machines

Review
A Review of Feature Extraction Methods in
Vibration-Based Condition Monitoring and Its
Application for Degradation Trend Estimation of
Low-Speed Slew Bearing
Wahyu Caesarendra 1,2 ID
and Tegoeh Tjahjowidodo 3, * ID

1 Mechanical Engineering Department, Diponegoro University, Semarang 50275, Indonesia;

[email protected]
2 School of Mechanical, Materials and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong,
Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
3 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore 639798, Singapore
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Received: 9 August 2017; Accepted: 19 September 2017; Published: 27 September 2017

Abstract: This paper presents an empirical study of feature extraction methods for the application
of low-speed slew bearing condition monitoring. The aim of the study is to find the proper features
that represent the degradation condition of slew bearing rotating at very low speed (≈1 r/min)
with naturally defect. The literature study of existing research, related to feature extraction methods
or algorithms in a wide range of applications such as vibration analysis, time series analysis and
bio-medical signal processing, is discussed. Some features are applied in vibration slew bearing
data acquired from laboratory tests. The selected features such as impulse factor, margin factor,
approximate entropy and largest Lyapunov exponent (LLE) show obvious changes in bearing
condition from normal condition to final failure.

Keywords: vibration-based condition monitoring; feature extraction; low-speed slew bearing

1. Introduction
Slew bearings are large roller element bearings that are used in heavy industries such as mining
and steel milling. They are particularly used in turntables, cranes, cranes, rotatable trolleys, excavators,
reclaimers, stackers, swing shovels and ladle cars [1]. In this paper, the slew bearing being analyzed is
the one typically used in BlueScope Steel Australia; specifically for the coal loading into the steel ladle
turret, coal stacker and reclaimer. Slew bearing is different to typical rolling element bearing in terms
of geometry, load and speed application. Slew bearings are usually operated at very low rotational
speed, from 0.5 to 15 rpm in either continuous or reversible rotation and are designed with three axes
to support high axial and radial loads. The bearings have large diameter (e.g., approximately from
200 mm to 5000 mm). Due to the high geometric and cost issue, industries purchase these bearings for
replacement in a regular maintenance period. However, in some cases, these bearings may fail before
the predicted time. To prevent catastrophic failure and to effectively schedule the bearing purchase for
minimizing the replacement cost, a condition monitoring method for early failure detection is required.
Analyzing the vibration signatures of slew bearings that operate at a very low speed is more
complex than that of typical rolling element bearings. Slew bearing signals have low energy. They are
also non-stationary, non-linear, chaotic and practically hard to analyze. Due to their low energy,
the signal is masked by a higher background noise level. Therefore, it is difficult to extract the pertinent

Machines 2017, 5, 21; doi:10.3390/machines5040021 www.mdpi.com/journal/machines

Machines 2017, 5, 21 2 of 28

bearing signal. It is necessary to have reliable condition monitoring parameters or features that could
extract accurate information about the bearing condition from the signal.
The number of studies on slew bearing condition monitoring and early failure detection based
on vibration analysis is lower than for rolling element bearing. Studies of slew bearing condition
monitoring and life prediction utilizing vibration signal are presented in [2–7]. Žvokelj et al. [2]
presents the condition monitoring method utilizing vibration signal based on ensemble empirical
mode decomposition (EEMD) and principal component analysis (PCA). An extension work of [2] is
presented in [3] which used combined EEMD with kernel PCA. Recent studies of the slew bearing
fault detection and diagnosis is presented by Žvokelj et al. [4]. The paper presents combined EEMG
and multiscale independent component analysis (ICA). Nevertheless, studies of slew bearing failure
prediction and prognosis also increased recently [5–7]. Feng et al. [5] develops a reliability model
for residual life prediction based on Weibull analysis. A method for degradation trend estimation of
slew bearings was presented in [6]. The method employed PCA, particle swarm optimization (PSO)
and least squares support vector machine (LSSVM). Another residual life prediction model study of
slewing bearing can be found in [7]. The authors used PCA and support vector regression (SVR) to
construct the model.
In order to monitor the condition of slew bearings, a feature that represents the trends related to
degradation condition from normal to failure is necessary. Due to the unique vibration signal generated
by the roller and raceway contact in slew bearing, a suitable and sensitive feature extraction method
is mandatory in slew bearing fault diagnosis and prediction. There are numerous existing methods,
which are divided into different categories. For instance, Henao et al. [8] presented diagnostic methods
in a non-stationary condition. The methods are classified into four approaches: (1) frequency domain
approach; (2) time domain analysis; (3) slip-frequency; (4) diagnosis in the time-frequency domain.
This paper particularly presents an empirical study of feature extraction methods for vibration
signals acquired from naturally degraded slew bearings operating at very low rotational speed.
In terms of feature extraction methods, six categories are reviewed, namely (i) time-domain
features extraction; (ii) frequency-domain features extraction; (iii) time-frequency representation;
(iv) phase-space dissimilarity measurement; (v) complexity measurement; and (vi) other features.
Among the six categories, the time-domain features extraction method is found to be the most dominant
method in typical rolling element bearings. In addition, the third and fourth methods are suitable for
non-stationary, non-linear and chaotic signals.

2. Laboratory Slew Bearing Experiment

2.1. Slew Bearing Test-Rig and Sensor Location

The vibration data employed in this paper were acquired from a slew bearing test rig [1]. The test
rig was designed to replicate real working conditions of a slew bearing in a steel company, such as a
high-applied load and low rotational speed. The slew bearing used was a large thrust bearing with an
inner and outer diameter of 260 mm and 385 mm, respectively. The rotational speed of the lab test rig
can be operated from 1 to 12 r/min. A photo of the test rig and sensor location on the slew bearing is
shown in Figure 1.
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Figure1.1.Photo
Figure Photoof
ofslew
slew bearing
bearing lab
lab test
test rig
rig and
andsensor
sensorlocation.
location.
Figure 1. Photo of slew bearing lab test rig and sensor location.
2.2.2.2. Data
Data AcquisitionProcedure
Acquisition Procedure
2.2. Data Acquisition Procedure
The vibration data for continuous rotation was collected from four accelerometers that were
The vibration data for continuous rotation was collected from four accelerometers that
installed on the inner
The vibration datadiameter surfacerotation
for continuous at 90° wasto each other from
collected with four
4880accelerometers
Hz sampling that rate. were
The
were installed on the inner diameter surface at 90◦ to each other with 4880 Hz sampling
accelerometers
installed on the were IMIdiameter
inner 608A11 ICP (IMI Sensors,
surface at 90° toPCB each Piezotronics
other withDivision,
4880 HzNew York, NY,
sampling rate.USA)
The
rate. The accelerometers were IMI 608A11 ICP (IMI Sensors, PCB Piezotronics Division, New York,
type sensors. The
accelerometers wereaccelerometers
IMI 608A11 ICP were
(IMIconnected
Sensors, PCBto a Piezotronics
high-speed PicoScope
Division, NewDAQYork,(PS3424) (Pico
NY, USA)
NY, USA) type sensors. The accelerometers were connected to a high-speed PicoScope DAQ (PS3424)
Technology,
type sensors.StThe Neots, United Kingdom).
accelerometers The bearing
were connected to was subjected PicoScope
a high-speed to an axialDAQload of 15 tons.(Pico
(PS3424) The
(Pico Technology,
bearing began
Technology, St Neots,
St running
Neots, inUK).
United The
withbearing
2006Kingdom). Thewas
rotational subjected
speed
bearing to an However,
of 1 subjected
was r/min. axial load
to an ofprovide
to
axial 15 tons.
load of 15 The bearing
continuous
tons. The
began running
monitoring
bearing began in running
and 2006 with
produce rotational
2006 with speed
inrun-to-failure of 1data,
bearing
rotational r/min.
speedthe ofHowever,
bearing
1 r/min.datato provide tocontinuous
was collected
However, monitoring
on a continuous
provide daily basis
andfromproduce
February
monitoring run-to-failure
and toproduce bearing
August run-to-failure
2007 data,
with total the bearing
number
bearing of 139
data, data
the days.
bearing was
Todata collected
accelerate theonbearing
was collected a daily basisbasis
on aservice
daily from
life,
February
coal
fromdust to August
was injected
February 2007
to August with
into2007 total number
the bearing of 139
in number
with total mid-Aprildays.
of 2007To accelerate
(58 days
139 days. the bearing service
from the beginning).
To accelerate the bearing In life, coal
practice,
service dust
life,
was injected
especially
coal into
dust was the bearing
in steel-making
injected in
themid-April
intocompanies, in2007
bearingthe slew (58 days
bearing
mid-April 2007from
is (58 the
located
daysbeginning).
in open
from Inwhere
theair practice,
beginning). especially
theInbearing
practice, is in
steel-making
exposed
especiallytoincompanies,
a steel-makingthe slew
dusty environment bearing
companies, is located
and the
for in open
this reason
slew bearing is air
the where
coal
located inthe
dust wasbearing
open insertedis exposed
air where in the to a dusty
mid-April
bearing to
is
environment
simulate
exposed to and
the forworking
a real
dusty this reason the and
coal The
conditions.
environment dustthis
for was inserted
schematic
reason of
thethein mid-April
vibration
coal dust was to inserted
datasimulate inthe
acquisition real
fromworking
mid-April slewto
bearing
simulatetest-rig
conditions. the real
The is presented
working
schematic in Figure
conditions.
of the 2. The
vibration dataschematic
acquisitionof the from vibration data acquisition
slew bearing from slew in
test-rig is presented
bearing
Figure 2. test-rig is presented in Figure 2.
Speed sensor
Speed sensor

Belt Gear configuration

Belt Gear configuration
Drive ring
Drive ring
Slewing
bearing
Slewing
bearing
Hidraulic
pressure Belt
Hidraulic
pressure Belt

Motor
Motor

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of slew bearing test-rig and data acquisition flow process.
Figure
Figure 2. 2. Schematicdiagram
Schematic diagramof
ofslew
slewbearing
bearing test-rig
test-rig and
and data
dataacquisition
acquisitionflow
flowprocess.
process.
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3. Features Extraction Methods and Its Application on Slew Bearing Vibration Signal

3.1. Category 1: Time-Domain Features Extraction

3.1.1. Statistical Time-Domain Features

Statistical time-domain features such as mean, root mean square (RMS), standard deviation and
variance were usually used in past studies to identify the differences between one vibration signal
and another. More advanced statistical-based features such as skewness and kurtosis can be applied
to the signal which is not purely stationary. These features examine the probability density function
(PDF) of the signal. It is a well-known fact that if the condition of the bearing changes, the PDF also
changes, thus the skewness and kurtosis might also be affected. In particular, skewness is used to
measure whether the signal is negatively or positively skewed, while kurtosis measures the peak value
of the PDF and indicates if the signal is impulse in nature. For a signal with a normal distribution
i.e., normal bearing signal has a skewness value of zero.
In addition, kurtosis is obtained from the peak of the PDF of the vibration signal, while skewness
is obtained from the mean value of the PDF of the vibration signal. It is well known that the kurtosis
value of vibration signal from normal bearing is approximately three [9] and the skewness value of
approximately zero. Then, when the PDF of vibration signal changes due to faults, the kurtosis
value will increase to greater than three and the skewness value will shift to either negative
or positive. Other features which can be calculated from PDF of the vibration signal includes:
entropy, which calculates the histogram of the PDF and measures the degree of randomness of
the vibration signal; lower bound and upper bound histogram, which measure the lower and upper
values of the PDF respectively.
Aside from the statistical time-domain features mentioned above, there are other non-dimensional
features such as shape factor (defines as RMS divided by mean) and crest factor (defines as standard
deviation divided by RMS). Both features will change as the mean, RMS and standard deviation
change. The summary of the statistical time-domain features is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Brief review of statistical time-domain features extraction applied in condition monitoring of
typical rolling element bearings [10].

Description
Feature Name
Brief Definition Formula
The RMS value increase gradually as fault developed. However, RMS is unable q
1 N 2
N ∑ i =1 x i
RMS to provide the information of incipient fault stage while it increases with the fault RMS =
development [11].
N 2
Variance Variance measures the dispersion of a signal around their reference mean value. ∑ i =1 ( x i − m )
Var = ( N −1) σ 2
Skewness quantifies the asymmetry behavior of vibration signal through its N
∑ i =1 ( x i − m )
3
Skewness Sk =
probability density function (PDF). ( N −1) σ 3

Kurtosis quantifies the peak value of the PDF. The kurtosis value for normal N
∑ i =1 ( x i − m )
4
Kurtosis Ku =
rolling element bearing is well-recognized as 3. ( N −1) σ 4
q
Shape factor is a value that is affected by an object’s shape but is independent of 1 N
N ∑ i =1 x i
2
Shape factor SF =
its dimensions [12]. 1
N
N
∑ i =1 | x i |

Crest factor (CF) calculates how much impact occur during the rolling element max | xi |
Crest factor CF = q
1 N
N ∑ i =1 x i
2
and raceway contact. CF is appropriate for “spiky signals” [12].
Entropy, e( p), is a calculation of the uncertainty and randomness of a sampled n
Entropy vibration data. Given a set of probabilities, ( p1 , p2 , . . . , pn ), the entropy can be e( p) = − ∑ p(zi ) log2 p(zi )
calculated using the formulas as shown in the right column. i =1
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3.1.2.
3.1.2. Upper
Upper andand LowerBound
Lower BoundofofHistogram
Histogram

The The application

application of histograms
of the the histograms or a discrete
or a discrete PDF for PDF for time-domain
time-domain feature feature extraction
extraction is presentedis
presented
in [13]. Let d in
be[13]. Let
the number d be
ofthe number
division thatofgroup
division
thethat group
ranges, andthehiranges, ≤ i <hi dwith
with 0 and 0 ≤ i < d
be the columns be of
the columns of the histogram
the histogram for the time xi for the time x i
n
1
hi = ∑ 1ri ( xi ), ∀i, 0 ≤ i < d
n
(1)
hi = n ri ( xi ), ∀i , 0 ≤ i < d (1)
j =0 j =0 n
(
i (max( x )−min( x )) (i +1)(max( x )−min( x ))
1, i f i (max(ixi ) − min(ixi ))≤ x <(i + 1)(max( xi ) −i min( xi )) i
ri = r = 1, if d ≤x< d (2)
i 0, d otherwise d (2)
0, otherwise

The upper bound hU and lower bound h L of histogram are defined as
The upper bound hU and lower bound h L of histogram are defined as
hU h= =max ( xx i))++Δ ∆/2
max( /2 (3) (3)
U i

h L h= =max ( xx i))−−Δ ∆/2

max( /2 (4)
L i (4)
where ∆ =Δ (=max ( xxi ))− min( xi ))/(n − 1).
where (max( i − min( xi )) / ( n − 1) .
According to the features extraction results presented in Figure 3, some features, such as RMS,
According to the features extraction results presented in Figure 3, some features, such as RMS,
kurtosis, histogram upper bound and histogram lower bound, show the fluctuation in the last
kurtosis, histogram upper bound and histogram lower bound, show the fluctuation in the last
measurement day, approximately from the 90th day to the 139th day. These indicate that some
measurement day, approximately from the 90th day to the 139th day. These indicate that some features
features are sensitive to the slew bearing condition while others are less. The incipient damage
are sensitive to the slew bearing condition while others are less. The incipient damage occurred in day
occurred
90th thatinisday 90th
clearly that isby
indicated clearly indicatedhistogram
RMS, kurtosis, by RMS,upperkurtosis,
boundhistogram upper
and histogram bound
lower bound and
histogram
feature, lower
where bound feature, where
the fluctuation the fluctuation
is associated is associated
with roller and outer with
raceroller and However,
defects. outer race more
defects.
However, more appropriate and reliable features are necessary for the condition monitoring
appropriate and reliable features are necessary for the condition monitoring of slew bearing to detect of slew
bearing to detectdamage
an impending an impending damagethe
and to estimate and to estimate
degradation the degradation index.
index.

40 1
Skewness
RMS

20 0

0 -1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

200 2000
Shape factor
Kurtosis

100 0

0 -2000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
4
x 10
2 5
Crest factor

Entropy

0 0

-2 -5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

0 400
Histogram upper

Histogram lower

-200 200

-400 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t, days t, days

Figure 3. Statistical time-domain features calculated from the vibration slew bearing signal.
Figure 3. Statistical time-domain features calculated from the vibration slew bearing signal.
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3.1.3. Autoregressive (AR) Coefficients

3.1.3. Autoregressive (AR) Coefficients
In other studies [13], autoregressive (AR) coefficients of the vibration signal are calculated as
In other studies [13], autoregressive (AR) coefficients of the vibration signal are calculated
bearing vibration features. It is known that a faulty vibration signal of typical rolling element bearing
as bearing vibration features. It is known that a faulty vibration signal of typical rolling element
produces different autoregressive coefficients compared to that of normal vibration signal. The
bearing produces different autoregressive coefficients compared to that of normal vibration signal.
following is a common univariate time series model to calculate the AR coefficients:
The following is a common univariate time series model to calculate the AR coefficients:
n
yt = a1 yt −1 + a2 yt − 2 + . . . + an yt − n + ε t =  ainyt −1 + ε t (5)
yt = a1 yt−1 + a2 yt−2 + . . . + an yt−n + ε t i= =1
∑ a i y t −1 + ε t (5)
i =1
where a1 to a n are the autoregressive coefficients, yt is the digitized vibration signal, n is the
whereofa1the
order an are
to AR ( n= 8 ) and ε is
the autoregressive
model coefficients,
the residual yt (Gaussian
is the digitized noise). signal, n is the order of
whitevibration
the AR
Themodel = 8) and εkurtosis,
RMS,(nskewness, is the residual
entropy(Gaussian
and ARwhite noise). have been applied in vibration
coefficients
The RMS, skewness, kurtosis, entropy and AR
datasets from induction motor [14] and rolling element bearing coefficients have
[15].been
Theseapplied in vibration
papers have made datasets
great
from inductiontomotor
contributions the [14] and rolling
research areas element
on the bearing
bearing[15]. These papers
condition have made
monitoring andgreat
faultcontributions
diagnosis.
to the research
However, areas on were
the features the bearing
applied condition monitoring
for artificially and fault
bearing diagnosis.
damage. However,
In practice, the the features
damage is
were applied for artificially bearing damage.
typically developed naturally rather than artificially. In practice, the damage is typically developed naturally
rather
Thethan
ARartificially.
coefficients results are presented in Figure 4. It is shown that most of the features are
less relevant coefficients
The AR to representresults are presented
the slew in Figure except
bearing condition 4. It is shown
for ARthat most of the
coefficient features
4 which are less
is shown
relevant to represent the slew
fluctuating in the last measurement. bearing condition except for AR coefficient 4 which is shown fluctuating
in the last measurement.

1 0.5
AR coef 1

AR coef 2

0 0

-1 -0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

1 0.2
AR coef 3

AR coef 4

0 0

-1 -0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

0.5 0.5
AR coef 5

AR coef 6

0 0

-0.5 -0.5
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150

0.2 0.5
AR coef 7

AR coef 8

0 0

-0.2 -0.5
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
t, days t, days

Figure 4. AR features (up to 8 coefficients) calculated from the vibration slew bearing signal.
Figure 4. AR features (up to 8 coefficients) calculated from the vibration slew bearing signal.

Other time domain features such as impulse factor (IF) and margin factor (MF) have been
recently used [12,16,17]. Similar to CF, IF is used to measure how much impact is generated from the
bearing defect. The CF measures the impact by dividing the maximum absolute value of vibration
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signal and RMS value, while IF divides the maximum absolute value by the mean of absolute value.
Other time
The formula domain features
is presented such as impulse factor (IF) and margin factor (MF) have been recently
as follows:
used [12,16,17]. Similar to CF, IF is used to measure how much impact is generated from the bearing
defect. The CF measures the impact by dividing max xi
IF = the maximum absolute value of vibration signal and
1 value (6)
RMS value, while IF divides the maximum absolute

N
i =1
xi by the mean of absolute value. The formula
is presented as follows: N
max| xi |
Margin factor (MF) measures the levelIF of=impact
1 N
between rolling element and raceway. The MF (6)
is calculated by dividing the maximum absolute N∑ i =1 | xof
value i | vibration signal to the RMS of absolute

valueMargin
of vibration
factorsignal (7):
(MF) measures the level of impact between rolling element and raceway. The MF is
calculated by dividing the maximum absolute value of vibration signal to the RMS of absolute value
max xi
of vibration signal (7): MF = 2
 1 max N | xi |  (7)
MF =  x
i =1 p i  2
 N1 ∑iN=1 | xi |
  (7)
N
The progressionofofslew
The progression slew bearing
bearing deterioration
deterioration of IFof IFMF
and and MF features
features are moreare more compared
apparent apparent
compared to RMS, kurtosis and histogram lower features as presented
to RMS, kurtosis and histogram lower features as presented in Figure 5. in Figure 5.

80

60
Impulse factor

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

150
Margin factor

100

50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t, days

Figure 5.
Figure Impulsefactor
5. Impulse factor(IF)
(IF)and
andmargin
marginfactor
factor(MF)
(MF)feature
feature calculated
calculated from
from the
the vibration
vibration slew
slew
bearingsignal.
bearing signal.

3.1.4.
3.1.4.Hjorts’
Hjorts’Parameters
Parameters
In
Inaddition
additionto tothe
thetime-domain
time-domainfeatures features mentioned
mentionedin in previous
previous subsections,
subsections,Hjorts’
Hjorts’parameters
parameters
also
also falls
falls into
into this
this category
category [18]. [18]. These These features features are are calculated
calculated based
based on
on the
the first
first and
and the
the second
second
derivatives of the vibration signal. In the time series context, the numerical
derivatives of the vibration signal. In the time series context, the numerical values for the derivatives values for the derivatives
are
are obtained
obtained as as the
the differences
differences between between the the current
current value value and
and the
the prior
prior value.
value. The
The first
first Hjorth’s
Hjorth’s
parameter
parameterisis called
called ‘activity’.
‘activity’. The Theactivity activityof ofvibration
vibrationsignal signalcan
canbebecomputed
computedby bysimply
simplycalculating
calculating
the
the variance of of the
thevibration
vibrationsignal signalamplitude amplitude σx2 ,σwhere
x
2
, where σ x standard
σx is the is the standard
deviation deviation of the
of the sampled
signal x =
vibrationvibration
sampled ( x1 , xx2 ,=x3( x, 1.,. x. 2, ,xxN3 ,)...., xN ) .
signal
The ‘mobility’ parameter of vibration signal is calculated as the square root of the ratio of the
activity of the first derivative and the activity of the vibration signal.
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The ‘mobility’ parameter of vibration signal is calculated as the square root of the ratio of the
activity of the first derivative and the activity of the vibration signal.
σ '
mobility = σxx 0 (8)
mobility = σ x (8)
σx
where σσ0 x'is is
where thethe standard
standard deviation
deviation of first
of the the first derivative
derivative of theofvibration
the vibration
signal.signal. The numerical
The numerical values
x
values
for for the derivatives
the derivatives can be obtained
can be obtained as the differences
as the differences betweenbetween
samplessamples as follows.
as follows.
'
x 0x==xx((ii+
+1)1)−−
xi xi = 1,
i =i 1, , NN−− 1
. . ...., (9)
(9)

The last
The last parameter
parameter called
called ‘complexity’
‘complexity’ which
which is
is calculated
calculated as
as the
the ratio
ratio of
of mobility
mobility of
of the
the first
first
derivative and
derivative and the
the mobility
mobility of
of the
the vibration
vibration signal.
signal.

σ σx 0
σ x00 //σ
" '
complexity ==
complexity x x
(10)
(10)
σσxx 0 /σ
' / σx
These
These parameters
parametershave have been used
been in electroencephalography
used in electroencephalography (EEG) (EEG)
signalssignals
to detecttothe epileptic
detect the
seizures
epileptic[19]. They [19].
seizures have never been used
They have neverinbeen
vibration
usedbearing signal except
in vibration bearingforsignal
activity feature,
except forwhich is
activity
similar to the variance feature in the statistical time-domain features extraction. It can be
feature, which is similar to the variance feature in the statistical time-domain features extraction. It seen from
Figure 6 thatfrom
can be seen the progression
Figure 6 thatofthebearing condition
progression is difficult
of bearing to track
condition using mobility
is difficult to trackand complexity
using mobility
feature.
and complexity feature. In contrast, the activity or variance feature shows one highest peakthe
In contrast, the activity or variance feature shows one highest peak at approximately at
90th day and continue
approximately the 90th fluctuation on the last
day and continue measurement
fluctuation on the days.
last measurement days.

600

400
Activity

200

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
1.5
Mobility

0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
4
Complexity

1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t, days

Figure 6. Hjorts’ features calculated from the vibration slew bearing signal.
Figure 6. Hjorts’ features calculated from the vibration slew bearing signal.

3.1.5. Mathematical Morphology (MM) Operators

3.1.5. Mathematical Morphology (MM) Operators
In image processing, mathematical morphology (MM) was introduced as a non-linear method to
In image processing, mathematical morphology (MM) was introduced as a non-linear method
analyze two dimensional (2D) image data including binary images and grey-level images based on set
to analyze two dimensional (2D) image data including binary images and grey-level images based
theory [20]. The fundamental principle of the MM method is to modify the shape of the original signal
on set theory [20]. The fundamental principle of the MM method is to modify the shape of the original
by transforming it through its intersection with another object called the ‘structuring element’ (SE).
signal by transforming it through its intersection with another object called the ‘structuring element’
Four operators including erosion, dilation, closing and opening are used to achieve the transformation.
(SE). Four operators including erosion, dilation, closing and opening are used to achieve the
transformation.
After having been applied successfully in 2D image processing, the MM method has been used
in biomedical research field to analyze one dimensional (1D) EEG signals [21–23] and
electrocardiography (ECG) signals [24]. The first known study of MM in 1D vibration signals was
Machines 2017, 5, 21 9 of 28

After having been applied successfully in 2D image processing, the MM method has been used in
biomedical research field to analyze one dimensional (1D) EEG signals [21–23] and electrocardiography
(ECG) signals [24]. The first known study of MM in 1D vibration signals was presented by Nikolaou
and Antoniadis [25]. The authors used the MM method for vibration data with inner race and
outer race faults. The effects of four MM operators on the enveloping impulse-type signals were
examined. The result shows that the ‘closing’ operator is more suitable for extracting the impulse
signal corresponding to the bearing fault type. The SE value was empirically investigated within the
range of 0.2 T to 1.2 T. The optimum SE for a signal with additive noise was selected as 0.6 T (0.6 times
the pulse repetition period). In addition, T is the period of each bearing component frequency such as
BPFO, BPFI and BSF.
The original discrete one dimensional (1D) signal and structuring element (SE) must be
first determined to use the four basic operators in the MM method. Suppose the discrete 1D
vibration signal x = {x(1), x(2), . . . , x( N )}, which functions over a domain x(n) = (1, 2, . . . , N ).
Let S = {S(1), S(2), . . . , S( M)} be the SE, which is the discrete function over a domain
S(m) = (1, 2, . . . , M), where N and M are integers and N ≥ M. Then, the four morphology operators for
the discrete 1D vibration signal can be defined as follows:

• Erosion: also refer to as min filter.

( xΘS)(n) = min( x (n + m) − S(m)) (11)

• Dilation: also refer to as max filter.

( x ⊕ S)(n) = max( x (n − m) + S(m)) (12)

• Closing: Dilates 1D signal and then erodes the dilated signal using the similar structuring element
for both operations.
( x •S)(n) = (( x ⊕ S)ΘS)(n) (13)

• Opening: Erodes 1D signal and then dilates the eroded signal using the similar structuring element
for both operations.
( x ◦ S)(n) = (( xΘS) ⊕ S)(n) (14)

where n ∈ (1, 2, . . . , N ) and m ∈ (1, 2, . . . , M), the notations Θ, ⊕, •, ◦ denote the erosion operator
or Minkowski subtraction, dilation operator or Minkowski addition, closing operator and opening
operator in the MM method, respectively.
The original simulated 1D signal is shown in the first row of Figure 7. The various effects of the
basic MM operators application in the simulated 1D vibration signal are presented in the second to
fifth row of Figure 7. The second row of Figure 7 to the fifth row of Figure 7 illustrate the effect of
erosion, dilation, closing and opening, respectively. Please note that the solid blue line represents the
original signal and the dashed red line is the signal after being processed or transformed by the MM
operators. The simulated signal has zero mean value, which is typical to 1D vibration signals. The work
principle of the basic MM operators can be summarized as follows: erosion of x (n) by the structuring
element A(m) reduces the positive part and enlarges the negative part of x (n), while dilation of x (n)
by the structuring element A(m) reduces the negative part and enlarges the positive part of x (n).
In addition, closing of x (n) smoothens the signal x (n) by cutting down any impulses in the negative
part and opening x (n) smoothens the signal x (n) by cutting down its impulses in the positive part.
In rolling element bearing, the MM method has been studied. The multi-scale morphological
analysis was developed by Zhang et al. [26]. The method shows independency of empirical rules in
terms of SE selection, but the technique is rather complex. Wang et al. [27] proposed an improved
morphological filter as features of periodic impulse signals. An average weighted combination of
open-closing and close-opening morphological operators was employed to eliminate the statistical
Machines 2017, 5, 21 10 of 28

terms of SE selection, but the technique is rather complex. Wang et al. [27] proposed an improved
Machines 2017, 5, 21 10 of 28
morphological filter as features of periodic impulse signals. An average weighted combination of
open-closing and close-opening morphological operators was employed to eliminate the statistical
deflection of amplitude and to extract the impulse component from the original signal. To optimize
the SE,
SE, they
theyused
usedaanew newcriterion
criterion called
called impulse
impulse attenuation
attenuation (IMA).
(IMA). DongDonget al.et[28]
al. presented
[28] presented the
the fault
fault diagnosis
diagnosis of element
of rolling rolling bearings
element using
bearings using the
the modified modified morphological
morphological method. The
method. The morphological
morphological
operator used inoperator used in
their method wastheir
the method
average was thecombination
weight average weight combination
of the closing andof the closing
opening and
operator.
opening
They operator.
proposed Theycriterion
a new proposed a new
called SNR criterion called
criterion SNR criterion
to optimize to optimize
the length the length
of SE. Another of SE.
recently
Another recently
published researchpublished
on MM methodresearchwas onpresented
MM method by Rajwas
andpresented by The
Murali [29]. Raj authors
and Murali [29]. The
combined the
authors combined
MM operators withthe MMinference
fuzzy operators to with fuzzy
classify the inference to classify
artificial bearing the artificial
defects. bearing
The vibration defects.
data used
The vibration
in [29] data used
were similar to theindata
[29] used
were insimilar
Zhangtoettheal.data
[26].used in Zhang et al. [26].

10
Amplitude

5
0
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
10
Amplitude

5
0
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
10
Amplitude

5
0
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
10
Amplitude

5
0
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
10
Amplitude

5
0
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Data number (n)

Figure 7. Illustration of four MM operators (second to fifth row).

Figure 7. Illustration of four MM operators (second to fifth row).

The application
The application of of the
the MMMM method
method in in detecting
detecting thethe bearing
bearing fault
fault frequencies
frequencies from
from among
among
impulsive-type signals
impulsive-type signalshave havebeenbeen demonstrated
demonstrated [26–29].
[26–29]. TheseThese
signalssignals are generated
are generated from known from
known bearing conditions such as inner and/or outer race faults. It is
bearing conditions such as inner and/or outer race faults. It is acknowledged that the signals from acknowledged that the
signals from
artificial faultsartificial
are easier faults
to beare easier to
identified thanbe those
identified than those
from natural fromfaults.
bearing natural bearing
Besides, faults.
typically,
Besides,
the typically,signals
impulse-type the impulse-type signals visually
are easily identified are easily identified
without visually without
any additional any additional
tool or processing step
tool or processing step [28]. The application of MM method to the naturally
[28]. The application of MM method to the naturally damaged slew bearing is presented in Figures damaged slew bearing is
presented
8–10. in Figures 8–10.
The MM MMmethod
methodhas hasbeen used
been effectively
used effectivelyfor the
for damage detection
the damage of highofspeed
detection highrolling
speed bearing.
rolling
It is because
bearing. It is when
because thewhen
damagethe occurred, the contact
damage occurred, thebetween the damage
contact between the spot
damageandspot
rolling
andelement
rolling
generatesgenerates
element detectabledetectable
impulse due to thedue
impulse contact
to thebetween
contactthe defect spot
between and race
the defect way
spot or roller.
and race wayIn the
or
case of naturally degraded low-speed slew bearing, the multiple damage e.g.,
roller. In the case of naturally degraded low-speed slew bearing, the multiple damage e.g., outer race,outer race, inner race
and roller
inner race areandtypically
roller areoccurred
typicallyatoccurred
close sequence
at close time and the
sequence timemagnitude of impulseofisimpulse
and the magnitude very low. is
Thus, it is Thus,
very low. difficult
it istodifficult
identifytothe originthe
identify of impulse
origin offrom outer
impulse race,
from inner
outer raceinner
race, or roller
race ordamage.
roller
Therefore, the featurethe
damage. Therefore, extraction result of MM
feature extraction forof
result the
MM three
forconditions: BPFO, BPFIBPFO,
the three conditions: and BSF
BPFIpresent
and BSF an
identicalan
present figure.
identical figure.
Machines 2017, 5, 21 11 of 28
Machines 2017, 5, 21 11 of 28
Machines 2017, 5, 21 11 of 28

Figure 8.
Figure 8. RMS
RMS feature
feature calculated
calculated from
from MM
MM operators
operators for
for 0.9
0.9 TT (T
(T == 1/BPFI):
1/BPFI): (a)
(a) erosion;
erosion; (b)
(b) dilation;
dilation;
Figure
(c) 8. RMS
closing and feature
(d) calculated from MM operators for 0.9 T (T = 1/BPFI): (a) erosion; (b) dilation;
opening.
(c) closing and (d) opening.
(c) closing and (d) opening.

Figure 9. RMS feature calculated from MM operators for 0.9 T (T = 1/BPFO): (a) erosion; (b) dilation;
Figure
Figure 9. RMS
9.
(c) closing and feature
RMS feature calculated from
calculated
(d) opening. from MM
MM operators
operators for
for 0.9
0.9 TT (T
(T == 1/BPFO):
1/BPFO): (a)
(a) erosion;
erosion; (b)
(b) dilation;
dilation;
(c) closing and (d) opening.
(c) closing and (d) opening.
Machines 2017, 5, 21 12 of 28
Machines 2017, 5, 21 12 of 28

Figure 10.
Figure 10. RMS
RMS feature
feature calculated
calculated from
from MM
MM operators
operators for
for 0.9
0.9 TT (T
(T == 1/BSF):
1/BSF): (a)
(a) erosion;
erosion; (b)
(b) dilation;
dilation;
(c) closing and (d) opening.
(c) closing and (d) opening.

3.2. Category 2: Frequency-Domain Features Extraction

3.2. Category 2: Frequency-Domain Features Extraction
To apply frequency-domain features, the time-domain vibration signals must initially be
To apply frequency-domain features, the time-domain vibration signals must initially be
transformed into frequency-domain signals using fast Fourier transform (FFT). FFT is a common
transformed into frequency-domain signals using fast Fourier transform (FFT). FFT is a common
method in vibration analysis for bearing fault detection. FFT measures the dominant frequency of the
method in vibration analysis for bearing fault detection. FFT measures the dominant frequency of the
repetitive impulse period of certain faults due to the contact between rolling elements and defective
repetitive impulse period of certain faults due to the contact between rolling elements and defective
spot. Therefore, the type of bearing defects such as outer race, inner race or ball defect can be detected.
spot. Therefore, the type of bearing defects such as outer race, inner race or ball defect can be detected.
FFT performed effectively in stationary periodic signals; however, it is less effective for non-
FFT performed effectively in stationary periodic signals; however, it is less effective for non-stationary
stationary signals that arise from time-dependent events [30].
signals that arise from time-dependent events [30].

3.2.1. Statistical
3.2.1. Statistical Frequency-Domain Features
Frequency-Domain Features
Other frequency-domain
Other frequency-domain features
features such
such asas frequency
frequency centre
centre (FC),
(FC), root mean square
root mean square frequency
frequency
(RMSF) and
(RMSF) and root
root variance
variance frequency
frequency (RVF)
(RVF) have
have been
been studied
studied in
in [13].
[13]. When
When fault
fault exists,
exists, the
the frequency
frequency
element changes, and the values of the FC, RMSF and RVF also change. The FC
element changes, and the values of the FC, RMSF and RVF also change. The FC and RMSF indicateand RMSF indicate
the
the position changes of main frequencies, while the RVF shows the convergence
position changes of main frequencies, while the RVF shows the convergence of the power spectrum. of the power
spectrum.feature
Another Another feature
called mediancalled medianisfrequency
frequency sometimesisused.
sometimes used. The
The median median
frequency frequencyby
is measures is
measures by dividing the area of the amplitude spectrum into two equal part. In addition,
dividing the area of the amplitude spectrum into two equal part. In addition, the mean frequency (FC) the mean
frequency
can (FC) as
be defined canthe
befirst-order
defined asmoment
the first-order
of the moment of the Fourier
Fourier spectrum, RVF spectrum, RVF as themoment,
as the second-order second-
order moment, SS as the third-order moment and SK as the fourth-order
SS as the third-order moment and SK as the fourth-order moment of the Fourier spectrum moment of the Fourier
[18].
spectrum [18]. These features can be calculated
These features can be calculated as follows: as follows:


N '
∑ N xx0 xxi
i =2 i i
FC== i=2N i 2
FC (15)
(15)
2π 
N
2π ∑i=1 xxi 2
i
i =1


N
i =2
( xi' )2
MSF = (16)
4π 2  i =1 xi2
N
Machines 2017, 5, 21 13 of 28

2
∑iN=2 ( xi0 )
MSF = (16)
Machines 2017, 5, 21 4π 2 ∑iN=1 xi2 13 of 28
√
RMSF=
RMSF = MSFMSF (17) (17)
p
2
RVF
RVF MSF −−
= = MSF FCFC 2
(18) (18)

The result of FC,ofRMSF

The result andand
FC, RMSF RVF feature
RVF featureextraction
extraction isispresented
presented in Figure
in Figure 11. 11.

1000

500
FC

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
1500

1000
RMSF

500

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
1000

800
RVF

600

400
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t, days

FigureFigure Frequency-domain
11. 11. features:
Frequency-domain features: FC, and
FC, RMSF RMSFRVF and RVFfrom
calculated calculated from
the vibration slewthe vibration
bearing signal. slew
bearing signal.
3.2.2. Spectral Skewness, Spectral Kurtosis, Spectral Entropy and Shannon Entropy Feature
Recently,
3.2.2. Spectral new methods
Skewness, Spectral such as spectral
Kurtosis, skewness,
Spectral Entropyspectral kurtosis, spectral
and Shannon Entropyentropy and
Feature
Shannon entropy have been developed. Spectral skewness (SS) and spectral kurtosis (SK) are the
Recently,
advancednew methods
statistical such as
measures spectral
applied skewness,
to the magnitudespectral
spectrum. kurtosis, spectral the
The SS measures entropy andofShannon
symmetry
the distribution of the spectral magnitude values around its mean [31]. It
entropy have been developed. Spectral skewness (SS) and spectral kurtosis (SK) are the advanced is defined by
statistical measures applied to the magnitude Β /2 −1 spectrum. The SS measures the symmetry of the
L

2  (| X (k , n) | −μ | X | )3
distribution of the spectral magnitude SS( values around its mean [31]. It is defined by
n) = k =0 (19)
ΒL ⋅ σ 3|X |
B L /2−1   3
The SK measures the distribution of2the∑spectral k, n)−µ| Xvalues
(X (magnitude |) and compare to a Gaussian
 
distribution. It is defined by SS(n) = k =0
(19)
ΒL / 2 −1 B L · σ|3X |
2 
k =0
(| X (k , n) | −μ | X | ) 4

(20)
SK(n) = −3
The SK measures the distribution of the spectral
ΒL ⋅ σ 4|Xmagnitude
|
values and compare to a Gaussian
distribution. It is defined by
Antoni and Randall [32] presents the development of classical kurtosis analysis called spectral
kurtosis (SK) to deal with the transient behaviour
B L /2−1  in a signal.  SK can4 be used to detect incipient faults
even in the presence of resilient masking2 ∑ noise.(X (k, n)−µ|ofX |spectral
)
The concept statistic is adopted in this
method to supplement the SK classical power k = 0
spectral density (PSD). PSD ideally gives zeros values at
(n) = 4
−3 (20)
L · σ| X | noise, and it gives high positive values at
those frequencies when the signal has stationary BGaussian
those frequencies during the occurrence of the transients. When the noise-to-signal ratio is high, the
transient
Antoni andsignal will [32]
Randall be buried in thethe
presents background
development noise, of thus the incipient
classical faultanalysis
kurtosis cannot becalled
clearlyspectral
detected. SK can overcome this problem by analyzing the entire frequency band
kurtosis (SK) to deal with the transient behaviour in a signal. SK can be used to detect incipient and to select the faults
sensitive frequency band that correspond to the bearing condition.
even in the presence of resilient masking noise. The concept of spectral statistic is adopted in this
method3.3.
to Category
supplement the classical
3: Time-Frequency power spectral density (PSD). PSD ideally gives zeros values at
Representation
those frequencies when the signal has stationary Gaussian noise, and it gives high positive values
Time-frequency domain representation methods such as short-time Fourier transform (STFT),
at thosewavelet
frequencies during
transform the occurrence
and Wigner-Ville of the (WVD)
distribution transients. When the
are commonly noise-to-signal
used ratio
for non-stationary or is high,
the transient signal will be buried in the background noise, thus the incipient fault cannot be clearly
detected. SK can overcome this problem by analyzing the entire frequency band and to select the
sensitive frequency band that correspond to the bearing condition.
Machines 2017, 5, 21 14 of 28

3.3. Category 3: Time-Frequency Representation

Time-frequency domain representation methods such as short-time Fourier transform (STFT),
wavelet transform and Wigner-Ville distribution (WVD) are commonly used for non-stationary or
transient signal. These methods implement a mapping of one-dimensional time-domain signals to a
two-dimensional function of time and frequency. The objective is to provide a true time-frequency
Machines 2017, 5, 21 14 of 28
representation of a signal. A review of time-frequency analysis methods for machinery fault diagnosis
has beentransient
presentedsignal.byThese
Fengmethods
et al. [33].
implement a mapping of one-dimensional time-domain signals to a
two-dimensional function of time and frequency. The objective is to provide a true time-frequency
3.3.1. Short-Time Fourier
representation of a Transform (STFT)of time-frequency analysis methods for machinery fault
signal. A review
diagnosis has been presented by Feng et al. [33].
Due to its low computational complexity and definite physical meaning, STFT is often used as an
initial pre-processing
3.3.1. Short-Timetool to analyze
Fourier Transform non-stationary
(STFT) vibration signals. The STFT maps the vibration
signal into a two-dimensional (2D) function of time and frequency [34]. STFT divides a non-stationary
Due to its low computational complexity and definite physical meaning, STFT is often used as
signal into small windows of equal time frame. The Fourier transformation is then applied to the time
an initial pre-processing tool to analyze non-stationary vibration signals. The STFT maps the
segment. Unlikesignal
vibration FFT where the frequency(2D)
into a two-dimensional transformation
function of timeincludes the whole
and frequency original
[34]. STFT signal,
divides a non-in STFT
original stationary
signal is signal
decomposed
into smallusing FFTofatequal
windows pre-defined time
time frame. Theintervals. By doing this,
Fourier transformation theapplied
is then defect signal
to the time segment. Unlike FFT where the frequency transformation includes the
frequency can be identified in a particular window of time. The key to this method is the selection ofwhole original
the timesignal, in STFT
interval. Theoriginal
STFT cansignal
beisexpressed
decomposed asusing FFT [35]:
follows at pre-defined time intervals. By doing this,
the defect signal frequency can be identified in a particular window of time. The key to this method
is the selection of the time interval. The STFT
t+ can be expressed as follows [35]:
ZT/2
STFT( f , t) = t +T / 2
w(t − τ ) x (τ )e j2π f τ dτ (21)

j 2π f τ
STFT ( f , t ) = w (t − τ ) x(τ ) e dτ (21)
t− T/2 t −T / 2

where STFT ( f , t ) is short-term frequency spectrum, t is the time, f is frequency, w (t − τ ) is the

where STFT( f , t) is short-term frequency spectrum, t is the time, f is frequency, w(t − τ ) is the shifted
shifted window, x(τ ) denotes the input vibration signal, exp ( j 2π f τ ) is the complex exponential,
window, x (τ ) denotes the input vibration signal, exp( j2π f τ ) is the complex exponential, T is the
T is the window interval and w (τ ) is the windowing function which satisfies w (τ ) = 0 for
window interval and w(τ ) is the windowing function which satisfies w(τ ) = 0 for |τ | => T/2.
τ => T / 2 .
By taking the square magnitude of the STFT in (21), an energy density using the spectrogram
S(t, f ) method can bethe
By taking square magnitude of the STFT in (21), an energy density using the spectrogram
obtained
S(t , f ) method can be obtained
S(t, f ) = |STFT(t, f )|2 (22)
2
S(t , f ) = STFT(t, f ) (22)
Equation (22) represents the energy density of the vibration signal x (τ ) windowed by w(τ ).
The visualization
Equation (22)ofrepresents
windowthe length
energyand hopofsize
density the is presented
vibration signal (τ ) windowed
in xFigure w(τ ) .
12. Thebyvibration signal
with the sample index i is split
The visualization into overlapping
of window length and hopblocks
size isofpresented
length Bin L and
Figure block index
12. The n. While,
vibration signalthe hop
with
size Hs is thethe sample from
distance index thei isstart
split of
into
oneoverlapping
particularblocks
blockofand length Β L and blockblock.
its subsequent n . While,
index The STFT result
the hop size
of one day slew bearing Η s is the distance from the start of one particular block and its
signal measurement is shown in Figure 13 for 10 s vibration signal subsequent block. The with
STFT result of one day slew bearing signal measurement is shown in Figure
window length of 2048, hop size of 256 and number of FFT points of 16,384. It can be seen that during 13 for 10 s vibration
signal with window length of 2048, hop size of 256 and number of FFT points of 16,384. It can be seen
10 s sampled signal, the amplitudes at lower frequencies were higher than the amplitude at high
that during 10 s sampled signal, the amplitudes at lower frequencies were higher than the amplitude
frequencies (approximately at 1300 Hz and 1750 Hz). This indicates that slew bearing frequencies were
at high frequencies (approximately at 1300 Hz and 1750 Hz). This indicates that slew bearing
dominated by lowwere
frequencies frequency
dominatedcontents.
by low frequency contents.

Figure
Figure 12. 12. Schematic
Schematic visualization
visualization of of
hophopsize
size and
and overlapping
overlapping block length
block in STFT
length algorithm.
in STFT algorithm.
Machines 2017, 5, 21 15 of 28
Machines 2017, 5, 21 15 of 28

Figure 13. STFT of the vibration slew bearing signal (data on 3 May).

3.3.2. Wavelet
3.3.2. Transform and
Wavelet Transform and Wavelet
WaveletDecomposition
Decomposition
Wavelet transform
Wavelet transform is is well-known
well-known as as an
an appropriate
appropriate method
method to to analyze
analyze non-stationary
non-stationary and and
transient signal
transient signal [14,36].
[14,36]. Wavelet
Wavelet transformation
transformation employs
employs wavelet
wavelet function
function instead
instead of
of sinusoidal
sinusoidal
function as the basis function. It enhances a scale variable in addition
function as the basis function. It enhances a scale variable in addition to the time variable to the time variable in thein
inner
the
2 2
product
inner transformation
product transformation [33].[33].
For For
anyanylimited energy
limited energy signal xx((t )t)∈∈
signal LL(R() R, )the
, thewavelet
waveletfunction
function is
defined as [26]
1 +∞ τ−t
Z  
WTx (t, a) = √ 1 +∞ x (τ )ψ τ − t dτ (23)
 a dτ
WTx (t , a) = a −∞ x(τ )ψ   (23)
a 
where wavelet ψ[(τ − t)/a] is derived by dilating and translating
a −∞
the wavelet basis ψ(t), a is
√
the
wherescale
wavelet ψ [(τ −( at ) />a] 0)is, derived
parameter t is the by
time shift and
dilating and 1/ a is a normalization
translating the wavelet basis ψ (to
factor a is the
t ) , maintain
energy preservation.
scale parameter (a > 0) , t is the time shift and 1/ a is a normalization factor to maintain energy
A review of the wavelet transform applications in machine condition monitoring and
preservation.
fault diagnostics is presented by Peng et al. [37]. As a non-stationary signal analysis method,
A review of the wavelet transform applications in machine condition monitoring and fault
wavelet transform can be applied in machine fault diagnostics as a feature extraction method [37].
diagnostics is presented by Peng et al. [37]. As a non-stationary signal analysis method, wavelet
Since the wavelet transformations can provide an excellent energy concentration properties due to
transform can be applied in machine fault diagnostics as a feature extraction method [37]. Since the
the uses of the wavelet basis function; the wavelet transform can represent the signal with a certain
wavelet transformations can provide an excellent energy concentration properties due to the uses of
number of coefficients. The process is usually called wavelet decomposition.
the wavelet basis function; the wavelet transform can represent the signal with a certain number of
Wavelet decomposition technique decomposes a non-stationary vibration signal into linear form
coefficients. The process is usually called wavelet decomposition.
of time-scale units. It decomposes and organizes original signal into several signal components
Wavelet decomposition technique decomposes a non-stationary vibration signal into linear form
according to the translation of the wavelet function. This changes the scale and shows the transition
of time-scale units. It decomposes and organizes original signal into several signal components
of each frequency component [38]. Through this decomposition, a selected coefficient can be used
according to the translation of the wavelet function. This changes the scale and shows the transition
directly as the fault features. In wavelet decomposition, the input signal is basically decomposed
of each frequency component [38]. Through this decomposition, a selected coefficient can be used
into two coefficients. The input signal that is passed through the low-pass filter becomes the
directly as the fault features. In wavelet decomposition, the input signal is basically decomposed into
‘approximation coefficient’. The input signal which is passed through the high-pass filter becomes the
two coefficients. The input signal that is passed through the low-pass filter becomes the
‘detail coefficient.’ Since the low-frequency component is the most sensitive part to extract the useful
‘approximation coefficient’. The input signal which is passed through the high-pass filter becomes
information related to the bearing condition, the ‘approximate coefficient’ is passed to the next wavelet
the ‘detail coefficient.’ Since the low-frequency component is the most sensitive part to extract the
decomposition loop in multilevel wavelet decomposition process. Figure 14 shows three level wavelet
useful information related to the bearing condition, the ‘approximate coefficient’ is passed to the next
decomposition structures. The structure illustrates the decomposition of slew bearing vibration signal
wavelet decomposition loop in multilevel wavelet decomposition process. Figure 14 shows three
into approximate coefficient (A) and detailed coefficient (D) at each level. For further processing,
level wavelet decomposition structures. The structure illustrates the decomposition of slew bearing
features such as mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis are calculated from the detailed coefficients of
vibration signal into approximate coefficient (A) and detailed coefficient (D) at each level. For further
level 3 (D3) [39]. The features extraction results are presented in Figure 15, it can be seen that kurtosis
processing, features such as mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis are calculated from the detailed
coefficients of level 3 (D3) [39]. The features extraction results are presented in Figure 15, it can be
seen that kurtosis can predict the damage compared to mean, variance and skewness calculated from
Machines 2017, 5, 21 16 of 28
Machines 2017, 5, 21 16 of 28

can predict
signal the
D3 of thedamage
waveletcompared to mean,
decomposition duevariance and skewness
to the significant calculated
changes from
after day 90 ofsignal D3 of the
the bearing life
wavelet
time. decomposition due to the significant changes after day 90 of the bearing life time.
The
Theapplication
applicationofofwavelet
waveletdecomposition
decompositiontotothe thetransient
transientstator
statorcurrent
currentsignal
signalacquired
acquiredfrom
from
induction
inductionmotor
motorisispresented
presentedby byNiu
Niuetetal.
al.[40].
[40].Statistical
Statisticalfeatures
featureshave
havealso
alsobeen
beenused
usedtotoreveal
revealthe
the
fault information from the selected coefficients. Another study that uses the wavelet coefficients
fault information from the selected coefficients. Another study that uses the wavelet coefficients as as the
fault features
the fault for ball
features forbearing is presented
ball bearing by Liu
is presented byetLiu
al. et
[41].
al. [41].
Amplitude (mV)

200

100

-100

-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
Amplitude (mV)

200

100

-100

-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
Amplitude (mV)

200

100

-100

-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
Amplitude (mV)

200

100

-100

-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
Amplitude (mV)

200

100

-100

-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
Amplitude (mV)

200

100

-100

-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
Amplitude (mV)

200

100

-100

-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)

Figure14.
Figure 14.Three
Threelevel
levelwavelet
waveletdecompositions
decompositionsofofthe
thevibration
vibrationslew
slewbearing
bearingsignal.
signal.
Machines 2017,
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-5
x 10
5

Mean
0

-5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
200
Variance

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0.2
Skewness

-0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
200
Kurtosis

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t, days

Figure 15. Statistical-based features: mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis calculated from D3 signal
Figure 15. Statistical-based
of wavelet decomposition. features: mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis calculated from D3 signal
of wavelet decomposition.
3.3.3. Empirical Mode Decomposition-Based Hilbert Huang Transform
3.3.3. Empirical Mode Decomposition-Based Hilbert Huang Transform
Empirical mode decomposition (EMD) [42] has been used in some applications that involve
Empirical mode decomposition (EMD) [42] has been used in some applications that involve non-
non-stationary signals (see, e.g., Braun and Feldman [43]). A review of EMD applications in fault
stationary signals (see, e.g., Braun and Feldman [43]). A review of EMD applications in fault diagnosis
diagnosis of rotating machinery is discussed in [44]. The review gives a detailed introduction to EMD
of rotating machinery is discussed in [44]. The review gives a detailed introduction to EMD
application in various areas such as bearings, gears and rotors etc.
application in various areas such as bearings, gears and rotors etc.
The EMD decomposes the vibration signal into several signals from high to low
The EMD decomposes the vibration signal into several signals from high to low frequencies
frequencies content, namely intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) based on the enveloping technique,
content, namely intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) based on the enveloping technique, i.e. Hilbert-
i.e., Hilbert-Huang transform (HHT). From the specific frequencies content information, the bearing
Huang transform (HHT). From the specific frequencies content information, the bearing fault
fault frequency can be identified. In some preliminary studies on condition monitoring [39,45],
frequency can be identified. In some preliminary studies on condition monitoring [39,45], the original
the original EMD [46] is used for non-stationary slew bearing data. A bearing fault such as outer race,
EMD [46] is used for non-stationary slew bearing data. A bearing fault such as outer race, inner race
inner race or rolling element fault has occurred when one of the IMF frequencies is identical to one of
or rolling element fault has occurred when one of the IMF frequencies is identical to one of the bearing
the bearing fault frequencies (as shown in Table 2) [45]. The EMD results for slew bearing data are
fault frequencies (as shown in Table 2) [45]. The EMD results for slew bearing data are presented in
presented in Table 3. A detail EMD result is presented in [39,45].
Table 3. A detail EMD result is presented in [39,45].
Table 2. Fault frequencies of slew bearing test-rig (run at 1 r/min).
Table 2. Fault frequencies of slew bearing test-rig (run at 1 r/min).
Fault Frequencies
Fault Frequencies (Hz)(Hz) (Calculation
(Calculation is is GivenininAppendix
Given Appendix A)
A)
DefectMode
Defect Mode
AxialAxial Radial
Radial
Outer
Outer raceway(BPFO)
raceway (BPFO) 1.32 1.32 0.55
0.55
Inner raceway (BPFI) 1.37 0.55
Inner raceway (BPFI) 1.37 0.55
Rolling element (BSF) 0.43 0.54
Rolling element (BSF) 0.43 0.54

Table 3. Decomposition result of EMD method for the slew bearing data.
Table 3. Decomposition result of EMD method for the slew bearing data.
IMFs
IMFsofofEMD
EMD(Hz)(Hz)
Vibration Data
Vibration DataIMF2 IMF3 IMF4 ... IMF11
IMF2 IMF3 IMF4 … IMF11 IMF12 IMF13
IMF12 IMF14 IMF15
IMF13 IMF14 IMF15
24 February 641.81 694.52 390.35 ... 2.47 1.44 0.69 0.33 1.99
24 February
3 May
641.81684.34694.52
702.88 346.23
390.35. . . … 2.042.47 1.231.44 0.64 0.69 0.33
0.43
1.99
0.19
330May
August 702.88679.86684.34
651.72 245.92346.23. . . … 1.372.04 0.68 1.23 0.330.64 0.10
0.43 0.19
30 August 651.72 679.86 245.92 … 1.37 0.68 0.33 0.10
Machines2017,
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Machines 2017, 5, 21 18 of 28
According to Table 3, the frequencies that correspond to the bearing fault condition did not
appearAccording
According totoTable
on 24 February. Table 3,contrast,
3,Inthe the frequencies
frequencies thatthat
the fault correspond
correspond
frequency tobearing
oftorolling
the the bearing
element fault fault condition
condition
(BSF axial) did
is notdid noton
appear
identified
onappear
24 on
February.24 February.
In In
contrast, contrast,
the fault the fault
frequency frequency
of rolling of rolling
element element
(BSF
3 May at 0.43 Hz. This frequency is associated to the roller defects as shown in Figure 16a. Interesting (BSF
axial) is axial) is
identified identified
on 3 May onat
3
0.43May at
Hz.was
result 0.43
This Hz.
frequency
obtained This frequency
fromis associated is associated
data on 30toAugust,
the roller to the roller
defects
where theasBSFdefects
shown as shown
axialinisFigure
hidden16a.in Figure 16a.
by Interesting
BPFI axial ofInteresting
result
1.37was
Hz.
result
obtained wasfromobtained
data onfrom
30 data
August,on 30 August,
where the where
BSF the
axial is BSF
hidden
The reason could be that the amplitude of signal 0.43 Hz is too weak and is covered by theaxial byis hidden
BPFI by
axial BPFI
of 1.37axial
Hz. of 1.37
The Hz.
reason
The reason
could
background could
be thatnoise. be that
the amplitude
The photo the
ofofamplitude
signal 0.43 Hz
the outer of issignal
raceway 0.43 Hz
too damage
weak andisisis too weak
covered
shown byand
in Figure theis covered
background
16b. bynoise.
The roller the
and
background
The
outerphoto noise.
of the outer
race damage The
photo photo
raceway of
was taken the
damage outer raceway
is shown
after final damage
failureinduring
Figurethe is shown
16b. in
The roller
bearing Figure
dismantleand on16b.
outerThe roller
race damage
2 September. and
The
outer
photo race
was damage
taken photo
after final was taken
failure after
during final
the failure
bearing during
dismantle the bearing
on 2 dismantle
September.
detailed vibration data used from the slew bearing test rig is presented in [39]. Statistical features from on
The 2 September.
detailed The
vibration
detailed
data usedvibration
from the data slew used
bearing from the
test rigslew bearing test
is presented inin rig isStatistical
[39]. presentedfeatures
in [39]. Statistical features from
the decomposition results of EMD method is shown Figure 17. The mean, from the decomposition
variance, skewness and
the decomposition
results results of EMD method is shown in Figure 17. The mean, variance, skewness and
kurtosis features are calculated from the summation of the low IMF frequencies (from IMFfeatures
of EMD method is shown in Figure 17. The mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis 9 to the
kurtosis
are features are
calculated calculated from thethe summation of the low(from IMF frequencies9 to the(from IMF 9 toofthe
lowest IMF) offrom the EMDthe summation
results. The of selection lowofIMF thesefrequencies
IMFs is based on IMF
the characteristic lowest IMF)
of slew the
bearing
lowest
EMD IMF) of the EMD results. The selection of these IMFs is based on the characteristic of slew bearing
signalresults. The selection
being dominated by lowof these IMFs components
frequency is based on the characteristic
as presented of slewinbearing
previously signal being
STFT result.
signal being
dominated bydominated
low frequency by low frequency components
components as presentedaspreviously
presented in previously
STFT result. in STFT result.

Figure
Figure 16. (a)
16.(a)
Figure16. (a)A
A photo
A photo
of damaged
photo of
damagedaxial
of damaged
axial rollers;
rollers;(b)
axial rollers;
(b)A
Aphoto
(b) A
photoof
photo ofouter
of outerraceway
outer racewaydamage.
raceway damage.
damage.

0.1
0.1
Mean
Mean

00

-0.1
-0.10
0 20
20 40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120 140
140
10
10
Variance
Variance

55

00
00 20
20 40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120 140
140
2
Skewness
Skewness

-2
0 20 40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120 140
140
40
40
Kurtosis

20
20

0
0 20 40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120 140
140
t,t, days
days

Figure
Figure 17. Statistical-based
Figure17. Statistical-based features
Statistical-based featurescalculated
features calculated from
calculatedfrom EMD
fromEMD decomposition.
EMDdecomposition.
decomposition.

3.3.4. Wigner-Ville Distribution (WVD)

The Wigner distribution (WD) is derived from the relationship between the power spectrum
and the autocorrelation function for time-variant and non-stationary processes [47]. The correlation
Machines 2017, 5, 21 19 of 28

function is a product of the function at a posterior time with the function at a subsequent time [48].
The original WD for real signal x (t) is defined as [49]
Z +∞  τ  τ  − j2π f τ
Wx (t, f ) = x∗ t − x t+ e dτ (24)
−∞ 2 2

The symbol (∗) in Equation (24) denotes the complex conjugate.

When the WD is applied for the analytical signal x A (t), it is called the Wigner-Ville distribution
(WVD). The analytical signal is defined as

x A (t) = x (t) + jxh (t) (25)

where xh (t) is the Hilbert transform of x (t):

Z +∞
1 1
H[ x (t)] = xh (t) = x (τ ) dτ (26)
π −∞ t−τ

The WVD has been used for gear fault detection [47,48] and it is recently used for rolling element
bearing to represent the time-frequency features of vibration signals [50].

3.4. Category 4: Phase-Space Dissimilarity Measurement

Phase-space dissimilarity measurements, such as fractal dimension, correlation dimension
approximate entropy and largest Lyapunov exponent (LLE), are developed based on the chaos theory.
These methods have been applied in biomedical engineering studies [19,51] and vibration signals [52,53].
Present studies have conducted investigations into these methods in the slew bearing condition
monitoring for features extraction. The motivation is that multiple defects occur more frequently
than single defects in slew bearings, therefore the phase-space dissimilarity measurements can be used
to analyze the irregular or chaotic vibration signals. The phase-space can be computed as follows:
 
y1 y1+ J y1+2J ... y1+(m−1) J

 y2 y2+ J y2+2J ... y2+(m−1) J 

y3 y3+ J y3+2J ... y3+(m−1) J
 
X=  (27)
.. .. .. ..
 
 
 . . . . 
yM y M+ J y M+2J ... y M+(m−1) J

where J is reconstruction delay that can be calculated by time lag/∆t, m is the embedding dimension
and M is the number of reconstructed vectors. The relation between N, J, m and M can be defined as:
N = M + (m − 1) J or M = N − (m − 1) J. Thus, the dimension of phase-space is a M × m matrix.

3.4.1. Fractal Dimension

Fractal dimension is a method to quantify the signal complexity by characterizing fractal patterns.
The complexity can be quantified by examining the dynamical behaviours of phase-space matrix.
The frequently used algorithm of fractal dimension was proposed by Higuchi [54]. The field is rapidly
growing as estimated fractal dimensions for statistically self-similar phenomena. This method has been
applied in many fields including image analysis [55], neuroscience [56,57], medicine [58], physics [59]
and acoustics [60]. The application of fractal dimension in vibration signal of rolling element bearing
has been presented in [10,61]. The algorithm of fractal dimension is shown in (28) [10]. Once the
Machines 2017, 5, 21 20 of 28

phase-space matrix, X is obtained (27), the mean absolute length between J th and (J th − 1) element of X
is defined as follows:
f or a = 1 : J
f or b = 2 : m
L1 ( a, b − 1) = |X( a, b) − X( a, (b − 1))|
(28)
Lm ( a, b − 1) = mean( L1 )
end
end
where J and m is reconstruction delay and embedding dimension, respectively. The fractal dimension
D can be calculated using standard least-square fitting method of the logarithmic natural of (1/m)
and Lm .

3.4.2. Correlation Dimension

Correlation dimension can be used to quantify the self-similarity of vibration signal. A large value
of correlation dimension corresponds to less-similarity of vibration signal. An example application
of correlation dimension in vibration signal for bearing fault diagnosis was proposed by Logan and
Mathew [52]. The correlation dimension was applied for vibration signals acquired from four different
conditions: (1) normal (new bearing); (2) outer race fault; (3) inner race fault; and (4) roller fault.
The damages were artificially introduced to the bearing parts. The method is able to identify four
different bearing conditions.
The commonly used procedure to calculate the correlation dimension was introduced by
Grassberger and Procaccia [62]. Similar to fractal dimension, the phase-space matrix (27) is fed
to the correlation dimension algorithm as an input matrix. The formula for correlation dimensionis
given by: " #
2 M−k M
∑ ∑ Θ l  Xi − X j 
 

C(l ) = lim (29)
x →∞ M2
i =1 j = i + k

where Xi and X j are the position vectors on attractor, l is the distance under consideration, Θ( x )
is the Heaviside step function, Θ( x ) = 0 if X ≤ 0, Θ( x ) = 1 if X > 0, k is the summation
offset, M is the number of reconstructed vectors from the original vibration signal and C(l ) is the
correlation dimension.

3.4.3. Approximate Entropy

The approximate entropy quantifies the degree of regularity in the vibration signal. The smaller the
value of the approximate entropy, the more the regularity of the behavior of the signal is. An application
example of approximate entropy in vibration signal was proposed by Yan et al. [63] for high speed
rolling element bearing. Moreover, Yan et al. [63] mentioned that the deterioration of bearing condition
corresponds to the increase of number of frequency components. In addition, when the bearing starts to
deteriorate the regularity will decrease and the corresponding approximate entropy value will increase.
Similar to fractal dimension and correlation dimension, approximate entropy also uses phase-space
matrix, X in (27) as an input. The initial step analysis of the approximate entropy algorithm is to
measure the distance between two vectors X (i ) and X ( j) which can be defined as the maximum
difference in their respective corresponding elements [63]:

d( X (i ), X ( j)) = max (| x (i + k − 1) − x ( j + k − 1)|) (30)

k =1,2,...,m
Machines 2017, 5, 21 21 of 28

where i = 1, 2, . . . , N − m + 1, j = 1, 2, . . . , N − m + 1 and N is the number of data points in the

vibration signal. A calculation that describes the similarity between the vector X (i ) and all other
vectors X ( j), where j 6= i can be constructed as

1
N − (m − 1) j∑
Cim (r ) = Θ{r − d[ X (i ), X ( j)]} (31)
6 =1

the Heaviside step function, Θ( x ) is similar to the symbol in correlation dimension where Θ( x ) = 0 if
X ≤ 0 and Θ( x ) = 1 if X > 0.
The symbol r in (31) denotes a predetermined tolerance value, defined as

r = k.std(Y) (32)

where std(Y) refers to the standard deviation of vibration signal, Y and k is a constant (k > 0).
By defining
1
N − m + 1∑
ϕ m (r ) = ln[Cim (r )], i = 1, 2, . . . , N − m + 1 (33)
i

the approximate entropy value of time series can be computed as

ApEn (m, r ) = lim [ ϕm (r ) − ϕm+1 (r )] (34)

N →∞

3.4.4. Largest Lyapunov Exponent

The largest Lyapunov exponent (LLE) algorithm is an established method and has been used
in some areas such as biomedical signal processing analysis especially for electroencephalography
(EEG) signal [19]. The LLE algorithm calculates the exponential divergence (either positive or negative
exponential) of two initial neighboring trajectories in a phase-space matrix. In other words, the LLE
algorithm quantifies the degree of chaos of vibration signal in certain time. The degree of chaos
corresponds to any local instability vibration signal due to the dynamic contact between rolling
elements and defect spots during the data acquisition. The detailed discussion and the application of
LLE in slew bearing vibration data is presented in [64].
The features extraction result for correlation dimension, fractal dimension and approximate
entropy from slew bearing vibration data is presented in Figure 18. It can be seen that the approximate
entropy shows better result in presenting the degradation condition of the slew bearing than the
correlation dimension and fractal dimension. A fluctuation in the approximate entropy in the last
measurement (after the 90th day) indicates that the slew bearing condition has changed.
Machines 2017, 5,
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1.14

Fractal dimension
1.12

1.1

1.08

1.06
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t, days

-2.37
Correlation dimension

-2.375

-2.38

-2.385

-2.39
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t, days

0.8
Approximate entropy

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t, days

18. Fractal
Figure 18. Fractaldimension,
dimension,correlation dimension
correlation andand
dimension approximate entropy
approximate features
entropy calculated
features from
calculated
the
fromvibration slew bearing
the vibration signal.signal.
slew bearing

3.5. Category 5: Complexity Measurement

3.5.1. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

Test
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) test is a nonparametric test that can be used to compare or to
measure the similarity of two cumulative distribution
distribution functions (CDFs), TT(
functions (CDFs), ( xx) )and
andR( xR(
) x[65].
) [65].
T( x )T(isxa)
target CDF and R ( x ) is a reference CDF. Because the signature of bearing condition can
is a target CDF and R( x) is a reference CDF. Because the signature of bearing condition can be be identified
by its CDF, therefore the KS test can be applied in bearing condition monitoring to distinguish bearing
identified by its CDF, therefore the KS test can be applied in bearing condition monitoring to
health signal from faulty signal. In order to distinguish the two CDFs, T( x ) and R( x ), a statistical
distinguish bearing health signal from faulty signal. In order to distinguish the two CDFs, T( x ) and
distance D is calculated. The distance D can be defined as the maximum absolute distance between
R( x) , a statistical distance D is calculated. The distance D can be defined as the maximum
T( x ) and R( x ). This is defined as follows
absolute distance between T( x ) and R( x) . This is defined as follows
D= max |T( x ) − R( x )| (35)
D =−∞max
< x <∞T( x ) − R ( x ) (35)
−∞ < x < ∞

The
The KS
KS feature
feature ofof slew
slew bearing
bearing vibration
vibration data
data is presented in
is presented in Figure
Figure 19. The ‘0’
19. The ‘0’ represents
represents normal
normal
condition and ‘1’ represent abnormal condition. It can be seen that at the beginning
condition and ‘1’ represent abnormal condition. It can be seen that at the beginning of the of the measurement,
the condition ofthe
measurement, bearing wasof
condition still normal.
bearing wasThen it changed
still normal. to it
Then abnormal
changedcondition
to abnormal when bearingwhen
condition had
run for a couple of days. This result needs further investigation as the abnormal detection
bearing had run for a couple of days. This result needs further investigation as the abnormal detection happened
too early. too early.
happened
Machines
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11

0.8
0.8
feature
KS feature

0.6
0.6

0.4
0.4
KS

0.2
0.2

00

00 20
20 40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120 140
140
t,t, days
days

Figure
Figure19.
Figure 19.KS
19. KStest
KS testfeature
test featurecalculated
feature calculatedextracted
calculated extractedfrom
extracted fromthe
from thevibration
the vibration slew
vibration slew bearing
slew bearing signal.
bearing signal.
signal.

3.5.2.
3.5.2. Sample
3.5.2. SampleEntropy
Sample Entropy
Entropy
The
The sample
The sample entropy
sample entropy has
entropy has been
has been proposed
been proposed by
proposed by Richman
by Richman and
Richman and Moorman
and Moorman [66]
Moorman [66] to
[66] to improve
to improve the
improve the
the
approximate
approximate entropy.
entropy.Chen
approximate entropy. Chen
Chen et et
al. al.
al. [67]
et [67] [67] presents
presents
presents an
an application
application
an application of sampleof
of sample
sample entropy
entropy entropy
for featuresfor features
forextraction
features
extraction
extraction of
of gearbox
gearbox vibration
vibration signals.
signals. However,
However, the
the application
application of
of the
the sample
sample
of gearbox vibration signals. However, the application of the sample entropy for bearing vibration entropy
entropy for
for bearing
bearing
vibration
vibration signal
signal is
is still
still limited
limited [68].
[68]. The
The sample
sample entropy
entropy feature
feature for
for slew
slew bearing
bearing
signal is still limited [68]. The sample entropy feature for slew bearing vibration data is presented vibration
vibration data
data isis
in
presented
Figure 20. in
presented It Figure
incan
Figure 20.
20. ItIt can
be observed be
be observed
canfrom Figure 20from
observed from Figure
Figure
that the 20
20 that
sample that the
the sample
entropy feature entropy
sample is
entropy feature
feature
not effective is
for not
isslew
not
effective
effective for
for slew
slew bearing
bearing
bearing damage detection. damage
damage detection.
detection.

2.5
2.5

22
entropy
Sample entropy

1.5
1.5
Sample

11

0.5
0.5
00 20
20 40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120 140
140
t,t, days
days

Figure
Figure 20. Sampleentropy
20.Sample
Sample entropyfeature
entropy feature extracted
extracted from
fromthe vibration slew
the vibration slew bearing
bearing signal.
signal.
Machines 2017, 5, 21 24 of 28

3.6. Category 6: Other Features

3.6.1. Singular Value Decomposition (SVD)

The singular value decomposition (SVD) is usually applied to quantify the periodicity of the time
series data [69]. A comparison study [70] has been shown that SVD performs the Fourier decomposition
in terms of information content and robustness. Formula of SVD can be found in [71].

3.6.2. Piecewise Aggregate Approximation (PAA) and Adaptive Piecewise Constant

Approximation (APCA)
In online bearing condition monitoring cases, the changes of bearing condition can be effectively
identified by measuring the similarity between two vibration signals (i.e., normal or reference and
monitored signal) using Euclidean distance. However, the size of the measured data is a problem in
Euclidean distance method. The similarity search methods are techniques that perform dimensionality
data reduction methods such as piecewise aggregate approximation (PAA) [72,73] and adaptive
piecewise constant approximation (APCA) [72]. The APCA [74], is another approach of PAA that
allows arbitrary length segments. Either PAA or APCA have particular advantages; for example,
PAA has twice as many approximating segments, and APCA is able to separate a single segment in an
area of low activity and many segments in areas of high activity [74]. The PAA has been applied in
previous study [39] for data pre-processing stage of circular domain features extraction. The detailed
discussion and the application of PAA in slew bearing vibration data is presented in [39].

4. Conclusions
Features extraction methods in wide range application such as mechanical engineering
(i.e., for bearing vibration signals), biomedical engineering area (i.e., for EEG and ECG signals) and
finance area (i.e., for time series signals) have been presented. According to the certain characteristic
of existing feature extraction methods, the methods in this paper were classified into six categories:
(1) time-domain features extraction; (2) frequency-domain features extraction; (3) time frequency
representation; (4) phase-space dissimilarity measure; (5) complexity measure; and (6) other features.
Some of features extraction methods in each category have been empirically tested using actual
normal to failure slew bearing vibration signal. It was shown that some features do not show bearing
degradation trend clearly and the others are shown to be potential slew bearing condition parameters.
The potential features are: impulse factor, margin factor, mathematical morphology operators, wavelet
decomposition-kurtosis, approximate entropy and largest Lyapunov exponent.
Since slew bearing operating at very low speed with highly applied load, the vibration signals
exhibit non-linear, non-stationary and chaotic behaviour. The methods such as impulse factor and
margin factor measured the statistical properties of vibration signal and therefore could revealed
the information related to the impulse level. Other potential methods based on the phase-space
dissimilarity measurement such as approximate entropy and LLE algorithm can be used to extract
pertinent bearing signal corresponding to the bearing damage progression. This is because the methods
analyzed the vibration signal in certain time-frame to extract the useful information from the non-linear
and non-stationary behaviour.

Acknowledgments: Wahyu Caesarendra thanks the University of Wollongong, Australia for the financial support
through International Postgraduate Research Scholarship (IPRS) during this study.
Author Contributions: Wahyu Caesarendra conducted Conceptualization, resources, experimental setup,
data collection, data processing, data analysis and original draft preparation. Tegoeh Tjahjowidodo provided
Funding acquisition, review and editing.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Machines 2017, 5, 21 25 of 28

Appendix A. The Formula for Calculating Bearing Fault Frequencies [75]

• Fault frequency of outer ring:
   
rpm − ORrpm
  IR  (cos(α)) · dr 
FOR = · 1− ·z (A1)

 2 dm 

• Fault frequency of inner ring:

   
rpm − ORrpm
  IR  (cos(α)) · dr 
FIR = · 1+ ·z (A2)

 2 dm 

• Fault frequency of rolling element:

  " #
  IR
rpm − ORrpm
 dm (cos(α))2 · dr 
FR =  · − (A3)

2 dr dm

 

where IRrpm and ORrpm are the rotational speeds of the inner ring and outer ring. For 1 r/min the value
of IRrpm is 1 and the value of ORrpm is 0. dm denotes the mean bearing diameter, dr is diameter of the
rolling element and z is number of rolling elements.

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