A Dissertation on

BLOOD NEUTROPHIL TO LYMPHOCYTE COUNT AS A

PROGNOSTIC MARKER IN LIVER CIRRHOSIS

Dissertation Submitted to
THE TAMILNADU Dr.M.G.R. MEDICAL
UNIVERSITY CHENNAI - 600 032

With partial fulfillment of the regulations

for the award of the degree of

M.D.

GENERAL MEDICINE
BRANCH-I

COIMBATORE MEDICAL
COLLEGE, COIMBATORE
APRIL 2017
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is the bonafide dissertation done by

Dr. K.S.DAKSHINAMOORTHY and submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Degree of M.D.,General Medicine, Branch I of The

Tamilnadu DR. M.G.R.Medical University Chennai.

Date: Guide, Professor & Chief

Prof. DR.S.USHA,MD.

Date: Professor & Head,

Department of Medicine
Dr. Kumar Natarajan, MD

Date: Dean
Coimbatore Medical College
Coimbatore
 DECLARATION

I solemnly declare that the dissertation titled “Blood Neutrophil to

lymphocyte count as a prognostic marker in Liver cirrhosis”

Was done by me from JULY 2015 to JUNE 2016 under the guidance and

supervision of PROF.DR.S.USHA, MD. This dissertation is submitted to

The Tamilnadu Dr.M.G.R. Medical University towards the partial

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of MD Degree in General

Medicine (Branch I).

Dr.K.S.DAKSHINAMOORTHY.
Place:Coimbatore

Date:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere thanks to our respected Dean

Dr.A.EDWIN JOE,M.D., for having allowed me to conduct this study in

our hospital.

I express my heartfelt thanks and deep gratitude to the Head of the

Department of Medicine Prof. Dr. KUMAR NATARAJAN, M.D. for his

generous help and guidance in the course of the study.

I am extremely grateful to Dr.T.RAVISHANKAR., Head of the

department of Gastroenterology,for his valuable help and cooperation and

allowing me to use institutional facilities.

I am extremely grateful to Dr.LALITHA M.D., Head of the

department of pathology,for her valuable help and cooperation and allowing

me to use institutional facilities.

I am extremely grateful to Dr.N.SUNDARI M.D., Head of the

department of Radiology,for her valuable help and cooperation and

allowing me to use institutional facilities.

 I am extremely grateful to Dr.MANIMEGALAI, M.D(Bio), HOD,

Department of Biochemistry, for her valuable help and cooperation and

allowing me to use institutional facilities.

I sincerely thank Asst. Professors- Dr.P.S.MANSHUR.M.D,

Dr.V.UVARAJ MURUGANANDAM, M.D, for their guidance and

kindhelp.

My sincere thanks to all my friends and post-graduate colleagues for

their whole hearted support and companionship during my studies.

I thank all my PATIENTS, who formed the backbone ofthisstudy

without whom this study would not have beenpossible.

Lastly, I am ever grateful to the ALMIGHTY GOD for always

showering their blessings on me and my family

Dr.K.S.DAKSHINAMOORTHY.
S.NO
CONTENT PAGE NO
INTRODUCTION 1
1
AIM AND OBJECTIVES 3
2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4
3
MATERIALS AND METHODS 67
4
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 70
5
DISCUSSION 85
6
SUMMARY 90
7
CONCLUSION 92
8
BIBLIOGRAPHY
9
ANNEXURE

A) PROFORMA
10
B) MASTER CHART

C) CONSENT FORM
S.NO.
LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO.
1 ANATOMY OF LIVER 6
2 INFERIOR SURFACE OF LIVER 7
3 SEGMENTAL ANATOMY OF LIVER 8
4 SURFACE MARKING OF LIVER 9
5 MICROANATOMY OF LIVER 11
6 FORMATION OF BLOOD COMPONENT CELLS 12
7 CLINICAL SPECTRUM OF CIRRHOSIS 18
8 CAUSES OF LIVER CIRRHOSIS 20
9 CLINICAL FEATURES OF LIVER CIRRHOSIS 22
10 SPIDER NAEVI 23
11 PALMAR ERYTHEMA 24
12 GYNAECOMASTIA 25
13 APPROACH TO A CASE OF JAUNDICE 30
14 MACRONODULAR CIRRHOSIS 39
15 MICRONODULAR CIRRHOSIS 40
16 CAUSES OF PORTAL HYPERTENSION 42
17 CHILD PUGH SCORE 45
18 PORTAL VENOUS SYSTEM 48
19 MECHANISM OF HE 36
20 CONSTRUCTIONAL APRAXIA 57
21 FLAPPING TREMORS 59
22 GLASCOW COMA SCALE 62
23 PSYCHOMETRIC ANALYSIS IN HE 63
S.NO. LIST OF CHARTS PAGE NO.

1
AGE DISTRIBUTION 70
2
SEX DISTRIBUTION 71
3
NLR LEVELS 72
4
NLR STATISTICS 73
5
NLR EXTREMES 74
6
COMPLICATION PREVALENCE 75
7
NLR AND COMPLICATION 76
8
COMPLICATION OCCURRENCE PATTERN 78
9
COMPLICATION DISTRIBUTION 79
10
COMPLICATION PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION 80
11
ALCOHOLISM PREVALENCE 81
12
SEX DISTRIBUTION IN ALCOHOLICS 82
13
ALCOHOLISM AND NLR 83
S.NO LIST OF TABLES PAGE NO.

1 LIVER FUNCTION TEST 51

2 SPECIFIC TREATMENTS FOR DIFFERENT CAUSES OF 54

CIRRHOSIS

3 PRECIPITATING FACTORS OF HE 60

4 WESTHAVEN CRITERIA 61

5 NLR DISTRIBUTION 73

6 NLR AND COMPLICATION 77

7 P VALUE CALCULATION 77

8 ALCOHOLISM AND NLR 84

9 CALCULATION OF P VALUE 84
 ABBREVIATIONS

NLR – NEUTROPHIL TO LYMPHOCYTE RATIO

PMN - POLYMORPHONUCLEAR CELLS

HE – HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY

TNF - TUMOUR NECROSIS FACTOR

IL – INTERLEUKINS

USG – ULTRASONOGRAM

MELD – MODIFIED END STAGE LIVER DISEASE

CTP – CHILD TURCOTTE PUGH SCORE

UKELD - YNITED KINGDOM MODEL END STAGE LIVER DISEASE

UGI – UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL

MCL – MID CLAVICULAR LINE

C3 - COMPLEMENT FACTOR 3

NK CELL – NATURAL KILLER CELL

GIT - GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

NAFLD – NON ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER DISEASE

CLD – CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE

DIC – DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR COAGULATION

KF RING - KAYSER FIEISCHER RING

AST – ASPARTATE TRANSAMINASE

ALT – ALANINE TRANSAMINASE,

ALP - ALKALINE PHOSPHATSE

GGT - GAMMA GLUTAMYL TRANSFERASE

 INTRODUCTION

Liver is one of most important and fascinating organ of the human body.

Human liver performs a lot of diverse functions, its functional heterogenicity is

unmatchable and fascinating, and it is rightly known as the metabolic factory of the

body. So on this background liver disease becomes a highly important area of concern

for humans and it is one of the highly taxing disease to have of a person both

physically, mentally and financially. Liver disease can be acute or chronic. Various

causes of liver disease carry variable degree of mortality and morbidity. Chronic liver

disease can occur because of variety of reasons. Generally south east Asia which

includes our country is ,more prone for viral hepatitis ,and moreover alcoholism is

becoming more and more prevalent in our country and our people are more prone to

develop cirrhosis with comparatively lesser amount of alcohol intake and lesser

duration when compared to the western population. This makes chronic liver disease

of alcoholic cause more prevalent in our country. Next the new pandemic that is

becoming more and more common is fatty liver, that is now identified as a part of

metabolic syndrome, is leading to NASH , and finally to cirrhosis. Because of the

above said reasons and also accounting for some of the rarer causes of liver disease ,

chronic liver disease and its complications have become more common in India. In

chronic liver disease when the patient is in a compensated state, his lifespan, mortality

rate productivity etc. very good when compared to a decompensated state, when the

chances of complications and mortality are very high. So if we can identify the

particular group of patients who are more prone to get decompensated and prevent it,

we can reduce the mortality and morbidity associated with decompensation. A tool
that is simple, easily available, reproducible and more importantly cheap is the need of

the hour. And one such tool, is the neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio. Neutrophil to

lymphocyte ratio is one of the newly developed novel marker of inflammation, that

can be used as a marker in stable cirrhosis patients to predict the occurrence of

decompensation.
 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

AIM:

Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) is a novel inflammation index that has been

shown to independently predict poor clinical outcomes.

The aim of the study is to evaluate the role of NLR as a prognostic marker in patients

with stable liver cirrhosis

OBJECTIVES:

To identify early, the group of stable cirrhotic patients with likelihood of developing

complications in the near future.

 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Cirrhosis of liver is one of the major contributors of morbidity and mortality in

India. Liver cirrhosis accounts for 2.44 % of total deaths in India.

Unlike in the past when liver cirrhosis was thought irreversible, now in certain

conditions like chronic hepatitis C, hemochromatosis and alcoholism, it is proved that

reversal of cirrhosis is possible.

This makes the early prediction of complications in a liver cirrhosis patients all

the more important, so that early intervention can be made ,thus preventing the

progression of patients from a compensated to decompensated state and so increasing

the chances of survival, and in certain conditions , reversal of cirrhosis depending

upon the causative factor.

One of the tools to predict early, the development of complications in liver

cirrhosis patients is Blood Neutrophil to Lymphocyte ratio.

Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Marker is a simple bedside marker of systemic

Inflammation. It has been used in a lot of studies in different fields of medicine.

Murat biyik et al in his study of Blood neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio

independently predicts survival in patients with liver cirrhosis has used NLR ratio as a

tool for predicting the survival of patients in his study. The study showed that NLR is

an early predictor of mortality in liver cirrhosis patients independent of CTP and

MELD scores.
 NLR ratio is used as a prognostic factor in solid tumours in a study conducted

by Arnoud J. Templeton et al.

NLR ratio as a measure of systemic inflammation in prevalent chronic diseases

in Asian population is done by FauziaImtiaz et al. which concluded that systemic

inflammation measured by NLR has a significant association with chronic conditions

prevalent in the general population.

All the above studies signify the importance and relevance of neutrophil to

lymphocyte ratio as a tool to diagnose systemic inflammation.

ANATOMY OF LIVER

Liver is the biggest solid organ of the body with an approximate weight of

1800mg in men and 1400mg in women, and extends from 5thintercostal spaceto the

right costal margin in the mid-clavicular line.

Liver has 2 lobes, the right lobe and left lobe, it is being divided in the anterior

aspect by the falciform ligament, in the posterior segment by the ligamentum venosum

and inferior segment by the fissure for the ligamentum teres. The quadrate and

caudatlobe are also part of the right lobe of liver

 .

FIGURE 1: ANATOMY OF LIVER

The Hepatic artery which is a branch of the coeliac axis supplies the liver. The

portal vein drains blood from the intestine and spleen drains into the liver. Liver is

entered by these vessels through the inferior surface through the porta-hepatis. The

right bile duct and left bile duct drain bile from the corresponding lobes and join

together as the common hepatic duct, and the cystic duct which arises from gall

bladder joins the common hepatic duct and give rise to the common bile duct which

opens into the 2nd duodenum in its second part.

Each Hepatic lobe is made up of many hepatic lobules, which are the structural

and functional units of the liver. The hepatic lobules are made-up of hepatocytes.

Surrounding each of the hepatic lobule is the portal triad.

The portal triad consists of a

.Branch of hepatic artery

.Portal vein

.Tributary of bile duct.

FIGURE 2 - INFERIOR SURFACE OF LIVER

According to the Couinaud classification liver [1] is divided into 8 segments.

The centre of the segment has the branches of the portal vein, hepatic artery

and bile ducts, and the hepatic veins lie in the periphery.

The 8 segments are the superior anterior, superior posterior, inferior anterior

and the inferior posterior segments of the Right lobe and superior lateral and

superiormedial , inferior-medial and inferior lateral segments of the left lobe.

 The caudate lies separately in the posterior part of the liver. Surgical dissection

along the planes between these segments is relatively bloodless.

FIGURE 3 - SEGMENTAL ANATOMY OF LIVER

Liver and its surface marking in the body:

Upper border of right lobe - 5th rib 2cm medial to MCL.

Upper border of left lobe - upper border of sixth rib.

FIGURE 4 – SURFACE MARKING OF LIVER.

Lower border – oblique line from right ninth rib to left eighth rib.

Microanatomy of liver:

Human liver consists of cords of liver cells[3].They radiate from a central vein

and the sinusoids are found in between them. the portal veins drain into the hepatic
sinusoids. Blood usually flows from the portal vein to the hepatic sinusoids, but it get

altered when there is portal hypertension.

The portal triad[4] consists of three components that includes a bile ductule,

portal vein radicle and a hepatic arteriole[3]. Portal tract is surround on all directions

by the hepatocytes.

The hepatocytes comprise the major part of the liver forming around 60% of

the total liver. it doesn’t have a basement membrane and usually has got a lifespan

around 150 days.

The hepatic sinusoids[6]is lined by the endothelial cells and the kupfer cells are

found on the hepatic sinusoids in the vascular aspect.

Space of disse[7] is a space between the sinusoidal endothelium and the

hepatocytes. The hepatic stellate cells and few collagen fibrils are found in the space

of disse.

The stellate cells[8] store fat lobules and so are also termed as lipocytes. They

also store vitamin A. on activation the stellate cells get transformed into

myofibroblasts. The myofibroblasts synthesize collagen. The lymphatics are found in

the connective tissue surrounding the portal triad.

Bile canaliculi[9] form the basic unit of excretory system of liver. The canals of

hering into which the biliary canaliculi from the lobes drain, connects the short bile

ductules and the terminal bile ducts.

 FIGURE 5 – MICROANATOMY OF LIVER

Liver functional heterogenicity:

Structural/functional properties of hepatocytes vary according to

acinar[5]locations.for example the zone 3 contains the p450 enzymes which are

involved in drug metabolism. So the zone 3[10,11] receives receives the maximum

amount any toxin that enters the liver, and so they are prone for adverse drug reactions

like centrilobular necrosis.

Death and regeneration of liver cells:

Necrosis and apoptosis are the two mechanisms[12,13] by which liver cell death

occurs. In necrosis there is nonviable organelles, loss of plasma membrane ,pyknotic

chromatin ,ischaemia and inflammation.

Apoptosis[14] is characterised by viable organelles, fragmented DNA, apaoptotic

bodies and absence of inflammation..

During regeneration circumstances, the cytokines[15] stimulate the quiescent

cells into primed state and then the growth factors cause synthesis of DNA and

replication of cells. In a state of impaired response hepatocytes can be obtained from

the stem cells in the canal of hering.

Neutrophil to Lymphocyte ratio:

FIGURE 6 – FORMATION OF BLOOD COMPONENT CELL FORMATION

Neutrophils:

Neutrophils are one of the many types of the granulocyte type of cells. They

are the most predominant type of the granulocytes. They perform the most integral

form of the innate immunity.

They are formed in the pluripotent stem cells of the bonemarrow. When an

inflammation occurs, they are usually the first cells to get activated. They are

stimulated by many acute phase cytokines and chemokines, like IL-8,

LEUKOTRIENE B4 etc. They are the majority of the cells in purulent secretions.

Characteristic features:

Diameter – 12-15 micrometers

Nucleated cells, lobed nucleus, absent nucleolus and rough endoplasmic

reticulum.

Neutrophils of femaleshave an extra X chromosome called the neutrophil

drumstick.

Usually neutrophils have 3-5 segments, and hypersegmentation is a seen in

pathological conditions like vitamin B12 deficiency.

Normal count of neutrophils is 2.5 to 7.5 x 10(9)/L. they form pseudopod like

structures when attacking the antigens.

Normal life span of neutrophil without activation is 5 to 90 hours, and if

activated 1 or 2 days.
 Neutrophils undergo chemotaxis by which they go to the site of infection.IL-8,

INTERFERON GAMMA, C3. C5a are all involved in these processes.

 Mechanism of action: They act by 3 major pathways,

Phagocytosis: Neutrophils acts by phagocytosing the microbes, which requires

opsonisation. After phagocytosis, they secrete reactive oxygen species and hydrolytic

enzymes, which kill the bacteria. Respiratory burst is the term used to indicate the

consumption of oxygen during the process.

 Degranulation: Neutrophils release primarily three types of granules,

 Azurophilc granules – cathepsin G, elastase,myeloperoxidases.

 Specific granules – Alkaline phosphatase,etc

 Tertiary granules –Cathepsin, gelatinase.

 Neutrophil extracellular traps: this is a mechanism in which neutrophils form

fibers in the form of a web formed by chromatin and serine protease. They play

an important role in sepsis as they form a physical barrier and kill the

extracellular microbes. NET is also seen involved in pre-eclmapsia.

Lymphocytes:

They are a type of WBC’S. NK cells, B and T cells, are all types of lymphocytes.

T cells are thymus cells that are part of cell mediated immunity, and B or Bone

marrow cells are the integral part of the humoral immunity. The main function is to

identify the antigens other than the self during Antigen presentation. B cells act by

releasing antibodies, and T cells have two types of cells, the T helper cells produce

cytokines that induce an immune response, cytotoxic T cellskillby producing toxic

granules. Once activated a fraction of cells become memory cells that last for entire

life.

NK cells mainly act in defending the body from tumours and viral infections,

by identifying the MHC on the surface of these cells. The special characteristic of it is

it doesn’t need to be activated priorly in order to kill other cells,

Lymphocytes have a large nucleus with very little cytoplasm, and the nuclear

size is approximately equal to that of an erythrocyte. They have polyribosomes. B and

T cells cannot be differentiated by peripheral smear study and can be done only by

flowcytometry.

Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio is defined as the ratio between absolute count of

neutrophils and the absolute count of the lymphocytes. It is one of the most simple

and fast tools available to measure the systemic inflammation in our body. It is one of

the most cost effective, less complicated procedure wise and easily reproducible,

doesn’t need skilled labour to perform.

A high NLR ratio occurs when there is a neutrophilia and an associated

lymphopaenia, conversely a low NLR ratio occurs when there is a lymphocytosis with

an associated neutropenia. High NLR ratio indicates a subgroup of patients who will

benefit from therapy with anti inflammatory agents.

The prognostic role of NLR has been implicated in a number of conditions,. In

general a high NLR ratio is associated with poorer overall survival and disease free

period in lot of disease conditions among which, malignancies of GIT,

Gynaecological and CVS , to name a few.

 Inflammation has a major impact on the background pathology of number of

non-inflammatory conditions, including lot of malignancies and atherosclerosis.

There are a lot of inflammatory markers available, but neutrophil-lymphocyte

ratio is more significant compared to others , especially in malignant diseases and

cardiac abnormalities.

Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio shows the balance that exists in-between the

body’s adaptive immunity and innate immunity and so indirectly between

lymphocytes and neutrophils.

Number of research have found out that conditions with elevated levels of

cytokines that have proinflammatory properties have been associated with high levels

of neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio. This may finally lead to damage of deoxy ribonucleic

acid of the cells of the body.

The normal value of Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio varies according to race and

ethnicity.

Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio is one of the latest inflammatory markers that

has numerous clinical implications. The elevated neutrophil count implies active

inflammation and the reduced lymphocyte count implies malnutrition and also

inflammation. If it is raised it implies poor clinical outcomes. It is cheap, widely

available and easily reproducible in all settings.

NLR is obtained by dividing the calculated number of neutrophils by that of

lymphocytes.
 It has implications in other aspects of medicine like in cardiology and various

malignancies especially oesophageal and pancreatic cancer.

Cirrhosis of liver:

Cirrhosis is a process in which the liver undergoes diffuse fibrosis and the

architecture of liver gets converted into nodules that are abnormal and it is almost

always associated with necrosis of the hepatocytes.

In conditions like schistosomiasis and non-cirrhotic portal fibrosis there is only

fibrosis without nodularity and in conditions like nodular regenerative hyperplasia

there is only nodularity without fibrosis. In congenital hepatic fibrosis lobar

architecture is maintained inspite of fibrosis and nodularity. These conditions doesn’t

constitute cirrhosis. The portal tract is supplied by branch of hepatic artery.

Classification:

Micro-nodular – nodules less than 3mm in diameter, it is the early stage in which liver

is usually enlarged or of the normal size.

Macro-nodular – Nodules more than 3mm in diameter and the liver is usually

shrunken

Mixed - equal presence of both micro and macro-nodular components

Causes:

In our country the most common cause for cirrhosis is alcohol. It constitutes around

50% of the cases. The next common aetiology being hepatitis B infection. It

constitutes around 30-70% of the cases. Following hepatitis B is hepatitis C infection.

There is a subset of persons who have both alcohol abuse and also infected with

hepatitis B/C[1] and the proportional contribution of either of these causes is highly

variable.

FIGURE 7- CLINICAL SPECTRUM OF CIRRHOSIS

The Indian population of people are more prone to fibrosis when compared to the

western populations and they develop cirrhosis with relatively lesser amount and

lesser duration of alcohol intake. The main reasons being the poor nutrition, and

lesser build along with high usage of country liquor. Another important cause is the

high prevalence of concurrent Hepatitis infection.

Mycotoxins and Malnutrition are factors that initiate or aggravate a pre-existing

cirrhotic process but usually don’t cause cirrhosis independently. Non alcoholic Fatty

liver disease {NAFLD} is another important cause of liver cirrhosis in recent times.
 FIGURE 8 – CAUSES OF LIVER CIRRHOSIS

Pathogenesis:

There are 3 major mechanisms of cirrhosis

Hepatitis:

In many instances, particularly in viral hepatitis, there will be necrosis of the lobular

hepatocytes and central portal bridges and there will also be piecemeal necrosis of the

hepatocytes.

Fatty Liver:

Leading route of cirrhosis in alcoholics. There will be ballooning of the hepatocytes

which contains macro-vesicular fat deposits and Mallory bodies. They will be

surrounded by inflammatory cells like neutrophils and lymphocytes and collagen.

Portal and centri-lobular fibrosis :

In patients with bile duct disorders and venous outflow obstruction, there will

be cirrhosis due to fibrosis in the portal tracts.

Above said processes lead to fibrosis and distortion of liver architecture. Along

with this there can be a concurrent regeneration process. All these necrotic changes

leads to porto-systemic shunting of blood inside the liver.

There will be deposition of collage in the space of disse and also the

regenerative nodules compressing the vasculature that ultimately results in portal

hypertension.
Clinical features:

Liver is an organ with unique regenerating capacity. Just 10%of the total liver

cell mass is enough for maintaining the metabolic functions of the liver. Because of

these features, around 30% of the cirrhotic patients are asymptomatic.

Initial manifestations of liver cirrhosis includes easy fatiguability and

generalized weakness. There will be associated muscle wasting especially prominent

in the upper limb muscles and ususally not evident in the lower limb because of the

associated edema. Patient will experience weight loss which is not eveident initially

because of the retention of fluids.

There are certain physical signs that indicate hepatocellular failure in a patient,

the major features are listed below.

FIGURE 9 – CLINICAL FEATURES OF CIRRHOSIS

Spider naevi[17]is a sign that is commonly seen in chest upperlimbs and

sometimes in the face also. Spider naevi consists of a central arteriole with capillaries

radiating from the centre. There will be obliteration of the spider naevi once external
pressure is applied over that. The size is usually a few milimeters, but rarely

sometimes it can be larger in size and cause bleeding from the site of the naevus.

Other common conditions associated with spider naevi are pregnancy and

rheumatoid arthritis and also in patients on hormonal therapy such as estrogens.

FIGURE 10 - SPIDER NAEVI

[19]
Sometimes they can be found in normal persons. Palmar erythema is a

clinical condition in which there will be reddening of the thenar and hypothenar

regions of the palms. Fingertips may also be involved. Rest of the palms are usually

not involved
 FIGURE 11 – PALMAR ERYTHEMA.

Gynaecomastia[20] is one of the presentations. it occurs because of two possible

mechanisms,[21]..One is because of the conversion of the androgens to estrogens in the

peripheral tissues, another cause is usually related to the usage of the drug

spironolactone in the treatment of liver cirrhosis.

 FIGURE 12 - GYNAECOMASTIA

Hypogonadism manifests in both males and females equally. In men it usually

causes loss of libido and atrophy of the testicles, more commonly in alcoholics than

others. In women the common manifestation is menstrual abnormalities[22,23] in the

form of oligomenorrhoea and amennorhoea.

Infertility can occur in both males and females.

Anaemia occurring in cirrhosis patients and the cause are multifactorial. That

includes iron folate deficiency , bone marrow hypofunction and blood loss because of

UGI bleeding, hemolysis especially in the extravascular component and a

hyperfunctioning spleen.
 There will be associated coagulation abnormalities found. It is mainly because

of abnormalities in the synthetic function of the liver, leading to reduced synthesis of

the clotting factors. The other factors contributing to the coagulation impairment are

thrombocytopenia caused by hypersplenism and DIC.

Ammonia smell of the breath commomly known as foetor-hepatis[24]can occur .

white opaque nails called Leuconycia is also one of the manifestations.

Duputryens contracture which occurs predominantly in the alcoholics is a hand

deformity that occurs over a period of years, due to thickening and contracture of the

palmar fascia.

Clubbing of all the digits is found in some of the patients.

Patients may have an underlying low grade pyrexia.

Wilsons disease should be ruled out in case of young cirrhosis patients by

looking for the presence of KF ring under slit lamp.

The other features of decompensation in cirrhosis include, jaundice, ascites,

pleural effusion[hydrothorax], Gastrointestinal bleeding due to portal hypertension,

and hepatic encephalopathy. Severe jaundice shows downhill prognosis.

Ascites occurs because of portal hypertension which cause high high

hydroststic pressure and low albumin causing low osmotic pressure. Ascites is

frequently associated with pedal edema, abdominal distension and loss of appetite.

Infrequently it is associated with umbilical or inguinal hernia.

 Examination usually reveals a dilated abdomen with fullness of the flanks. A

thin abdominal wall is present due to loss of muscle mass and subcutaneous fat.

Dilated veins are also found frequently.

Caput medusa is a condition in which dilated veins are found radiating

outwards from the umbilicus and it indicates portal hypertension.

Puddle sign helps to diagnose very small amount of fluids but it has got few

disadvantages like inconvienience for the patient and unreliable nature of the test.

Shifting dullness and flank dullness indicate a minimum of 1500ml of fluid in

the peritoneal cavity.

Fluid thrill is a sign that can be elicited when there is tense ascites, in this

condition fluid thrill will be usually could not be elicited, and organomegaly could not

be made out inspite of deep palpation.

A few patients develop right sided pleural effusion due to seepage fluid into the

pleural cavity by negative intrathoracic pressure through the diaphragmatic defects.

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is a frequent feature of hepatic cirrhosis due to

portal hypertension. When there is an increased portal hypertension, decompression

occurs via bleeding from the esophageal varices. Gastric fundal varices may also

bleed sometimes. Ectopic varices may be found in other parts of the gastrointestinal

tract but they don’t bled usually gastric erosions, peptic ulcers and congestive portal

gastropathy may also lead to bleeding in these patients.

Anatomical abnormalities of liver:

Accessory lobes:

Rarely accessory lobes can occur in human beings, and it is usually without any

clinical insignificance. It is incidentally found out during routine scanning. It is

usually found in the inferior surface of the liver and has got its own blood supply and

bile duct. Sometimes they may require surgical removal because of twisting around

their own axis.[ 8,9 ]

Riedal’s lobe:

It is a normal anatomical variant. Downward projection of the right lobe and it

is usually tongue shaped[25] and common in females compared to males. It is a mobile

tumour that may wander from the diaphragm to the right iliac region. It usually don’t

cause any symptoms, but sometimes it may be a site of hepatic metastasis or primary

hepatocellular carcinoma. Close differential diagnosis includes visceroptic tumours of

the right kidney.

Corset liver

It occurs because of an unknown mechanisms in elderly women wearing

corsets[26] for long duration. It occur as horizontal furrows on both lobes of the liver.

Lobar atrophy:

It usually occurs because of obstruction of the portal supply or biliary drainage.

Atrophy of Left lobe is more common. The affected lobe is shrunken and fibrosed.

The opposite lobe undergoes compensatory hypertrophy. Benign biliary stricture[27]or

cholangiocarcinoma are the frequent reasons found with lobar atrophy. In these

conditions ALP levels are usually elevated.

Agenenis[28] of right lobe:

It is one of the causes of presinusoidal portal hypertension. It should be

differentiated from other conditions causing lobar atrophy. Compensatory hypertrophy

of the left lobe of the liver occurs.

Situs inversus:

It is a very rare congenital anomaly. There are two subtypes, situs inversus

totalis and abdominal is. In both these conditions liver is found in the left

hypochondrium. Other common anomalies found in these syndromes includr aberrant

hepatic artery syndrome , congenital absence of portal vein, poly-spleenia and atresia

of the biliary tree. Surgical treatment may be an option in the above disorders.

Liver function tests:

Liver function cannot be assessed by a solitary test, but only by a combination

tests. These test indicate not only the functions of the liver but also the patterns of the

liver injury.

There are three patterns of LFT abnormalities.

Hepatocellular pattern – AST and ALT elevations

Cholestatic pattern – ALP and GGT elevations

Infiltrative pattern –ALP,GGT AND BILIRUBIN elevations.

Jaundice evaluation:

The important components are ALP,AST/ALT, and bilirubin levels.

FIGURE 13 – APPROACH TO A CASE OF JAUNDICE

Assessment of liver cell damage:

Serial values of Total bilirubin, albumin post vitamin K prothrombin time, Arterial

ammonia levels especially in acute liver injury.

TABLE 1 - LIVER FUNCTION TEST

NAME OF THE TEST DIAGNOSTIC UTILITY

Total bilirubin To calculate the severity of jaundice

Conjugated bilirubin Any cause of haemolysis, Gilbert

syndrome

Alanine transaminase Alcoholic liver disease

Aspartate transaminase Hepatocellular disease pattern diagnosis

Gamma Glutamyl transferase Biliary cholestasis and abuse of alcohol

Alkaline phosphatase Infiltration of liver, cholestasis.

Albumin / prothrombin time Synthetic function of liver

BILIRUBIN:

VAN DEN BERGH DIAZO REACTION is used for identifying the levels of

the serum bilirubin. Sulphanilicacid[29] is added to plasma and the diazonium ion

reacts with bilirubin and produces azo derivatives which are detected by

spectrophotometric methods. This test calculates the total and indirect fractions of

bilirubin from which we can determine the value of direct bilirubin. The only

disadvantage of this method is that it can be sometimes inaccurate especially in low

values. Other methods include alkaline methanolysis , determination by

spectrophotometry[30], HP-Gas liquid chromatography.

Clay coloured stools occur in cholestatic, normal colour in haemolytic jaundice

and pale in bilirubin glucuronyl transferase defieciency.

Bilirubin doesn’t appear in urine in normal circumstances, because unconjugated

bilirubin that is present in serum is insoluble as it is attached to albumin. Bilirubin

glucoronides which are products of bilirubin metabolism appear in urine.

Enzyme tests analysis:

These test shows the type of injury of liver but don’t help in differentiating

between the exact causes. They guide us on further evaluation of the condition.

Aminotransferases:

Aspartate amino transferase: Usually found in the mitochondria and

cytoplasm. It is predominantly present in liver , followed by heart and skeletal

muscles. It is also found in kidneys, brain, lungs, leucocytes pancreas and

erythrocytes. AST is markedly reduced in long term haemodialysis.

Alanine aminotransferase: Usually found in the hepatocyte cytoplasm. More

specific than AST.

VIRAL HEPATITIS conditions show elevated AST and ALT. They don’t

indicate the severity of liver damage. They have short half –lives[31]. Even with falling

enzyme levels patient may have acute necrosis of the liver.

 Conditions like NAFLD[34], alcohol abuse[33], haemochromatosis, and less

commonly wilsons disease, anorexia nervosa can cause elevation of enzymes.

Conditions causing massive elevations of enzymes are viral hepatitis,

acetaminophen toxicity, ischaemic hepatitis and hepatitis due to autoimmune[32]

conditions. Cholangitis also cause high values.

AST/ALT ratio more than 2 shows acute liver disorder, NAFLD and chronic

hepatitis C.

ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE: It is a an enzyme found in the cytosol of

hepatocytes. It is also found in membranes ofsinusoids and canaliculi. It rises

predominantly in cholestasis when compared to liver injury. It is predominantly found

in placenta, ileal mucosa kidney bone[35] and liver, but the major contributors for the

serum ALP is liver and bone. Levels are initially normal because it has to be

synthesised newly. physiological rise is seen in O and B blood group patients because

they secrete ALP from intestine postprandially. Elevation also occurs in sepsis,

hepatic tumours, hepatic infiltrations, and haematological disorders involving the

liver.

Low levels are found in hypothyroidism, Wilson’s disease etc.

GAMMA GLUTAMYL TRANSPEPTIDASE:

GGT is found in epithelial membranes of bile ducts and levels are increased in

cholestatic conditions and diseases of hepatocellular conditions. Alcohol abuse can

lead to isolated rise of GGT levels. Other conditions with elevated GGT are

hepatobiliary disorders, COPD, hyperthyroidism, connective tissue diorders like

rheumatoid arthritis, and several drugs like carbamazepine, furosemide, sodium

valproate, phenytoin etc. It has got a high sensitivity for intrahepatic cholestatsis.

Lactate dehydrogenase:

It has got 5 isoenzymes, and it ispredominant in the cytoplasm of liver cells.

Elevated in both primary and metastatic liver malignancies, and ischaemic hepatitis.

The ALT/LDH ratio is highly elevated [ >1.5] in viral hepatitis,when comparedto

toxic and ischaemic hepatitis[37].[<1.5].

Quantitative liver function:

Albumin levels and prothrombin time gives an idea about the synthetic ability

in liver. But the synthetic function is sustained until very last stage of the disease.

Serial assessment of the values is helpful in monitoring of the progression of the

disease. They don’t play a major role on the part of diagnosis of the disorders.

Liver and Lipids:

Cholesterol though produced in all parts of the body, the most important part is

liver. HMG-COA REDUCTASE, is an enzyme. It catalyses the most important rate

limiting reaction of cholesterol synthesis is found exclusively in the periportal cells.

Liver also plays an central role in metabolism of lipoproteins. VLDL, which

acts as a carrier of both triglycerides and cholesterol is produced in the liver. As it

enters the peripheral circulation , the triglycerides are metabolized by lipoprotein

lipase, which converts VLDL into IDL and then eventually to LDL which is the most

important carrier of cholesterol in our body. HDL helps in the removal of cholesterol
from the peripheral tissues of our body and it is either taken up by liver or get

converted to LDL. In cholestasis there is an increase in cholesterol levels due to many

mechanisms including increased synthesis by the liver.

Hepatic fibrogenesis:

Fibrogenesis occurs as a response to liver injury that is chronic. Stellate cells

play a very important role in the process. Normally there is a basement membrane

between the sinusoidal lumen and space of disse. Kupfer cells are found in the

sinusoidal side and endothelial cells are found in the other side. Usually all the

nutrients pass through the base of the hepatocyte through the sinusoidal fenestrae.

This routine is disturbed in fibrosis and liver injury. Type 4 collagen, glycoproteins

are the components of the normal basement membrane. After an insult occurs there is

a large increase in extracellular matrix. Collagen I and iii are the main components.

Stellate cells:

They are the important aspect of this entire fibrogenesis process. These cells

store vitamin A normally. They lie in the space of disse. The normal function of the

stellate cells is to produce type 4 collagen. In circumstances where there is hepatocyte

injury they undergo a process called switch of phenotype. This leads to a lot of

phenotypical changes including loss of vitamin A and type 1 collagen synthesis. On

activation of hepatic stellate cells it undergoes to processes ie, initiation and

perpetuation. On effective management and removal of the initiating event, for

example alcohol absitenence, the stellate cells go back to normal quiescent stage or

else they are removed.

 After the initial event of activation the stellate cells undergo rapid proliferation,

with PDGF being the most strong growth factor.

The next process that occurs is the contractile process of stellate cells. This is

the reason for the higher pressure in the portal system even during the early part of the

process of fibrosis. But this is reversible the main mediators of this are nitrogen oxide

and endothelin-1.

Stellate cells play the central role in fibrogenesis. TGF-BETA1 is the strongest

cytokine involved. Synthesis of collagen 1 is the most important feature.

Stellate cells move to the area of injury and the resultant fibrosis by chemotaxis. The

main chemotactic mediators are, PDGF AND CXCR3.

Inflammatory mediators:

Stellate cells has an important role in inflammation. Cytokines involved in

inflammation are secreted by them. They also present antigens like dendritic cells to

the major histocompatibility complex 1 and 2. They are also involved in toll like

receptor signalling.

In other scenarios various other cells are also involved in inflammation.

Biliary fibrosis is mediated portal myofibroblasts.

In the setting of chronic liver disease , circulating cells from the bone marrow

may settle down in liver and may mediate hepatic fibrosis.

Clinical features:
 Liver biopsy[38] is one of the methods of staging hepatic fibrosis, but the

process of liver biopsy itself is complex and carries with it a lot of complications,

discomfort to the patients etc. furthermore there is a big chance of sampling errors[39],

that is difficult to avoid.

Noninvasive markers for hepatic fibrosis are readily available,which includes

both and direct and indirect mediators.examples include AST/ALT, MATRIX

METALLOPROTEINASES etc. The estimated prevalence of the disease in the

population that is going to be tested is very important in interpreting the results of the

non-invasive markers. These markers helps us to differentite between F1 to F4. The

disadvantage is that they can't differentiate other intermediate stage clearly.

All the routine imaging systems like USG, CT & MRI can detect cirrhosis only

at a later stages when there is development of portal hypertension. Earlier stages of

cirrhosis are easily missed.

Fibroscan[40] is one of the latest techniques which measures the liver stiffness

offers hope in this aspect ,as it is able to detect cirrhosis at a far earlier stages.

Other latest techniques are CE-enhanced USG, which measures flow of blood

with gas filled microbubbles.PET imaging[41] and magnetic resonance spectroscopy

are other newer modalities.

Cirrhosis of liver:

It is a process in which is there is diffuse involvement of liver in the form of

fibrosis and nodule formation.

 Causes of cirrhosis are many and vary in various parts of the world. For

example viral hepatitis still remains as the leading cause in the developing countries,

in the western world NASH and alcoholism are the leading causes.

Cryptogenic cirrhosis is a condition were no cause could be found as the

predisposing factor for cirrhosis.

Multifactorial causation of cirrhosis:

There are conditions in which there are single cause of cirrhosis and others in

which there are is a single major cause and multiple other co-factors. For example

viral infection[44] and primary biliary cirrhosis have single causative agent.

Sometimes associated conditions like alcohol intake in a pre-existing viral hepatitis,

old age with any cause of hepatitis , patients with diabetes have faster progression of

disease when compared to others with the absence of these co-existing conditions

Diagnosis:

Liver cirrhosis can be diagnosed by presence of fibrosis along with the

presence of nodules all over the liver.

FIGURE 14 – MACRO NODULAR CIRRHOSIS
 FIGURE 15 – MICRONODULAR CIRRHOSIS

Although liver biopsy is considered as the gold standard for the diagnosis of

liver cirrhosis , it has its own limitations in the form of complications , errors of

sampling, the size of the sample, contraindications for liver biopsy etc. Even with all

of these confounding factors a Good histopathological examination can diagnose the

cirrhosis with the help of the background clinical conditions and other relevant

investigations.

The diagnosis like alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, autoimmune liver disease etc

are now increasingly being diagnosed by liver biopsy[42][43], reducing the burden of

cryptogenic cirrhosis cases.

 Biopsy via trans-jugular liver procedure is one of the ways to obtain liver

tissue in patients in whom the conventional approach is contraindicated, like patients

with massive ascites and coagulopathy.

USG abdomen is especially useful in diagnosing HCC in the setting of pre-

existing cirrhosis, diagnosing the presence of even the small collections of fluid in the

peritoneal cavity, and details about the portal vein like its, diameter, patency, direction

of blood flow.

Computed tomography of liver is useful in identifying the finer details of the

nodules , and also recording the progression of the disease. They are particularly

sensitive in identifying the SOL’S of the liver, both primary and metastasis. CE-CT,

helps us to diagnose the abnormalities of the portal circulation. CT guided biopsy is

particularly useful in the diagnosis of focal lesions. The only disadvantage of CT scan

is the concerns about the dose of radiation exposure, particularly in lesser age group

when serial imaging is required.

MRI imaging is also useful, but the disadvantage is the cost factor. It is

particularly useful in assessing the abnormalities associated with the biliary system. It

is also very useful in the diagnosis of malignancy.

Signs of hepatic decompensation:

Cirrhosis patients seek medical attention for many reasons, some are specific

for liver while others are not. Liver cirrhosis is said to be decompensated if the patient

has any one of the following features,

. Raised serum bilirubin or clinical jaundice indicates damage is beyond the

regenerating capacity of the liver,

. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding in the form of either haematemesis or malena.

FIGURE 16 – CAUSES OF PORTAL HYPERTENSION

 Ascites associated with or without abdominal tenderness and fever indicating

spontaneous bacterial peritonitis,

 Ascites is the initial sign in most of the patients.

 Hepatic encephalopathy

 Hyponatremia, and renal failure {Hepato Renal syndrome}

Other associated factors that may are may not present in a decompensated state

are, Generalized weakness, continuous fever which is of low grade, flapping tremors,

hypotension, loss of secondary sexual characters, and bleeding manifestations in the

form of purpura etc. due to low platelet count due to various reasons predominantly

hypersplenism.

None of the above said signs are present in compensated cirrhosis, and it may

be diagnosed in routine clinical examination for some other cause. Patient may have

spider angioma, pedal edemaetc, that may indicate liver disease.

These patients enter decompensated state at the rate of approximately 10 %

every year.

In decompensated liver disease 50% patients survive at the end of 18 months,

but in compensated liver disease 50% patients survive at the end of 10 years.

Liver decompensation is an indication for transplantation of liver.

Pathophysiolgy of decompensation[48] and hyperdynamic nature of systemic

circulation.
 Systemic vasodilatation plays an important role in the manifestations of CLD.

This occurs chiefly because of reduced response of the arteries to systemic

vasoconstricting agents. Because of this the effective blood volume within the arterial

tree is reduced leading to the activation of RAS system leading to retention of salt and

water, that contributes to the formation of pedal edema , ascites and anasarca. All

these factors leads to poor utilization of oxygen by the body.

Because of the generalized vasodilated state, a number of arteriovenous

anastomosis are opened. The vasodilators include nitric oxide and prostaglandins.

Nitic oxide explains lot of concepts, like the role of endotoxins produced by liver,

which act by stimulation of NO synthase. And also inhibitors of NO release like L-

ARGININE shows improvement in hyperdynamic circulation clinically.

[45,46,47]
All these changes get reverted after liver transplantation ,except the

elevated cardiac index and increased splanchnic circulation which takes longer to get

normalized.
Prognostic scores of liver cirrhosis:

Child-pugh score: Mainly useful in assessing the prognosis in short term.

FIGURE 17 – CHILD PUGH SCORE

It also guides in the therapy and also gives an ideaabout the need and timing of

liver transplantation.

MELD SCORE:{ Model for End stage Liver Disease}

Variables used are

 Serum Bilirubin levels

 PT {PROTHROMBIN TIME}

 Serum creatinine levels

MELD score is very useful in prioritising the candidates for liver transplantation.

MELD scoresexactly predict the mortality in waiting list for liver transplantation.

MELD = 3.78*SERUM BILIRUBIN[mg/dl]+11.2{INR}+9.57{SERUM

CREATININE[MG/DL]}+6.43.

Serum sodium levels when used along with this, can improve the efficacy of the score.

UKELD:

It is a scoring system produced in United Kingdom. The variables used are

 INR

 SERUM Bilirubin levels

 Serum creatinine levels

 Serum sodium levels

This scoring system is very much comparable to MELD..

MADDREY’S DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION:

It is an example of scoring system that is highly specific for certain disease conditions,

in this case hepatitis of alcoholic[49]etiology.

DF = SERUM BILIRUBIN /17 + PROLONGATION OF PROTHROMBIN TIME IN

SECONDS WHICH IS COMPARED WITH CONTROL VALUES*4.6.

A maddrey’s discrimannt value of more than 32 is a sign of poor prognosis and

associated with increased rate of mortality {between 30 to 50%}within the hospital.

 Bad clinical markers in Liver disease:

  Spontaneous decompensated liver disease

 Poor response to theraphy at the end of 1 month of treatment

 Jaundice indicates severe underlying organ problem

 Autonomic neuropathy and chronic HE, indicate serious problem

 Diuretic resistant ascites

 Small shrunken liver that is not palpable

 Upper gastrointestinal bleed of variceal origin

 Prolonged state of low BP.

Clinical features of Cirrhosis:

GIT:

 Parotid gland enlargement, pancreatitis with calcifications, usually chronic in

duration.

 Pigmented gall stones for which surgery is not usually advisible,

 Hernia usually Umbilical, for which surgery is not indicated unless there is a

strong clinical indication.

 Duodenal and Gastric ulcers with predominantly caused by H.pyori infection.

 Enlargement of the spleen, usually moderate in size,

 Dilated veins over the abdominal wall, with flow away from the umbilicus

indicating increased portal pressure.

 FIGURE 18 – PORTAL VENOUS SYSTEM

Urinary system:

.Glomerulonephritis, usually of membrano proliferative type.

 IgA[33,34] nephropathy
  Hepatic failure induced renal failure, especially because of the reduced blood

flow to the cortex, known as Hepatorenal syndrome type 1 & 2, in which type 1

carries a very bad prognosis.

Patient has a faecal smell of breath that can have a slight sweetish component,

occurs in some of the patients, it usually arises from the intestine. It reduces in

intensity after passing stools with laxatives and after administration of antibiotics. It is

caused by dimethyl ketones[52]. This clinical condition is called foetor Hepaticus and it

is particularly useful in the assessment of a patient presenting with coma for the very

first time.

Spider Angiomas are one of the markers of liver disease, it has a an arteriole in

the centre, and few arterioles radiate from the centre. It is usually less than 5mm. It is

examined by the glass slide test that reveals blanching. They indicate progression or

regression of the disease with respect to their numbers. Their association with pan

digital clubbing may be an manifestation of an associated pulmonary involvement

known as hepato-pulmonary syndrome.

They usually occur in the upper part of the body in the territory of drainage of

SVC. Common areas include face, neck , hand especially the dorsal part. They are

more common with alcoholic etiology of liver cirrhosis than other causes for unknown

reasons. They are physiologically present in children and during pregnancy and those

will disappear spontaneously. Alarming Increase in size or number should be carefully

followed up.
Palmar erythema:

Reddish dicolouration of the palms especially over the thenar and hypothenar

areas, associated with blanching. They may occur physiologically in some families

and also during cirrhosis. Other conditions associated with palmar erythema are

hyperthyroidism, Autoimmune conditions like RA, fever of unknown origin and

haematological malignancies .

The probable cause of these skin manifestations associated with cirrhosis is

proposed to be an elevated levels of estrogen. It is the same reason because of which

,these changes occur in preganancy. Liver is the site of inactivation of estrogens. An

increasing values of estrogen to testosterone levels are found in cirhotic {male}

patients.

PEM:

Protein deficiency is common in cirrhosis patients. It is one of the poor

prognostic indicators. It is caused by both increased energy loss and reduced food

intake. They have low fat in the body and severe loss of muscle density. Ciirrhotics,

especially of alcoholic etiology exhibit muscle weakness more than others. Status of

the nutrition of the individual can be assessed by number of tests that includes mid

arm circumference etc.

Hyperglycaemia is prevalent especially in NASH, when compares to other

etiologies.
Secondary sexual characters:

Testicular atrophy, loss of axillary and pubic hair , impotence and reduced

sexual drive can occur in cirrhotic patients , especially of alcoholic etiology.

In females there is menstrual disturbances , loss of breast volume, and

increased prevalence of infertility. These sexual changes are usually not found in

women with NASH.

Enlargement and tenderness of the breast in male known as gynaecomastia

occurs commonly with spironolactone therapy. It occurs mainly because of reduction

in the circulating testosterone levels and again like many other previously mentioned

abnormalities is more common in cirrhosis of alcoholic etiology.

The main mechanism of above mentioned changes is the hepatic

downregulation of androgenic receptors and upregulation of estrogen receptors.

Ocular manifestations:

Retraction of the eyelid and lag of eyelids can be seen in cirrhosis patients.

These patients have a normal thyroid functions.

Muscle cramps occurring in cirrhotic patients is a common occurrence and can

be treated with quinine salts p.o

Metabolism of majority of drugs are altered in hepatic cirrhosis. It is mainly

attributed to loss of hepatocytes. The dosage of most of the drugs should be reduced.

Evaluation of Lab parameters:

 Anaemia may be normocytic or macrocytic. Increased MCV usually occurs in

alcoholics due to vitamin b12 and folate deficiency. Hypochromia is mainly because

of blood loss.

Splenic sequestration of white blood cells and platelets occurs leading to

leucopenia and thrombocytopenia. This is known as hyperspleenism

PT is prolonged and is not corrected by Vitamin K therapy.

There is a fall in the albumin levels that indicates the synthetic function of the

liver, and that of gamma globulin is increased, leading to reversal of AG Ratio. Raised

globulin is due to increased production of antibodies in response to the antigens

against intestinal antigens. Serum ALT and AST levels are only mildly increased

compared to ALP levels , which are markedly elevated.

Urinary picture shows an elevated urobilinogen and sometimes conjugated

biliorubin may be present in case the patient is icteric, and in case patient has ascites

urinary excretion of sodium very much compromised.

Cirrhotic patients are more prone for infections when compared to general

population. SBP is a common occurance in ascites patients. Meningitis caused by

bacteria is one of the possibilities in a cirrhotic patient with coma.

Sepsis is the most common cause of unexplained fever in cirrhotic patients.

They should be treated with antibiotics with wide coverage until culture results

become available. Routine prophylaxis with antibiotics is practised now.

 Pneumonia, endocarditis, urinary tract infections all can occur in cirrhotic

patients.

Hospital acquired infections are more dangerous as they are caused by resistant

organisms, when compared to community acquired infections.

Lung involvement:

In patients with cirrhosis , there is a low oxygen saturation in some patients.

This is known as the hepatopulmonary syndrome. In the above said patients there is

no known previous cardiac or pulmonary abnormality. This occurs because of

dilatation of the lung vascular tree. Breathlessness relieved by lying down flat and

aggravated by sitting upright is a common mode of presentation. It does not reflect

the severity of the disease, but it is associated with increased mortality. No definitive

therapy is available for this condition, liver transplantation is the only available

option. TIPS may be useful in some of the patients.

Management :

The management is only symptomatic. Complete cure cannot be obtained.

The main goal of management in case of compensated liver failure is for abstinence

from alcohol , lifestyle modification, and being watchful for the signs of development

of ascites , malignancy [primary HCC], and development of neuropsychiatric

manifestations known as hepatic encephalopathy, hepato-renal syndrome and

prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding.

In decompensated state the, management is mainly concentrated in correcting the

cause of the decompensation. Usually there will be a precipitating factor that would

have predisposed to the decompensated state, treatment is mainly depends upon

finding out the correct predisposing factor and correction of the same. Some of the

examples are sepsis, drugs UGI bleed etc.

Specific condition Treatment

Viral hepatitis B and C Antivirals

Autoimmune Hepatitis Steroids , immunosuppressive agents

Primary biliary cirrhosis UDCA, early phase of the treatment.

Wilsons disease Chelation theraphy

Haemochromatosis Venesection.

TABLE 2 - SPECIFIC TREATMENT FOR DIFFERENT CAUSES OF

CIRRRHOSIS

Nutritional Management:

Cirrhotics are more prone for malnutrition and protein deficiency, they cannot

tolerate minimal intervals of fasting. They should take atleast40 kilocalories of energy

and 1.5 gram of protein per kilogram of body weight. Reducing the intake of fats

doesn’t carry any therapeutic value. Protein restricted diet when used, especially in the

setting of HE, should only for short duration. feeding of food in night between 9.00pm

and morning 7.00am is shown to be beneficial.

Any Operative procedures have an increased chance of mortality, both intra-operative

and postoperatively. The main factors, that should be taken into account are the serum

albumin levels, infection, and bleeding tendency reflected by prolongation of PT.

HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY:

HE signifies the alterations in the neurological and psychiatric status of a

cirrhotic patient. This causes a negative impact on quality of life especially health

related and on survival of the patient. It is an complex interplay between failure of

hepatocytes and shunting between systemic and portal circulation. Ammonia derived

from the intestine enters the systemic circulation bypassing the detoxifying effect of

the liver and in turn detoxified by the astrocytes of the brain. This leads to oedema of

the brain and the entire spectrum of the clinical manifestations.

FIGURE 19 – MECHANISM OF HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY
Clinical types:

Overt HE:

This is a clinically apparent form of HE. This may be continuous and stable or

episodic. Changes in mentation[53,54] includes a wide range from mild personality

disorders to comatose state. Childish behaviour getting easily irritated, and lack of

affection for family members are due to personality disorders. Intellect is impaired to

varying degrees, ranging from mild to severe confusion. Visual spatial impairment

may occur even in stable mentation. It manifest as inability to redraw simple diagrams

like stars, known as constructional apraxia.

FIGURE 20 – CONSTRUCTIONAL APRAXIA

Disturbance of sleep pattern is commonly observed in the form daytime

sleepiness and disturbed night sleepiness. Hepatic coma, in the initial stages, mimics
normal sleep, but then progresses to a state in which, the patient responds only to very

intense stimuli.

Foetor hepaticus is present in some cases of HE[55],but its presence is not an

essentiality and it doesn’t the severity of HE.

Motor abnormalities include hypertonia in the form of rigidity, aphasia, tremor

both in resting and movement related, diminished and exaggerated reflexes, extensor

plantar reflexes, etc.

Flapping tremor {asterixis}:

It is due to impaired afferent impulses from joints to reticular system of the

brain stem. It is best appreciated in a posture that is sustained for sometime. Example

in an outstretched hand. It is usually bilateral but may not be symmetrical. Other

equivalent tests are the movements seen in neck, arms . It is also seen on protrusion

of the tongue and on tightly closing the eyelids. All said asterixis is not only seen in

HE, but also in other conditions like failure of heart, renal and respiratory systems,

and electrolyte abnormalities like reduced magnesium levels.

 FIGURE 21 – FLAPPING TREMOR

Other neurological abnormalities observed are slurring of speech, exaggerated

DTR, hypertonia and clonus.

Episodic HE:

This conditions usually occurs in previously stable patients. In most of the

patients, the precipitating factor can be found out. The mechanism involved are

 Compromising an already impaired hepatic function and/or cerebral function.

 Sudden increase in the load of nitrogenous substances.

 Onset of an inflammation cascade.

Precipitating event Effect

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding Perfusion of liver is reduced due to loss

Misuse of higher dose of Diuretics of fluids

Huge volume ascitic tapping

Loose stools

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding Nitrogen delivery to liver is increased

Protein rich diet

Constipation

Infection Suppresses the cerebral function.

inflammation

alcohol ingestion, drugs

TIPS

TABLE 3 - PRECIPITATING FEATURE OF HE

Persistent HE:

In this group of patients there is continuous HE. In these patients, invariably porto-

systemic shunting is present. Extrapyramidal features maybe present. cerebellar

features are also found. The clinical picture may predominantly reflect a

neuropsychiatric disorder and evidence of liver disease is subtle. It makes the

diagnosis, a bit difficult.

Minimal HE:

These patients are clinically without any abnormalities but have mild cognitive

impairment.[56,57]

Diagnosis of HE:

The diagnosis of HE in a known case of CLD, presenting with altered

mentation, asterexis is straight forward. The absence of these details make the

diagnosis challenging.

MSE and CNS EXAMINATION.

Grade Feature

0 No abnormalities detected

1 mild anxious state, reduced attention.

2 Lethargy, lack of orientation to time, personality disorders,lack of affect.

3 Increased somnolescence, severe disorientation,

4 Coma

TABLE 4 - WEST HAVEN CRITERIA:

FIGURE 22 - GLASCOW COMA SCALE:
Psychometric analysis:[58,59]

Affected patients have minimal HE, but appear normal otherwise on clinical

examination. In patients with obvious clinical features of encephalopathy it helps us to

measure the degree of impairment. The tests commonly employed are connecting the

numbers, tracing the lines etc. psychometric analysis with computers are also

available.

FIGURE 23 – PSYCHOMETRIC ANALYSIS IN HE

EEG:

EEG analyse the neuronal activity in the brain cortex. In HE there is usually

slowness ,that is progressive in nature. This is not only seen in HE, but also in number

of other conditions including electrolyte abnormalities, etc, but all these conditions

can be distinguished on the basis of a clear history and clinical evaluation.

Radiological modalities:

Radiological investigations like CT and MRI, mainly helps us to rule out other

possible causes, they are not helpful in diagnosing a case of HE. There may be

atrophy of the cerebral hemispheres, especially more common in alcoholic cirrhosis,

and increased intensity of basal ganglia. This explained as due to deposition of

manganese that is produced because of the detoxification of ammonia by the cerebral

astrocytes.

Ammonia measurement in blood:

This test is particularly useful in conditions where the patient is not a known

cirrhotic, but presented with features of HE, and examination reveals very little

evidence of liver disease. In this scenario ammonia [60]levels are of immense value and

help in reaching definitive diagnosis. The partial pressure of ammonia in blood is

more reliable than plasma levels of ammonia.

Cerebrospinal fluid Analysis:

CSF analysis is normal except for raised protein levels and increased glutamate

levels Glutamate levels equate well with clinical profile of HE and the severity of

HE[61].

Treatment:

HE is a condition that requires aggressive management. There are a lot of

options and the combination of these should be used and individualized according to

the patient. In patients with Hepatic cirrhosis, the first step is to identify and treat the

precipitating factor, after this , prevention of future episode by prophylactic

management should be done. Some of the common precipitating features are

infections UGI bleed, electrolyte abnormalities, etc, these should be identified and

corrected immediately.

Diet: cirrhotics have a very low glycogen, depend upon gluconeogenesis,

which in turns upon amino-acids. Daily glucose consumption should be around 40

kilocalories/kg, and protein of 1.5 g/kg. Proteins of plant origin with high fibre

content increases the ammonia excretion in faeces

Enema management: it is particularly very much useful in acute circumstances,

but in patients with chronic HE, daily enema may be given. Lactulose is preferred.

They act by three main ways.

 Reduces the transit time by laxative effect.

 Lactulose causes PH alterations in the lumen of the colon, that leads to the

seepage of ammonia from systemic circulation

  Ammonia synthesis in the intestine is reduced.

It should given at a dose that is able to produce atleast 2 soft stools per day.

Lactitol is more efficacious and better tolerated than lactulose.

Antibiotics: The main purpose of antibiotics is to kill the organisms that generate

urease. Neomycin given per oral previously. it has the risk of developing oto and

nephrotoxicity. Rifaximin is an synthetic drug that is equally effective as lactulose.

 MATERIALS AND METHODS

SOURCE OF STUDY:

Data consists of primary data collected by the principal investigator directly from the
patients visiting the Coimbatore Government Medical College Hospital.

DESIGN OF STUDY: Prospective Observational Study

PERIOD OF STUDY: One year, July 2015 - June 2016.

SAMPLE SIZE: 100

INCLUSION CRETERIA:

1. Patients (Both Genders) diagnosed as Liver cirrhosis at Coimbatore

Medical College Hospital.

2. Age above 18 yrs.

EXCLUSION CRITERIA:
1. Presence of secondary immunodeficiency states- HIV
2. Hepatocellular cancer patients,
3. Patients on corticosteroids or cytotoxic drugs
4. Patients with ongoing Infection
5. Pregnancy and lactation
6. Patients not capable of giving consent (psychiatric patients).

7. Patients not willing to participate in the study (who refused to consent).

 METHODOLOGY

Patients attending the Medicine and Gastroenterology outpatient department,

who are known cases of cirrhosis of liver inspite of aetiology, who full-fill the

inclusion and exclusion criteria are involved in the study after obtaining informed

consent from the patients.

Blood samples from these patients are taken and sent for investigations. The

investigations includes, Complete blood count and their neutrophil to lymphocyte

ratio is calculated.

All these patients where followed up over a period of one year, through follow-

up visits, follow-up during inpatient admissions for various reasons and through

phone.

Patients Who Got admitted where thoroughly evaluated with investigations that

includes,

 Complete Blood Count,

 Liver Function Tests,

 Serum Proteins,

 Serum Electrolytes,

 Renal Function Test,

 Ascitic Fluid analysis,

  Ultrasound Abdomen.

The patients in Follow-up, who got admitted in our GH where evaluvated for

development complications, and patients who got admitted elsewhere where also

followed up, through subsequent visits and Phone.

Among these patients, those who developed complications where identified and

the correlation with the already calculated Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio was done

and the Results were analysed.

.
 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The study populations included 100 patients who have full filled the inclusion and

exclusion criteria. Various characteristic patterns of the study population are analysed

including age, sex distribution and alcohol consuming patterns.

CHART 1 – AGE DISTRIBUTION

AGE DISTRIBUTION
100
100

90 85

80

70

60

50

40

30

20 15

10

0
Total Age < 40 Age > 40

Among the 100 patients, the study population predominantly consists of patients of

age more than 40 years .

 CHART 2 – SEX DISTRIBUTION

Sex distribution

78

80
70
60
50
40
22
30
20
Series1
10
0
male female

Among the study population, the predominant population is formed by males

and a comparatively lesser population is formed by the females. This indicates the

prevalence pattern of cirrhosis in general population.

Looking into the causes of such a distribution, alcoholism stands out as the

prime factor that predisposes men to cirrhosis, as compared to their female

counterparts.
 CHART 3 – NLR LEVELS

NLR LEVELS

38
ELEVATED
NLR

62
NORMAL RANGE

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

NLR ratio is the ratio of absolute count of neutrophils to the absolute count of

lymphocytes.

NLR ratio is calculated by dividing the absolute Neutrophil count by the

absolute lymphocyte count.

The cut-off value of NLR is 2.72. The normal range group of patients have a

NLR ratio of < 2.72 and the elevated group of patients have a NLR ratio of > 2.72.
 CHART 4 – NLR STATISTICS

NLR STATISTICS
35

30

25
NO.OF PATIENTS

20

15

10

0
<2 2 TO 4 >4 >10

NLR VALUES

TABLE 5 – NLR DISTRIBUTION

NLR LEVELS NO.OF PATIENTS

<2 31

2 TO 4 34

>4 24

>10 3
 CHART 5 – NLR EXTREMES

EXTREMES OF NLR
20

18.09
18

16

14

12

10

2 1.16

0
NLR LOWEST NLR HIGHEST

The highest number of study subjects fell in the NLR range of 2 to 4. 3

patients had an NLR ratio of more than 10 and all 3 of them had more than one

complication.

The lowest NLR recorded was 1.16 and the highest NLR obtained was 18.09.
 CHART 6 – COMPLICATION PREVALENCE

Complications
100
100

90

80

70
60
60
Axis Title

50
40
40

30

20

10

0
Total Complication No Complication

Axis Title

Among the total of 100 patients taken up for this study, 40 patients developed

complications, in the due course of the study ie, 1 year.

The complications was more prevalent in the elevatedNLR group as compared

to the normal NLR group.

The complications encountered include Upper gastrointestinal bleeding,

Ascites and Hepatic Encephalopathy.

 CHART 7 – NLR AND COMPLICATIONS

NLR AND COMPLICATIONS

56
NO COMPLICATIONS
6

8
COMPLICATIONS
32

64
TOTAL
38

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Normal NLR Elevated NLR

Among the 38 patients who had an elevated NLR ratio 32 developed

complications and only 8 patients with normal NLR developed complications. We

compared both the sample groups statistically.

 TABLE 6 – NLR AND COMPLICATIONS

High NLR Normal NLR

TOTAL 38 62

COMPLICATION 32 8

NO COMPLICATIONS 6 54

RESULTS

TABLE 7 – P VALUE CALCULATION

Difference 24%

95% CI 6.8126 to 41.9109

Chi-squared 9.468

DF 1

Significance level P = 0.0021

The results show a P value of 0.0021 which is less than 0.05 and hence

statistically highly significant.

Hence this indicates High NLR is associated with higher incidence of

development of complications.
 CHART 8 – COMPLICATION OCCURRENCE PATTERNS

COMPLICATION OCCURENCE PATTERNS

25

15 25

SINGLE COMPLICATION MORE THAN ONE COMPLICATION

Among the study population the prevalence of complications was variable. A

part of the population had a single complication, but a major part of the patients had a

combination of the above said complication.

 CHART 9 – COMPLICATIONS DISTRIBUTION

COMPLICATION PATTERNS

12

2
13

UGI BLEED ALONE ASCITES ALONE HE ALONE

UGI BLEED+ASCITES UGI BLEED+HE ASCITES+HE

The occurrence of complications in the study populations had a variety of

combinations. Part of them had a single complication and a majority of them had a

combination, like Upper Gastrointestinal bleeding with Ascites, Ascites with Hepatic

Encephalopathy and Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding with Hepatic Encephalopathy.

 CHART 10 – COMPLICATION PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION

COMPLICATION DISTRIBUTION

HE
23% UGI BLLED
34%

ASCITES
UGI
43%
BLLED
ASCITES

Taking into consideration both the individual and combination occurrence of

the complications, Ascites was the most Prevalent of the complication followed by

UGI Bleed. The least prevalent of the complications was Hepatic encephalopathy

compared to other complications in the study population.

 CHART 11 – ALCOHOLISM PREVALENCE

ALCOHOLISM PREVALENCE

80

70

60

50

40 72

30

20 28

10

0
ALCOHOLIC NON ALCOHOLIC

Series1 Series2

Alcoholism prevalence among the study population was high. Alcoholism is a

very important factor because it itself can cause cirrhosis as an isolated cause and also

can be an important co factor when it occurs with other causes of cirrhosis such as

viral infections as it accelerates the process of the hepatic cirrhosis.

When compared to the western population, south-east Asians, especially the

Indians more easily develop cirrhosis with relatively lesser amount of alcohol intake

and with lesser duration of alcohol intake.

 CHART 12 – SEX DISTRIBUTION IN ALCOHOLICS

SEX DISTRIBUTION IN ALCOHOLICS

68
70

60

50
18
40

30 4
FEMALE
20 10

10 MALE
0
ALCOHOLIC NON ALCOHOLIC
MALE FEMALE

Alcoholism was more prevalent in the study population. It was more prevalent

among the males. Among the Females though the prevalence was very low compared

to the males, alcoholism was also found as the cause in a subset of females in the

study population.

It is a very significant factor in females because when compared to males

females don’t tolerate alcoholism and develop cirrhosis, earlier and with

comparatively lesser amount of alcohol consumption when compared to males.

 CHART 13 – ALCOHOLISM AND NLR

ALCOHOLISM AND NLR

30

25

24

20

15

14

10

0
ALCOHOLICS WITH HIGH NLR NONALCOHOLICS WITH HIGH NLR

Among the study population, the prevalence of High NLR was studied, that

showed a statistically insignificant prevalence of higher NLR among the Alcoholics.

In the study population, the subjects included were already known cases of

cirrhosis due to a variety of causes. But in general population, in persons who are not

cirrhotics, the prevalence of Higher NLR in Alcoholics when compared non alcoholics

need to be studied.
 TABLE 8 – ALCOHOLISM AND NLR

ALCOHOLIC NON-ALCOHOLIC

TOTAL 72 28

ELEVATED NLR 24 14

NORMAL NLR 48 14

TABLE 9 –CALCULATION OF P VALUE

DIFFERENCE 10%

95% CI -10.5373 TO 25.3290

CHI-SQUARED 1.195

DF 1

SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL P = 0.2744

The P value obtained was 0.2744, which is more than 0.05, and so statistically

insignicant. Thus Alcoholism is not significantly related to the raised NLR ratio in our

study group of patients

 DISCUSSION

Liver Cirrhosis is a common end point of various causes of chronic liver

diseases. Pathologically cirrhosis liver consists of widespread fibrosis with nodular

regeneration. The rate at which chronic liver disease transforms into Hepatic cirrhosis

is highly unpredictable and it varies depending upon a lot of factors, the most

important of them being the cause of the chronic liver disease.

The survival percentage of patients with cirrhosis declines with the progression

of years, for example in one study the survival at the end of one year was 67% and it

declined to 11% at ten years.

In patients with compensated stage of Liver cirrhosis the, most common reason

for mortality was progression to decompensated state of liver cirrhosis. Development

of complications in the form of upper gastrointestinal bleeding, ascites, Hepatic

encephalopathy significantly reduces the chances of survival of the cirrhosis patients.

Mortality and survival rates in Cirrhosis patients, despite the state of the

disease is also influenced by the associated co-morbid conditions. Presence of Co

morbid conditions accelerate the progression of cirrhosis and also the predispose the

patients for decompensation which significantly decreases the survival benefit and the

mortality rates in the group of patients with co-morbid conditions, when compared to

liver cirrhosis patients of the same stage of the disease without complications.

In Indian population, there are a lot of co-morbid conditions, the chief cause

among them is alcoholism, among others.

 The Rate of transformation of compensated cirrhosis to a decompensated state

is highly variable and it mainly depends upon the cause of cirrhosis. For example the

rateof progression is slow, around 4% for Hepatitis C virus associated cirrhosis when

compared to hepatitis B virus associated cirrhosis, which has a rate of around 10%

progression to Decompensated state.

Development of renal failure, concurrent infections of various aetiology,

concurrent consumption of alcohol are all associated with rapid progression of

compensated liver disease to decompensated liver disease.

So the prevention of progression of compensated liver cirrhosis by effectively

management and early identification of such a progression greatly reduces the rate of

mortality and increase the survival benefit.

Effective management of compensated liver cirrhosis includes effective

management of the causative factor of the cirrhosis. Other measures include screening

for the development of oesophageal varices, by upper gastro-intestinal endoscopy

periodically, screening for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma every six

months, stopping alcoholism, losing weight and life style modification.

All these above said factors make the early prediction of progression of

compensated state to decompensated state very important as timely intervention at this

state has a significant impact in prevention of the development of a decompensated

state and also significantly reduces the mortality rate and improves the survival benefit

and duration of survival of compensated liver cirrhosis patients.

 Now these things make tools that helps to predict early the progression of

compensated to decompensated state. Many such markers are being invented.

Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio is one such tool, that is cheap, easily available and

easily reproducible.

Our study is conducted at the Coimbatore medical college Hospital Regarding

NLR ratio as a predictor of Prognosis in Liver Cirrhosis Patients.

Samples which were collected from the patients were analysed with strict

confidentiality and the results were also kept confidential.

Among the patients studied, the majority [78%] is formed by males. Female

form only 22% of the study population. The predominance of male patients in the

study can be directly correlated to the higher prevalence of alcoholism in males

compared to the females.

Among the study population only 15% is constituted by age group less than 40.

A major group of the study population is formed by the age group 40 to 60. As

mentioned in various studies cirrhosis affects the important productivephase of an

individual. A minor group of patients only fall in an age group of more than 60. As

also the prevalence of cirrhosis below the age of 30 in the study population is nil. So

from this we can infer cirrhosis except rarely don’t occur in the extremes of the age

group and it occurs exclusively in the middle aged people from 30 to 60, which is the

most productive phase of an individual’s career in all aspects, which makes cirrhosis

of liver a huge burden both for the society and for the family of the patient.
 NLR ratio is calculated from the blood samples collected from the study

subjects by dividing the absolute Neutrophil count by the absolute Lymphocyte count.

The samples collected were analysed in coulter principle machine cell counter and the

total cell count, differential cell count of the WBC were obtained.

The caliberation of the cell counter machines were absolute up-to date and was

verified. The samples were processed in the Laboratory of Coimbatore medical

college hospital. There was no inter observer variability as the samples were analysed

by automated machines.

The NLR ratio normal value is 2.72 as in numerous previous studies involving

NLR ratio. The NLR ratio calculated and found out to be higher than the reference

value in 38 subjects. In the other 62 patients the NLR ratio is in the normal range.

NLR ratio was less than 2 in 31% of the patients. It was between 2 to 4 in 34%

patients. It was more than 4 in 24% of the patients. It was more than 10 in 3% of the

patients.

All the 3% patients who had more than 10 value of NLR had more than one

complications.

The lowest NLR value in our study population was 1.16 and the highest value

was 18.09.

Of the 38 % of patients who had an elevated NLR 32% developed complications in

the form of Upper gastrointestinal bleeding, Ascites or Hepatic encephalopathy either

in single or in complication.
 Of the 62% of the study population who had a normal NLR, only8% developed

complications and the rest of 54% didn’t develop any complications. The two sample

groups were compared and the P value was calculated.

In the calculation, the P value is found to be 0.0021 which is highly significant.

This shows us that elevated NLR is associated with higher incidence of complications

in cirrhosis patients and is a useful marker in predicting the occurrence of

complications in the future.

Alcoholism is highly prevalent among our study subjects, so study was done to

see whether there can be alcohol is contributing factor.

The observed P value was 0.2744 which is more than 0.05, and thus is

statistically insignificant. So alcoholism doesn’t have a significant impact in our study

group.
 SUMMARY

Liver cirrhosis is one of the leading cause of mortality and morbidity. Liver

cirrhosis is due to a variety of reasons of which viral hepatitis and alcoholism are the

leading causes in India.

Liver cirrhosis usually occurs in the most productive age group of a person and

so adds to significant financial burden to both the family and country. The life

expectancy is significantly lower and mortality rate is significantly higher in the

decompensated Liver disease compared to compensated liver cirrhosis, which has a

better survival rate and less mortality.

The progression of a patient from compensated to decompensated occurs due to

a number of factors, the main being the cause of liver disease and the associated co-

morbid conditions.

So a marker that can predict the occurrence of decompensated state and

complications liken UGI bleed, ascites and HE can help in early identification of such

subset of compensated liver cirrhosis patients who are more likely to develop these

complications.

Early intervention in this subset of patients can prevent them from progression

to a decompensated state and also prevents complication related mortality and

improves significantly the life expectancy.

Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio is a cheap, easily available, less complicated

and easily reproducible marker to assess the prognosis of liver cirrhosis patients.
 100 selected patients of liver cirrhosis who fulfilled the inclusion and exclusion

criteria were included in the study. Blood samples were collected and Neutrophil to

lymphocyte ratio was calculated for all subjects and they were followed up for a

period of one year.

Among the study subjects 78 were males and 22 were females. Of these 72

were alcoholics and 28 were non-alcoholics.

In the study population 38 subjects had elevated NLR ratio [> 2.72] and 62 had

normal NLR ratio [ < 2.72 ].

Among the study population 40 patients developed complications in the form

of UGI bleed, ascites and HE either single or in combination.

In the High NLR group of 38 patients 32 developed complications and in

Normal NLR group of 62 patients 8 developed complications in the course of the

follow up. We analysed the results of the study by chi square test and the p value was

less than 0.05 which is statistically very significant.

So we conclude that Blood neutrophil to Lymphocyte ratio is highly significant

and can be used as a prognostic marker in liver cirrhosis to detect the likelihood of

development of complications and progression from a compensated to a

decompensated state.
 CONCLUSION

The study that Blood Neutrophil to Lymphocyte ratio as a prognostic marker in

Liver cirrhosis patients is conducted in Coimbatore Medical College Hospital in the

period of study from July 2015 to June 2016.

The blood sample of 100 cirrhosis patients were collected and analysed for

Blood Neutrophil to Lymphocyte ratio.

NLR ratio was calculated and found to be elevated [>2.72] in 38 patients and

62 patients had normal NLR [<2.72]. Out of the 38 patients with elevated NLR 32

developed complications and out of 62 patients with normal NLR 8 patients developed

complications.

We subjected the results to statistical analysis which revealed a P value of less

than 0.05 which is hugely significant. This study reveals that cirrhosis patients with

elevated NLR have a high likelihood of developing complications compared to

patients with normal NLR.

So we can infer that Blood Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio is a prognostic

marker in Liver Cirrhosis.

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1036
 PROFORMA

1. NAME :

2. AGE :

3. SEX :

4. WHETHER PATIENT IS ON :

CYTOTOXIC DRUGS

5. WHETHER PATIENT IS ON :

CORTICOSTEROIDS

6. WHETHER PATIENT IS SUFFERING :

FROM FEVER FOR THE 2 WEEKS OR

ANY OTHER SYMPTOM OF INFECTION

7. WHETHER KNOWN CASE OF :

HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA

8. WHETHER KNOWN CASE HIV OR ANY :

OTHER SECONDARY
 IMMUNODEFICIENCY

9. WHETHER THE PATIENT IS PREGNANT :

OR LACTATING

10. WHETHER THE PATIENT IS AN ALCOHOLIC :

11. WHETHER CONSENT IS TAKEN :

12. WHETHER BLOOD SAMPLES COLLECTED :

13. ABSOLUTE NEUTROPHIL COUNT :

14. ABSOLUTE LYMPHOCYTE COUNT :

15. NEUTROPHIL TO LYMPHOCYTE RATIO :

16. FINAL INTERPRETATION :

 CONSENT FORM

Yourself Mr./Mrs./Ms………………………………..are being asked to be a

Participant in the research study titled ― Blood Neutrophil to Lymphocyte ratio

as a Prognostic marker in Liver Cirrhosis Patients. CMC Hospital, Coimbatore,

conducted by DR.K.S.DAKSHINAMOORTHY., Post Graduate Student,

Department of General Medicine, Coimbatore Medical College. You are eligible

after looking into the inclusion criteria. You can ask any question you may have

before agreeing to participate.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH:

The aim of the study is to evaluate the role of NLR as a prognostic marker in

Patients with stable liver cirrhosis

To identify early, the group of stable cirrhotic patients with likelihood of

developing complications in the near future.

PROCEDURES INVOLVED:

Collection of blood from the patients for NLR calculation.

RESEARCH BEING DONE:

Blood Neutrophil to Lymphocyte ratio as a Prognostic marker in Liver

Cirrhosis Patients.
DECLINE FROM PARTICIPATION:

You have the option to decline from participation in the study existing protocol

for your condition.

PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY:

Privacy of individuals will be respected and any information about you

or provided by you during the study will be kept strictly confidential..

AUTHORIZATION TO PUBLISH RESULTS:

Results of the study may be published for scientific purposes and/or presented

to scientific groups, however you will not be identified.

 STATEMENT OF CONSENT

I volunteer and consent to participate in this study. I have read the consent

or it has been read to me. The study has been fully explained to me, and I may ask

questions at anytime.

------------------------------- -------------------------------

Signature /Left thumb impression Date

(volunteer)

-------------------------------- --------------------------------

Signature of witness Date

 MASTER CHART
Total Count Neutrophil Lymphocyte UGI Alcoh
S.No Name Age Sex NLR Ascites HE
*10^3 Count % Count % BLEED olism
1. Thayammal 47 F 12.6 55.4 23.2 2.38 +
2. Krishnan 50 M 11.2 85.5 7.3 11.71 + + +
3. Avudaiyappan 52 M 5.5 56.8 26.4 2.151 +
4. Bose 50 M 6.4 60.3 31.2 1.93 + +
5. Venkatesh 52 M 4.6 52.1 26.2 1.98
6. Thiruman 49 M 5 83.8 6.2 13.51 + + +
7. Saraswathi 37 F 7.8 51.6 23.8 2.18 +
8. Chinnan 6o M 6.5 55.4 34.8 2.23 +
9. Narayanan 52 M 9.5 82.1 11.6 7.077
10. Alex 46 M 11.7 81.2 12.6 6.44 +
11. Muniyammal 58 F 4.6 57.4 22.5 2.55
12. Murugaperumal 62 M 5.7 58.5 24.3 2.40 +
13. Kalyanasundaram 42 M 5.4 81.0 11.3 7.168 + + +
14. Karuppasamy 46 M 6.8 78.9 9.4 8.39 + + +
15. Palanivel 48 M 7.1 73.2 45.6 1.60 +
16. Swetha 39 F 8.6 71.2 36.5 1.95
17. Arumugam 49 M 5.8 69.3 20.9 3.3157 + +
18. Aiyavu 42 M 9.5 78.7 17.1 4.602 +
19. Velmurugan 44 M 6.8 72.4 32.3 2.24 +
20. Ganapathy 56 M 10.6 77.5 37.6 2.06 + + +
21. Perumal 62 M 5.9 76.4 44.6 1.61
22. Murugan 56 M 9.4 78.2 13.0 6.01 + + +
23. Abdul Razzak 46 M 6.4 74.5 39.2 1.90 +
24. Lakshmi 55 F 7.6 75.2 41.9 1.79 +
25. Priya 37 F 8.8 73.1 21.0 3.48 + +
26. Deivanathan 49 M 10.8 79.7 36.8 2.165 +
27. Krishnamoorthy 54 M 11.6 69.6 23.4 2.97
28. Palaniyappan 53 M 7.8 64.3 34.3 1.87 +
29. Nallayaian 59 M 6.6 68.2 14.7 4.65 + +
30. Praveen 36 M 8.9 63.5 29.6 2.14 +
31. Mohammed Shiek 52 M 8.3 59.9 21.9 2.735 + +
32. Elumalai 68 M 4.7 62.7 28.5 2.2 + +
33. Saravaanan 33 M 5.9 65.8 33.6 1.95 +
34. Palani 62 M 11.8 92.3 5.1 18.09 + + +
35. Antony 70 M 6.8 61.5 39.7 1.54 +
36. Samuel 46 M 7.6 67.8 39.7 1.70 +
37. Raja 51 M 8.3 70.1 15.2 4.61 + +
38. Kaliathal 41 F 10.7 66.2 29.8 2.22
39. Karupu 53 M 4.8 62.1 17.7 3.50 +
40. Parvathy 64 F 5.9 43.8 41.5 1.055
41. Paramasivan 56 M 4.9 49.5 36.2 1.362 +
42. Kaliyappan 42 M 11.8 84.0 10.7 7.85 + + +
43. Praveen 36 M 5.7 48.5 29.4 1.64 +
44. Mohammed Ali 61 M 5.6 47.5 36.8 1.290 +
45. George 69 M 4.8 78.9 14.4 5.47 + +
46. Kannagi 64 F 8.6 59.2 20.6 2.87 +
47. Stephen 37 M 7.0 48.5 38.2 1.26 +
48. Arivalaghan 56 M 5.9 78.6 9.9 7.93 + + +
49. Meena 48 F 6.7 45.8 36.2 1.26
50. Kannappan 46 M 7.3 41.8 28.4 1.471 +
51. Anandakumar 54 M 8.1 73 11.3 6.46 + +
52. Siluvairaj 59 M 10.7 49.8 29.4 1.69 +
53. Siva 40 M 6.9 75.7 14.2 5.3 + +
54. Jose 67 M 7.1 55.4 17.5 3.16 +
55. Tamilarasan 55 M 9.2 56.3 29.8 1.889 +
56. Velmurugan 41 M 10.1 59.8 27.8 2.15 +
57. Vellaiyan 49 M 5.9 58.4 29.4 1.98 + +
58. Mohammed 57 M 6.3 69.2 18.4 3.76 +
Rafique
59. Haseena 49 F 8.4 55.26 35.12 1.57
60. Lilly 53 F 7.9 53.29 32.62 1.633 + +
61. Sanjeevi 55 M 4.9 57.25 28.5 2.08 +
62. Prakash 33 M 8.3 60.82 30.12 2.019 +
63. Zaheer Hussain 49 M 6.2 72.6 13.O 5.58 + +
64. Mariammal 60 F 4.7 54.18 27.4 1.97 +
65. Selvakumar 37 M 5.7 75.2 17.6 4.25 + +
66. Kannappan 46 M 6.8 65.3 28.9 2.259 +
67. Fathima 56 F 4.9 64.3 16.4 3.92 + +
68. Petchiyammal 68 M 11.7 68.7 29.8 2.3O
69. Murugappan 70 M 10.5 67.52 28.74 2.34 +
70. Nallasamy 65 M 5.8 82.9 11.8 7.02 + + +
71. Chellathai 56 F 6.7 67.46 26.23 2.571
72. Chandiran 49 M 7.3 84.2 8.9 9.4 + +
73. Prabhu 31 M 5.7 67.1 18.6 3.6 + + +
74. Rajkumar 62 M 5,9 63.12 35.6 1.77 +
75. Chinnathai 65 F 9.7 62.1 8.4 7.35
76. Veeran 57 M 6.2 66.73 25.2 2.64 + + +
77. Vetrivel 41 M 4.8 66.3 16.2 4.09 + +
78. Paraman 57 M 6.4 74.8 41.2 1.81 +
79. Kumutha 64 F 8.5 79.0 40.5 1.95 + +
80. Packianathan 46 M 9.3 72.3 18.4 3.92 +
81. Vinoth 34 M 11.3 76.2 37.5 2.03 +
82. Manoharan 48 M 8.6 74.2 31.2 2.378
83. Annammal 60 F 7.5 76.5 16.5 4.69 + +
84. Catherine 56 F 5.8 77.8 30.5 2.55
85. Suryakumar 39 M 6.2 74.6 35.8 2.08 +
86. Veeraiyammal 52 F 4.8 72.6 19.2 3.78 + +
87. Kaliammal 59 F 9.6 78.31 29.81 2.626
88. Chelladurai 63 M 8.0 79.52 30.57 2.601 +
89. Subash 36 M 11.8 81.2 17.3 4.69 + + +
90. Ponnan 60 M 5.8 45.61 32.14 1.419
91. Periyanayagi 49 F 11.8 47.27 24.12 1.959
92. Marrappan 61 M 10.5 42.15 20.14 2.09 + +
93. Dhawoodali 56 M 6.4 46.78 22.98 2.03 +
94. Mohan 44 M 7.3 43.23 21.7 2.02 +
95. Johnson 55 M 11.9 66.8 15.2 4.39 + + +
96. Aishwarya 46 F 10.7 42.23 20.54 2.055
97. Periyasamy 53 M 5.7 47.58 32.44 1.48
98. Karupathal 65 F 11.1 60.5 14.3 4.2 + +
99. Thirupathi 61 M 10.2 48.17 41.25 1.16
100. Packianathan 35 M 4.6 74.7 39.6 1.88