?

At this point, we will meet as a group to exchange and discuss our

findings. We will look for where we agreed or disagreed.

Reviewer Recording Key

• E = EMOTIONAL: Defined as any emotional response (e.g.,

happiness, contentment, openness, peaceful, sadness, fear). Please
separate the pleasant from the unpleasant. themes.

• PS = PHYSICAL/SOMATIC AWARENESS: A combination of

parasympathetic nervous system activity and somatic muscle relaxation
(e.g., tingly, energy flow, relaxing, soothing, vitality, warmth, tension,
effort, discomfort, pain, cold). Please separate the pleasant (p) from the
unpleasant (u).

• C = COGNITVE: Mental activity that involves mental processing (e.g.,

analyzing, associative memories, quiet mind, racing mind.) Please
separate the pleasant mental (p) activity from the unpleasant (u).

• AEP = ALTERED/ENHANCED PERCEPTION OF INTERNAL

AND/OR EXTERNAL EVENTS TO INCLUDE: (1) visual experience
(e.g., imagery, seeing colors, scenes, brightness); (2) somatic experience
(e.g., out of body, transported, levitation); (3) auditory experience (e.g.,
hearing of many tones); and/or (4) an aesthetic experience (e.g., an

329
 encounter with beauty, the unique pleasure and satisfaction of perceiving
something that is beautiful) (Salas, 1990).

V = List of Core Visual Experience Themes (e.g., imagery,

seeing colors, scenes, brightness)
S = List of Core Somatic Experience Themes (e.g., out of body,
transported, levitation, going inside)
A = List of Core Auditory Experience Themes (e.g., flowing
perception of sound, hearing many tones)
M = List of Core Mental/Consciousness Themes (e.g., altered
sense of time, of mind dreaming, dozing and falling asleep).

• AT =List of Core Aesthetic Themes (e.g., an encounter with beauty, the

unique pleasure and satisfaction of perceiving something that is beautiful)

• IHS = LIST OF CORE INDIVIDUATION OF SELF AND/OR

HIGHER SELF THEMES TO INCLUDE:

FC = Feelings of Communion (e.g., feeling at one with) and/or

awareness of a transcendent presence, power or principle (e.g.,
God, Nature, Spirit, Guides, Higher-Self, Source)
EX = An Expansion of one’s ability to creatively express

• OT = Other Themes Found: Suggest a Label

OT (Sleep)
OT (Dream)
AC (Across Categories) (eliminated for clarity purposes)
Effort/Trying (trying to relax)

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 Thematic Recording Form

Step 1: List Significant Comments

Step 2: Formulated Meaning of Comment:

Step 3: Clustering and Thematizing the Invariant Meaning Units

Emotional: Defined as any emotional response (e.g., happiness, contentment,

openness, peaceful, sadness, fear). Please separate the pleasant from the
unpleasant themes.

List of Core Pleasant Themes

Comments Female/Male# Sound No Sound

List of Core Unpleasant Themes

Comments Female/Male # Sound No Sound

Physical/somatic awareness: A combination of parasympathetic nervous system

activity and somatic muscle relaxation (e.g., tingly, energy flow, relaxing,
soothing, vitality, warmth, tension, effort, discomfort, pain, cold). Please separate
the pleasant from the unpleasant.
List of Core Pleasant Themes

Comments Female/Male# Sound No Sound

List of Core Unpleasant Themes

Comments Female/Male # Sound No Sound

Cognitive: Mental activity that involves mental processing (e.g., analyzing,

associative memories, quiet mind, racing mind.) Please separate the pleasant
mental activity from the unpleasant.

List of Core Pleasant Themes

Comments Female/Male# Sound No Sound

List of Core Unpleasant Themes

Comments Female/Male # Sound No Sound

331
Altered/enhanced perception of internal and/or external events to include:
(1) visual experience (e.g., imagery, seeing colors, scenes, brightness); (2)
somatic experience (e.g., out of body, transported, levitation); (3) auditory
experience (e.g., hearing of many tones); and/or (4) an aesthetic experience (e.g.,
an encounter with beauty, the unique pleasure and satisfaction of perceiving
something that is beautiful) (Salas, 1990).

List of Core Visual Experience Themes (e.g., imagery, seeing colors, scenes,
brightness)

Comments Female/Male# Sound No Sound

List of Core Somatic Experience Themes (e.g., out of body, transported,

levitation)

Comments Female/Male# Sound No Sound

List of Core Aesthetic Themes (e.g., an encounter with beauty, the unique
pleasure and satisfaction of perceiving something that is beautiful)

Comments Female/Male# Sound No Sound

List of Core Individuation of Self and/or Higher Self themes to include:

Feelings of Communion (e.g., feeling at one with) and/or awareness of a

transcendent presence, power or principle (e.g., God, Nature, Spirit, Guides,
Higher-Self, Source

Comments Female/Male# Sound No Sound

An Expansion of One’s Ability to Creatively Express

Comments Female/Male# Sound No Sound

Other Themes Found: Suggest a Label

__________________________________________________________________

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Step 4: Final Identification of the Invariant Constituents and Themes by
Application: Validation

Check the invariant constituents and their accompanying themes against the
complete record of the participant. Do you need to make any changes? At this
point, we will meet as a group to exchange and discuss our findings. We will look
for where we agreed or disagreed.

333
Table G1

Percentage of Agreement Between Reviewers and Researcher Relative to

Comment Categories: Female Participants

Participant Percentage Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments

Number of u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Females Agreement p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
Percentage of Agreement – Emotional
3 100% Regretted that it had to stop (p)
4 100% Felt happy (p)

6 100% Bugging me that I couldn’t lay on

my side (u)
8 100% Nice to lay there and not have to
do anything (p)
11 100% . . . but seemed to bring
contentment and security (p)
100% Giving over to the sensations
and emotions . . .
12 100% Very happy (p)
13 100% Suppose to make my body relax .
. I don’t know how to do that (u)
15 100% Felt peaceful (p)
16 100% Peaceful and restful (p) Little disconcerting, knowing
someone was watching me (u)
17 100% Enjoyed the vibrating, (p) ...
but not the sound (u)
100% I felt kind of uncomfortable at
first (u)
100% ... then began to enjoy the rest (p)
Progression from unpleasant to
pleasant.
18 100% Really enjoyed (p)
19 100% Wanted to roll over on my
belly and go to sleep (p)
20 100% Felt like everything was
working out (p)
21 100% Liked the vibration (p) Thoughts on present worries (u)
100% (feelings of worry)
22 100% Purifying (p)

_______________________________________________________________________________
Percentage of Agreement – Physical
_______________________________________________________________________________

3 100% Tingling sensations all over (p)

100% Got a little chilly (u)

100% Noticed discomfort around

sacrum (u)

334
4 100% Very relaxing (p)
100% Body melting into sand (p)
100% Job requires lifting and my
back wasn’t as tense while
lying on the table which it
100% normally would if I were lying My back was tense (u)
down (p)
5 100% Extremely relaxing (p)
100% Really light--didn’t feel gravity
(p)
100% Felt sluggish and tired (u)
6 100% Very relaxing (p)

100% Felt vibrations going through

my body (p)
100% Very relaxing (p)
Thoughts about needing to have a
100% pillow under my knees (u)
7 100% Felt vibrations move
horizontally across my body
(p)

100% Completely rested (p)

100% Soothing (p)

100% Couldn’t feel the sensors on
my body (p)
8 100% More relaxed than I think I
have ever been before (p)
100% Breath is deeper (p)
Felt my neck muscles spasm (u)
100%

100% Surges of energy across my

body in waves (p)
100% Stomach was gurgling (i)

100%

9 100% Gradually more and more

relaxed (p)
10 100% Aware of my body at first
(aches), but lessened
Progression from unpleasant to
pleasant
11 100% Noticed pain and tension in my
body that bothered me (u)
100% Difficult to relax (u)
12 100% Very relaxed (p)
100% Sweet, soothing (p)

100% Brachial tendonitis felt better

(p)

335
 100% Both arms feel more fluid and
free (p)
100% Was jaw clenching (u)
Tense forehead (u)
100% Came with a headache that didn’t
100% go away (u)
14 100% Vibrations felt nice (p)
100% Very relaxed (p)
100% Fairly relaxing (p)
15 100% Completely relaxed (p)
My body felt asleep (p)
100%
16 100% Rejuvenating (p)
17 100% Body felt really heavy (i)

18 100% Whole body seemed to loosen

up (p)
19 100% Felt tingly (p)
20 100% Very relaxing, soothing,
dreaming
100% Fingers felt very cold (u)
21 100% Felt comfortable (p)

100% Breathing seemed unnatural (u)

Became more comfortable as time
100% went on (u-p) Progression from
unpleasant to pleasant
23 100% Felt vibrations into my
muscles, some areas didn’t feel
100% vibrations (i)

100% Felt rested (p) Thought it was cold and wished I

had a sweater (u)

_______________________________________________________________________________
Percentage of Agreement – Cognitive
_______________________________________________________________________________

4 100% Didn’t forget about things (u)

6 100% Remembered friends I haven’t
seen in a long time (p).
100% Thinking about my life or
stories about my life that I
should do (i)

100% Thoughts about needing to have a

pillow under my knees (u)
7 100% Completely aware of my
surroundings (i)
8 100% Thoughts about my day and
current situations (i)

336
 Percentage of Agreement – Cognitive (continued)
Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments
Participant Percentage
u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Number of
p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
Females Agreement
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
9 100% Very aware of the sound at
first (p)
100% Thoughts of what delicious
food I was having for dinner
and about wonderful future
ahead (p)
10 100% Thoughts were of surgery and all
the electrical equipment that goes
with it (u)
100% Just thought of being relaxed (u)
11 100% Thoughts kept disturbing me and
running through my head (u).
12 100% Mind wandered the more I
relaxed (i)
13 100% Stimulating to my mind (p)

100% I was able to forget that I had any

wires attached (p).
14 100% Very interesting (p)
100% Thoughts about upcoming week,
then about the summer, then
about dinner (i)
100% My mind didn’t drift off (i)
15 100% My body felt asleep, but my
mind didn’t (i)
100% My mind was pretty scattered
...lots of different thoughts (u)
16 100% Thoughts tuned into the music My mind didn’t drift off my
100% (p) thoughts (u).
18 100% Aware of outside noise (u)
Mind kept flitting to things I
100% needed to do (u)
Music phrases from last Sunday’s
100% performance kept running
through my head (i)
19 100% Thoughts about biofeedback,
noticing if my muscles were
tense, noticing my breathing (i)
100% My mind wasn’t very relaxed (u).
100% Thinking about final exams and
things I needed to do for the rest
of the day (u)
20 100% Lots of thoughts that eased with
time (u-p)
Progression from unpleasant to
pleasant.

21 100% No specific thoughts (p)

100% Thoughts on present worries (u)
337
 Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments
Participant Percentage
u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Number of
Females Agreement p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
22 100% Thoughts reviewing my life
during past week (i)
100% Gradually, my mind went to rest
as well Progression from
unpleasant to pleasant.
23 100% Felt very alert (p)
Percentage of Agreement Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Visual
8 100% Rainbows around tiny
particles. Objects brighter
around me. Laying in an open
field or open space far away
from everything (p)
Percentage of Agreement Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Somatic
5 100% Felt empty inside-a cool
100% feeling (p)
Felt as if I were somewhere
else (p)

6 100% Felt completely surrounded

and kind of lost (p)
8 100% Felt lighter (p)
100% Every particle in my being was
vibrating (almost like dancing)
separately (p).
9 100% Lost in a very relaxing world
inside myself (p).
11 100% Felt like I completely escaped
from wherever I was before
(p).
12 100% Open vast and freeing. Blanket
like between me and the rest of
the world, soft and comfortable
(p)
13 100% Then I was gone (p).
19 100% Felt like I was rocking in a
hammock (p).
22 100% Felt like the vibration was
penetrating through some parts
of my body and skin.
Percentage of Agreement Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Auditory
3 100% Came in and out of awareness
of the sound (p).
6 100% . . . back to hearing the tones
(p).
11 100% Giving over to the sensations
and emotions that vibration
and overtones were eliciting
(p).
14 100% Listened to the sounds and
picked out the overtones (p).

338
 Percentage of Agreement Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events:
Auditory (continued)
Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments
Participant Percentage
u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Number of
Females Agreement p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
18 100% Mind focused on the nature of
the overtones.
100%
Didn’t think of anything
specific which is unusual.
19 100% Listened to the overtones (p).
23 100% Heard tones fade in and out.
Percentage of Agreement Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Mental
Consciousness
3 100% Sort of lost myself. Sort of
drifted (p).
5 100% Felt as if I were somewhere
else (p).
7 100% Couldn’t feel the sensors on
my body (p).
9 100% First aware of my breathing,
then forgot about the breath.
Lost in a very relaxing world
inside myself (p) Progression
10 100% Body felt like it was asleep,
but I was still aware (p).
11 100% Felt like I completely escaped
from wherever I was before.
Put in a state I’m unfamiliar
with . . . (p)

12 100% Shallow dream – like a day dream

(p)
13 100% Then I was gone. Don’t recall
any thoughts (p)
14 100% Mind drifted off (p)
100% My mind didn’t drift off (p)
18 100% Mind drifted.
100% Didn’t think of anything
specific which is unusual.
21 100% Comfortable to be awake and
relaxing.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Percentage of Agreement (Aesthetic)
None to report
Percentage of Agreement Individuation of Self and/or Higher Self (Feelings of Communion)
8 100% Felt enlightening (p).
20 100% Felt connected and together
(p).
22 100% Body and mind reached a
complete stillness, silence and
felt as one (p).
Individuation of Self and/or Higher Self (Expansion of Creative Ability)
None to report

339
 Percentage of Agreement Other Themes (Sleeping Dreaming)
6 100% Drifting off (p).
7 100% Drifted into sleep (p).
Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments
Participant Percentage
u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Number of
p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
Females Agreement
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
9 100% Fell asleep and dreamed of falling
from gymnastic rings (u).
13 100% Really deep sleep (p). Asleep for a second.
19 100% Dreamed about someone
giving be broccoli soup (i).
20 100% Dreaming (p). Dosed a little (p).
23 100% Must have fallen asleep (i). Fell asleep as some point.
Dreams, but nothing significant
(i).
Percentage of Agreement Other Themes (Effort/Trying)
11 100% Trying to still and calm my
thoughts (u).
12 100% Trying to consciously relax them
(jaw and forehead) (u).
13 100% Trying to focus on relaxing (u).
21 100% Reminding myself to relax (u).
22 100% Imagined I was going to bed in
order to relax (u).
100% Focused on a specific part of my
body in order to relax (u).
Note. Underlined statements represent areas of disagreement prior to second
meeting held for clarification, discussion and consensus. Author’s table.

340
Table G2

Percentage of Agreement Between Reviewers and Researcher Relative to

Comment Categories: Male Participants

Participant Percentage of Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments

Number Agreement u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Males p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
Percentage of Agreement – Emotional
1 100% Enjoyable, calm (p)
5 100% I loved it (p)
7 100% Very different from what I’m
100% used to, but enjoyable (p) Enjoyable to relax (p)
8 100% Total peace (p)
9 100% At peace (p) aside from being
attached to the wires (u)
14 100% A bit nervous at first (u)
15 100% Peaceful (p)
100% Peaceful, feelings of joy (p)
16 100% Nice to lay there (p)
19 100% Melody started to make me
think of Native American
Indians and things that they
suffered (u).
100% Then thoughts of things that
were glorious and proud about
the Indians (p)
Progression from unpleasant
to pleasant.
22 100% The fan had a cooling effect and I
think it calmed be down a little (p)
Percentage of Agreement – Physical
1 100% Very relaxing (p)
100% Felt some muscles twitch that
I had no control over (i)
2 100% Very relaxing (p)

100% Soothing (p)

100% Relaxed a bit (i)

100% More tired (u)

3 100% Heartbeat monitor seemed

heavy (i)
100% Aware of many discomforts (u)
4 100% Soothing (p)

100% Table was firm, but comfortable

(p)

__________________________________________________________________
Percentage of Agreement – Physical (continued)

341
 Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments
Participant Percentage of
u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Number Agreement
p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
Males
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
5 100% Body felt great. Felt all wavy.
When the sound stopped, my
body kept feeling it. (p)
100% Totally relaxed (p)
6 100% Quite relaxing (p)
100% Hands grew warmer.
Increased sensitivity in my
hands (p)
7 100% Felt myself relaxing more and
more (p)
100% Heard a pitch that was
constant and vibrated
100% randomly all over my body (p) Felt my muscles relax gradually
(u-p) Progression from
unpleasant to pleasant
8 100% Tingling sensations all over
(p)

100% Breathing felt out of sync with

my body (u)
9 100% Very relaxed (p)
100% Not relaxing (u)
10 100% The table was comfortable (p)
11 100% Very calm and relaxed (p)
100% Sound bed was comfy (p)
12 100% Very relaxed (p)
100% More aware of my body contact
with the table (i)
100% Felt pain in my shoulder the
longer I stayed lying without
moving (u)
13 100% Very relaxing (p)
100% Tone was soothing, like a
gentle hum or soft breeze (p)
100% Fairly relaxing with the low
lighting and dead silence (p)
14 100% After a few minutes, I began
to think about the overtone
series and that instantly
relaxed me (p) and I slept for
most of the 20 minutes
15 100% Heart rate changed (i)
100% Less relaxing to come to (u)

16 100% Shoulders seemed tense (u)

100% At first when the strings were
played, I started to feel a little I was comfortable (p)
100% sick (u)

Percentage of Agreement – Physical (continued)

342
 Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments
Participant Percentage of
u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Number Agreement
p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
Males
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
17 100% Feeling the flow of vibration
that felt good (p)
100% Aware of my heartbeat. Seemed
like the only thing in the room
was my pulse (i)
19 100% Relaxed for quite some time
while listening (p)

100% Melody went completely

dissonant and I wasn’t very
relaxed at this point (u)
20 100% Very relaxing (p)
100% Felt vibrations passing
through my body (p)
100% Relaxing feeling (p)

21 100% Vibrations were very relaxing

(p)
100% Muscles felt very relaxed (p)
22 100% Vibrations made me feel loose
100% (p)
Relaxed more and more as
100% time went on (p) Was nice to lay down on
something firm (p)
100% The fan had a cooling effect and I
think it calmed me down a little
(p)

_______________________________________________________________________________
Percentage of Agreement – Cognitive
_______________________________________________________________________________
1 100% Reminded me of waves on the
beach (p)
2 100% All thoughts and subconscious
images were pleasant (p)
100% Aware of white noise (u)
3 100% Nothing to focus my senses on
thinking about various random
topics (school work, moving, etc.)
100% Very interesting (p) (u)
4 100% Mind went from topic to topic,
slowly it cleared (u-p)
Progression from unpleasant to
pleasant.
5 100% Aware of everything (i)

6 100% Thinking about what I need to do

today wondered about getting it
all done (u)
7 100% Mind stopped thinking about
things I was worried about (p)
343
 100%
Very different than what I’m
used to, but enjoyable (p)
Percentage of Agreement – Cognitive (continued)
Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments
Participant Percentage of
u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Number Agreement
p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
Males
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
8 100% Let my mind wander, running
through many events of past
few weeks that felt unresolved
100% or confusing (u) Felt aware of my surroundings (I)
Mind was busy with thoughts. (u)
100% Later less consumed by thoughts
and worries Progression from
100% unpleasant to pleasant

12 100% Thoughts about what I would do

in the next week (i)
15 100% Reassuring thoughts (p)
17 100% Thinking about someone
mowing the lawn, or a saw
machine the lumber yard (u)
100% Aware of all the monitoring (u)
100% Wondered about my fingers
sweating or not (i)
18 100% Random thoughts faded away
100% (p) Didn’t have much passing through
my head (i)
19 100% Reminded me of the
didgeridoo (i)
100%
Melody started to make me
think of Native American
Indians and things that they
suffered (u) Then thoughts of
things that were glorious and
100% proud about the Indians (p) Not long before my mind drifted
Progression from unpleasant back to worries (u)
to pleasant.
20 100% A learning experience (i)
21 100% Overall thoughts of daily trials not
as intense (p).
100% Thoughts were random (i)
Memories from years ago crossed
100% my mind (i)
Percentage of Agreement Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Visual
2 100% All thoughts and subconscious
images were pleasant.
3 100% Saw orange and yellow colors
(p).
8 100% Saw lots of blues and deep
violet colors whirling around
100% with black (p).
Laying in an open field or
344
 open space far away from
everything.
Percentage of Agreement Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Visual
(continued)
Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments
Participant Percentage of
u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Number Agreement
p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
Males
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
12 100% Imagined throat singers (p).
100% Scenes of a mountain village
(p).
14 100% Images of Pet Cemetery kept
entering my mind (u)
Percentage of Agreement Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Somatic
3 100% During silence after the sound
stopped I was very aware of
my body, relaxed and
stretching below my head,
almost as if it were separate
from my head (p).
4 100% Felt sensation of levitating,
floating (p).
8 100% I don’t think I was in my body
(p).
100%
Laying in an open field or
open space far away from
everything (p).
12 100% Less weight on my body (p).
16 100% My body felt different. After
a short while, the feeling went
away and my mind was almost
not aware of my body (p).
18 100% Felt vibrations become more
intense, then normal, then
hardly noticeable, drifted off,
random thoughts faded
away(p). Progression
20 100% Felt like being transported to a
different environment, but
once in a while, I lost
concentration (p).
Percentage of Agreement Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events: Auditory
1 100% Tones were good, soft (p).
2 100% Consciousness would shift its
focus from overtone to
overtone (5th, 3rd, flat 7th,
octave) (p)
4 100% Subtle sounds (p)
12 100% Imagined throat singers (p)
14 100% After a few minutes I began to
think of the overtone series
and that instantly relaxed me

and I slept for most of the 20

345
 minutes (p)
19 100% Distinctly heard a melody at
the upper reaches of my
hearing, fading in and out (p).

20 100% Heard music being played

even though strings tuned to
same note (p).
22 100% So many beautiful sounds (p).
Percentage of Agreement Altered/Enhanced Perception of Internal/External Events:
Mental Consciousness
2 100% I may have forgotten to
breathe. All thoughts and
subconscious images were
pleasant (p).
4 100% Subtle sounds. Didn’t notice
they stopped (p).
5 100% Went in and out (I)
100% Thoughts were random and
6 dreamlike (p).
100% During vibration I was more
alert and aware of everything-
-sound, thought and feeling
(p).
8 100% Didn’t notice when the sound
ended, but slowly became
aware of my surroundings
again. Total peace.
Completely changed my
mental and physical state.
Overall affect on my mind,
body, spirit (p).

10 100% A dreamlike state and a focus

of energy on my being and
awareness (p).
15 100% Semi-coherent when awakened
(u).
16 100% I felt withdrawn from
everything (p).
18 100% Felt vibrations become more
intense, then normal, then
hardly noticeable, drifted off,
random thoughts faded away.
Progression
20 100% Felt like being transported to a
different environment, but
once in a while I lost
concentration (p).
21 100% After a while I didn’t even
realize the sound and vibration
was occurring (p).
100% Fell asleep for a few minutes,
but was aware of my
environment (p).
Percentage of Agreement Mental Consciousness (continued)
346
 Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments
Participant Percentage of
u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Number Agreement
p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
Males
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
22 100% ...but time seemed to
disappear (p).
Percentage of Agreement (Aesthetic)
8 100% Laying in an open field or
space far away from
everything (p).
22 100% So many beautiful sounds (p).
Percentage of Agreement Individuation of Self and/or Higher Self (Feelings of Communion)
8 100% Surrounded by a protective
field that kept me warm and
comforted (p).
10 100% Like a white focus in my
forehead followed by a
Spiritual awareness of a
different capacity of
awareness (p).
Percentage of Agreement Individuation of Self and/or Higher Self (Expansion of Creative Ability)
2 100% Considered how to orchestrate
the music I sensed (p).
9 100% Felt very available toward
experiences of a different
nature than I usually do (p).
22 100% ..urge to find something of my
own in the sounds (p).
Percentage of Agreement Other Themes (Sleeping Dreaming)
1 100% On the verge of sleep
2 100% Dozing off and dreaming (p).
100% Dozing (p).
4 100% Dozed off (p).
7 100% Started to drift off at the end (p)
10 100% I was a little sleepy and fell into a
light sleep (p).
11 100% Fell asleep pretty quick. Felt
like I’d been sleeping very
soundly (p).
100% Like unto a nap (i)
13 100% Fell asleep for probably 15
minutes (i).
14 100% I slept for most of the 20
minutes (i).
100% If I did doze off, I wasn’t in a very
deep sleep (i)
15 100% Very relaxed sleep (p).
16 100% Began to fall asleep (i)
18 100% Drifted off (p).

100% It was like a normal nap. I don’t

remember dreaming or images (i).
21 100% Fell asleep for a few minutes .
. . (i)

347
 Sound Treatment Comments No Sound Treatment Comments
Participant Percentage of
u=unpleasant; u=unpleasant;
Number Agreement
p=pleasant; p=pleasant;
Males
i=indeterminate i=indeterminate
Percentage of Agreement Other Themes (Effort/Trying)
1 100% Soft light and quiet made it easy
to relax (p).
6 100% Tried to keep myself relaxed and
thought of pieces I’ve played to
pass the time (u).
9 100% I felt like sleeping (i).
12 100% Tried to feel points of tension and
relax them (u).
14 100% It was quite hard for me to relax
(u).
17 100% Was focusing on relaxing (u).
19 100% Felt able to relax a couple of times
(i)
22 100% Somewhat torn between urge to
find something of my own in the
sounds and vibrations or just
completely let go and let
everything work on me (u).
Note. Underlined statements represents areas of disagreement prior to second
meeting held for clarification, discussion and consensus. Author’s table.

348
APPENDIX H: EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES AND ECOLOGICAL THREATS

Table H1

Extraneous Variables

Extraneous Variable Description Risk Level How Addressed in USU

Study
History Things or events in Low Second appointment was
addition to the scheduled within 24 hrs at
treatment conditions same time of day.
that occur between
appointments that can Repeated measures of
influence measures immune system.
(e.g., music
performances,
physiological
variations, etc.)
Bias A researcher's Low Previously prepared scripts
personality, remained consistent when
mannerisms, and read to participants.
relationships can bias
results.
Difficult to control this
Participant bias Participants may have Moderate confound. Some participants
reported what they were music therapy students,
thought the researcher enrolled in classes taught by
wanted them to the researcher. This may
report. have influenced the veracity
of their responses on STAI,
the POMS, and subjective
rating scales.

Instrument bias Instrumentation can Low Physiologic measures are

bias results. objective and less vulnerable
to bias.
Interactions of Participants receive Low Participants were randomly
treatments more than one assigned to either sound
treatment condition or no sound
condition for their first
appointment. Statistical
analysis found no order
effect.
Hawthorne effect Participants change Low Physiological measures can
their performance detect intentional changes in
because they know performance.
they are in a study.
Note. Author’s table.

349
Table H2

Ecological Threats to Validity

How Addressed in
Ecological Threat Description Risk Level
USU Study
Explicit description Researcher fails to Low Procedures are well
of the experimental adequately describe documented.
condition how the study was
conducted, making it
difficult to determine
whether results are
applicable to other
settings.
Hawthorne effect Participants perform High This confound is
differently because difficult to address as
they know they are researcher was integral
being studied. part of experimental
“...experiment is conditions
jeopardized because
the findings might not
generalize to a
situation in which
researchers or others
are not present” (Gall,
Borg & Gall, 1996, p.
475).
Disruption effect The treatment Low - Moderate Physiological
condition may not be measurement involves
effective because it is placement of non-
unique, but given time invasive apparatus on
for the participants to the body. This may be
adjust to it, it might stressful for some
have been effective. participants, though at
screening (prior to
consent) they learned
about the monitoring
devices. While placing
sensors, participants
were reminded of the
function, and baseline
measures were obtained
to allow for adaptation.
Novelty A treatment condition High It is difficult to address
may be effective due this confound. The
to its novelty; thus, SRMT produces unique
participants are harmonic sound which
responding to its could definitely affect
uniqueness. musicians.

350
 How Addressed in
Ecological Threat Description Risk Level
USU Study
Experimenter effect Condition might have High It is difficult to address
been effective as a this confound as
result of being experimenter has a
implemented by the specialized skill set to
therapist/experimenter. play the SRMT.
Pretest sensitization Treatment condition Low-Moderate Physiological measures
might work only if a are not subject to pretest
pretest is given. sensitization.
Because participants Participant’s pre-test
have taken a pretest, scores on subjective
they may be more scales may be subject to
sensitive to the pretest sensitization.
treatment. Had they
not taken a pretest, the
treatment would not
have had an effect.
Posttest sensitization Posttest becomes a Moderate Participant scores on
learning experience, subjective scales may
causing certain ideas be subject to posttest
presented during the sensitization.
treatment to “fall into
place” (Bracht &
Glass, 1968, p. 477). If
participants had not
taken a posttest, the
treatment condition
would have had an
effect.
Interaction of time of Treatment effect does Low Samples of sIgA were
measurement and not occur until later obtained 24 hr post
treatment effect after the end of treatment conditions.
treatment. In this
situation, a posttest at The POMS measured
the end of treatment mood states one week
would show no following the study.
impact, but later there
may be an impact.
Note. Author’s table.

351
 APPENDIX I: SCREENING QUESTIONNAIRE

Date: _________________
Name: _________________________________ Age: ___ Sex ____
Phone No. ____________________ email:______________________________
Major: ___________________________ College Year ________

PLEASE ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS AS COMPLETELY AS POSSIBLE

1a. Have you ever played a musical instrument? (Circle)

1. Yes
2. No (if no, skip to question 5)

1b. If YES, for how long? Mos/Yrs

2a. Have you ever had formal instruction on that instrument?

1. Yes
2. No

2b. If YES, for how long? Mos/Yrs

3. Have you had formal instruction on that instrument since junior high school?
(Circle)
a. Yes
b. No

4. Have you performed music on a regular basis since junior high school?
(Circle)
a. Yes
b. No

5. Which instruments do you find relaxing to listen to? (Circle those that apply)

a. None b. Guitar c. Piano d. Woodwinds

e. Brass f. Percussion/Drums
g. Orchestral h. Electronic i. Voice j. Other
Strings

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6. Choose FOUR styles of music from the list below that you find most
relaxing, and prioritize (1-4) with 1 being the most relaxing of the four chosen; 2
being the next relaxing of the four chosen, etc.

__a. Rock and roll __b. Pop __c. Classical __d. New Age
__e. Bluegrass __f. Country __g. Jazz __h. Blues
__i. Choral __j. Gospel/Religious __k. Alternative
__l. Ethnic/World __m. Folk __n. None __o. Nature sounds
__p. Other _______________

7. Choose FOUR styles of music from the list below that you find most
enjoyable, and prioritize (1-4) with 1 being the most relaxing of the four chosen;
2 being the next relaxing of the four chosen, etc.

__a. Rock and roll __b. Pop __c. Classical

__d. New Age __e. Bluegrass __f. Country __g. Jazz
__h. Blues __i. Choral __j. Gospel/Religious
__k. Alternative __l. Ethnic/World __m. Folk __n. None
__o. Nature sounds __p. Other _______________

8a. Name any relaxation techniques that you do on a regular basis. If you do not
practice relaxation skip to question 8.

______________________________________

8b. Do you practice relaxation (circle)

1. Every day?
2. Twice a week?
3. Once a week?

9. Do you have any kind of hearing impairment? (Circle)

a. Yes
b. No

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10. Are you taking prescribed medication(s) regularly? (Circle)

a. Yes (If Yes, please name it/them)

_____________________________
b. No

11. Do you suffer from pain? (Circle)

a. Chronic (lasting more than 6 months)
b. Acute (less than 6 months)
c. Recurring (headaches, migraines)

PLEASE COMPLETE THIS QUESTIONNAIRE AS SOON AS POSSIBLE

AND RETURN IT FOR RANDOM ASSIGNMENT TO RECEIVE OVERTONE
SOUND MASSAGE. PLACE IN THE ENVELOPE TO MAINTAIN
CONFIDENTIALITY.

RETURN FORM TO: Annette Kearl

Music Therapy Lab, Room 219 (next to Kent Concert Hall)
or Music Department Main Office 107
CAMPUS MAIL: UMC 4015
You will be notified following the random selection process of an informed
consent appointment with the investigator and/or research assistant.

Music/Stress Management Assessment

Date: _________________
Age: ______ Sex: __________
Major: ____________________________
Freshman ___ Sophomore ___ Junior ___ Senior ____ Graduate student ____

PLEASE ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS AS COMPLETELY AS POSSIBLE

Music Preferences

1. What types of music do you enjoy listening to? (Please circle all that apply)

a. Rock and roll d. Pop g. Classical j. New age m. Choral

b. Bluegrass e. Country h. Jazz k. Blues n. Ethnic/World
c. Gospel f. Folk i. Alternative l. Religious

Other ________________

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2. List two of your favorite musical groups and/or songs.

__________________________________________________________________
______

3. What types of music do you find relaxing? (Please circle all that apply).

a. Rock and roll d. Pop g. Classical j. New age m. Choral

b. Bluegrass e. Country h. Jazz k. Blues n. Ethnic/World
c. Gospel f. Folk i. Alternative l. Religious

Other ________________

Music Interests

4. What instrument(s) have you played? (Please check all that apply)

None __
Guitar __ Piano __
Woodwind instrument (clarinet, flute, oboe, bassoon) ___
Brass (trumpet, trombone, tuba) ___
Percussion ___ Drums ____
Orchestral strings (violin, viola, cello, bass) __
Electric (Guitar, bass, keyboard) ___
Other ________________

5. Which of the above instruments do you find relaxing to play?

_______________________________________________________

6. Do you sing? ___

7. Do you sing for relaxation? ___
8. Which of the following stress management/healing practices have you
participated in, how long and how often?

How long How often

Tai chi _______ ________
Chi gong _______ ________
Aikido _______ ________
Yoga _______ ________
Meditation _______ ________
Chanting _______ ________
Prayer _______ ________
Other
________________ _______ ________

9. What is your main practice now? ___________________________________

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10. What other forms of complementary health modalities have you utilized or
explored?
(Please circle)

homeopathy Ayurveda acupuncture biofeedback

reiki healing touch massage herbal medicine

other _____________

11. Do you take regularly prescribed medications? ___Yes ____No

12. What do you do to cope with stress?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________

PLEASE COMPLETE THIS QUESTIONNAIRE AS SOON AS POSSIBLE

AND RETURN IT FOR RANDOM ASSIGNMENT TO RECEIVE OVERTONE
SOUND MASSAGE. PLACE IN THE ENVELOPE TO MAINTAIN
CONFIDENTIALITY.

RETURN FORM TO: Annette Kearl

Music Therapy Lab, Room 219 (next to Kent Concert Hall)
or Music Department Main Office 107
CAMPUS MAIL: UMC 4015
You will be notified following the random selection process of an informed
consent appointment with the investigator and/or research assistant.

356
 APPENDIX J: SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE RATING SCALES

Enjoyment Rating Scale

Please rate how enjoyable the treatment or no treatment session was for you.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Not at all Somewhat Enjoyable Very Completely

enjoyable enjoyable enjoyable enjoyable

Relaxation Rating Scale

HOW RELAXED ARE YOU RIGHT NOW?

0 = Most relaxed that you can imagine 100 = Most tense

you can imagine
________________________________________________________________
0 25 50 75 100

laying down playing piano routine scary ride in car

juries/recitals
massage from reading doing cave rappelling
not prepared
husband, candle homework no time for self
for tests
light, soft music
family problems
__________________________________________________________________
Note. The table illustrates an example of one participant’s descriptive anchors in
answering the question. Participants provided personal descriptive anchors utilizing the 0
-100 scale. Zero requested a description of “the most relaxed you can imagine,” and 100
requested a description of “the most tense you can imagine.” Participants also provided
incremental descriptions of anchors at 25, 50, and 75. Author’s table.

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APPENDIX K: BIOFEEDBACK MONITORING PLACEMENT PROCEDURE

As I placed the apparatus for physiological data collection, the participant

was informed as to their function:

Strain gauges monitor breathing, thermistor monitors temperature at the

fingertip, photoplethysmograph monitors heart rate and blood flow
changes with placement on the thumb, electrodermal response EDR
monitors skin conductance with placement on the third and fourth fingers
and EMG monitors muscle tension at the mandible and trapezius muscles.

Participants were asked about their comfort level with the apparatus and

any questions answered.

Do you feel comfortable with all of these wires? Yes ___ No ___ Okay __

The participants were instructed as to the procedure:

There will be a 5-minute period in which you lie quietly on the overtone
table without receiving any sound vibration. After that, I will begin
strumming the strings underneath the table. To satisfy your curiosity about
the table, underneath where you lie are 52 strings that are tuned to one
frequency. As I strum the strings, the vibration will come up through the
table. This will last for approximately 20 minutes. There is nothing you
need to do during this period. After that, there will be 5 minutes of silence
before I ask you to gently stretch in your body.

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 APPENDIX L: RESEARCHER AS INSTRUMENT TEMPLATE AND
RESEARCHER ASSUMPTIONS

In qualitative research, the investigator serves as a kind of instrument in

the collection and analysis of data (McCracken, 1988). According to Miles, “the

investigator cannot fulfill qualitative research objectives without using a broad

range of his or her own experience, imagination, and intellect in ways that are

various and unpredictable” (1979, as cited in McCracken, 1988, p. 18).

The researcher as instrument template acknowledges and uses my personal

experience with the phenomena of sound and vibration in the process of analysis.

It affords me more detail about my personal experience in relationship to music,

sound, and vibration, and it offers a systematic appreciation for that experience. I

examined the associations, instances, and assumptions related to the phenomena

in order to find any matches with those of the participants, which then became

subject to the bracketing process.

My Personal Experience

I experienced healing on a physical level when surgery was recommended,

which I attributed to music and sound. In addition, my experiences of music and

sound have assisted me to:

• Find my life’s purpose;

• Find meaning in all life events, including those events initially

perceived to be negative;

• Realize a deeper connection to the natural world;

• Realize there is a source of energy beyond the physical domain of

existence;

• See recurring themes or patterns in life;

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 • Find meaning in interpersonal relationships;

• Contemplate broader aspects of reality;

• Feel peaceful;

• Contemplate the nature of consciousness;

• Shift my conscious awareness;

• Enhance my creative expression;

• Adapt in the moment to life’s circumstances and respond in a creative

ways;

• See challenging situations as opportunities.

I consider my experiences with music and sound to be transformational. I

experienced:

• An altered perception of time and space;

• Intense surges of energy in my body;

• A sense of being at one with nature;

• A decrease in appetite and a swirling of energy and heat in my solar

plexus and other energy channels of my body;

• Heightened state of awareness;

• Intense emotional releases;

• Changes in life direction (e.g., career and relationship decisions);

• Guidance from a higher, infinite source;

• Synchronicities that guide the choices I make and the people with
whom I choose to interact.
My Assumptions

Assumptions of researchers are things that can be taken for granted in

designing a study. Examples may include assumptions about the nature of the

behavior being investigated, conditions under which the behavior occurs, methods

and measurements, and/or the relationship of the study to other persons and

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situations. I brought assumptions to this research, one of which is philosophical in

nature and is in agreement with Hippocrates (460 BC–377 BC), “The natural

healing force within each one of us is the greatest force in getting well.” (Mullin,

2010, p. 11; Petri, Delgado, & McConnell, 2015).

Others include my view that:

• Transformation is a positive endeavor. We as human beings are

consciously or unconsciously on a path of transformation: We have
significant life experiences that move us toward wholeness and balance.

• We have the inner resources and desire to be included as an active

participant in our healing process.

• We live in a participatory universe where nature is intelligent, alive, and

an active partner in healing. As we transform with the environment, so
does the environment transform with us.

• God-life-force-consciousness-humanity cannot be separated. All life

forces are interrelated, connected, and interdependent.

• We and the world are made up of whole processes in constant states of

unfolding. Studying an isolated portion of a complex system does not
lead to a satisfactory explanation about what is occurring in the process
as a whole. Because the whole is always in a state of transformational
change, phenomena must be studied in their whole aspects.

Based on constructivism, I assume that

meanings are constructed by humans as they interact with the world they
are interpreting. From this worldview, participants’ perceived reality is
influenced by his or her values, social context, and personal history, which
varies greatly from person to person; thereby, affecting how they construct
meaning and interpret reality. (Bradt, Burns, & Creswell, 2013, p. 126)

From a post-positivist worldview, I assume that “the ‘truth’ changes as our

knowledge changes, and that the theories, knowledge, and values held by the

researcher influence the interpretation of what is observed” (Bradt et al., 2013, p.

126).”

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 From a transpersonal perspective, I assume:

• There are dimensions of our being that are psychological and spiritual
and when both are integrated into our daily lives, we are more complete.

• There are stages of development through which a our self-awareness

extends beyond our personal story and views human consciousness as
being connected to something larger than ourselves. In transcending our
personalities via transcendent experiences, we move beyond who we are
right now and more connected with our spirit. These transcendent
experiences can be guided by a therapist using techniques that are part of
the client’s spiritual beliefs, such as chanting, drumming, praying, or
meditating. Through these techniques, our consciousness expands
beyond the usual boundaries and limitations of time and space.

• The body, mind, and spirit are the basic dimensions of human life. In
transpersonal psychology, the dimension of mind has three levels; the
conscious mind, the subconscious mind, and the unconscious mind. The
dimension of spirit refers to one’s spiritual beliefs. From a therapeutic
perspective, the body-mind-spirit dimensions hold conflicting
information and self-defeating beliefs that need to be accessed and
resolved as part of therapy.

• There are non-rational ways of knowing that consider one's intuitive,

integrative, and contemplative awareness.

• We all, on some level, desire to realize our highest potential and can do
so through the recognition, understanding, and realization of unitive,
spiritual, and transcendent states of consciousness.

• We have an internal source of wisdom, viewed by some as the soul

which is normally not heard above the noise of the world.

Inspired from my study of mind-body and energy medicine, I assume:

• The mind-body-spirit to be a unified and interconnected system that

works together to bring about healing on the physical level. Illness is an
imbalance in this system and a learning opportunity for personal growth
and transformation.

• The body has its own innate healing capacity and a natural tendency to
move toward health and balance.

• That healers, therapists, and health care providers that embrace this
perspective can serve as guides in these processes.

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• There exist subtle biophysical energies (e.g., qi, chi, prana) and a subtle
biophysical anatomy (e.g., meridians, chakra energy centers) whose
cultivation and development contribute to healing and spiritual
awakening.

• That subtle energy fields can be measured, are affected by changes in

one’s physical and psychological health, and influenced by the energy
fields of others.

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 APPENDIX M: GIM METAPHORICAL THEMES

Table M1

Comparison of Thematic Descriptions: GIM and the SRMT

USU Study Participant Description GIM Metaphorical Theme Description

Relaxation/Induction Metaphor:
The Support of the Earth

“Laying in an open field or open space “It is like feeling the support of the
far away from anything. Surrounded by earth, letting your body feel heavy, but
a protective field that kept me warm yet feeling supported. I feel supported
and comforted. . . total peace.” and I feel safe. I don’t really feel
pressured. It is like previous few
“Body felt really heavy.”
situations for me” (Zander, 2008, p.
55).

Relaxation/Induction Metaphor:
Walking Away

“I don’t think I was in my body.”

“My mind stopped thinking.”
“Walking away from the rational part
“Didn’t think of anything which is
of me to wherever it takes me. It was
unusual for me.”
the opportunity to get away from my
“Don’t recall any thoughts.” body and my logical self, and see my
(Note: 25 participants in USU study body relaxing” (Zander, 2008, p. 55).
experienced their body as more
relaxed).

Relaxation/Induction Metaphor:
Being Liquid

“Breath is deeper. Feel lighter. Surges

of energy across my body in waves.”
“There is a shift in breathing and a shift
“Breathing felt out of sync with my
in position. I am conscious of physical
body. . . completely changed by mental
changes, of being more liquid” (Zander,
and physical state.”
2008, p. 55).
“First aware of breath, then forgot
about it.”

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“Both arms felt more fluid and free.”
“Noticing my breathing.”

Relaxation/Induction Metaphor:
Being Connected

“Felt connected and together.” “It is like being connected to the earth
and also to the core of myself” (Zander,
“Felt as one.” 2008, p. 55).

“It is really a turning inward, like going

right back in towards yourself. It is
“Lost in a world inside myself.” more of a closed position—you are in a
kneeling position, like a praying pose.
“In touch with myself.” It puts me in touch with myself, and
becomes a closing inward” (Zander,
2008, p. 55).

Music Imagery Metaphor:

A Dream

“Thoughts were random and

dreamlike.”
“Dozing off and dreaming.” “It is very much like being in a dream
and having the experience and at the
“A dreamlike state and a focus of
same time being conscious of it on
energy on my Being and Awareness.”
another level that you don’t have when
“Fell asleep for a few moments, but you are asleep and dreaming” (Zander,
was aware of my environment.” 2008, p. 55).
“Body felt like it was asleep, but I was
still slightly aware.”

Music Imagery Metaphor:

A Story

“While drifting off, I would be thinking “Sometimes it is like writing the story,
about my life or stories about my life and sometimes it is like being in the
that I should do. Remembered friends I story. It is like being a character and
haven’t seen in a long time.” also the audience. If I am in the story I
“Melody started making me think of have control over what I do but not
control over the story” (Zander, 2008,
Native American Indians and things
they have suffered. Then thoughts of p. 55).

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things that were glorious and proud
about the Indians.”

Music Imagery Metaphor:

Being in the Cosmos

“Felt as if I were somewhere else,

really light, didn’t feel gravity. Felt
empty inside—a cool feeling.”
“It feels like I am in the cosmos. I was
“Sort of lost myself.” there, and that was the first time that I
“Open, vast, freeing.” got a sense of getting out of my own
way. . . It is the letting go. It opens my
“Then I was gone.” ability to get beyond a behavioral
“Giving over to the sensations and understanding of my actions. I did not
emotions that vibration and overtones get solutions but I got feelings”
were eliciting.” (Zander, 2008, p. 55).
“Laying in an open field or open space
far away from anything.”

Music Imagery Metaphor:

A Switch

“Like a white light focus in my

forehead followed by a Spiritual “It feels like a switch is being turned on
awareness a different capacity of and I enter a deep mysterious place”
awareness.” (Zander, 2008, p. 55).
“Felt enlightening.”

Music Imagery Metaphor:

Surrender

“Giving over to the sensations and It is like surrender, to what is. Like not
emotions that the vibrations and to anybody and not a conflict in terms
overtones were eliciting.” of acceptance. It is a surrendering to the
“Felt very available toward experiences music, and to whatever needs to be will
of a different nature than I’m used to.” be” (Zander, 2008, p. 55).

USU Study Participant Description GIM Metaphorical Theme Description

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 Return Metaphor:
Floating

“I often have a physical sense of

ascending or descending, and starting
“Floating” to flow back up to the surface. Floating
“Levitating” back up to the water or floating back
down to the ground. It often makes me
“Less weight on my body.” conscious of being tired, a good tired. It
“Feel lighter.” is like lightness coming back to ground,
or liquid coming back to solid”
(Zander, 2008, p. 55).

Return Metaphor:
A Space of Silence

“During silence was very aware of my

body being relaxed and stretching
below my head, almost as if it were
separate from my head.”
“When the sound stopped, my body “Well, there’s usually a nice space
kept feeling it.” there. It is a space of silence and I
“After a while I didn’t even realize the appreciate that because it is just for me
sound and vibration was occurring.” to gather what happens give myself a
chance to either recover from tension,
“Subtle sounds, didn’t notice they or to just stay with something that has
stopped.” come to me” (Zander, 2008, p. 55).
“Came in and out of awareness of
sound.”
“Body and mind felt complete stillness,
silence.”

Return Metaphor:
Returning from Space

“Felt as if I were somewhere else, “It is like being in another world or in

really light, didn’t feel gravity. . . “ space and when you come back from
space you have to get used to the
“Laying in an open field or open space
atmosphere and the weight change
far away from anything.”
before you come out of the spaceship
“I felt withdrawn from everything.” and onto the planet” (Zander, 2008)

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 Postlude Discussion Metaphor:
Cradling

“Felt like I was rocking in a

hammock.”
“Blanket like between me and the rest
of the world, soft and comfortable.”
“Whatever the experience was, I felt
“Felt completely surrounded and kind that I was okay. It is like cradling”
of lost.” (Zander, 2008, p. 55).
“Felt like everything was working out.”
“Felt surrounded by a protective field
that kept me warm and comforted.”

Postlude Discussion Metaphor:

A Quiet Reentry

“The good [postlude] is a real quiet

“Felt like everything was working out.”
reentry into how do I now incorporate
“ . . . Then thoughts of things that were this into my life. Where does this move
glorious and proud about the Indians. me, how does this get filtered in, and
That’s what I was thinking about at the how does this fold into my life”
end and what I am still thinking about.”
(Zander, 2008, p. 55).

Postlude Discussion Metaphor:

Being in Love

“It’s like being in love with someone

and looking for a gift or something like
that from that person, which is
supposed to mean something. I actually
want that gift and I want it to explain
everything, but it doesn’t, I want that
“I loved it.” and it never gives it to me” (Zander,
2008, p. 55).

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 Postlude Discussion Metaphor:
A Web/Tapestry

“It gives me a real sense of my own

depth and my own richness. And, it
“Focus of energy on my Being and
gives me a sense of the beautiful
Awareness.”
complexity of myself, like a web. Or,
like a tapestry” (Zander, 2008, p. 55).
Note. Author’s table.

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 APPENDIX N: IMMUNE SYSTEM RESPONSE TO NOVEL STIMULI

Because my research included measures of immune response, I have

included an appendix on psychoneuroimmunology (PNI). I decided to discuss this

area in an appendix because the immune response data collected in the USU study

were not subject to robust statistical analyses due to methodological issues noted

in the discussion chapter. I discuss music within the context of PNI to include the

mechanisms through which emotions, the limbic system, and immunology are

interdependent and to show how the immune and other related systems respond to

novel stimuli, such as music and sound. I contend that the vibrations produced

from the SRMT could certainly be perceived and experienced as novel.

Emotional responses are common in relation to music listening and

playing. Cox makes reference to the activation of physiological mechanisms in

response to external and internal stimulation channeled through regions of the

limbic system and the hypothalamus (1978, as cited in Scartelli, 1992). Both the

limbic system and the hypothalamus use this information (stimuli) as it relates to

emotions (mood states), thus having an ultimate effect on the functioning of the

endocrine, immune, and autonomic nervous systems.

Music is among the prominent stimuli that affect these systems and is

commonly recognized to have effects, some predicable, on the psychological and

physiological states of the listener. It may be the novelty of music that facilitates

healthy functioning of these systems, as multiple areas of the brain are involved in

the processing of the sounds.

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 Roederer speaks to the novelty of music as a stimulus presented to the

brain, stating that “it is one of the very few endeavors of the human species that

has flourished, and continues to flourish throughout man’s evolution, though it

contains no survival value to the species” (1975, as cited in Scartelli, 1992, p.

139). Scartelli contends that

Music signals are sent to the upper brain regions through the brain stem,
reticular formation, and limbic system in a hyper charged manner by
virtue of its rhythmic format. Because this information is rhythmically
formatted, it is processed through all levels of the brain in a unique
manner which is different from all other auditory stimuli. (1987, as cited
in Scartelli, 1992, p. 141)

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 APPENDIX O: EXPLANATION OF RESULTS

Important for me in this study was to more fully understand why some of

the physiological measures did not support my hypotheses. However, what I

learned related to measures of muscle tension at the mandible, temperature at the

fingertip, and heart rate was quite extensive.

Specifically, results from the multivariable mixed effect linear regression

model failed to demonstrate significant differences in support of the hypothesis,

There will be a greater reduction in muscle tension at the mandible in the sound

condition in comparison to the no sound condition. In seeking an explanation as to

why EMG measures did not decrease as expected, I learned that most researchers

favor the measurement of facial tension at the frontalis or temporalis muscle sites.

This is due to the many confounds that can affect measures at the mandible,

including movement of the jaw (W. B. Davis & Thaut, 1989; Matheson, Edelson,

Haitrides, Twinem, & Thurston, 1976; Scartelli, 1992).

In the post hoc review of my session notes, I had documented jaw

movement at points where I noticed spiking of the EMG signal. This spiking

occurred at times when participants appeared to become more relaxed or dozed

off. In addition, an emergent theme from participant descriptions made reference

to sleeping and dreaming. These two factors led me to investigate the literature

related to sleep.

Jaw movement and bruxism (tooth grinding) have been correlated with

disruptive sleep patterns (Chokroverty, 2010). Though participants were not asked

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about their sleeping patterns, it is likely that university students experience such

challenges due to study regimes and other student life demands.

Though the jaw movements I observed did not approach that of bruxism,

movement of any kind would affect the EMG signal. It is interesting to note that

some participants played flute, brass, or the violin, requiring a positioning of the

jaw that could result in higher baseline measures of mandible tension. According

to Berque and Gray (2002), many musicians experience playing-related

musculoskeletal disorders (PRMDs), which could reflect chronic muscle tension

in affected areas.

Measures of tension at the mandible found by Matheson, Toben, and de la

Cruz (1988) substantiate that this may be true. In 1988, they recorded surface

EMG from both right and left aspects of 18 muscle groups, establishing a data

base of normative EMG levels to assist in planning and interpreting EMG studies.

A scanning electrode permitted easy and rapid EMG measurement from 52 male

and 52 female college students, both sitting and standing. Mean measures for right

side masseter (aka mandible) in males while sitting was 1.46 microvolts and 1.44

microvolts for the left. For females, mean measures were 2.07 microvolts for the

right and 1.97 microvolts for the left.

In the USU study, normative baseline measures were found in only four

males and nine females. In the Matheson et al. (1988) study, it is important to note

that no measures were obtained while students were lying down. In the USU

study, EMG measures were obtained while participants were lying down. A valid

argument; however, is that EMG measures will be lower in a reclined position in

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comparison to sitting or standing position. Regardless of position, EMG measures

from 31 of the 44 university student musicians included in the USU study

deviated from the normative data found by Matheson et al. (1988), suggesting that

university student musicians carry more tension in the jaw at baseline in

comparison to other college students.

Temperature results from the multivariable mixed effect linear regression

model also failed to demonstrate significant differences in support of the

hypothesis, There will be a greater reduction increase in temperature at the

fingertip in the sound condition in comparison to the no sound condition.

In seeking as explanation as to why skin temperature results did not increase, I

learned that even though temperature is considered an important physiological

response, psychophysiological researchers question its reliability as an indicator

of parasympathetic activation or the relaxed response (Allen, Frame & Murray,

2002). This is partly due to the difficulty in achieving accurate and unbiased

recording. First, the procedure is problematic as the thermistor is taped to the

finger and given a very small magnitude of skin to measure temperature changes.

Secondly even minor variations in air currents in a normal room may create

difficulties (Hassett, 1978). It is possible that air current variations in the music

therapy lab occurred. In reviewing session notes, there was one day when the

temperature in the lab dropped to 71 Otherwise the temperature was kept

between 74 and Taking into account that participants were physically

motionless for at least 20 minutes, this temperature range may not have been

warm enough. In addition, temperatures for Logan, Utah during March when the

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study was conducted average at a high of 49 and a low of 26 . On some

mornings, while placing the thermistor, participants complained of having cold

hands due to outside temperatures.

Normative data related to starting fingertip temperature warrant mention.

According to Franchini and Crowley (2011) and Kistler, Mariauizouls, and von

Berlepsch (1998) temperature of the skin is largely a function peripheral blood

circulation. Skin temperature lowers as a result of vasoconstriction, a decrease in

diameter of peripheral arteries caused by sympathetic nervous system activation.

Kistler, Mariauizouls, and von Berlepsch (1998) conducted a study to determine

whether decreases in fingertip temperature are indicative of sympathetic induced

changes in microcirculation. They found that vasoconstrictions were easily

demonstrable by fingertip temperatures when the starting fingertip temperature

was above 89.6 In the USU study, baseline mean temperatures for females

before both the sound treatment condition and no sound treatment condition were

significantly less--before the sound treatment condition mean temperature was

81.2 and before the no sound treatment condition it was 86.75 . For males,

baseline mean temperatures were 91.74 before the sound treatment condition

and before the no sound treatment condition. Considering the Kistler

study, only males met the starting fingertip temperature criterion of 89.6 where

vasoconstriction or dilation (decreased or increased temperature) could possibly

be demonstrated. In addition, baseline temperatures for both females and males

from one treatment condition day to the next were variable. The variability range

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for females was quite significant (81.2 - 86.7 ); for males, temperature range

variability was less significant (90.8 - 91 .)

In addition, temperature change has been associated with changes in

respiration. Allen, Frame & Murray, 2002) monitored microvascular blood flow

and finger temperature change induced by a deep inspiration in healthy subjects.

Skin temperature decreased in 15 of the 17 subjects after each deep inspiration

(median fall of 0.089 ). In the USU study, deep inspirations were observed on

occasion during the 20 minute period. Fieldstone (2000) also found respiratory

effects on the body temperature and indicates that without consideration these

effects could present serious limitations when inferring significance based on

physiological measures of temperature.

Heart rate results from the multivariable mixed effect linear regression

model failed to demonstrate significant differences in support of the hypothesis:

There will be a greater reduction in heart rate as measured by way of

photoplethysmograph (PPG) in the sound treatment condition in comparison to

the no sound treatment condition. A photoplethysmograph (PPG) was used in this

research to measure heart rate with placement on the thumb. Elgendi (2012),

discusses different types of artifact that can affect the PPG signal to include (a)

power line interference due to instrumentation amplifiers (e.g., recording systems

that pick up ambient electromagnetic signals), and (b) motion artifact caused by

poor contact to the fingertip photo sensor and movement of the subject. In

addition, variations in room temperature can produce significant measurement

errors (Hertzman & Roth, 1942; Heyman & Ahlberg, 1969; cited in Elgendi,

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2012). Temperature variation artifact as well as motion artifact may have

influenced PPG results in this research. Keeping the body warm is known to

reduce the number of spontaneous vasoconstrictor events (Kahn, et al 1991;

Bergersen, Eriksen & Wallace, 1995). As previously noted in discussing

temperature results, the temperature range in music therapy lab may have been

too low.

In addition, large changes in the peripheral pulse have been found to

correlate with respiratory changes (Allen & Murray, 2000). Prior research has

shown that large respiratory maneuvers (e.g., a sudden deep inhalation, gasp) can

cause a change in blood flow due to vasoconstriction affecting measures of

temperature (Lawrence, Home, & Murray, 1992; Khan, Spence, Wilson & Abbot,

1991; Barron, Rogowski, Kanter & Hemli, 1993). As noted in discussing

temperature results, deep inspirations were observed in USU participants.

However, in addition to the large respiratory maneuvers noted above, respiration

results found in this research demonstrated that participants' breathing slowed and

became more diaphragmatic, which one would expect to affect heart rate and

temperature, suggesting a parasympathetic response through which a state of

relaxation is achieved (Peper, Harvey, Lin, Tylova & Moss, 2007).

A final explanation may simply relate to the PPG placement or the

positioning of the body. Relative to the former, most studies indicate placement

on the finger, whereas in this research placement was on the thumb. When

comparing sites for measuring PPG, Allen and Murray (2000) found the most

variability to occur at the thumb site. They noted other sites to include the ears

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and toes. Perhaps the thumb having thicker tissue would not be as sensitive to

subtle peripheral heart rate changes. Relative to body position, participants began

in a reclined position. Such positioning may induce a more passive relaxed state

and lower heart rate at baseline; thus, making it challenging for any subtle stimuli

such as the SRMT to elicit measureable changes.

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 APPENDIX P: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES COMPARISON

Below are two participant verbatim accounts related to the sound

treatment condition that provide evidence in that regard. I found that the

combining of themes from all participants (the composite description in Table 23)

significant individual details were lost. I reinsert Table 23 from the results chapter

for comparison (see table P2).

Table P1

Two Verbatim Descriptions of the SRMT

USU Study Participant Description USU Study Participant Description

“Paid attention to sounds and physical “More relaxed than I think I ever have
sensations. Tingling sensations all over. before. Every particle of my being was
Let my mind wander, running through vibrating (almost like dancing)
many events of the past few weeks that separately. Felt enlightening. Rainbows
felt unresolved or confusing. Breathing around tiny particles. Breath is deeper.
felt out of sync with my body. I don’t Feel lighter. Objects are brighter
think I was in my body. Saw lots of around me. Surges of energy across my
blues and deep violet colors whirling body in waves.”
around with black. Laying in an open
field or open space far away from
anything. Surrounded by a protective
field that kept me warm and comforted.
Didn’t notice when the sound ended,
but slowly became aware of my
surroundings. Total peace. Completely
changed by mental and physical state.
Overall effect on my mind body and
spirit.”

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Table P2

USU Study Composite Textural Descriptions

Composite Textural Description Composite Textural Description

Sound Treatment Condition No Sound Treatment Condition
The experience of the SRMT is The experience of lying in silence on
predominantly pleasant physically and the SRMT is mostly unpleasant
somatically. Shifts in mental physically and emotionally, requiring
consciousness are experienced as are effort. Shifts in mental consciousness
pleasant emotions and mental occur, but are minimal. No change is
quietness. Auditory perception is experienced in auditory perception,
enhanced and some visualization visualization, or feelings of
experienced. Feelings of communion communion, nor is there an experience
and an expansion of one’s creative of the expansion of one’s creative
ability are part of the experience. ability.

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