CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIALS – VIII
UNIT 1
General study of Construction techniques to cover large spans using short
length timber and laminated timber material, lamella roofing, portal
frames, solid beams and web beams.
Environmental consideration for timber engineering:
Wood is the only renewal source for building materials. Which comes from forest that are continually being replanted as they are
harvested. Compared to other building materials, wood has a very large ratio of strength, this makes it very economical for use in all types
of construction.
Timber is a structural material which has excellent strength and stiffness particularly in terms of its strength and stiffness in tension and
compression parallel to grain.
Engineered glued wood products are becoming more attractive. Each of the glued products makes optimum use of the base wood
products in creating high end, high quality engineered products.
Innovations in the engineered wood products industry are ongoing and it is these innovative engineered wood that will allow to continue
to be feasible construction material for building applications in future.
Wood undergoes dimensional changes from causes, different from those in
most other structural materials. Significant dimensional changes occur
because of gain and loss in moisture. Swelling and shrinkage caused by
moisture changes vary in 3 grain directions; 6 to 16% tangentially, 3 to 7%
radially, but only 0.1 to 0.3% longitudinally.
From the second half of the nineteenth century onwards, with the introduction of steel and reinforced concrete, wood began to be removed
from the knowledge of the builders and the designers. However, since a few decades ago, there has been a “renaissance" of wood as a
building material for large span structures.
The reasons for this renaissance are probably to be sought in the development and sometimes in the rediscovery of:
1. New wood-based materials such as Glulam, LVL (Laminated Veneer Lumber), CLT (Cross Laminate Timber), etc.
2. New types of connectors and connections, for example self-tapping screws, connections made by means of slotted-in plates and dowels,
etc.
3. New methods of wood protection, both chemical and structural-constructive.
Timber structures with very large spans have been constructed over the past 30-40 years.
for examples :
The Superior Dome, the world’s largest wooden dome, opened on September 14,
1991. It is a stadium on the campus of Northern Michigan University in
Marquette, Michigan, USA built in 1991. It has a diameter of 163 m and a height
(rise) of 49 m. The structure is a Geodesic dome with glulam ribs made of douglas
fir. It is designed for a ground snow load of 3.4 kN/m2.
Thompson Exhibition, USA Richmond Olympics Skating Centre, Canada
Horse Arena Vilnius, Lithuana
Use of Timber in Large Span Structures
• Depending upon the type of load to be resisted, i.e. compression, tension, bending, etc., different materials perform more or less
efficiently. Calculations show that choosing a material which maximizes the ratio of E1/2/ρ will contribute to maximizing the structural
efficiency for compression members which are prone to buckling. It can be found that when deflection is the issue, the material having
the highest ratio of E 1/2/ρ will be the most weight efficient the values exposed in the table give an indication that wood and especially
CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers), have the highest efficiency ratios, meaning that – from a pure structural standpoint – they
should be the most adequate material to carry applied loads.
• However, CRFP likewise other reinforced polymer materials are still very expensive material and – most importantly from the
environmental standpoint – they also need large amounts of energy to be produced. For this reason, their future use is likely to be
rather limited, at least in civil engineering applications.
• Wood, on the other hand, due to both its outstanding mechanical properties, its inexpensiveness and its environmentally friendly
nature, is expected to experience a strong revitalization in the field of structural engineering, especially in large-span applications .
Short length Timber (SLT):
Until the first half of the nineteenth century, wood was basically the only material available for making bridges which
was the first man made invention to cover large span distances.
Timber has a low weight in relation to strength, which is advantageous for transport, erection and production. It is an
environmentally friendly, easily recyclable material.
As spans become longer, a number of problems arises. For example, as compression members get longer, buckling
begins to be an issue. Moreover, most likely large-span structures will be made of several members, which must be
prevented from coming apart at the joints.
Ponte degli Alpini, Swizterland,1756 Lancaster Schuylkill Bridge, USA- 1812 Railway bridge at Moorswater, UK 19
Span 58m Spanning 104m century spaning 290m
Various ways SLT used for large span:
Timber structures that work predominantly in tension are not very common. Yet, there are some examples, e.g. so called cable-
shaped structures. Also, the structural members of numerous commonly adopted timber structures typically work in tension, e.g.
tension ties or some of the web members in truss structures. It should be pointed out, however, that although members in tension are
in general more efficient than member in compression, the opposite may be true when it comes to the design of adequate
connections at the ends of the timber members.
The most common types of structural systems suitable for long-span timber structures are:
1. Trusses
2. Arches
3. Special Structure
3.1 Cable shaped structures
3.2 Spatial or space structures
Cable structure
Truss Arches Dome
1. Trusses:
A truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with
straight (or nearly straight) members, the ends of which are connected at joints
referred to as nodes. These triangular units are geometrically stable shapes.
Timber trusses generally give an economic solution for spans over 25-30 m.
For large spans, trusses are typically spaced at 5 to 12 m centres, normally
carrying purlins at 1.2 to 2.4 m spacing and supporting corrugated sheeting.
Alternatively purlins are left out and instead heavier corrugated sheeting is
applied directly on the trusses.
In cases the required architectural profile is at conflict with the “optimum” structural profile, high stresses may be introduced
into the web system and the connections.
In order to achieve this, the following aspects should be considered:
1. The number of joints should be kept as low as possible because the workmanship for each joint is expensive, and also the
joint slip at each node generally adds to the overall deflection of the truss.
2. The slenderness of the compression chords and the internal struts must not be excessive.
3. Local bending of the chords must not be too large.
4. The angle between internal diagonals and the chords should be with a given range, typically 45 ± 10.
5. Transportation is frequently a limiting factor for deep or long-span trusses. Trusses deeper than 3 m, or longer than 20 to
25 m, require special attention.
6. Large trusses may have the main members spliced at one or more locations in the span, and in some cases the entire
assembly can be carried out on site
Types of common Trusses used:
1.1 Parallel-chord truss .
1.2 Pitched trusses
1.3 Bowstring and lenticular trusses
1.1 Parallel – chord truss. Verticals
Top chord
Web/diagonals
Bottom chord
a. Howe (diagonal in compression) b. Pratt (diagonal in tension) c. Warren (diagonals in alternating
compression and tension).
Parallel-chord trusses are frequently specified as an alternative to glulam beams for long spans (typically over 25 m to 30 m), where
beams may be uneconomical. The loads in the web members are frequently very large, which causes some difficulty in providing
adequate joints The advantage of choosing a configuration with diagonals in compression rather than in tension is that the joints
between diagonals and chords are relatively simple to construct, due to the fact that they can transmit loads by bearing stress. The
disadvantage is, on the other hand, that the relatively long diagonals will be subjected to compression, thus prone for buckling. The
Pratt-type configuration has the advantage that it can also be supported at its upper chord, which means that the centre of gravity of
the truss is below the line between the two supports. This allows for an easier erection, due to the fact that, in case of initial out-of-
plumb, the self-weight of the truss acts as a stabilising force against overturning. Parallel-chord trusses are often designed with a
precamber that corresponds approximately to the deflection due to self-weight plus one half of the main variable load (e.g. snow
load).
Howe Type truss Pratt Type truss Warren Type truss
1.2 Pitched trusses :
For uniformly distributed loads, the shape of pitched trusses fits the bending moment diagram reasonably well and is compatible with
traditional roofing materials, such as purlins and/or corrugated sheeting. A portion of the applied load is transferred directly through the
top chord members to the points of support, while the web members transfer loads of relatively small to medium magnitude and the
joints can usually be designed to take these loads with little difficulty. In Figure 9 some different types of double pitched trusses are
shown.
Double pitched trusses may have raised bottom chords to give extra central clearance, see Figure (c) and (d). This can be particularly
useful in storage buildings with central access.
(a) Trapezoidal (Howe-type) (b) Triangular with horizontal bottom chord
(c) Triangular with raised bottom chord (d) Scissor type.
1.3 Bowstring and lenticular trusses :
For large-span uses, both bowstring and lenticular trusses, see Figure below, can be very
economical. With uniform loading and no large concentrated loads the chords of the truss
support almost all of the applied loading. This means that web members are loaded very little
and thus the connections between diagonal and chords will be very simple and inexpensive.
With these static systems, glulam trusses with spans in excess of 60 m to 70 m are easily
achieved.
The top chord member of bowstring trusses and each chord in lenticular trusses usually
consists of two or more rigidly jointed curved glulam elements. The bottom chord of
bowstring trusses usually consists of a number of steel rods.
Generally, architectural considerations determine the shape and possibly the slope of the
roof. Also the need of services such as ventilation ducts, which pass through the truss, can
influence the choice of the profile. However, for economic reasons “rules of thumb”
concerning depth-to-span ratios, maximum span etc. should be followed
Bowstring with horizontal bottom chord Bowstring with raised bottom chord, Lenticular truss.
2. Arches or catenary structure
Arches are structures very suitable for execution in timber – a material which without a great increase in price can be produced in curved
forms and with varying depth. As a rule, arches with solid sections of constant depth are made, but composite sections of I- or box-shape
also occur, especially for large spans.
The form of the arch should be chosen so that the bending moments are as small as possible. This means that the arch geometry should
follow the thrust line of the dominating loading combination. However, since several load combinations must be taken into account,
each with its own thrust line.
For functional reasons, e.g. in order to increase the headroom near the supports, the arch can be placed on columns. The horizontal
support reactions caused by the arch must in this case be taken by a tension tie between the springing points of the arch.
Arch with tension tie, on columns
When the arch rests directly on the ground
floor concrete slab or on an abutment, e.g. as
in shown in figure (a),
the horizontal forces can be taken up by the
foundations if ground conditions permit, see
Figure (b),
or by tie rods under or within the floor, see
Figure (c).
In order to limit the size of the horizontal
reactions the rise of the arch should be equal
to or greater than 0.14 to 0.15 of its span.
For a parabola or a circle this corresponds to
an angle of spring of approximately 30°. In
practice, arches are normally designed with a
rise-to-span ratio 0.14 ≤ f/l ≤ 0.30.
the horizontal thrust is taken the horizontal force is taken by a
directly by the abutment and tie rod in the slab.
foundation
The choice between two- and three-hinged arches is
made based on manufacturing and transportation
considerations. Three-hinged arches are thus preferable
for spans of up to 60—70 metres, while larger spans
usually demand that the arch is manufactured and three-hinged arch two-hinged arch.
transported in three or more parts, which are joined
rigidly on the site.
In such a case, a system with hinges placed only at the abutments is chosen (two-hinged arch). Hinges and rigid joints should be placed as in
Figure. The two-hinged arch is sensitive to e.g. support settlements or/and moisture changes.
It should be noted that arches are in general not
recommended in case of presence of large concentrated
loads. Large concentrated loads thus reduce the “arch-like
behaviour” of the structure.
One method to reduce the effect of bending moments
could be e.g. to increase the “internal lever arm” of the
arch, for example by creating a trussed arch, such as that of
Figure 6, or by choosing an arch structure, where each half
Arch structures subjected to triangular load distribution. (a) Common
consists of a lenticular truss,
arch structure; (b) Arch structure consisting of two lenticular trusses
connected at the ridge. The effect of relatively large local bending
moments M (case a) can significantly be reduced by choosing a
structure with larger internal lever arm (case b).
Connection details
Hinged ridge joint. (a) with dowelled steel plate, end plate and hinge
pin; (b) with end plate, rocker ribs and side lugs; (c) with dowelled end
plate, rocker ribs and side lugs.
Possible arch base details of arches: (a) with end plate and
hinge pin; (b) with nail plates and hinge pin; (c) with end U-
shaped plate, hinge pin and side lugs.
(a) Truss node with external steel plates and bolts
and (b) truss node with slotted-in plates and
dowels.
Special Structures:
S.no 1. Cable shaped structures and 2. Spatial (or space) structures
Cables are stressed between the two abutments and Grids, domes, barrel vaults are examples of Space structures
serve as the walkway or roadways.
Timber member, e.g. a curved glulam beam is used as Geodesic domes are composed of triangles that are
a part of cable-shaped structure. approximately equal, and such that the vertices of the triangles
all lie on the surface of a sphere or a hemisphere.
The main glulam beams were prefabricated to lengths Nodes play an important role in large timber structures, in
of 40-45 m and transported to site by road. This meant particular in dome structures. Simple welded or “plug-in”
that each beam could be delivered in only 5 separate connections which are typical in steel structures are normally not
pieces. These pieces were connected onsite using possible with timber. It is necessary, therefore, to reduce as much
large finger joints, which ensure that load is as possible the number of nodes, to create connections which
transferred from end-grain to end-grain are very adaptable and that allow for an easy erection of the
structure .
Advantages and disadvantages of Timber frame structure.
Advantages:
1. It is readily available. Timber is a natural material used in many forms for building and construction. It is readily available,
2. It is safe. Since it comes from a natural source, timber is non-toxic. It is safe to handle and even as it ages, it will not cause damage to the
environment. It is safe to reuse or recycle and maximizes Green Star Energy rating and carbon credits. Most timbers these days are
endorsed or sustainably harvested to return a great life cycle.
3. It is easy to work. Due to its lightness, density and grain structure, and the fact we have been using timber in buildings from the early
ages we have highly developed machinery to cut, drill and prepare timber to the required size and shape. Even hardwood timbers are
relatively easy to work with compared to other building materials such as steel.
4. It is cost effective. Timber is the cost effective alternative to many other materials, if you consider the life cycle of timber it has less
steps to process than many other building materials, therefore less to produce.
5. It is versatile and visually appealing. As timber comes in many different grades and species this gives timber a huge reach across many
different uses and appeals. Structural and visual grade timbers are often chosen for outdoor structures.
6. It is naturally anti-corrosive. Unlike steel and other highly used building materials timber does not corrode in salt air or heavy industrial
environments.
7. Speed of Construction: A prefabricated timber frame can be erected on site faster than a comparable brick and block construction.
8. Quality: Off site fabrication can allow higher quality to be achieved than in the less controlled conditions of a construction site.
9. Thermal performance: Timber frame structures can typically achieve a better thermal performance than masonry structures with a
thinner construction.
Disadvantages:
1. As timber is natural and cellular it moves with changes in climatic conditions. Timber shrinks, swells, twists, cracks and bends over time
and different climatic conditions.
2. Most timbers are prone to pest, rot, mold and fungi attacks.
3. Timbers tend to silver or look old if left natural and unpainted.
4. Timber maintenance can seem to be higher than other building materials.
5. Timber frames may require additional time for them design and fabrication, which can lead to a longer wait before work begins on site.
Glulam: Glue Laminated Timber
Glulam (glued-laminated timber) is an engineered structural wood product that consists of multiple individual layers of dimension
lumber that are glued together under controlled conditions. All glulam is manufactured using waterproof adhesives for end jointing and
for face bonding and is therefore suitable for both exterior and interior applications. Glulam has high structural capacity and is also an
attractive architectural building material.
Glulam was first used in Europe in the early 1890s. A 1901 patent from Switzerland signaled the true beginning of glued laminated
timber construction.
Glulam is commonly used in post and
beam, heavy timber and mass timber
structures, as well as wood bridges.
Glulam is a structural engineered wood
product used for headers, beams,
girders, purlins, columns, and heavy
trusses. Glulam is also manufactured as
curved members, which are typically
loaded in combined bending and
compression. It can also be shaped to
create pitched tapered beams and a
variety of load bearing arch and trusses
configurations. Glulam is often employed
where the structural members are left
exposed as an architectural feature.
Standard sizes of Glulam:
The standard widths and depths of glulam are shown in Table below. The depth of glulam is a function of the number of
laminations multiplied by the lamination thickness. For economy, 38 mm laminations are used wherever possible, and
19 mm laminations are used where greater degrees of curvature are required.
Common Glulam shapes for longer span
Use of Glulam
The most versatile of the engineered glued wood products, glulam can
be fabricated in a wide variety of shapes.
Short-span glulam beams with constant rectangular cross sections. The
most commonly used shapes are typically available as “stock beams”
for use in residential and light commercial construction. Variety of sizes
and lengths are available such as stock beams are often used for
headers and floor beams for other uses.
Straight or curved beams can be manufactured in lengths of over 100 ft
and with large cross-sectional areas. Glulam arches have been erected
to span 300 ft or more. For structures requiring very large spans. such
as stadiums needing spans of 500 ft or more, glulam timber domes are
often the most economical framing System and are asthetically
pleasing.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Glulam
Advantages:
1. Strong – In relation to its weight, glulam is one of the strongest construction materials.
2. Renewable – The raw material is renewable. Glulam can be reused or recycled.
3. Beautiful – Glulam is an aesthetically pleasing and environmentally creative product.
4. Energy Efficient – The energy consumption used in the production of glulam is very small, compared with other construction
materials.
5. Resistant – Glulam withstands aggressive environments better than many other construction materials.
6. Flexible – Glulam can be made into virtually any shape.
7. Stable – Glulam does not twist or bend.
8. Easy to Work With – Simple hand tools or machine tools can be used when working with glulam.
Disadvantages
1. Expensive
2. Require special handling, and storage.
Portal Frame or Rigid Frame Structure:
Portal frames is a two-dimensional rigid frames, usually with pitched rafters, that have
a rigid joint between column and beam members which allows the frame to act as one
continuous structural frame for resistance to vertical and horizontal actions.
Construction principles
Open frames can be constructed as:
1. Pin-jointed structures relying on horizontal bracing systems or diaphragms to
transfer lateral and instability forces to vertical bracing systems or vertical shear
walls and thence to the foundation.
2. Stiff -jointed structures capable of resisting lateral and instability forces e.g.
portal frames
3. A combination of pinned and stiff-jointed frames together with appropriate
bracing systems
Timber Web Beams or Girders:
Web Beams offer a high-strength, long-span structural timber beam which can be used for residential and commercial building applications.
• They offer exceptional straightness, uniform depth and dimensional stability.
• Economical to produce, the I-Beam is made from a combination of timber products.
• The top and bottom flanges - which make the distinct ‘I' shape, - are made from material
with a high tension strength such as LVL (laminated veneer lumber) or even graded solid
timber.
• The flanges are separated by a vertical web, usually manufactured from structural
plywood.
• The centre of the section serves to transmit shear stresses, so a material with good shear
properties is required.
• The web and flanges create a lightweight beam which is both strong and durable. The
flanges resist bending, tension and compressive stresses, utilizing LVL's enhanced strength
and stiffness properties. The web serves to transmit the shear stresses, relying on
plywood's panel shear capacity and dimensional stability.
• I-Beams are generally not considered to be an appearance product due to the visibility of
glue-lines but can be finished accordingly for architectural and design applications.
Box Beam
A beam built up from boards; has a hollow rectangular cross section. A box beam ceiling looks as if the beams have been
placed in boxes. Made with plywood. Hollow beams are often used for installing lights and hiding wires or pipes during a
build or remodel.
Box Beam Structure
• Dimension Lumber for top & bottom flanges & stiffeners
• Structural panels for webs
• Panel joints offset for optimal continuity of beam webs
• Stiffeners act as shear splices for panel joints & resist web buckling
• Should be spaced not more than 4 ft apart
Advantages of Box Beams
• Longer spans than dimension lumber
• High strength and stiffness
• No shrinkage, warping, or twisting
• Light weight
• Easy to fabricate
• Constructed of readily available materials
• Open interior allows for insulation
LAMELLA ROOFING (named after Friedrich Zollinger)
Lamella roof, Vaulted roof consisting of a crisscrossing pattern of parallel arches skewed with respect to the sides of the
covered space, composed of relatively short members (lamellae) hinged together to form an interlocking network in a
diamond pattern.
• These lamellas are bevelled at ends and bolted together at an angle forming a network of
wooden planks, commonly called diamonds, resulting in a roof structure capable of covering
wide spans without any intermediate supports.
• The lamella roof may be constructed of timber, structural steel shapes or open web steel joists.
No heavy members are involved.
• The elements of the lamella roof are decorative in themselves, a feature which has been
specially valuable in the design of Churches and Auditoriums.
• Emphasis on the effect of lamella pattern by a careful selection of painting schedule of various
lamellas or utilizing the natural beauty of the timber in its texture and grain pattern to develop
a variety of modem architectural effects .
Lamella domes are another
curvilinear system of ribbed domes,
characterized by
1. only a few of the ribs running from
the rim to the crown of the dome
as meridional spherical sector
dividers,
2. all other ribs running as intra-
Sector parallel lines. Curvilinear or
straight, and
3. a diamond grid being thus formed.
