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SOILS
-Soil mainly consists of finely divided organic matter and minerals.
-It holds the plants upright, stores water and supplies nutrients for plant use.

Soil on the basis of size;

Gravel, Sand, Silt, Clay

A.1 SOILS CAN BE CLASSIFIED ON THEIR PROCESS OF FORMATION

Residual soils:
Disintegration of natural rocks
Alluvial soils:
Sediment material deposited in bodies of water
Aeolian soils:
soils are deposited by wind action.
Glacial soils:
soils are the products of glacial erosion.
Colluvial soils:
by deposition at foothills due to rain wash.
Volcanic soil:
due to volcanic eruptions and are commonly called as
volcanic wash.

A.2 SOIL OF THE PHILIPPINES

 ULTISOL - a highly weathered leached red or reddish-yellow acid soil
 INCEPTISOL - are prominent in mountainous regions.
 ALFISOL - a soil of an order comprising leached basic
 VERTISOLS - a soil in which there is a high content of expansive clay minerals, many of them known as montmorillonite, that
form deep cracks in drier seasons or years.
 ENTISOL soils that do not show any profile development other than an a horizon. 
 OXISOLS - a soil of an order comprising stable

B. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

B.1 Soil Texture
Soil texture is determined by the size of soil particles.
Sand - (particle size ranging from 0.05 to 1.00 mm in diameter)
Silt - (0.002 to 0.05 mm)
clay - (smaller than 0.002 mm)

A clay loam texture soil, for example, has nearly equal parts of sand, slit, and clay. These textural separates result from
the weathering process.

IN THE FIELD, SOIL TEXTURE COULD BE ESTIMATED BY THE FOLLOWING METHOD

 BALL THROWING METHOD - The texture of the soil can be inferred by the way a ball of soil acts when it is thrown at a hard
surface such as a wall or a tree

B.2 Soil Structure

 -soil texture and soil structure have the greatest influence on pore space in a soil
-The pore space directly affects the soil fertility

B.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Soils having excess (greater than 0.15 to 0.20 per cent) soluble salts are called saline
soils and those having excess of exchangeable sodium (more than 15 per cent or pH greater
than 8.5) are called alkaline (or sodic) soils.

C. SOIL–WATER RELATIONSHIPS

Ex. If the water content of a certain saturated soil sample is 22 percent and
the specific gravity is 2.65, determine the saturated unit weight γsat, dry unit weight γd, porosity
n and void ratio e.
sol.

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IRRIGATION METHODS
Irrigation may be defined as the process of supplying water by artificial means to agricultural fields

FIELD IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT

3 stages of growth of all plants
• Vegetative
• Flowering
• Fruiting

Effective Precipitation
irrigation requirement is the quantity of water, exclusive of precipitation and regardless of its source, required by a crop in a given
period of time of their normal growth
Thus, the field irrigation requirement FIR is expressed as:
FREQUENCY OF IRRIGATION
The frequency of irrigation primarily depends on:
• Water needs of the crop
• Availability of water
• Capacity of root-zone soil to store water.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Any irrigation system would consist of the following four subsystems:
• The water supply subsystem which are diversion from rivers, surface ponds ,pumped flow of ground water.
• The water delivery subsystem which are canals, branches, and hydraulic structures
• The water use subsystems, which can be one of the four main types, namely, (a) surface irrigation, (b) subsurface irrigation,
(c) sprinkler irrigation, and (d) trickle irrigation.
• The water removal system i.e., the drainage system.

WATER USE SUBSYSTEMS

• Surface Irrigation
• Subsurface Irrigation
• Sprinkler Irrigation
• Drip Irrigation

The choice of the method depends on the following factors:

• Size, shape, and slope of the field,
• Soil characteristics,
• Nature and availability of the water supply subsystem,
• Types of crops being grown,
• Initial development costs and availability of funds, and
• Preferences and past experience of the farmer.

SURFACE IRRIGATION
Surface irrigation is defined as the group of application techniques

TYPES OF SURFACE IRRIGATION

UNCONTROLLED FLOODING
-wild, or free flooding
-applicable to cropland without any preparation of land and without levees

BORDER IRRIGATION
Border irrigation is a controlled surface flooding method. Borders are irrigated by diverting a stream of water from the supply
channel to the upper end of the border.

BASIN IRRIGATION
Basin irrigation is the most common form of surface irrigation, particularly in regions with layouts of small fields. The basins are filled
to the desired depth and the water is retained until it infiltrates into the soil. 1 basin = 1 tree.

FURROW IRRIGATION
Furrows are small, parallel channels, made to carry water in order to irrigate the crop.

SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION
Also known as subirrigation. Simply applying water to soil directly under the surface

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
Sprinkle is a method of irrigation in which water is sprayed, or sprinkled through the air in rain like drops.

Suitable Slopes for Drip Irrigation:

Drip irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope. Normally the crop would be planted along contour lines and the water supply
pipes (laterals) would be laid along the contour.

Suitable Soil for Drip Irrigation:

Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils. On clay soils water must be applied slowly to avoid surface water ponding and runoff. On
sandy soils higher emitter discharge rates will be needed to ensure adequate lateral wetting of the soil.

QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER

Sources of water for irrigation:
-Surface Water
-Ground Water
-Suitably Treated Waste Water

The requirement of a minimum distance of about 200 m between the irrigated area and residential buildings must be observed. If
wind velocity is < 3.5m/s sprinkler irrigation is prohibited when waste water is used.
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Ground Water and Wells

GROUND WATER
- is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock
- Groundwater supplies are replenished, or recharged, by rain

WELL
- A well is a pipe in the ground that fills with groundwater. This water can be brought to the surface by a pump.
- Basically, a well is a hole drilled into the ground to access water contained in an aquifer

WELL CONSTRUCTION
A well is composed of many components. The most important materials used include:

 Casing is used to maintain an open access in the earth while not allowing any entrance or leakage
 Grout is a sealant that is used to fill in the spaces around the outside of the well. It protects the well against the intrusion of
contaminants.
 Screen keeps sand and gravel out of the well while allowing groundwater and water from formations to enter into the well.
 Gravel pack is placed around the outside of the screen to prevent sand from entering the well or clogging the screen and to
stabilize the well assembly.

WELL CONTAMINATION
things you can do to protect your groundwater and water well:
• Maintain your well
• Keep hazardous materials away from your well
• Install a well cap
• Use caution around your well
• Conserve water
• Learn more about well testing.

basic materials that combine with a pump to provide water for a household.
Casing
Casing is the tubular structure that is placed in the drilled well to maintain the well opening.
Caps
On the top of the casing should be an approved well cap. It should fit snugly so debris, insects, or small animals can’t find their way
into the well system.
The casing and cap should extend at least 6 to 8 inches above the ground
Well Screens
Well screens are filtering devices used to prevent excess sediment from entering the well. They attach to the bottom of the casing
Perforated pipe is a length of casing that has holes or slots drilled into the pipe.
Pitless adapters
Pitless adapters provide wells with a sanitary — and frost-proof — seal between the well casing and the water line running to the
well system owner’s house.
Well Head
This is the very top of a well, consisting of the tip of a long pipe constructed of (typically PVC).
Well Casing
The length of pipe itself is called a casing. Water rises into the casing up to the pump, which then transports the water into your
home
Well Pump
If your water well was a living creature, the pump would be its heart. This is the main and most important component of the entire
system. The submersible well pump uses electricity to draw water from an underground aquifer and send it through plumbing pipes
to fixtures in and around your home.
Well Screen
At the very bottom of the casing, below the pump and above a specialized sand media, sits the well screen. Just like the filter in your
coffee pot, this screen filters out tiny bits of debris from your water source thanks to its stainless steel design, while the sand traps
even smaller particulates.
Dug Wells
Dug wells are holes in the ground dug by shovel or backhoe.

METHODS OF CONSTRUCTING WELL

1. LOCATING SITE AND MAKING A WELL
2. CABLE TOOL / PERCUSSION DRILLING
3. ROTARY DRILLING
4. WELL SCREENS AND DEVELOPMENT
5. WELL SCREENS AND DEVELOPMENT
6. DEVELOPMENT
7. WELL LIFE AND MAINTENANCE

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CANALS
- A canal is defined as an artificial channel constructed on the ground to carry water

a canal can be either:

Permanent canal - has a continuous source of water supply. Such canals are also called perennial canals.
Inundation canal - draws its supplies from a river only during the high stages of the river.

Depending on their function, canals can also be classified as:

Irrigation Canal - carries water from its source to agricultural fields
Navigation canals - used for transport of goods or people
Power canals - are used to carry water for generation of hydroelectricity
Feeder canal - feeds two or more canals

the canals are also classified as:

Main canal - takes its supplies directly from the river through the head regulator and acts as a feeder canal supplying water to
branch canals and major distributaries
Branch canals - take their supplies from the main canal
Major distributaries - these distributaries take their supplies generally from the branch canal
Minor distributaries - feed the watercourses for irrigation
Watercourse - is a small channel which takes its supplies from an irrigation channel (generally distributaries) through an outlet and
carries water to the various parts of the area to be irrigated through the outlet.

Preliminary Survey
information on all such factors which influence irrigation development is collected during the preliminary (or reconnaissance)
survey. During this survey all these factors are observed or enquired from the local people.

The information on the following features of the area are to be collected:

(i) Type of soil
(ii) Topography of the area
(iii) Crops of the area
(iv) Rainfall in the area
(v) Water table elevations in the area
(vi) Existing irrigation facilities, and
(vii) General outlook of the cultivators with respect to cultivation and irrigation

Weir
A weir is an obstruction over which flow of a liquid occurs.

Weirs can be classified based on shapes:

1. Rectangular weir
based on the Bernoulli equation principles
q = 2/3 cd b (2 g)1/2 h3/2
Where:
q = flow rate (m3/s)
h = elevation head on the weir (m)
b = width of the weir (m)
g = 9.81 (m/s2) - gravity
cd = discharge constant for the weir

2. Triangular weir (V-notch)

The triangular or V-notch is an accurate flow measuring device particularly suited for small flows.
q = 8/15 cd (2 g)1/2 tan(θ/2) h5/2
Where:
θ = v-notch angle
q = flow rate (m3/s)
h = elevation head on the weir (m)
g = 9.81 (m/s2) - gravity
cd = discharge constant for the weir

Trapezoidal weir (Cippoletti)

The "Cippoletti" weir is a trapezoidal weir
q = 2/3 cd (2 g)1/2 b h3/2
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PIPELINE SYSTEM
Pipeline System/transport is the long-distance transportation of a liquid or gas through a system of pipes

Various aspects of pipelines:

• Design of simple (one pipe) pipelines
• Series, parallel and branched pipelines
• Distribution systems
• Design of pumping mains
• Surge protection

A. Design of a simple pipe system

Two aspects to the design of a simple pipe system
1.) Hydraulics Calculation
2.) Detail Design

B. Series, parallel and branched pipe system

1.) Series – Pipes are connected end to end
2.) Parallel- Pipes branches or divides into two or more separate pipes and then reunite into a single pipe.
3.) Branched- Pipes consist of number of pipes which are attached between the tanks

C. Distribution Systems

Requirements of Good Distribution System:

5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metre away or above the sewer lines.

four different types of pipe networks;

Grid Iron System
It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches are laid in rectangles.
Ring System
The supply main is laid all along the peripheral roads and sub mains branch out from the mains.
Radial System
The area is divided into different zones. The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept in the middle of each zone and the
supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the periphery.
Dead end System
It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads.

D. Design of pumping mains

1.) Hydraulic design- determine a suitable pump and pipe combination for the required design discharge (Q).
2.) Economics of pumping mains- The final choice is not determined purely on the basis of hydraulic considerations. It is
necessary to determine the least-cost solution
a. Pipe cost
b. Pump cost
c. Running cost
3.) Detail Design- The pump is installed between two valves for easy removal in case of repair or maintenance.

E. Surge Protection
Surge - is a phenomenon which suddenly changes the velocity inside a pipeline which results in to an extraordinary positive or
negative pressure and can cause structural failures in the pipeline system if not properly designed.

Two approaches are possible in how to modify system economically:

I. Surge protection by mechanical means - this might entail limiting the rate of valve closure
II. Surge protection by hydraulic means - this implies the incorporation of a hydraulic device which automatically limits the
pressure rise in the system.
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Particle Treatment Process
Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it more acceptable for a specific end-use. It also removes
contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.

VARIOUS METHODS OF PURIFICATION OF WATER

SCREENING
Screening is the first unit operation used at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Screening removes objects such as rags, paper,
plastics, and metals to prevent damage and clogging of downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances.
PLAIN SEDIMENTATION
Plain sedimentation is the process of removing suspended matters from the water by keeping it quiescent in tanks, so that
suspended matter may settle down in the bottom due to force of gravity.
SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION
Sedimentation added with coagulation of three step
 Addition of measured quantity of chemicals called coagulants to water and their through mixing
 Formation of precipitate which coagulates and forms a flow ( flocculation )
 Sedimentation

- Coagulants
 Aluminum Sulfate Al2(SO4)3
 Ferrous Sulfate FeSO4
 Ferric Sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
 Ferric Chloride FeCl3
 Lime Ca(OH)2
Aluminum salts are cheaper but iron salts are more effective over wider pH range.

- Aeration Unit
 Work : Diffusion of Air
 Removes odour and tastes
 Oxidizes iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen content in water, removes CO2 and reduces corrosion and
removes methane and other flammable gases.

 Types of Aerators
1. Gravity Aerators (Cascades):
In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that a large area of water is exposed to atmosphere,
2. Injection or Diffused Aerators :
It consists of a tank with perforated pipes, tubes or diffuser plates, fixed at the bottom to release fine air bubbles from compressor
unit.
3. Fountain Aerators :
These are also known as spray aerators with special nozzles to produce a fine spray.
4. Mechanical Aerators :
Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either submerged or at the surface.

Flocculation
 Flocculation is a slow mixing or agitating process in which established colloidal particles are brought into intimate contact
in order to promote the floc formation .

Clariflocculator
 Clarifier and flocculator are provided in single unit called clariflocculator.
 The flocculating chamber is provided in the centre and clarifier component is formed by the peripheral space.

FILTRATION
 The process of passing the water through the beds of such granular material is known as filteraton

Types of Filtration
 Slow sand gravity filter
 Rapid sand gravity filter
Rapid sand gravity filter
Pressure filter

DISINFECTION
 The process of killing bacteria in filter water is known as Disinfection or Sterilization.

Methods of Disinfection
 Boiling: The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by boiling it for a long
time. However it is not.
 Treatment with Excess Lime: Lime is used in water treatment plant for softening. But if excess lime is added to the water, it
can in addition, kill the bacteria also.
 Treatment with Ozone: Ozone readily breaks down into normal oxygen, and releases nascent oxygen. The nascent oxygen
is a powerful oxidizing agent and removes the organic matter as well as the bacteria from the water.
 Chlorination : the chlorine enters the cell walls of bacteria and kill the enzymes which are essential for the metabolic
processes of living organisms.