The Burial Theme in Moche Iconography

Christopher Donnan and Donna McClelland

DUMBARTON OAKS PRE- COLUMBIAN ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY | 21

STUDIES IN PRE-COLUMBIAN ART & ARCHAEOLOGY NUMBER TWENTY-ONE

THE BURIAL THEME IN

MOCHE ICONOGRAPHY

CHRISTOPHER B. DONNAN

donna McClelland

Dumbarton Oaks Trustees for Harvard Univers

 © 1979
Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University,
Washington, D.C.

All rights reserved.

Library of Congress catalog number 79-63727 ISBN

978-0-88402-084-4

Copyright © 1979 by Dumbarton Oaks

Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D. C.
Library of Congress catalog number 79-63727
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to express our appreciation to the

following individuals who contributed to this re-
search: Yoshitaro Amano, Lawrence Dawson, Guil-
lermo Ganoza, Alan Lapiner, Diane Latham, Herbert
Lucas, Luis Lumbreras, Donald McClelland, Dorothy
Menzel, Oscar Rodriguez, John Rowe, and Alan
Sawyer.
 The Burial Theme in Moche Iconography

The Moche Kingdom, which flourished on the found, or of their archaeological associations. One of
north coast of Peru between 100 B.C. and a.d. 700, the pieces (Figs. 9, 10), however, is said to have been
produced one of the most remarkable art styles of found at Huaca Moro in the Jequetepeque Valley.
Pre-Columbian America. Although the Moche peo- We were able to make a complete photographic
ple had no writing system, they left a vivid artistic record of five of the six vessels (Figs. 1-10). Roll-out
record of their activities and their environment. Their drawings were made of the chamber designs on these
art illustrates their clothing, architecture, implements, five, omitting the background filler elements, such as
supernatural beings, and a multitude of activities such circles and dots, so that the depiction would stand out
as warfare, ceremony, and hunting. Although Moche more clearly. Only two photographs of the sixth ves-
art gives the impression of having an almost infinite sel (Figs. 11,12) were available. Drawings were made
variety of subject matter, analysis of a large sample of from these photographs, again leaving out the back-
it has suggested that it is limited to the representation ground filler elements for clarity. Five of the vessels
of a small number of specific events, or activities, (Figs. 1, 5, 8, 9, 12) are in a remarkably good state of
which are referred to as themes (Donnan 1975). One preservation; they exhibit no evidence of major re-
of the most provocative of these themes has recently construction or restoration. Some of the clay slip has
been identified on the basis of an extremely complex spalled off the chamber of the other vessel (Fig. 4),
and detailed scene, painted on the chambers of six and thus a portion of the original design is missing.
different ceramic bottles. Since the scene painted on Although the paintings on these six bottles clearly
each of the bottles depicts a burial, we refer to it as the portray the same related events, certain aspects of de-
Burial Theme. sign, art canons, and composition are unique to each
The six examples of the Burial Theme are among vessel. By comparing the similarities and differences,
the most complex representations ever produced by we have learned which features are always shown,
Moche artists. Analysis of these representations pro- and which could be omitted or greatly altered by the
vides a number of important insights into the nature individual artist. Having the six examples has thus
of Moche iconography, the development of Moche been crucial in deciphering the basic nature of the
artistic canons, and various aspects of Moche ritual. Burial Theme.
Moreover, it generates some rather profound impli- The Moche style can be divided into five sequen-
cations about the potential of utilizing ethnohistoric tial phases, defined on the basis of changes in the form
documents to reconstruct the Pre-Columbian past. and decoration of ceramic vessels. These phases are
The six examples of the Burial Theme are located numbered I through V, with Phase V being the latest.
in various public museums and private collections. All of the bottles with representations of the Burial
None of them was excavated archaeologically, and Theme are Phase V.
thus there is no good evidence of where they were

5
 Activities 37 are typical representations of Iguana and Wrinkle
Face in fineline drawing.2 Figure 17 is a Phase IV rep-
Each of the six bottles in our sample depicts four dis-
resentation, while Figures 36-37 are Phase V. Iguana
tinct activities: burial, assembly, conch-shell transfer,
and Wrinkle Face are also represented in modeled
and sacrifice. The key to separating the complete
form (Figs. 18, 19). Their representation in Moche art
drawing into these four activities is the set of double
lines found on each bottle. These double lines are con- suggests that they are specific individuals who fre-
quently accompany one another, and who engage in a
sistently used to circumscribe the four activities, and
variety of activities.
their importance to understanding the overall depic-
In the burial activity (Fig. 13), Iguana and Wrinkle
tion cannot be overemphasized. To make it easier to
Face are using ropes to lower a long horizontal casket
visualize the four activities, the roll-out drawing in
into a grave shaft. The casket is shown at the bottom
Figure 2 has been separated into its four components,
of the scene, and it usually has a face drawn on one
and each is shown individually in Figures 13-16. Since
end. As will be discussed below, this casket conforms
the four activities provide the basic structure for un-
to the shape of wicker caskets that have been exca-
derstanding the Burial Theme, we will analyze each
vated in Moche graves, and the face may be a metal
of them separately.
mask. A variety of grave goods surrounds the casket
BURIAL
and extends above, between the ropes. In Figure 3,
One of the activities shown on each of the five anthropomorphized birds are substituted for Iguana
and Wrinkle Face, apparently without changing the
bottles is burial (Fig. 13). There are two major figures
nature of the activity.
in the upper part of this scene: an anthropomorphized
In four of the examples (Figs. 5-12), Iguana holds a
iguana and an individual with lines on his face that
llama with a rope. A llama with a rope around its
look like wrinkles. These two figures have extremely
neck is also being held by Wrinkle Face in Figure 6.
important roles in the Burial Theme. We will refer to
These llamas may have been used to transport the
them as Iguana and Wrinkle Face.1 Iguana has a
casket and/or burial goods to the grave site. Alterna-
lizardlike face and a long pointed tail with serrations
tively, they may have been intended for sacrifice and
along the upper edge. He generally has a sashlike bag
tied over his shoulder or around his waist and wears a inclusion in the grave.3 The animals in front of both
Iguana and Wrinkle Face in Figure 6 are dogs. These
bird headdress. He almost invariably has an almond-
dogs frequently accompany Iguana and Wrinkle Face,
shaped eye, which seems to be pendant from the bot-
and probably were not sacrificed and interred.
tom edge of his headdress.
Wrinkle Face has a round rather than an almond- The details of the burial conform closely to what is
known archaeologically about Moche burial prac-
shaped eye, and the eye is not contiguous to the head-
tices. Some elaborate Moche burials are in deep, nar-
dress. He generally wears a short-sleeved shirt with a
row grave pits (Donnan and Mackey 1978; Strong
step design on the front. The shirt is cinched at the
and Evans 1952: 151), and lowering a casket to the
waist with a long belt or sash, which terminates in
bottom of one of these would have been practically
serpent heads. He invariably wears a feline headdress.
impossible without the use of ropes. The form of the
Iguana and Wrinkle Face are major figures in
casket itself is reminiscent of some that have been
Moche art, and often appear together. Figures 17, 36-

2 The scene in Figure 17 is remarkably similar to one pub-

1 Moche artists depict many people with what appear to be lished by Lavallee (1970: PI.78A), from a bottle in the Dum-
wrinkles on their faces, and they should not be confused with barton Oaks Collection, Washington, D.C.
this particular individual. The term Wrinkle Face, as used in 3 Many Moche graves containing llama remains have been
this study, refers only to those individuals who combine excavated, indicating that the Moche people placed parts of
most, if not all, of the characteristics which follow. llamas in graves as part of the burial goods.

6
found in Moche graves. The casket of the "Warrior- identify from the fineline drawings. The object to the
Priest" measured 2.35 meters long, .57 meters wide, left of the casket in Figure 2 may be an elaborately
and .35 meters high, and had a lid which was tied woven textile, while the object to the right may be a
shut with cordage (ibid.: 153). Its rigid structure of necklace or collar of beads. Particularly puzzling are
reinforced heavy canes would not have bowed when the oblong objects, with lines across their width, in
it was lowered with ropes into the grave, even with rows above the right side of the coffin in Figures 7 and
the human body inside. The casket was wrapped with 11. Nothing of a similar form has yet been reported
twilled cloth, which covered the cane. This may ex- from a Moche burial. However, other Moche V ves-
plain why the artists did not show the cane in draw- sels illustrate similar objects; figures wearing a net
ing the caskets. shirt and seated in tule boats (Figs. 23-25, 27, 28) are
The faces shown on the caskets in Figures 2, 6, 7, frequently shown with these oblong objects on their
and 10 may well be hammered metal masks. Such torsos (Figs. 24, 25).
masks were made of copper and gold by Moche ASSEMBLY
craftsmen (Fig. 20). If the faces on these caskets are
metal masks, it would appear that they are somehow A second activity shown on each of the five bo
attached to the outside of the casket. They would in our sample is what might best be termed assem
probably have been attached to the lid or upper sur- (Fig. 14). It is divided in the middle by the ropes
face; however, the artists may have rotated the casket lower the casket. The assembly activity invol
90° to make the mask visible.4 grouping of human, animal, and anthropomorph
The grave goods depicted on the Burial Theme figures. The primary figures, judging from their
vessels are nearly all items frequently found in Moche size, are Iguana and Wrinkle Face. Each is sh
graves. Ceramic vessels - stirrup-spout bottles, jars, holding a stafflike object - possibly a rattle. Figu
and pedestal-base bowls - are particularly common. is a modeled representation of Iguana holding a
The shallow bowls filled with food are less common. lar staff. An anthropomorphized feline in Figur
They are made of gourd, and would tend to decom- and a human figure in Figure 1 1 have been subst
pose through time. However, gourd bowls filled with for Wrinkle Face, apparently without changing
corn and beans have been reported from one of the nature of the activity.
better-preserved Moche graves (Strong and Evans In horizontal bands above Iguana and Wrin
1952: 153). The shallow gourd bowls shown in the Face are various smaller figures holding long ve
drawings generally appear to be stacked in pairs. This staffs in front of them. Each faces the center of
was apparently the way gourd bowls were presented scene.5 On one side are human figures, all of wh
in ceremonial contexts, with the stacked gourds usu-
ally tied together on one side (Figs. 21, 22). Conch
5 Dorothy Menzel (personal communication) has
shells are included among the grave goods in Figures
gested that the assembly section may reflect Huari inf
2, 3, and 6. Although there are no reports of conch She has stated that it "... is remarkably similar to a
shells actually having been found in Moche graves, Huari arrangement (and also Tiahuanaco). On Huar
they might have been placed in the graves of some Conchopata-style) offering urns of Middle Horizon l
ures I refer to as 'Angel' figures, that is, the 'Feline-h
high-status individuals. Angel,' are shown running toward a central deity figur
Several of the other grave goods are difficult to row, each figure carrying a staff in front and shown in p
each appearing to form a small panel, as in your 'assem
scene. . . . Of course, the Middle Horizon 2 example
Tiahuanaco, the so-called 'Gateway of the Sun lintel,'
4 Turning an object 90° so that it is more recognizable is a a good example. There the figures appear in three row
common feature of Moche fineline drawing (see Donnan as in your design, mythical humans and mythical bird
1976: 24). in alternating rows."

7
 are dressed in long, netlike shirts and wear head- The structure is approached by a set of stairs, sug
dresses apparently made of clipped feathers projecting ing that it is located on the upper part of a high
up from a headband. Each of these figures wears a form or pyramid.
tiered item of attire extending down his back. We Inside the structure is a major figure that we s
will refer to these figures as Net Shirts. refer to as Kneeler, because of his posture. The
The representation of groups of Net Shirts standing pearance of Kneeler can vary much more than th
together in the same scene indicates that they are a Wrinkle Face or Iguana. The only element th
group of people who wear similar garments and per- wears on all six vessels is the crescent-shaped o
form the same roles. It is interesting that Net Shirts ment in his headdress. By itself, the crescent-sh
are not depicted in Moche art until Phase V. During ornament does not constitute a means of identif
that phase they are found in only two contexts: in the Kneeler outside of the Burial Theme vessels, since
Burial Theme and in tule boats. Almost every Moche worn by many different Moche figures. Kneeler
V representation of a tule boat, whether realistic wears a tiered item of attire which extends dow

(Figs. 23, 26-28) or stylized (Figs. 24, 25) has a Net back and is similar to that worn by the Net Sh
Shirt inside it (Cordy-Collins 1977, n.d.). As men- The tiered item of attire is replaced by a wing i
tioned above, some of the most enigmatic of the buri- ures 5 and 6, but, since the wing is also tiered, it
al goods shown around the coffins in the burial activ- be a substitute for the tiered item on the other ve

ity are the oblong objects with lines across their The most distinctive aspect of Kneeler is his p
widths. It is curious that the only representation of ture. A kneeling posture is rarely found in Moch
similar objects in Moche art are on the torsos of Net Inside tule boats, however, figures holding pa
Shirts seated in the tule boats (Figs. 24, 25). More- are frequently shown kneeling (Figs. 26-28). 6
over, the jars above the right side of the casket in Fig- In the Burial Theme, Kneeler is consistently sh
ure 10 are remarkably similar to those shown in tule reaching forward with one hand, which often h
boats (Figs. 26, 28). Possibly both the oblong objects conch shell. Facing him on the stairway belo
and the jars shown adjacent to the casket in the Burial Wrinkle Face and Iguana (Figs. 1-4), Iguana
Theme (Figs. 7, 10, 11) were brought to the grave Net Shirt (Figs. 5-8), or a Net Shirt (Figs. 9, 10)
site by the Net Shirts who are shown standing to one not clear whether Kneeler is giving the conch s
side in the assembly activity. or receiving them.
Opposite the Net Shirts in the assembly are animal In one example, Iguana wears conch shells i
figures. These are depicted either as natural animals or headdress (Figs. 1, 2) and, in two examples (F
as part animal and part human, apparently depending 4), Iguana stands in front of llamas that have b
on the choice of the artist. It is interesting that, of all packs filled with conch shells. One Phase V stir
the animals depicted in Moche art, only felines and spout bottle (Figs. 31,32) depicts this activity in
male deer are found in this context. All of the figures eled form - Iguana wears a conch shell on top o
in the assembly seem to be engaged in a ritual at the bird headdress while leading a llama with a rop
grave site which is performed as part of the burial llama carries rope saddlebags filled with conch
ceremony. and Wrinkle Face lies on top holding a spearthr
in one hand and two spears in the other.
CONCH-SHELL TRANSFER One representation of the conch-shell transfer
5, 6) is unique because a Net Shirt and a small g
The third activity shown on each of the six bottles
in our sample involves the transfer of conch shells
6 When a kneeling paddler is shown in a tule boat on
(Fig. 16). This activity is being conducted
side ofunder the
a bottle, a Net Shirt is usually shown in a tule b
the opposite
gabled roof of a large and very elaborate side of the bottle.
structure.

8
 SACRIFICE
roof structure are positioned behind Kneeler. These
were possibly drawn by the artist to fill the large The fourth activity shown on each of the five
extra space behind Kneeler in this representation. tles in our sample involves sacrifice (Fig. 15
Conch shells are obviously the focus of activity in always located in the area above the conch-shell
conch-shell transfer, and may be related to those seen fer activity. Although most of this scene has s
as part of the grave goods in the burial activity. off of one bottle (Figs. 3,4), and there is limited
Conch-shell monsters are even used to decorate the
mentation of it on another (Figs. 11, 12), Iguan
gabled roof in Figures 1-4. The representations show- Wrinkle Face can be easily recognized. Iguana
ing llamas with pack bags full of conch shells (Figs. a tumi knife in one hand, and may hold a r
1-4, 16, 31, 32), and the large number of conch shells birds in the other. Wrinkle Face stands nearby
drawn in the background, suggest that considerable ing a spearthrower and several spears. On the fa
numbers of shells are involved. Since both iguanas is a splayed, nude female, lying on her back,
and conch shells are native to the coast of Ecuador,
attacked by birds. On the far right is a group o
and not to the north coast of Peru, Iguana may have tied together with rope. These are the same ty
an inherent association with conch shells.
birds seen pecking at the nude female figure
The importation of conch shells from Ecuador to least four of the examples (Figs. 2-4, 7-10), the
Peru is documented to have occurred as early as 900 of birds is held by an anthropomorphized spear
B.C., and appears to continue until the European con- Another feature found in the sacrifice activity
tact in the sixteenth century (Paulsen 1974). Llamas bird on a rack (Figs. 2, 5-10). Again, the bird is
may well have been used as pack animals for trans- lar to those pecking at the nude female figu
porting these shells. Unfortunately, we cannot de- Moche art, there are a number of representatio
termine whether the llamas in the Burial Theme were
individuals tied to racks (Fig. 30). Frequently
used to transport the shells to the gabled structure, or are being pecked by birds. Ethnohistoric sources
are being loaded with shells from the gabled structure cate that this was a form of punishment used by
which they will then take elsewhere. ple living on the north coast of Peru prior to E
The area beneath Kneeler in the conch-shell trans-
pean contact.7
fer activity is outlined with parallel lines, and there-
fore it is possible that this area represents another dis- The six vessels in our sample show the wide ran
tinct activity. We have been unable to define what variation used by Moche artists in reproducing a
that activity is, however, and thus we have included line drawing of the same theme. Although each
it as part of the conch-shell transfer. Small structures six vessels is divided into the same four scenes,
are shown in this area on five of the bottles (Figs. 1-8,
11, 12). The small structures appear to be miniature
or stylized versions of the major structure above. In
7 Father Antonio de la Calancha states that the nativ
two instances (Figs. 1, 2, 5, 6), a row of seated figures ple of the north coast of Peru were preoccupied with s
replaces a row of small structures. The seated figures and that the punishment of thieves was a religious as w
in Figures 5 and 6 are Net Shirts. In Figures 1 and 2 civil matter, as if property ownership were a divine
Diviners were consulted and sacrifices were made to the
they are probably females wearing long dresses and Moon and to the constellation of Pata (our constellation
shawls. Secondary figures similar to the latter are fre- Orion) to entreat their aid in finding thieves. When the moon
quently shown in Moche art, and are usually associ- was dark, they said that it was in the other world, punishing
thieves. In the constellation of Pata (Orion), the row of three
ated with gabled roof structures.
stars (Orion's Belt) was seen as a thief flanked by emissaries of
the moon who were sent to feed him to the buzzards. The
latter were represented by the four stars immediately below
Orion's Belt (Calancha 1638: Book in, 553).

9
elements vary from vessel to vessel. There are omis- in the depiction of the major figure, Kneeler, seated
sions and substitutions of both major figures and under the gabled roof. The Phase IV Moche artistic
minor elements, such as background objects. canons for drawing a human figure have been fol-
A comparison of the details - such as the hands of lowed by the artists, i.e., a front view of the chest and
the same figure - on the vessels in Figures 9-12 sug- a profile view of the rest of the body (Donnan 1976:
gests that they were created by the same artist. These 24). In Figures 5 and 6, Kneeler's chest is drawn in
two vessels provide an unusual opportunity to ex- profile (as are the chests of the two figures wearing
amine the range of variation on a single theme by an net shirts). In Figures 7 and 8, Kneeler's profile chest
individual artist. The two vessels vary in many de- is greatly exaggerated, and, in Figures 9-11, his torso
tails. For example, the artist placed jars in the grave has been reduced to a U-shape.
on the vessel depicted in Figure 10, whereas he drew The depiction of the crescent-shaped ornament in
the oblong objects instead of jars on that in Figures 11 Kneeler's headdress reflects the same chronological
and 12. In Figures 10 and 11, in the assembly activity, sequence. In Figures 1-4, the ornament is similar to
he replaced Wrinkle Face with another figure. He Phase IV fineline drawings, but, in Figures 5-11, the
drew an anthropomorphized feline on the vessel in tips of the crescent broaden. In Figures 9-11, the cres-
Figure 10 and a Net Shirt on the one in Figure 11. In cent assumes a shape which, although aberrant for the
the conch-shell transfer activity, the area beneath Moche style, is similar to the form of crescents de-
Kneeler provides another interesting variation. The picted in the Chimu art style, which succeeds the
artist drew small structures in this area on the pot de- Moche style on the north coast of Peru. The way in
picted in Figure 11, structures similar to those de- which the hands are drawn on the major figures fur-
picted in Figures 1-8. On the vessel in Figures 9 and ther supports the chronological sequence of the bot-
10, however, he filled the area with geometric de- tles as they are arranged in Figures 1-12.
signs and created a stepped dais similar to those in The monkeys modeled on the stirrup spout of the
Figures 33-35. The range of variation between these vessel in Figure 12 are additional evidence for its
two vessels, and among all six vessels, would indicate placement at the end of the chronological sequence.
that the Moche artists were not slavishly reproducing Modeled figures are not found on the stirrup spouts
a fineline drawing of the Burial Theme, but were of the earlier Moche phases, but are very common on
enjoying a degree of artistic freedom. later Chimu pottery. In this regard, it is interesting to
examine the bottles in Figures 33-37, which are very
similar in form to those in Figures 9 and 12, and
Chronology which have monkeys modeled on their stirrup spouts.
Although all six bottles with depictions of the Burial The vessel in Figures 33-35 is particularly interesting
Theme belong to Phase V of the Moche style, only since the drawing on its chamber shows Iguana and
two appear to have been made by the same artist Wrinkle Face lying in a prone position on top of a
(Figs. 9-12). It is quite possible that the five artists stepped platform. A nearly identical representation is
were not contemporaneous, and that the bottles were found on several double-spout-and-bridge bottles,
made at different times. A chronological sequence for painted with polychrome slip, and generally thought
the six bottles can be suggested, based on the style of to postdate the end of the Moche style.8 Figure 38
painting and the features of the vessel forms. The ves- illustrates one of these vessels, and Figure 39 shows
sels, as shown in Figures 1-12, are arranged in that se- the roll-out of the drawing on its chamber. The two
quence. The vessels in Figures 1-4 are probably the
earliest, since the style of the fineline drawing is most 8 One bottle of this type has been discussed in detail by
similar to that of Phase IV. This is particularly evident John H. Rowe (1942).

10
figures on these double-spout-and-bridge bottles can arate events, which are not occurring at the same time.
be clearly identified as Iguana and Wrinkle Face who, This suggests that the artists were depicting a sequen-
in most examples, are represented with all of their tial narrative of the four activities.
characteristic features. The similarity between the It is difficult, if not impossible, to reconstruct the
drawings on bottles such as that depicted in Figures chronological sequence in which the four activities
38 and 39 and the drawing on the vessel shown in took place. There is, however, some evidence that
Figures 33-35 is evidence that the latter dates to the burial was the most important activity. First, the
end of Moche V, as would the three similar vessels stirrup-spout bottle with monkeys modeled on the
shown in Figures 9-12, 36, and 37. stirrup spout (Figs. 11, 12) has both of the monkeys
From the chronological sequence of the five bot- facing out over one side of the bottle. Presumably,
tles representing the Burial Theme, it appears that the this is the front and most important side, and it is
earliest (Figs. 1, 2) would date to the beginning of significant that the burial activity is centered on this
Phase V, when the artistic canons for fineline repre- side of the chamber. Second, examination of the bot-
sentation were nearly identical to those characteristic tles indicates that the burial activity was drawn on the
of Phase IV. The bottles subsequently define a sequen- bottles first, at least in its overall layout, and then the
tial evolution in the representation of this theme assembly section was added. Only then were the sac-
through what appears to be the very latest part of rifice and conch-shell transfer activities painted, and
Phase V, when not only has the fineline representa- they appear to have been condensed to fill the remain-
tion greatly changed from its earlier style, but also the ing available space. The dominance of the burial and
vessel form has developed features that are clearly assembly sections over sacrifice and conch-shell trans-
antecedent to Chimu pottery. The implications of fer is particularly noticeable in Figures 7 and 10,
this chronological sequence are very important. The where the burial and assembly sections occupy about
sequence, if reliable, offers a basis for dividing Phase V two-thirds of the available space.
into subphases on the basis of both the evolution of If burial and assembly are the primary activities,
fineline drawing and the evolution of vessel form. how might they have been related to the conch-shell
Such a division would be particularly useful, since the transfer and sacrifice activities shown on the opposite
end of the Moche style and the transition into the side of the bottle? One explanation is suggested by the
earlier part of the Chimu style constitute an extreme- writings of Father Antonio de la Calancha, a little-
ly important problem in Andean culture history, one known Augustinian monk who lived on the north
whose solution has been particularly elusive because coast of Peru during the early part of the seventeenth
of the inability of scholars to develop a reliable chro- century. He wrote an account of the native customs
nology. of that area, which was published in Spain in 1638.
In that account, Calancha states that, prior to the ar-
rival of Europeans, curers (Oquetlupuc) were public
Interpretation
officials of high privilege, and were paid a regular
It is clear that the Burial Theme consists of at least wage by the state. If a curer lost a patient through
four distinct activities: burial, assembly, conch-shell ignorance, however, he was put to death by beating
transfer, and sacrifice. The artists who painted the and stoning. His body was tied by a rope to that of
bottles consistently used parallel lines to separate these his dead patient, and the latter was buried. The curer,
four activities. Moreover, since Iguana and Wrinkle however, was left above the ground to be eaten by
Face are specific individuals, their presence in each of birds (Calancha 1638: Book 111, 556).
the four activities indicates that the activities are sep- There is evidence that some of the curers in Moche

11
 society were women9 (Sharon and Donnan 1974: 52- of the long sequence of cultural development in Peru,
3), and thus it is possible that, in the Burial Theme extending back thousands of years before European
representations, the nude female being consumed by contact. Indeed, it was not until the beginnings of this
birds was a doctor. Although there are no ropes century that an adequate picture of the chronology
shown tying the nude female to the person in the of cultures in the Andean area began to be assembled.
grave, the other details are so similar to those of the Similarly, the native informants who related the oral
practice described by Calancha that it seems fair to traditions to the Spanish chroniclers were more than
suggest that the two may be related. But is it possible a generation removed from the events they were
that the customs described by a Spanish chronicler in describing, and thus in many instances would have
1638 could relate back to an event that happened had little way of knowing exactly how far back in
perhaps a thousand years earlier? time a particular part of the story took place.
Recent archaeological work on the north coast of Since some of the information recorded by Father
Peru has indicated that there was a continuing cultural Calancha was derived from oral traditions that had
tradition in this area that developed at least as early as survived from earlier times, it is quite possible that
the first century B.C. and continued into the Spanish portions of the information contained in his chroni-
colonial period. No major effect on the art style, cle had been carried on not just for the period imme-
architectural pattern, technology, or economic rela- diately prior to Spanish contact, but rather for more
tionships can be attributed to any outside influence. than a thousand years! If so, it is interesting to con-
Many of the customs, beliefs, and religious practices sider what may have been the genesis of such a story.
also appear to have been maintained without signifi- One possibility could be that, when a patient died, it
cant change. was common practice to kill the doctor and have the
It is known that oral traditions were kept by the doctor's body consumed by carnivorous birds. The
Inca at the time of first European contact. "Mythol- five representations of the Burial Theme, however,
ogy, legend, historical romance, and history were are so similar to one another as to suggest that all are
handed down from generation to generation in the representing the same specific occurrence, rather than
form of long poems . . . which were learned word for a generalized practice. It is more likely that we are
word and repeated at public gatherings" (Rowe 1946: witnessing events associated with the burial of one
321). We know that there was a similar practice extremely important individual. On the occurrence
among the native people of the north coast of Peru, of his death and burial, a female, presumably a doctor
and some scholars have even suggested that it was held responsible for the death, was sacrificed and her
from the latter that the Inca obtained their interest in body was consumed by carnivorous birds. These
the preservation of oral traditions (ibid.: 202). events were commemorated by elaborate representa-
It should be pointed out that the Spanish chroni- tions in ceramic art. They may have also entered into
clers, who recorded these oral traditions during the the oral tradition of the local people, who told and
early part of the colonial period, had little awareness retold the story for generations.
If there is a correlation between the Calancha ac-
9 It should be mentioned that there is some archaeological count and the Burial Theme representations, there is,
evidence for the practice of killing females and placing their
of course, no way of knowing whether we are wit-
bodies in, or adjacent to, the grave pit. The famous "Tomb
of the Warrior-Priest" contained two middle-aged females nessing the burial of a real or a fictitious individual.
who had been crowded in at the head and foot of the large Oral traditions frequently develop around entirely
cane casket (Strong and Evans 1952: 152). Another tomb,
which was similar to that of the "Warrior-Priest" had a
fictitious figures, which through time take on an air
female body on the surface of the ground above the burial of
pit reality and are believed in by the people of subse-
(Donnan and Mackey 1978: 208). quent generations. Alternatively, oral traditions can

12
develop around real people, and later be overlaid the Moche Kingdom. We witness the impressive
with so much conscious and unconscious fiction, and burial of the principal figure through the art of the
combined with so many alien elements, that the origi- Moche. Whether real or fictitious, he must have held
nal facts cannot be recovered by any critical analysis.10 an important position to have received such a dis-
Nevertheless, whether the Burial Theme represen- tinguished burial. The stories surrounding his burial
tations are showing an actual event or one that is - elaborate graveside rituals, offerings of rich burial
fictitious, the event must have had a particular im- goods, the transfer of conch shells, and perhaps the
portance to the people living during the later part of unusual circumstances of his death - apparently re-
lated an event that was important during Phase V,
late in the Moche culture sequence. The six complex
10 For good discussions of the difficulties of using oral tra-
dition to reconstruct historical events, see Forsdyke (1964) stirrup-spout bottles serve as testimony to the im-
and de Vries (1963). portance of this event.

ADDENDUM

Shortly after this report had been sent to the The third unusual feature is the fineline drawing
typesetter, a seventh bottle with a fineline representa-that covers the bottom of the bottle (Fig. 44). The
tion of the Burial Theme was located. Since it clearlydrawing illustrates an anthropomorphized bird-war-
relates to the six examples discussed in the report, itrior holding a club and shield in his left hand and
was determined that a note of its existence and severalwhat appears to be a goblet in his right hand. In an
photographs of it (Figs. 40-44) should be included in arc around the head and shoulders, there is a series of
this publication. We are very grateful to Elizabethclubs and shields similar to those painted on the stir-
Benson and Anne-Louise Schaffer for making it pos-rup spout of this bottle.
It should be noted that each of these three features
sible for us to add this section to the original manu-
script. - the hole through the chamber, the modeled figures
This bottle has three features that are not found on in low relief, and the fineline drawing on the bottom
any of the other six. The first is the hole that perfo- of the chamber - are rarely found on Moche ceramic
rates the chamber from front to back at the equator. vessels, although a few rare examples of each do exist.
This hole was made before the bottle was fired, and The fineline drawing of the Burial Theme on the
was built into the chamber with a tube of clay con- chamber of this bottle conforms in nearly all respects
necting both openings so that liquid could be con- to the other six examples, and is consistent with our
tained in the chamber without escaping through the interpretations as stated in the body of the report.
holes. There are, however, a few distinctive features that
The second unusual feature is the pair of low-relief should be noted. The most significant anomaly can
figures placed immediately above the openings of the be seen in Figure 41. The artist apparently lacked
hole through the chamber. Each figure has a large sufficient space to depict all aspects of both assembly
rounded head with large eyes and mouth, a short and conch transfer on this part of the chamber, and
body, and long arms and legs. Although it is not chose to omit Wrinkle Face from the lower part of
clear what the artist intended these figures to be, it is the assembly section. He also omitted the double lines
possible that they were meant to be frogs. that divide assembly from conch transfer on each of

13
the other six bottles, although his use of the double With regard to chronological placement, this bot-
lines elsewhere conforms to their use on the other tle would clearly be late in our sequence, and appears
examples. Another anomaly is the stafflike object held to fit between the bottle shown in Figures 7 and 8
by Iguana in the lower part of the assembly section and that shown in Figures 9 and 10. Such a placement
(Fig. 43); it is unique in having a face at the upper is based largely on the inventory of grave goods, the
end. Finally, the oblong objects placed above the left manner of representing the body and headdress of
side of the casket in the burial section (Fig. 43) are Kneeler, and the scroll motif that decorates the ring
unusual in being placed horizontally instead of ver- base on this bottle.
tically.

14
Fig. 1 Stirrup-spout bottle. Private collection, Trujillo. Photo courtesy of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York.

15
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 Fig. 4 Stirrup-spout bottle. Museo Nacional de Antropologfa y Arqueologia, Lima. Photo by C. Donnan.

18
Fig. 5 Stirrup-spout bottle. Photo courtesy of the Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence.

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22
Fig. 9 Stirrup-spout bottle. Collection of Oscar Rodriguez Razzeto, Chepen, Peru. Photo by C. Donnan.

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 Fig. 12 Stirrup-spout bottle. Private collection, Lima. Photo courtesy of the Musee de l'Homme, Paris.

26
Fig. 13 Detail of the burial scene from Figure 2.

27
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34
Fig. 23 (opposite, above, left) Detail from vessel (after Kutscher 1950:
Fig. 69).

Fig. 24 (opposite, above, right) Stirrup-spout bottle. Museo de America,

Madrid. Photo by C. Donnan.

Fig. 25 (opposite, below, right) Stirrup-spout bottle. Museo de

Arqueologia, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Trujillo.
Photo by C. Donnan.

Fig. 26 (opposite, below, left) Stirrup-spout bottle. Museo de America,

Madrid. Photo by C. Donnan.

Fig. 27 (right) Stirrup-spout bottle. Drawing by D. McClelland

(after della Santa n.d.: front cover).

Fig. 28 (below) Roll-out of bottle in Figure 26. Drawing by

A. Cordy-Collins.

35
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38
Fig. 33 (opposite, above, left) Stirrup-spout bottle,
front view. Collection of Herbert Lucas, Brentwood,
California. Photo by S. Einstein.

Fig. 34 (opposite, above, right) Side view of bottle in

Figure 33. Photo by S. Einstein.

Fig- 35 (opposite, below) Roll-out of bottle in Figures 33

and 34. Drawing by D. McClelland.

Fig. 36 (right) Stirrup-spout bottle. Museo Amano, Lima.

Photo by A. Cordy-Collins.

Fig- 37 (below) Roll-out of bottle in Figure 36.

Drawing by D. McClelland.

39
 Fig. 38 (above) Stirrup-spout bottle. Private collection, Chiclayo, Peru. Photo by C. Donnan.

Fig- 39 (below) Roll-out of bottle in Figure 38. Drawing by D. McClelland.

40
Fig. 40 Stirrup-spout bottle. Collection of Herbert Lucas, Brentwood, California. Photo by R. Wollard.

41
 Fig. 41 Side view of bottle in Figure 40. Photo by R. Woolard.

42
Fig. 42 Back view of bottle in Figure 40. Photo by R. Woolard.

43
 Fig. 43 Another side view of bottle in Figure 40. Photo by R. Woolard.

44
Fig. 44 Bottom of bottle in Figure 40. Photo by R. Woolard.

45
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46