1

CHAPTER 17
VIBRATING SYSTEMS

17.1 Introduction

A mass m is attached to an elastic spring of force constant k, the other end of which is
attached to a fixed point. The spring is supposed to obey Hooke’s law, namely that,
when it is extended (or compressed) by a distance x from its natural length, the tension
(or thrust) in the spring is kx, and the equation of motion is m&x& = − kx . This is simple
harmonic motion of period 2π/ω, where ω2 = k/m. Most readers will have no difficulty
with that problem. But now suppose that, instead of one end of the spring being attached
to a fixed point, we have two masses, m1 and m2, one at either end of the spring. A
diatomic molecule is much the same thing. Can you calculate the period of simple
harmonic oscillations? It looks like an easy problem, but it somehow seems difficult to
get a hand on it by conventional newtonian methods. In fact it can be done quite readily
by newtonian methods, but this problem, as well as more complicated problems where
you have several masses connected by several springs and several possible modes of
vibration, is particularly suitable by lagrangian methods, and this chapter will give
several examples of vibrating systems tackled by lagrangian methods.

17.2 The Diatomic Molecule

Two particles, of masses m1 and m2 are connected by an elastic spring of force constant k.
What is the period of oscillation?

FIGURE XVII.1

m1 m2
k

x1 x2

Let’s suppose that the equilibrium separation of the masses – i.e. the natural, unstretched,
uncompressed length of the spring – is a. At some time suppose that the x-coordinates of
the two masses are x1 and x2. The extension q of the spring from its natural length at that
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moment is q = x2 − x1 − a. We’ll also suppose that the velocities of the two masses at
that instant are x&1 and x& 2 . We know from chapter 13 how to start any calculation in
lagrangian mechanics. We don’t have to think about it. We always start with T = ... and
V = ...:

T = 12 m1 x&12 + 1
2 m2 x&22 , 17.2.1

V = 12 kq 2 . 17.2.2

We want to be able to express the equations in terms of the internal coordinate q. V is

already expressed in terms of q. Now we need to express T (and therefore x&1 and x& 2 )
in terms of q. Since q = x2 − x1 − a , we have, by differentiation with respect to time,

q& = x& 2 − x&1 . 17.2.3

We need one more equation. The linear momentum is constant and there is no loss in
generality in choosing a coordinate system such that the linear momentum is zero:

0 = m1 x&1 + m2 x& 2 . 17.2.4

From these two equations, we find that

m2 m1
x&1 = q& and x& 2 = q& . 17.2.5a,b
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Thus we obtain T = 12 mq& 2 17.2.6

and V = 12 kq 2 , 17.2.2

m1m2
where m = . 17.2.7
m1 + m2

Now apply Lagrange’s equation

d ∂T ∂T ∂V .
− = − 13.4.13
dt ∂q& j ∂q j ∂q j

to the single coordinate q in the fashion to which we became accustomed in Chapter 13,
and the equation of motion becomes
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mq&& = − kq , 17.2.8

which is simple harmonic motion of period 2π m /k , where m is given by equation

17.2.7. The frequency is the reciprocal of this, and the “angular frequency” ω, also
sometimes called the “pulsatance”, is 2π times the frequency, or k / m .

The quantity m1 m 2 /( m1 + m 2 ) is usually called the “reduced mass” and one may wonder is what sense it
is “reduced”. I believe the origin of this term may come from an elementary treatment of the Bohr atom of
hydrogen, in which one at first assumes that there is an electron moving around an immovable nucleus –
i.e. a nucleus of “infinite mass”. One develops formulas for various properties of the atom, such as, for
example, the Rydberg constant, which is the energy required to ionize the atom from its ground state. This
and similar formulas include the mass m of the electron. Later, in a more sophisticated model, one takes
account of the finite mass of the nucleus, with nucleus and electron moving around their mutual centre of
mass. One arrives at the same formula, except that m is replaced by mM/(m + M), where M is the mass of
the nucleus. This is slightly less (by about 0.05%) than the mass of the electron, and the idea is that you
can do the calculation with a fixed nucleus provided that you use this “reduced mass of the electron” rather
than its true mass. Whether this is the appropriate term to use in our present context is debatable, but in
practice it is the term almost universally used.

It may also be remarked upon by readers with some familiarity with quantum mechanics that I have named
this section “The Diatomic Molecule” – yet I have ignored the quantum mechanical aspects of molecular
vibration. This is true – in this series of notes on Classical Mechanics I have adopted an entirely classical
treatment. It would be wrong, however, to assume that classical mechanics does not apply to a molecule,
or that quantum mechanics would not apply to a system consisting of a cricket ball and a baseball
connected by a metal spring. In fact both classical mechanics and quantum mechanics apply to both. The
formula derived for the frequency of vibration in terms of the reduced mass and the force constant (“bond
strength”) applies as accurately for the molecule as for the cricket ball and baseball. Quantum mechanics,
however, predicts that the total energy (the eigenvalue of the hamiltonian operator) can take only certain
discrete values, and also that the lowest possible value is not zero. It predicts this not only for the
molecule, but also for the cricket ball and baseball – although in the latter case the energy levels are so
closely spaced together as to form a quasi continuum, and the zero point vibrational energy is so close to
zero as to be unmeasurable. Quantum mechanics makes its effects evident at the molecular level, but this
does not mean that it does not apply at macroscopic levels. One might also take note that one is not likely
to understand why wave mechanics predicts only discrete energy levels unless one has had a good
background in the classical mechanics of waves. In other words, one must not assume that classical
mechanics does not apply to microscopic systems, or that quantum mechanics does not apply to
macroscopic systems.

Below leaving this section, in case you tried solving this problem by newtonian methods
and ran into difficulties, here’s a hint. Keep the centre of mass fixed. When the length of
the spring is x, the lengths of the portions on either side of the centre of mass are
m2 x m1 x
and . The force constants of the two portions of the spring are
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
inversely proportional to their lengths. Take it from there.

17.3 Two Masses, Two Springs and a Brick Wall

The system is illustrated in figure XVII.2, first in its equilibrium (unstretched) position,
and then at some instant when it is not in equilibrium and the springs are stretched. You
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can imagine that the masses are resting upon and can slide upon a smooth, horizontal
table. I could also have them hanging under gravity, but this would introduce a distracting
complication without illustrating any further principles. I also want to assume that all the
motion is linear, so we could have them sliding on a smooth horizontal rail, or have them
confined in the inside of a smooth, fixed drinking-straw. For the present, I don’t want the
system to bend.

k1 m1 k2 m2
Equilibrium:

Displaced: x1 x2

FIGURE XVII.2

The displacements from the equilibrium positions are x1 and x2, so that the two springs
are stretched by x1 and x2 − x1 respectively. The velocities of the two masses are x&1 and
x& 2 . We now start the lagrangian calculation in the usual manner:

T = 1
2 m1 x&12 + 1
2 m2 x& 22 , 17.3.1

V = 1
2 k1 x12 + 1
2 k 2 ( x2 − x1 ) 2 . 17.3.2

Apply Lagrange’s equation to each coordinate in turn, to obtain the following equations
of motion:

m1 &x&1 = − (k1 + k 2 ) x1 + k 2 x2 17.3.3

and m2 &x&2 = k 2 x1 − k 2 x2 . 17.3.4

Now we seek solutions in which the system is vibrating in simple harmonic motion at
angular frequency ω; that is, we seek solutions of the form &x&1 = − ω2 x1 and &x&2 = − ω2 x2 .
When we substitute these in equations 17.3.3 and 4, we obtain

(k1 + k 2 − m1ω2 ) x1 − k 2 x2 = 0 17.3.5

and k 2 x1 − (k 2 − m2 ω2 ) x2 = 0 . 17.3.6
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Either of these gives us the displacement ratio x2/x1 (and hence amplitude ratio). The first
gives us

x2 − m1ω2 + k1 + k 2
= 17.3.7
x1 k2

x2 k2 .
and the second gives us = 17.3.8
x1 k 2 − m2 ω2

These are equal, and, by equating the right hand sides, we obtain the following equation
for the angular frequencies of the normal modes:

m1m2 ω4 − (m1k 2 + m2 k1 + m2 k 2 )ω2 + k1k 2 = 0 . 17.3.9

This equation can also be derived by noting, from the theory of equations, that equations
17.3.5 and 6 are consistent only if the determinant of the coefficients is zero.

The meaning of these equations and of the expression “normal modes” can perhaps be
best illustrated with a numerical example. Let us suppose, for example, that k1 = k2 = 1
and m1 = 3 and m2 = 2. In that case equation 17.3.9 is 6ω4 − 7ω2 + 1 = 0 . This is a
quartic equation in ω, but it is also a quadratic equation in ω2, and there are just two
positive solutions for ω. These are 1 / 6 = 0.4082 (slow, low frequency) and 1 (fast,
high frequency). If you put the low frequency ω into either of equations 17.3.7 or 8 (or in
both, to check for arithmetic or algebraic mistakes) you find a displacement ratio of +1.5;
but if you put the high frequency ω into either equation, you find a displacement ratio of
−1.0 The first of these normal modes is a low-frequency slow oscillation in which the
two masses oscillate in phase, with m2 having an amplitude 50% larger than m1. The
second normal mode is a high-frequency fast oscillation in which the two masses
oscillate out of phase but with equal amplitudes.

So, how does the system actually oscillate? This depends on the initial conditions. For
example, if you displace the first mass by one inch to the right and the second mass by
1.5 inches to the right (this implies stretching the first spring by 1 inch and the second by
0.5 inches), and then let go, the system will oscillate in the slow, in-phase mode. But if
you start by displacing the first mass by one inch to the right and the second mass by one
inch to the left (this implies stretching the first spring by 1 inch and compressing the
second by 2 inches), the system will oscillate in the fast, out-of-phase mode. For other
initial conditions, the system will oscillate in a linear combination of the normal modes.

Thus, m1 might oscillate with an amplitude A in the slow mode, and an amplitude B in the
fast mode:
x1 = A cos(ω1t + α1 ) + B cos(ω2t + α 2 ) , 17.3.10

in which case the oscillation of m2 is given by

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x2 = 1.5 A cos(ω1t + α1 ) − B cos(ω2t + α 2 ) . 17.3.11

In our example, ω1 and ω2 are 1 / 6 and 1 respectively.

Let’s suppose that the initial conditions are that, at t = 0, x&1 and x& 2 are both zero. This
means that α1 and α2 are both zero or π (I’ll take them to be zero), so that

x1 = A cos ω1t + B cos ω2t 17.3.12

and x2 = 1.5 A cos ω1t − B cos ω2t . 17.3.13

Suppose further that at t = 0, x1and x2 are both +1, which means that we start by
stretching both springs equally. Equations 17.3.12 and 13 then become 1 = A + B and
1 = 1.5A − B. That is, A = 0.8 and B = 0.2. I’ll leave you to draw graphs of x1 and x2
versus time.

Here’s an exercise that might be useful if, perhaps, you wanted to construct a real system
with two equal masses m and two equal springs, each of constant k, to demonstrate the
vibrations. Show that in that case, the angular frequency (which is, of course, 2π times
the actual frequency) of the slow, in phase, mode is

k k
ω1 = 1
2
( 5 − 1) = 0.6180
m m
with a displacement ratio x2 / x1 = 12 ( 5 + 1) = 1.6180 ;

and the angular frequency of the fast, out of phase, mode is

k k
ω2 = 1
2
( 5 + 1) = 1.6180
m m
with a displacement ratio, x2 / x1 = − 12 ( 5 − 1) = − 0.6180.

Knowing these displacements ratios will enable you to start with the appropriate initial
conditions for each normal mode.

If you were to start at t = 0 with a displacements x1 = 1 and x2 = 2 which isn’t right for
either normal mode, you can show that the subsequent displacements would be

x1 = 1.170 820 cos ω1t − 0.170 820 cos ω2t

x2 = 1.894 427 cos ω1t + 0.105 572 cos ω2t.
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That looks like this:

2.5
x2
2

1.5

0.5
Displacement

x1
0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
ω1 t
Although at first it looks like fast in-phase mode for both of them, you can see the
influence of the slow mode, which has about 2.6 times the period of the last mode, in the
slow amplitude modulation. If you look carefully at the modulation amplitudes of both
displacements, you will see that the amplitude of the x1 displacement is out of phase with
the amplitude of the x2 displacement.

17.4 Double Torsion Pendulum

c1

FIGURE XVII.3 I1

c2

I2
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Here we have two cylinders of rotational inertias I1 and I2 hanging from two wires of
torsion constants c1 and c2. At any instant, the top cylinder is turned through an angle θ1
from the equilibrium position and the lower cylinder by an angle θ2 from the equilibrium
position (so that, relative to the upper cylinder, it is turned by (θ 2 − θ1 ) ). The equations
and the description of the motion are just the same as in the previous example, except that
x1, x2, m1, m2, k1, k2 are replaced by θ1, θ2, I1, I2, c1, c2. The kinetic and potential energies
are

T = 1
2 I1θ& 12 + 1
2 I 2 θ& 22 , 17.4.1
V = 1
2 c1θ12 + 1
2 c2 (θ 2 − θ1 ) 2 . 17.4.2

The equations for ω and the displacement ratios are just the same, and there is an in-
phase and an out-of-phase mode.

17.5 Double Pendulum

This is another similar problem, though, instead of assuming Hooke’s law, we shall
assume that angles are small (sin θ ≈ θ , cos θ ≈ 1 − 12 θ 2 ). For clarity of drawing,
however, I have drawn large angles in figure XVIII.4.

θ1

l1

FIGURE XVII.4 l1θ& 1

m1

θ2
l2
l 2 θ& 2
l1θ& 1
m2
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Because I am going to use the lagrangian equations of motion, I have not marked in the
forces and accelerations; rather, I have marked in the velocities. I hope that the two
components of the velocity of m2 that I have marked are self-explanatory; the speed of m2
is given by v 22 = l12 θ& 12 + l22 θ& 22 + 2l1l2 θ& 1θ& 2 cos(θ 2 − θ1 ) . The kinetic and potential energies
are

T= 1
2 m1l12 θ& 12 + 1
2 m2 [l12 θ& 12 + l22 θ& 22 + 2l1l2 θ& 1θ& 2 cos(θ 2 − θ1 ) ] , 17.5.1

V = constant − m1 gl1 cos θ1 − m2 g (l1 cos θ1 + l2 cos θ 2 ) . 17.5.2

If we now make the small angle approximation, these become

T= 1
2 m1l12 θ& 12 + 1
2 m2 (l1θ& 1 + l2 θ& 2 ) 2 17.5.3

and V = constant + 12 m1 gl1θ12 + 12 m2 g (l1θ12 + l2 θ 22 ) − m1 gl1 − m2 gl1 − m2 gl2 . 17.5.4

Apply the lagrangian equation in turn to θ1 and θ2:

(m1 + m2 )l12&θ&1 + m2l1l2&θ&2 = − (m1 + m2 ) gl1θ1 17.5.5

and m2l1l2&θ&1 + m2l22&θ&2 = − m2 gl2 θ 2 . 17.5.6

Seek solutions of the form &θ&1 = − ω2 θ1 and &θ&2 = − ω2 θ 2 .

Then (m1 + m2 )(l2 ω2 − g )θ1 + m2l2 ω2 θ 2 = 0 17.5.7

and l1ω2 θ1 + (l2 ω2 − g )θ 2 = 0 . 17.5.8

Either of these gives the displacement ratio θ2/θ1. Equating the two expressions for the
ratio θ2/θ1, or putting the determinant of the coefficients to zero, gives the following
equation for the frequencies of the normal modes:

m1l1l2 ω4 − (m1 + m2 ) g (l1 + l2 )ω2 + (m1 + m2 ) g 2 = 0 . 17.5.9

As in the previous examples, there is a slow in-phase mode, and fast out-of-phase mode.

For example, suppose m1 = 0.01 kg, m2 = 0.02 kg, l1 = 0.3 m, l2 = 0.6 m, g = 9.8 m
s−2 .

Then 0.0018ω4 − 0.2646ω2 + 2.8812 = 0 . The slow solution is ω = 3.441 rad s−1 (P
= 1.826 s), and the fast solution is ω = 11.626 rad s−1 (P =0.540 s). If we put the first
of these (the slow solution) in either of equations 17.5.7 or 8 (or both, as a check against
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mistakes) we obtain the displacement ratio θ2/θ1 = 1.319, which is an in-phase mode. If
we put the second (the fast solution) in either equation, we obtain θ2/θ1 = −0.5689 ,
which is an out-of-phase mode. If you were to start with θ2/θ1 = 1.319 and let go, the
pendulum would swing in the slow in-phase mode. . If you were to start with θ2/θ1 =
−0.5689 and let go, the pendulum would swing in the fast out-of-phase mode. Otherwise
the motion would be a linear combination of the normal modes, with the fraction of each
determined by the initial conditions, as in the example in section 17.3.

17.6 Linear Triatomic Molecule

In Chapter 2, Section 2.9, we discussed a rigid triatomic molecule. Now we are going to
discuss three masses held together by springs, of force constants k1 and k2. We are going
to allow it to vibrate, but not to rotate. Also, for the time being, I don’t want the
molecule to bend, so we’ll put it inside a drinking straw to that all the vibrations are
linear. By the way, for real triatomic molecules, the force constants and rotational
inertias are such that molecules vibrate much faster than they rotate. To see their
vibrations you look in the near infra-red spectrum; to see their rotation, you have to go to
the far infrared or the microwave spectrum.

k1 k2
m1 m2 m3

FIGURE XVII.5

Suppose that the equilibrium separations of the atoms are a1 and a2. Suppose that at
some instant of time, the x-coordinates (distances from the left hand edge of the page) of
the three atoms are x1, x2 , x3. The extensions from the equilibrium distances are then
q1 = x2 − x1 − a1 , q2 = x3 − x2 − a2 . We are now ready to start:

T = 12 m1 x&12 + 1
2 m2 x& 22 + 1
2 m3 x&32 , 17.6.1

V = 12 k1q12 + 1
2 k 2 q22 . 17.6.2

We need to express the kinetic energy in terms of the internal coordinates, and, just as for
the diatomic molecule (Section 17.2), the relevant equations are

q&1 = x& 2 − x&1 , 17.6.3

q& 2 = x&3 − x& 2 17.6.4

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and 0 = m1 x&1 + m2 x&2 + m3 x&3 . 17.6.5

These can conveniently be written

 q&1   − 1 1 0   x&1 
    
 q& 2  =  0 − 1 1   x&2  . 17.6.6
0   m m m   x& 
   1 2 3  3 

By one dexterous flick of the fingers (!) we invert the matrix to obtain

 m2 + m3 m3 1 
− − 
 x&1   M M M   q&1 
   m1 m 1  
 x&2  =  − 3   q& 2  , 17.6.7
 x&   M M M 0 
 3  m1 m1 + m2 1  
 
 M M M 

where M = m1 + m2 + m3 . On putting these into equation 17.6.1, we now have

T = 1
2 (aq&12 + 2hq&1q& 2 + bq& 22 ) 17.6.8

and V = 12 k1q12 + 1
2 k 2 q22 , 17.6.2

where a = m1 (m2 + m3 ) / M , 17.6.9

h = m3m1 / M , 17.6.10
b = m3 (m1 + m2 ) / M 17.6.11
and, for future reference,
ab − h 2 = m1m2 m2 / M = m2 h . 17.6.12

On application of Lagrange’s equation in turn to the two internal coordinates we obtain

aq&&1 + hq&&2 + k1q1 = 0 17.6.13

and bq&&2 + hq&&1 + k 2 q2 = 0 . 17.6.14

Seek solutions of the form q&&1 = − ω2 q1 and q&&2 = − ω2 q2 and we obtain the following two
expressions for the extension ratios:
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q1 hω2 k 2 − bω2 .
= = 17.6.15
q2 k1 − aω2 hω2

Equating them gives the equation for the normal mode frequencies:

(ab − h 2 )ω4 − (ak 2 + bk1 )ω2 + k1k 2 = 0 . 17.6.16

For example, if k1 = k 2 = k and m1 = m2 = m3 = m , we obtain, for the slow symmetric

(“breathing”) mode, q1 / q 2 = + 1 and ω 2 = k / m . For the fast asymmetric mode,
q1 / q2 = − 1 and ω2 = 3k / m .

Example.

Consider the linear OCS molecule whose atoms have masses 16, 12 and 32. Suppose that
the angular frequencies of the normal modes, as determined from infrared spectroscopy,
are 0.905 and 0.413. (I just made these numbers up, in unstated units, just for the purpose
of illustrating the calculation. Without searching the literature, I can’t say what they are
in the real OCS molecule.) Determine the force constants.

In Chapter 2 we considered a rigid triatomic molecule. We were given the moment of

inertia, and we were asked to find the two internuclear distances. We couldn’t do this
with just one moment of inertia, so we made an isotopic substitution (18O instead of 16O)
to get a second equation, and so we could then solve for the two internuclear distances.
This time, we are dealing with vibration, and we are going to use equation 17.6.16 to find
the two force constants. This time, however, we are given two frequencies (of the normal
modes), and so we have no need to make an isotopic substitution − we already have two
equations.

Here are the necessary data.

16
OCS

Fast ω 0.905
Slow ω 0.413
m1 m2 m3 16 12 32
M 60
a 11.73&
h 8.53&
b 14.93&
ab − h2 102.4

Use equation 17.6.16 for each of the frequencies, and you’ll get two equations, in k1 and
k2. As in the rotational case, they are quadratic equations, but they are a bit easier to
solve than in the rotational case. You’ll get two equations, each of the form
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A − Bk1 − Ck 2 + k1k 2 = 0, where the coefficients are functions of a, b, h, ω. You’ll

have to work out the values of these coefficients, but, before you substitute the numbers
in, you might want to give a bit of thought to how you would go about solving two
simultaneous equations of the form A − Bk1 − Ck 2 + k1k 2 = 0.

I make the answers

k1 = 2.924 000 k2 = 4.852 000

Note that in this section we considered a linear triatomic molecule that was not allowed
either to rotate or to bend, whereas in Chapter 2 we considered a rigid triatomic molecule
that was not allowed either to vibrate or to bend. If all of these restrictions are removed,
the situation becomes rather more complicated. If a rotating molecule vibrates, the
moving atoms, in a co-rotating reference frame, are subject to the Coriolis force, and
hence they do not move in a straight line. Further, as it vibrates, the rotational inertia
changes periodically, so the rotation is not uniform. If we allow the molecule to bend,
the middle atom can oscillate up and down in the plane of the paper (so to speak) or back
and forth at right angles to the plane of the paper. These two motions will not necessarily
have either the same amplitude or the same phase. Consequently the middle atom will
whirl around in a Lissajous ellipse, giving rise to what has been called “vibrational
angular momentum”. In a real triatomic molecule, the vibrations are usually much faster
than the relatively slow, ponderous rotation, so that vibration-rotation interaction is small
– but is by no means negligible and is readily observed in the spectrum of the molecule.

17.7 Two Masses, Three Springs, Two Brick Walls

The three masses are equal, and the two outer springs are identical. Figure XVII.6 shows
the equilibrium position.

m m
k1 k2 k1
x y

FIGURE XVII.6

Suppose that at some instant the first mass is displaced a distance x to the right and the
second mass is displaced a distance y to the right. The extensions of the first two springs
are x and y − x respectively, and the compression of the third spring is y. If the speeds of
the masses are x& and y& , we have for the kinetic and potential energies:
 14

T = 12 mx& 2 + 12 my& 2 17.7.1

and V = 12 k1 x 2 + 12 k 2 ( y − x) 2 + 12 k1 y 2 . 17.7.2

Apply Lagrange’s equation in turn to x and to y.

m&x& + (k1 + k 2 ) x − k 2 y = 0 17.7.3

and m&y& + (k1 + k 2 ) y − k 2 x = 0 . 17.7.4

Seek solutions of the form &x& = − ω2 x and &y& = − ω2 y .

(− mω2 + k1 + k 2 ) x − k 2 y = 0 17.7.5

and − k 2 x + (− mω2 + k1 + k 2 ) y = 0 . 17.7.6

On putting the determinant of the coefficients to zero, we find for the frequencies of the
normal modes

k1 k1 + 2k 2 ,
ω2 = and ω2 = 17.7.7a,b
m m

corresponding to displacement ratios

x x
=1 and = − 1. 17.7.8a,b
y y

In the first, slow, mode, the masses move in phase and there is no extension or
compression of the connecting spring. In the second, fast, mode, the masses move in
antiphase and the compression or extension of the coupling spring is twice the extension
or compression of the outer springs.

The general motion is a linear combination of the normal modes:

x = A cos(ω1t + α1 ) + B cos(ω2t + α 2 ) , 17.7.9

y = A cos(ω1t + α1 ) − B cos(ω2t + α 2 ) , 17.7.10

x& = − Aω1 sin(ω1t + α1 ) − Bω2 sin(ω2t + α 2 ) , 17.7.11

y& = − Aω1 sin(ω1t + α1 ) + Bω2 sin(ω2t + α 2 ) . 17.7.12

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Suppose that the initial condition is at t = 0, y = y& = 0, x = x 0 , x& = 0 . That is, we pull
the first mass a little to the right (keeping the second mass fixed) and then we let go. The
second two equations establish that α1 = α2 = 0, and the first two equations tell us that A
= B = x0/2. The displacements are then given by

x = 1
2 x0 (cos ω1t + cos ω2t ) = x0 cos 12 (ω1 − ω2 )t cos 12 (ω1 + ω2 )t 17.7.13

and y = 1
2 x0 (cos ω1t − cos ω2t ) = − x0 sin 12 (ω1 − ω2 )t sin 12 (ω1 + ω2 )t . 17.7.14

Let us imagine, for example, that k2 is much less than k1 (but not negligible), so that we
have two weakly-coupled oscillators. In that case equations17.7.7 tell us that the
frequencies of the two normal modes are nearly equal. What equation 17.7.13 describes,
then, is a rapid oscillation of the first mass with angular frequency 12 (ω1 + ω 2 ) whose
amplitude is modulated with a slow angular frequency 12 (ω1 − ω2 ) . Equation 17.7.14
describes the same sort of motion for the second mass, except that the modulation is out
of phase by 90o with the modulation of the motion of the first mass. For a while the first
mass will oscillate with a large amplitude. This will gradually decrease, while the
amplitude of the motion of the second mass increases until the motion of the first mass
momentarily ceases. After that, the amplitude of the motion of the second mass starts to
decrease, while the first mass starts up again. And so the motion continues, with the first
mass and the second mass alternately taking up the motion.

17.8 Transverse Oscillations of Masses on a Taut String

•
F • y2 •
y1 y3
θ1
a a a a

FIGURE XVII.7

A light string of length 4a is held taut, under tension F between two fixed points. Three
equal masses m are attached at equidistant points along the string. They are set into
transverse oscillation of small amplitudes, the transverse displacements of the three
masses at some time being y1, y2 and y3.

The kinetic energy is easy. It is just

T = 1
2 m( y&12 + y& 22 + y& 32 ) . 17.8.1

The potential energy is slightly more difficult.

 16

In the undisplaced position, the length of each portion of the string is a.

In the displaced position, the lengths of the four portions of the string are, respectively,

y12 + a 2 ( y2 − y1 ) 2 + a 2 ( y 2 − y3 ) 2 + a 2 y32 + a 2

For small displacements (i.e. the ys much smaller than a), these are, approximately (by
binomial expansion),

y12 ( y2 − y1 ) 2 ( y 2 − y3 ) 2 y12
a+ a+ a+ a+
2a 2a 2a 2a

so the extensions are

y12 ( y2 − y1 ) 2 ( y 2 − y3 ) 2 y32
2a 2a 2a 2a

It is also supposed that the tension in the string is F and that the displacements are
sufficiently small that this is constant. The work done in displacing the masses, which is
the elastic energy stored in the string as a result of the displacements, is therefore

V =
F 2
2a
[
y1 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y3 ) 2 + y32 ] =
F 2
a
( y1 + y22 + y32 − y1 y2 − y2 y3 ).

We note with mild irritation the presence of the cross-terms y1 y2 , y2 y3 .

Apply Lagrange’s equation in turn to the three coordinates:

am&y&1 + F (2 y1 − y2 ) = 0, 17.8.3

am&y&2 + F (− y1 + 2 y2 − y3 ) = 0 , 17.8.4

am&y&3 + F (− y2 + 2 y3 ) = 0. 17.8.5

Seek solutions of the form &y&1 = − ω2 y1 , &y&2 = − ω2 y2 , &y&3 = − ω2 y3 .

Then (2 F − amω2 ) y1 − Fy2 = 0, 17.8.6

− Fy1 + (2 F − amω2 ) y2 − Fy3 = 0, 17.8.7

− Fy2 + (2 F − amω2 ) y3 = 0. 17.8.8

 17

Putting the determinant of the coefficients to zero gives an equation for the frequencies of
the normal modes. The solutions are:
Slow Medium Fast
(2 − 2 ) F 2F (2 + 2 ) F
ω12 = ω22 = ω32 =
am am am

Substitution of these into equations 17.8.6 to 8 gives the following displacement ratios
for these three modes:

y1 : y2 : y3 = 1 : √2 : 1 1 : 0 : −1 1 : −√2 : 1

These are illustrated in figure XVII.8.

As usual, the general motion is a linear combination of the normal modes, the relative
amplitudes and phases of the modes depending upon the initial conditions.

If the motion of the first mass is a combination of the three modes with relative
amplitudes in the proportion qˆ1 : qˆ 2 : qˆ3 , and with initial phases α1 , α 2 , α 3 , its motion is
described by
y1 = qˆ1 sin(ω1t + α1 ) + qˆ 2 sin(ω2t + α 2 ) + qˆ3 sin(ω3t + α 3 ) . 17.8.9

•
• •
ω1

•
• 1.85ω1

• •
2.41ω1

FIGURE XVII.8
 18

The motions of the second and third masses are then described by

y2 = 2qˆ1 sin(ω1t + α1 ) − 2qˆ3 sin(ω3t + α 3 ) 17.8.10

and y3 = qˆ1 sin(ω1t + α1 ) − qˆ 2 sin(ω2t + α 2 ) + qˆ3 sin(ω3t + α 3 ) . 17.8.11

These can be written

y1 = q1 + q2 + q3 , 17.8.12

y2 = 2q1 − 2q3 17.8.13

and y1 = q1 − q2 + q3 , 17.8.14

where the qi , like the yi , are time-dependent coordinates.

We could, if we wish, express the qi in terms of the yi, by solving these equations:

q1 = 1
4 ( y1 + 2 y 2 + y3 ) , 17.8.15

q2 = 1
2 ( y1 − y3 ) 17.8.16

and q3 = 1
4
( y1 − 2 y2 + y3 ) . 17.8.17

We have hitherto described the state of the system as a function of time by giving the
values of the coordinates y1 , y2 and y3. We could equally well, if we wished, describe the
state of the system by giving, instead, the values of the coordinates q1 , q2 and q3. Indeed
it turns out that it is very useful to do so, and these coordinates are called the normal
coordinates, and we shall see that they have some special properties. Thus, if you
express the kinetic and potential energies in terms of the normal coordinates, you get

T = 1
2 m(4q&12 + 2q& 22 + 4q&32 ) 17.8.18

and V =
2F
a
[( )
2 − 2 q12 + q22 + 2 + ( ) ]
2 q32 . 17.8.19

Note that there are no cross terms. When you apply Lagrange’s equation in turn to the
three normal coordinates, you obtain

amq&&1 = − 2 − ( )
2 Fq1 , 17.8.20
 19

amq&&2 = − 2Fq2 17.8.21

and (
amq&&3 = − 2 + )
2 Fq3 . 17.8.22

Notice that the normal coordinates have become completely separated into three
independent equations and that each is of the form q&& = − ω2 q and that each of the normal
coordinates oscillates with one of the frequencies of the normal modes. Much of the art
of solving problems involving vibrating systems concerns identifying the normal
coordinates.

17.9 Vibrating String

It is possible that the three modes of vibration of the three masses in section 17.8
reminded you of the fundamental and first two harmonic vibrations of a stretched string –
and it is quite proper that it did. If you were to imagine ten masses attached to a stretched
string and to carry out the same sort of analysis, you would find ten normal modes, of
which one would be quite like the fundamental mode of a stretched string, and the
remainder would remind you of the first nine harmonics. You could continue with the
same analysis but with a very large number of masses, and eventually you would be
analysing the vibrations of a continuous heavy string. We do that now, and we assume
that we have a heavy, taut string of mass µ per unit length, and under a tension F.

A B
F F

x
A0 B0

FIGURE XVII.9
 20

I show in figure XVII.9 a portion of length δx of a vibrating rope, represented by A0B0 in

its equilibrium position and by AB in a displaced position. The rope makes an angle ψA
with the horizontal at A and an angle ψB with the horizontal at B. The tension in the rope
is F. The vertical equation of motion is

∂2 y .
F (sin ψ B − sin ψ A ) = µ δx 2 17.9.1
∂t

∂y , ∂2 y
If the angles are small, then sin ψ ≅ so the expression in parenthesis is δx . The
∂x ∂x 2
equation of motion is therefore

∂2 y ∂2 y , T .
c2 = where c = 17.9.2,a,b
∂x 2 ∂t 2 µ

As can be verified by substitution, the general solution to this is of the form

y = f ( x − ct ) + g ( x + ct ) . 17.9.3

This represents a function that can travel in either direction along the rope at a speed c
given by equation 17.9.2b. Should the disturbance be a periodic disturbance, then a wave
will travel along the rope at that speed. Further analysis of waves in ropes and strings is
generally done in chapters concerned with wave motion. This section, however, at least
establishes the speed at which a disturbance (periodic or otherwise) travels along a
stretched strong or rope.

17.10 Water

Water consists of a mass M (“oxygen”) connected to two smaller equal masses m

(“hydrogen”) by two equal springs of force constants k, the angle between the springs
being 2θ. The equilibrium length of each spring is r. The torque needed to increase the
angle between the springs by 2δθ is 2cδθ. See figure XVII.10. (θ is about 52°.)

M
θ go θ

m m

FIGURE XVII.10
 21

At any time, let the coordinates of the three masses (from left to right) be

( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 ) , ( x3 , y3 )

and let the equilibrium positions be

( x10 , y10 ) , ( x20 , y20 ) , ( x30 , y30 ) , where y30 = y10 .

We suppose that these coordinates are referred to a frame in which the centre of mass of
the system is stationary.

Let us try and imagine, in figure XVII.11, the vibrational modes. We can easily imagine
a mode in which the angle opens and closes symmetrically. Let is resolve this mode into
an x-component and a y-component. In the x-component of this motion, one hydrogen
atom moves to the right by a distance q1 while the other moves to the left by and equal
distance q1. In the y-component of this symmetric motion, both hydrogens move
upwards by a distance q2, while, in order to keep the centre of mass of the system
unmoved, the oxygen necessarily moves down by a distance 2mq2/M. We can also
imagine an asymmetric mode in which one spring expands while the other contracts.
One hydrogen moves down to the left by a distance q3, while the other moves up to the
left by the same distance. In the meantime, the oxygen must move to the right by a
distance (2mq3 sin θ)/M, in order to keep the centre of mass unmoved.

We are going to try to write down the kinetic and potential energies in terms of the
internal coordinates q1, q2 and q3.
 22

M
θ θ

m q1 q1 m

M
θ θ
q2 2mq2/M q2

m m

M (2mq3 sin θ)/M

θ θ

q3

m m

q3 FIGURE XVII.11

It is easy to write down the kinetic energy in terms of the (x , y) coordinates:

 23

T = 1
2 m( x&12 + y&12 ) + 1
2 M ( x& 22 + y& 22 ) + 1
2 m( x&32 + y& 32 ) . 17.10.1

From geometry, we have:

x&1 = q&1 − q&3 sin θ y&1 = q& 2 − q&3 cos θ 17.10.2a,b

2mq&3 sin θ 2mq& 2

x& 2 = y& 2 = − 17.10.3a,b
M M

x&3 = − q&1 − q&3 sin θ y& 3 = q& 2 + q&3 cos θ 17.10.4a,b

On putting these into equation 17.10.1 we obtain

(
T = mq&12 + m(1 + 2m /M )q& 22 + m 1 + (2m sin 2 θ) / M q&32 . ) 17.10.5

For short, I am going to write this as

T = a11q&12 + a22 q& 22 + a33 q&32 . 17.10.6

Now for the potential energy.

The extension of the left hand spring is

2mq2 cos θ 2mq3 sin θ cos θ

δr1 = − q1 sin θ − q2 cos θ − + q3 +
M M 17.10.7
= − q1 sin θ − q2 (1 + 2m /M ) cos θ + q3 (1 + (2m sin θ cos θ) /M ).

The extension of the right hand spring is

2mq2 cos θ 2mq3 sin 2 θ
δr2 = − q1 sin θ − q2 cos θ − − q3 −
M M 17.10.8
= − q1 sin θ − q2 (1 + 2m /M ) cos θ − q3 1 + (2m sin θ ) /M .
2
( )
The increase in the angle between the springs is

2q1 cos θ 2(1 + 2m /M )q2 sin θ .

2δθ = − + 17.10.9
r r

The potential energy (above the equilibrium position) is

V = 12 k (δr1 ) 2 + 12 k (δr2 ) 2 + 12 c(2δθ) 2 . 17.10.10

 24

On substituting equations 17.10,7,8 and 9 into this, we obtain an equation of the form

V = b11q12 + 2b12 q1q2 + b22 q22 + b33q32 , 17.10.11

where I leave it to the reader, if s/he wishes, to work out the detailed expressions for the
coefficients. We still have a cross term, so we can’t completely separate the coordinates,
but we can easily apply Lagrange’s equation to equations 17.10.6 and 11, and then seek
simple harmonic solutions in the usual way. Setting the determinant of the coefficients to
zero leads to the following equation for the angular frequencies of the normal modes:

b11 − ω2 a11 b12 0

b12 b22 − ω2 a22 0 = 0. 17.10.12
0 0 b33 − ω2 a33

Thus, given the masses and r, θ, k and c, one can predict the frequencies of the normal
modes. Can one calculate k and c given the frequencies? I don’t know, to tell the truth.
Can I leave it to the reader to investigate further?

17.11 A General Vibrating System

For convenience, I'll refer to a collection of masses connected by springs as a "molecule",

and the individual masses as "atoms". In a molecule with N atoms, the number of
degrees of vibrational freedom (the number of normal modes of vibration) n = 3 N − 6
for nonlinear molecules, or n = 3 N − 5 for linear molecules. Three equations are
needed to express zero translational motion, and three (or two) are needed to express zero
rotational motion.

[While reading this Section, it might be worthwhile for the reader to follow at the same time the treatment
given to the OCS molecule in Section 17.6. Bear in mind, however, that in that section we did not consider
the possibility of the molecule bending. Indeed we treated the molecule as if it were constrained inside a
drinking straw, and it remained linear at all times. That being the case only N coordinates (rather than 3N)
suffice to describe the state of the molecule. Only one equation is needed to express zero translational
motion, and none are needed to express zero rotational motion. Thus there are N − 1 internal coordinates,
and hence N − 1 normal vibrational modes. In the case of OCS, N = 3, so there are two normal vibrational
modes.]

A molecule with n degrees of vibrational freedom can be described at some instant of

time by n internal coordinates qi. A typical such coordinate may be related to the external
coordinates of two atoms, for example, by some expression of the form q = x2 − x1 − a ,
as we saw in our example of the molecule OCS. Its potential energy can be written in the
form
 25

2V = κ 11q12 + κ 12 q1q2 + ... + κ 1n q1qn

+ κ 21q2 q1 + κ q + ...
2
22 2 + κ 2 n q 2 qn
+ ... 17.11.1
+ κ n1qn q1 + κ 12 qn q2 + ... + κ nn qn qn .

Unless the q are the judiciously chosen "normal coordinates" (see our example of the
transverse vibrations of three masses on an elastic string), there will in general be cross
terms, such as q1q2. If both qs of a term are linear displacements, the corresponding κ is
a force constant (dimensions MT−2). If both qs are angles, κ is a torsion constant
(dimensions ML2T−2. If one is a linear displacement and he other is an angular
displacement, κ will be a coefficient of dimensions MLT−2.
.
The matrix is symmetric, so that equation 17.11.1 could also be written

2V = κ 11q12 + 2κ 12 q1q2 + ... + 2 κ 1n q1qn

+ κ 22 q22 + ... + 2 κ 2 n q2 qn
+ ... 17.11.2
+ κ nn qn qn .

In matrix notation, the equation (i.e. equations 17.11.1 or 17.11.2) could be written:
~κq.
2V = q 17.11.3

or in vector/tensor notation, 2V = q • κ q . 17.11.4

The kinetic energy can be written in terms of the time rates of change of the external
coordinates xi:

2T = m1 x&12 + m2 x&22 +... + m3 N x&32N . 17.11.5

To make use of the Lagrangian equations of motion, we need to express V and T in terms
of the same coordinates, and it is usually advantageous if these be the n internal
coordinates rather than the 3N external coordinates – so that we have to deal with only n
rather than 3N lagrangian equations. (Recall that n = 3N − 6 or 5 .) The relations
between the external and internal coordinates are given as a set of equations that express
a choice of coordinates such that there is no pure translation and no pure rotation of the
molecule. These equations are of the form

q = Ax. 17.11.6
 26

Here q is an n × 1 column matrix, x a 3 N × 1 column matrix, and A is a matrix with n

rows and 3N columns, and it may need a little trouble to set up. We could then use this to
express V in terms of the external coordinates, so we would then have both V and T in
terms of the external coordinates. We could then apply Lagrange’s equation to each of
the 3N external coordinates and arrive at 3N simultaneous differential equations of
motion.

A better approach is usually to set up the equations connecting q& and x& :

q& = Bx&. 17.11.7

(These correspond to equations 17.6.3 and 17.6.4 in our example of the linear triatomic
molecule in Section 17.6.) We then want to invert equations 17.11.7 in order to express
x& in terms of q& . But we can’t do this, because B is not a square matrix. x& has 3N
elements while q& has only n. We have to add an additional six (or five for linear
molecules) equations to express zero pure translational and zero pure rotational motion.
This adds a further 6 or 5 rows to B, so that B is now square. (this corresponds to
equation 17.6.6), and we can then invert equation 17.11.7:

x& = B-1q&. 17.11.8

(This corresponds to equation 17.6.7.)

By this means we can express the kinetic energy in terms of the time rates of change of
only the n internal coordinates:

2T = µ11q&12 + µ12 q&1q& 2 +... + µ1n q&1q& n

+ µ 21q& 2 q&1 + µ 22 q& 22 +... + µ 2 n q& 2 q& n
17.11.7
+...
+ µ n1q& n q&1 + µ12 q& n q& 2 +... + µ nn q& n q& n .

Since the matrix is symmetric, the equation could also be written in a form analogous to
equation 17.11.2. The equation can also be written in matrix notation as
~
2T = q& µ q& . 17.11.8

or in vector/tensor notation, 2T = q& • µq& . 17.11.9

Here the µij are functions of the masses. If both qs is a particular term have the
dimensions of a length, the corresponding µ and κ will have dimensions of mass and
force constant. If both qs are angles, the corresponding µ and κ will have dimensions of
rotational inertia and torsion constant.. If one q is a length and the other is an angle, the
corresponding µ and κ will have dimensions ML and MLT−2.
 27

Apply Lagrange's equation successively to q1 , ... , qn to obtain n equations of the form

µ11q&&1 +... + µ1n q&&n + κ11q1 +... + κ1n qn = 0. 7.11.10

That is to say
µq
&& = − κq . 17.11.11

Seek simple harmonic solutions of the form q&& = −ω2 q

and we obtain n equations of the form

( κ 11 − µ11ω 2 ) q1 + ... + ( κ 1n − µ1n ω 2 ) qn = 0. 17.11.13

The frequencies of the normal modes can be obtained by equating the determinant of the
coefficients to zero, and hence the displacement ratios can be determined.

If N is large, this could be a formidable task. The work can be very much reduced by
making use of symmetry relations of the molecule, in which case the determinant of the
coefficients may be factored into a number of much smaller subdeterminants. Further, if
the configuration of the molecule could be expressed in terms of normal coordinates
(combinations of the internal coordinates) such that the potential energy contained no
cross terms, the equations of motion for each normal coordinate would be in the form
q&& = −ω2 q.

17.12 A Driven System

It would probably be useful before reading this and the next section to review Chapters
11 and 12.
k1 m1 k2 m2
Equilibrium:

x1 x2
Displaced:
f1 f1 f2 f2
F = Fˆ sin ωt
FIGURE XVII.12

Figure XVII.12 shows the same system as figure XVII.2, except that, instead of being left
to vibrate on its own, the second mass is subject to a periodic force F = Fˆ sin ωt . For
the time being, we’ll suppose that there is no damping. Either way, it is not a
 28

conservative force, and Lagrange’s equation will be used in the form of equation 13.4.12.
As in section 17.2, the kinetic energy is

T = 1
2 m1 x&12 + 1
2 m2 x&22 . 17.12.1

Lagrange’s equations are

d ∂T ∂T
− = P1 17.12.2
dt ∂x&1 ∂x1

d ∂T ∂T
and − = P2 . 17.12.3
dt ∂x&2 ∂x2

We have to identify the generalized forces P1 and P2.

In the nonequilibrium position, the extension of the left hand spring is x1 and so the
tension in that spring is f1 = k1 x1 . The extension of the right hand spring is x2 − x2 and
so the tension in that spring is f 2 = k 2 ( x2 − x1 ) . If x1 were to increase by δx1, the work
done on m1 would be ( f 2 − f1 ) δx1 , and therefore the generalized force associated with the
coordinate x1 is P1 = k 2 ( x2 − x1 ) − k1 x1 . If x2 were to increase by δx2, the work done on
m2 would be ( F − f 2 ) δx2 , and therefore the generalized force associated with the
coordinate x2 is P = Fˆ sin ωt − k ( x − x ). The lagrangian equations of motion
2 2 2 1
therefore become

m1 &x&1 + (k1 + k 2 ) x1 − k 2 x2 = 0 17.12.4

and m2 &x&2 + k 2 ( x2 − x1 ) = Fˆ sin ωt . 17.12.5

Seek solutions of the form &x&1 = − ω2 x1 and &x&2 = − ω2 x2 . The equations become

(k1 + k 2 − m1ω2 ) x1 − k 2 x2 = 0 17.12.6

and − k 2 x1 + (k 2 − m2 ω2 ) x2 = Fˆ sin ωt . 17.12.7

We do not, of course, now equate the determinants of the coefficients to zero (why not?!),
but we can solve these equations to obtain

k 2 Fˆ sin ωt
x1 = 17.12.8
(k1 + k 2 − m1ω2 )(k 2 − m2 ω2 ) − k 22
 29

(k1 + k 2 − m1ω2 ) Fˆ sin ωt .

and x2 = 2 2 2
17.12.9
(k1 + k 2 − m1ω )(k 2 − m2 ω ) − k 2

The amplitudes of these motions (and how they vary with the forcing frequency ω) are

k 2 Fˆ
xˆ1 = 17.12.10
m1m2 ω4 − (m1k 2 + m2 k1 + m2 k 2 )ω2 + k1k 2

(k1 + k 2 − m1ω2 ) Fˆ ,
and xˆ 2 = 17.12.11
m1m2 ω4 − (m1k 2 + m2 k1 + m2 k 2 )ω2 + k1k 2

where I have re-written the denominators in the form of a quadratic expression in ω2.

For illustration I draw, in figure XVII.13, the amplitudes of the motion of m1(continuous
curve, in black) and of m2 (dashed curve, in blue) for the following data:

Fˆ = 1, k1 = k 2 = 1, m1 = 3 , m2 = 2 ,

when the equations become

1 1
xˆ1 = = 17.12.12
6ω − 7ω + 1
4 2
(6ω − 1)(ω2 − 1)
2

2 − 3ω2 2 − 3ω2 .
and xˆ 2 = = 17.12.13
6ω4 − 7ω2 + 1 (6ω2 − 1)(ω2 − 1)
 30

FIGURE XVII.13
FIGURE XVII.12
4

3
m2 m1
2

1
Amplitude

-1

-2

-3

-4
0 0.5 1 1.5
omega

Where the amplitude is negative, the oscillations are out of phase with the force F. The
amplitudes go to infinity (remember we are assuming here zero damping) at the two
frequencies where the denominators of equations 17.12.10 and11 are zero. The
amplitude of the motion of m2 is zero when the numerator of equation 17.12.11 is zero.
This is at an angular frequency of (k1 + k 2 ) / m1 , which is just the angular frequency of
the motion of m1 held by the two springs between two fixed points. In our numerical
example, this is ω = 2 / 3 = 0.8165. This is an example of antiresonance.

17.13 A Damped Driven System

I’ll leave the reader to add some damping to the system described in section 17.12. Let
us here try it with the system described in section 17.7. We’ll apply a periodic force to
the left hand mass, and we’ll suppose that the damping constant for each mass is
γ = b / m . We could write the periodic force as F = Fˆ sin ωt , but the algebra will be
easier if we write it as F = Fˆeiωt . If the initial condition is such that F = 0 when t = 0,
then we choose just the imaginary part of this in subsequent expressions.

The equations of motion are

m&x& = − the damping force bx&
− the tension in the left hand spring k1x
 31

+ the force F
+ the tension in the middle spring k2(y − x)
(this last is a thrust whenever y < x)

and m&y& = − the damping force by&

− the thrust in the right hand spring k1y
− the tension in the middle spring k2(y − x)

F = Fˆ sin ωt
m A
k1 k2 k1
D
x y

FIGURE XVII.14

That is,
m&x& + bx& + (k1 + k 2 ) x − k 2 y = Fˆeiωt 17.13.1

and m&y& + by& + (k1 + k 2 ) y − k 2 x = 0 . 17.13.2

For the steady-state motion, seek solutions of the form

&x& = − ω2 x , &y& = − ω2 y , so that x& = iωx and y& = iωy .

The equations then become

(k1 + k 2 − mω2 + ibω) x − k 2 y = Fˆeiωt 17.13.3

and − k 2 x + (k1 + k 2 − mω2 + ibω) y = 0 . 17.13.4

There is now a little algebra to be carried out. Solve these equations for x and y, and
when, in doing so, there is a complex number in the denominator, multiply top and
bottom by the conjugate in the usual way, so as to get x and y in the forms
x' + ix" and y ' + iy". Then find expressions for the amplitudes x̂ and ŷ . After some
algebra, the amount of which depends on one’s skill, experience and luck (it is not
always obvious how to gather terms in the most economical way, and you need some
luck in this) you eventually get, for the amplitudes of the motion

xˆ 2 =
((k + k 2 − mω2 ) 2 + b 2 ω2 )Fˆ 2
1
17.13.5
((k1 − mω ) + b 2ω2 )((k1 + 2k2 − mω2 )2 + b 2ω2 )
2 2
 32

k 22 Fˆ 2 .
and yˆ 2 = 17.13.6
((k1 − mω2 ) 2 + b 2ω2 )((k1 + 2k2 − mω2 ) 2 + b 2ω2 )
There are many variables in these expressions, but in order to see qualitatively what the
steady state motion is like, I’m going to put F̂ , m and k1 = 1. I think if I also put b = 1,
this will give light damping in the sense described in Chapter 11. As for k2, I am going to
k2  α 
introduce a coupling coefficient α defined by α = or k 2 =   k1 . This
k1 + k 2  1− α 
coupling constant will be close to zero if the middle spring is very weak, and 1 if the
middle connector is a rigid rod. The equations now become

(1
− ω2 )2
+ ω2
)(( )
1− α
xˆ =
2 . 17.13.7
((1− ω )
2 2
+ ω2 1+ α
1− α − ω2 )
2
+ ω2

α /(1 − α)
)(( )
and yˆ 2 = . 17.13.8
((1 − ω )
2 2
+ω 2 1+ α
1− α −ω )
2 2
+ω 2

For computational efficiency you might want to rewrite these equations a little. For
example you could write (1 − ω2 ) 2 + ω2 as 1 − Ω(1 − Ω) , where Ω = ω 2 . In any case,
figure XVII.15 shows the amplitudes of the motions of the two masses as a function of
frequency, for α = 0.1, 0.5 and 0.9. The continuous black curves are for the left hand
mass; the dashed blue curve is for the right hand mass.
 33

FIGURE XVII.15
1.4

1.2 α
0.1
1

0.8
Amplitude

0.5

0.6 0.9

0.4 0.5

0.1
0.2 0.9

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
omega