Aircraft Hydraulics

Introduction
Aircraft Hydraulics is a means of transmitting energy or power from one place
to another efficiently.

What is hydraulic technology?

In the hydraulic technology we transmit and control forces and velocities by

transmitting and controlling pressure and flow. In nearly every kind of
technology we use hydraulic drive and control techniques. A few examples are:

mechanical engineering
car technology
agriculture technology
earthmoving and mining technology
ship building technology
offshore-technology
aircraft and spacecraft technology

Advantages of Hydraulic Systems

(over other systems for aircraft use)

It is lighter in weight than alternate existing systems.

It is dead beat, that is, there is an absence of sloppiness in its response to
demands placed on the system.
It is reliable; either it works or doesn't.
It can be easily maintained.
It is not a shock hazard; it is not much of a fire hazard.
It can develop practically unlimited force or torque.

Example: A gun turret must be able to change direction almost

instantaneously. This is what is accomplished by this hydraulic system.  In an
electrical system, the rotating armature must come to full stop and then
reverse direction or else the armature will burn out. This doesn't happen with a
hydraulic system because there is no need for a motor in the hydraulic system.

Example:  In a landing gear the hydraulic motor can produce enough power to
pull up the landing gear system without trouble even though air loads act on
the system and the slip stream air is impinging against it. 
  
The actuating cylinder can change hydraulic power to linear or rotating motion.
It has a reduction gear in it to reduce rotating motion to that amount which is
needed.  Previously, systems used to control motion by using steel cables
connected by pulleys between the controlling mechanism (such as the pedals)
and the controlled surface (such as the rudder).  The cables were affected by
expansion rates of the cables due to temperature changes.  Hydraulic systems
can control motion without worrying about the effect of temperature since it is
a closed system (not open to the atmosphere) compared to a cable system.
This means better control of the plane and less lag time between the pilot's
movement to control the plane and the response by the control surface.

Some Devices Operated by Hydraulic Systems in Aircraft

Primary control boosters

Retraction and extension of landing gear
Sweep back and forth of wings
Opening and closing doors and hatchways
Automatic pilot and gun turrets
Shock absorption systems and valve lifter systems
Dive, landing, speed and flap brakes
Pitch changing mechanism, spoilers on flaps
Bomb bay doors and bomb displacement gears

Hy draulics sy stems principl es of

operat ion
Introduction

Pressures in hydraulic systems can be extremely high and normally are

measured in  thousands of pounds per square inch (psi) when using British units
of measurement, or Pascals (Newton/square meter).

Part of the hydraulic system is the actuating cylinder whose main function is to
change hydraulic (fluid) power to mechanical (shaft) power. Inside the
actuating cylinder is a piston whose motion is regulated by oil under pressure.
The oil is in contact with both sides of the piston head but at different
pressures.  High pressure oil may be pumped into either side of the piston
head.

In following animation, an actuating cylinder controlled by a selector valve. 

The selector valve determines to which side of the actuating cylinder the high
pressure oil (red coloured side) is sent.  The piston rod of the actuating
cylinder is connected to the control surface, in this case, an elevator.
As the piston moves out, the elevator moves down. As the piston moves in, the
elevator moves up. The selector valve directs the high pressure oil to the
appropriate side of the piston head causing movement of the piston in the
actuating cylinder. As the piston moves, the oil on the low pressure side (blue
coloured side) returns to the reservoir since return lines have no pressure!

The differential in oil pressure causes movement of the piston.  The force
generated by this pressure difference can be sufficient to move the necessary
loads.  Each cylinder in the plane, boat, etc., is designed for what it must do.
It can deliver the potential it was made for; no more, no less. Air loads
generally determine the force needed in aircraft applications. For example, if a
force of 40,000 pounds is required and the high pressure oil is pumped in at a
pressure of 1000 psi, then the piston is designed to have a surface area of 40
square inches on which the oil acts.

Hydraulic System

A hydraulic system transmits power by means of fluid flow under pressure. The
rate of flow of the oil through the system into the actuating cylinder will
determine the speed with which the piston rod in the actuating cylinder
extends or retracts. When the cylinder is installed on the aircraft, it is already
filled with oil.  This insures that no air bubbles are introduced into the
hydraulic system, which can adversely affect the operation of the system.

Pascal’s Theory

The method by which fluid is used to create force was explained by Pascal.  In
a confined stationary liquid, neglecting the effect of gravity, pressure is
distributed equally and undiminished in all directions; it acts perpendicular to
the surface it touches.   Because the actuating cylinder is not vented, the force
delivered through the piston to the surface of the fluid is translated into a
pressure on the surface of the fluid. 

The pressure (p) acting on the incompressible oil does work [(pressure) x (Area
of piston) x (piston's stroke) = Work].  In the diagram below, the force acting on
the right side piston does work and moves the fluid from the right cylinder to
the left cylinder.   The fluid movement into the left cylinder creates a pressure
on the left piston's surface area.  That in turn creates a force that moves the
left piston up.

Multiplication of Forces

Pascal's Law states that the pressures in both cylinders are the same (p1=p2).  
Thus, given a force, F1, of 10 pounds (lbs) in the right cylinder acting on a
piston area, A1, of 2 square inches (sq. in.) a pressure in the right cylinder, p1,
of 5 pounds per square inch (lbs/sq. in. = psi) is produced.  Now if A2 is given
as 5 sq. in., then the force developed in the left cylinder is F2 = p2xA2, or 25
lbs.  This is due to the fact that p1=p2.  Thus Pascal's Law shows the way in
which one can increase the output force for a given input force...regulate the
areas of the pistons!

The only disadvantage is the size of the piston stroke involved.  Let's say,
piston 2 moves (up) 10 inches.  For the previous problem the work done by
piston 2 is F2 times the stroke of piston 2 (10 in. x 25 lbs).  If no losses exist in
the system due to friction, then work is conserved and piston 1 must do 250 in-
lb of work. Therefore, the F1 must move down 25 inches (250 in-lbs/10 lb
force)! To move piston 2 up, a volume of 50 cubic inches (cu. in.) of
incompressible oil must be pumped in at 5 psi (since pressure times Volume is
also another way to find work). The movements of the pistons are measured
relative to the bottom of the cylinder with all the measurements computed to
produce 100 % efficiency.
How to Increase the Output Force of Cylinder 2

 Increase the pressure generated. 

The disadvantage with this idea is that you must remove the old tubing and
replace it with new tubing that can withstand the new loading.

 Increase the area of piston 2.      

That may be restricted by the size of the actuating cylinder you can place in
the location slated for the cylinder.

 Increase the stroke of piston 1.           

This may also be restricted by the location of the actuating cylinder 1.

How to Increase Input Force, F1

1. Increase the force by increasing the pressure.

2. Increase the stroke of piston 1.

3. Decrease the area of piston 2.

Just to reinforce what was said before: the distance of piston movement for
the piston in the output cylinder is determined by the volume of oil being
pushed into the output cylinder.

Brake System in a Car – Hydraulic System

An example of a hydraulic system that we deal with every day is the brake
system in our cars.  That system is an example of the material we have just
discussed.  Look at the picture given below.  When the brake pedal is pressed
down, the piston in the 1st cylinder goes down, pushing the oil through the
tubing into the little wheel actuating cylinder near the brake shoes. The oil, in
turn, pushes the little pistons out and this, in turn, pushes the shoes up against
the brake drum causing the car wheel to be slowed to a stop.
Hy draulic sy stem power requ irem ents
Typical Problem

Suppose you were asked to determine the mechanical horsepower (HP)

required to retract a landing gear in a required time period. How would you do
the calculations?

Example:

Given- Force Requirements = 5000 lb  (this is the force that has to be moved)
           Distance moved = 2 ft   (this is the distance you must move the force)
           Time required = 30 s (this is the time required to move that distance)

Power is given as Force times velocity for a constant force (P=Fv).  If the force
is not constant, then you can use the average force over the time required. 
The velocity in this case is the average velocity, namely, the distance traveled
over the time required.  Therefore,
Power=Force x distance / time

We convert to horsepower (HP) using the conversion factor 550 equals 1

HP.  Therefore, by multiplying 334 by [1 HP/ (550 )], we find that
we need 0.61 HP. 

Thus, an actuating cylinder must then be mounted which can deliver 0.61 HP.
The actuating cylinder for the retractable landing gear is mounted so that it
can move in order that the piston rod in the actuating cylinder won't bend.  A
flexible hose to the oil pressure lines is put at the cylinder attachment so that
it won't break during movement.

Selection of an Actuating Cylinder

The selection of the actuating cylinder depends upon two parameters:

1. Piston stroke - the distance that it must travel to do the job.

2. Piston head area which must be large enough to develop the proper
force with the pressure available.

Flow Requirements to Accomplish Task

The hydraulic system oil flow rate, Q, may be measured in gallons per minute
(gpm).  The flow rate required can be related to the volume of fluid required
to be moved (in cubic inches-cu in) and the time required for the job (in
minutes).

The volume of fluid required to be moved is given by the input force times the
piston stroke (in inches) divided by the system oil pressure.  Remember that
force divided by pressure is an area, and, multiplied by the piston stroke
defines the volume moved.  Therefore,

Example:

If the pressure in the system = 2000 psi, find Q of previous problem.

Hydraulic Horsepower

The hydraulic horsepower is the power provided by the hydraulic system. It is

directly proportional to the rate of flow, the pressure, a constant and inversely
proportional to the efficiency of the system.  The coefficient equals 0.000583
and is the conversion factor between gallon-lbs/(minute-square inches) and
horsepower.  Therefore:
Example:

Find the hydraulic HP of the previous problem if the system has an efficiency of
1.

F-111 sweep back problem

Let's look at a typical problem.  Find the hydraulic and mechanical HP required
to vary the sweep back of an experimental  F-111 wing, given the following
data:

Force required = 160,000 lb;

Cross-sectional area of the actuating cylinder piston A = 32 square in
Fluid Pressure P = 5000 lb/sq. in. = 5000 psi
Piston stroke D=30 inches
Time required for sweeping the wing T=75 seconds=1.25 minutes

Hydraulic HP is found by getting the flow rate, Q, in gpm, FIRST

Now having found Q, we can now find the Hydraulic HP, assuming an efficiency
of 1, using

The mechanical HP is found using

By comparing both results, we can see that the hydraulic system will meet the
requirements of the mechanical system HP.
 

A irc ra ft hy d ra ulic s y st em res ervoi r

d es ign
Functions of the Reservoir

Provides air space for expansion of the oil due to temperature changes

Holds a reserve supply of oil to account for

Thermal contraction of oil.

Normal leakage - oil is used to lubricate piston rods and cylinder seals. When
the piston rod moves, it is scraped to remove impurities that might collect on
the rod when returning into actuating cylinders. If many actuating cylinders are
operating at the same time, then the amount of oil lost is greater.
Emergency supply of oil -this case occurs only when the hand pump is used.
Volume changes due to operational requirements - oil needed on side 2 of
piston head is less than that needed on side 1 of cylinder piston (which occurs
during actuation).

Provides a place to remove air or foam from liquid.

Provide a pressure head on the pump, that is, a pressure head due to gravity
and depends upon the distance of the reservoir above the power pump.
Construction of Reservoir

In the construction of a reservoir, one must know:

Material: for the reservoir itself 5052 aluminium has been used. It is weldable
and ductile, it can work in the needed temperature range and it must work
when it is in any position and orientation to the earth (example: 1. In space, it
is on its side; gravity is pulling on the reservoir's "sides"; 2. during blast-off,
gravity is forcing the liquid to the tank's bottom.)

Size: To obtain the size of the reservoir needed, one must calculate the volume of oil
needed for one emergency actuation. This means finding the amount of oil needed for all
emergency equipment to work. Then, it is necessary to calculate the volume for thermal
contraction by taking all oil volumes of the hydraulic system, finding the coefficient of
contraction and multiplying it by the number of degrees in the temperature range
expected during operation. You must do the same for all oil volumes in operational
requirements, thermal expansion, leakage, etc.
 

Shape: You must look at the space available to fit the tank.  A sphere is the best shape to
use because uniform stresses are generated by the interior pressure. Its one major
disadvantage is that it is difficult to mount. The next best shape is a domed cylindrical
shape. Not only can it be mounted easily, but it can be made to order.

A stand pipe to the power pump is needed and is always in the middle of the tank. 
Regardless of variation in its orientation (upright or on its side), it will be submerged.
The return pipe from the rest of the hydraulic system is put near the top of liquid in the
tank, at a tangent to the tank surface, so that the fluid entering releases all its energy
through swirling at the top and dissipates it through release of bubbles of
foam.

Baffles within the tank are used for two reasons:

1. they strengthen the tank against pressure from within and outside of the tank, and,
more importantly,

2. they are used to stop the swirling effect of the return oil from producing a
whirlpool. This effect would only make the stand pipe in the centre of the tank
suck in the column of air.

Filler pipe.  Such a pipe eases the replenishing of the reservoir liquid. Since liquid seeks
its own level,  we put the filler pipe so that its mouth has the same level as the design
level in the reservoir.

Vent to atmosphere- Initially, vents were introduced because a vent will not allow a void
to form within the tank. However, as ceiling altitudes increased, pressure within the tank
and the hydraulic system was being lost and cavitation  occurred.  To stop this
phenomenon from happening, pressurized reservoirs were created (see section 1.7).

Dipstick-Sometimes filler pipes could not be used to add oil and tanks would have to be
filled from the top. This made it difficult to measure the oil.  The dipstick was therefore
introduced. A long stick with marks on it, its job was to measure oil depth.

P ressure regulati on in hy draulic

sy stems
Introduction

If a system relief valve (SRV) were used to regulate pressure, it would have to be
replaced in a very short time. This would be due to the overuse of the SRV and the failure
of the spring's elasticity. If the SRV were used, the oil pushing on the spring-ball
combination would cause tremendous vibrations and heat would be dissipated by the oil
under high pressure attempting to push the ball away from the seat to get to the low
pressure side.  

Douglass Pressure Regulator

When an actuating cylinder finishes its motion and stops, a high pressure will
be felt through the system. If so, this high pressure oil coming from the power
pump (right side of diagram) will keep check valve C open and also act on
piston A. In its movement, piston A pushes Ball B off seat D. The oil, taking the
passage of least resistance, goes through passage D into the center chamber
(colored blue) back to the reservoir. The pressure on the right side of check
valve C will drop and will be less than the pressure on the left side of C,
therefore, causing the ball to seat itself in check valve C. When the hydraulic
system pressure drops, the pressure on piston A decreases, causing a decrease
in pressure on B as well. The path of least resistance through D will close and
the oil will move in the direction towards check valve C. Now, because the
pressure on the right side of C is greater than on the left of C, the check valve
will be forced open and the oil will move toward the selector valve side of the
system (left side of diagram).
The range of operation of the pressure regulator is defined by the difference in
force required for bypass and the force required at actuation.

Electrol Pressure Regulator

The dual purpose of a pressure regulator is to reduce the load on the hydraulic
pump when not needed and to keep the hydraulic pressure within the operating
range of the hydraulic system.

When the hydraulic pump is charging the system, balls 1 and 2 are seated on
their seats but ball 3 is letting oil pass through to the actuating cylinders. When
actuation stops, the pressure in the system builds to maximum. The spring
holding ball 1 onto the lower seat is designed to withstand the force produced
by the maximum pressure of the hydraulic system. As maximum pressure is
reached, ball 1 is made to move to the upper seat, thereby letting high
pressure oil reach the A side of piston. But, ball 3 has already moved to its seat
due to the higher pressure felt on side C than on side D. Therefore, oil coming
from the hydraulic pump is at a charging pressure less than the maximum
pressure of side A of the piston, causing the piston to move down, in turn
pushing ball 2 down. Oil, wanting to take the path of least resistance, goes by
ball 2 to the return line.
If actuation restarts, then pressures at C side of ball 3, at A side of piston and
at F side of ball 1 decreases. Ball 1 falls onto the lower seat, since the spring
force is greater than the force generated by the hydraulic system's oil pressure.
Piston A will then move up due to the pressure drop on side A, causing ball 2 to
close the orifice to the return line. The oil being pumped from the hydraulic
pump now has greater pressure on side D of ball 3, causing the ball to move to
the left and the hydraulic system oil goes in the direction of the actuating
cylinder.

The range of operation depends on ball 1. As you can see, if the force of the
spring holding ball 1 is to be overcome, a certain pressure (equal to the spring
force divided by the opening's cross-sectional area) at the lower seat would be
needed. If the ball were to move upward to the upper seat, the exposed
surface area of the ball on which the pressure acts would increase (while the
spring force would essentially remain the same) thereby causing the pressure in
the system to decrease. Ball 1 would then move from the lower seat to the
upper seat very quickly as more surface area is exposed, causing the pressure
required to move the ball to drop. When the pressure delivered is much higher
than the pressure required to move the ball, then the ball will move quickly
and bang shut against the upper seat. The opposite reaction occurs when the
pressure in the system is lowered to within operational limits.