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Theory of relativity

Two-dimensional projection of a three-dimensional

analogy of spacetime curvature described in general
relativity
The theory of relativity usually
encompasses two interrelated theories by
Albert Einstein: special relativity and
general relativity.[1] Special relativity
applies to all physical phenomena in the
absence of gravity. General relativity
explains the law of gravitation and its
relation to other forces of nature.[2] It
applies to the cosmological and
astrophysical realm, including
astronomy.[3]
The theory transformed theoretical
physics and astronomy during the 20th
century, superseding a 200-year-old theory
of mechanics created primarily by Isaac
Newton.[3][4][5] It introduced concepts
including spacetime as a unified entity of
space and time, relativity of simultaneity,
kinematic and gravitational time dilation,
and length contraction. In the field of
physics, relativity improved the science of
elementary particles and their
fundamental interactions, along with
ushering in the nuclear age. With relativity,
cosmology and astrophysics predicted
extraordinary astronomical phenomena
such as neutron stars, black holes, and
gravitational waves.[3][4][5]

Development and acceptance

Albert Einstein published the theory of
special relativity in 1905, building on many
theoretical results and empirical findings
obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik
Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. Max
Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others
did subsequent work.

Einstein developed general relativity

between 1907 and 1915, with
contributions by many others after 1915.
The final form of general relativity was
published in 1916.[3]

The term "theory of relativity" was based

on the expression "relative theory"
(German: Relativtheorie) used in 1906 by
Planck, who emphasized how the theory
uses the principle of relativity. In the
discussion section of the same paper,
Alfred Bucherer used for the first time the
expression "theory of relativity" (German:
Relativitätstheorie).[6][7]

By the 1920s, the physics community

understood and accepted special
relativity.[8] It rapidly became a significant
and necessary tool for theorists and
experimentalists in the new fields of
atomic physics, nuclear physics, and
quantum mechanics.
By comparison, general relativity did not
appear to be as useful, beyond making
minor corrections to predictions of
Newtonian gravitation theory.[3] It seemed
to offer little potential for experimental
test, as most of its assertions were on an
astronomical scale. Its mathematics
seemed difficult and fully understandable
only by a small number of people. Around
1960, general relativity became central to
physics and astronomy. New
mathematical techniques to apply to
general relativity streamlined calculations
and made its concepts more easily
visualized. As astronomical phenomena
were discovered, such as quasars (1963),
the 3-kelvin microwave background
radiation (1965), pulsars (1967), and the
first black hole candidates (1981),[3] the
theory explained their attributes, and
measurement of them further confirmed
the theory.

Special relativity
Special relativity is a theory of the
structure of spacetime. It was introduced
in Einstein's 1905 paper "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (for
the contributions of many other physicists
see History of special relativity). Special
relativity is based on two postulates which
are contradictory in classical mechanics:

1. The laws of physics are the same for

all observers in any inertial frame of
reference relative to one another
(principle of relativity).
 2. The speed of light in a vacuum is the
same for all observers, regardless of
their relative motion or of the motion
of the light source.

The resultant theory copes with

experiment better than classical
mechanics. For instance, postulate 2
explains the results of the Michelson–
Morley experiment. Moreover, the theory
has many surprising and counterintuitive
consequences. Some of these are:
Relativity of simultaneity: Two events,
simultaneous for one observer, may not
be simultaneous for another observer if
the observers are in relative motion.
Time dilation: Moving clocks are
measured to tick more slowly than an
observer's "stationary" clock.
Length contraction: Objects are
measured to be shortened in the
direction that they are moving with
respect to the observer.
Maximum speed is finite: No physical
object, message or field line can travel
faster than the speed of light in a
vacuum.
The effect of Gravity can only travel
through space at the speed of light,
not faster or instantaneously.
Mass–energy equivalence: E = mc2,
energy and mass are equivalent and
transmutable.
Relativistic mass, idea used by some
researchers.[9]
The defining feature of special relativity is
the replacement of the Galilean
transformations of classical mechanics by
the Lorentz transformations. (See
Maxwell's equations of
electromagnetism).

General relativity
General relativity is a theory of gravitation
developed by Einstein in the years 1907–
1915. The development of general
relativity began with the equivalence
principle, under which the states of
accelerated motion and being at rest in a
gravitational field (for example, when
standing on the surface of the Earth) are
physically identical. The upshot of this is
that free fall is inertial motion: an object in
free fall is falling because that is how
objects move when there is no force being
exerted on them, instead of this being due
to the force of gravity as is the case in
classical mechanics. This is incompatible
with classical mechanics and special
relativity because in those theories
inertially moving objects cannot accelerate
with respect to each other, but objects in
free fall do so. To resolve this difficulty
Einstein first proposed that spacetime is
curved. In 1915, he devised the Einstein
field equations which relate the curvature
of spacetime with the mass, energy, and
any momentum within it.

Some of the consequences of general

relativity are:
Gravitational time dilation: Clocks run
slower in deeper gravitational wells.[10]
Precession: Orbits precess in a way
unexpected in Newton's theory of
gravity. (This has been observed in the
orbit of Mercury and in binary pulsars).
Light deflection: Rays of light bend in
the presence of a gravitational field
Frame-dragging: Rotating masses "drag
along" the spacetime around them.
Metric expansion of space: the universe
is expanding, and the far parts of it are
 moving away from us faster than the
speed of light.

Technically, general relativity is a theory of

gravitation whose defining feature is its
use of the Einstein field equations. The
solutions of the field equations are metric
tensors which define the topology of the
spacetime and how objects move
inertially.

Experimental evidence
Einstein stated that the theory of relativity
belongs to a class of "principle-theories".
As such, it employs an analytic method,
which means that the elements of this
theory are not based on hypothesis but on
empirical discovery. By observing natural
processes, we understand their general
characteristics, devise mathematical
models to describe what we observed, and
by analytical means we deduce the
necessary conditions that have to be
satisfied. Measurement of separate events
must satisfy these conditions and match
the theory's conclusions.[2]

Tests of special relativity

A diagram of the Michelson–Morley experiment

Relativity is a falsifiable theory: It makes
predictions that can be tested by
experiment. In the case of special
relativity, these include the principle of
relativity, the constancy of the speed of
light, and time dilation.[11] The predictions
of special relativity have been confirmed in
numerous tests since Einstein published
his paper in 1905, but three experiments
conducted between 1881 and 1938 were
critical to its validation. These are the
Michelson–Morley experiment, the
Kennedy–Thorndike experiment, and the
Ives–Stilwell experiment. Einstein derived
the Lorentz transformations from first
principles in 1905, but these three
experiments allow the transformations to
be induced from experimental evidence.

Maxwell's equations—the foundation of

classical electromagnetism—describe light
as a wave that moves with a characteristic
velocity. The modern view is that light
needs no medium of transmission, but
Maxwell and his contemporaries were
convinced that light waves were
propagated in a medium, analogous to
sound propagating in air, and ripples
propagating on the surface of a pond. This
hypothetical medium was called the
luminiferous aether, at rest relative to the
"fixed stars" and through which the Earth
moves. Fresnel's partial ether dragging
hypothesis ruled out the measurement of
first-order (v/c) effects, and although
observations of second-order effects
(v2/c2) were possible in principle, Maxwell
thought they were too small to be detected
with then-current technology.[12][13]

The Michelson–Morley experiment was

designed to detect second-order effects of
the "aether wind"—the motion of the aether
relative to the earth. Michelson designed
an instrument called the Michelson
interferometer to accomplish this. The
apparatus was more than accurate enough
to detect the expected effects, but he
obtained a null result when the first
experiment was conducted in 1881,[14] and
again in 1887.[15] Although the failure to
detect an aether wind was a
disappointment, the results were accepted
by the scientific community.[13] In an
attempt to salvage the aether paradigm,
FitzGerald and Lorentz independently
created an ad hoc hypothesis in which the
length of material bodies changes
according to their motion through the
aether.[16] This was the origin of
FitzGerald–Lorentz contraction, and their
hypothesis had no theoretical basis. The
interpretation of the null result of the
Michelson–Morley experiment is that the
round-trip travel time for light is isotropic
(independent of direction), but the result
alone is not enough to discount the theory
of the aether or validate the predictions of
special relativity.[17][18]

The Kennedy–Thorndike experiment shown with

interference fringes.

While the Michelson–Morley experiment

showed that the velocity of light is
isotropic, it said nothing about how the
magnitude of the velocity changed (if at
all) in different inertial frames. The
Kennedy–Thorndike experiment was
designed to do that, and was first
performed in 1932 by Roy Kennedy and
Edward Thorndike.[19] They obtained a null
result, and concluded that "there is no
effect ... unless the velocity of the solar
system in space is no more than about
half that of the earth in its orbit".[18][20]
That possibility was thought to be too
coincidental to provide an acceptable
explanation, so from the null result of their
experiment it was concluded that the
round-trip time for light is the same in all
inertial reference frames.[17][18]

The Ives–Stilwell experiment was carried

out by Herbert Ives and G.R. Stilwell first in
1938[21] and with better accuracy in
1941.[22] It was designed to test the
transverse Doppler effect – the redshift of
light from a moving source in a direction
perpendicular to its velocity—which had
been predicted by Einstein in 1905. The
strategy was to compare observed
Doppler shifts with what was predicted by
classical theory, and look for a Lorentz
factor correction. Such a correction was
observed, from which was concluded that
the frequency of a moving atomic clock is
altered according to special relativity.[17][18]
Those classic experiments have been
repeated many times with increased
precision. Other experiments include, for
instance, relativistic energy and
momentum increase at high velocities,
experimental testing of time dilation, and
modern searches for Lorentz violations.

Tests of general relativity

General relativity has also been confirmed

many times, the classic experiments being
the perihelion precession of Mercury's
orbit, the deflection of light by the Sun, and
the gravitational redshift of light. Other
tests confirmed the equivalence principle
and frame dragging.

Modern applications
Far from being simply of theoretical
interest, relativistic effects are important
practical engineering concerns. Satellite-
based measurement needs to take into
account relativistic effects, as each
satellite is in motion relative to an Earth-
bound user and is thus in a different frame
of reference under the theory of relativity.
Global positioning systems such as GPS,
GLONASS, and Galileo, must account for
all of the relativistic effects, such as the
consequences of Earth's gravitational field,
in order to work with precision.[23] This is
also the case in the high-precision
measurement of time.[24] Instruments
ranging from electron microscopes to
particle accelerators would not work if
relativistic considerations were omitted.

See also
Doubly special relativity
Galilean invariance
General relativity references
Scale relativity
Special relativity references

References
1. Einstein A. (1916), Relativity: The
Special and General Theory 
(Translation 1920), New York: H. Holt
and Company
2. Einstein, Albert (November 28, 1919).
"Time, Space, and Gravitation"  . The
Times.
3. Will, Clifford M (2010). "Relativity" .
Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia.
Retrieved 2010-08-01.
4. Will, Clifford M (2010). "Space-Time
Continuum" . Grolier Multimedia
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
5. Will, Clifford M (2010). "Fitzgerald–
Lorentz contraction" . Grolier
Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved
2010-08-01.
6. Planck, Max (1906), "Die
Kaufmannschen Messungen der
Ablenkbarkeit der β-Strahlen in ihrer
Bedeutung für die Dynamik der
Elektronen (The Measurements of
Kaufmann on the Deflectability of β-
Rays in their Importance for the
Dynamics of the Electrons)"  ,
Physikalische Zeitschrift, 7: 753–761
7. Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einstein's
special theory of relativity. Emergence
(1905) and early interpretation (1905–
1911), Reading: Addison–Wesley,
ISBN 978-0-201-04679-3
8. Hey, Anthony J.G.; Walters, Patrick
(2003). The New Quantum Universe
(illustrated, revised ed.). Cambridge
University Press. p. 227.
Bibcode:2003nqu..book.....H .
ISBN 978-0-521-56457-1.
 9. Greene, Brian. "The Theory of
Relativity, Then and Now" . Retrieved
2015-09-26.
10. Feynman, Richard Phillips; Morínigo,
Fernando B.; Wagner, William; Pines,
David; Hatfield, Brian (2002). Feynman
Lectures on Gravitation . West view
Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-8133-4038-8.,
Lecture 5
11. Roberts, T; Schleif, S; Dlugosz, JM
(ed.) (2007). "What is the experimental
basis of Special Relativity?" . Usenet
Physics FAQ. University of California,
Riverside. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
12. Maxwell, James Clerk (1880), "On a
Possible Mode of Detecting a Motion
of the Solar System through the
Luminiferous Ether"  , Nature, 21 (535):
314–315,
Bibcode:1880Natur..21S.314. ,
doi:10.1038/021314c0
13. Pais, Abraham (1982). "Subtle is the
Lord ...": The Science and the Life of
Albert Einstein (1st ed.). Oxford:
Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 111–113 .
ISBN 978-0-19-280672-7.
14. Michelson, Albert A. (1881). "The
Relative Motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous Ether"  . American
Journal of Science. 22 (128): 120–
129. Bibcode:1881AmJS...22..120M .
doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-22.128.120 .
15. Michelson, Albert A. & Morley, Edward
W. (1887). "On the Relative Motion of
the Earth and the Luminiferous
Ether"  . American Journal of Science.
34 (203): 333–345.
Bibcode:1887AmJS...34..333M .
doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-34.203.333 .
16. Pais, Abraham (1982). "Subtle is the
Lord ...": The Science and the Life of
Albert Einstein (1st ed.). Oxford:
Oxford Univ. Press. p. 122 . ISBN 978-
0-19-280672-7.
17. Robertson, H.P. (July 1949). "Postulate
versus Observation in the Special
Theory of Relativity" (PDF). Reviews of
Modern Physics. 21 (3): 378–382.
Bibcode:1949RvMP...21..378R .
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.378 .
18. Taylor, Edwin F.; John Archibald
Wheeler (1992). Spacetime physics:
Introduction to Special Relativity (2nd
ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 84–
88. ISBN 978-0-7167-2327-1.
19. Kennedy, R.J.; Thorndike, E.M. (1932).
"Experimental Establishment of the
Relativity of Time". Physical Review.
42 (3): 400–418.
Bibcode:1932PhRv...42..400K .
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.42.400 .
20. Robertson, H.P. (July 1949). "Postulate
versus Observation in the Special
Theory of Relativity" (PDF). Reviews of
Modern Physics. 21 (3): 381.
Bibcode:1949RvMP...21..378R .
doi:10.1103/revmodphys.21.378 .
21. Ives, H.E.; Stilwell, G.R. (1938). "An
experimental study of the rate of a
moving atomic clock". Journal of the
Optical Society of America. 28 (7):
215. Bibcode:1938JOSA...28..215I .
doi:10.1364/JOSA.28.000215 .
22. Ives, H.E.; Stilwell, G.R. (1941). "An
experimental study of the rate of a
moving atomic clock. II". Journal of
the Optical Society of America. 31 (5):
369. Bibcode:1941JOSA...31..369I .
doi:10.1364/JOSA.31.000369 .
23. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from
the original (PDF) on 2015-11-05.
Retrieved 2015-12-09.
24. Francis, S.; B. Ramsey; S. Stein; Leitner,
J.; Moreau, J.M.; Burns, R.; Nelson,
R.A.; Bartholomew, T.R.; Gifford, A.
(2002). "Timekeeping and Time
Dissemination in a Distributed Space-
Based Clock Ensemble" (PDF).
Proceedings 34th Annual Precise Time
and Time Interval (PTTI) Systems and
Applications Meeting: 201–214.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 17
February 2013. Retrieved 14 April
2013.
Further reading
Einstein, Albert (2005). Relativity: The
Special and General Theory. Translated
by Robert W. Lawson (The masterpiece
science ed.). New York: Pi Press.
ISBN 978-0-13-186261-6.
Einstein, Albert (1920). Relativity: The
Special and General Theory (PDF). Henry
Holt and Company.
Einstein, Albert; trans. Schilpp; Paul
Arthur (1979). Albert Einstein,
Autobiographical Notes (A Centennial
ed.). La Salle, IL: Open Court Publishing
Co. ISBN 978-0-87548-352-8.
Einstein, Albert (2009). Einstein's Essays
in Science. Translated by Alan Harris
(Dover ed.). Mineola, NY: Dover
Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-47011-5.
Einstein, Albert (1956) [1922]. The
Meaning of Relativity (5 ed.). Princeton
University Press.
The Meaning of Relativity Albert
Einstein: Four lectures delivered at
Princeton University, May 1921
 How I created the theory of relativity
Albert Einstein, December 14, 1922;
Physics Today August 1982
Relativity Sidney Perkowitz
Encyclopædia Britannica

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