RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

II B. Tech II Semester
Thermal Engineering – 1
Unit - IV
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UNIT-IV [MEASUREMENT, TESTING AND PERFORMANCE]
Objectives: To make the student learn to perform testing on S.I and C.I. Engines
for the calculations of performance and emission parameters.
Day 28
Q1. What do you mean by performance of an engine? Also list out the various
performance parameters.
Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success with which it does
its assigned job i.e., conversion of chemical energy contained in the fuel into the
useful mechanical work.
In evaluation of engine performance certain basic parameters are chosen and
the effect of various operating conditions, design concepts and modifications on
these parameters are studied.
The basic performance parameters are numerated and discussed below:
1) Power and mechanical efficiency 6) Specific fuel consumption
2) Mean effective pressure and torque 7) Thermal efficiency and heat balance
3) Specific output 8) Exhaust smoke and other emissions
4) Volumetric efficiency 9) Specific weight.
5) Fuel-air ratio
Q2. Explain the terms indicated power, brake power and frictional power.
(i) Indicated power. The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the
combustion chamber is called indicated power.
pLAnk
ip = KW
60000
Where, k = Number of cylinders,
Pim = Indicated mean effective pressure, bar,
L = Length of stroke, m,
A = Area of piston, m2, and
n = ½ N for 4-stroke engine = N for 2-stroke engine.
(ii) Brake power (B.P.). The power developed by an engine at the output shaft is
calledthe brake power.
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑏. 𝑝. = 𝐾𝑊
60000
Where, N = speed in rpm, andT = torque in N-m.
The difference between I.P. and B.P. is called frictional power, F.P.
f.p = i.p - b.p
Q3. What is frictional power? List out the various methods to determine the
frictional power.
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Sol: The difference between the indicated and the brake power of an engine is
known as frictional power. The internal losses (frictional power) in an engine are
essentially of two kinds, viz., pumping losses and frictional losses. During both
suction and exhaust strokes the piston must be moved against a gaseous
pressure, and this causes the so called pumping loss. The frictional loss is made
up of the friction between the piston and the cylinder walls and between the
crankshaft and camshaft and their bearings, as well as by the loss incurred by
driving the essential accessories, such as the water pump, ignition unit etc.
The following methods are used to find the frictional power to estimate the
performance of the engine.
i) Willan’s line method ii) Morse test
iii) Motoring test iv) Retardation test
v) From the measurement of indicated and brake power
Homework:
1) The cubic capacity of a four stroke over square engine SI engine is 280cc. The over
square ratio is 1.3. The clearance volume is 25cc. Calculate the bore, stroke and
compression ratio of the engine.
2) A 50Kw engine has a mechanical efficiency of 80%. Find the indicated power and
frictional power. If the frictional power is assumed to be constant with load, what
will be the mechanical efficiency at 60% of the load?
Important and previous JNTUK questions:
1) Define the terms i.p, b.p and f.p of an engine. (8M) (May 2013, 2015)
2) What is frictional power? And how it is determined? (8M) (May 2014, 2015)
3) Define specific fuel consumption.(3M) (Reg S-1 2017)
4) Define mean effective pressure. (3M) (Reg S-2 2017)
5) Enumerate the various engine efficiencies. Explain? (6M) (Reg S-2 2017)
6) Define mechanical efficiency of an IC engine. (3M) (Reg S-4 2017)
Day 29
Q4. Explain the willan’s line method and Morse test for finding the frictional
power of an engine.
Willan’s line method: This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation
method. A graph connecting between fuel consumption and brake power at
constant speed is drawn and it is extrapolated on the negative axis of brake
power. The intercept of the negative axis is taken as the frictional power at that
speed. The method of extrapolation is shown below. When the engine does not
develop any power, i.e., b.p = 0, it consumes some amount of fuel. The energy
would have been spent in overcoming the friction. Hence, the extrapolated
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negative intercept of the x-axis will be work representing the combined losses
due to mechanical friction, pumping and blow by loss and as a whole it is termed
as frictional power of the engine.

Fig 4.1 Willians Line Method

The frictional power measured by this method will hold good only for a
particular speed and is applicable mainly to CI engines. The main drawback of
this method is the long distance to be extrapolated from data obtained between
5 and 40% load towards the zero line of fuel input. It is essential that great care
should be taken in extrapolating the line and as many readings as possible
should be taken at light loads to establish true nature of the curve.
Q5. Explain Morse test for finding the frictional power of an engine.
The morse test consists of obtaining
indicated power of the engine without
any elaborate equipment. The test
consists of making inoperative, in turn,
each cylinder of the engine and noting
the reduction the brake power
developed. With a gasoline engine each
cylinder is rendered inoperative by
shorting the spark plug of the cylinder;
with a diesel engine by cutting off the
supply of the supply of fuel to each

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cylinder. It is assumed that pumping and frictional losses are the same when the
cylinder is inoperative as well as during firing. This test is applicable only to multi
cylinder engines.
In this test the engine is first run at the rated speed by adjusting the throttle in SI
engine or the pump rack is locked in this position. Then, one cylinder is cut out
by short circuiting the spark plug in the SI engine or by disconnecting the
injector in the CI engine. Under this condition all the other cylinders will motor
the cut out cylinder and the speed and output drop. The engine speed is brought
to its original speed by reducing the load. This will ensure that the frictional
power is the same while the brake power of the engine will be with one cylinder
less.
If there are k cylinders, then
k

ip1 + ip2 + ip3 + ip4 + ⋯ + ipk = ∑ bpk + fpk

1
where ip, bp and fp are respectively indicated, brake and frictional power and
the suffix k stands for the cylinder number.
If the first cylinder is cut-off, it will not produce any power but it will have
friction, then
k

ip2 + ip3 + ip4 + ⋯ + ipk = ∑ bpk + fpk

2
Subtracting equation (2) from (1)
k k

ip1 = ∑ bpk − ∑ bpk

1 2
Similarly we can find the indicated power of the cylinders, viz, .ip2 , ip3 , ip4 …
The total indicated power developed by the engine, ipk , is given by
k

ipk = ∑ ipk
1
when all the k cylinders are working, it is possible to find the brake power 𝑏𝑝𝑘 ,
of the engine.
The frictional power of the engine is given by
fpk = ipk − bpk
Q6. Explain Motoring test method for determining the frictional power.

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In motoring test the engine is steadily operated at the rated speed by its own
power and allowed to remain under the given speed and load conditions for
sufficient time so that the temperature of the engine components, lubricating oil
and the cooling water reaches the steady state. A swinging field type electric
dynamometer is used to absorb the power during this period which is most
suitable for this test. The ignition is then cut off and by suitable electric
switching devices the dynamometer is converted to run as a motor so as to
crank the engine at the same speed at which it was previously operating. The
power supply from the above dynamometer is measured which is a measure of
the frictional power of the engine at that speed. The water supply is also cut off
during the motoring test so that the actual operating temperatures are
maintained to the extreme possible.
This test does not give true losses occurring under firing conditions due to
i) The temperatures in the motored engine are different from those in a
firing engine.
ii) The clearance between piston and cylinder wall is more, due to cooling,
and this reduces the piston friction.
iii) The air is drawn at a temperature much lower than when the engine is
firing because it does not get heat from the cylinder (rather losses heat to
the cylinder).
Motoring method gives reasonably good results and is very suitable for finding
the losses imparted by various engine components. First the full engine is
motored, then the test is conducted under progressive dismantling conditions
keeping water and oil circulation intact. Then the cylinder head can be removed
to evaluate by difference, the compression loss. In this manner, piston rings,
pistons, etc. can be removed and evaluated for their effect on overall friction.
Q7. Explain Retardation test method for determining the frictional power.
This test involves the method of retarding the engine by cutting the fuel supply.
The engine is made to run at no load and rated speed taking all usual
precautions. When the engine is running under steady operating conditions the
supply of fuel is cut off and simultaneously the time of fall in speeds by say 20%,
40%, 60%, 80% of the rated speed is recorded. The tests are repeated once
again with 50% load on the engine. The values are usually tabulated in an
appropriate table. A graph connecting time for fall in speed (x-axis) and speed
(y-axis) at no load as well as 50% load conditions is drawn as shown below.

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From the graph the time required to fall through the same range (say 100rpm) in
both, no load and load conditions are found. Let t2 and t3 be the time of fall at
no load and load conditions respectively. The frictional torque and hence
frictional power are calculated as shown below. Moment of inertia of the
rotating parts is constant throughout the test.

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Tl is the load torque which can be measured from the loading, t 2 and t3 are
observed values. From the above Tf can be calculated and thereby the frictional
power.
Q8. Explain from the measurement of indicated and brake power method for
determining the frictional power.
This is an ideal method by which f.p is obtained by computing the difference
between i.p obtained from an indicator diagram and b.p obtained by a
dynamometer. This method is mostly used only in research laboratories as it is
necessary to have elaborate equipment to obtain accurate indicator diagrams at
high speeds.
Home work:
1) Find out the speed at which a four-cylinder engine using natural gas develops a
brake power of 60kw working under following conditions. Air-gas ratio 9:1, calorific
value of the fuel = 34 MJ/m3, compression ratio 10:1, volumetric efficiency = 70%,
indicated thermal efficiency = 35% and the mechanical efficiency = 80% and the
total volume of the engine is 2.4 litres.
2) A four stroke petrol engine at full load delivers 50Kw. It requires 8.5kw to rotate it
without load at the same speed. Find its mechanical efficiency at full load, half load
and quarter load.Also find out the volume of the fuel consumed per second at full
load if the brake thermal efficiency is 25%, given that calorific value of the fuel = 42
MJ/kg and specific gravity of the fuel is 0.75. Estimate the indicated thermal
efficiency.
3) A gasoline engine working on four stroke engine develops a brake power of
20.9kw. A Morse test was conducted on this engine and the brake power obtained
when each cylinder was made inoperative by short circuiting the spark plug are
14.9kw, 14.3kw, 14.8kw and 14.5kw respectively. The test was conducted at
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constant speed. Find the indicated power, mechanical efficiency and bmep when
all the cylinders are firing. The bore of the engine is 75mm and the stroke is 90mm.
The engine is running at 300rpm.
Important and previous JNTUK questions:
1) Explain willan’s line method to determine the f.p with a neat diagram. (8M)
(May 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016)
2) How the frictional power is obtained by morse test? (May 2013, 2015 8M)
3) Explain retardation test to determine the f.p with a neat diagram. (May 2012,
2015 10M)
4) How the frictional power is obtained by motoring test? (May 2013 2014 2016
6M)
5) List out various methods used to determine friction power of an IC engine?
Which of those you think, will give more accurate results.(4M April 2016)
6) A gasoline engine working on four stroke develops a brake power of 20.9 kW. A
Morse test was conducted on this engine and the brake power (kW) obtained
when each cylinder was made inoperative by short circulating the spark plug are
14.9, 14.3, 14.8 and 14.5 respectively. The test was conducted at constant
speed. Find the indicator power, mechanical efficiency and bmep when all the
cylinders are firing. The bore of the engine is 75 mm and the stroke is 90 mm.
The engine isrunning at 3000 rpm. (10M, S-2, 2017)
Day 30
Q9. What is indicated power? Explain the method to determine it.
Sol: Indicated power of an engine tells about the health of the engine and also
gives an indication regarding the conversion of chemical energy in the fuel into
heat energy. For obtaining the indicated power the cycle pressure must be
determined as a function of cylinder volume. In order to estimate the indicated
power of an engine the following methods are usually followed.
i) using the indicator diagram
ii) by adding two measured quantities viz. b.p and f.p
Method of using the indicator diagram: The device which measures the variation
of the pressure in the cylinder over a part or full cycle is called an indicator and
the plot of such information obtained is called an indicator diagram. An indicator
diagram gives a very good indication of the process of combustion and in the
associated factors such as rate of pressure rise, ignition lag etc. by its analysis.
Also the losses occurring in the suction and exhaust strokes can be studied.

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Pressure-volume (p-v) diagram and pressure- crank angle (p-θ) diagram are the
types of indicator diagrams that can be obtained from an engine. Both these
diagrams are mutually convertible. The actual indicator diagram is shown in
(fig4.4). The shaded area represents the work done in charging the cylinder and
discharging the cylinder. The unshaded area represents the gross power(gp),
developed and the shaded one represents the pumping power(pp). Therefore,
the ip = (gp - pp). In practice pp is generally ignored since it is very small. Thus
the area of the indicated diagram if measured accurately will represent the ip of
the engine.
Q10. What is a Dynamometer.
Sol: Measurement of brake power is one of the most important one in the test
schedule of an engine. It involves the determination of torque and the angular
speed of the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called a
dynamometer.
A dynamometer is a brake except the measuring devices are included to indicate
the amount of force required in attempting to stop the engine. The following are
the important types of dynamometers
Q11. Explain Prony brake dynamometer used for obtaining the brake power of
an engine.
Prony brake dynamometer: One of the simplest method of measuring the power
output of an engine is to attempt to stop the engine by means of a mechanical
brake on the flywheel and measure the weight which an arm attached to the
brake will support, as it tries to rotate the flywheel. This system is known as
prony brake dynamometer and from its use, the expression brake power has
come. The prony brake consists of a frame with two brake shoes gripping the
flywheel as shown in fig 4.5.
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The pressure of the brake shoes on the flywheel can be varied by the spring load
using the nuts on the top of the frame. The wooden block when pressed into
contact with the rotating drum opposes the engine torque and the power is
dissipated in overcoming the frictional resistance. The power absorbed is
converted into heat and hence this type of dynamometer must be cooled.
The brake power is given by
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑏. 𝑝. = 𝐾𝑊𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒(𝑇 = 𝑊 ∗ 𝑙)𝑊 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙
60000
Q12. Explain Rope brake dynamometer used for obtaining the brake power of
an engine.
The rope brake shown in fig 4.6 is
another type of dynamometer for
measuring the bp of an engine. It
consists of a number of turns of rope
wound round the rotating drum
attached to the output shaft. One side
of the rope is connected to a spring
balance and the other end to a
balancing device. The power absorbed
is due to friction between the rope and
the drum. The drum therefore requires
cooling.
Rope brake is quite cheaper and can be
easily fabricated but not very accurate
because of changes in the friction coefficient of the rope with temperature.
The bp is given by, bp = π DN(W-S)/60000
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Where D is the brake drum diameter, W is the weight and S is the spring scale
reading.
Homework:
1) A single cylinder engine running at 1800rpm develops a torque of 8 Nm. The ip of
the engine is 1.8 KW. Find the loss due to fp as the percentage of bp.
2) A gasoline engine working on otto cycle consumes 8 liters of gasoline per hour and
develops 25 KW. The specific gravity of gasoline is 0.75 and its calorific value is
44000 KJ/Kg. Determine the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine.
3) A four stroke, four cylinder diesel engine running at 2000 rpm develops 60 KW.
Brake thermal efficiency is 30% and calorific value of fuel is 42 MJ/Kg. Engine has a
bore of 120mm and stroke of 100mm. Take density of air = 1.15 Kg/m3, air-fuel
ratio = 15:1 and mechanical efficiency = 0.8. Calculate
i) fuel consumption (Kg/s) ii) air consumption (m3/s)
iii) indicated thermal efficiency iv) volumetric efficiency
v) brake mean effective pressure and vi) mean piston speed
Important and previous JNTUK questions:
1) What is indicated power? Explain the method to measure it. (8m) (May 2013,
2014)
2) Explain the various dynamometers used to determine the bp of an engine. (8m)
(May 2012, 2014)
3) Explain why useful power output at the end of the shaft is called as brake
power. (4M) ( April/May-2016)
4) Explain Rope brake dynamometer to determine the brake power of an engine?
(6M) (S-3, April/May-2017)
5) With the help of a neat sketch, the working of a mechanical indicator to
determine the indicated power of an engine? (6M) ( S-4, April/May-2017)
Day 31
Q13. Differentiate between absorption and transmission type dynamometers.
Sol: Absorption dynamometers: These dynamometers measure and absorb the
power output of the engine to which they are coupled. The power absorbed is
usually dissipated as heat by some means. Examples of such dynamometers are
prony brake, rope brake, hydraulic, eddy current dynamometers etc.
Transmission dynamometers: In transmission dynamometers the power is
transmitted to the load coupled to the engine after it is indicated on some type
of scale. These are also called torquemeters.
Q14. What is mean effective pressure? Explain.
Sol: The pressure in the cylinder is varies throughout the cycle and the variation
can be expressed with respect to volume or crank angle to obtain the p-v and p-
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θ diagrams respectively. However, such a continuous variation does not readily
lend itself to simple mathematical analysis in the computation of ip. If an
average pressure for one cycle can be obtained, then the calculation becomes
far less difficult.
As the piston moves back and forth between TDC and BDC as shown below the
process lines on the p-v diagram indicate the successive states of the working
fluid through the cycle. The indicated net work of the cycle is represented by the
area 1234 enclosed the process lines for that cycle. If the area of rectangle ABCD
equals area 1234, the vertical distance between the horizontal lines AB and CD
represents the indicated mean effective pressure, imep. It is a mean value
expressed in N/m2, which, when multiplied by the displacement volume, vs,
gives the same indicated net work as is actually produced with the varying
pressures.
Pim .(V1-V2) = Net work of cycle

Net work of cycle Area of the indicator diagram

pim = =
V1 − V2 Length of the indicator diagram
On an actual engine, the p-v diagram is obtained by a mechanical or electrical
instrument attached to the cylinder taking into consideration the spring
constant. The area enclosed by the actual cycle on the indicator card may be
measured by a planimeter. The value of the area measured, when divided by the
piston displacement, results in the mean ordinate, or indicated mean effective
pressure.

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Q15. Define the terms specific fuel consumption and specific energy
consumption.
Sol: Specific fuel consumption is defined as amount of fuel consumed to produce
unit power. The amount of fuel consumed to produce unit brake power is brake
specific fuel consumption (bsfc) and the amount of fuel consumed to produce
unit indicated power is called indicated specific fuel consumption (isfc). It is
usually expressed in kg/kwh and gm/kws.
Specific energy consumption is defined as the amount of fuel energy spent to
produce unit power. The amount of fuel energy spent to produce unit brake
power is brake specific energy consumption (bsec) and the amount of fuel
energy spent to produce unit indicated power is called indicated specific energy
consumption (isec). It is usually expressed in kg/kwh and gm/kws.
Homework:
1) A four cylinder engine running at 1200 rpm delivers 20 KW. The average torque
when one cylinder was cut is 110 Nm. Find the indicated thermal efficiency if the
calorific value of the fuel is 43 MJ/Kg and the engine uses 360 grams of gasoline
per KWh.
2) The following observations have been made from the test of a four cylinder, two
stroke gasoline engine. Diameter = 1 cm; stroke = 15 cm; speed = 1600 rpm; Area
of positive loop of the indicator diagram = 5.75 sq cm; Area of negative loop of the
indicator diagram = 0.25 sq cm; Length of indicator diagram = 55 mm; Spring
constant = 3.5 bar/cm; Find the ip of the engine.
3) The bore and stroke of a water cooled, vertical, single cylinder, four stroke diesel
engine are 80 mm and 110 mm respectively and the torque is 23.5 Nm. Calculate
the brake mean effective pressure of the engine. Find the mep and torque
developed by the above engine if its rating is 4 KW at 1500 rpm.
Important and previous JNTUK examination questions:
1) What is a dynamometer? How they are classified?
2) Explain the terms bsfc, isfc, bsec and isec and give the expressions for them.
3) What do you understand by mean effective pressure? How it is obtained? (8) (May
2013,2015)
4) Derive the expression for ip from the concept of mean effective pressure.
5) A trial was conducted on a single-cylinder oil engine having a cylinder diameter of
30 cm and stroke 45 cm. The engine is working on the four-stroke cycle and the
following observations were made:(10M, Apr,S-1, 2017)
Duration of trial = 54 minutes
Total fuel used = 7 liters
Calorific value = 42 MJ/kg
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Total number of revolution = 12624
Gross imep = 7.25 bar
Pumping imep = 0.35 bar
Net load on the brake = 150 kg
Diameter of the brake wheel drum = 1.78 m
Diameter of the rope = 4 cm
Cooling water circulated = 550 liters
Cooling water temperature rise = 480C
Specific heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg K
Specific gravity of oil = 0.8
Calculate the mechanical efficiency and also the unaccounted losses
6) A four-stroke, four-cylinder gasoline engine has a bore of 60 mm and a stroke of
100 mm. on test it develops a torque of 66.5 Nm when running at 3000 rpm. If the
clearance volume in each cylinder is 60 cc the relative efficiency with respect to
brake thermal efficiency is 0.5 and the calorific value of the fuel is 42 MJ/kg.
Determine the fuel consumption in kg/h and the brake mean effective pressure.
(10M, Apr,S-4, 2017)
Day 32
Q16. Explain the various methods for determining the fuel consumption.
Sol: There are two ways of expressing fuel consumption viz. by volume or by
weight during a specified period. For automobiles it is expressed in terms of
kilometers per liter. The basic type of fuel measurement methods are volumetric
type and gravimetric type.
Q17. Explain Volumetric type flowmeter for determining the fuel consumption.
Volumetric type flowmeter or
Burette method consists of two
spherical glass bulbs having 100cc
and 200cc capacity respectively
as shown in fig 4.8. They are
connected by three way cocks so
that one may feed the engine
while the other is being filled. The
glass bulbs are of different
capacities so as to make the
duration of the tests
approximately irrespective of the
engine load whilst the spherical

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form combines strength with a small variation of fuel head which is most
important particularly in case of carburetor engines.
In order to avoid the error in sighting the fuel level against the mark on the
burette photocells are used.
Q18.Explain Gravimetric fuel flow measurement for determining the fuel
consumption.
The efficiency of an engine is generally related to the kilograms of fuel which are
consumed and not to the number of litres. The method of measuring volume
flow and then correcting it for specific gravity variations is quite inconvenient
and limited in accuracy. Instead if the weight of the fuel consumed is directly
measured a great improvement in accuracy and cost can be obtained.
The method involves weighing the fuel supplied to the engine by an
arrangement as shown below. In this method the valve A is opened whenever
the engine is to be run without measuring the rate of fuel supply and valve B is
closed so that fuel from tank directly flows to the engine. The fuel from the tank
is supplied to the flask by opening
the valves A and B whenever
measurement of the fuel is to be
done. On the balance the amount
of fuel is weighed. Keeping the
valve B open the valve A is closed so
that the fuel from flask is siphoned
off to the engine. This method
avoids separate determination of
the specific gravity of the fuel. The
time taken to syphon off the
weighed fuel completely is noted by
means of a stop watch. Then the
fuel consumption in gravimetric
units is obtained.
Q19. How the fuel consumption is measured in automobiles?
Sol: The simple way of measuring the fuel consumption in KMPL. The instrument
shown below is used which accurately checks the amount of fuel used by the
vehicle under test. A glass burette of 1 litre capacity is connected by tubes and
control valves so that the precise number of Km/litre is observed on an actual
road test. The instrument shows the effect of speed, traffic, loading, driver’s

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habits and engine conditions on fuel consumption. The tester is hung on the top
edge of the right front door glass or similarly suitable location and connection is
made by special plastic tubes and the adaptors are provided. The surplus
capacity of the fuel pump fills the glass burette when the needle valve is
opened, and when the test run is made the control tap directs the fuel to the
intake side of the fuel pump. Thus the carburetor is supplied at normal working
pressure. Speedometer readings in kilometers and tenths for each 0.5litres used,
make calculations of actual consumption simple and accurate.

Homework:
1) A single cylinder, four stroke hydrogen fuelled spark ignition engine delivers a
brake power of 20 KW at 6000 rpm. The air gas ratio is 8:1 and the calorific value of
the fuel is 11000 KJ/m3. The compression ratio is 8:1. If volumetric efficiency is
70%, indicated thermal efficiency is 33% and the mechanical efficiency is 90%,
calculate the cubic capacity of the engine.
2) A four stroke petrol engine at full load delivers 50 KW. It requires 8.5 KW to rotate
it without load at the same speed. Find its mechanical efficiency at full load, half
load and quarter load?Also find out the volume of the fuel consumed per second
at full load if the brake thermal efficiency is 25%, given that calorific value of the
fuel = 42 MJ/Kg and specific gravity of petrol is 0.75. Estimate the indicated
thermal efficiency.

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3) Find the brake specific fuel consumption in Kg/KWh of a diesel engine whose fuel
consumption is 5 grams per second when the power output is 80 KW. If the
mechanical efficiency is 75%, calculate the indicated specific fuel consumption.
For the same engine find the brake specific energy consumption, bsec, given the
fuel consumption as 5.5 g/s and the lower heating value of the fuel is 43 MJ/Kg.
Find also the isec.
Important and previous JNTUK questions:
1) Explain the volumetric method of finding the fuel consumption.
2) Explain the gravimetric method of finding the fuel consumption.
3) A six cylinder, four-stroke gasoline engine having a bore of 90 mm and stroke of
100 mm has a compression ratio 7. The relative efficiency is 55% when the
indicated specific fuel consumption is 300 gm/kW h. (S-3,April-Reg 2017)Estimate
(i) the calorific value of the fuel and (ii) corresponding fuel consumption, given that
imep is 8.5 bar and speed is 2500 rpm.
Day 33
Q20. What are the various methods to determine the air consumed by an
engine?
Sol: In IC engines the measurement of air consumption is quite difficult because
the flow is pulsating due to the cyclic nature of the engine and also because of
air being a compressible fluid. Therefore, the simple method of using an orifice
in the induction pipe is not satisfactory since the reading will be pulsating and
unreliable. The following are the general methods for measuring the air
consumption.
Air box method: The orifice method can be used if pressure pulsations could be
damped out by some means. The usual method of damping out pulsations is to
fit an air box of suitable volume (500 to 600 times the swept volume in single
cylinder engines and less in the case of multi cylinder engines) to the engine
with an orifice placed in the side of the box remote from the engine as shown
below. The air flow through the orifice can be obtained by using the discharge
formula.
Alcock viscous flow meter: The use of viscous flow air-meter gives accurate
reading for pulsating flows. This meter uses an element where viscous resistance
is the principal source of pressure loss and kinetic effects are small. This gives a
linear relationship between pressure difference and flow instead of a square-
law. From this it follows that a true mean flow indication is obtained under
pulsating flow conditions.

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The viscous element is in the form of a honeycomb passage (a very large number
of passages, Reynolds number being less than 200). These passages are
triangular of the size approximately 0.5ҳ 0.5ҳ75 mm. The chief source of error in
viscous meters arises from surface contaminations of the small triangular
passages. However, by ensuring good filtration at the entry to the meter, and
not passing air through the meter unless readings are required, this trouble can
be minimized.

Q21. What are the main constituents of engine emissions?

Sol: From the point of view of pollution control, measurement of emissions from
engines is very important. Emissions may be divided into two groups, viz.,
invisible emissions and visible emissions. The exhaust of an engine may contain
one or more of the following
i) carbon dioxide ii) water vapor iii) oxides of nitrogen
iv) unburnt hydrocarbons v) carbon monoxide vi) aldehydes
vii) smoke and viii) particulate matter
Out of the eight the first six may be grouped as invisible emissions and the last
two as visible emissions. Out of the various invisible emissions carbon dioxide
and water vapour are considered harmless compared to others.
Homework:
1) A four cylinder, four stroke gasoline engine has a bore of 60 mm and a stroke of
100 mm. On test it develops a torque of 66.5 Nm when running at 3000 rpm. If the
clearance volume in each cylinder is 60 cc the relative efficiency with respect to
brake thermal efficiency is 0.5 and the CV of the fuel is 42 MJ/Kg, determine the
fuel consumption in Kg/h and the bmep.

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2) The indicated thermal efficiency of
four stroke engine is 32% and its
mechanical efficiency is 78%. The
fuel consumption rate is 20 Kg/h
running at a fixed speed. The
bmep developed is 6 bar and the
mean piston speed is 12 m/s.
Assuming it to be a single cylinder
square engine, calculate the crank
radius and the speed of the
engine. Take CV = 42000 KJ/Kg.
Important and previous JNTUK
questions:
1) What are different methods used to
determine air flow rate? Write the formula,when orifice meter is used.(3M)
(April/May -2016)
2) Write a short note on Alcock viscous air flow meter.
3) Explain various methods to determine the air consumption of an engine.
4) List out the main constituents of emissions of an IC engine.
5) A four stroke petrol engine with a compression ratio of 6.5 to 1 and total piston
displacement of 5.2 × 10-3 m3 develops 100 kW brake power and consumes 33
kgof petrol per hour of calorific value 44300 kJ/kg at 3000 rpm. Find:(16M),
(April/May -2017)
i) Brake mean effective pressure, ii) Brake thermal efficiency
iii) Air standard efficiency (g = 1.4); and
iv) Air-fuel ratio by mass.
Assume a volumetric efficiency of 80 %. One kg of petrol vapor occupies 0.26
m3 at 1.013 bar and 150C. Take R for air 287 J/kg K.
Day 34
Q22. Explain the various methods to determine the smoke intensity in the
exhaust gases.
Sol: In diesel engine smoke is one of visible emissions. Smoke is due to the
incomplete combustion. Smoke measurements can be classified into two groups
viz. comparison method and obscuration method.
Comparison method: The smoke emission test based on the estimation of the
density of the smoke as it emerges from the exhaust. The most commonly used
test is Ringelmann chart.The chart shows four shades of grey, as well as a pure
white and an all- black section. To overcome the difficulty of reproducing various
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shades of grey, the intermediate shades are built from black lines of various
widths as shown below. The four intermediate charts are printed by the United
States Bureau of mines on a single 70 cm ҳ 25 cm sheet. They may be
reproduced as follows:
0 All white
1 Black lines I mm thick, 10 mm apart, leaving white spaces 9 mm square.
2 Lines 2.3 mm thick, spaces 7.7 mm square.
3 Lines 3.7 mm thick, spaces 6.3 mm square.
4 Lines 5.5 mm thick, spaces 4.5 mm square.
5 All black

In use, the chart is set up at eye level in line with the stack at such distances (10
m or more) that the sections appear to be different degrees of uniform gray
shades. The appearance of the smoke at the top of the stack is matched against
one of the shades on the card and reported as a specific Ringelmann number
ranging from 0 (no smoke) to No. 5 (dense black smoke). With practice, an
observer can estimate smoke density to half a number, particularly in the Nos. 2
to 4 ranges. Readings below No. 2 Ringelmann are subject to considerable error.
Obscuration method:In this method of testing, the intensity of a light beam is
reduced by smoke which is a measure of smoke intensity. This method is shown
below.
A continuously taken exhaust sample
is passed through a tube of about 45
cm length which has light at one end
and photocell at the other end. The
amount of light passed through this
column is used as an indication of
smoke level or smoke intensity. The
smoke level or smoke density is

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defined as the ratio of electric output fromphotocell when sample is passed
through the column to the electric output when clean air is passed through it.
The fraction of light transmitted through the smoke, (T) and the length of the
light path (Ll) are related by the Beer-Lambert law.
𝑇 = 𝑒 −𝐾𝑎𝑐𝐿𝑙
Where Kac= n A θ
Kac is called the optical absorption coefficient of the obscuring matter per unit
length, n the number of soot particles per unit volume, A the average projected
area of each particle and θ the specific absorbance per particle.
Q23. What is heat balance? Explain with neat diagrams.
Sol: The energy supplied to an engine is the heat value of the fuel consumed.
Only a part of this energy is transformed into useful work. The rest of it is either
wasted or utilized in special application like turbocharging. The two main parts
of the heat not available for work are the heat carried away by the exhaust
gases and the cooling medium. The below figures show the heat balance
diagrams for SI and CI engines.
To give sufficient data for the preparation of a heat balance sheet, a test should
include a method of determining the fp and the measurement of speed, load,
fuel consumption, air consumption, exhaust temperature, rate of flow of cooling
water and its temperature rise while flowing through the water jackets. Besides,
the small losses, such as radiation and incomplete combustion, the above
enumerated data makes it possible to account for the heat supplied by the fuel
and indicate its distribution. It may be argued that same amount of fp, is
accounted in the rise of cooling water temperature and lubricating oil
temperature etc,. However, it is taken into account here to show that the
frictional losses also include blowdown and pumping losses and therefore it is
not appropriate to put it in the heat balance. Since, there are always certain
losses which cannot be accounted for, by including fp in the heat balance, the
unaccounted losses will reduce.

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The heat balance may be external or internal. A typical external heat balance is
shown below.

Usually the amount of heat carried by lubricating oil is comparatively small and
are normally not included. A further method of representing heat balance is by
means of the Sankey diagram. This is a stream type diagram in which the width
of the stream represents the heat quantity being considered, usually as a % of
the heat supplied, as shown below.
The diagram starts at the bottom with a stream
width which represents the heat input from the
fuel which is 100 % of the heat input and is
marked as such. Moving up the diagram, first
the coolant loss stream is let off to the left. The
width of this stream represents the % loss to
the coolant. Still higher the exhaust loss stream
is let off to the left and finally the loss to the
surroundings appears. The loss streams finally
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meet a single loss stream as shown of the original vertical stream, only the brake
power output stream is left at the top of the diagram. The figures on the
diagram are percentages of the heat supplied in the fuel.
Homework:
1) The following results were obtained from a test on a gas engine:
Gas used = 0.16 m3/min at NTP
Calorific value of the fuel = 14 MJ/m3
Density of gas at NTP = 0.65 Kg/ m3
Air used = 1.5 Kg/min
Specific heat of exhaust gas = 1.0 KJ/KgK
Temperature of exhaust gas = 4000C
Room temperature = 200C
Cooling water per minute = 6 kg
Specific heat of water = 4.18 KJ/KgK
Rise in temperature of cooling water = 300C
Ip = 12.5 KW
Bp = 10.5 KW
Draw the heat balance sheet for the test on per hour basis in KJ.
2) A test on two stroke engine gave the following results at full load:
Speed = 350 rpm
Net brake load 65 Kg
Mep =3 bar
Fuel consumption = 4 Kg/h
Jacket cooling water flow rate = 500 Kg/h
Jacket water temperature at inlet = 200C
Jacket water temperature at outlet = 400C
Test room temperature = 200C
Temperature of exhaust gases = 4000C
Air used per Kg of fuel = 32 Kg
Cylinder diameter = 22 cm
Stroke = 28 cm
Effective brake diameter = 1 m
Calorific value of the fuel = 43 MJ/Kg
Proportion of hydrogen in fuel = 15%
Mean specific heat of dry exhaust gas = 1 KJ/KgK
Mean specific heat of steam = 2.1 KJ/KgK
Sensible heat of water at room temperature = 62 KJ/Kg
Latent heat of steam = 2250 KJ/Kg
Find the ip, bp and draw the heat balance diagram for the test in KJ/min and in
percentage.
Important and previous JNTUK questions:
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1) Write the importance of heat balance sheet. (April/May – 2016 S-2 4M)
2) What is the use of heat balance sheet of an engine? Mention the various items tobe
determined to complete the heat balance sheet. (April/May – 2016 S-2 8M)
3) Draw the Sankey diagram to represent the heat balance and explain. (May 2012, 2014,
2015 8M)
4) Explain the comparison method to determine the smoke intensity in the exhaust gases.
(May 2013, 2015 8M)
5) How the obscuration method is useful in finding the smoke level in the exhaust gases.
(May 2012, 2014 8M)
6) What is the use of heat balance sheet of an engine? Discuss the various items to be
determined to complete the heat balance sheet. (S-1 Reg 2017 6M)

Raghu Institute of Technology Dept. of MECH TE-1 Unit - 4