CIGR Recommendations of Dairy Cow and Replacement Heifer Housing

The Design of Dairy Cow and Replacement

Heifer Housing

Report of the CIGR Section II Working Group N° 14

Cattle Housing, 2014

Commission Internationale du Génie Rural

International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
Members of CIGR Section II Working Group No 14, Cattle Housing

Josi FLABA, President

Direction générale de l’Agriculture, des Ressources naturelles et de l’Environnement (DGARNE)
Chaussée de Louvain 14
B5000 NAMUR, Belgium

Heiko GEORG
Institut für Ökologischen Landbau, Johann Heinrich von Thünen Institut
Trenthorst 32
D-23847 WESTERAU, Germany

Robert E. GRAVES
The Pennsylvania State University
Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering
201 Agricultural Engineering Building
University Park - PA 16802-1909, USA

Joop LENSINK
Groupe ISA Lille, Agricultural Department
48, Boulevard Vauban
F59046 LILLE cedex, France

Jim LOYNES
Engineering Department, Harper Adams University
NEWPORT, Shropshire, England, TF10 8NB

Elfriede OFNER-SCHRÖCK
Lehr- und Forschungszentrum für Landwirtschaft (HBLFA)
Agricultural Research & Education Centre Raumberg–Gumpenstein (AREC)
A8952 IRDNING, Austria

Tom RYAN
Teagasc, Kildalton College
PILTOWN, Co Kilkenny, Ireland

Ludo VAN CAENEGEM

Agroscope Reckenholz-Tänikon, Research Station ART
CH-8356 ETTENHAUSEN, Switzerland

Michael VENTORP
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
P.O. Box 108, S - 230 53 ALNARP, Sweden

Paolo ZAPPAVIGNA
DISTAL - Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna
Viale G. Fanin 50, 40127 BOLOGNA42100 REGGIO EMILIA, Italy

Acknowledgements. The authors also wish to recognise and thank the following for their input: W. Bickert
(USA), J. Capdeville (France), R. Kaufmann (Switzerland), JJ. Lenehan (Ireland), M. Tillie (France) and many oth-
er persons for their valuable contribution. Special thanks go to O.Stassin for his assistance with the final layout.

© CIGR Section II working group No 14 Cattle housing

ISBN 978-2-9552352-0-1
Table of content

1. Foreword.............................................................................................2
2. Fundamentals.......................................................................................3
2.1 BODY DIMENSIONS...................................................................................................................3
2.1.1 BASIC LINEAR DIMENSIONS......................................................................................................3
2.1.2 CIGR STANDARDS ANIMAL DIMENSIONS .......................................................................................3
2.1.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LINEAR BODY DIMENSION AND BODY WEIGHT...............................................3
2.2 DESIGNING FACILITIES TO MEET ANIMAL NEEDS...............................................................................4
2.2.1 BASIC ANIMAL NEEDS AND REQUIREMENTS ..................................................................................4
2.2.2 ANIMAL HEALTH...................................................................................................................5
2.2.3 CATTLE BEHAVIOUR..............................................................................................................6
2.2.4 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH....................................................................................................8
2.2.5 THE STOCKPERSON...............................................................................................................8
2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS................................................................................................9
2.3.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................9
2.3.2 AIR TEMPERATURE................................................................................................................9
2.3.3 AIR RELATIVE HUMIDITY.........................................................................................................9
2.3.4 RADIANT TEMPERATURE.........................................................................................................9
2.3.5 AIR VELOCITY.................................................................................................................... 10
2.3.6 COMBINED PARAMETERS....................................................................................................... 10
2.3.7 AIR QUALITY..................................................................................................................... 11
2.3.8 LIGHT.............................................................................................................................. 11
2.3.9 NOISE.............................................................................................................................. 11
2.4 SUSTAINABILITY AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS................................................................................ 12
2.4.1 GENERAL DEFINITION.......................................................................................................... 12
2.4.2 SUSTAINABILITY AND AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS – PRACTICAL ASPECTS WHEN CONSTRUCTING A DAIRY
BUILDING......................................................................................................................... 12
2.4.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS, ANIMAL WELFARE AND HEALTH........................................................... 13
2.4.4 APPROACHES TO SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS................................................................. 13
3. Aspects of design................................................................................. 14
3.1 LOOSE HOUSING SYSTEMS....................................................................................................... 14
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 14
3.1.2 CUBICLE SYSTEMS (FREESTALL) ............................................................................................. 15
3.1.3 STRAW YARD SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................ 18
3.1.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE LOOSE HOUSING.......................................................... 21
3.2 TIED HOUSING...................................................................................................................... 22
3.2.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 22
3.2.2 DIMENSIONS OF TIE STALL ARRANGEMENTS............................................................................... 22
3.2.3 STALL FLOORS AND BEDDING................................................................................................. 23
3.2.4 THE SYSTEMS AND FACILITIES FOR RESTRAINING THE ANIMALS....................................................... 23
3.2.5 CALVING AND NURSING BOXES............................................................................................... 24
3.2.6 WATERING........................................................................................................................ 24
3.2.7 COW TRAINERS.................................................................................................................. 24
3.3 FEEDERS............................................................................................................................. 24
3.3.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 24
3.3.2 NUMBERS OF FEEDING PLACES............................................................................................... 24
3.3.3 GENERAL DIMENSIONS.......................................................................................................... 25
3.3.4 FEEDING BARRIER DESIGN..................................................................................................... 25
3.3.5 DEVICES FOR MOVING THE FEED............................................................................................. 26
3.3.6 HAY RACKS....................................................................................................................... 27
3.3.7 BALE FEEDERS ................................................................................................................. 27
3.3.8 CONCENTRATE FEEDERS....................................................................................................... 27
3.4 DRINKERS........................................................................................................................... 28
3.4.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 28
3.4.2 DRINKING WATER REQUIREMENTS........................................................................................... 28
3.4.3 POSITION OF THE HEAD AND COW BEHAVIOUR........................................................................... 28
3.4.4 WATER QUALITY................................................................................................................. 29
3.4.5 DRINKING FACILITIES – GENERAL REQUIREMENTS......................................................................... 29
3.4.6 FREEZING......................................................................................................................... 29
3.4.7 ACCESS/LOCATION OF DRINKERS............................................................................................. 30
3.4.8 NUMBER OF BOWLS/DRINKERS............................................................................................... 30
3.4.9 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS.................................................................................................. 30
3.5 FLOORING........................................................................................................................... 31
3.5.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 31
3.5.2 FLOORING SYSTEMS............................................................................................................ 31
3.5.3 STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS................................................................................................ 31
3.5.4 ANIMAL FLOOR INTERFACE.................................................................................................... 31
3.5.5 FLOOR MATERIALS AND FLOOR TYPES...................................................................................... 33
3.6 MILKING FACILITIES............................................................................................................... 35
3.6.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 35
3.6.2 ELEMENTS OF A MILKING FACILITY.......................................................................................... 35
3.6.3 MILKING PARLOURS............................................................................................................. 36
3.6.4 DESIGN OF PARLOUR SURROUNDINGS ..................................................................................... 37
3.6.5 PARLOUR ENTRANCE AND EXIT: COLLECTING YARDS..................................................................... 38
3.6.6 OTHER AREAS.................................................................................................................... 38
3.6.7 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS OF AN AUTOMATIC MILKING SYSTEM (AMS)................................................. 39
3.7 CLIMATE CONTROL............................................................................................................... 40
3.7.1 GENERAL.......................................................................................................................... 40
3.7.2 VENTILATION.................................................................................................................... 40
3.7.3 REDUCING HEAT STRESS....................................................................................................... 44
3.8 FACILITIES FOR CALVES AND REPLACEMENT HEIFERS...................................................................... 45
3.8.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 45
3.8.2 HOUSING SYSTEMS FOR CALVES.............................................................................................. 45
3.8.3. FEEDING FACILITIES............................................................................................................ 47
3.8.4 VENTILATION.................................................................................................................... 47
3.8.5 HOUSING SYSTEMS FOR REPLACEMENT HEIFERS......................................................................... 47
3.9. SPACE FOR ANIMAL CIRCULATION.............................................................................................. 49
3.9.1. PASSAGEWAYS................................................................................................................... 49
3.9.2 PASSAGEWAY FENCE AND WALL HEIGHT.................................................................................... 49
3.9.3 PASSAGEWAY WIDTH........................................................................................................... 50
3.9.4 DOORS............................................................................................................................ 51
3.10 SPECIAL NEEDS FACILITIES AND ANIMAL HANDLING....................................................................... 52
3.10.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 52
3.10.2 LOCATION....................................................................................................................... 52
3.10.3 HOLDING PENS ............................................................................................................... 52
3.10.4 HOUSING OF TRANSITION COWS............................................................................................ 52
3.10.5 CLOSE-UP AND CALVING PENS.............................................................................................. 52
3.10.6 TREATMENT AND HANDLING FACILITIES................................................................................... 54
3.10.7 FACILITIES FOR OTHER SPECIAL DAIRY COWS............................................................................ 55
3.11 HUMAN/WORKERS SAFETY AND HEALTH.................................................................................... 55
3.11.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 55
3.11.2 ANIMAL HANDLING............................................................................................................ 56
3.11.3 MOVEMENT OF CATTLE....................................................................................................... 56
3.11.4 MILKING......................................................................................................................... 56
3.11.5 INSPECTION AND TREATMENT OF STOCK................................................................................. 57
3.11.6 HOUSING ENVIRONMENT..................................................................................................... 57
3.11.7 ANCILLARY ACTIVITIES........................................................................................................ 58

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING............................................................................................... 59

1. Foreword

The definition of dairy cow housing characteristics requires the understanding and knowledge of various interre-
lated subjects such as: ethology, animal husbandry, handling of the animals, optimization of the working conditions,
protection of the people against accidents, ventilation of livestock buildings, properties of materials, landscape
integration, manure management, etc.

This means that, in the majority of the cases, competences of several specialists must be combined to produce a
design solution that, as far as possible, approaches the ideal and satisfies the farmers dream, whether it is the de-
sign of a new building to house their animals that are in full lactation, in a dry period or in a period of rearing. The
overall cost of the project must also be taken into account, because it has an impact on the production cost of the
milk produced.

Fortunately, scientific literature and knowledge is continually being added to by the results of research work de-
voted to one or more of the aspects evoked above. This allows the designer of livestock buildings to have access to
multiple, varied and invaluable sources of information, which they then include in each step of the design process.
The challenge is then to integrate all this information into the project and produce a coherent design with which
both the user and the designer can be pleased.

This document, which has been compiled by the “Cattle Housing” working group of the International Commission of
Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (CIGR) has, hopefully, combined the many scientific data and the range of
expertise of its members in many aspects of cattle housing. It is the result of an enthusiastic and profitable collabo-
ration that has been spread out over several years. Indeed, the group has included specialists originating from 10
countries across Europe and North America, who have invested a considerable amount of time and effort to produce
a document which they hope will be useful to all those involved in the design of cattle housing (designers, farmers,
manufacturers etc.). They also hope that it will contribute to place dairy cows in excellent housing conditions and
that it will help to increase the sustainable character of the dairy sector.

It was, for me, a privilege to chair, as well as take part in, the work of the working group and I thank each member
for their devotion to duty and the enthusiasm they have shown throughout the process. I would also like to thank all
those behind the scenes who have, in one way or another, also contributed to the realization of this report.

Josi FLABA

2
2. Fundamentals
Table 2.1.2.1: “CIGR-Standard”: dimensions of calves, hei-
fers and cows (for Holstein Friesian) The dimensions refer
2.1 BODY DIMENSIONS to the average size within the weight interval

2.1.1 BASIC LINEAR DIMENSIONS Category Weight H L W Age

of (kg) (m) (m) (m) (month)
Knowledge of the basic dimensions of animals and the space animals
they require to perform basic behaviours, e.g. lying, feed-
ing or walking, is fundamental to the design of cow hous- Calves 100 0.9 0.84 0.27 3-4
ing. Farmers seldom measure their animals before making 200 1.09 1.17 0.35 5-6
decisions about housing. If successful housing solutions are
to evolve, then farmers should be encouraged to make at
least the basic measurements as outlined in Fig 2.1.1.1 or Heifers 150-249 1.09 1.17 0.35 4-7
be guided by standard design figures, where: 250-349 1.19 1.31 0.42 8-11
350-449 1.27 1.42 0.47 12-15
H - Height at withers
L - Diagonal body length 450-549 1.33 1.51 0.52 16-20
W - Width of chest > 550 1.38 1.59 0.55 21-24

Dairy 550-649 1.40 1.69 0.55 > 24

cows
650-749 1.44 1.75 0.60 > 24
750-850 1.48 1.80 0.64 > 24

2.1.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LINEAR BODY DIMENSION

AND BODY WEIGHT

An animal’s live-weight (mass) and age are often well known

and are commonly used for making judgements about its
Figure 2.1.1.1: body dimensions of cows. space requirements. This procedure is not accurate enough
for good design practice, unless there are clearly esta-
blished relationships between weight and body dimensions.
2.1.2 CIGR STANDARDS ANIMAL DIMENSIONS These relationships vary widely between different breeds
and even between individual animals of the same breed.
Table 2.1.2.1 “CIGR-Standard” is an overview of existing- Tables 2.1.3.1 and 2.1.3.2 illustrate the range of variation
animal dimensions of heifers and cows that can be adapted that can occur.
for practical design work, in the absence of more precise
knowledge of the size of animals to be housed. These “CI-
GR-Standard” dimentions are especially suitable for Hol-
stein Friesian cows.

Table 2.1.3.1: dimensions of Simmental (Fleckvieh) cows in Austria (Jauschnegg, 1994). Values shown are mean values (aver-
age) together with the minimum and maximum values

Weight H L W
(kg) (m) (m) (m)
Min. Average Max. Min. Average Max. Min. Average Max.
500 1.20 1.27 1.35 1.37 1.48 1.60 0.38 0.46 0.54
600 1.26 1.33 1.40 1.46 1.57 1.67 0.44 0.52 0.60
700 1.30 1.37 1.43 1.52 1.62 1.73 0.50 0.57 0.65
800 1.32 1.38 1.45 1.54 1.62 1.73 0.54 0.62 0.70

3
Table 2.1.3.2: dimensions of cows of various breeds in Austria at 650 kg (Jauschnegg, 1994). Mean values (average) together
with minimum and maximum values

Breed H L W
(cows at 650 kg) (m) (m) (m)
Min. Average Max. Min. Average Max. Min. Average Max.
Simmental (Fleckvieh) 1.28 1.35 1.42 1.49 1.60 1.71 0.47 0.55 0.63
Brown Swiss 1.29 1.37 1.46 1.54 1.63 1.72 0.46 0.52 0.58
Holstein Friesian 1.31 1.39 1.48 1.59 1.68 1.78 0.45 0.51 0.57

In “Aspects of Design” (Chapter 3) the width, length and tain behaviour at a certain time is still not clear. An animal
area of the space required by an animal are expressed as always tries to proceed from the present situation (existing
functions of the dimensions H, L and W, as defined above. value) to the goal (required value). Only when the goal can
This method is adopted in an attempt to ensure that space be reached, the behaviour will end in an appropriate way
provided in the housing design is more closely related to the and welfare will be assured.
actual size of animals to be accommodated.
Functional consequences
In practice, in the absence of actual dimensions, the de-
signer will need to make subjective judgements about the When an animal is motivated, it will perform one or more
size of the cows to be housed. To this end Tables: 2.1.2.1, behavioural patterns. According to the Hughes & Duncan
2.1.3.1 and 2.1.3.2 give guidance. For safety and to accom- (1988) model of foraging behaviour, proper functional con-
modate the general increase in the size of cows (for exam- sequences are the main reason for an animal ceasing the
ple, sizes that may be associated with breed improvement) behaviour. Therefore, creating opportunities for appetite
one should base designs on the dimensions of the larger ani- behaviour alone (one part of the total foraging process) is
mals in the herd or in the group. not enough. This simply strengthens the animal’s motiva-
tion but does not allow the animal to achieve satisfaction.
2.2 DESIGNING FACILITIES TO MEET ANIMAL NEEDS Even the presence of the means to achieve a behavioural
goal is not always enough since providing a food supply for
2.2.1 BASIC ANIMAL NEEDS AND REQUIREMENTS even a short duration will also strengthen motivation. Only
completing the whole cycle leads to a longer term decrease
In the 1960’s, discussions about animal welfare led to the of motivation.
basic rights for animals being established (Brambell, 1965).
Certain basic physical needs in relation to housing were re- Predictability and controllability
cognised. These were the right of an animal to have suffi-
cient freedom of movement to allow it to get up, lie down, The predictability and controllability of environmental con-
groom normally, turn around, and stretch its limbs, without ditions should be included in any discussion about beha-
difficulty. vioural needs. They are of crucial importance in evaluating
stress. Control of environment factors e.g. those influencing
Since then research has been done to clarify behavioural social interactions and feeding times, should be optimal.
needs or goals. Works of relevance to the achievement of The predictability of response to certain behaviour should
behavioural goals, which are important for the animal de- be monitored and reviewed regularly so that frustration and
serve special mention. Animal motivation and the functional competition in the stock is kept to a minimum
consequences of behavioural processes are an important is-
sue for a designer of facilities as they may affect animal Social contacts
welfare.
Cows are gregarious animals living in groups. Each animal
At present, it is generally agreed that the basic require- needs physical and visual contacts with other members of
ments for welfare of livestock are: her species to exhibit normal behaviour.

1. the provision of readily accessible fresh water and nutri- Cows that are familiar with other cows come close together
tionally adequate food as required; and groom and lick each other. They lie down close together
2. adequate freedom of movement to express normal be- and may stay together in the same part of the building for
haviour; long periods of time. Cows that are close to calving will,
3. freedom from fear and distress; preferably, be isolated from the herd to give birth in a loose
4. social contact with herd mates; housing pen with plenty of litter e.g. straw, wood shaving,
5. freedom from discomfort, pain, injury and disease; sand. When the cow is in the separate pen, she should ide-
6. sufficient light; ally maintain visual contact with herd members otherwise
7. complexity and change in their environment to avoid she may be stressed (e.g. agitated, bellowing) and this may
boredom; and lead to calving problems.
8. avoidance of unnecessary mutilation.
For socially gregarious animals like cows, daily routine is
Motivation important to their behaviour and to reduce competition be-
tween animals. Daily routine is different according to the
The cow is stongly motivated to rest, feed, drink and move management situation that the animals are in: e.g. on pas-
around. However, the need for an animal to carry out a cer- ture, in a building or in a building with an automatic milk-
ing system (AMS) (sometimes called a voluntary milking sys-

4
tem – VMS). On pasture the animals are exhibiting the same favourable conditions such as animal overcrowding, high
behaviour all together: grazing, resting, drinking, etc. In a air humidity, air with too many dust particles, excessive
building, the routine is dependent for the largest part on air movements (draughts) or excessively high air tempera-
the times of milking and feed distribution. In a building with ture. To prevent diseases, it is advisable to limit the number
AMS, the milking is spread around the clock and the routine of facultative pathogens living in the air because it is not
of activities is less regular. Each cow has her own rhythm. possible to destroy them completely. Good ventilation and
appropriate animal occupation density are two important
Stress measures to help prevent respiratory diseases.

Intelligent animals need a complex and changing environ- To prevent the spread of infection within the herd it is re-
ment just as much as they need predictability and control- commended to isolate ill animals as soon as possible and
lability. Besides ethological and physiological disturbances, to have enough room or pens for them. The cohabitation
excessive stress can also have negative effects on the ani- of animals of various ages and the bringing together of ani-
mal’s immune system and make animals more sensitive to mals coming from different farms represent a situation with
infectious disease. However, boredom (lack of environmen- many risks. A quarantine practice (facilities and manage-
tal stimulation) can be just as harmful as too much stress. ment) for purchased animals is advisable to diminish the
risk of disease outbreak. Grouping of cows with regard to
Housing submissive animals in a building with insufficient somatic cell count to avoid transmission of infections can
space can create a chronic stress situation because they be recommended.
fear close contacts with dominant animals and may experi-
ence severe aggression from their herd mates. Control of microbe populations and comfortable housing are
the two important points that help preserve the health of
The climatic environment can cause stress since animals a dairy cow.
may have difficulties maintaining their body temperature,
particularly when their environment is at a very high or very Nowadays, a significant percentage of animals are affected
low temperature. by lameness, mastitis, reproduction disorders, metabolic
disorders (e.g. milk fever, ketosis, etc.) that are responsible
2.2.2 ANIMAL HEALTH for poor cow longevity in many herds. The impact of these
problems on the cost of producing milk is important and
In many cases, concern about welfare is largely about the good house design and management have a role to play in
physical health of the animals and the economic conse- minimising their effects.
quences of their health. However, even if consideration is
confined to the very limited issue of keeping the animals Lameness in cattle is related to housing, feeding, breeding
free from costly diseases, the situation will be far from sim- and management. Specific measures can reduce the preva-
ple. Disease is generally multifactorial and housing is only lence of lameness; such as frequent floor scraping, regularly
one of many factors involved. Furthermore, housing cannot foot bathing and foot trimming, etc.
be considered as a single factor, since a housing system can
comprise a number of different designs and might include or Mastitis is caused by pathogens living in the environment
exclude details that influence the incidence of a certain di- but housing may increase the pressure of infection. Ina-
sease. What can be done is to find out how some detail is in- dequate cubicle dimensions, characteristics of partitions,
volved in the disease, e.g. how does the length of a stall or lack of space in the resting area in loose housing, etc., may
the area of the straw yard per animal affect contamination cause soiling of the resting area resulting in a negative im-
of the lying area and how does such contamination influ- pact on udder health. Poor air quality in a building and in
ence the incidence of mastitis. Even with such information the resting area, due to inadequate air openings providing
one must be careful since a different stall design might well insufficient ventilation, combined with high temperatures
have features that would alter the desired length, or the and humidity of the air, creates optimal conditions for the
incidence of mastitis might rely more on other factors (e.g. development of micro-organisms living in the environment.
immune status, productivity, milking equipment or feeding) In addition, the functioning of the milking machine, and hy-
than on contamination of the lying area. giene at milking, are also possible causes of mastitis.

Consequently, predicting the consequence of all the details Poor reproductive performance may have many causes:
combined in any one housing system can only be specula- inadequate nutrition, poor heat detection, poor hygiene at
tive. calving and during artificial insemination, as well as slippery
floors that affect heat behaviour.
In unnaturally dense populations of housed farm animals,
the risk of infection will be high. To some extent, this Metabolic disorders may be caused by poor nutrition and
elevated risk can be counteracted by an increase in activity inadequate feeding management. The building is rarely
of the animals’ immune systems. It is a question of getting responsible for metabolic disorders but insufficient dimen-
the balance right. What is required is a level of infection sions of passages that affect the movements of submissive
that allows animals to develop immunity to disease, but not animals and the time they stay eating at the feeding barrier
such a high level that it causes disease in animals with im- may increase the frequency of metabolic disorders.
munity. Non-infectious contaminants, such as inert dust par-
ticles and ammonia gas, can also harm animals by causing 2.2.2.1 Animal injuries
damage to the respiratory defence mechanism. Such agents
can make the animal less resistant to infection and aller- In loose housing three kinds of injuries are common: teat
gies. injuries, leg or claw injuries and skin injuries. Generally,
teat injuries are caused by insufficient space for all cows
In dairy production, with high yielding cows, the facultative to lie comfortably on bedded pack space or in cubicles and
pathogens normally living in the air and suspected of cau- by poorly designed cubicle divisions (partitions) and other
sing respiratory diseases become dangerous only if they find equipment.

5
Floors have to be designed to prevent leg and claw inju- bidden. In this respect, new systems have been developed
ries and to cause sufficient wear to avoid overgrowth of the to improve both the cleanliness of cows and their comfort.
hoof. It is important to inspect cows’ hooves regularly and
to trim them when necessary. A foot bath can be used as 2.2.3 CATTLE BEHAVIOUR
one part of an effective means of treating and disinfecting
cows’ feet. Nowadays, it is not unusual to have groups of cows of about
200 animals living together in the same facility. In such large
Other surface injuries result mainly from aggressive beha- groups sub-groups may be formed for ease of management.
viour, often aggravated by too little space being provided In practice, group size depends on management factors such
for submissive cows to escape and inadequate equipment as herd supervision, milking and feeding. The formation, by
design, installation or maintenance. Emphasis on adequate the farmer, of smaller groups within a herd is usually based
dimensioning of all areas is therefore essential. on factors such as milk yield (high/low yielders), dry cows,
first calving cows, replacements, diet, date of calving, age
Furthermore, aggressive behaviour is very dependent on the of the cows and status of somatic cell count (mastitis) or
quality of herd management, especially on the feeding re- other infectious diseases.
gime and the competence of the stockperson.
In many modern dairy units cows are kept indoors for most
The dehorning (where legally permissible) of animals de- of the year. Therefore, it is important to ensure that, what-
creases the consequences of aggressiveness and helps pre- ever housing system is provided, behavioural needs (e.g.
vent animal injuries. Dehorning also diminishes the danger resting, feeding, drinking and milking) are properly met.
to stockpersons during animal handling. If animals are not
dehorned, to prevent injuries, it may be necessary to adapt 2.2.3.1 Resting
equipment, e.g. feeding barriers, and to increase the space
of certain elements of the building, e.g. resting area’s, pas- In loose housing systems cows often rest for between 10
sageways, etc. and 14 hours per day spread out over 10 to 15 periods. Res-
ting behaviour depends on various factors including times of
2.2.2.2 Hygiene feeding and milking, feeding frequency and management.
Resting time is divided into lying time without sleep and
Since dairy farms produce milk for human consumption the lying time with sleep and total muscle relaxation. For the
cows must be clean. Dirt on the cow can end up in the milk latter, the cow should be able to lie down with her head
and dirty udders will lead to a higher incidence of mastitis. resting on and supported by the shoulder, so that the neck
The udder is not the only part of the cow that should be muscles can relax (Figure 2.2.3.1.1). To avoid disturbance
kept clean. The cow will exhibit a behavioural need to keep and ensure suitable opportunities for resting, enough cubi-
clean by grooming and a wet, dirty coat will lose much of its cles or space should be available for each cow.
insulating and protective properties.
To avoid competition in communal lying areas, there should
Cleaning of dirty cows, particularly before milking, is la- be enough space for all cows to find a resting place and to
borious and can be ineffective. Consequently every effort lie down together. If cubicles are used there should be at
should be made to prevent cows from becoming excessive- least one cubicle for each cow. As a consequence of insuffi-
ly dirty. It is most important to keep the lying area clean, cient lying area there may be an increase in aggression and/
which can be achieved by correct design, sufficient use of or disturbances of behavioural rhythms (eating and resting
bedding material and regular management of the resting times). In addition, cows that are unable to lie down will
surface. Recommended maximum as well as minimum di- spend significantly longer time standing and will have an
mensions of cubicles and stalls should be specified and, for increased lying requirement when they do lie down.
example, too wide a cubicle will be more easily soiled with
dung. If animals are dirty, they will be uncomfortable and
the development of ecto-parasites in their coat will be in-
creased.

In loose housing, cows should have access to grooming

brushes. In tied housing (where permitted) manual groom-
ing is necessary.

Walking areas should also be kept reasonably dry and clean

since any dirt picked up on the feet will be deposited on
the lying area and will soil the cow. In addition, dirty hind
legs may be in contact with the udder when the cow is ly-
ing down. Wet and dirty walking areas will also reduce the
durability of the hoof horn and make the cow susceptible to
foot diseases.

Tied housing systems, where allowed, generally require an

increased labour input, when compared to cubicle housing,
if it is to be maintained in a clean condition. In tied housing
electric cow trainers, that gives a cow a shock if she arches Figure 2.2.3.1.1: natural lying positions (according to
her back to defecate or urinate onto the lying area, can Schnitzer, 1971).
help keep cows clean but may cause stress and has a nega-
tive effect on other aspects of cow welfare, inclu-ding heat Cows prefer to lie on soft material and resting areas should
detection. In some countries electric cow trainers are for- be sufficiently soft to allow good quality resting.

6
In cubicle systems the cubicle is an extremely important lie down, then stops and gets up again and stands on all four
element of the cows’ environment, affecting positively or feet again. Another example of abnormal rising behaviour is
negatively its comfort, cleanliness and health. Cubicles where a cow tries to rise like a horse, i.e. not on her knees
must be designed to ensure that they are comfortable for but with her front legs straight.
cows that are standing, lying down, changing from standing
to lying, or lying to standing and to ensure that the cows The natural getting up movements of cattle is shown, se-
remain clean and healthy during the housing period. Cu- quentially in Figure 2.2.3.1.2.
bicles must be comfortable enough to encourage cows to
use them mainly as a lying place for as long as possible (10
to 14 hours a day). The maintenance of the cubicle needs
special attention to prevent dirty cows and mastitis. The
use of adequate bedding material is important to keep the
lying surface clean and comfortable and to prevent injuries
that may arise if the lying surface is aggressive to the skin
of the cows.

With AMS the cows are milked according to their own rhythm
and a consequence of this is that the resting periods vary
from cow to cow depending on when each cow decides to
go for milking and/or feeding or drinking.

In tied housing systems the cows’ movement and natural

behaviour is restricted. Because many activities take place
in the same area, the tie-stall will always be a compromise
in order to meet different demands of the animal. There
are several examples of conflicting interests: e.g. cows like
to have a soft surface to lie on but prefer to stand on firm
ground; or stalls must be short to prevent the cow from
defecating on the bed but not so short that they disrupt
lying behaviour. Any head restraint needs to allow for ease
of rising and reclining, feed and water access, and comfor-
table resting.

Lying down and rising behaviour

The natural lying down behaviour begins when the animal

sniffs at the ground while it slowly moves forward in search
of a suitable place to lie down. When the cow has found a
suitable place, it moves its head from one side to the other
to examine the place. Then it bends its front legs, kneels
and, finally, carefully moves one hind leg under its body and
lies on it. The lying down behaviour requires enough space
so that it can be carried out in a normal way. The head and
body of a mature cow may thrust forward 0.6 - 0.7 metres
during both the lying down and rising process, as a means of Figure 2.2.3.1.2: natural rising behaviour of cattle.
counter balancing the motion.

When the cow wants to get up in a natural way it firstly 2.2.3.2 Feeding
rises to its knees and then, at the same time as throwing its
head forward raises the hind part of its body with its front Cows spend 5 to 9 hours a day eating depending on their
leg knees functioning as a rocking point. This movement is diet. Each feeding period (10-15 per day) lasts for approxi-
one of the greatest physical activities of cattle. Natural ly- mately 30 to 45 minutes.
ing down behaviour is the reverse of the movements of the
natural rising behaviour, although animals often move their The feeding system should, therefore, be designed to avoid
hind part slightly side wards inducing a more diagonal lying competition, frustration and aggression. The important fac-
position. tors are space per animal, feed availability, barrier design
and time to access. Self locking barriers can avoid competi-
Under unrestricted conditions, cows often carry out lying tion and are useful for animals’ observation and treatment.
down and rising activities in one continuous movement. Any restriction in the number of places may result in low-
When cows are kept indoors their movements may be ham- ranking animals receiving insufficient feed and as a conse-
pered by space shortage and/or hard and slippery flooring. quence they produce less milk.
Lying down and rising movements may be interrupted at dif-
ferent stages or the movements may be carried out abnor- 2.2.3.3 Drinking
mally. Where cows exhibit abnormal lying down/rising be-
haviour its frequency increases with age. Each lying down/ Cows drink up to 130 litres of water in 10 - 15 visits to the
rising procedure may last for several mi-nutes instead of drinker each day (Castle and Thomas, 1975). The consump-
the usual 15 - 20 seconds and 5 - 6 seconds, respectively. At tion of water depends on the dry matter percentage of the
the same time there is a higher risk that the cow will injure ration, the milk yield and the temperature of the environ-
herself. An example of abnormal lying down behaviour is ment (Figure 3.4.2.2).
where the cow bends one or both knees as she is about to

7
2.2.3.4 Locomotion animal buildings there is also a higher incidence of respira-
tory disease.
Floors should provide a sure footing for the cow to move
around without fear of slipping or falling. Any slips that 2.2.4.2 Light
occur during, or as a result of confrontations, can bring the
animals into a state of chronic stress. Slippery floors can Illumination is important in housing, since animals need to
also cause cows to reduce their movement, grooming activi- see so they can behave normally, e.g. move, feed, or lie. It
ties and mounting activities. Slipping on floors is one of the is also important for the stockpersons, so they can inspect
main causes of lameness in dairy cattle. Movement difficul- and care for their animals.
ties can cause irregular hoof wear and lameness. Floors with
good traction improve cow confidence whilst walking and The duration of light exposure has an effect on growth per-
will lead to more natural locomotion and behaviour. formances in heifers and on milk production of dairy cows.
Heifers reach puberty earlier and obtain higher growth rates
2.2.3.5 Stereotypical behaviour when exposed to a regime of 16 hours of daylight when com-
pared to much shorter lengths of daylight (Tucker et al.,
The cow behaves in a way that can accommodate most 2008). Increased day lengths improve milk production in
situations that arise in nature. However, if cows encounter dairy cows. Especially during autumn and winter months (in
situations that they cannot resolve they may be adversely the northern hemisphere), 16 hours light per day, obtained
stressed. For example, if a cow stands beside a dominant partially by artificial lighting, leads to an increase of milk
and aggressive cow its natural response would be to walk production by 7% to 15% in comparison with no additional
away. However, if the cow is unable to do this, she might light (e.g. Reksen et al., 1999; Miller et al., 1999). Further-
become very distressed. more, after calving, exposing dairy cows to a longer period
of light brings on oestrus earlier (Hansen, 1985). However,
Because of their lack of freedom to behave naturally, tied it is important to maintain a minimum period of darkness,
cows sometimes exhibit stereotypical behaviour, such as with the optimum duration of darkness being 6 hours per
tongue-playing, bar biting and leaning. Even loose housed day, needed to stimulate correct hormone cycles.
cows can exhibit stereotypical behaviour when faced with
different stressful situations or if they are housed in poorly Next to the duration of light exposure, light intensity is im-
designed facilities. portant (see par. 2.3.8). Research in this area is still ongoing
and recommendations might change in future. The area of
2.2.4 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH controlled day length lighting is changing so up-to-date in-
formation should be obtained when developing designs and
2.2.4.1 Air quality and ventilation management practices for controlled lighting.

In well ventilated buildings, by natural ventilation, the air 2.2.4.3 Noise

is generally of good quality and is not the cause of respira-
tory diseases in adult cattle. In general, natural ventilation Noise can have a negative impact on animal welfare
of buildings allows air quality to be maintained at a low (Waynert et al., 1999; Schäffer et al., 2001). Measures
economic cost. should be taken to avoid noises that can produce fear in
animals (banging of self locking feeding barriers, doors,
In many livestock buildings, animals are densely stocked, machinery, etc.) equally continual background noises (e.g.
floors may be covered with faeces and urine or under floor fans, heat exchangers, etc.) may have the same effect.
slatted tanks may hold stored slurry and there can be large
quantities of dusty feed and bedding. As a consequence, the In milking parlours the level of noise must be as low as pos-
air in these heavily occupied buildings can be contaminated sible (milking machine, vacuum regulators, barriers, fans,
with inorganic dust, spores, moulds, bacterial and viral or- radios, etc.) and the milker should not have to shout exces-
ganisms, gases, vapours and other pollutants. Airborne par- sively to be heard.
ticles may cause infections, allergies and other responses,
while gases and vapours may be poisonous, asphyxiants or 2.2.5 THE STOCKPERSON
irritants. These aerial pollutants may be very small or in-
visible and may not smell and thus are difficult to detect. The welfare of cows will be influenced by the treatment
However, they are easily inhaled. they receive from the stockperson. It is important that the
presence of humans does not cause fright or induce stress
ln cattle buildings, the most dramatic effect of poor air reactions. The good stockperson will adopt a caring, friend-
quality occurs with young calves during the first two months ly and predictable attitude towards the animals.
of life. Good calf management practice includes feeding
new born calves good quality colostrum milk immediately The attitude of the stockperson and how the cows are han-
after birth. This provides immunity while the calf grows and dled is especially important during milking because he/she
develops its own protection system. lt is also important that is in close contact with the cow. The time needed for a cow
young calves are not exposed to massive challenge of air- going from the collecting yard into the milking parlour is
borne infectious agents from older animals, especially dur- negatively influenced by the attitude of the stockperson.
ing the first 2 months of life. This is the main reason why The number of defecations in the milking parlour goes up
young calves and adult dairy cows should preferably not be if the stockperson has an unfriendly attitude to the cows
housed in the same building for the first two months. Adult (Waiblinger et al., 2003). Finally the milk production goes
cows are more resistant and able to tolerate such aerial down if milking is carried out by an unfriendly person. Fa-
contaminants. However, while adult cows seldom exhibit cilities that are convenient and helpful for the stockperson
clinical symptoms of respiratory disease, their production to perform the necessary task and where they are properly
performance or general health status might be diminished. trained can result in improved cow care and handling pro-
Little is known about such relationships, but it is clear that cedures.
amongst people working for prolonged periods in intensive

8
While a high level of mechanisation will lessen the burden minimum night temperature is important in helping reduce
on the stockperson, it can be counter-productive. In highly any heat stress during the day. Another important factor is
mechanised housing systems, for example, the animals may the duration of any exposure to high temperatures.
not regard the stockperson as the one who brings the food
but as the one who carries out veterinary treatments that The animal housing system is also relevant. In a cold climate,
sometimes are painful for them. In such situations it is im- loose housed cows can better adapt if they can lie down on
portant for the stockperson to find other ways in which her/ a dry littered floor and have the possibility of grouping to-
his presence will elicit a positive response from the cows. gether and choosing the more protected sites. This is not
Stockpersons involved in managing dairy herds require an possible for tied cows, which are therefore more suscepti-
aptitude and training to develop the necessary skills in the ble to rapid temperature decreases and to draughts. Loose
use of equipment and facilities to complete the job. housed animals can better adapt in a hot climate by using
shaded and well ventilated areas and will benefit from ac-
2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS cess to an external yard, when one exists, especially during
the night.
2.3.1 INTRODUCTION
2.3.3 AIR RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Dairy cows, like all living creatures, have a continuous ex-
Air relative humidity (RH) influences thermal exchanges,
change, in terms of energy and mass, with the surrounding
but also more generally it influences the animals health and
environment. In this activity, the most important factors
welfare. Cows can compensate for reduced capability in
for production are those influencing the thermal exchange
their ability to dissipate metabolic heat in a sensible way
(sensible and latent heat) and respiration. Therefore, the
(i.e. when the air temperature approaches the skin tem-
main environmental parameters to be controlled, in order
perature) by increasing heat dissipation in a latent way (i.e.
to optimise animal health and welfare and, consequently, through respiration and evapotranspiration). This ability is
production are: air temperature, air relative humidity, ra- very helpful in a hot climate, and becomes the main method
diant temperature, air velocity, noxious gas concentration, of heat dissipation where the temperature is over +25°C. A
dust concentration and micro-organism concentration. high RH value will seriously restrict the evaporative heat
Other important environmental characters to be considered loss if it is associated with a high temperature. RH has no
along with thermal exchange are light and noise (see also practical influence when temperature remains below 24°C.
2.2.4). Over this value, RH of 40% has significant influence on pro-
duction (Figure 2.3.3.1).
Many studies have been carried out to define the critical
values of such parameters, but variability of the experimen-
tal conditions (animals and treatments) and the different
animal response under test conditions compared to real
farming, make it difficult to define scientifically rigorous
thresholds. Therefore, it is more advisable, for our purpos-
es, to make a reference to simple, although approximate,
values of practical use.

2.3.2 AIR TEMPERATURE

When defining the suitable limits for air temperature we

have to distinguish between the requirements of the ani-
mals and those of men and/or equipment. In fact the human
response is not the same as that of the animals, especially
in cold climates, where cows can tolerate much lower air Figure 2.3.3.1: milk production variation (%) in relationship
temperatures than men. to air relative humidity (RH) and temperature, at an air
speed of 0.5 m/s (Baeta et al., 1987).
For instance, dairy cows, especially the highly productive,
can tolerate, when adequately fed and protected from
Excessive air dryness can be dangerous as well. At RH val-
draughts, very low temperatures (down to –20°C or lower
ues below 40% dust generation increases and mucous mem-
for Holstein cows) without a decrease in milk production
branes of the upper respiratory tract will become dry. In a
(of course the feed efficiency worsens). Therefore, in a cold
climate, it is most important to avoid excessive air move- very hot and dry climate the risk of dehydration should be
ment around the animals. However, some operations (scrap- considered too. In cold climate, high relative humidity can
ing, flushing and especially milking) and some equipment have negative effects not only by increasing the heat loss,
(i.e. drinkers), together with stockman comfort and safety, since the hair coat becomes wet and its insulating property
require that the problem of freezing is given due consi-de- is reduced, but also by favouring the transmission and mul-
ration. tiplication of micro-organisms.

Opposite to this, in a warm climate, cows start reducing Furthermore, when the internal surfaces of the building
their milk production from about +21°C upwards with a (mainly the floors) are constantly wet, it increases the ani-
more significant effect from 24°C, resulting in a reduction mals dirtiness and wetness. It may also result in deteriora-
of about 2.5% per degree up to 27°C, –3.5% between 27°C tion of building construction. (For practical reference see
and 29°C and –5% over 30°C. The threshold value is however Figure 2.3.6.1.1).
very dependent on milk yield. The more productive cows
are the more sensitive to heat stress. In a hot climate, as it 2.3.4 RADIANT TEMPERATURE
is practically impossible to keep the internal temperatures
at the optimal level for production, the main goal is to keep Next to air temperature, temperature of the surrounding
the inside to outside temperature gradient as low as pos- surfaces can affect thermal behaviour of animals, as this
sible (when positive), whatever the temperature level. The influences any heat exchanged through radiation. The am-

9
bient temperature can therefore be better defined as a
combination of the air temperature and the surface tem-
perature of the building elements (generally the average of
them). Heat exchange from a cow with the buildings surfa-
ces, through radiation, largely depends on the difference in
their surface temperature and the distance from the facing
bodies. Therefore, it is important to prevent animals being
too close to, or surrounded by, very cold or very hot buil-
ding surfaces.

A similar effect can be produced on animals by solar radia-

tion, both directly and indirectly, i.e. reflected by the sky
and any other nearby or surrounding bodies. Direct solar
radiation in hot climates can have severe consequences on
animal production and welfare, and must be avoided wher-
ever possible.
Figure 2.3.6.1.1: graph representing limits of similar ani-
2.3.5 AIR VELOCITY mal productive response as a function of air temperature
and relative humidity at an air speed of 0.5 m/s.
By moving air layers around an animals body convective
heat transfer and evaporation rate can be increased. This
action has a negative influence in cool conditions but a very
positive effect in hot conditions. The effect is hard to quan- Another approach consists of using a unique indicator capa-
tify because it depends on many factors such as hair length, ble of estimating the combined effect of air temperature
body mass, air temperature and so on. An increase of 1 m/s and humidity on heat stress. The most commonly used is
of air velocity at low temperatures may be equivalent to an the Temperature Humidity Index (THI) given by the formula:
air temperature decrease of 1.5°C to 2°C for animals with
winter coat and between 3°C and 4°C for animals with sum- THI = DBT + 0.36 DPT + 41.2
mer coat. In hot conditions, the effect of air movement is
less relevant, about 1°C for the same air velocity increase. Where DBT is the dry bulb temperature (°C) and DPT is the
The release of sensible heat tends to vanish as air tempera- dew point temperature (°C).
ture equals that of animal skin. However, in a hot climate
(more than 25°C), increase in air velocity at animal level A more practical version is:
can increase heat dissipation in a latent form, independent-
ly of air temperature. THI = (1.8 T + 32) – [(0.55 – 0.0055 RH) x (1.8 T –26.8)]

The effect of the air velocity is non linear. It tends to de- Where T is the air temperature (°C) and RH is the air rela-
crease as the limit of the body transpiration is nearly tive humidity (%).
reached.
It gives a slight difference compared to the previous equa-
2.3.6 COMBINED PARAMETERS tion, but is still acceptable for practical purposes.

2.3.6.1 Air temperature and humidity The upper critical limit varies between 69 and 75, but a
value of 72 is commonly used. The decrease in milk produc-
A combination of the parameters, air temperature and rela- tion is generally estimated as 2% per unit over the critical
tive humidity, is generally considered to be a more effective threshold. The more productive cows are, the more sensi-
approach to determining the appropriate environmental tive they are to high values. Another effect of high THI-
conditions for animal production. values is shown in Fig: 2.3.6.1.2.

A simple solution of this type can be expressed (Fig-

ure: 2.3.6.1.1) by an empirical determination in a Car-
tesian graph showing limits of similar animal productive
response to the various possible combinations of the two
parameters. (Only the productive losses referred to the high
temperatures are based on scientific investigations; for the
low temperatures the limits are an indication).

Figure 2.3.6.1.2: relationship between monthly average

maximum temperature-humidity index (THI) and concep-
tion rate for 16,878 services performed in lactating dairy
cows in Australia (after Morton et al. 2007).

10
2.3.6.2 Air temperature, humidity and velocity present in large quantities dust can cause irritation of the
respiratory tract and mucous membranes and permanently
damage the lung alveoli, as well as facilitate the spread of
The combination of air temperature, air relative humidity microorganisms. In general the concentration of dust in cow
and air velocity is an adequate indicator of milk production houses is not very high (acceptable optimum 0.5 to 1.0 mg/
losses induced by heat stress. Figures 2.3.6.2.1 shows the m3), especially in loose houses. Even so, at such concentra-
potential milk yield losses at different levels of air tem- tions the number of particles is still high (in the range of 105
perature and velocity when relative humidity is 60 %. For to 106 particles per m3) and is therefore capable of carrying
example, at 30°C and 2.5 m/s the decrease of milk produc- numerous bacteria and viruses. In cattle buildings a proper
tion is about 10 %. ventilation is again an important factor for risk reduction,
but the most effective way to obtain a low dust concentra-
Among the physiological indicators, the respiratory rhythm tion level is to prevent formation by using hygienically per-
has revealed to be a more immediate sign of heat stress, but fect forage and bedding material.
the rectal temperature has generally been found to be more
related to the productive variations. In housing for cows, air hygiene problems may be relatively
easy to solve. Because cows can tolerate cold conditions,
high ventilation rates can be applied to dilute and remove
contaminated air from buildings. Designers must ensure
that fixtures and equipment in the buildings can also toler-
ate cold or below freezing temperatures. For human safety
requirements see par. 3.11.6.1.

2.3.8 LIGHT

The standards for illumination of cattle barns are gener-

ally based on achieving good working conditions for the
stockman. Such illumination may be provided by artificial
or natural light. Because natural light is suitable for ani-
mal welfare, it is often recommended to provide an area
of translucent material in the roof or walls. A distinction
Figure 2.3.6.2.1: milk production variation in relation to
should be made for the design of buildings in countries with
air temperature and speed, at RH = 60% (after Baeta et al.,
high levels of solar radiation where animals are housed all
1987).
the year. It is important to prevent solar radiation from
over-heating the cow lying area in summer.
2.3.7 AIR QUALITY
The duration of light exposure has an effect on growth per-
The air in buildings that are heavily stocked can be contami- formance of heifers and on milk production of dairy cows
nated with inorganic dust, spores, moulds, bacterial and vi- (see par. 2.2.4.2).
ral organisms, gases, vapours and other pollutants.
Light intensity is also important both for animals and hu-
The noxious gases that are found in the highest elevated mans (work quality and safety). The minimal light inten-
concentration are ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sity for cattle at which they can still recognise objects (e.g.
sulphide. For those gases specific recommendations for feed) is 5 lux. As cows might eat at night, this should be the
maximum admitted concentrations are shown in the table recommended intensity. A sufficient light intensity to enable
below (adapted from CIGR 1984). adequate observation of cattle is 120 lux, but a minimum of
150 lux is recommended. For the living area (resting, wal-
Table 2.3.7.1: recommandations for maximum gas concen- king, etc.), the light intensity should ideally be between 150
tration (CIGR 1984) and 200 lux during the day, while the levels for other parts
of the building depend on the type of activity, which is being
Gas Max. concentration ppm carried out there (see par. 3.11.6.3).
Carbon dioxide 3000 2.3.9 NOISE
Ammonia 20*
Hydrogen sulphide 0.5 Cattle are more sensitive to high frequency noises than hu-
mans. So mesures should be taken to avoid those that can
* in cowsheds 10 is preferably recommended produce fear or stress in cows (self locking feeding barriers,
gates, doors, equipments, machinery, etc.). Animals will be
calmer and easier to handle if noise levels are reduced. Es-
To avoid a high gas concentration measures such as proper pecially in the milking parlours the level of noises must be
ventilation, frequent removal of slurry or good urine drai- as low as possible (milking machine, barriers, fans, etc.)
nage characteristics of the floor etc. should be adopted. and the milker should avoid shouting or speaking too loudly.
Dangerous situations may occur, especially when manure is Clanging and banging metal parts should be silenced with
agitated before and during the emptying of manure pits. In rubber pads.
this situation, doors and windows should be kept open as
much as possible; or the workers and the animals should be The limits for humans seem to be valid for cattle too. For
evacuated from the building. the human a reduction of 10 dB is equivalent to a 50% per-
ceived noise reduction. The noise level in cattle houses in-
Dust is often an ignored physical contaminant of the air but cluding the milking centre must not exceed 65 dB(A) con-
may be dangerous, not only for animals, but also for hu- tinuously and 80 dB(A) for shorter exposure.
man. The smallest dust particles are the most dangerous. If

11
2.4 SUSTAINABILITY AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

2.4.1 GENERAL DEFINITION

In agriculture, just like any other industry, modern society

requires production systems to be sustainable. Sustainabil-
ity means different things to different people, but a fre-
quently quoted definition is:

“Sustainable development is development that meets the

needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.” (WCED, 1987)
Thus, the concept of sustainability encompasses economic,
social, and ecological issues. It is intended to be a means of
configuring civilization and human activity so that society
and its members are able to meet their needs and express
their greatest potential in the present, while preserving bio-
diversity and natural ecosystems, and planning and acting
for the ability to maintain these ideals indefinitely. This in- Figure 2.4.2.1.1: demolition of a cattle building: Mixture
ter-generational concept of sustainability is important and of old building materials has to be sorted due to contempo-
national and international legislation and policy agreements rary environmental regulations.
are providing a framework where sustainability can be real-
ised on this long-term time framework.
established in the future according generally accepted
rules (e.g. ISO) in order to compare ecological properties
2.4.2 SUSTAINABILITY AND AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS of buildings. This will include costs and ecological impacts
– PRACTICAL ASPECTS WHEN CONSTRUCTING A DAIRY and might be helpful to manage this complex topic sustain-
BUILDING ability.

Even if aspects of sustainability regarding livestock build- 2.4.2.2 Environmental Impacts

ings are rather complex, an attempt should be made to
translate the definition of sustainability into terms of ag- A sustainable building strategy should consider “environ-
ricultural buildings. Within this context, three major fields ment” as an entity. This includes emissions as well as re-
can be identified: building materials and design, environ- sources and rural neighbourhood.
mental aspects and socio-economic aspects including ani-
mal welfare and health. Low emission rates (gases, noise, odours, particles and
germs): The design and construction of a dairy building can
2.4.2.1 Building Materials and Design contribute to lower emissions. E.g. appropriate flooring
may lead to lower ammonia emissions (chapter “Flooring”).
Recycling of building materials Odours can be avoided when considering location and tech-
Problems with asbestos or partly with insulation materi- nical design of manure storage facilities. In some countries
als indicate the importance of considering recycling and covering of storage tanks is mandatory because of environ-
demolition of buildings even when you build a new one. Of mental effects.
course, no one will think of demolition (Fig. 2.4.2.1.1) when Energy saving: Energy saving concepts are a “must” and
constructing a new dairy housing facility, but duration of have been practiced in dairy farming for a long time. Dairy
use and technical innovations change much faster than dec- facilities can re-use energy from milk cooling to warm up
ades before. Limited resources imply that even raw materi- (drinking) water or heat buildings. There are three main cat-
als should be sorted out and recycled. Recycled concrete egories for energy saving technology: milk cooling systems,
consist of 25 % granulated concrete material to replace energy efficient motors, variable speed vacuum pumps and
gravel and thus reduces necessity of dumping concrete from energy efficient lighting.
demolished buildings. Mixed granulates of concrete, bricks Renewable energy production: When constructing a new
and stones can be added to concrete as well and maybe building, especially when herd size is “upscaled”, solar en-
used for pavement. ergy requirements should be considered in minimum as an
option (orientation of building, slope of roof),
Re-Use or Conversion of Farm Buildings Water resource management: When constructing a new
New constructions should consider future change of building dairy building, attention should be paid to reduce con-
purposes. Depending on the height of truss and absence of taminated water run-off. Concepts of separating rain water
additional frames at the feeding table, dairy houses can be from clean surfaces apart from those of soiled areas can
used as storage facility, riding hall or industrial building in be implemented easily, if a new construction is planned.
the future, if the farm is no longer economically efficient. For instance switching between separate pipes for clean
and contaminated water, if storage areas (roughage, solid
Expandability manure) are clean and out of use for certain periods. It is
Within the farm development plan, a new building should be much easier to install a second pipe before the building is
constructed to be expanded easily in the future, even if it finished. If possible, clean run-off water and greywater can
seems to be not necessary at present. This includes the site be collected in a storage tank/basin to flush areas within
plan as well, especially in countries with limited farm land. the building for cleaning purposes.
For the building itself it is worth to think about “interfaces” Other environmental impacts: Rural neighbourhoods are
of expansion. E.g. how to continue with truss, walls, alleys, more and more concerned about particulate matter from
as well position of manure pit joints. livestock housing. It is a good practice to involve neighbours
in an early stage in the planning of a cattle building, if im-
Lifecycle-Analysis: pacts can be expected. Impacts maybe not only gaseous
To assess impacts of buildings, lifecycle analysis may be emissions, but noise and odours as well as intensive lighting

12
of a building. In this context, special regard should be given fare on a high level as a priority for organic livestock farming
to appearance and acceptance of the planned cattle build- and may go beyond Community welfare standards…” The
ing. Roofing, colours and materials play an important role holistic approach of organic farming comprises land related
and can easily being adapted during the phase of planning. livestock production, preventive animal health manage-
This topic is not only related to the adaption to the land- ment and low external input like soja. Starting as a niche
scape, it means acceptance by the neighbourhood as well. production system in several countries, organic became
more and more important within the last decade. Consumer
demand pushed the development of organic farming, espe-
2.4.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS, ANIMAL WELFARE AND cially when credibility of conventional livestock production
HEALTH was in a crisis (BSE, FMD). In several European countries or-
ganic farming schemes were established to support research
In this section one should pay regard to support preventive and organic farming topics. “The organic sector amounts to
animal health by designing cattle buildings to fulfil (or over- an estimated 7.6 mio ha in 2008, i.e. 4.3% of EU-27 utilised
fulfil) animal needs. It is evident, that fresh air inside a agricultural area (UAA). In the period 2000-2008, the aver-
dairy house is needed to prevent respiratory diseases, but age annual rate of growth was 6.7% in the EU-15 and 20.0%
in agricultural practice, compromises are more often vis- in the EU-12” (EU 2010). In 2007 2.7% of the cattle herd is
ible than best practice. Information how to include animal organic in the EU. In 2007 there were 2.4 mio heads of certi-
health prevention can be found in each chapter of this re- fied bovine animals, the largest producers being Germany,
port, flooring, climate, handling facilities, just to mention a Austria, the United Kingdom and Italy. Germany is the larg-
few. One aspect besides that, which is not included, might est dairy producer with more than 0.1 Mio cows. However,
be the need of cattle to be exposed to fresh air and sun as the Member States with the largest share of certified or-
well as the need for grazing as a natural behaviour for ru- ganic cows in the total number of cows are Austria (15.6%),
minants. Farm label schemes like in Switzerland (RAUS) or Denmark (9.6%) and Italy (3.2%) illustrates the proportion of
production according organic farming rules consider those organic dairy production within the EU-28 countries.
needs and provide animals with access to pasture and ex-
ercise yards. This may be health preventive, for example The labeling of products from organic production systems
the exposure to sunlight (UV-radiation) stimulates vitamin D is worthy of particular mention, as such organic produce
synthesis of dairy cows. is available in most countries. In order for a product to be
certified organic the farm of origin must be inspected by a
A good working environment for the stockpersons contrib- credible third party state or private organisation to verify
utes to the “socio-economic welfare, work safety” of the that all the requirements of the certifying control body are
human labour. Chapter worker safety explains the standards adhered to. While sustainability of production would be en-
and requirements. Motivated stockpersons are more likely shrined in the goals of organic systems the term organic is
to handle animals well. not synonymous with sustainable on the broader sense out-
lined above which includes issues like food supply.
Monitoring tools like video and a stable office, which can be
used as observation room, facilitate herd management and If a farmer considers working according to the rules of
reduce costs. organic farming, he has to think about different aspects
concerning cattle housing. National regulations on organic
farming may differ from country, but as a general agreement
2.4.4 APPROACHES TO SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION to provide a worldwide standard on producing organically,
SYSTEMS the Codex Alimentarius of FAO/WHO has been elaborated in
order to harmonize standards and to facilitate international
2.4.4.1 Label Schemes trade. The Codex Alimentarius can be seen as a minimum
standard on organic farming. One major player in organic
Food Assurance Schemes: Many food assurance and labelling production is the EU, setting a standard on organic farming,
systems have been developed to inform the consumer about which is mandatory for all producers within the 27 member
the type of production system used. These range from sim- states as well as setting a standard for those countries who
ple country of origin labels to labels guaranteeing specific are importing organic products to the EU.
quality attributes of the product, e.g. Label Rouge in France
indicates a guaranteed level of superior quality. Such labels Codex Alimentarius of IFOAM “Guidelines for the Produc-
can encompass the goals of promoting sustainable produc- tion, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Pro-
tion. However, the consumer is often influenced by strong duced Foods” includes relevant phrases for cattle housing:
retail brands that may not in fact encompass the principle
of sustainable production as a primary concern. • “All mammals must have access to pasture or an open-air
exercise area or run which may be partially covered, and
Label production as special production systems are often they must be able to use those areas whenever the physi-
connected with limitations of fertilizer and pesticides to ological condition of the animal, the weather conditions
reduce environmental impacts on ground water or other and the state of the ground permit.”
environmental systems like soil, air etc, An example for an • “Livestock housing must have smooth, but not slippery
environmental label was the dutch “Green Label”, where floors. The floor must not be entirely of slatted or grid
parts of dairy cattle buildings like alleys should reduce am- construction.”
monia emission by minimum 50 %. • “The housing of calves in individual boxes and the tether-
ing of livestock are not permitted without the approval
of the competent authority.”
2.4.4.2 Organic Farming
The influence on the design of dairy cattle buildings by
organic farming systems from relevant regulations, for
The basic idea of organic farming is a sustainable food pro-
example codex Alimentarius and other EU directives, are
duction within the farm cycle (EC directive of organic farm-
compared in Table 2.4.4.2.2. Note: there may be local vari-
ing 889/2008). “Housing conditions should meet animal wel-
ations to these regulations in different countries.

13
Table 2.4.4.2.2: comparison of standards on organic farm- 3. Aspects of design
ing regarding cattle housing.

FAO/WHO EU-Organic far- Nowadays, two major housing systems for dairy cows are in
“Codex Alimenta- ming 889/2008 use in most countries: tied housing systems for small herds
rius” and loose housing systems for middle sized herds to very
Flooring Must not be fully Max. 50% slatted large sized herds. Tied housing restricts the cows freedom
slatted floor of movement and many activities (standing, lying, feeding,
milking, etc.) take place at the same location. In contrast
Dehorning By exception By exception
to this, loose housing allows cows to move freely and usually
Group housing of - Starting 2nd week comprises a lying area, a feeding passage or area, a standing
calves of life and walking (exercise) passage or area, and a milking area.
Stocking density - 4.5 m²/dairy cow
indoor At present tied housing systems are less popular than in
the past because they are less comfortable for the cows
Stocking density - 6 m²/dairy cow and very intensive in labour for feeding, milking and ma-
outdoor nure management. However, tied housing systems are still
Exercise yard Either exercise Access to graz- favoured by many smaller herds where the labour force is
yard or pasture is ing areas and limited and probably only provided by the owner. This is be-
mandatory exercise yards cause of tradition, familiarity with the system and the regu-
mandatory lar intimate contact with the cows and the majority of work
occurring in, or near, one building. Loose housing systems
provide more comfort for both the stockperson and animals
Besides that, typical differences between organic and con- and thus can improve production and welfare. Therefore,
ventional managed dairy houses are: loose housing should be preferred whenever possible.

• Access to a partly uncovered exercise yard is often real- 3.1 LOOSE HOUSING SYSTEMS
ized by designing an outside feeding table (separate roof)
connected by an open passage way to the lying area in 3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
order to fulfil the legal requirements efficiently
• Depending on the national organizations, housing of Three major types of loose housing systems will be consi-
horned cows would require an extra space to the above dered: cubicle systems (free-stalls), straw yards and sloped
mentioned (Table 2.4.4.2.2) space requirements of ap- floor systems.
proximately 25 % as well as feeding racks with appropri-
ate access. Cubicle systems (free-stalls): Cubicles are individual spaces
where cows are provided with a reasonably clean, dry and
Note : tied housing are no longer allowed in some countries. resilient bed upon which they can lie. The cubicle must have
dimensions that allow the animal to lie down and rise up
without injury and to rest comfortably. The cow is free to
enter and leave the cubicle at will. Since cubicle houses can
work with very little bedding material they often produce
slurry manure. With liberal use of bedding material they
can also produce solid manure. Properly designed cubicles
should ensure that cows move backwards as they stand up
and thus deposit the faeces and urine into the access/dung-
ing passages rather than on the cubicle bed. However, a
comfortable resting position for the cow may still result in
small quantities of faeces on the rear part of the cubicle.

Straw yards (straw courts, bedded packs, compost packs):

Straw yards are unobstructed bedded lying areas for a group
of cows, that may accommodate all or only part of the herd.
Bedding is spread on top of a floor, with little (≤ 2%) or no
gradient. Soiled bedding accumulates in a deep layer which
is removed when necessary. Regular grooming of the pack
including removal of manure and addition of fresh bedding
adds to cow comfort and cleanliness. The layout and dimen-
sions of the bedded area must be such that each animal
has enough space to rest without being disturbed by other
cows, and to allow them to circulate easily to feeding and
drinking facilities.

A recent modification of these systems in the US is called

the composting barn. With this system a deep layer of small
particle dry bedding material is placed in the resting area.
The pack area is agitated at least twice a day with a tractor
with a mounted tooth type cultivator implement or roto-
tiller. This incorporates manure into the bedding and also
lifts and fluffs the mixture to encourage aerobic decom-
position (composting) of the material. Truck loads of fresh

14
bedding are added when the moisture content of the pack 3.1.2 CUBICLE SYSTEMS (FREESTALL)
becomes high enough that bedding sticks to the cows. The
barn also serves as a manure storage area and typically the The cubicle is an extremely important element of the cow’s
bedding and manure are allowed to build up for 8-12 months environment, affecting positively or negatively its comfort,
before cleanout and land application of the composted ma- cleanliness and health. Cubicles must provide a clean, com-
nure. These barns are built with high roofs to accommodate fortable and secure lying space for cows. Cows should be
machinery, manure pack build-up and insure good natural able to enter and leave cubicles easily and lie-down and rise
ventilation with curtain sidewalls. The lower walls sur- without interference. Animals must be able to express their
rounding the pack will usually have 1.0 m or higher concrete natural lying positions (see Section 2.2.3.1). Additional con-
or timber retaining walls to enclose and support the deep siderations are freedom from injury, cleanliness, bedding
pack. A feed alley and feeding fence run along one side of requirements, labour efficiency and durability.
the pack area.
Partitions: they separate adjacent resting spaces (cubicles)
Sloped floor system: Sloped floors are unobstructed bed- and serve to control the position of cows without unduly
ded lying areas for groups of cows. The floor will have a restricting their movement. Cubicle partitions of various
gradient of 10% to 16% and the activity of the cows causes shapes may be supported in a variety of ways i.e. by free-
soiled bedding to move down the floor to the bottom of the standing vertical posts or cantilevered from the cubicle
slope, where it is collected. The sloped floor system is often front assembly etc.
not recommended for dairy cows, because it is more diffi-
cult to manage hygiene and udder health compared to other Bases: permanent or semi-permanent materials form the
systems. So, this system is more often used for beef cattle bottom/base or floors of cubicles. Commonly used materi-
(CIGR design recommandations of beef cattle housing, 2002) als include concrete, clay and stone-free subsoil.
and heifers aged over 12 months until around 24 months,
i.e. prior to calving, and will not be discussed in this docu- Bedding: any substance or material that is used to improve
ment. cow comfort and/or hygiene. Two types of bedding can be
distinguished; a) loose material such as straw, sawdust,
In certain countries, out-wintering-pads (OWP) have be- wood chips or sand either as a deep layer (200 mm) placed
come an alternative method of accommodating cattle to directly on the base of the stall or a thin layer over a mat
conventional sheds. The OWP provides a drained lying and or mattress; or, b) materials fixed to the base of the cubicle
loafing area outdoors for the animals on a bed of woodchips. such as rubber mats or various synthetic mattresses.
The OWP is operated at a much lower stocking rate than
conventional accommodation. However, the effluent pro- Kerb (curb): usually forms a step (max. 200mm) that sepa-
duced from an OWP has a high concentration of pollutants. rates the cubicle area from manure in the access/dunging
Underneath, in a drainage system, the effluent is contained passage.
by clay soil or a plastic liner and the effluent is collected
and stored before being recycled onto a suitable crop etc. Neck rail: often a metal tube (rigid neck rail) or flexible
The woodchip bed retains most of the nutrients produced by strap that is placed across the top rail of the cubicle par-
the livestock and these woodchips are also recycled where tition to encourage cows to move backward on rising and
appropriate. In colder climates windbreak fences or hedg- prevents them from standing too far forward. Sometimes a
es may also be incorporated to provide additional shelter. head rail is used to prevent cows going to far ahead in the
Concern for udder health, cleanliness and milk quality make cubicle (se figure 3.1.2.4.2).
these systems more suitable for drier warmer climates. Sea-
sonal grazing herds may use these as over wintering lots for Brisket boards or tubes: elements placed on the floor at
non-lactating cattle. the front of the cubicle. They aid the cow in positioning her-
self in the cubicle while resting or standing and may retain
any bedding stored at the front of the cubicle.

Bedding retainers: often formed of boards or pipes (pos-

sibly MDPE but not steel). They are fixed to the floor across
the rear of cubicles to retain bedding (particularly sand) in
the cubicle. This may also be formed by extending the kerb
above the floor. The length of stall provided for the cow to
rest in must be extended to account for the thickness of the
retainer or extended kerb.

The cubicle comprises several elements :

neck rail

cubicle partition or division plus support post (to the left)

brisket tube or board

slightly sloping base with bedding or a mattress for cow

comfort

kerb to aid separation of the cow from the access passage

Figure 3.1.2.1: elements of a cubicle.

15
If the benefits of the system are to be realised, proper con- rear kerb, side partitions, brisket tube, neck rail and cubi-
ditions must be maintained so that cows use the cubicles. cle front. Lunge space may be included within the cubicle
Poorly designed cubicles may lead to cows lying in passages space (non space sharing cubicles, closed front cubicles) or
or elsewhere. Wet and contaminated cubicle beds are likely outside the cubicle (space sharing cubicles or open front
to contribute to an increased incidence of mastitis. Conse- cubicles) with the cow able to extend her head and neck
quently careful attention to the design of cubicles, inclu- forward outside her cubicle into an alley or outside space or
ding their relationship to other elements of the housing, and into the front of a facing cubicle.
their maintenance by the farmer is most important.

It is recommended that the cubicle be inspected and

groomed at least twice a day and fresh bedding added when
necessary. Usually this is done when cows are collected for
milking. In buildings with AMS, where cows visit the mil-
king station whenever they want, this task is more difficult
and must be done throughout the day. AMS managers may
choose to make several trips throughout the day around the
barn inspecting cows and also taking care of cubicles when
they are empty. An alternative is to quietly work on a few
cubicles at a time in an effort to reduce the number of cows Figure 3.1.2.1.1: natural movement of a rising cow.
that are interrupted during their chosen rest time.

3.1.2.1 Design considerations 3.1.2.2 Space sharing cubicles

The cubicle must be long enough to allow appropriate posi- If cubicles are too short to permit the cows to lunge forward,
tioning of the neck rail to allow the cow to enter the cubi- the cows must share the space on the cubicle to the side or
cle, lie down, rest comfortably without any injury and rise from the cubicle in front of her to rise up more easily. Sha-
up again; and yet be short enough to limit manure and urine ring head space may be a solution for existing cubicles that
falling onto the cubicle bed. A shorter length of the cubicle are not long enough but when designing new buildings it is
or a neck rail moved closer to the kerb will tend to prevent advisable to use the recommended dimensions for cubicles
soiling of the rear of the cubicle, which is important to good so that the cows are not forced to share space.
udder health. However, too short a length can cause cows
to refuse to use the stalls, to stand partially in the stalls Head-to-head cubicles offer the opportunity to use space
or to lie over the kerb with the risk of injury and soiling of in the opposite cubicle to gain lunging space, providing the
the udder from manure in the passage. Cubicle length and fronts of the cubicles are properly designed. In this case
neck rail placement should accommodate the longest cows lunging space is not really restricted for each cow.
in the herd (see Table 3.1.3.5.1 values for positioning of the
neck rail).

The cubicle must be wide enough for the cow to lie comfor-
tably, but narrow enough to discourage the cow from tur-
ning around. In addition, the cubicle should accommodate
the natural rising behaviour of the cow. The cow should not
come into hard contact with the cubicle partition or the
neck rail in such a way as to cause injury. This is particularly
important while the cow is in the act of lying down, since
the last stage in this movement is uncontrolled by the cow.

As a cow rises from a lying position she lunges her head

forward to transfer the weight from her hindquarters. She
then raises her hindquarters before raising her front. To ac-
commodate this natural forward transfer of weight the cow
thrusts her head forward by between 0.5 m and 0.9 m as she
lunges. If the forward movement is restricted because the Figure 3.1.2.2.1: ways of providing space for a rising cow.
cubicle is too short or the cow lies too far forward, because
of an incorrectly placed or missing brisket board, then the
The unobstructed openings beneath or above the lower rail
cow will have difficulty in rising. Cubicles traditionally do
at the front of some models of cubicle partitions allow the
not provide enough lunging space in comparison with space
cow to lunge forward into a neighbouring cubicle when ri-
used for this movement in pasture (from 1.20 m to 1.40 m
sing. This should be considered as a possible help, but this
for head space plus lunge space).
additional space cannot totally compensate for insufficient
The space needs of a cow with respect to lying and rising lunging space because, effectively, it has to be taken from
consists of: the opposite lying area.
• body space, i.e. the space from the rear of the cow to
the front of her carpal joint Side head sharing cubicles allow cows to lunge through an
• head space, i.e. space in front of the cow occupied by opening to the side of the cubicle partition into the adjoin-
her head while lying; and ing cubicle and may be used to make existing short stalls
• lunge space, i.e. the additional space necessary for the more cow friendly. However, side lunging is not normal cow
thrust of the cow’s head as she lunges forward during behaviour, but cows have demonstrated an ability to learn
rising. this manoeuvre, but it can reduce cubicle usage if the cow
does not adapt to this. As cows prefer to lunge forward, it
Space required for a resting animal (body and head space) is better to provide sufficient length that will allow for this,
should be included within the cubicle space as defined by rather than use this type of cubicle in new construction.

16
3.1.2.3 Cubicles without space sharing

If space sharing is not provided for, then individual cubi-

cles will need to be long and wide enough to accommodate
normal cow movement, particularly rising. Cubicles long
enough to accommodate the body space plus the head space
of the lying cow require a brisket tube, or board, to prevent
the cow from lying too far forward in the cubicle. The neck
rail will discourage the cow from moving too far forward
when standing and when the cow enters the cubicle.

3.1.2.4 Cubicle partition

The cubicle partition extends from the front of the cubicle

to less than 300 mm and ideally no more that 200 mm from
the passage (to prevent cows from walking along the rear of
the cubicle beds). The partition should be sufficiently high
to discourage turning around.

Cubicle partitions should have three unobstructed open

areas as shown below: Figure 3.1.2.4.3: cubicle without space sharing.
• head zone (i)
• zone for controlling lying position (ii) (it will be small
enough to prevent cows from lying under the partition,
3.1.2.5 Basic cubicle dimensions
yet large enough to avoid trapping legs), and;
• zone for pelvis freedom preventing injury to hips and ribs
All the following dimensions are related to the cow’s body
(iii).
dimensions, L & H (in metres) discussed in Section 2.1.

Cubicles Width (CW)

This is calculated from formula (1) and represents the clear

unobstructed distance between cubicle partitions.

CW = 0.83 H (1)

Cubicle Resting Length (CRL)

This is calculated from formula (2).

CRL = 1.06 L (2)

Figure 3.1.2.4.1: three zones of freedom in cubicles. (Note:
Head Space (HS)
H = Height at withers).
This is the length space that should be allowed for the head
Note: Figure 3.1.2.4.2 (below) shows dimensions for cubi- of the cow when the animal is lying down. It is related to
cles with head-to-head space sharing. Also note that the height of withers, H.
shaded cow on the right is shown lunging forward to rise
from a lying position and using the space in front of her i.e. HS = 0.48 H [All types of cubicles] (3)
from the cubicle opposite. Whereas, Figure 3.1.2.4.3 shows
dimensions for a cubicle without space sharing. Head and Lunging Space (HLS)

This is the length of unrestricted space that should be al-

lowed for the lying cow when lying down and for forward
lunging of the cow when rising. It is related to height of
withers, H.

HLS = 0.65 H [All types of cubicles] (4)

Overall Cubicle Length (CL)

This is an important value in the design of cow housing. It is

obtained by adding the values of CR to the values HS or HLS
respectively. Formula (5) is for head to head cubicles and
formula (6) for all other types of cubicles.

Figure 3.1.2.4.2: head to head cubicles with front space CL1 = 1.06 L + 0.48 H = CRL + HS [Head to head, space shar-
sharing. ing] (5)

CL2 = 1.06 L + 0.65 H = CRL + HLS [Non space sharing] (6)

17
 Neck Rail Height (NRH) bedding material will tend to reduce the amount of bedding
material dragged into the dunging passage.
The neck rail height is obtained by the formula:
The use of bedding alone, on a concrete base without kerb,
NRH = 0.80 to 0.90 H (7) is unlikely to give a comfortable, resilient bed, unless large
amounts of material is used (for instance more than 3 kg
Neck Rail Distance (NRD) per cow every day of dry straw will be required). Cushions
or mattresses, formed by sandwiching bedding material be-
The horizontal neck rail distance from the kerb is obtained tween layers of plastic fabric, have been used successfully,
by the formula: but moderate additions of bedding on top are still neces-
sary. Rubber or plastic mats, or carpeting materials, seem
NRD = CRL + 0.10 (8) to be less satisfactory when their thickness is under 30 mm
and their density too low. Cubicles should be inspected
Typical Cubicle Sizes (CIGR standard) twice-daily and wet bedding and manure should be re-
moved. Clean, dry bedding should be added at least twice a
Table 3.1.3.5.1 shows calculated examples for three diffe- week or more frequently. Frequent removal of manure from
rent cow sizes based on the CIGR-standard (see Section 2.1). passages is also necessary. If the cleanliness of cubicles is
neglected and they become excessively wet or soiled with
To avoid injury to larger cows, cubicle dimensions should be manure, then infectious bacteria populations may exceed
based on the average size of the 10% largest animals in the critical values. This will give rise to an increase in the rate
herd. The stock person will need to give some attention to of udder infection.
the smaller animals in the herd to overcome any problems
should cubicles prove too big for them. The cubicle base should be raised above the access/dunging
passage by a kerb that is 150 mm high (exceptionally this
Table 3.1.2.5.1: cubicle minimum width (CW), cubicle res- could be increased to 200 mm maximum). The final height
ting length (CRL), head space (HS), head and lunging space and construction should allow for a particular method of
(HLS), cubicle length (CL1 and CL2), neck rail height (NRH) manure removal to be used, e.g. scraping or flushing. Long
and neck rail distance (NRD) according to formulas (1) to (8) access/dunging passages and low scraping frequencies may
require a higher kerb to keep manure from overflowing
into the cubicle during scraping. Frequent scrapings pre-
vent overflowing into the cubicles. The kerb should be high
Animal L H CW CRL HS HLS CL1 CL2 NRH NRD
enough to discourage a cow from lying only partly in the cu-
size (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) bicle. A kerb that is too high may cause udder injury and can
(kg) cause too heavy loads on the rear claws and legs when cows
550- 1.69 1.40 1.16 1.79 0.67 0.91 2.46 2.70 1.12- 1.79- enter and leave the cubicle or stand partly in the cubicle.
649 1.26 1.89
650- 1.75 1.44 1.20 1.85 0.69 0.94 2.54 2.79 1.15- 1.85- When cubicle bases are made of less permanent materials,
749 1.30 1.95 such as clay, then hollows (created by the activities of the
750- 1.80 1.48 1.23 1.90 0.71 0.96 2.61 2.86 1.18- 1.90- cow) will need to be filled periodically. A relatively flat sur-
850 1.33 2.00 face allows the cow to lie-down and rise more easily and to
lie more comfortably.

CW = Cubicle Width (free space) = 0.83 H 3.1.3 STRAW YARD SYSTEMS

CRL = Cubicle Resting Length = 1.06 L
HS = Head Space = 0.48 H 3.1.3.1 Space requirements for resting and moving
HLS = Head and Lunging Space = 0.65 H
CL1 = Cubicle Length (space sharing) = CRL + HS Generally, straw yard systems are undivided bedded lying
CL2 = Cubicle Length (non space sharing) = CRL + HLS areas where animals realise all different kinds of behaviours
NRH = Neck Rail Height = 0.80 to 0.90 H such as standing, lying and resting, exercise etc. This unique
NRD = Neck Rail Distance = CRL + 0 to 0.10 area can be subdivided leading to two major subsystems:
two area systems with a lying and a feeding area, and mul-
Note: Pre-fresh cows (gestating cows) and post-fresh cows tiple area systems in which more than one area is provided
(cows with big udder) require more room and it is advisable for lying, feeding and exercise. In the latter case, any of the
to provide larger cubicles for these two groups of cows. areas may be provided as uncovered outside yards.

In straw yard systems, for an individual cow the minimum

3.1.2.6 The cubicle base and bedding space requirement can be defined as the space required for
resting plus that required to allow free access from the res-
The cubicle base, together with any bedding or flooring, ting area to feeding and drinking areas. Free access implies
must provide a comfortable, cushioning, clean and dry sur- that cows can move without the risk of injury or aggressive
face. The base must support the cow and resist hollowing interactions. The total space requirement depends on many
caused by the cow’s claws when it lowers and rises. The different factors.
base should be constructed and maintained to provide the
desired slope for drainage. A base that slopes downward Empirical values exist for the individual space of cows.
from 2 % to 4 % from front to rear encourages the cow to lie Figure 3.1.3.1.1 shows the space for a standing animal. It
with her head toward the front of the cubicle and provides consists of the ground projection of the slightly enlarged
drainage to the rear of the cubicle. body plus a larger tolerance area around the head. Figure
3.1.3.1.2 is for the lying animal, while Figure 3.1.3.1.3
The choice of bedding material may influence selection of a shows the dynamic space needed for rising, which is about 1
manure handling and storage system. The use of a short fine m longer than the normal lying length.

18
One might assume that in closed loose housing, with a lying On the basis of experience the following method of calcu-
area adjacent to a feeding passage (two area systems), the lating minimum space requirements is recommended. The
minimum lying area corresponds to the body area of the ly- values L and H used are those defined in Section 2.1 and all
ing animal plus tolerance space surrounding the head. For areas are in m² per cow.
the normal Friesian cow these areas are 2.2 m² and 3.5 m²
respectively, totalling 5.7 m². However, experience suggests Lying Areas (LA)
that a greater lying area may be necessary to avoid wet
bedding, so that values from 6.5 m² to 7.0 m² are generally The space for lying and rising is calculated in accordance
recommended. with the cow’s length and the distance required to swing
its head while rising multiplied by the width required for
the cow to lie comfortably, i.e. [ 0.85 (L + H) ] x H. To al-
low sufficient space for movement between lying animals
and to avoid disturbance of resting cows’ additional space
is required. To satisfy this space requirement would mean
providing an additional area of between 1.38 and 1.65 times
the above lying area, depending on the type of housing.

Note that the minimum lying area requirement corresponds

to the actually available area for cattle. The total area is
generally a little bigger, considering that some transition
areas between the different zones of the system might be
spoiled so that cattle could not rest properly on these parts
of the bedded yard.

Based on the above, the minimum lying area requirements,

LA1 and LA2 respectively, are given by the following formu-
las for:
Figure 3.1.3.1.1: individual space required by a standing
• Two area, bedded lying area, systems (see Figure
cow.
3.1.3.1.4

LA1 = 1.65 H [ 0.85 (L + H) ] [Two area bedded] (9)

Figure 3.1.3.1.2: minimum space required by a lying cow.

If unbedded, freely accessible areas (a multiple area sys-

tem) are provided for other activities, such as feeding, ex- Figure 3.1.3.1.4: two area straw yard systems.
ercising (loafing), ruminating and grooming, then the bed-
ded area can be reduced by up to 20 %. This is because
certain behavioural and spatial needs are satisfied outside • Multiple area, straw yard (see Figure 3.1.3.1.5)
the lying place, i.e. in the loafing and feeding area.
LA2 = 1.38 H [ 0.85 (L + H) ] [Multiple area straw yard
systems] (10)

Figure 3.1.3.1.5: multiple area straw yard systems.

Figure 3.1.3.1.3: dynamic space required for rising.

19
Step depth (SD)

SD = 0.85 L (11)

The step depth (0.85 L) represents the optimal design to

prevent any injuries and slipping when cows go from the
feeding or dunging alley to the bedding area. Experience
shows that cows can manage situations with 2 or 3 steps
having 300 mm height and 400 mm depth (see Section
3.1.4.3. as well).

Table 3.1.3.1.1 shows the calculated lying and total areas

for different types of systems based on 3 different sizes of Figure 3.1.3.2.2: animal flow in rectangular straw yards.
cow sized according to the CIGR standard (see Section 2.1,
Table 2.1).
3.1.3.3. The connection between lying areas and adja-
cent passages
Table 3.1.3.1.1: minimum lying areas as determined for
dairy cows from formulas (9) and (10) A step is generally provided between a strawed yard lying
area and adjacent passages. The height difference between
Animal size Lying area’s the floor of lying area and floor of passages depends on
Weight L H LA1 LA2 the frequency of bedding removal from the lying area. The
(kg) (m) (m) m²/cow m²/cow height will vary from 250 mm (or even 0 mm) for a 1 month
cleaning interval. More than one step may be required with
550-649 1.69 1.40 6.07 5.07
individual steps being 200 to 300 mm high and at least 400
650-749 1.75 1.44 6.44 5.39 mm deep. Attention must be paid to the fact that a long
750-850 1.80 1.48 6.81 5.69 cleaning interval might adversely affect the health states of
the udder. Regular removal of the bedding is recommended
LA1 = 1.65 H [0.85 (L + H)] and LA2 = 1.38 H [0.85 (L + H)] (every 6 to 8 weeks).

Note: The space requirement is calculated from the body Passages can be slatted if the straw bedding is chopped or
size and is a minimum. It can be larger according to yield, ground. With slatted passages additional space needs to be
straw amount and management etc. provided, as a wide step, between the bedded lying area
and the passage. This is to prevent bedding being dragged
3.1.3.2. Shape of straw yards onto the slats by the cows’ claws. The minimum width of
this step should be at least a cow’s body length (L) as de-
The bedded area in straw yard systems should serve as the fined in formula (11). An alternative solution, not requiring
resting area. While its shape can vary to some extent it will as much space, is to fix a wooden beam between the pas-
affect the space available for the cows. Since cows prefer to sage and bedded area at the edge of the step.
lie down along the peripheral walls of straw yards, a rectan-
gular shape is preferred to a square (Figure 3.1.3.2.1). The Another recommendation to consider, particularly with a
best shape is determined from a consideration of the feed- slatted feed stance, is to limit the locations along the feed
ing space and lying space for one cow (Figure 3.1.3.2.2). alley where access can be made between the resting and
The distance from the bedded yard to the feeding area feeding area.
should be short and direct. The maximum distance between
a feeding passage and the back wall of a straw yard should In normal straw yards, exits to outside areas (exercise yard,
be about 10 m. This will minimise the risk of injury due to collecting area, passages to pasture) should be located
cows treading on each other. across as wide an opening as possible, or through a scraped
passage.

3.1.3.4 Bedding management and use

In straw yard systems, straw is spread over the whole res-

ting area. To keep animals clean 1.0 to 1.2 kg/day/m² is
required. It is very important to use chopped straw of 200
to 300 mm in length. Long straw gives a wet litter with more
dirty animals. Fresh straw must be added daily and it must
be dry and free of mould. The surface temperature of the
bedded area is influenced by the quantity of straw spread
every day. Using too much straw (> 1.2 kg/day/m²) increases
the surface temperature of the bedding area and has a posi-
tive influence on the development of micro-organisms living
in the environment and on the infectious pressure exerted
on the udder. Therefore, too much straw can be bad for the
udder health (somatic cell count and clinical mastitis).

Figure 3.1.3.2.1: animal flow in square straw yards.

20
 almost impossible to avoid a certain percentage of hock in-
juries.

The use of deep bedding reduces hock injuries considerably

and improves cow comfort, cleanliness, udder health and
milk quality (somatic cell count) etc.

Poor cubicle design, installation and management can result

in poor cubicle usage. Problems can also arise if heifers are
not trained to use the cubicle system before calving.

The optimal sizing of cubicles, passages etc. and positio-

ning of drinkers, automatic feed dispensers etc. need spe-
cial care and attention to detail.
Figure 3.1.3.4.1: effects of straw quantity per day and ac-
cumulation time on temperature of the litter. Construction is costly and is specific for dairy cows. It is
difficult to convert facilities for another type of cattle and
to adapt to another breed, or where new regulations are
Below 0.7 kg/day.m², animals are too dirty and the risk of introduced.
poor udder health increases.
The level of investment is higher (manure storage capacity)
Inadequate management of the bedding area (lack of bed- than for the straw systems, but the annual costs for bedding
ding material, overcrowding etc.) can reduce the cleanli- and for labour are generally lower.
ness of cows and affect milk quality (somatic cell count) and
increased mastitis. 3.1.4.2 Straw yard systems

3.1.3.5 Straw use The system is comfortable for animals provided adequate
space, use of bedding material and the management of bed-
The demand for straw will vary depending on the layout, ded areas are optimal. Adequate management of the bed-
management, required cleanliness of the cows and climate. ded area is needed to prevent udder health problems.

The table below shows the approximate range of straw de- The cow has more freedom than in the cubicle system and
mand for bedding material depending on type and layout of learns very quickly how to use it. The potential of conflicts
the housing system: among cows is greater.

The following management practices will help to reduce For the same number of animals the system needs more
straw use: resting space than the equivalent cubicle system. The level
• use old straw which is dry and of good quality of investment is lower than for the cubicle system, but the
• decrease the stocking density (less animals per unit lying annual costs of the bedding (unless produced on the farm)
area) and for the labour is higher.
• provide alternative areas for cows to use (multiple area
systems) The system implies the use of very large quantities of straw
• provide a feeding area separate from the dunging pas- or other bedding material. The spreading of straw, manually
sage or mechanically, needs a lot of time and adequate equip-
• scrape the dunging passage at frequent intervals ment and storage area (in open air or under a roof).
• bed the floor more frequently (twice per day)
• feed cows with diets that produce drier faeces. The system implies:

• a minimum slurry storage capacity,

Table 3.1.3.5.1: typical bedding use in different housing ar- • special handling equipment for bedding material, solid
rangements. manure and slurry,
• special equipment to spread solid manure and slurry.
Straw use System
(kg/day.m²) characteristics Generally speaking, somatic cell count is higher than for
cubicle system.
1.0 - 1.2 Two area straw
yard systems
Conversion of building for another type of cattle is possible
0.7 - 1.0 Multiple area straw and relatively easy to do.
yard systems

3.1.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE LOOSE

HOUSING

3.1.4.1 Cubicle systems

Compared to the straw yard systems, cubicle systems can

function with less bedding material (straw, sawdust, com-
post, sand etc.), but they need adequate management to
keep a high level of animal cleanliness. Furthermore, it is

21
3.2 TIED HOUSING Stall length (SL)

3.2.1 INTRODUCTION This is calculated from equation (3).

SL = 0.92 L + 0.3 (3)
Tied housing restricts the cows’ freedom of movement. Tie Table 3.2.2.1 shows stall lengths based on CIGR-standard
stalls will always be a compromise in order to meet dif- data (see Section 2.1.2, Table 2.1.2.1).
ferent demands, because many activities take place in the
same area. The same location is used for standing, lying, so- Stall width (SW)
cial interactions, feeding, drinking, milking and defecating/
urinating. This situation is difficult to manage, but there The stall width must ensure the comfort and safety of adja-
are some points of good practice and husbandry, that will cent animals and guarantee that all animals can lie simulta-
contribute to designing tie stalls that are more suitable with neously. Equation (4) shows the required stall width.
respect to animal welfare. This section aims to summarise SW = 0.86 H (4)
those points with special regard to stall dimensions, flooring
and tie systems. Table 3.2.2.1: stall length (SL) and stall width (SW) based
on CIGR standard dimensions for cows.
Tie stalls should only be used when animals can graze out-
doors or can exercise in an open yard throughout the sum- Animal size Length
mer and have the opportunity for periodic exercise in an Weight H L SL SW
open yard in the winter (ideally every day). (kg) (m) (m) (m) (m)
550 1.35 1.61 1.79 1.15
3.2.2 DIMENSIONS OF TIE STALL ARRANGEMENTS
650 1.40 1.69 1.85 1.20
The length of standing space for the cow is important. A 750 1.44 1.75 1.90 1.25
standing or stall length that provides for all the needs of the
850 1.48 1.80 2.00 1.30
cow for standing, reclining/rising, resting, feeding, drinking
and milking is sometimes referred to as a “short length.”
Longer standings (medium and long standing lengths) appear Dunging and walking passage width (DW)
to offer no advantage to the cow and if not cleaned regu-
larly often also result in dirtier cows. Therefore, this docu- The dunging and walking passage must provide enough
ment recommends, so-called, short stall standing lengths. space for routine tasks (milking, cleaning, help at parturi-
tion) to be easily carried out. In addition there must be
Figure 3.2.2.1 shows a cross section of a short standing tie enough space for individual cows to move out of and into
stall. their standings and for all animals to be driven in and out of
the building. It should correspond to the length of an animal
Solid manger walls (separation between the standing sur- (DW = 1.45 L) and must not be less than 2 m.
face and the feed manger) must not be higher than 32 cm
and not thicker than 12 cm. Flexible manger walls (rubber Rows of stalls
belts) are recommended, because they do not impair the
forward lunge of the cow when rising. They must not be To accommodate different sizes of cows, tie stalls may need
higher than 42 cm and the upper board must not be sharp- to be of different sizes. One might consider the following
edged and should be cut at every stall. options when installing rows of stalls.

All dimensions in chapter 3.2.2 are expressed in metres and For small units, provide:
in terms of the body dimensions L, H & W as defined in Sec-
tion 2.1. • A tapered arrangement, so that the stall length at one
end of the row can accommodate the mean of the 25%
smallest cows in the herd while at the other end the stall
Manger width (MW) length can accommodate the mean of the 25% largest
cows in the herd. The same procedure can be applied to
Value (1) and (2) below show manger width (MW) for animals the widths of stalls provided. This approach is unlikely to
of different body dimensions. An appropriate manger width prove satisfactory if cows and heifers are mixed.
must guarantee that a sufficient fodder supply remains at-
tainable for the animal. For larger units, provide:
MW = 0.60 [For animals up to H = 1.4 +/- 0.05] (1) • Rows of stalls of adjustable length but fixed width.
MW = 0.50 [For animals up to H = 1.3 +/- 0.05] (2)

Figure 3.2.2.1: longitudinal section of a “short standing” tying stall (All dimensions are expressed in cm.).

22
3.2.3 STALL FLOORS AND BEDDING 3.2.4 THE SYSTEMS AND FACILITIES FOR RESTRAINING
THE ANIMALS
Cows need a soft and clean lying area that affords sufficient
grip to prevent the animals from slipping when rising and A number of different tie systems are currently used in prac-
reclining. Thin hard rubber mats (0.02 m thick) without any tice and frequently new or modified designs are developed.
bedding material do not meet these requirements. Sawdust In principle tying devices must:
or shavings are not recommended, because they can cause
skin irritations and lesions. Where above 2.5 kg straw bed- • allow normal rising, standing, lying-down and lying beha-
ding per animal per day is used as the only bedding materi- viour
al, large amounts of straw is often dragged into the dunging • allow normal feeding behaviour
passage. It is then labour intensive and relatively expensive • be non injurious to the animals
to clean every day. • allow the animal freedom of movement whilst preven-
ting it from getting too far into the feed manger and from
Soft foam rubber or plastic mats (“animal comfort mats”) dirtying the lying area
more than 0.03 m thick, should be preferred to convention- • allow movement of at least 600 mm in longitudinal di-
al hard rubber mats. Ground or chopped straw (0.4 – 0.8 rection and 400 mm in transverse direction (parallel to
kg per animal and day) should be spread on every rubber the manger) and offer the animals enough freedom in
mat to keep the lying area drier. Cow mattresses (soft two- vertical line.
layer mattresses or mattresses filled with shredded rubber) • should also reduce agonistic behaviour with the neigh-
were initially developed for cubicles. These designs have bouring cows while feeding.
been successfully used in tie stalls, but hollows/holes can
be created by the cows’ hooves remaining in the same place
for long periods. Mattresses with pre-sown tubes are prefer-
able to systems with loose rubber fill and also more durable
cover materials are recommended in tie stalls.

The stall can also be restricted by a board, pipe or round

timber (bedding retainer) at the back edge and covered by a
mix of straw and other organic material made by the farmer
himself (like a cubicle). Thereby, animals have a comfort-
able bed and only 0.3 kg to 1 kg straw per animal per day
is needed. Further details concerning flooring are described
in Section 3.1 (see 3.1.3.6 The cubicle base). It is impor-
tant to avoid steps which are too high (max. 0.25 m at the
back edge of the standing). If necessary the dunging passage
must be raised. Figure 3.2.4.1: spatial arrangement of neck and head rails,
partitions and water bowls.
The earth bonding of metal meshes (concrete reinforce) is
recommended under the stall and manger areas. This is to The provision of partitions between standings will restrict
eliminate possible stray voltage problems. diagonal standing and lying. Cantilever dividers do not have
a post that extends into the base of the lying area. They
Dunging and walking passages must not be harmful to claws. are the most suitable for animal comfort and for the instal-
They should also provide good traction for the cow when lation of new base and bedding concepts. Partitions should
walking or standing, especially when animals are using them not be higher than 0.7 H and should not exceed a length
e.g. for going to pasture. Dunging passages can either have of 0.42 L (i.e. for cows 0.70 m). Flexible textile-straps are
solid floors and be separated from the lying area by a step preferred for this purpose. They can be fixed from project-
or the gutter can be covered by a grate. As well as being ing metal brackets and can even replace a solid partition.
kinder to the claws, grates must provide a good throughput Figure 3.2.4.2 shows spatial arrangement of partitions.
of dung. The clear distance between bars (“spacing”) should
not exceed 40 mm and the bars should at least have a width
of 25 mm. The surface must be even and free of burs. Grids
with a honeycomb design or metal grids with rubber coating
have a favourable effect for animal claw comfort.

Figure 3.2.4.2: flexible textile strap without solid

Figure 3.2.3.1: design of grates for tie stall housing. partition (Schick, 2000).

23
3.2.5 CALVING AND NURSING BOXES be pushed upwards, e.g by the cow, uncovering the metal
stick (see Figure 3.2.7.2).
Separate calving boxes should also be available in tie stalls.
Additional nursing boxes are recommended. Further design
recommendations are given in chapter 3.10.

3.2.6 WATERING

The absolute minimum requirement is that a water bowl

should be mounted at every second stall division. However,
this means that cows share the water bowls which can be
stressful for submissive cows, can limit their water intake
and reduce milk yield. Therefore the provision of a bowl in
every stall is preferred. Recommended position of the water
bowl is shown in figure 3.2.4.1.

3.2.7 COW TRAINERS

Figure 3.2.7.2: covered cow trainer (AK Milchviehproduk-
Allowing the cow freedom of movement, may result in a tion Voitsberg, 2004)
considerable proportion of faeces being deposited on the
lying area. Maintaining a clean lying area is labour intensive
and requires significant amounts of litter. Otherwise the re- • The “Aktorik” uses a sensor controlled mechanical-pneu-
sult will be a greater probability of dirty animals or infected matical metal bow to force the cow backwards (see Fig-
teats. To prevent this, electric cow trainers, that force the ure 3.2.7.3). The main disadvantage of this system is its
cow backwards as she defecates, are sometimes used. high price.

The use of trainers raises serious welfare concerns and the

following points need careful attention if cows are not to be
unduly stressed:

• the cow trainers must be located very carefully at a mini-

mum height of 50 mm above the withers, when the cow is
in a normal standing position (see Figure 3.2.7.1)
• the trainers must be adjusted to suit each individual ani-
mal in its stall
• the trainers must be switched off whenever the cow is
in heat (oestrus), is calving or when the cow is being
handled in any way
• it is recommended that cow trainers be used, i.e.
switched on, only once a week. It is claimed that this
will not lead to dirtier cows
• special devices (with low discharge energy, time switch,
automatic cut off) must be used. Do not use devices de-
signed for pasture fences.
Figure 3.2.7.3: mechanical-pneumatic system (“Aktorik”).
The use of cow trainers constrains certain behaviours (main-
ly oestrus and grooming behaviour) and limits the move-
ment of cows. Consequently the cow must be provided with 3.3 FEEDERS
regular and substantial opportunities to exercise and the
animals may need to be regularly and thoroughly cleaned 3.3.1 INTRODUCTION
and groomed by the herdsman. In certain countries electric
cow trainers are forbidden. The feeding space is an important part of the building as
it may be used by the animals for between 5 to 9 hours a
Some alternatives to the electric cow trainer has been de- day. Feeding barriers and mangers for cattle should provide
veloped: access to a large volume of feed, prevent bullying and feed
• The covered cow trainer is a form of electric cow trainer wastage and be non-injurious to the animals. Configurations
that is covered by a plastic or wooden cover, which can that do not cause discomfort or injury, while offering maxi-
mum forward reach and limiting sideways reach to reduce
bullying, are the most suitable. When the feeding area is
outside the building it should be protected with a shelter.

3.3.2 NUMBERS OF FEEDING PLACES

Ideally all animals should be able to eat at the same time.

This means that a feeding place should be available per ani-
mal. However, if feed is permanently (day and night) avai-
lable for the animals, up to 2.5 animals per feeding place
can be tolerated. If less places than the number of animals
Figure 3.2.7.1: correct adjustment of an electric cow are available at the feeding barrier, a self locking barrier
trainer. should not be used.

24
3.3.3 GENERAL DIMENSIONS Table 3.3.3.3.1: calculated cattle place lengths for various
sizes of animal
3.3.3.1 Forward reach length
Weight W CS
In order to get additional food, cows will press their shoul- (kg) (cm) (cm)
ders against the feeding barrier, which may cause injuries. 550 50 65
The fodder should be within the normal reach of the ani-
mal (Figure 3.3.3.1.1). The reach depends on the size of 650 55 71
the animals and the configuration of the feeding barrier. 750 60 78
In general, the greater the height difference between the 850 64 83
feeding stance and manger, the greater the reach. However,
to reduce the waste of feed the height difference should be
limited to between 15 and 20 cm. Research has shown that 3.3.3.4 Feed stalls
inclining the barrier by up to 20° towards the manger (i.e.
away from the cow) increases the volume of food within Physical separation between adjacent cows, when they are
reach of the cow whilst reducing the risk of injuries. The at the feed barrier, can reduce competition and aggressive
separation wall between manger and animal should, pre- interactions especially for subordinate cows. This can re-
ferably, be less than 15 cm thick but not more than 20 cm sult in increased dry matter intake. When the floor of the
thick. cow standing is elevated cows are not disturbed by scrap-
ers in the feed stance passage and stand dry and clean du-
ring eating. This will hopefully result in better foot health
(Figure 3.3.3.4.1). Using rubber mats on the cow standing
can also help. The access passage/feed stance should be
wide enough for two cows to pass each other without hin-
drance.

Figure 3.3.3.1.1: reach curve for cows.

3.3.3.2 Crib or feeding table

Cribs limit pushing the fodder out of reach (Figure 3.3.3.2.1).

They should be at least 60 cm deep at a height of 20 cm.
Mangers are more expensive than flat feeding tables and Figure 3.3.3.4.1: feed stall (dimensions in cm).
need more labour to be filled and cleaned. When feeding
silage the concrete should be protected against aggressive 3.3.3.5. Feeding table
silage juice (e.g. polyester or epoxy resin coating).
The width of the feeding tractor passage depends on the
feeding system. However, where feed is delivered to the
trough (manger) using a mixer wagon, the tractor passage
width needs to be at least 4m. Where two feed barriers
face each other (in a building or between two buildings) the
distance between them needs to be at least 5 m to allow
adequate space.

Where the feed will be presented to the cattle using a con-

veyor the ‘tractor’ passage can be limited to the width of
the conveyor. However, where an automatic feeding device
is used, additional space may be needed at the head of the
device to allow for the safe discharge or loading of the fo-
rage on/off the conveyor belt.

3.3.4 FEEDING BARRIER DESIGN

3.3.4.1 Post and rail barrier

Figure 3.3.3.2.1: feeding table and manger.
The withers of cattle are particularly sensitive and prone
3.3.3.3 Feeding space per animal to injury, which means that positioning of the top rail is
crucial. If the height of the top rail is lowered, so the risk of
The spacing between cattle places (CS) is given by the fol- injury increases. Advantages of the rail barrier are low cost
lowing formula: and easy access for cows. Waste of feed and no restrictions
CS = 1.3 W to sideways movement, which may encourage bullying, are
where W = width of chest of the animal the main disadvantages. On this basis a post and rail barrier
should not be recommended for dairy cows. However, if it
Hence the total length of barrier required can be deter- is installed the neck rail must be easy to adjusted. Dimen-
mined. See the table below. sions are given in the figure below.

25
Figure 3.3.4.1.1: post & rail barrier dimensions. The dimen-
sions are only appropriate for dehorned cows. Figure 3.3.4.4.1: dovetail barrier, construction details.

3.3.4.2 Diagonal bar barrier 3.3.4.5 Self locking barrier

This type of barrier forces cattle to angle their heads to Self locking barriers are often preferred because they allow
gain access. The angle of the bars helps prevent food was- cows to be constrained. This constraint offers the following
tage as the animals cannot throw food over their backs and management advantages:
cannot move straight back out of the barrier with food in
their mouths. Sideways movement is limited to some ex- • cows can be held for about 30 minutes after milking
tent, though not equally on both sides. For maximum reach to prevent them from lying down on bedding until the
and minimum feed wastage, the bars should be angled at sphincters of the teats have closed
60°. Dimensions are given below. • cows can be held for observation, veterinary attention,
artificial insemination, during cleaning and maintenance
activities
• wastage of feed, such as hay, is reduced
• feed competition is reduced.

Dimensions of a typical design are given below. The barri-

ers are often mounted vertically, but there would probably
be advantages in inclining the barrier at 20° as for the free
access designs. Noise can be reduced when sliding bars are
supplied with plastic stoppers.
Figure 3.3.4.2.1: diagonal barrier dimensions.

3.3.4.3 Tombstone barrier

The tombstone barrier overcomes problems with bullying by

limiting sideways reach and movement. However, vertical
tombstones limit sideways reach excessively and thus limit
the volume of feed within reach of the animal. Optimum
sideways reach is achieved by splaying the tombstone at an
angle of 7°. The cantilevered design of the tombstone bar-
rier requires a heavy construction. As with the other barri-
ers described, the tombstone should be angled towards the
Figure 3.3.4.5.1: typical self locking barrier.
manger as shown below.

3.3.5 DEVICES FOR MOVING THE FEED

Moving feed automatically to the feeding barrier may help

reduce the labour required to keep sufficient quantities of
food in front of the animals. This may allow more animals
to feed from the same length of the feeding barrier for
more time. Where stock are fed silage in blocks, mechani-
cal beams can be used to gradually push the blocks towards
Figure 3.3.4.3.1: splayed, inclined Tombstone barrier di- the feed barrier and hence the animals. However, there is
mensions. a risk of fermentation in the silage blocks if they are not
consumed quickly enough. So, keeping a limited amount of
3.3.4.4 Dovetail barrier silage in the passage is advisable.

Of the designs discussed here, the dovetail barrier pro- An alternative system (Figure 3.3.5.1), instead of moving
vides the best access to feed without causing injuries or the feed to the feeding barrier, the feeding barrier (and
feed wastage. The splayed partitions prevent bullying while consequently the animals too) moves to the feed. This is
allowing optimum reach and construction is lighter than similar to a self-feeding silo where the feeding gate is often
a cantilevered design. The barrier may be constructed in moved by the animals. However, the lack of height diffe-
wood on site at relatively low cost, or purchased in pre- rence between feeding table and feeding area and the ad-
fabricated steel sections. Dimensions of the dovetail barrier ditional labour for floor cleaning are the main disadvantages
are shown below. of this system.

26
 Figure 3.3.6.1: example of a hay rack with diagonal barrier.

3.3.7 BALE FEEDERS

Large round or rectangular feeders may be used for hay and

silage. The amount of waste food depends on the design of
the feeder. The bottom of the feeder should be closed up to
a height of 40 cm. Angled feed bars or a tombstone barrier
reduce the amount of hay or silage pulled out of the feeder
Figure 3.3.5.1: self-feeding silo with feeding gate moved and wasted. Bale feeders can be easily moved by a tractor
by the animals. and are suited for use in paddocks and pastureland.

For more conventional systems i.e. a forage wagon, an au-

tomatic ‘butler’ machine can be used several times a day
along the feeding barrier to push the silage up to the barrier
and even distribute supplementary feed. Another automat-
ed system is illustrated in figure 3.3.5.2. Here a flexible mat
is fixed to the front of the feed barrier and feed placed on
it. The mat is then raised to keep feed in front of the stock
at all times.

Figure 3.3.7.1: an example of mobile bale feeder.

3.3.8 CONCENTRATE FEEDERS

Milking cows need additional nutrients which are not, or

cannot, be supplied exclusively through feeding forages.
Traditionally cows are fed concentrates in the milking
Figure 3.3.5.2: a flexible feed pushing system (Schick, parlour, but, for physiological reasons large quantities of
2000). concentrates cannot be consumed in sufficient quantities
in the relative short milking time. Therefore, feeder sta-
3.3.6 HAY RACKS tions, out-of-parlour-feeders (OOPF’s), are used where the
concentrates can be easily and safely accessed by the cows
A hay rack normally consists of two main compartments: throughout the day. The animals are identified by an elec-
one in which the hay is placed and one into which the ani- tronic device (transponder), sometimes fixed around their
mal pulls the hay before eating. Vertical bars spaced at 14 necks, as they enter the computer controlled individual
to 18 cm apart separate the two compartments. A manger feeders and it dispenses part of their daily ration, if they
at the base of the eating compartment collects hay dropped are due to have some concentrates. The recommended
by the animal avoiding feed losses. The cattle gain access number of animals per station is about 25 – 30. There are
to the feeding compartment through a feed barrier. Because several commercial models available, but to protect a cow
the sloping base of the hay compartment ensures that the using a feeder against aggressions the feeder should have a
hay always falls against the vertical bars forward reach is self closing rear gate or a front exit. Unfortunately OOPF’s
not a limiting factor. Consequently, there is no need for the are costly, so, in some cases farmers incorporate the con-
barrier to be inclined. Any of the barrier designs discussed centrate in a total mixed ration (TMR) rather than use con-
above may be used. A typical design is shown below. centrate feeders.

27
 However, Meyer (2004), calculates water requirement as
a function of milk production, ambient temperature and
weight of the animal, according to the following formula:
Water intake (kg/day) = -26.12 + 1.516 * average ambient
temperature (°C) + 1.299 * milk production (kg/day) + 0.058
* body weight (kg) + 0.406 * Na intake (g/day).

Calculations using this equation show that a cow producing

40 kg of milk per day at temperatures above 25°C result in
a water requirement of over 100 litres per day.

Figure 3.3.8.1: concentrate feeder.

3.4 DRINKERS

3.4.1 INTRODUCTION

Water is very important for dairy cows and lack of water

will significantly affect milk production, particularly in high
yielding cows producing 10,000 litres or more per lacta-
tion. Consequently, good quality water must be provided
via adequate, reliable and readily accessible drinking facili-
ties. The following gives guidance as to how this might be Figure 3.4.2.2: water requirement as a function of milk
achieved. production and ambient temperature (weight of the cow:
650 kg) [Meyer, 2004].
3.4.2 DRINKING WATER REQUIREMENTS

Every day, a dairy cow drinks large quantities of water. How 3.4.3 POSITION OF THE HEAD AND COW BEHAVIOUR
much she drinks depends on various factors such as milk
production, average dry-matter content of the feed, stage When a cow is drinking naturally (watering place), its muz-
of lactation and ambient temperature. Castle and Thomas zle is inserted at between 30 mm and 40 mm into the water
(1975) assume that two of these factors, milk production and its head is inclined at an angle of between 55° and
and dry-matter content of the feed, play a dominant role 75° (Boxberger, 1975) (see Figure 3.4.3.1). This is because
in determining water intake. They developed the following bovines are suction drinkers: there should be no influx of
formula for predicting water requirements (Figure 3.4.2.1): air during the drinking process, and the nostrils must at the
y = 2.53x1 + 0.45x2 - 15.3 (± 8.31) same time remain free. A minimum water depth of 0.60 –
0.80 m should therefore be adhered to. About 10 litres of
where y = water requirement kg/day water are consumed in each drinking event, which lasts one
x1 = milk production kg/day to two minutes. However, in a natural position, a cow can
x2 = dry-matter content of feed % drink between 18 and 25 litres (max. 25, ALB Bayern 2000)
of water per minute. Metzner (1978) suggests that in order
Calculations using the equation shows that a cow producing for a cow to drink naturally from a drinker (trough or bowl),
25 kg of milk per day and being given feed containing 40% a water surface area of 0.06 m²/cow should be allowed.
dry matter has a daily water requirement of approximately
66 kg.

Figure 3.4.3.1: position of the head during drinking.

Tests recording the behaviour during drinking showed that

a trough height of 0.60 m and dimensions of 1.39 m x 0.95
m led to markedly longer use of the trough (27.3 sec) with
a higher consumption per drinking event than in the case
Figure 3.4.2.1: water requirement as a function of milk
of a smaller trough placed lower down (1.26 x 0.68 m at
production and dry matter content of feed [Castle and
0.30 m) (Pinheiro, 2004). This also resulted in a higher total
Thomas, 1975].
consumption per day (80 litres, grazing and 17% dry-matter
content in pasture forage). Cows prefer to drink from a
trough, rather than from flowing water or a bowl.

28
3.4.4 WATER QUALITY Troughs should provide the cows with a water level at a
height of 0.61 H (normally about 0.85 m) above the floor.
Water has a certain smell, colour and taste. Although sub- The water level should be between 0.07 m – 0.08 m (Alb-
jective, these measures can give a good indication of the Bayern, 2000) below the top of the trough, to avoid exces-
quality of drinking water. A more accurate assessment of sive spillage and splashing of adjacent areas.
water quality requires the measurement of certain physical,
chemical and bacteriological parameters, e.g. suspended In all cases the water trough should have a water stop valve
solids, pH and biochemical oxygen demand. so that it can be easily emptied, cleaned and maintained.
Troughs with a tipping mechanism facilitating cleaning are
The design and maintenance of drinkers will affect the qual- ideal.
ity of the water. The water in the drinkers may become pol-
luted with faeces, urine, feed, detritus, algae and other To reduce soiling of water troughs, a guard rail (distance
organisms that will reduce water quality. Troughs and/or barrier) or step may be used. These and other features are
water bowls should be designed so they can be easily emp- illustrated in Figure 3.4.5.1.1.
tied and cleaned on a regular basis. The functioning and
cleanliness of watering facilities should be checked daily. 3.4.5.2 Water Bowls

About water temperature: cows prefer (drink most water) Bowl type drinkers should provide a minimum surface area
when the water temperature was +17°C (Andersson, 1984). of 0.06 m² and a water inlet flow rate of 10 litres/minute.
With water temperatures less than +10°C, the cows yield The inlet flow rate should not be restricted by the water
0.8 kg less milk per day (Himmel, 1964). Therefore, the supply pipework, or inlet nozzle.
ideal temperature for drinking water is between 10°C and
20°C. In tied housing stalls, water bowls should be located so that
the water level in bowls is at a height of 0.55 H above the
3.4.5 DRINKING FACILITIES – GENERAL REQUIREMENTS floor. This drinking facility is not recommended for loose
housing.
Any drinker (trough or bowl) should:
Certain drinkers are available, which are a compromise be-
• be easily accessible tween water bowls and water troughs. Typically they have
• be of the correct size a large surface area and the inlet flow rate may be up to
• provide water at the correct height 20 litres/minute. These drinkers, however, may have some
• allow each animal to consume water at a minimum rate disadvantages that need to be considered when selecting
of 10 litres/min them, e.g. the water may be too shallow or the water flow
• limit water movement so that cows do not gulp air in- may appear too turbulent at high inflow rates.
stead of water.
• be designed so as to prevent fouling with faeces 3.4.5.3 “Ball drinker”
• be easy to clean.
Description:
3.4.5.1 Water troughs
The principle is always the same with different variations.
For loose housing systems, water troughs with a minimum The drinker sits in an insulated tank with water level regula-
usable capacity of about 150 - 200 litres are recommended. tor inside (ball cock). The drinking cow can access the water
The large quantity of water held in the troughs will allow through an opening, closed with a ball or a cap.
the animals to drink quickly. Even if the water supply flow
rate is low, this size of trough will allow cows that may con- Advantages:
sume up to 20 litres water/minute to drink regularly. A wa-
ter trough 2.5 m long, 0.4 m wide and 0.4 m deep should • frost-proof and mechanically simple construction
be sufficient to satisfy the water requirements of 25 cows. • little maintenance required
Per cow, a trough length of 0.05 m (winter) and 0.10 m • mostly used in pastures.
(summer) is suggested. There should always be two troughs
available per group of animals, regardless of the size of the Disadvantages:
group, since, in certain circumstances, a dominant cow may
occupy one of the troughs for a fairly long time. • hygienically unsatisfactory: the state of cleanliness and
difficult to clean
• balls have to be pushed aside. For younger or weaker
animals this can be a problem. Access can be restricted
in freezing conditions.

3.4.6 FREEZING

To prevent freezing, the water supply system and drinker

should be protected from frost. This may be done in a va-
riety of ways, some of which might provide the additional
benefit of making water available to the cows at a prede-
termined temperature. To frost-proof underground supply
pipes, depending on climatic zone, they should be laid at
approximately 0.8 m - 1.2 m deep.

Figure 3.4.5.1.1: cross section of a water through with a Passive systems using, for example, ground heat (see Figure
distance barrier (or alternatively with a step). 3.4.6.1) might be appropriate in some climates. In others,

29
heating systems using electricity, gas or some other fuel
input will be necessary. Ball drinkers are frost-proof and
hence often used in outdoor situation.

Among the heating systems that might be used to give frost

protection are:

• low voltage direct electric heating of the water in the

drinker
• low voltage electric wrap-around heating of supply pipes,
valves and the body of the drinker
• continuous circulation of heated water through the drin- Figure 3.4.7.1: position of a trough in a passage.
ker/drinkers.

In a housing system with both bedded and un-bedded (solid

or slatted) floor areas, drinkers should be placed over the
un-bedded area. This will avoid wetting of the bedding due
to spillage or splashing (see Figure 3.4.7.2).

Section
Plan

Figure 3.4.7.2: trough in a housing system with littered/

Figure 3.4.6.1: cross section of a anti-frost water trough. bedded area.

3.4.7 ACCESS/LOCATION OF DRINKERS 3.4.8 NUMBER OF BOWLS/DRINKERS

Troughs 2.00 m to 2.50 m in length and 0.40 m to 0.45 m in The number of water bowls provided should be equivalent
width should be located in passages at least 3.50 m wide. to 15% of the number of dairy cows, i.e. approximately one
When several cows are drinking at the same time this will bowl for every 7 cows. Even in a small herd this can mean
allow sufficient space for other animals to pass behind them that a large number of water bowls are required, e.g. 9
(see Figure 3.4.7.1 and Section 3.4.7.1). bowls for 60 cows, and it might be difficult to place all
bowls in a satisfactory location.

3.4.9 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

See Table 3.4.9.1.

Table 3.4.9.1: a ready reckoner for water flow by different

pipes dimensions

Dimension Maximum water flow rate (litre/min)*

Standard Plastic pipes Pipe length (m)
steel (polyethylene) 10 20 30 40 50 60
pipe size D (mm)
(inch)** Pipe material
GS P GS P GS P GS P GS P GS P
0.5 “ 20 21 33 16 23 14 18 11 15 10 14 9 12
0.75 “ 25 43 60 36 40 28 33 24 27 23 24 21 23
1“ 32 96 114 66 78 57 66 45 51 42 48 39 45
1.25 “ 40 195 204 144 144 120 114 96 96 90 84 84 84
1.5 “ 50 300 375 210 258 180 210 150 174 132 156 129 150
2“ 63 510 660 420 480 330 390 285 330 270 300 240 270

D = outer diameter **Internal diameter

GS = galvanized steel ***External diameter
P = plastic pipes
*Initial water pressure 300 kPa, 50 – 70 kPa pressure drop Example: 32 mm external diameter polyethylene (plastic)
in the pipe pipe of 40 m length gives 51 litre/min.

30
3.5 FLOORING a non-slip surface, regulations for water protection, the
method of cleaning to be used, whether bedding material
3.5.1 INTRODUCTION is available etc. The aggressive nature of the environment
imposed on the floor surface resulting from the chemical
Floor surface provides interface between animal and house composition of manure and feed residues necessitates ex-
and it is of critical importance to the satisfactory perfor- tra demands on the quality of materials used. In addition
mance of the facility as it is the part of the building with the mechanical impact of cleaning systems can place extra
which the animal comes into closest and continuous con- loadings of the structure. In response to the special struc-
tact. Floors are multifunctional elements and this can lead tural demands placed of floor systems several countries
to some compromises in their design. have developed national standards for the specification of
floor construction for use in cattle housing. These standards
The floor must be strong enough to support all the loads cover issues such as structural detailing and construction
from animals and equipment where applicable. Inadequate practice, reinforcement specification and concrete quality.
flooring in walking areas can lead to claw and leg disorders,
which is very common, and disturbed natural behaviour by 3.5.4 ANIMAL FLOOR INTERFACE
the cow. Surfaces that are too rough can cause abrasions
and a rapid wear of animal claws. A surface, which is too Many ailments in animals are multi-factorial in nature and
slippery or which has too large a slope, can cause injury re- the floor can be considered to be amongst the most usual
sulting from falling or reduce the frequency of animal move- factor contributing to problems with the health of the feet
ment so affecting natural behaviour and locomotion. Hard and legs of dairy cattle.
floors can contribute to joint or claw illness like laminitis.
In case of slatted floors the gap width should be limited to Flooring contributes directly, through its physical proper-
prevent claw damage. However, efficient drainage will re- ties, or indirectly, for example, by allowing (because of
quire minimum gap dimensions. Additionally, unsatisfactory poor cleanness) disease vectors to be harboured on the floor
hygiene, owing to dirty and wet floor surfaces, can result in surface. Claw disorders in cattle have been linked with the
increased incidence of diseases like mastitis and infectious frequency of contact with faeces and urine, and the floor’s
digital dermatitis. Consequently, from the animal point of ability to cause injury through damage to, or destruction of,
view the floorings should: the physical structure of tissue. Additionally, bone, muscle
and ligament damage can be caused by the animal slipping.
• give an appropriate grip but must not be too abrasive
• be sufficiently soft but not too hard These effects will be primarily related to the important
• be kept clean and dry. floor characterises of:

Other factors, such as environmental policies, must also • slip resistance (friction, or slipperiness)
be considered e.g. the need to control ammonia emissions • hardness (or softness)
from livestock houses is influencing new floor designs in • abrasiveness
some countries. • surface texture (roughness and grooves/pattern)
• surface profile (slope or gradient).
3.5.2 FLOORING SYSTEMS
3.5.4.1 Slip resistance
Different functional areas can be identified in animal ac-
commodation facilities which include feeding areas, resting The slip resistance is a function of the friction between the
areas and cattle traffic routes. Specific floor designs may be claw and floor surface. Friction coefficient is a number be-
selected for these different functional areas, e.g. passages tween zero and one, and describes the degree of resistance
with a slatted concrete floor, a rubber mat covered solid to solid bodies to slide over each other, the greater the fric-
floor in feeding and collecting areas combined with mat- tion coefficient the greater the slip resistance. The required
tresses in cubicles or sand or straw bedded resting areas. coefficient of friction (i.e. to prevent slipping) for moving
cows is dependent on the cow behaviour; i.e. if the animal
Of the solid floors, those constructed of concrete are is walking straight ahead, turning, fleeing (accelerating) or
the most common with solid walking area floors typically stopping (decelerating) etc, as well as starting from a stan-
cleaned by mechanical or vehicle scrapers; or in some re- ding position. The maximum required coefficient of fric-
gions and countries, combined with a flushing system. Mas- tion, at the push-off stance phase, ranges from 0.3 to 0.85
tic asphalt is sometimes used as a concrete floor coating. for various situations (van der Tol et al., 2005). In walking
Rubber mats on slatted or solid concrete floors are becom- areas, coefficient of friction of about 0.40 is recommended
ing a more common walking area surface-floor combination. for dry and clean concrete floors, in order to avoid excessive
Pre-cast concrete slats, above a slurry pit or channel, are surface abrasiveness. For non-abrasive materials (e.g. soft
the most common type of suspended floor design, but pre- floors such as rubber floors), a greater coefficient, up to 0.8
cast solid concrete elements, grooved or not, are in use or more, is advisable.
as well. Sometimes mechanical scrapers or cleaning robots
are used on slatted floors in order to improve floor cleanli- A coefficient of friction on concrete floors within this range
ness. Clean flooring in walkways along cubicles improves the 0.35 to 0.45 is hard to achieve under practical conditions;
cleanliness in the cubicles as well, resulting in lower udder the real slip resistance will be dependent on several fac-
and teat contamination, which may enhance milk quality tors such as the slurry coating on the floor and wearing of
and reduce mastitis occurrences. the floor material caused, over time, by grinding and po-
lishing action of mechanical cleaning equipment and animal
3.5.3 STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS movements. Unfortunately, solid hard floors, such as con-
crete or mastic asphalt, where slurry is frequently scraped,
When specifying floors for dairy cow houses the designer particularly during dry and warm weather conditions, can
must take into account a range of factors e.g. the loadings become very slippery because of dried slurry on the floor
imposed by animals and equipment, the ability to provide surface. In spite of this, frequent scraping i.e. at least five

31
or six times a day, particularly where automatic scrapers infectious digital disorders can be reduced and behaviour
are used, is generally recommended because scraping les- can be improved where cows are accommodated on softer
sens the reduction of the coefficient of friction caused by surfaces. Covering slats and solid hard floors with materials
surface slurry build-up as well as enhancing hygiene and re- that provide a soft contact surface, such as resilient rubber
ducing ammonia emission. When using mechanical scrapers mats or coatings, can improve the animals natural beha-
it is recommended to use plastic or rubber blades to help viour and welfare, and may result in increased profitability.
prevent excessive smoothing of the floor surface. Slatted floors, especially hard floors with great void ratios
and wide gaps, can increase the pressure on the feet caus-
The coefficient of friction measured in a particular place ing claw injuries.
will depend on the method of measuring. One type of fric-
tion measuring device often used is a skid resistant test- 3.5.4.4 Surface texture – Roughness
er (SRT), which can only be used with reliability on hard
flooring and not on soft flooring such as rubber. The recom- Surface texture of floors is a complex measure that dictates
mended walking area SRT value, for clean and wet concrete its anti-skid performance and includes micro-roughness as
floors, should be in the range 55 to 65. well as macro-roughness.
Practically, an adequate passageway concrete surface finish Micro-roughness provides a safe frictional connection be-
can be obtained by light brushing of the hardening concrete tween the claw and the surface. It is reduced over time but
surface. these effects can be counteracted by using concretes with
greater strength incorporating course and fine aggregates,
Old concrete floors, both solid and slatted, that have be- as well as by applying ‘shake-on’ toppings of crushed aggre-
come slippery can be reconditioned to provide better slip gates that are resistant to polishing.
resistance. Depending on the type of floor, different tech-
niques can be used; such as acid etching, blasting, bush ham- Adequate roughness is necessary to establish a safe fric-
mering, routing (strip milling), grooving and floor covering tional connection between the claws and the floor when the
(e.g. rubber). The end result, durability and cost-benefit, surface is soiled or wet. On smooth wet surfaces, a film of
vary depending on the method used and workmanship. In liquid (slurry or water) may lie on the surface and the claw
general for solid floors, routing, grooving and covering are cannot come into contact with the floor so slipping occurs.
preferable when trying to improve the slip resistance and These effects are analogous with smooth tyres and aqua-
long term durability of the surface. When routing, creating planing in a motor car. If the surface has a texture or dense
3 mm deep grooves, maximum, is recommended. Grooving grooves that allow this liquid film to be squeezed away, ra-
does not improve friction of the surface between grooves, pidly, then the claw will come into contact with the floor
but can help the claw to get grip, in particular when a before a slip occurs. This is analogous to the tread in a car
foot is sliding. Furthermore, grooving will last longer. Floor tyre.
covering with rubber (mats) can be recommended because
this will enhance slip resistance and give a soft floor. Unfor-
tunately rubber is relatively expensive. However, particu- 3.5.4.5 Surface profile – Slope or gradient of the floor
larly in herds with claw disorders, the benefit can be consi-
derable. Polyurethane or epoxy resin floor coverings should Slope will have an obvious effect on drainage from the floor,
not be used where mechanical scrapers are used. on floor cleanliness and on the comfort of animals standing,
walking and lying. Steep slopes will obviously allow liquids
3.5.4.2 Abrasiveness to drain rapidly and might prove an aid to cleanliness, by
ensuring that soiled bedding “flows” down the slope. How-
All floors made of conventional materials will be abrasive to ever animals may not be able to stand, walk or lie comfor-
some extent. Indeed for most hoofed animals, floors need to tably on steep slopes.
be abrasive to some extent to keep the claw in good condi-
tion and prevent over growth. On the other hand, floors that Floor slopes in passageways should not exceed 1:40 (2.5 %).
In pens where animals are lying the slope used will depend
are too abrasive can lead to unnatural shape of the claws
on the type of bedding and manure management system uti-
and abrasion injuries to those parts of the body that come
lised. Sloped floor systems, which rely on the movement of
into contact with the floor e.g. in walking areas the claws,
animals to transfer soiled bedding to the manure collection
in resting areas knees, hocks and teats.
area, are not recommended for dairy cows. However, for
young stock, sloped floor systems can be used and slopes
Within reason, the cattle have the ability to adapt to the
of between 8% and 10% are required; the greater slope is
rate of claw wear, the more wearing the more the claw
recommended when the pen is more than 5 m deep (i.e.
grows and vice versa. Clearly problems will occur where
distance parallel with the slope). In facilities where straw
claw growth does not keep pace with claw wear. Converse-
remains in the pen, a slope of 1:20 (5%) will ensure excess
ly, where claw wear is low, regular foot trimming will be liquid is drained to appropriate channels.
required. Too much wear may also cause lameness and the
animal may prove harder to handle. It is also likely that Slats or slat units at different levels can cause excessive
there will be different wear rates when cattle are moved point forces on the animal’s sole. Therefore, it is important
from housing to grazing, and back again. that individual slats or slats cast in groups are placed evenly
and level. This is achieved more easily with slats cast in
3.5.4.3 Hardness groups, so this form of slat construction is preferred.

The hardness of floor materials may be unavoidable if they

are to perform functions such as load bearing, resistance to
corrosion and damage, while being practical and economic
in use. However, cattle prefer to stand and walk on softer
surfaces rather than concrete floors. The incidence of non-

32
3.5.4.6 Cleanliness, health and ammonia emission 3.5.5.1.1 Grooves

Proper liquid drainage and cleaning management of walking In order to provide slip resistance for cattle walking in all
areas is of considerable importance for good hygiene and, directions, grooves can be formed in the solid concrete.
indirectly, for good claw and udder health. It is also a way For instance a diamond pattern at an angle of 60/120 de-
of reducing ammonia emissions from walking areas. Other grees (shown below) with grooves 10 mm wide and at least
methods that can be employed to reduce ammonia emis- 6 mm deep with a distance of 80 mm apart, can grasp the
sion are: claw when sliding or it is about to slide. On the other hand,
grooves can make the floor surface cleaning by scrapers more
• Liquid draining floors, e.g. solid floor sloped toward ap- difficult. Preferably, the grooves should be cut or milled in
propriate channels, “Dutch grooved floor system” (see cast-in-situ concrete when the concrete has hardened. The
Section 3.5.5.5) grooves should not exhibit sharp edged transitions.
• Scraping passages, with solid as well as slatted floors, as
least five or six times a day
• Washing down the floors with water (efficient but expen-
sive)
• Remove the slurry frequently from the channel under-
neath suspended floors
• Chill the slurry in slurry tanks and channels
• Adding acid (e.g. sulphuric acid) to the slurry pit

3.5.5 FLOOR MATERIALS AND FLOOR TYPES

All materials used in the construction of floors should be

non-toxic to cattle and be resistant to, or protected against:
• chemical attack and deterioration
• climatic conditions, e.g. extremes of temperature, frost,
solar radiation
• effects of pressure washers, etc. Figure 3.5.5.1.1.1: grooves in diamond pattern.
• effects of gnawing, digging or other animal behaviours.
Making impressions in fresh concrete will often lead to irre-
3.5.5.1 Solid concrete floors gularities, burrs and a convex surface between the grooves,
which increase the risk for claw injuries and digital disor-
Concrete used for floors in cattle houses must be designed ders and are not recommended.
to cope with the loads imposed by the animals and vehicles
that are used during feeding and cleaning operations. The 3.5.5.2 Mastic asphalt floors
surfaces must be resistant to mechanical damage (abrasion,
chipping etc.) and chemical attack (manure, feed residues, Asphalt is a mixture of bitumen and ballast (coarse material
cleaning chemicals and disinfectants). The floor must pro- and aggregate of different particle size). Mastic asphalt is
vide an impermeable barrier to ensure the safe collection of a type of asphalt where the aggregate is enclosed entirely
any effluents produced. in the bitumen, resulting in a pore-free and impermeable
flooring. The skid resistance of mastic asphalt is long lasting
There are various national standards regarding the when compared with concrete surfaces and performs well in
specification of concretes for use in the floors of cattle clean and damp conditions.
buildings. The standards usually have different specifica-
tions due to floor load and areas; such as feeding area, Mastic asphalt does not require any compaction and can be
walking areas and lying areas. Adequate concrete quality use on different function areas, such as stalls and passage-
in feeding (including construction of the feeding table) and ways. In loose housing systems the use is normally in walking
walking areas, is 28 day cube strength of 40 MPa and water/ areas. It can be used in new as well as in old buildings with
cement ratio of the fresh concrete less than 0.50. In laying existing worn concrete floors. However, on mastic asphalt
areas, e.g. in cubicles, the concrete quality can sometimes floors, increased abrasion of claws can occur with increasing
be less, for instance a cube strength of 30 MPa and water/ floor age. Do not use mastic asphalt floors in external, open,
cement ratio of 0.55. sunny positions or in hot climates.

Where the concrete may come in contact with silage efflu- Normally, mastic asphalt floors are cast onto a solid con-
ent, aggregate should be crystalline and contain no lime- crete floor with a specific glass-fibre fabric in between.
stone. For constructions that may be exposed to frost, e.g. The asphalt layer is usually 30 mm thick, with a maxi-
in uninsulated buildings in a severe climate, the percen- mum aggregate size of 8 mm. The material used should
tage of air entrained in the fresh concrete should typically be acid resistant and lime free ballast. Bitumen content
be 6 %. The concrete floor should be provided with mesh, and type i.e. viscosity can vary. In a cold environment the
or equivalent, reinforcement and appropriate movement viscosity should be greater than in a warm environment to
joints (expansion and contraction) in accordance with na- avoid cracking. Also, using a hard polymer modified bitu-
tional standards. Floors in areas used by vehicles should not men, type E, increases the chemical stability. A grain size
be less than 150 mm thick. Where access is limited to ani- of 2/4 is recommended when used with crushed aggregates
mals alone, this can be reduced to 100 mm minimum, but with added round aggregates (approximately 20 %). A sur-
this would not be a general recommendation as the use of face finish of round-granular sand (sea or natural sand) with
the floor may change. grain size 0.4-0.8 mm can be floated on it. Mastic asphalt
flooring can be made without any joints even when large
floor areas are required. However, because of shrinkage
during cooling, the use of hot-poured liquid sealants at the

33
joints with building elements, fittings and fixtures is recom- The definition of the terms used in the table are:
mended. The application of hot mastic asphalt is a skilled
operation and specialist contractors should be employed. Preferred Width (I) the width of a single slat or solid por-
tion between voids in multi-rib slats (a
3.5.5.3 Rubber floors panel consisting of parallel slats).
Spacing (S) the clear distance between solid por-
To improve the animal floor interface (see Section 3.5.4.3), tions of slats. The minimum and
and to get appropriate slip resistance, resilient rubber can maximum figures in the range shown,
be used as surface material in the form of mats or as a indicated the shortest and longest dis-
coating. When assembling, the possibility of expansion due tances (measured across any shape of
to temperature differences should be considered. To avoid void).
animals in loose housing systems lying down in passages, the Void Ratio (%) the unobstructed floor area through
resting area should be more comfortable than the passages, which waste can pass expressed as a
e.g. the mats in passageways should be harder than mats percentage of the total floor area.
or mattresses in the cubicles. There are specific mats for
walking areas on the market, both for solid and for slatted
floors. Besides cubicles, it is possible to use rubber floors With regard to lactating dairy cows (i.e. increased excreta
in areas such as passages to the milking parlour, collecting water content) the spacing between the slats is the most
yard, holding lanes and feeding areas. However, using more important parameter to increase the drainage capacity.
abrasive floor materials elsewhere, for instance, in outdoor In the table, a spacing of between 25 – 35 mm is recom-
exercise yard or in cubicle passages, may prevent potential mended, the greater the void ratio the better the drainage
problems with claw over growth. Nowadays, mats of rubber capacity. However, in respect of the animal floor interface,
mixed with wearing material enhancing claw wear are com- the smaller the spacing the better it is for animal claw com-
mercially available. Note: where a manure scraper is used fort. This means at the chosen void ratio both narrow slats
on resilient rubber floors it must be modified to reduce wear and slots are preferred. For instance at chosen void ratio of
and damage. 25 % (excluding bridges of slatted floor elements) for large
drainage capacity, a rib/gap ratio of 90/30 mm is preferred
3.5.5.4 Slatted floors to a rib/gap ratio of 120/40 mm. In the case of young stock
and dry cows, or when using a lot of bedding materials in
Slat design has improved over time, with modern facilities resting areas, both the void ratio and the spacing have si-
using multi-rib or “gang” slats rather than the single or gnificant influence on the drainage capacity.
twin slats that were used in the past. The resulting floors
are more uniformly level and potentially provide a better It is an increasingly frequent practice to use mechanical
surface in terms of comfort for the animal. The length of scrapers on slatted floors, in particular in passages between
slatted elements provided by manufacturers has increased cubicles. In such cases the dimensions of the slatted floor
over time and units are now available up to 4.8 m or longer. should be different to those shown in the table, i.e. wider
There are variations within the range of slat types produced ribs, smaller spacing and lower void ratio. In order to avoid
by different manufacturers in terms of gap dimension and problems with the manure scraper, the scraper blades are
void ratio and this will also influence the comfort aspect of usually diagonal (5o) relative to the slots.
the animal floor interface, as well as the drainage charac-
teristics and eventual cleanliness of the animal. The later is The use of fully slatted concrete floors for certain animals
also influenced by feed type and the ventilation system used is restricted or not recommended in some animal welfare
in the building. The table below shows the recommended codes, e.g. totally slatted floors should not be used for cal-
dimensions for dairy cattle floors. ving cows, cows with young calves or calves of less than 4
weeks of age.
Table 3.5.5.4.1: recommended dimensions of slatted floors
(without scrapers) for dairy cattle. Note the preferred void
ratio is valid for single slats or for elements when calcula- 3.5.5.5 Dutch grooved floor system
ting the areas between beams as slots. When including the
bridges as solid, the preferred void-ratio should be reduced Concerns regarding the emission of ammonia from cattle
by about one fifth (minus 20%, i.e. preferred void ratio is buildings have led to the development of some novel floor
effectively reduced to 15 - 20 %) systems. One such design - “grooved floor system” has been
developed in The Netherlands and is used at present for
walking areas in dairy cow facilities. The grooved floor sys-
Type of animal Preferred Preferred Preferred
tem consists of solid, level pre-cast concrete elements co-
width (I) spacing (S) void ratio
vering a manure pit. The floor is scraped with a mechanical
(mm) (mm) (%)
scraper. The top surface of the floor consists of a series of
Calves and young 70-120 20-25 18-25 parallel grooves 35 mm wide and 30 mm deep and placed at
stock < 400 kg 160 mm centre to centre. The width of the solid flat area
Heifers and cows 80-160 25-35 18-25 (i.e. area between the grooves) is 125 mm which is similar
> 400 kg to the rib width of a slatted floor. The floor elements are 1.1
m long and the adjacent edges of the abutted elements are
tapered which forms a self-discharging perforation at the
base of the grooves for the urine deposited on the floor (to-
tal area of perforations is < 0.5% of floor area). Faeces are
removed by a mechanical scraper to an opening at the end
of the passageway. To ensure the grooves remain clean and
to prevent the perforations becoming clogged, the blade

34
of the scraper is fitted with a tooth shaped rubber strip. Cows are observed during milking. Information needed for
However, the Dutch grooved floor system does not improve management may be collected by visual observations or
the animal floor interface when compared with scraped electronic devices. Cows may be sorted for various purposes
traditional slatted concrete floors. Pre-fabricated rubber before milking or as they leave the parlour. Handling and
coating between the grooves instead of concrete is however treatment facilities may be provided. Auxiliary areas in the
a development used, for example, in Denmark in order to milking centre may be dedicated to a variety of uses. In
provide a softer footing. fact, the milking centre is the major management hub of
the dairy farm and plays an important role in implementing
the farm management programme.

Consequently, decisions related to milking centre layout

and construction are more than just decisions related to
milking parlour selection and design. In fact, a milking cen-
tre is an integral component of the facilities on a dairy farm
and is a key element in the buildings and equipment, which
comprise the tools that allow the dairy farmer to carry out
the essential aspects of a management plan and to provide
an animal-friendly environment. Thorough planning is es-
sential to ensure that all the components are workable and
economically feasible and that they contribute to the man-
agement plan of the farm. Of special interest is the correct
position of a milking installation in the building, assuring
easy handling of equipment, efficient flows and fast but
quiet cow traffic.

Figure 3.5.5.5.1: dutch grooved floor system. As tied stall housing is greatly declining in significance, par-
ticularly in the case of new buildings, the building require-
ments for milking in them will not be discussed here.

3.5.5.6 Floor material comparisons 3.6.2 ELEMENTS OF A MILKING FACILITY

All floor materials have different advantages and disadvan- A milking centre is a complex facility comprising vari-
tages and when decision making, weighing the pros and cons ous components that have to interact efficiently. Smooth
of each can be difficult. Hence the table below may help operation depends on correct layout, sizing and arrange-
when selecting appropriate floor materials and the resulting ment (Figure 3.6.2.1):
characteristics.
• collecting yard
Table 3.5.5.6.1: relative estimate of floor material char- • entrance, pre-selection (AMS) and identification
acteristics • milking facility:
- milking parlour
- cleaning facilities
Slip Softness Abrasive- Durability - mechanical equipment (vacuum pump, etc.)
resistance ness • exit, possibly with post-selection, additional facilities
Concrete * ** **** (weighing, footbath)
• selection and treatment area (vet, calving, etc.): crush,
Mastic *** *** ***
management rail
asphalt
• working chutes
Rubber **** **** * • office with herd management
• annex rooms (equipment e.g. vacuum pump, storage,
toilet, etc.)
The more *’s, the greater the degree of the particular cha- • milk room (bulk tank, cleaning facilities)
racteristic. Maximum is five *’s. None of them means princi-
pally no degree at all of the particular characteristic.

3.6 MILKING FACILITIES

3.6.1 INTRODUCTION

A milking centre consists of a milking parlour, for the milking

operation; a collecting yard, to assemble the group of cows
to be milked; and areas dedicated to other equipment, per-
sonnel needs and environmental control. A milking parlour
is the primary component of the milking centre. Animal wel-
fare, elimination of interruptions to work and unergonomic
working positions, as well as faster milking while maintain-
ing milk quality, are major issues.
Figure 3.6.2.1: schematic view of the components of a
But a milking centre is more than just a place to milk cows. milking centre.

35
3.6.3 MILKING PARLOURS 3.6.3.4 Parallel (side by side) stalls

The milking parlour type and size is important, not only in

the context of the overall farm operation, but also in the
design and layout of the milking centre.

3.6.3.1 Individual stalls (tandem parlour, auto tandem par-

lour)

Side-opening parlours have the advantage of individual

cow handling and high performance per milking point. Parallel parlours are a more recent introduction, ranging
However, there is a greater distance between udders com- in size from double 6 to double 40 and larger. Cows stand
pared with the herringbone or parallel parlour. This is an parallel to each other i.e. at 90° to the operator’s pit, re-
important consideration in more mechanized parlours. As quiring the operator to attach teat cups from the rear by
mechanization is added to a parlour, more stalls are needed reaching between the hind legs. Cows are physically sepa-
in the parlour to keep the operator and the equipment busy, rated from one another by dividers, actuated as individual
resulting in an excessively long pit. Automating the entry cows enter. The advantage of the side by side parlour is the
and exit system (auto tandem), thus making work easier for rapid exit. However, as with herringbone stalls, a slow milk-
the operator and boosting milking efficiency, is possible but ing cow can hold up an entire side.
expensive. Because of the high space requirement of indi-
vidual stalls, any expansion will be limited.
3.6.3.5 Rotary parlour
3.6.3.2 Herringbone stalls
Rotary parlours are for medium to large dairy herds and
milk producers who require high throughput performance.
There are two different types of rotary parlour, according
to the entrance route:

• herringbone/tandem position: the cow has to turn on

entry to achieve a herringbone or tandem position. The
operator works inside the rotating platform (Figure
3.6.3.5.1)
• radial position: the cow stands with its head facing into
Herringbone parlours remain popular because of their low the centre of the parlour. The operator is on the outside.
cost and good performance. They often range from double This arrangement makes entry easier for the cows, and
4 to double 12, although larger herringbones e.g. double 20 this is reflected in somewhat higher throughput perfor-
and larger, are used on some dairy farms. Herringbone stalls mance.
are adaptable to mechanization. When mechanization is
added to the parlour, e.g. automation of the entry and exit
gates, more stalls can be added increasing the productivity
of the operator. However, this should not result in a very
long pit. A slow-milking cow, holding up an entire batch,
can seriously affect cow throughput in larger herringbones.
Slow-milking cows may be culled or may be segregated in a
group by themselves to be milked separately. Herringbone
parlours can easily be expanded provided sufficient space is
available or allowed for in the design stage.

3.6.3.3 Rapid Exit stalls

With rapid exit stalls, all the cows in a group move directly
out of the milking stalls via individual gates or by remov-
ing the barrier in front of the cows (see Figure 3.6.4.1.4
- Figure 3.6.4.1.5). The resulting benefit of decreasing
overall exit time can be justified for larger parlours, say
double 10 herringbones or parallell and larger. However,
the building has to be significantly wider to accommodate
Figure 3.6.3.5.1: example of a rotary parlour with cows
cow exit routes. In parlours with the rapid exit feature, cow
taking up a herringbone position and a central operator
exits should lead to return lanes on both sides of the par-
location. The diameter of the parlour depends on the posi-
lour. Thus, provision for sorting and treating cows, if inclu-
tion of the animals and the number of the stalls. As can be
ded, may need to be duplicated on both sides.
seen, the residual areas outside the rotary parlour can be
used for various associated needs (tank room, separation,
etc.).

36
3.6.4 DESIGN OF PARLOUR SURROUNDINGS Parallel parlour

3.6.4.1 Dimensions Length depends on the number of milking stalls. The width
depends on exit area; and number and width of return
The parlour dimensions depend on the type and number of lanes. (Figure 3.6.4.1.3 - Figure 3.6.4.1.5).
places provided. Dimensioning should take account of ease
of access and exit for the cow, keeping the cow in the cor-
rect position for milking and a logical working routine. The
following descriptions give examples of the approximate
space needed for milking parlours.

Herringbone parlour

Length depends on the number of milking stalls. Different

designs allow for cow presentation to the pit (operator) to
be at different angles (e.g. 30°, 50° or 90°), which will
affect the overall length and width of the parlour. Exit
space required depends on the type of exit (i.e. to the side
or straight ahead). In larger parlours with two and more
operators, the working passage (pit) should be enlarged ac- Figure 3.6.4.1.3: parallel milking parlour, standard exit
cordingly (Figure 3.6.4.1.1 - Figure 3.6.4.1.2). and two return lane (after DPC 54):
MPW = total milking parlour width: 2PW + 2RW + 2CPW + OW
Width and lenght of the parlour correspond to measure-
ments given in Figure 3.6.4.1.1. except:
CPw = cow platform width: 245 cm
FL = length of entrance funnel area: 305 - 365 cm
CPL = cow platform length: 70 -75 cm per milking stall (de-
pending on stall manufacturer)
HAW = collecting yard (holding area) width: 670 - 740 cm

Figure 3.6.4.1.1: herringbone milking parlour, standard

exit and one return lane (after DPC 54 Milking Parlor guide-
line, 2014):
MPW = total milking parlour width: 2PW + RW + 2CPW + OW
PW = personnel lane/race width: 70 - 90 cm
RW = return lane/race width: 80 - 100 cm
CPw = cow platform width: 150 - 185 cm
OW = operator platform (pit) width: 185 - 245 cm
MPL = total milking parlour length: FL + EL + CPL + XL
FL = length of entrance funnel area: 245 - 365 cm
EL = entrance area length: 60 cm
CPL = cow platform length: 90 - 115 cm per milking stall + Figure 3.6.4.1.4: parallel milking parlour, rapid exit and
105 - 190 cm (depending on stall manufacturer) one wide return lane (after DPC 54):
XL = length of exit turning area: 120 - 165 cm MPW = total milking parlour width: 2PW + 2XW + 2CPW + OW
HAW = collecting yard (holding area) width: 490 - 620 cm Width and lenght of the parlour correspond to measure-
HAL = holding area length is related to number of cows to be ments given in Figure 3.6.4.1.3 except:
held and holding area width (allow 1.4 m2 per cow) CPw = cow platform width: 180 - 200 cm
WRW = wide return lane witdth: 160 - 200 cm
XW = exit area width: > 300 cm

Figure 3.6.4.1.2: herringbone milking parlour, standard

exit and two return lanes (after DPC 54 Milking Parlor
guideline, 2014):
MPW = total milking parlour width: 2PW + 2RW + 2CPW + OW
Width and lenght of the parlour correspond to measure- Figure 3.6.4.1.5: parallel milking parlour, rapid exit and
ments given in Figure 3.6.4.1.1. two wide return lane (measurements above)(after DPC 54).

37
3.6.4.2 Mechanization 3.6.5 PARLOUR ENTRANCE AND EXIT: COLLECTING YARDS

Milking parlour mechanization depends on parlour size, Voluntary and unassisted cow movement is desired for good
available labour, initial investment and personal preference. efficiency in the milking operation. Problems with cow en-
Automatic cluster removers (ACR), are considered standard trance and exit consume operator time as well as interrup-
equipment in most parlours now-a-days. Other aspects of ting the operator’s routine.
mechanization to be considered include crowd (backing)
gates and power operated entrance and exit gates. Avoid steps or steep ramps (more than 10%) before a parlour
entrance. If regulations require a step, it should be kept
3.6.4.3 Arrangement and equipment below 200 mm in height.

In general, static milking parlours are located in a separate Doors and walls at the parlour entrance and exit hinder cow
building from the cow housing. This cuts down potential movement. A ramp that extends the operator’s pit a dis-
for pollution of the milking equipment by dust, micro-orga- tance of between 3.0 m and 3.5 m into the collecting yard
nisms and smells from the housing area and helps protect will allow the operator to get behind difficult cows without
equipment from effects of weather (particularly frost). Also chasing them away from the parlour entrance. The ramp
working conditions are better in a separate area. will need to be fenced on either side. Tapering the fence
down to around 300 mm wide allows the operator to pass
Milking parlours have to be provided with acid-resistant, through and also serves to provide a funnel entrance to the
non-slip flooring in the animal and operator area. The cow parlour. Gates added along the sides of the ramp can be
standing area should have a slight gradient, of 2%, directed used to direct different groups of cows to different sides of
away from the operating area and a floor level inlet to fa- the parlour. These gates can also be used to close off access
cilitate cleaning of the area by hosing down or using a high to the parlour.
pressure cleaner.
For the collecting yard; allow 1.4 – 2.0 m²/cow. The floor
Appropriately sized and moisture proof light fittings are surface should preferably slope at between 2 – 5% away from
necessary to illuminate the working area with a minimum the parlour. In hot climates, a cooling system (fans etc.) can
of 200 lux in general areas and up to 500 lux in the pit. The be very useful. Pushing systems in the collecting yard (back-
lighting should be arranged so that the udders are not in ing or crowd gates) may help improve parlour throughput.
shadow. Parlour feeding may improve cow entry, but hinders cow
exit. Parlour feeding is not recommended since cows do
Moisture given off by the animals and washing water make not spend enough time in the parlour to consume the feed
for high air humidity in milking parlours. Effective venti- needed for high milk production. If grain is fed to improve
lation, if necessary forced ventilation, should be ensured cow entrance, feed the same amount to each cow, about
especially in summer. The floor area for the operator should 1.5 – 2.0 kg. Available equipment allows a fixed amount of
be heated in winter in cold climates. The temperature in feed to be dispensed to each cow.
the milking parlour, dairy and plant room must avoid frost.
Provide return lanes from the parlour to the housing unit.
The walls should be covered with material that is hygienic A single return lane, where one group of cows crosses over
and makes them easy to clean, e.g. high quality paint sys- the front of the parlour to exit, is common when sorting,
tem, PVC-sheet or ceramic tiles etc. handling, restraint and treatment areas are provided in the
milking centre. In double-8 and larger herringbone parlours,
3.6.4.4 Design factors affecting parlour performance exiting of cows is improved by having two return lanes, side-
by-side.
Parlour type and size: Milking parlours are available in vari-
ous types and sizes. Parlour size is dependent on herd size, Lanes should be one-way passages. Lanes can be hosed
milk yield, number of cows etc. A large range of helpful down or hand scraped. Return lanes outside the building,
information is available from advisory services. Parlour type which are less common, can be wide enough to scrape with
influences building size, cow traffic to and from the parlour, a tractor.
milking routines and degree of mechanization.
The width of return lanes for parlours with rapid exit stalls
Cow Entrance: Size and layout of the collecting yard affects and parallel parlours should be at least 2.5 m and are gene-
cow entry time. Holding times of more than one hour per rally 3.0 m. If cows are to be sorted while exiting the mil-
milking must be avoided in today’s higher producing herds. king centre, these wider lanes should be narrowed to one-
Cows should enter the parlour straight ahead. Turning at the way passage width for that purpose.
entrance can slow cow movement, interrupting the opera-
tor. If cows must be turned, it should be done at the exit To reduce soiling of the wall surface, rub rails may be at-
rather than at the entrance. The holding pen should be as tached to walls running along the side of a lane. Mount rub
open to the parlour as regulations allow, with good lighting rails about 0.65 * H high, positioned so as to keep cows at
between the pen and the parlour. least 10 cm away from the wall.

Cow exit: Lighting in the exit alley should be bright and uni- 3.6.6 OTHER AREAS
form. Cows do not like the contrast of crossing from a well
lit parlour platform to a dark exit alley. A rapid-exit lane of Besides a milking parlour and collecting yard, a milking cen-
at least 2.40 m is adequate for cows to move forward and tre may include a milk room, a utility or machine room, a
turn towards the resting and feeding area. An alley that is storage area, a lounge area for personnel, an office, a toilet
too narrow will not allow the cows sufficient room to clear and an animal handling and treatment area (see also Figure
from under the raised front of the stalls; whereas, alleys 3.6.4.1.3).
that are too wide may allow cows to stand in the lane with-
out turning to leave the parlour. The milk room may contain the bulk tank (or access ports

38
of a bulk-headed tank), a milk receiving assembly, inline
cooling equipment and facilities for cleaning, sanitizing and
storing milking equipment. Size the milk room to allow for
future expansion of milk storage capacity. The milk room
should be located in the least sunny area with good access
for the milk collecting tanker.

The utility room houses the mechanical equipment associ-

ated with the milking system (vacuum pump, pulsator con-
trollers), the system for cooling the milk (condensing units,
heat exchangers) and related equipment. In addition, the
utility room can house water heaters and a heat exchanger
to heat water and the rest of the milking centre. Provide a
large access opening or overhead door directly to the out-
side to facilitate equipment replacement.
Figure 3.6.7.1.2: two-stall system, space requirement 33-
Provide a separate room for storing cleaning compounds and 44 m². The layout plan does not include head-end service
supplies, spare parts, medical supplies and similar products. facilities (control, cleaning), as these depend very much on
National regulations may require separate, clearly labelled the manufacturer.
storage areas for medication for use in lactating and non-
lactating cows.
3.6.7.2 Cow traffic and stall design
The personnel area includes toilet facilities as well as lock-
ers, showers, washing facilities and a lunch and resting area.
Cows are encouraged to enter the AMS either to consume
An office should be provided for storing the records associ-
food at a feeding area beyond the AMS or to use the robot.
ated with day-to-day management of the herd (milk pro-
A distinction is made between free and controlled cow traf-
duction, breeding, veterinary), and other farm records and
fic. The nature of the cow traffic essentially determines the
files.
stall design. Controlled cow traffic means less driving work
for the operator, but on the other hand access to the feed-
Sorting, handling, restraint and treatment of animals is of-
ing area is restricted. Efficiency of operation is increased
ten incorporated into the milking centre. Each room or area
with selective controlled cow traffic, where “intelligent”
must be given special attention and careful thought based
electronic entrance gates allow direct access to the feed-
on the functions to be served, spatial arrangements and re-
ing area. This is also the most expensive solution, though.
lationship to the overall milking centre.
The layout of the passages and gates must be designed so
that low ranking cows have easy access to the feeding and
3.6.7 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS OF AN AUTOMATIC MILKING
milking area. As there is continuous access to the feeding
SYSTEM (AMS)
area round the clock, it is not essential to provide a feeding
place for each animal. What matters is that feed should be
3.6.7.1 Systems
available for most of the day.
There are two different systems: single-stall and multiple
Free cow traffic
stall. Single-stall systems are recommended for groups of
50 to 60 lactating cows; two-stall systems for up to 90 and
The cow is free to choose whether to enter the AMS, the
three-stall systems for up to 120. Greater numbers of stalls
feeding area or the lying area. The stall design is relatively
have not proved practical, as the cow traffic creates bottle-
unaffected. This solution is therefore also suitable when
necks at the entrance. However, in 2010 DeLaval developed
converting buildings. The AMS location must be attractive
a fully automatic rotary parlour, which incorporated AMS ro-
to the cow, i.e. readily accessible.
botic units in an attempt to speed up milking and increase
cow flow; and makes big groups of cows possible.
Controlled or selectively controlled cow traffic

With such systems, partitions, lanes and one-way or control

gates are used to direct the cow traffic. Before entering the
feeding area each cow has to pass through the AMS, where
milking authorisation is checked by pre-selection. This type
of system works best in cubicle systems with two or four-
row cubicles (Figure 3.6.7.2.1). In selectively guided cow
traffic the animals can enter the feeding area directly via
electronic entrance gates if they are not scheduled for mil-
king.

3.6.7.3 Separation pen

When using an AMS it is advisable to provide a separation

pen. Post-selection enables cows that have not been milked
and any cows requiring treatment to be separated. The se-
paration pen should be provided with lying areas and a sup-
Figure 3.6.7.1.1: single-stall system, space requirement 16- ply of water and feed for longer-term occupancy.
22 m², with entrances and exits and a control room. (The
exact dimensions depend on the manufacturer).

39
3.6.7.4 Milk storage and cleaning 3.7 CLIMATE CONTROL

Transporting the milk from the AMS to the bulk tank requires 3.7.1 GENERAL
some special measures for quality reasons:
One important aspect of building design is the control of
• pipe routes should be kept short, i.e. milk tank should be environmental parameters, which influence the animal pro-
located near the AMS. duction and welfare as described in Chapter 2.3. This can
• pipes should be insulated in order to prevent frosting. be achieved by employing a ventilation system that uses ap-
propriate opening geometry and orientation. Other relevant
Extra space should be allowed in the dairy for a buffer aspects are: the thermal properties of the constructive ma-
tank (reserve storage to cover the interruption during milk terials, the building shape and orientation, the location etc.
pumping to the milk tanker and subsequent cleaning of the
storage tank). Considering inside temperatures occurring in a cold climate,
the housing systems can be categorized as either cold hou-
When considering the size of slurry storage, it should be sing or warm housing.
borne in mind that cleaning of the AMS produces a greater
volume of washing water. In cold housing indoor temperatures are allowed to fluctuate
closely to outdoor temperatures. Ventilation is sufficient to
maintain indoor temperatures within 3°C to 6°C above the
outdoor temperature. Usually this is accomplished through
unregulated natural ventilation with appropriately sized
ridge and eave openings along with adjustments in door
and wall openings. The regular air exchange required during
cold weather, to control moisture, makes insulation unne-
cessary. Condensation on the underside of the roof can be
considered as a management tool or signal for the farmer
that excess moisture build up is occurring and additional
openings must be provided for a better air exchange.

Warm housing applies to insulated and closed buildings,

with well controlled ventilation. These animal houses
are designed to provide a relatively uniform environment
throughout the winter and consequently they need care-
ful management of ventilation by proper regulation of the
openings. Tie stall houses, where indoor temperatures are
to be maintained at least above freezing, remain the prin-
cipal example of this type of housing for dairy animals. In
these buildings condensation problems can arise when the
insulating properties of the shield has a discontinuity (i.e.
thermal bridges).

Some animal buildings do not fit into either the warm or

cold category. In-between housing or modified environment
housing is obtained when the indoor temperatures in winter
are kept above freezing by some degree of insulation and
by partially closing the openings during extreme weather. A
typical case is a sidewall open building with insulated roof
when the opening surface is restricted by means of closing
panels or materials (i.e. straw bales).

In this way, a potentially cold barn may not be operated and

managed as a cold barn, and problems of excess moisture
build-up and a high relative humidity can arise unknown to
the stockpersons because surface condensation is prevented
from forming by insulation.

3.7.2 VENTILATION

Figure 3.6.7.2.1: selectively guided cow traffic with single- Ventilation is a process by which outside air is brought into
stall system. a building where it collects moisture, heat, dust and other
contaminants. Therefore, ventilation is the main instrument
for controlling the internal environment parameters: air
temperature, air humidity, air quality. To this purpose a uni-
form distribution of air inside the building is an important
requirement of proper ventilation. The air exchange can be
realised by natural processes or by means of mechanical
devices.

40
3.7.2.1 Natural ventilation

Natural ventilation is by far the most common system for

the air exchange used in dairy buildings. It works in two A 2 g ⋅ H ⋅ DT
V = (m³/s)
ways: by thermal buoyancy (stack effect) and by wind ac- 3 T
i ⋅ ( 2k )
Ti
tion.

3.7.2.1.1 Thermal buoyancy where: H = height of the opening (m) (difference between
the outlet and inlet)
Thermal buoyancy is due to different air densities gener- k = coefficient of resistance of the opening
ated by air temperature difference indoors to outdoors. A = area of the opening (m²)
Therefore, its action is relevant only in a cold climate and
particularly in closed insulated buildings (warm housing). From this equation the formula for the area of the opening
can be derived:
In addition to the temperature gradients the air exchange
depends on the openings geometry (size, shape and posi-
tion). An important factor is the vertical distance between
the lower and the upper openings. A typical case is that of Ti ⋅ (2k )
buildings with ridge and eave openings where the air flow A = 3 ⋅V ⋅ (m²)
can be calculated (as for chimneys) using the following for- 2 g ⋅ H ⋅ DT
mula:

This ventilation system is only suited for buildings that are

not wider than 4 times the average height. During sum-
V =Cd⋅ 2 gHDT mer parts of the wall opposite to the open front have to be
opened, in order to increase the ventilation rate by trans-
 1 1  verse air flow.
Ti ⋅ 2 + 2 
A 
 i Ao 

where: V = Ventilation rate (m³/s)

Cd = coefficient of discharge of the openings (0.5 -
0.6)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s²)
H = height difference between the lowest and the
highest openings (m)
ΔT = temperature difference inside-outside (K)
Ti = absolute inside temperature (K)
Ai = = area of inlet openings (m²)
A0 = area of the outlet openings. Figure 3.7.2.1.1.2: ventilation flow driven by stack effect
(As shown in Figure 3.7.2.1.1.1). during winter and summer in an open front young stock
house.
For the best efficiency: Ai = 2A0 up to = 3A0

3.7.2.1.2 Wind action

The pressure exerted by the wind on the building surfaces

determines an air flow going from the windward openings
to the leeward. Therefore, the ventilation depends on the
wind speed and the geometry and orientation of the verti-
cal openings, with the contribution of the open ridge being
negligible.

A formula for calculating the air exchange is:

V=E*A*Vw

where: V = volume of ventilation (m³/s)

Figure 3.7.2.1.1.1: sketch building showing open ridge and A = windward (or leeward if equal) opening area(m²)
side openings. Vw = wind velocity (m/s)
E = effectiveness of the opening (0.5-0.6 for per-
pendicular winds, 0.25-0.35 for diagonal wind;
In the case of open front houses in which the three other
a value of 0.35 is normally recommended for
sides are completely closed (e.g. mono-pitch calf housing),
agricultural buildings).
the incoming and outgoing air have to pass through the same
opening. In this case the colder air (normally the outside
The wind action is generally the most important factor of
air) flows through the under part and the warmer through
natural ventilation. However, the control of the ventilation
the upper part of the opening. For rectangular openings the
is difficult due to the variability of the wind speed and di-
air flow by thermal buoyancy can be calculated by the equa-
rection. Hence Automatically Controlled Natural Ventilation
tion:

41
 (ACNV) systems have been developed; i.e. automated con- To calculate the air exchange, an experimental determina-
trol systems using mechanical opening or closing of ventila- tion of the effectiveness (coefficient of reduction of the
tion flaps or windows, which are activated by temperature wind speed) of the material or cladding is required. The
sensors and possibly air speed sensors. greater the coefficient of reduction, the larger the area of
protected air inlet must be in order to obtain the same ven-
A simple solution to control the air velocity inside the tilation rate as with a free opening.
building is offered by the use of windbreaks; i.e. perfora-
ted surfaces capable of reducing the wind speed to values A simple solution to estimate how much larger the protec-
steadier and more suitable for animals. Windbreaks are of ted air inlet must be is to use a multiplying factor. This fac-
different kinds e.g. timber planks (spaced boarding), perfo- tor (Mf) can be derived from the resistance coefficient (k)
rated metal or plastic nets. through the formula:

3.7.2.1.3 Combined effect of thermal buoyancy and wind

Mf = k

In special situations, e.g. absence of wind associated with

cold days, thermal buoyancy is the prevailing source of air In case the resistance factor is not known, the multiplying
exchange. In most cases wind effect will dominate, particu- factor can be estimated as the reverse of the porosity (e.g.
larly with large side openings. In intermediate situations for common wind breaking net the factor is 3 - 5 according
(no one dominating), buoyant and wind induced ventilation to a porosity of respectively 30 or 20 %).
rates cannot be simply added, because of interaction be-
tween the two effects. Another possibility of obtaining a reduced and more uniform
air movement inside the building consists of adopting slot-
Figure 3.7.2.1.3.1 shows the results of a theoretical calcula- ted or perforated roofs. However, this solution must be con-
tion applied to a typical dairy house for different tempera- sidered only as integrative, not alternative to the windows,
ture gradients and wind speed values. It can be seen that suitable for very large buildings or buildings with insuffi-
the action of the thermal buoyancy becomes negligible with cient opening area and where the air diffusion in the inner
temperature gradients lower than 10°C and wind speed space would be problematic.
higher than 1 m/s and, in any case, when the wind speed
is higher than 2 m/s (with vents/windows fully opened and The flow and the distribution of the fresh air inside the
without windbreaks). building is more efficient when the buildings are narrow and
with the main axis oriented perpendicular to the prevailing
wind direction. In Figure 3.7.2.1.4.1 some typical schemes
are shown. Buildings larger than 18 m span should have ad-
ditional intermediate openings over the roof (e.g. cases b,
d and g); however, case (a) is generally not a good solution
250
due to the risk of condensation and bad distribution of the
ΔT = 0 °C
fresh air. Buildings with shed shaped openings (case e) and
ventilation rate (000 m 3 h-1 )

200 ΔT= 5°C

ΔT = 10°C
without wind deflectors are to be avoided, since opposite
150
0.8
0.8
ΔT = 15°C winds can prevent the exit of exhaust air. Buildings with in-
ΔT = 20°C ternal walls (case f), or other obstacles (case h) obstructing
100
ΔT = 25°C the air flow, are not advisable. For large buildings, or in ca-
6.2
6.2
1.6

ses of non-uniform air distribution, additional roof openings

1.6

ΔT = 30°C
3.5
3.5

50
ΔT = 35°C
14.0
14.0
(i.e. slots) or mechanical ventilation, are required. Buil-
0
dings with a mono-pitch roof (c), though fully opened at one
0 1 2 3 4 5
side, require an opening on the opposite wall if larger than
wind speed (m s-1)
8-10 m (especially in a warm climate). In any case should
not be larger than 12 m. Tunnel shaped buildings (i) should
have adequate lateral openings; in any case they should be
Figure 3.7.2.1.3.1: ventilation rates in a typical dairy house
not too long to allow an efficient longitudinal air flow.
30 m long with continuous non-protected openings for dif-
ferent temperature gradients (difference between inside
Bearing in mind that the ventilation by wind is the most
and outside temperature) and different wind speeds (m/s).
relevant factor, an equally important feature is building ori-
In the calculated model the wind direction is constant and
entation. However, since the wind direction and intensity
perpendicular to the opening.
are variable, it may be appropriate to have openings in the
windward walls, especially in larger buildings.

To correctly determine the combined effect of the two se- When wind speed is low, passage or access doors kept open
parate mechanisms requires a quite complex procedure. can give a substantial contribution to the air exchange and
distribution. Internal air speed and distribution are also de-
3.7.2.1.4 Control of the air flow pendent on the shape of the inlet vents, since the airflow
entering can be directed upwards or downwards by varying
Inlets should be designed and positioned to avoid cold air the vent flaps orientation. The ability to do this is important
draughts around the animals. Therefore, adjustable hinged to avoid cold air draughts close to the animals.
flaps at the eaves, or different types of wall cladding, such
as spaced boarding, louvered plastic coated steel sheeting
or polypropylene mesh can be used in cold houses. In areas
where strong winds occur, windbreaks should be provided on
the upwind openings. Therefore a reduction of the air speed
is obtained depending on the porosity (ratio of void to the
total opening area), structure and material used.

42
 side air and to maintain the concentration of contaminants
at minimal levels. The minimum rate depends on weather,
design conditions, number and type of animals in the buil-
ding, their age and size, and whether the building is in-
tended to be cold or warm.

The amount of air flow required can be calculated using the

formula: V = XDx-1

where: V = volume of air required (m³/h)

X = amount of contaminants or noxious gases pro
duced per hour inside the building (g/h)
Dx = difference in the content of these elements
(g/m³) between the internal and the external
air.

Generally the vapour in the air is the gas that first reaches
the critical level. As the air temperature lowers, the ven-
tilation rate should be increased to avoid too high relative
humidity. But for closed insulated buildings in a very cold
climate, or when slurry is mixed under slatted floors, other
noxious gases can exceed the recommended threshold.

To obtain an efficient stack effect the open ridge should

be protected with baffles, which will help create a suction
effect by the wind. Furthermore, to avoid draughts around
the animals building side openings not protected by wind-
breaks should be located at least 2 m above the floor. When
outside air temperature is very low and the resting area is
just below the openings the risk that cold air will drop onto
the animals should be prevented by positioning deflecting
Figure 3.7.2.1.4.1: buildings with different types of natural
baffles above the stock.
ventilation.
With natural ventilation, the minimum ventilation is more
difficult to control. However, when mechanical ventilation
3.7.2.2 Mechanical Ventilation is used, the control system and capacity of the fan(s) should
be matched to the ventilation rate that is calculated for the
In dairy housing, mechanical ventilation is seldom adopted particular housing situation.
due to its cost and since dairy cows can tolerate wide tem-
perature fluctuations. This system is most often associated 3.7.2.4 Hot climate summer ventilation
with warm housing (where ventilation must have a high de-
gree of control) and can be suitable where the volume of air Summer ventilation rates should generally be as high as pos-
to be exchanged is small (as in the case of warm barns in sible in order to eliminate the heat produced by the ani-
cold climate or small closed spaces) and if the energy price mals. It is desirable to keep the internal temperature as
is low. low as possible at the same time as increasing the air speed
inside the building to assist removal of animal heat by con-
A solution introduced in the USA is the “tunnel ventilation” vection and transpiration. This result should be obtained by
that is realised by installing large propeller fans, with po- maximising opening area in all four sides of the building
tentially high flow rates, in one end wall of a barn, resulting (taking care to avoid draughts if the outside air temperature
in longitudinal air flow from an inlet located in the opposite drops).
end wall. Some investigations showed it is possible to re-
duce the differentials of temperature between indoor and During the hottest hours of the day the temperature diffe-
outdoor during the heat of the day; furthermore, a cooling rence between the inside and outside is often too low (often
air stream can be produced at the animal level. However negative due to internal evaporation) making thermal buoy-
this solution is suitable only in specific housing conditions ancy totally ineffective. So the wind effect becomes the
(buildings not too large or long and with right shape) and only source of air exchange, through the vertical ope-nings
requires an accurate design. exposed to the wind.

An intermediate solution between natural and mechanical In very hot periods it is extremely important to utilise the
ventilation, as already mentioned, is automatically con- maximum benefit from the fall in night-time temperature.
trolled natural ventilation (ACNV).
3.7.2.5 Minimum air volume

3.7.2.3 Cold climate winter minimum ventilation The air volume per animal inside a building (static air vol-
ume) can play a important role on air quality whilst the
A minimum rate of ventilation is required in animal hou- minimum ventilation rate fluctuates up or down. Reducing
sing even in a cold climate regardless of outside tempera- the ventilation rate and starting or increasing production
ture. This minimum rate is necessary both with warm or of air contaminants increase the concentration of air con-
cold housing. In addition, the minimum ventilation should taminants. In large volume buildings the increase is slower
be continuous in order to obtain appropriate dilution of in- compared to small volume buildings (Figure 3.7.2.5.1). Ad-

43
ditionally, the variation in gas concentration during the day Another goal is to minimise solar gain, both as direct radia-
is reduced. It means that concentration of gas, dust and tion (bearing upon the animals) and indirect (affecting the
micro-organisms and its variability during the day can be internal environment through the openings and the transpar-
reduced by dilution (buffer effect). Furthermore, the iner- ent surfaces). Direct solar radiation can be avoided by pro-
tial action of the air mass can help to maintain the climatic viding sufficient and appropriate shaded space in addition
parameters in a steady state. to ensuring proper orientation of openings and any transpa-
rent building surfaces. Generally, rectangular shaped buil-
The gas concentration in non-steady state conditions can be dings should be positioned with the main axis running east-
calculated by: west to reduce solar radiation. In such a situation, one long
wall is always shaded and the opposite receives inclined sun
rays (so less effective) and can be partly shaded by the roof
overhangs. The East and West walls (gable ends) receive the
−V ⋅3600
X −6 X − V (c0 − ca )1010-6−6 t suns rays at right angles and have the smallest area and can
c = [ + ca 1010 −
-6
e vol
]101066 be shaded by trees or other buildings. Plastic nets and ma-
V V ture trees can help provide shade in external yards.

The use of insulation in the most exposed surfaces is ano-

where: c = Gas concentration after time t
ther way of reducing radiation onto the animals from build-
t = time (h)
ing surfaces heated by the sun (in practice the roof). In ad-
X = amount of gas produced (m³/s)
dition, using reflecting materials or colours on sun exposed
V = ventilation rate (m³/s)
surfaces can be useful too, but these properties decrease
ca = gas concentration in the outside air (ppm )
with time from deterioration. Very high and sloped roofs
c0 = gas concentration in the building at the
can be an alternative to insulated ones for reducing the ra-
beginning (t=0) (ppm)
diation flow onto the underlying animals.
vol = air volume of the building (m³)
It may also be important to prevent radiation being emitted
from surfaces that surround the building (mainly the paved
floors) that are exposed to the sun. This can be achieved
by shading these areas or, simply, by avoiding paved floors
wherever possible.

Ventilation is another important way for reducing heat

stress as this can increase the heat loss from the animals’
body, both by convection and transpiration. Therefore,
opening up a building as much as possible so that it acts as a
sunshade can be very useful in hot weather. When openings
cannot be created in summer, or obstructions to openings
cannot be removed, consider adding supplementary cooling.

Overall, appropriate building orientation is a fundamental

aspect of design. To this purpose both the sun and the wind
Figure 3.7.2.5.1: the smaller the building volume the faster exposure must be considered together in order to provide
the carbon dioxide (CO2) is increasing after reducing the protection from solar gain and good ventilation. Often a
ventilation rate from 160 m³/h to 50 m³/h per cow. compromise between the two will provide an optimal solu-
tion.

3.7.3 REDUCING HEAT STRESS A positive effect can be obtained by adopting a lying surface
with high thermal conductivity, i.e. the use of sand (or soil)
Heat stress is one of the biggest problems to be faced in as a litter instead of straw or synthetic mattresses can sig-
warm climates, especially with the high yielding cows. The nificantly improve the animals’ heat dissipation.
possibilities of minimizing its negative effect through the
building and plant design and management can be divided 3.7.3.2 Active tools
into two categories: the “passive” and “active” tools.
The active tools, considering mechanical ventilation, can
3.7.3.1 Passive tools be:

The passive tools are related to the design and management a) increasing air speed through fans directed towards the
of the building structure. The most important goal is max- animals
imising the natural ventilation, not only in terms of air ex- b) air cooling through water evaporation (adiabatic cooling)
change, but also in terms of air speed close to the animals. c) animal cooling by the misting or sprinkling of water upon
This can be achieved by proper sizing, positioning and ori- their body and blowing air with fans.
entation of the openings. Orientation towards the prevailing
summer winds, while avoiding obstructions that restrict or a) The air moved by fans around to the animals increases
deflect the wind flow is preferable. A minimum distance of the heat loss from their body, both by convection and tran-
20 m from trees or other buildings should be maintained, spiration (see Chapter 2.3). This practice is effective from
but this value has to be increased if the upwind structure a temperature of 23-24°C upwards. The fans can be of two
is longer than 25 m or higher than 6 m (e.g. 30 m if longer types: “low volume (small diameter) and high velocity” with
than 120 m or higher than 9m). Generally, an elevated site, horizontal axis, and “high volume and low velocity”, with
but not too exposed, is preferred for the location of the vertical axis. The first type has to be oriented towards the
building. animals. It produces a higher air speed (the effect decrea-

44
sing with the distance) and involves a smaller area. Ideally, wait there. Another choice is the resting area, where great
they should be oriented in the same direction as the pre- care must be paid to avoid getting the floor wet. Generally,
vailing summer breezes. Normally, this is the most effective the fans are activated when the air temperature reaches
system if fans are positioned high enough to prevent any 23-25°C and the sprinklers operate from 25-27°C upwards.
“screen” effect caused by animals crowding together. In the
second type, fans are generally suspended just below the
roof, and produce a lower air velocity and cover a bigger
3.8 FACILITIES FOR CALVES AND REPLACEMENT HEIFERS
area as they are suspended at a greater distance from the
floor. This system can be suitable for large and non-linear
3.8.1 INTRODUCTION
spaces (i.e. resting area, holding pens) provided that there
are no obstacles at ground level to reduce the effect.
In dairy farming, calves are usually weaned (separated from
their mother) close to birth. The calves will be housed ei-
As mentioned in Chapter 2.3, this cooling technique is li-
ther individually or in groups, depending on the manage-
mited to the maximum rate of natural heat dissipation by
ment system chosen by the farmer. Calves can be housed
transpiration from the animals’ skin. So the evaporation of
in individual pens for a few days or for several weeks (2 to
additional water can be exploited to increase the cooling
8 weeks).
benefit.
Regulations in the European Union (EEC Directive 91/629,
b) The adiabatic evaporative cooling is realised by fogging
EU Directive 97/2) lay down minimum requirements with
water (with high pressure misting devices) in front of fans
respect to calf housing that must be met by the facilities and
blowing air towards the animals. In this way the evapora-
management systems and the equipment for veal calves.
tion of the water brings a reduction in the air temperature.
The potential to absorb water vapour is greatest when the
The most important features of the directives are:
relative humidity is the lowest. Therefore this technique is
suitable for dairy housing only in dry climates. The benefit
• individual housing is forbidden after the age of 8 weeks,
of air temperature reduction becomes marginal at ambient
except for veterinary reasons
humidity beyond 45 %; in fact, on one hand the release of
• the width of individual cages must be equal to the height
sensible heat is increased, but on the other hand the natural
at the withers and the length equal to the length of the
transpiration is reduced. The advantages of this system are
animal multiplied by 1.1
that a substantial reduction of the temperature can be ob-
• partitions between cages must be open to permit sight
tained in dry climates with a minimum use of water and that
and tactile contact between animals
it is suitable in areas where sprinklers cannot be used for
• for group of animals, the free area per animal must be
the risk of wetting the floor (i.e. littered surfaces). On the
1.5 m² with a live weight less than 150 kg, 1.7 m² with a
other hand, the efficiency can be reduced if the evapora-
live weight above 150 kg but less than 220 kg and 1.8 m²
tion of water is not complete, since droplets can create an
with a live weight above 220 kg
insulated layer to the hair coat. Furthermore under windy
• the pen and the equipment must be built so that each
conditions the cooling effect can be dispersed outside the
animal can stretch, rest, stand up and groom without any
building by the wind.
difficulties
• litter must be provided for animals younger than 2 weeks;
c) Misting or sprinkling water onto the animals with low
• calves should not be restrained, except when they are in
pressure nozzles and blowing air on their body by fans to
groups and then only for one hour during feeding
increase the evaporation seems the most effective solution
• if artificial ventilation is used, a fail-safe and alarm sys-
for reducing heat stress in dairy cows, especially in hot-
tem must be installed
humid climates. With this technique, not only the natural
• keeping the animals permanently in the dark is forbid-
mechanisms of heat dissipation by the animals’ body are ac-
den. Natural or artificial lighting must be provided
tivated, but an important supplementary effect is obtained
• calves must be fed twice a day
through the evaporation of the additional water sprayed
• calves must receive adequate fibre and enough iron in
upon the animals’ skin (it can reach up to 10 times the natu-
their diet
ral evaporation). However, the amount of water sprayed on
• calves older than 2 weeks must have permanent access
the body surface is critical, as is the air velocity around
to fresh water.
the animals’ body. The use of misting (drops of small di-
mensions) has the advantage of saving water and reducing
These regulations are not enforced on farms with less than
wetting of the floors. However, sprinkling (drops of bigger
6 calves and where the calves remain with their mothers to
dimensions) is more effective because it produces greater
receive milk.
evaporation and has a longer term effect.
The type of housing for replacement heifers will depend on
The design of these systems (concerning the choice of the
a range of factors including geographic location, availability
nozzles or sprinklers, their density and position, the type
of straw, size of the unit and on the housing system used for
and position of fans) and their optimisation (duration and
the dairy cows.
interval of watering) are complex to determine. They de-
pend on: climate (air temperature, relative humidity and
3.8.2 HOUSING SYSTEMS FOR CALVES
speed), animals (breed, production, hygiene and health)
and housing (area involved, type of floor, capacity of the
3.8.2.1 Individual housing – hutches
manure pits, etc.).
Generally, unless using a prefabricated hutch, the size of
For the latter aspect, experience has shown that extending
the hutch should be as follows: length 2.0 m, width 1.5 m,
the treatment to areas outside the feeding alley should be
height 1.5 m. In addition, hutches should have an outdoor
considered. Another point is the waiting area in front of the
run of more than 2 m² surrounded by either metal wire
milking parlour, where the animals are particularly stressed
netting or fencing. There should also be a means of sup-
because of the lack of space and the length of time they
porting a bucket for milk and other dry feed, and possibly

45
a hay rack. Litter should be provided such as straw, wood the walls and hardwood for the (perforated) floor. The floor
shavings, sawdust, shredded newspapers etc. and should be must be covered with a thick layer of dry and clean litter.
thick enough to provide a favourable lying environment. It Bucket supports, for feed and water, should be provided on
must be dry and clean. Litter should be removed immedi- the front.
ately after the calf has left the hutch.

Figure 3.8.2.1.1: individual housing-hutch.

Figure 3.8.2.2.1: individual calf pens.

Use of transparent or clear plastic type material in the con-
struction of a hutch should be avoided in order to prevent
the possibility of the ‘green house effect’ heating the hutch 3.8.2.3 Group housing
(i.e. potentially causing heat stress). Therefore, synthetic,
opaque and reflective materials (light coloured materials) Group housing gives the opportunity for calves to socialise
are recommended. They may also be built from wood panels and to develop with animals of a similar age. It also gives
and plywood. the possibility for calves to develop their immunity against
a wide range of micro-organisms.
The opening must not be oriented towards the direction of
the prevailing wind, so preventing wind (draughts) and pos- 3.8.2.4 Collective hutches
sibly rain entering the hutch. In many areas of Western Eu-
rope a south-east orientation is the most suitable. The collective hutches are designed typically to house a
group of between 2 and 6 calves. The hutches are made of
Hutches should be placed on well drained ground, but due synthetic materials, or wood, and have, for example, space
regard should be paid to local water legislation. This may for 4 calves with an indoor area of 10 m² and an outdoor run
mean placing on soil with a sand layer of 15 cm. After use, (loafing/feeding) of 10 to 15 m².
the sand should be removed to reduce the risks of contami-
nation. If the hutches are placed on concrete, for ease of The inside of the hutch is provided with litter and some hay
management and to help make cleaning and disinfecting may be put in a rack. Roughage is distributed at a feeding
easier, it is necessary to collect liquid run-off in an appro- barrier and anti-freeze drinking device is recommended.
priate storage facility to prevent pollution and to comply
with local regulations.

When the weather is hot, it is advisable to provide shade to

the hutches (a physical screen, trees or other buildings) in
order to avoid the negative effects of high temperatures.
During the winter it could be useful to take measures to
prevent the consequences of very low temperatures.

3.8.2.2 Individual housing - pens

A nursery pen is a part of a building that is exclusively re-

served for newborn calves. However, it is recommended
that calves are put into individual pens (at least) the first 2
or 3 weeks of age, where they can be monitored more eas-
ily. In organic farming, housing of calves in individual pens
are restricted, e.g not allowed from one week of age. Figure 3.8.2.4.1: collective hutch with outdoor run offering
shade, which is important.
Common pen size is in the range 0.90 - 1.00 m x 1.50 -
1.60 m, however the size should reflect the size and age of With collective hutches fixed on concrete, the outdoor run
the calf. Pens, particularly if they have a perforated floor should have a non-slip surface.; and must be cleaned 1 to
and liberal bedding, should be raised from the surface or 2 times a week. Manure and soiled bedding have to be re-
ground, approximately 300 mm, as this will aid drainage and moved manually or the hutch has to be moved to another
the removal of urine, and to allowed regularly cleaning of position by tractor.
the floor. In cold barns, the thickness of the litter must be
increased to prevent draughts around the calves. 3.8.2.5 Bedded sloped floor

Dismountable pens are available commercially, or can be Sloped floor systems are not recommended for calves
made by the farmer himself i.e. with plywood panels for younger than 6 months.

46
3.8.2.6 Straw yard with bedded lying area tion. The surface should not be too rough but should pre-
vent slipping.
These facilities are extremely suitable for young animals, if
sufficient straw and proper ventilation is provided. With respect to labour costs the concrete floor may be re-
placed by a slatted floor provided that the spacing between
When the calves are housed for several months it is abso- slats is appropriate for the age of animals being housed and
lutely essential that any passages provide a firm footing so meets any the local regulations.
that their hooves remain strong and are kept in good condi-
Table 3.8.2.6.1: characteristics of pens for group housing

Duration of the stay Animal Fully bedded Lying area and passage on Trough lenght
dimension (m²/calf) concrete or on slatted floor per calf (m)
H (m) L (m) Lying area Depth of the
(m²/calf) passage (m)
Up to weaning 0.90 0.84 1.6 1.2 1.0 0.35
< 100 kg

From weaning to 1.09 1.17 Not recommended 2.5-3.2 1.4-1.5 0.45

3 – 5 / 6 months to prevent excessive
(100 – 250 kg) hoof growth

3.8.2.7 Cubicle house table system to provide a good environment to the calves
and to prevent diseases and mortality.
Cubicles need a good management for calves younger than
6 months. a) Bedded pack

3.8.2.8 Fully slatted floor For calves housed on a deep litter of straw (bedded pack)
cold housing is the recommended system to provide a good
Fully slatted floors are not recommended for dairy calves environment to the calves. An open front with appropriate
and replacement heifers. orientation, depending on prevailing wind and exposure to
the sunrise is preferred. Movable curtains or screens, po-
3.8.2.9 Tie stalls sitioned on the opposite wall, are necessary to prevent
draughts during the cold months and heat stress during the
Tying stalls are forbidden by an EU directive and are not re- summer.
commended in the countries where they are not forbidden.
b) Slatted floor
3.8.3. FEEDING FACILITIES
Although fully slatted floors are not recommended, if calves
Housed calves can be fed manually or by an automatic milk are housed on a slatted floor, heating and mechanical venti-
feeder. lation may be necessary in a cold climate to provide a good
environment for the calves. Insulation of the walls and the
In the case of manual feeding; calves should be housed in roof, in combination with the above, may help prevent low
groups of 8 to 10 maximum and should be fed at least twice temperatures and high relative humidity of the air. During
a day. Barriers, or other devices, can be fixed at the feed hot days, mechanical ventilation and thermal insulation can
trough/pen front to separate the calves and help avoid com- also help maintain an acceptable temperature in the house.
petition. Calves should be held in this way for a maximum
of one hour. Alternatively they can be fed using buckets. 3.8.5 HOUSING SYSTEMS FOR REPLACEMENT HEIFERS

In the case of automatic milk feeder, calves can be housed Generally all housing systems described in Chapter 3.1 and
in groups of about 30, but it is recommended to have groups 3.2 can also be used for heifers. Often the housing system
of about 10 calves. In general each automatic milk feeder for replacement heifers is adapted to the system in which
has at least 2 milk dispensers (teat), and each milk dis- the cows will be housed later on.
penser can accommodate up to about 30 calves. The calves
should be arranged in groups of equal age, so as to prevent Cubicle houses can be used for heifers where no or only
hierarchic and health problems within the group. Calves re- small amounts of straw are available. Where straw is avail-
ceive milk replacer according to their needs or ad libitum. able for bedding, typical systems include facilities with
In automatic systems calves often wear a transponder collar bedded lying areas and solid unbedded or slatted feeding
or ear tag device, so that the machine identifies them and stands and access passageways. Facilities with sloped floors
monitors and records the milk consumed etc. The automatic depend on the animals to move the fouled bedding down
milk feeder should be installed at a dry, clean, frost free the slope for collection, may be suitable for heifer rear-
and easily accessible place. ing, but not when bulling. Tethering in stalls is still used in
some countries, as a management system for heifers, but
3.8.4 VENTILATION this method of housing is not recommended.

Natural ventilation and cold housing are recommended for

raising calves. In some cases warm housing is the most sui-

47
 3.8.5.1 Bedded house with concrete or slatted feeding 3.8.5.2 Bedded house with sloped concrete floor
stand
This housing system involves the frequent removal of ma-
In this type of facility the animals come to feed on an area nure, but daily straw requirements can be as low as 3 to 5 kg
of solid concrete or an area covered with slats. In the case per animal per day. The floor is laid with a slope of 8 to 10%.
of solid concrete the area is cleaned by an electric, hydrau- The system operates on the principal that the movement of
lic or tractor powered scraper. Where a tractor is used, ad- the animals will transfer the manure down the slope where
ditional gates could be useful to keep the animals on the it is removed by scraping. A cross section of a typical layout
bedded area during cleaning. The design has the advantages is shown in Figure 3.8.5.2.1. Minimum space requirements
that lower quantities of straw are required and that the are given in Table 3.8.5.2.1.
geometry of the feeding stand does not change as the ma-
nure builds up over the housing period. Straw usage is in
the order of 4 to 6 kg per animal per day. However, both
liquid and solid manure is produced with the system. If slats
are used in the feed stand it is important to minimize the
quantity of straw entering the tanks to avoid problems with
slurry agitation. A cross sectional view is shown in Figure
3.8.5.1.1. An outdoor exercise yard could be offered as an
additional exercise area, so that a multiple area system
is available. Minimum space requirements for heifers are
given in Table 3.8.5.1.1.
Figure 3.8.5.2.1: bedded house with sloped concrete floor.

Table 3.8.5.2.1: minimum space requirements for heifers

in bedded house with sloped floor (based on CIGR standard
dimensions for Holstein heifers)

Animal size Lying

area
Weight L H W m²/
(kg) (m) (m) (m) animal
Figure 3.8.5.1.1: bedded house with concrete feeding
stand. 150-249 1.17 1.09 0.35 3.00
250-349 1.31 1.19 0.42 3.80

Table 3.8.5.1.1: minimum space requirements for heifers 350-449 1.42 1.27 0.47 4.50
in bedded house with concrete or slatted feeding stand, 450-549 1.51 1.33 0.52 5.10
short or long stand (two area system) > 550 1.59 1.38 0.55 5.60

Animal L H W PW PW LA1 LA2 Total TL

weight (m) (m) (m) long short long short area (m)
(kg) (m) (m) (m²) (m²) (m²) 3.8.5.3 Cubicle house

150- 1.17 1.09 0.35 2.24 1.40 3.00 3.40 4.00 0.42 A cubicle house provides an animal with an individual safe
249 lying area. The system is widely used for dairy cows and the
250- 1.31 1.19 0.42 2.58 1.57 3.80 4.30 5.10 0.50 house type provides a clean lying area without the require-
349 ment for huge amounts of bedding material. Further aspects
of design of the cubicle base are given in Chapter 3.1.
350- 1.42 1.27 0.47 2.83 1.70 4.50 5.10 6.10 0.56
449
Major limitation with cubicles for heifers is the fact that as
450- 1.51 1.33 0.52 3.06 1.81 5.10 5.90 7.00 0.62 animal size is changing it is difficult to optimize the dimen-
549 sions of the cubicle. As young cattle are more agile than
> 550 1.59 1.38 0.55 3.23 1.91 5.60 6.40 7.70 0.66 older ones, cubicles must be narrower to prevent heifers
from turning around in the cubicle and to getting stuck or
Long stand = is designed/dimensioned for two directions making the cubicle too dirty. Table 3.8.5.3.1 shows the min-
traffic behind eating animal on the passage- imum space requirements based on Holstein Friesian heifers
way in cubicle houses.
Short stand = the length of the (feeding) stand (passage
width) is dimensioned/designed only for ea-
ting animal, i.e. traffic behind eating animal
is calculated to be on the bedding area
PW long : passage width, long stand = 1.2 L + 2.4 W
PW short : passage width, short stand = 1.2 L
LA1 long : lying area, long stand = (H + W) (1.05 L + 0.48
H + W)
LA2 short : lying area, short stand = LA1 + (1.2 W x 2.4 W)
TL : trough length = 1.2 W
Total area : lying area + feeding stand area, dependent of
passage width

48
Table 3.8.5.3.1: minimum space requirements for heifers in cubicle houses

Animal size Length

Weight L H CW CRL HS HLS CL1 CL2 NRH NRD
(kg) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
150-249 1.17 1.09 0.90 1.24 0.52 0.71 1.76 1.95 0.87-0.98 1.24-1.34
250-349 1.31 1.19 0.99 1.38 0.57 0.77 1.95 2.15 0.95-1.07 1.38-1.48
350-449 1.42 1.27 1.05 1.50 0.61 0.83 2.11 2.33 1.02-1.14 1.50-1.60
450-549 1.51 1.33 1.10 1.60 0.64 0.86 2.24 2.46 1.06-1.20 1.60-1.70
> 550 1.59 1.38 1.15 1.68 0.66 0.90 2.34 2.58 1.10-1.24 1.68-1.78

CW = Cubicle Width (free space) = 0.83 H

CRL = Cubicle Resting Length = 1.06 L
HS = Head Space = 0.48 H
HLS = Head and Lunge Space = 0.65 H Passageways and the dimensions and rules in this section
CL1 = Cubicle Length (space sharing) = CRL + HS should not be confused with more specialized animal move-
CL2 = Cubicle Length (non space sharing) = CRL + HLS ment or holding lanes, especially those that need to move
NRH = Neck Rail Height = 0.80 to 0.90 H or direct cows in a controlled single file path. These are usu-
NRD = Neck Rail Distance = CRL + 0 to 0.10 ally part of special features or activities such as entrance
and exit lanes, holding lanes, places where animals are di-
verted as part of their trip to or from the milking centre.
3.8.5.4 Tie stalls Also management or palpation rails, crushes and portions of
other areas designed and used for close work with the cow
Heifers can also be housed in tie stalls. This may be espe- that requires more positive control (see Chapter 3.10).
cially useful where the main herd are housed in tie stalls.
However tie stalls are not recommended for heifers. De- Some general parameters to consider when designing and
tailed of design of tie stalls is given in Chapter 3.2. building passageways include:

3.8.5.5 Outdoor yard and pasture • guide animals direction of travel as appropriate
• minimize cow injury from protruding objects, pinch
Animal welfare and health are positively influenced by pro- points or other items/areas of potential injury
viding an outdoor exercise yard and/or pasture. Special at- • avoid planned or unplanned openings in walls or fences
tention should be paid to the size and the flooring surface of that can entrap errant body parts of the cow (leg, tail,
the exercise yard. An outdoor yard for heifers up to 200 kg teat, head, tongue, etc.)
should have at least 2.2 m² per animal, for heifers up to 400 • obvious smooth transitions in lane width or directions
kg, 3.1 m² and up to 600 kg, 3.7 m². However, two or three with minimal sharp changes in directions
times this area is often provided. • adequate width for number and size of animals that are
being moved at the same time
• gates or doors hinged to allow them to guide animals in
3.9. SPACE FOR ANIMAL CIRCULATION the direction of desired movement and not interfere with
flow
3.9.1. PASSAGEWAYS • special attention to areas where animals might become
excited while being separated from herd mates or moved
Passages connect different function areas such as areas for to a new place. Side heights, openness of sides and con-
resting, feeding and watering as well as different units in struction may need to be altered to discourage attempts
the overall dairy facility such as milking centre, dry cow to jump over, climb up or become entangled trying to
area, maternity, young and growing cattle and areas for escape
treating and handling. Many of these areas are open to con- • addition of swinging gates that can aid the worker to di-
tinuous cow access as opposed to ones that may be only rect animal in desired direction
used when a worker is present and moving cows. The fol- • in areas where animals may be crowded along side walls
lowing recommendations are for hornless cattle. However, consider rub rails mounted at a height to keep cows
cattle with horns require about the same passage space, pin bones from being forced against the wall or caught
unless the horns are extreme in size. against vertical posts. This will improve cow comfort and
also minimizes damage to the wall or fence.
Passageway design, construction and maintenance should
consider the needs of the animal and the workers.
3.9.2 PASSAGEWAY FENCE AND WALL HEIGHT
The following discussion relates to design and construction
of passageways throughout the normal living and working The minimum height of any passage fence or wall within a
areas of a dairy system. The information may be helpful typical housing system or herd movement passageway (PH)
when considering more specialized cow moving and confin- required is equal to height of the animal (H) (see Equation
ing areas that direct cows into or out of milking parlour 1). This assumes that even if workers are present and di-
stalls, scales, footbaths or veterinary/management holding recting cows from place to place it is done in a calm, nonag-
devices. However, it is essential that additional require- gressive manner and that the animals are not fearful. Areas
ments or experiences available from manufacturers and where cows may be moved and held for veterinary treat-
suppliers of the specialized equipment, animal health and ment, separation from the herd and may be in a more ex-
management experts and users are considered. cited state require specialized design with attention given

49
to height to discourage jumping, open spaces in sidewalls or 3.9.3.1 Single file traffic passageway
fences that may tempt animals to try and go through them.
Often, these passages connect rest area, milking centre,
Passage Height (PH) = H (1) selection gates, as well as treatment, handling, calving and
weighing facilities with each other and may require more
Race fence height in handling facilities should be 1.15H (see care and knowledge in design and construction than in more
Chapter 3.10). free open movement areas. Adjustments of some dimen-
sions based on experience of designer, recommendations
3.9.3 PASSAGEWAY WIDTH of equipment suppliers, herd health professional and the
owner should be considered. Sometimes cross passages in
All passages must be of minimum width that allows ade- cubicle sections consist of one way passageway, but it is not
quate access and reduces aggressive behaviour. The total recommended. Additionally, due regard should be paid to
area that allows the animal to behave normally must be animals in late pregnancy. The minimum single file traffic
considered when planning the passageways; the passage- passageway width is given in Equation 2.
ways often serve more than just circulation purpose, as well
as other activities, such as feed intake, drinking and social Single file traffic passageway width (WPA) = 1.8W (2)
and sexual behaviour. Size of the animal group and kind of
animal are other parameters when determining the design 3.9.3.2 Two way traffic passageway
of passageways.
These passages allow animals meeting and passing each
It is thus, for example, that when the building welcomes other, as well as passing animals that use different facilities
groups with a great number of animals per group (200 and in the passageways such as cubicles, feeders and drinkers.
more), it is desirable to increase the width of different Therefore, one must plan the passageways to allow ade-
walkways in order to facilitate the circulation of animals. If quate space for animals and facilities to function properly
the group of dairy cows consist of both first calvers, which and exhibit normal behaviour. Common passageways are
considered as being part of the dominated animals, and along feeding table and cubicle rows, and cross passages.
multiparous cows (dominating animals), as well it is desir- Design and installation of these passageways must account
able to increase the width of the passageways to allow first for fixed and moving space for animals normal eating and
calve heifers to easily use and reach the resting areas, feed- drinking behaviour; backing away from eating or drinking;
ing areas, drinking places, the milking robots, etc.. Groups backing out of and turning away from cubicle; or changing
including animals in late pregnancy, as well as certain stra- direction in the passageway. Different kinds of two way pas-
tegies of feeding, also require an expansion of walkways sages are shown in figure 3.9.3.1, and the minimum width of
width. When the circulation passageways are comparatively these passageways are given in Equations 3–8.
long, it is recommended to increase the width; and cross
alleys should be planned in cubicle sections at least every Two way traffic passageway width (WPB) = 3.6W (3)
30 m.
Passageway type B (Figure 3.9.3.1.) is aimed only to allow
The increase of the width of the alleys must be realized by two animals to pass each other or walk side by side and
the designer of the building that will have to call upon his holds no facilities, e.g. cubicle houses cross passages with-
personal experience and to his capacity to pull the conclu- out any drinking vessels.
sions of the realized observations in recent buildings. The
farmer will have in addition to mark his agreement on the Single sided watering two way traffic passageway width
proposed solutions, while putting in relation advantages and (WPC) = 1.5L+3.6W (4)
cost supplements.
Passageway type C is often a cross passageway with a water
trough on one side in a cubicle compartment. The passage-
way width includes the water trough, which is assumed to
be 0.4 m wide.

Double sided cubicle two way traffic passageway width

(WPD) = L+1.8W (5)

Feeding and cubicle two way traffic passageway width

(WPE) = 2L+1.3W (6)

Single sided feeding two way traffic passageway width

(WPF) = L+3.6W (7)

WPE and WPF are essential for well functioning animal traf-
fic and behaviour such as oestrus behaviour, social interac-
tions, etc.. The passageway width must be designed varied
mainly in view of animal group size (mainly dependent on
number of cubicle rows), feeding strategy (i.e. restricted or
ad libitum feeding) and access to outdoor exercising area.
Figure 3.9.3.1: illustrating of pas-
The passageway floor qualities can also be factors coming
sageways according to equation (2) into play. For instance, if the passageway along a feeding
– (8), table 3.9.3.1. and equations table has soft flooring and the passageway along cubicle
3-8. rows has hard flooring, likely, the animal will reside more
frequent in the passageway along the feeding table than
otherwise, because they prefer to walk and stand on soft
floor.

50
Single sided cubicle two way traffic passageway width A = 1.8W Single file traffic passageway width
(WPG) = L +1.3W (8) B = 3.6W Two way traffic passageway width
C = 1.5L+3.6W Single sided watering two way cross passage-
Passageway type G is rare in dairy cattle cubicle houses, but way width; incl. water trough
will be found in special layouts, occasionally. D = L+1.8W Double sided cubicle traffic passageway width
E = 2L+1.3W Feeding and cubicle traffic passageway width
F = L+3.2W Single sided feeding two way traffic passageway
Table 3.9.3.1: minimum passageway width recommenda- width
tions with regard to animal category and weight (body di- G = L+1.3W Single sided cubicle traffic passageway width
mensions) in centimetres Note: animls in pregnancy need more space

Category of animal Weight H L W Width of passageways (cm)

(kg) (m) (m) (m) A B C D E F G
Calf 100 0.90 0.84 0.27 50 95 225 135 205 180 120
Heifers 150-249 1.09 1.17 0.35 65 125 300 180 280 245 165
250-349 1.19 1.31 0.42 75 150 350 205 315 280 185
350-449 1.27 1.42 0.47 85 170 380 225 345 310 205
450-549 1.33 1.51 0.52 95 185 415 245 370 340 220
> 550 1.38 1.59 0.55 100 200 435 260 390 355 230
Dairy cow 550-649 1.40 1.69 0.55 100 200 450 270 410 365 240
650-749 1.44 1.75 0.60 110 215 480 285 430 390 255
750-850 1.48 1.80 0.64 115 230 500 295 445 410 265

3.9.3.3 Passageway corners and curves

At corners of passageways animals need sufficient space to Table 3.9.3.2: minimum space at corners in one way pas-
avoid contact with boundary fences, walls or rails. Required sageways in centimetres
additional space is due to the angle through which the cat-
tle must turn; the width of the passageway approaching and
leaving the turn, and other cows occupying space going in Category Weight H L W A B C
the same or opposite direction. Minimum extra space at 90o of (kg) (m) (m) (m) (cm) (cm) (cm)
and 180o corners, respectively, is shown in Equation 9–10. animal
Sharp turns on hard surfaces, expected speed of animal Calf 100 0.90 0.84 0.27 50 55 60
movement and crowding increase the risk of hoof injuries,
Heifers 150-249 1.09 1.17 0.35 65 70 80
slips and falls and reduce cow traffic flow. Use as gentle
250-349 1.19 1.31 0.42 75 85 95
and smooth a turn as possible. Sharp inside or outside an-
350-449 1.27 1.42 0.47 85 95 110
gles should be avoided. Sharp turns, especially complete re-
450-549 1.33 1.51 0.52 95 105 120
verses in direction, 180o, should be avoided. However, when
> 550 1.38 1.59 0.55 100 110 125
moving animals up very steep slopes switch back type paths
are often required to provide lower slopes. Also, when Dairy 550-649 1.40 1.69 0.55 100 110 125
renovating existing buildings compromises are sometimes cow 650-749 1.44 1.75 0.60 110 120 140
necessary because of limited space. 750-850 1.48 1.80 0.64 115 130 145

Curve/entrance/exit B (90o corners) = 2W (9)

Curve C (180o corners) = 2.3W (10) 3.9.4 DOORS

Doors obstruct animal movement and circulation if narrow-

er than the passageway width. The framework around the
door, hinges or latches can also protrude such that animals
bump off them or catch them. This can cause serious injury
C
to the cow, impede animal flow and cause damage to the
door. Doors that can be arranged so the sides of the passage-
way go through the door is desirable. Single file doors need
to be at least the same width as single file passageways. In
broad passages, it is advisably to accommodate more than
one animal in the doorway. Therefore door width can be
determined from Equation 11., where n is the number of
animals to be accommodated in the doorway.
Figure 3.9.3.2: corner minimum width in one way passage- Door width (DW) = n(1.8W) (11)
way (A). Dotted lines show an option to improve cow traffic
in a rectangular turn. Curves of 180o should be avoided to
allow better animal flow and minimize injury.

51
3.10 SPECIAL NEEDS FACILITIES AND ANIMAL HANDLING hence prevent potential contamination of the milking par-
lour etc. Clearly, where access to the special needs unit is
3.10.1 INTRODUCTION located on the normal exit route from the milking parlour, it
will be easier to divert special needs cows as they are leav-
A modern dairy cow unit should include facilities for both ing the milking parlour. However, the sorting activity, using
treating and handling the animals and taking care of animals for instance a sorting gate, should be far enough away from
with special needs. The facilities can be divided up into ar- the parlour exit so that the milking routine is not disrupted.
eas for animals that need special optimized housing con- Also, areas where intensive and potential distressing treat-
ditions or particular treatment or handling. Special needs ments are performed should be located so cows travelling
groups or categories of cows and heifers may be: to and from milking parlour, or the holding area, are not
distracted.
• early and late dry cows
• at risk lactating cows; such as lame cows, older cows, Sorting cows on the exit route from the parlour can lead
slow milking and convalescent cows into several distinct areas. The first stop may be a short
• sick cows term holding pen where animals are held long enough for a
• transition cows and heifers; i.e. about 3 – 4 weeks pre- quick examination and treatment before returning to their
calving until about 2 - 3 weeks post-calving. housing group or being directed to another area with facili-
ties for longer term holding or treatment. Animals, which
Transition cows and heifers may be divided into: are not treated immediately and returned to their normal
housing area, may be moved to an intermediate holding
• close-up (or pre-fresh or pre-partum) cows and heifers; area whilst awaiting a visit by a veterinarian, hoof trimmer
i.e. cows and heifers from 21 – 28 days pre-partum up to, or breeder before being returned to their housing group. A
but not including, calving third group may require separation from their usual milking
• heifers and cows giving birth group for several milkings due to the nature of the treat-
• fresh (or post-fresh or post-partum) cows and heifers, ment or convalescence required. Animals in these areas
i.e. cows and heifers from calving to 14 – 21 days post- should have access to water, feed and comfortable resting.
partum.
3.10.3 HOLDING PENS
In smaller herds, it may be difficult to justify a special area,
facilities and equipment for special needs cows. As herds Selection gates from the return lane often divert cows
become larger and management demands for improved cow needing attention after milking. Cows may be diverted into
care increase, such facilities are easier to justify and are a stacking lane that runs parallel to the return lane or to
more important; but it should be taken into consideration a holding pen or sorting pen. As a minimum, a sorting pen
even in a smaller herd planning. should be sized to hold one side of the milking parlour, ex-
cept where automatic or manual sorting takes place as cows
Above that, herd treatment, or treatment and checking of exit the parlour. Animals in holding pens should have access
a specific animal, such as injections, deworming, claw trim- to water and feed, and allow cows to lie down. Headlocks
ming and insemination require facilities and equipment. are important if the pen will be used for initial examination
and simple treatment.
Handling and special needs facilities are of importance not
only for animal care and welfare but also for biosecurity, 3.10.4 HOUSING OF TRANSITION COWS
risk management and worker safety. Special needs animals
can be both a source of disease as well as some of the most Transition heifers and cows in special needs facilities can be
susceptible animals to diseases. The ability to quarantine housed in either cubicles or loose housing (bedded yard).
incoming stock and to isolate sick animals is crucial. A place Irrespective of their normal housing system, it is essential
near working areas to disinfect equipment should be pro- that these animals have an optimized environment to live
vided. Worker safety considerations should include a means in, including proper ventilation, excellent floor surface and
of escape from aggressive animals, minimizing entrapment hygienic conditions, heat stress control, and extra space for
hazards between worker and animals, as well as safe and resting and moving. Provide for smaller group sizes to re-
comfortable flooring and good lighting. duce social stress, and danger and transmission of infection.
It is recommended to design transition facilities to accom-
3.10.2 LOCATION modate 25 to 35 % more animals than would be estimated
using uniform calving, or correspondingly when estimated
Special needs housing areas can be located in several sep- using calving seasons.
arate houses, but it will increase labour requirement and
require movement of animals. Location is mostly depend- Cows need special attention during the first 2 to 3 weeks
ent on whether it will be used for lactating or non-lactating after calving. Providing a separate group and extra atten-
cows and heifers and hence should be near the target group. tion will typically result in improved performance through-
If special needs facilities are located away from the main out their lactation. Post-partum cows are about 5 - 6 % of
milking centre, it may create a need for a ‘hospital’ pen the milking herd. Provide the best environment possible for
near the milking parlour. However, where there is a risk of these cows to relieve the stress of the calving process.
disease spread from such stock, the facilities should be iso-
lated and hence positioned at a reasonable distance away 3.10.5 CLOSE-UP AND CALVING PENS
from the main herd and housing etc.
Systems used for close-up and maternity animals vary and
It is usually best to locate special needs facilities in a build- can include:
ing close to the milking centre so that cows have a short
distance to travel to the parlour and back. Alternatively, the • cubicle sections, or bedded yards, for large numbers of
vacuum and milk lines can be extended into the facility to pre-fresh animals with adjacent individual calving pens,
enable cows to be milked within the special needs unit and where cows are put only during calving. This necessitates

52
 round the clock observation to prevent cows from calving their calves will be kept together for a few days before be-
in the cubicle section. ing separated. Individual calving pens can also facilitate
• small bedded pens for 6 – 10 cows. The cows stay in this good hygiene practices and be safer for the stockman. The
area through calving (“group calving pens”). The mother purpose of “buffer pens” is to aid management and move-
and calf are removed from this area as soon as possible ments of cows to and from individual calving pens and re-
following calving to individual pens or other appropriate duce the risk of a cow giving birth in the cubicle section.
facilities.
• small bedded pens for 6 – 10 cows and adjoining individ- The number of individual calving pens should be calculated
ual calving pens where cows are put only during calving. according to equation (1), and group calving or buffer pens
• combination of a cubicle section, small bedded pens for according to equation (2).
6 – 10 cows (“buffer pens”) as an intermediate position,
and individual calving pens. Individual calving pen area

General recommendations: (ICPA) = 2Lx2L, with the shortest side = 1.85L (1)

Calving should not take place in cubicle sections because of Group calving pen area
hygiene, worker safety, risk of injury and loss of calves (e.g.
because of scrapers) and disturbed colostrum intake etc. (GCPA) per cow = 1.6(1.85Lx1.2H) (2)
Ideally, the cow and calf should be in a pen on their own
so that the calf can take on colostrum and not be disturbed The shortest side of group calving pen is dependent on the
by other stock. Additional pens will be required if cows and planned number of cows (See Table 3.10.5.1).

Table 3.10.5.1: minimum calving box dimensions for groups and single dairy cows

Weight H L W Single box Group box

(kg) (m) (m) (m) Area Side* Area Shortest side (m)
(m²) (m) (m² per cow) ≤3 cows 4-10 cows >10cows
550-649 1.40 1.69 0.55 11.4 3.1 8.4 3.1 5.3 7.5
650-749 1.44 1.75 0.60 12.3 3.2 8.7 3.2 5.5 7.8
750-850 1.48 1.80 0.64 13.0 3.3 9.0 3.3 5.7 8.0
*shortest side

Individual box area = 2Lx2L

Shortest side = 1.85L

Group box area per cow = 1.6 (1.85Lx1.2H)

with the shortest side for:
≤ 3 cows = 1.85L
4 - 10 cows = 1.7 x1.85L
> 10 cows = 2.4x1.85L

Calving pens should be well equipped as shown in Figure Figure 3.10.5.1: using revolving feeding gate as a wall in
3.10.5.1 and 3.10.5.2. individual calving pens to create a temporary stall for de-
livery assistance or clinical examination and treatment.
To give newly delivered cow access to tepid water, in a
bucket or corresponding facillity, encourage drinking in or-
der to remedy dehydration owing to delivery strain.

In order to have satisfactory hygiene at birth giving, all bed-

ding material should be taken away and (individual) calving
pens, and pen floor especially, should be cleaned properly.
To avoid direct contact between recumbent cow (as well as
newborn calf) and rough hard concrete floor, new bedding
material in abundance should be brought. However, the cow
when working with delivery moves new bedding material
easily. Therefore, a soft pen floor surface as rubber flooring
underneath the bedding is recommended. Figure 3.10.5.2: example of design and equipment of indi-
vidual calving pens.

53
3.10.6 TREATMENT AND HANDLING FACILITIES

Treatment and handling facilities may consist of:

• palpation or management rail: front and rump rails for

arranging cows in a long herringbone file before palpa-
tion or insemination
• single file race with raised walkways besides (catwalk)
for giving injections among other things
• Parallel double races and sorting gates to sort animals
into two groups
• crush with head gates and kiosk. Let at least about 1 m
free space on both side as working area
• wide passages or rectangular catch pens with headlocks
along one side can be used to temporarily lock up several
cows for neck and head access
• claw trimming crate permanently installed or portable. A
crush can be equipped for trimming operations.

Palpation rail is placed near and parallel to the return lane

from the milking parlour. The design and dimensions are:

• lane width = 0.7L

• head space = 0.7L
• lane length per cow = 1.3W
• rail height
• rear rail = 0.7H
• lower front rail (at throat) = 0.7H
• top front rail (at neck) = 1.1H Figure 3.10.6.1: dimensions of palpation rail unit shown by
plan and side view, respectively (after MWPS, 7th edition,
and shown in Figure 3.10.6.1. and Table 3.10.6.1. 2013).

Table 3.10.6.1: dimensions of palpation rail

Animal Weight H L W Lane Head Length Rail height (m)

(kg) (m) (m) (m) width space (m per Rear Front Front
(m) (m) cow) lower top
Dairy 550-649 1.40 1.69 0.55 1.20 1.20 0.70 1.00 1.00 1.55
cow 650-749 1.44 1.75 0.60 1.25 1.25 0.80 1.00 1.00 1.60
750-850 1.48 1.80 0.64 1.30 1.30 0.85 1.05 1.05 1.65

A crush is used to secure and immobilise animals whilst they

are being treated. The basic features are shown in Figures
3.10.6.2 and 3.10.6.3. Among the more important and desi-
rable features are:

• a race without any corners leading to the crush, prefer-

ably, a curved race just before (behind) the kiosk and
crush
• unobstructed personnel passes in the race for emergency
use
• the crush should be “walk-through”, preferably with a
self-locking head-gate
• in the crush the cow should be accessible from each side
of the crush and from behind (kiosk)
• a shelf or a table near the crush for veterinarian’s equip-
ment and materials.
• availability of hot and cold water.
• adequate area lighting for cow and worker movement
and excellent task lighting where close observation and
animal treatment occurs. Figure 3.10.6.2: example of a treatment unit layout.
• availability of electricity for instruments and tools.

54
 • Market cow and dry off group. Many dairies also have
an area that can be used for holding market cows. This
area may also be used to hold dry off cows for a day or
two whilst they get a reduced ration to help lower milk
production before milking is stopped. This pen should
provide for water, feed, resting and access to a loading
chute
• Isolation group. Animals suspected of having a contagious
disease should be completely separated from the rest of
the cows to minimize the likelihood of spread of the dis-
ease. In many cases, the best way to handle this may
be to move the cow to an unused barn away from the
milking animals. For biosecurity reasons, it is necessary
to prevent incoming infections to the herd. It is of vital
importance to have facilities that make it easy for ser-
vice personnel and visitors to have a wash and to change
Figure 3.10.6.3: example of a compact treatment unit, clothes or dress in protective clothing. They should use
which can be placed in a corner or an attached annexe, entrance doors leading directly to places at which service
which is especially useful for smaller herds. (After Bickert will be done resulting in a minimum of contact with the
et al, 2000). herd
• Foster cow group. Organic/ecological, but also conven-
tional, dairy farms sometimes use foster cows to which
the calves have access to suckle for up to weaning at 8
to 10 weeks of age. There are different selection crite-
ria for foster mothers as well as management and hous-
ing systems for the cow and calves. The foster cow and
calves can be kept single or grouped in cubicles or bed-
ded pens. Figure 3.10.7.1 shows an example layout for
grouped cows kept in cubicles. The foster cow section is
often located near or in the calving section

Figure 3.10.6.4: crush for dairy cows.

3.10.7 FACILITIES FOR OTHER SPECIAL DAIRY COWS

Facilities for other groups of special cows can be consid-

ered, especially in larger herds. It may be:

• Sick cow group. An area to treat and handle “downer”

cows and other serious health problems is also needed. Figure 3.10.7.1: cubicle systems for five foster cows and
A pen for one cow should be sized as an individual calv- their calves. The calves often prefer to lie down in front
ing pen, and with gate partitions, water bowl and feed of the cows, which is the reason for the layout (after Norr-
trough. The pen should include a lockup and gate ar- bom, 2001).
rangement that allows one worker to catch easily a cow
for close examination (see Figures 3.10.5.1). It is con- 3.11 HUMAN/WORKERS SAFETY AND HEALTH
venient to have easy access to these from outside the
building for humans and safe delivery or removal of cows 3.11.1 INTRODUCTION
that are not mobile
• Special attention group. Many times, it will enhance the Stockmen working in animal housing and associated han-
performance of the dairy if there is a group of cows that dling facilities are exposed to a number of potential risks
are kept separate from the mainstream cows because of and health hazards. Many stockmen work alone, handling
some other special needs. This would include lame, in- big, sometimes dangerous animals as well as large groups
jured, and slow or hard milking cows. They are typically of animals. Several work tasks involve daily lifting, carry-
housed in cubicles but may be on a bedded area ing of heavy loads and awkward working postures, which
• Treated cow group. Any lactating cow that has non-salea- may cause overload injuries on the worker’s musculoske-
ble milk should be kept in a separate group to lower the letal system. Other potential risk factors contributing to
risk of getting this milk into the bulk tank accidents as well as to physical health problems and physi-
ological stress for the worker is the fact that they operate

55
in an environment where they are exposed to airborne par- When a cow is, for example, frightened or is suffering pain,
ticles, gases and noise. The work environment is partly the she might demonstrate kicking behaviour. Cows generally
same environment, which is provided for the animals, and it kick forward or out to the side and this should be considered
should be noted that there is a strong relationship between when designing handling facilities and when in the milking
the animal welfare issues and the handling of the work en- parlour.
vironment problems in cattle houses.
Special attention should be taken to cows with newborn
Some risk factors are common to a wide range of farming calves and dairy bulls. A cow with a newborn calf can be
activities, i.e. use of machinery (tractors and so on), lad- more defensive and difficult to handle. Dairy bulls, by their
ders and suspended platforms, transit areas and electric nature, are more aggressive than cows and should never be
or heating plants, supply storage, chemicals manipulation, considered as safe. Some dairy bulls seem calm and gen-
heavy loads lifting or moving. Some are specific to the ani- tle but can react unexpectedly, resulting in injuries or even
mal breeding activity. Only these ones will be treated in death of their handlers.
this chapter and just for the aspects regarding the housing
design and management (e.g. not the workers behaviour or 3.11.3 MOVEMENT OF CATTLE
equipment use).
When there is a need to move or handle cattle and specific
3.11.2 ANIMAL HANDLING (loading) ramps or chutes are used, they should be shaped
and sized so as to facilitate the flow of animals (see Chapter
Stockmen may work carefully with animals most of the 3.10). They should ideally have solid side walls to prevent
time. However, accidents or injuries might occur because animals from seeing outside distractions and also reduce
of preoccupation, impatience, haste or anger. During these and prevent escape attempts. The animals will be calmer
moments, especially, a stockman needs to understand and and less stressed, which may lead to a reduced need for
anticipate animal behaviour in order to avoid dangerous si- human intervention and therefore accidents. Cattle tend to
tuations and minimise the risk of accidents. Therefore, han- move more freely from a dark to a more bright area. A spot-
dling facilities should be designed appropriately and related light directed on a ramp will often help to keep the animals
to animal behaviour. moving, provided the light does not hit them directly in
the eyes. Furthermore, illumination should be uniform and
Regarding animal handling, a major part of their reactions diffuse. Distractions should be prevented, such as a chain
can be explained by the characteristics of their vision. Cat- hanging down in an entrance. Sparkling reflection in a pud-
tle have a broad, nearly panoramic field of vision. This im- dle should be avoided, as well as a moving reflection on a
plies that, except for small blind spots at the nose and the sheet of metal or bars of shadow across an otherwise sunlit
rear, cattle are able to see all the way around them. There- alleyway. Dark colours can create shadow effects. Bright
fore, cattle should be approached from the side or the front colours such as white and light yellow have been proven
in order to prevent startling reactions. Cattle also have a satisfactory.
poor depth perception, probably poor acuity over 3 - 4 m
distance and dichromatic seeing (green and blue). However, Cattle are sensitive to changes in type and texture of floors
they have good seeing in darkness vs. human. Rapid changes and fences. Changes in type of flooring can cause balking.
in light intensity or at shadows may cause an animal to balk. The same type of, if possible, non-slip flooring should be
used throughout a facility. Drains should be located outside
Another aspect of cattle behaviour to be taken into ac- main drive alleys, chutes and crowd pens.
count is the fact that they have a so called ‘Flight Zone’
(Figure 3.11.2.1). Deep penetration into the ‘Flight Zone’ 3.11.4 MILKING
can cause panic and escape attempts. Handlers should be
aware of this and where necessary remove themselves from The problems associated with milking relate mainly to poor
the ‘Flight Zone’, particularly if the animal becomes ag- provision of spaces and facilities in terms of ergonomics. Of
gressive. To move an animal forward: the handler should particular importance is the shape of the parlour pit that
stand in the shaded area position ‘B’, behind the ‘Point of must have:
Balance’, at the shoulder. The person should keep out of the
‘Blind Spot’ at the rear of the animal. To stop movement: • A depth of between 0.75 – 1.00 m commensurate with
the handler should back off to position ‘A’. To make an ani- the height of the operator, (if necessary ‘duck boards’ or
mal back up: the person should stand in front of the ‘Point mats can be used to effectively raise the floor level, or a
of Balance’. To make an animal turn left or right: the animal new floor could be installed). (See table 3.11.4.1.)
should be approached head on. Several factors can reduce
an animal’s ‘Flight Zone’ and therefore improve handling
and human and animal safety, such as frequent contact with Table 3.11.4.1: recommended milking parlour depth de-
people, a history of gentle handling and a calm environ- pending on the type of milking equipment
ment.

Height of the Herring bone par- Side by side milk-

operator (m) lour or tandem ing parlour depth
depth (m) (m)
< 1.55 0.75 0.85
1.56 to 1.65 0.80 0.90
1.66 to 1.75 0.85 0.95
1.76 to 1.85 0.90 1.05
1.86 to 1.95 0.95 1.15
Figure 3.11.2.1: the ‘Flight Zone’ of cattle (Grandin,
> 1.95 1.00 1.25
1999a).

56
• An extended cow standing or a recess at the base of the
pit wall that allows the milker’s feet be placed below the
edge of the cow standing so that the milker can stand
closer to the cows and avoid stooping or bending their
back too much.

The edge of the pit should be protected with a kerb, or rail,

to prevent animals falling in, but, if possible, should be soft
or flexible to avoid crushing of hands by cows altering their
position. In addition, injuries might occur also because of
kicking cows during milking. The use of anti-kicking devices
(e.g. a leg restraint) might be used especially when cleaning
or examining the udder and teats.

The access stair to the pit must have non-slip steps, be Figure 3.11.5.1: principal components of a cattle handling
clean and free of other materials; if the stair is not placed system (after Borg, 1994).
between walls it should be equipped with a handrail.
3.11.6 HOUSING ENVIRONMENT
The floor area must be non-slip, drained (slope 2%) and kept
clean. Any obstacles should be removed and drain holes
3.11 6.1 Air quality
should be covered in a proper way. The walls should be
painted with light colours.
It has been known for decades that farm workers suffer
health risks due to inhalation of gases and airborne particles
Collecting yards should be provided with personnel refuges
(dust). The particles may be liquid droplets or solid. The
or ‘squeeze gap’ escape routes for personnel, should the
respiratory problems connected to gases range from mild
need arise.
irritations of the respiratory track to lethal effects. For the
most frequent components in the air environment in live-
Injuries of muscles, tendons, nerves and joints can be
stock buildings there are statutory threshold limit values,
caused by the milking equipment, such as milking clusters,
which differ from country to country. It should be noted
and difficult restricted working positions (posture) during
that the threshold limits for humans should be slightly lower
milking.
than those recommended for animal welfare (see Section
2.3.7).
3.11.5 INSPECTION AND TREATMENT OF STOCK
Table 3.11.6.1.1: limits for concentration of the toxic gases
Special facilities should be provided for veterinary and
(ppm)
other such treatments, e.g. insemination, dehorning, hoof
trimming and medication. Feed mangers may incorporate Exposure NH3 CO2 H 2S
locking barriers that can be used to secure cows singly or in
groups. However, in large herds separate handling and hol- Prolonged 10 2500 2.5
ding facilities will generally be required for veterinary and Short 20 5000 10
other treatments. The basic requirements of a system are:

• collection alley to move cattle from their housing, pas- Table 3.11.6.1.2: current safe maximum exposure limits
ture or feedlot to the holding pen recommended in Australia (Cargill et al., 2002)
• sorting pens. Opening off the collection alley or holding
pens, or after the working area
• holding pens to hold either the whole herd or groups of Pollutant Maximum safe
30 – 50 cattle concentration
• crowding pen to move small groups of 8 – 10 cattle into Ammonia 10 ppm
the working area Inhalable particles 2.4 mg/m3
• single file race, at least 6 m long to hold 3 – 4 cattle at
once Respirable particles 0.23 mg/m3
• loading chute Respirable endotoxins 50 EU/m³
• crush, preferably a “walk-through” type and with a self-
Total airborne bacteria 1.0 x 105 cfu/m³
locking head-gate
• options such as scales, calf crush or table, belly clipping
crush, crush equipped for claw-trimming, access kiosk The main way to reduce risk is through proper ventilation,
for artificial insemination and gynaecological examina- which should be substantially increased during agitation,
tions, shelf near the crush for veterinarian’s equipment mixing or pumping of slurry under slatted floors, in addition
and materials, the availability of electricity as well as it is advisable to reduce the likelihood of gas production
hot and cold water near the crush. through frequent removal of manure from the building. It
must be emphasised that it is dangerous to enter any ma-
For more information on the design of cattle handling fa- nure tank without either using a self-contained air supply or
cilities, the CIGR report “Design recommendations of beef taking appropriate precautions i.e. testing the air quality,
cattle housing” (2002) should be consulted. providing constant and adequate ventilation of fresh air as
well as using a harness and lifeline on the person entering
the tank.

Dust in animal houses is generated inside the buildings and

arises primarily from the animals bedding and feed materi-

57
als. The airborne particles are often carriers of biologically sound level as halving if a reduction of 10 dB(A) occurs). It
active material like endotoxins, pathogens and allergens is fairly easy to reduce the sound level of ventilation fans
that can be utterly disease provoking. Again, proper ventila- and other mechanical noise generators. Maximum noise lev-
tion is an important factor for risk reduction. But, the most el recommendations and regulations differ from country to
effective way to obtain a low dust concentration level is country, but it can be recommended not to exceed 65 dB(A)
to prevent formation by using hygienically impeccable for- continuously and 80 dB(A) for shorter exposure periods.
age and bedding materials. The use of masks is sometimes Furthermore, it is important to reduce noise when handling
necessary (e.g. handling of forage and bedding materials). cattle in order to improve animal movement and to make
cattle handling safer. Equipment operated with hydraulics
Biological agents (bacteria, viruses, fungi etc.) represent should be engineered for quietness. It is also recommended
a potential risk when involving contact with animals and to install fixed engines in a cabin or in a separate space (e.g.
their biological materials (secretions, blood, urine, abortion pumps, milking pulsator).
products, manure etc.). Therefore, in addition to the use of
appropriate protective equipment it is necessary to provide 3.11.7 ANCILLARY ACTIVITIES
appropriate veterinarian facilities and consider the environ-
mental hygiene of farms and stables (i.e. biosecurity). Spaces properly sized and shaped must be provided for dif-
ferent housing activities.
3.11.6.2 Flooring
3.11.7.1 Traffic routes, danger areas and passageways
The floor must be:
The internal transit areas must be located and sized so that
- Not slippery; particularly when wet and sloped, pedestrians and vehicles can use them safely, without risk
- Free from holes, hollows or protrusions, to workers nearby. The size should be determined according
- Draining into an appropriate drainage system (with appro- to the number of users and the need for manoeuvring space
priate channels and gutters properly arranged), of the mechanical equipment and a safe distance for pedes-
- Properly sloped for drainage purposes, 1 – 2 % (but not too trians should be provided. Roof overhangs and aerial cables
steep so as to increase the slip risk), should be well marked and positioned at least 1 m, or more,
- Holes, obstacles or steps must be adequately covered. above the highest vehicle.

3.11.6.3 Lighting Danger areas must be indicated and equipped with devices
to prevent access by unauthorized persons; furthermore,
In general, workplaces must have sufficient natural light. In appropriate measures to protect workers authorized to en-
addition they must be equipped with devices that allow for ter must also be taken.
artificial lighting of adequate intensity and arranged as to
avoid shadows and glare. The lighting systems must be kept 3.11.7.2 Doors and gates
in a good state of cleanliness and efficiency.
Doors and gates capable of being opened from either side
Table 3.11.6.3.1: light level recommendations (i.e. swinging doors) should be transparent or have trans-
parent panels, with indicative signs at eye level on both
sides. If the transparent surfaces of the doors and gates are
Areas Minimum Recommended not made from resistant materials, they must be protected
lighting (lux) lighting (lux) against breakage and cleaned regularly.
Transit and 100 150
Sliding or folding doors should have a security system that
simple activities
prevents them from being derailed or falling.
Intensive work 150 300
Precision works 300 500 Mechanically operated doors and gates should be fitted with
(i.e. milking) an emergency stop and be possible to open manually in case
of power failure.
Interventions of 500 1000
particular difficulty
‘Man-gates’ should be present all around the cattle living
(e.g. medical
areas. ‘Man-gates’ are generally small passages between
treatment)
two posts, approximately 30 to 50 cm apart, in the fence
or a feeding barrier. A person can easily go from one area to
another (without necessarily using a gate or a door, or ha-
In places where there are risks of damage to the lighting ving to climb over a feeding barrier or fence) but can also
system or power failure an emergency lighting of adequate easily escape from unexpected, potentially dangerous situ-
intensity must be provided. Flourescent lamps have a lower ation.
risk of fire than incandescent ones.
3.11.7.3 Walls, windows and skylights
3.11.6.4 Noise
Walls should preferably have light colours. Windows, sky-
Noise can be defined as unwanted sound or rapid, annoying lights and fans should be safe and easy to access or be
pressure vibration in the surrounding air. Ventilation fans, closed or adjusted by workers. Avoid the use of control de-
grinders, vacuum pumps and mechanical feeding and ma- vices requiring staff to enter areas where loose animals may
nure systems generate noise. High sound levels are a real be present.
stress factor. Exposure to noise will be able to cause tem-
porary deafness and permanent hearing loss after a variable 3.11.7.4 Emergency routes and exits
period if the level is over 85 dB(A). (The unit, dB(A), is ex-
ponential and the human sense of hearing will perceive the Routes and exits must not be obstructed by objects so that

58
they can be used at any time without hindrance. Minimum • Entry of manure pits should be avoided. If a manure pit
height is 2.2 m. is entered with even a small quantity of manure present,
the person should be equipped with a respirator, a har-
Where exits are equipped with doors, they must have an ness and lifeline, and should be supervised by a second
opening to the sense of the exit and, if closed, should be person prepared with an emergency plan
easy to open, particularly in an emergency. • The insertion of traps or closing devices into a pipeline
can be useful to block the rise of harmful gases
Routes and exits must be marked by special signs and must • People should not smoke or use an naked flame near
be equipped with emergency lighting of adequate intensity, slurry pits, or in poorly ventilated areas with manure
which is operational in the event of electrical failure. present.

3.11.7.5 Services

Rest rooms, changing rooms, showers and toilets must be

provided close to the place of work. Toilets should be fur- REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
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First aid kits, fire extinguishers and protection equipment Andersson, M., Schaar, J., & Wiktorsson, H., 1984. Effects of
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