1 Polynomial over integers

1.1 Theorem
If f (x) is the polynomial in Z[X] ,then, a − b f (a) − f (b) for a, b ∈ Z

1.2 Theorem
Let F (x) be a polynomial in Z[X] with degree n . F (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 +
... + an xn Let , p 6= 0, q > 0 be the rational root of F (x), then q an and p a0 .
If F (x) is monic polynomial then q = 1 , that is every rational root of F (x) is
integer.

1.3 Theorem
If the value of the polynomial P (x) is integral
for every integer x, then
there
exist integers c0 , ..., cn such that P (x) = cn nx + cn−1 n−1
x
+ · · · + c0 x0 The

converse is true, also.

2 Symmetric functions of roots

Let s = x + y, p = xy, then,Sn = xn + y n can be expressed as a combination of
s and p for alln ∈ N , using Recurrence relation Sn+1 = s.Sn − p.Sn−1

3 Irreducibility
3.1 Theorem (Gauss’ Lema).
If a polynomial P (x) with integer coefficients is reducible over Q[x], then it
is reducible over Z[x], also.That is if P (x) is irreducible over Z[X] then it is
irreducible over Q[X].

3.2 Theorem (Extended Eisenstein’s Criterion).

Let P (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial with integer coefficients.
If there exist a prime number p and an integer k ∈ {0, 1, ..., n − 1} such that
p | a0 , a1 , ..., ak , p - ak+1 and p2 - a0 , then P (x) has an irreducible factor of a
degree greater than k.
In particular, if p can be taken so that k = n − 1, then P (x) is irreducible.

1. Solve for real x, y: x5 + y 5 = 33, x + y = 3

√ √
2. Find the real solutions of the equation 4
97 − x + 4
x=5

1
 p √ p √
3. Verify the equality
3 3
20 + 14 2 + 20 − 14 2 = 4

4. Given the polynomial P (x, y, z) prove that the polynomial Q(x, y, z) =

P (x, y, z) + P (y, z, x) + P (z, x, y) − P (x, z, y) − P (y, x, z) − P (z, y, x)is di-
visible by(x − y)(y − z)(z − x).

5. Find all polynomials satisfying the functional equation (x + 1)P (x) =

(x − 10)P (x + 1).

6. LetP (x) be a polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients. Show that
the equation P (P (x)) = 0 has at least as many real roots as the equation
P (x) = 0, counted without multiplicities.
(Russian Mathematical Olympiad, 2002)
7. Determine all polynomials P (x)with real coefficients for which there exists
a positive
integer n such

that for all x,
P x + n1 + p x − n1 = 2p(x).
8. (Greece 2016 National Olympiad) Find all monic polynomials P, Q which
2
are non-constant, have real coefficients and they satisfy 2P (x) = Q( (x+1)
2 )−
2
Q( (x−1)
2 ) and P (1) = 1 for all real x.

9. Let P (x) = x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d and Q(x) = x2 + px + q be two

polynomials with real coefficients. Suppose that there exists an interval
(r, s) of length greater than 2 such that both P (x) and Q(x) are negative
for x ∈ (r, s) and both are positive forx < r or x > s. Show that there is
a real number x0 such that P (x0 ) < Q(x0 ).
(Russian Mathematical Olympiad, 2001) (INDIA TST 2010)
10. Let P (x) be a polynomial of degree n. Knowing that P (k) = k
k+1 , k =
0, 1, ..., n, find P (m) for m > n.

11. Consider the polynomials with complex coefficients P (x) = xn + a1 xn−1 +

· · · + an with zeros x1 , x2 , ..., xn and Q(x) = xn + b1 xn−1 + ··· + bn with
zeros x21 , x22 , ..., x2n Prove that if a1 + a3 + a5 + · · · and a2 + a4 + a6 + · · ·are
both real numbers, then so is b1 + b2 + · · · + bn .
12. Let P (x) be a polynomial with complex coefficients. Prove thatP (x) is an
even function if and only if there exists a polynomial Q(x) with complex
coefficients satisfying P (x) = Q(x)Q(−x).

13. Let f (x) be a monic polynomial over integers.The polynomial has integral
coefficients a, b, c, d with ad odd and bc even. Show that at least one root
of polynomial is irrational.

2
14. A polynomialP (x) of the nth degree satisfies P (k) = 2k for k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
Find the value of P (n + 1).
15. A polynomial f (x) with integer coefficients is said to be tri-divisible if 3
divides f (k) for any integer k. Determine necessary and sufficient condi-
tions for a polynomial to be tri-divisible.

5100 −1
16. Prove that 520 −1 is not a prime.
5125 −1
17. Prove that 525 −1 is not a prime.
18. If a polynomial P with real coefficients satisfies for all x

P (cosx) = P (sinx)

, prove that there exists a polynomial Q such that for all x, P (x) =
Q(x4 − x2 ).
19. Consider the polynomials with complex coefficients P (x) = xn + a1 xn−1 +
· · · + an with zeros x1 , x2 , ..., xn and Q(x) = xn + b1 xn−1 + ··· + bn with
zeros x21 , x22 , ..., x2n Prove that if a1 + a3 + a5 + · · · and a2 + a4 + a6 + · · ·are
both real numbers, then so is b1 + b2 + · · · + bn .

20. Show that all zeros of a polynomial f (x) = x(x − 2)(x − 4)(x − 6) + (x −
1)(x − 3)(x − 5)(x − 7) are real.
21. Let P (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients. Prove that if P (P (· ·
·P (x) · ··)) = x for some integer x (where P is iterated n times), then
P (P (x)) = x.

22. (IMO 2006) Let P (x) be a polynomial of degree n > 1 with integer
coefficients and let k be a positive integer. Consider the polynomial
Q(x) = P (P (...P (P (x))...)), where P occurs k times. Prove that there
are at most n integers t such that Q(t) = t.

23. Do there exist non-linear polynomials P and Q over integers, such that
P (Q(x)) = (x − 1)(x − 2) · · · (x − 15)? .
24. Suppose that a natural number m and a real polynomial R(x) = an xn +
an−1 xn−1 +···+a0 are such that R(x) is an integer divisible by m whenever
x is an integer. Prove that n!an is divisible by m.

25. Given an integer n > 1, consider the polynomial f (x) = xn + 5xn−1 + 3.

Prove that there are no non constant polynomials g(x), h(x) with integer
coefficients such that f (x) = g(x)h(x). (IMO93-1)
26. If p is a prime number, prove that the polynomial Φp (x) = xp−1 +···+x+1
is irreducible.

3
27. If a1 , a2 , ..., an are integers, prove that the polynomial P (x) = (x−a1 )(x−
a2 ) · · · (x − an ) − 1 is irreducible.
28. (INMO 89) Prove that the polynomial f (x) = x4 +26x3 +65x2 +78x+1989
cannot be expressed as a product f (x) = p(x)q(x) where p(x), q(x)are both
polynomials with integral coefficients and with degree less than 4.

4
 Functional equation

March 5, 2020

1. Substituting the values for variables. The most common first attempt is
with some constants (eg. 0 or 1), after that (if possible) some expressions
which will make some part of the equation to become constant. For ex-
ample if f (x+y) appears in the equations and if we have found f (0) then
we plug y = −x . Substitutions become less obvious as the difficulty of
the problems increase.
• Pseudo-symmetry: If an equation is almost but not completely sym-
metrical, what happens if you change the order of the variables and com-
pare with what you started with?
• Fudging: Can you change one variable so as to alter the equation only
slightly? If so, compare with what you started with.
• Self-cancelation: Can you make two terms in the same functional
equation cancel each other out?
• These are the most mechanical ways of getting the same value to show
up multiple times, but each problem has its own tricks. If you see an
interesting expression pop up, always ask yourself whether you can get it
to pop up in a slightly different way too.
2. Mathematical induction. This method relies on using the value f (1) to
find all f (n) for n integer. After that we find f (1n) and f (r) for rational
r . This method is used in problems where the function is defined on Q
and is very useful, especially with easier problems.
3. Investigating for injectivity or surjectivity of functions involved in the
equation. In many of the problems these facts are not difficult to establish
but can be of great importance.
4. Finding the fixed points or zeroes of functions. The number of problems
using this method is considerably smaller than the number of problems
using some of the previous three methods. This method is mostly encoun-
tered in more difficult problems.
5. Assuming that the function at some point is greater or smaller then
the value of the function for which we want to prove that is the solu-
tion. Most often it is used as continuation of the method of mathematical
induction and in the problems in which the range is bounded from either
side.

5
 6. Making recurrent relations. This method is usually used with the equa-
tions in which the range is bounded and in the case when we are able to
find a relationship between f (f (n)) , f (n) , and n.
7. Analyzing the set of values for which the function is equal to the assumed
solution. The goal is to prove that the described set is precisely the domain
of the function. Substituting the function. This method is often used to
simplify the given equation and is seldom of crucial importance. But you
need to prove there is no other solution.
8.
9. Expressing functions as sums of odd and even. Namely each function
can be represented as a sum of one even and one odd function and this
can be very handy in treating "linear" functional equations involving many
functions.
10. Treating numbers in a system with basis different than 10 . Of course,
this can be used only if the domain is N .
11. For the end let us emphasize that it is very important to guess the solution
at the beginning. This can help a lot in finding the appropriate substitu-
tions. Also, at the end of the solution, DON´ T FORGET to verify that
your solution satisfies the given condition.
12. Pointwise trap:the common mistake that is done by students is if we get
f (x)g(x) = 0
That doesnot implies f ≡ 0 or g ≡ 0
But it means for every x ∈ R one of f (x) or g(x) = 0 so for some real
values f (x) might be zero and for other reals g(x) = 0.
13. Guessing the answer: At the start of every problem its advisable to
check for some common functions if they satisfy the given equation and
then just keep it in your head. for eg: f (x) = 0, f (x) = c, f (x) = kx + c,
f (x) = xn or even f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0
Note Substituting degree n polynomial is often easier than it seems, since
degrees usually end up not matching except for finitely many n.
14. If we can isolate the terms of one variable on one side and second
variable on other, then it is done as follows . Suppose we get something
like
f (a) f (b)
− = a2 − b2 ∀a, b ∈ Domain
a b
then
f (a) f (b)
− a2 = − b2 ∀a, b ∈ Domain
a b
so
f (a)
− a2 = k(constant) ∀a ∈ Domain
a
∴ f (x) ≡ xk + x3

6
 15. Tripling an involution. If you know something about f (f (x)), try
applying it f (f (f (x))) in different ways. For example, if we know that
f (f (x)) = x + 2, then we obtain f 3 (x) = f (x + 2) = f (x) + 2.
16. Exploiting “bumps” in symmetry. If some parts of an equation are
symmetric and others are not, swapping x and y can often be helpful. For
example, suppose you have a condition like

f (x + f (y)) + f (xy) = f (x + 1)f (y + 1)−1

This equation is “almost symmetric”, except for a “bump” on the far left
where f (x + f (y)) is asymmetric. So if we take the equation with x and
y flipped and then eliminate the common terms, we manage to obtain

f (x + f (y)) = f (y + f (x))

If we’ve shown f is injective, we are even done! So often these “bumps” are
what let you solve a problem. (In particular, don’t get rid of the bumps!)
17. It may help to rewrite the function in terms of other functions, for eg
something like g(x) = f (x)/x is useful.
18. For the end let us emphasize that it is very important to guess the solution
at the beginning. This can help a lot in finding the appropriate substitu-
tions. Also, at the end of the solution, DON’T FORGET to verify that
your solution satisfies the given condition.

Methods to extend the function from Q to R

4 The equations on Real numbers

We first try to prove result for N, then for Zand then for Q and then for R .
Many time additional condition such s monotonocity,
continuity, differentiability, boundedness etc. are required for proving the
equation over R
In dealing with functions on R, after finding the function on Q, we can often
finish the problem by using the following fact.
Density of Rational Numbers: For every real number x, there are rational
numbersp1 , p2 , p3 , ... increase to x and there are rational numbers q1 , q2 , q3 , ... de-
crease to x. This can be easily seen from the decimal representation of real num-
bers. For example, the number π = 3.1415... is the limits of 3, 31/10, 314/100, 3141/1000, 31415/10000, ...and
also 4, 32/10, 315/100, 3142/1000, 31416/10000, ....
1. Find all functions g : R → R such that for arbitrary real numbers x and
rational r:
(i)g(r + x) = r + g(x)
(ii) g(rx) = rg(x)
(iii) g(x) ≥ 0 iff x ≥ 0

7
 Solution: In particular g is additive over Q .
Let P (x, r) : g(r + x) = r + g(x) and Q(x, r) : g(rx) = rg(x)
∴ Q(0, 0) : g(0) = 0 and
P (0, r) : g(r) = r for all r ∈ Q
So g(x) = x over Q
Now to extend over R using standard methods.
Method 1
Assume that g(x) < x. Choose r ∈ Q such that g(x) < r < x. Then

r > g(x) = g(x − r) + r ≥ r

, which is clearly a contradiction. Similarly from g(x) > x we get another

contradiction. Thus we must have g(x) = x for every x ∈ R.
2. Find all functions f : R → R such that for arbitrary real numbers x and
rational r:
(i)f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)
(ii) f (x · y) = f (x) · f (y)
Solution:
By standard methods we can show f (x) ≡ 0 or f (x) = xon Q .
Now as f (0) = 0 and f (−x) = −f (x)
We will show that f is monotonically
 √ increasing
√ 2 √ 2
For z ≥ 0 , z ∈ Q so f (z) = f ( z) = f (( z)) ≥ 0
For a > b ∈ R we have a − b > 0 so f (a − b) = f (a) − f (b) > 0
So a > b implies f (a) > f (b)
Method 2
We claim f (x) = x∀x ∈ R . If not let f (x) < x for some x ∈ R
Due to density of reals we have a rational r such that f (x) < r < x
As r < x we have r = f (r) < f (x) a contradiction.
Similar argument can be done for f (x) > x
Hence f (x) = x∀x ∈ R