Archimedes and the Paradox of Feminist Criticism

Author(s): Myra Jehlen

Source: Signs, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Summer, 1981), pp. 575-601
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
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 Archimedes and the Paradox of
Feminist Criticism

Myra Jehlen

Feminist thinking is really rethinking, an examination of the way cer-

tain assumptions about women and the female character enter into
the fundamental assumptions that organize all our thinking. For in-
stance, assumptions such as the one that makes intuition and reason
opposite terms parallel to female and male may have axiomatic force in
our culture, but they are precisely what feminists need to question-or
be reduced to checking the arithmetic, when the issue lies in the calculus.
Such radical skepticism is an ideal intellectual stance that can gener-
ate genuinely new understandings; that is, reconsideration of the rela-
tion between female and male can be a way to reconsider that between
intuition and reason and ultimately between the whole set of such as-
sociated dichotomies: heart and head, nature and history. But it also
creates unusual difficulties. Somewhat like Archimedes, who to lift the
earth with his lever required someplace else on which to locate himself

For their numerous helpful suggestions and suggestive objections, I am grateful to

Sacvan Bercovitch, Rachel Blau DuPlessis, Carolyn Heilbrun, Evelyn Keller, Helene Mog-
len, Sara Ruddick, Catharine Stimpson, and Marilyn Young.

EDITORS' NOTE: Perhaps the most difficult but also the most valuable and
invigorating work of feminist scholarship comes in lifting oneself on one's own
intellectual shoulders to peer down at the cultural forces that have shaped the
consciousness of both women and men. In this essay Myra Jehlen, acting as an
investigator rather than as a transmitter of culture, shows a spirit akin to that of
the Quebecois writers described elsewhere in this issue by Karen Gould: theirs is a
common struggle to see through old mental constructs as thefirst stage informing
new ones.

[Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 1981, vol. 6, no. 4]

? 1981 by The University of Chicago. 0097-9740/81/0604-0001$01.00

575

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576 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

and his fulcrum, feminists questioning the presumptive order of both

nature and history-and thus proposing to remove the ground from
under their own feet-would appear to need an alternative base. For as
Archimedes had to stand somewhere, one has to assume something in
order to reason at all. So if the very axioms of Western thought already
incorporate the sexual teleology in question, it seems that, like the Greek
philosopher, we have to find a standpoint off this world altogether.
Archimedes never did. However persuasively he established that the
earth could be moved from its appointed place, he and the lever re-
mained earthbound and the globe stayed where it was. His story may
point another moral, however, just as it points to another science able to
harness forces internally and apply energy from within. We could then
conclude that what he really needed was a terrestrial fulcrum. My point
here, similarly, will be that a terrestrial fulcrum, a standpoint from which
we can see our conceptual universe whole but which nonetheless rests
firmly on male ground, is what feminists really need. But perhaps be-
cause being at once on and off a world seems an improbable feat, the
prevailing perspectives of feminist studies have located the scholar one
place or the other.
Inside the world of orthodox and therefore male-oriented schol-
arship, a new category has appeared in the last decade, the category of
women. Economics textbooks now draw us our own bell curves, histories
of medieval Europe record the esoterica of convents and the stoning of
adulterous wives, zoologists calibrate the orgasmic capacities of female
chimpanzees. Indeed, whole books on "women in" and "women of" ar
fast filling in the erstwhile blanks of a questionnaire-one whose ques-
tions, however, remain unquestioned. They never asked before what th
mother's occupation was, now they do. The meaning of "occupation," o
for that matter of "mother," is generally not at issue.
It is precisely the issue, however, for the majority of feminist schol
ars who have taken what is essentially the opposite approach; rather tha
appending their findings to the existing literature, they generate a new
one altogether in which women are not just another focus but the cente
of an investigation whose categories and terms are derived from th
world of female experience. They respond to the Archimedean dilemm
by creating an alternative context, a sort of female enclave apart from
the universe of masculinist assumptions. Most "women's studies" have
taken this approach and stressed the global, structural character of thei
separate issues. Women are no longer to be seen as floating in a man's
world but as a coherent group, a context in themselves. The problem i
that the issues and problems women define from the inside as global,
men treat from the outside as insular. Thus, besides the exfoliation of
reports on the state of women everywhere and a certain piety on the
subject of pronouns, there is little indication of feminist impact on th
universe of male discourse. The theoretical cores of the various disci-

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Signs Summer 1981 577

plines remain essentially unchanged, their terms and met

always. As always, therefore, the intellectual arts bespeak a w
nated by men, a script that the occasional woman at a podium
revise. Off in the enclaves of women's studies, our basic rese
the contiguity to force a basic reconsideration of all research
encapsulated revisions appear inorganic (or can be made to
organic) to the universal system they mean to address. A
problem was getting off the world, but ours might be getti
For we have been, perhaps, too successful in constru
alternative footing. Our world apart, our female intellectual c
becomes increasingly cut off even as it expands. If we have lit
over being shunted aside, we may nonetheless render the
women's scholarship more difficult. At least we ought not to
in a sense we do when we ourselves conflate feminist tho
thinking about women, when we remove ourselves and our lev
man's world to study the history or the literature, the art or
of women alone. This essay is about devising a method for an
definition of women's studies as the investigation, from wom
point, of everything, thereby finding a way to engage th
intellectual systems directly and organically: locating a femi
trial fulcrum. Since feminist thinking is the thinking of an
group that in the nature of things will never possess a world
such engagement would appear a logical necessity.
Logical but also contradictory. To a degree, any analys
thinks the most basic assumptions of the thinking it examin
tradictory or at least contrary, for its aim is to question mo
explain and chart. From it we learn not so much the intricacie
particular mode of thinking works as the essential points to w
be reduced. And nowhere is such an adversary rather than ap
stance more problematical than it is in literary criticism.
specific subject here, the perils and uses of a feminist literar
that confronts the fundamental axioms of its parent discipli
What makes feminist literary criticism especially contradic
peculiar nature of literature as distinct from the objects of eit
or social scientific study. Unlike these, literature is itself alrea
pretation that it is the critic's task to decipher. It is certainly not
the literary work is biased; indeed that is its value. Critical o
enters in only at a second level to provide a reliable reading, t
here many have argued that reading too is an exercise in cre
pretation. On the other hand, while biologists and historians
cede that certain a priori postulates affect their gathering o
always maintain that they have tried to correct for bias,
insofar as this is ever possible, to discover the factual, undisto
Therefore expositions of subjectivity are always both relevan
velatory about the work of biologists and historians. But

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578 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

judging the literary work per se, exposing its bias is essentially beside the
point. Not that literature, as the New Critics once persuaded us, trans-
cends subjectivity or politics. Paradoxically, it is just because the fictional
universe is wholly subjective and therefore ideological that the value of
its ideology is almost irrelevant to its literary value. The latter instead
depends on what might be thought of as the quality of the apologia, how
successfully the work transforms ideology into ideal, into a myth that
works to the extent precisely that it obscures its provenance. Disliking
that provenance implies no literary judgment, for a work may be, from
my standpoint, quite wrong and even wrongheaded about life and poli-
tics and still an extremely successful rendering of its contrary vision. Bad
ideas, even ideas so bad that most of humanity rejects them, have been
known to make very good literature.
I am not speaking here of what makes a work attractive or meaning-
ful to its audience. The politics of a play, poem, or story may render it
quite unreadable or, in the opposite case, enhance its value for particular
people and situations. But this poses no critical issue, for what we like, we
like and can justify that way; the problem, if we as feminists want to ad-
dress our whole culture, is to deal with what we do not like but recognize
as nonetheless valuable, serious, good. This is a crucial problem at the
heart of feminism's wider relevance. No wonder we have tried to avoid it.
One way is to point out that "good" changes its definition according
to time and place. This is true, but not true enough. Perhaps only be-
cause we participate in this culture even while criticizing it, we do (most
of us) finally subscribe to a tradition of the good in art and philosophy
that must sometimes be a political embarrassment-and what else could
it be, given the entire history of both Western and Eastern civilizations
and their often outright dependence on misogyny? Nor is it true
enough, I believe, to argue that the really good writers and thinkers
unconsciously and sometimes consciously rejected such misogyny. As
couched in the analogous interpretation of Shylock as hero because
Shakespeare could not really have been anti-Semitic, this argument
amounts to second-guessing writers and their works in terms of a pro-
vincialism that seems especially hard to maintain in these linguistically
and anthropologically conscious times. For such provincialism not only
assumes that our view of things is universal and has always been the
substance of reality but also that all other and prior representations were
insubstantial. So when Shakespeare depicted bastards as scheming sub-
versives, Jews as merchants of flesh, and women as hysterics, he meant
none of it but was only using the local idiom. What he meant, thereby
demonstrating his universality, was what we mean.
I want to suggest that we gain no benefit from either disclaiming the
continuing value of the "great tradition" or reclaiming it as after all an
expression of our own viewpoint. On the contrary, we lose by both. In
the first instance, we isolate ourselves into irrelevance. In the second-

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Signs Summer 1981 579

denying, for example, that Shakespeare shared in the con

prejudices about women-we deny by implication that there is a
necessarily different about a feminist outlook. Thus, discoverin
character of Ophelia will support a feminist interpretation ma
to be a political reading of Hamlet, but, in fact, by its exegetica
it reaffirms the notion that the great traditions are all-encomp
all-normative, the notion that subsumes women under th
"mankind."
It seems to me perfectly plausible, however, to see Shakespeare as
working within his own ideology that defined bastards, Jews, and women
as by nature deformed or inferior, and as understanding the con-
tradictions of that ideology without rejecting its basic tenets-so that,
from a feminist standpoint, he was a misogynist-and as being nonethe-
less a great poet. To be sure, greatness involves a critical penetration of
conventions but not necessarily or even frequently a radical rejection of
them. If, in his villains, Shakespeare revealed the human being beneath
the type, his characterization may have been not a denial of the type but
a recognition of the complexity of all identity. The kingly ambition of the
bastard, the "white" conscience of the Moor, the father love of the Jew,
the woman's manly heart: these complexities are expressed in the terms
of the contemporary ideology, and in fact Shakespeare uses these terms
the more tellingly for not challenging them at the root.
But the root is what feminists have to be concerned with: what it
means not to be a good woman or a bad one but to be a woman at
Moreover, if a great writer need not be radical, neither need a gre
radical writer be feminist-but so what? It was only recently that t
great Romantic poets conned us into believing that to be a great poet w
to tell the absolute truth, to be the One prophetic voice for all Mankin
As the philosophy of the Other, feminism has had to reject the ve
conception of such authority-which, by extension, should permi
feminist critics to distinguish between appreciative and politi
readings.
We should begin, therefore, by acknowledging the separate whole-
ness of the literary subject, its distinct vision that need not be ours-wh
the formalists have told us and told us about: its integrity. We need t
acknowledge, also, that to respect that integrity by not asking questio
of the text that it does not ask itself, to ask the text what questions to ask,
will produce the fullest, richest reading. To do justice to Shelley, you
not approach him as you do Swift. But doing justice can be a contrary
business, and there are aspects of the text that, as Kate Millett demon
strated,1 a formalist explication actively obscures. If her intentionally
tangential approach violated the terms of Henry Miller's work, fo
example, it also revealed aspects of the work that the terms had masked

1. Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1970).

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580 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

But she would not claim, I think, that her excavation of Miller's under-
lying assumptions had not done damage to his architecture.
The contradiction between appreciation and political analysis is not
peculiar to feminist readings, but those who encountered it in the past
did not resolve it either. In fact, they too denied it, or tried to. Sartre, for
instance, argued in What Is Literature? that a good novel could not pro-
pound fascism. But then he also recognized that "the appearance of the
work of art is a new event which cannot be explained by anterior data."2
More recently, the Marxist Pierre Macherey has hung on the horns of
the same dilemma by maintaining that the literary work is tied in-
extricably to the life that produces it, but, although not therefore "in-
dependent," it is nonetheless "autonomous" in being defined and struc-
tured by laws uniquely proper to it.3 (I cite Sartre and Macherey more or
less at random among more or less left-wing critics because theirs is a
situation somewhat like that of feminists, though less difficult, many
would argue, in that they already have a voice of their own. Perhaps for
that reason, the position of black critics in a world dominated by whites
would more closely resemble that of women. But at any rate, the large
category to which all these belong is that of the literary critic who is also
and importantly a critic of her/his society, its political system, and its
culture.)
My point is simply that there is no reason to deny the limits of
ideological criticism, its reduction of texts that, however, it also illumi-
nates in unique ways. As feminists at odds with our culture, we are at
odds also with its literary traditions and need often to talk about texts in
terms that the author did not use, may not have been aware of, and
might indeed abhor. The trouble is that this necessity goes counter not
only to our personal and professional commitment to all serious litera-
ture but also to our training as gentlemen and scholars, let alone as
Americans, taught to value, above all, value-free scholarship.
Doubtless the possibility of maintaining thereby a sympathetic ap-
preciative critical posture is one of the attractions of dealing only or
mainly with women's writings. With such material, ironically, it is possi-
ble to avoid politicaljudgment altogether, so that the same approach that
for some represents the integration into their work of a political com-
mitment to women can serve Patricia Meyer Spacks to make the point
that "criticism need not be political to be aware."4 She means by this that
she will be able to recognize and describe a distinct female culture with-
out evaluating either it or its patriarchal context politically. Of course she

2. Jean-Paul Sartre, What Is Literature? (New York: Harper Colophon, 1965), p. 40;
emphasis in original.
3. Pierre Macherey, Pour une theorie de la production litteraire (Paris: Librairie Francois
Maspero, 1966), pp. 66-68.
4. Patricia Meyer Spacks, The Female Imagination (New York: Avon Books, 1976), pp.
5,6.

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Signs Summer 1981 581

understands that all vision is mediated, so that the very sel

in which to observe the female imagination is judgment of
is not ideological or normative judgment; rather it is an "
sion" that "reflects the operations of [her] imagination," a
of view, a "particular sensibility" with no particular politic
important thing is that her "perception of the problems i
derived from her reading of the books; the books were no
depict preconceived problems."
Spacks seeks in this way to disavow any political bias; bu
who have chosen a woman-centered approach precisely for
implications reassure us about their analytical detachment
stipulates in her preface to Literary Women that "the lite
themselves, their language, their concerns, have done the
this book." At the same time she means the book to be "a celebration of
the great women who have spoken for us all."5 Her choice of subject h
thus been inspired by feminist thinking, but her approach remains su
posedly neutral for she has served only as an informed amanuensis. Th
uncharacteristic naivete of this stance is enforced, I think, by Moers's
critical ambivalence-her wish, on the one hand, to serve a feminist
purpose, and her sense, on the other, that to do so will compromise the
study as criticism. So she strikes a stance that should enable her to be, like
Spacks, aware but not political. Since in posing a question one already
circumscribes the answer, such analytical neutrality is a phantom, how-
ever; nor was it even Spacks's goal. Her method of dealing with women
separately but traditionally, treating their work as she would the opus of
any mainstream school, suits her purpose, which is to define a feminine
aesthetic transcending sexual politics. She actively wants to exclude
political answers. Moers, seeking to discover the feminist in the
feminine, is not as well served by that method; and Elaine Showalter's
explicitly feminist study, A Literature of Their Own,6 suggests that a politi-
cal criticism may require something like the methodological reverse.
Showalter wrote her book in the hope that it would inspire women
to "take strength in their independence to act in the world" and begin to
create an autonomous literary universe with a "female tradition" as its
"center." Coming at the end of the book, these phrases provide a res-
onant conclusion, for she has shown women writing in search of a
wholeness the world denies them and creating an art whose own whole-
ness seems a sure ground for future autonomy. But if, in an effort to
flesh out this vision, one turns back to earlier discussions, one finds that
there she has depicted not actual independence but action despite
dependence-and not a self-defined female culture either, but a sub-
5. Ellen Moers, Literary Women: The Great Writers (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday &
Co., 1976), p. xvi.
6. Elaine Showalter, A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelistsfrom Bronte to
Lessing (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), pp. 319, 11-12.

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 582 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

culture born out of oppression and

often-fatal cost. Women, she write
such a "subculture within the fram
female literary tradition comes fro
tween women writers and their soc
that tradition has been bound up in
that much of what Showalter wa
much of what she does examine, re
writers between acting independen
ence as women do. If her conclusion
is because the approach she takes
and Moers, is not well suited to he
Like theirs, her book is defined t
circumscribed world of women writ
"an attempt to fill in the terrain b
cliffs, the Eliot range, and the W
reliable map from which to explor
novelists." The trouble is that th
only the territory inside the enclos
ing geography, how are we to eval
dering peaks we have measured any
but according to those of Mount S
less can one envision the circum
dependently global-hence probab
alter's ending. Instead of a territ
world of women as a subculture su
interacting juxtapositions the poin
so much the territory as its defini
tory might well be envisioned as o
women not as a separate country b
Women (and perhaps some men
deal with their situation as a precon
to confront the assumptions that re
selves in that they are defined by o
and thought of others. It hardly ma
wants to write; its political nature
"she") who will do it. All women's
defiant and universally characteriz
makes in coming into being. And t
individuality of a woman's story or
engagement of its denial of depend
this necessary denial takes (how
whether conciliatory or assertive
issue, not of content, but of the structural formulation of the work's
relationship to the inherently formally patriarchal language which is the
only language we have.

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 Signs Summer 1981 583

Heretofore, we have tended to treat the anterior a

women writers create their creativity as part of their
psychological, whereas it is also a conceptual and linguistic
struction of an enabling relationship with a language that o
deny them the ability to use it creatively. This act is part o
well and organic to the literature that results. Since men
trary) can assume a natural capacity for creation, they begi
individual shape to an energy with which they are universa
is possible, then, to analyze the writings of certai
pendently-not those of all men, but only of those member
ruling group whose identity in fact sets the universal nor
cause their writings come into existence independent of p
acts. Women's literature begins to take its individual shap
properly literature, which suggests that we should analyze
its ur-dependence.
In fact, the criticism of women writers has of late more
focused on the preconditions of their writing as the inspir
of its content but also of its form. The writer's self-creat
mary concern of Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar's Mad
Attic,7 whose very title identifies global (therefore mad) d
core of women's art. This impressive culmination of what
the territorial approach to feminist criticism does with it v
thing that can be done. In the way of culminations, it del
before a set of problems that cannot be entirely resolved in
that Gilbert and Gubar have uncovered. My earlier questio
become a question: What do we understand about the worl
whole culture, from our new understanding of the wo
within it? This question looks forward to a development o
women in a universal context, but it also has retrospective
for what we have learned in the female context.
Gilbert and Gubar locate the female territory in its lar
and examine the borders along which the woman writer def
Coming into being-an unnatural being, she must g
herself-the female artist commits a double murder. She kills "Milton's
bogey" and the specter Virginia Woolf called the "angel in the house,"
the patriarch and his wife, returning then to an empty universe she will
people in her own image. Blasphemy was not until the woman artist was,
and the world of women writers is created in sin and extends to a hori-
zon of eternal damnation. For all women must destroy in order to create.
Gilbert and Gubar argue with erudition and passion, and their pro-
jection of the woman writer has a definitive ring. It also has a familiar
and perhaps a contradictory ring. The artist as mad defiant blasphemer
7. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and
the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1979).
The chapter referred to at some length in this discussion is chap. 7, "Horror's Twin: Mary
Shelley's Monstrous Eve."

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584 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

or claustrophobic deviant in a society that denies such a person soulroom

is a Romantic image that not only applies also to men but does so in a way
that is particularly invidious to women, even more stringently denying
them their own identities than earlier ideologies did. That there be con-
tradiction is only right, for when Blake hailed Satan as the hero of
Paradise Lost, he cast heroism in a newly contradictory mold. Satan is
archfiend and Promethean man, individualistic tyrant and revolu-
tionary, architect and supreme wrecker of worlds. It should not be sur-
prising that he is also at once the ultimate, the proto-exploiter of women,
and a feminist model. But it does complicate things, as Gilbert and
Gubar recognize: Mary Shelley found, in Milton, cosmic misogyny to
forbid her creation-and also the model for her rebellion. But then, was
her situation not just another version of the general Romantic plight,
shared with her friends and relatives, poet-blasphemers all?
No, because she confronted a contradiction that superseded and
preceded theirs; she was additionally torn and divided, forbidden to be
Satan by Satan as well as by God, ambivalent about being ambivalent. If
Satan was both demon and hero to the male poets, he offered women a
third possibility, that of Byronic lover and master, therefore a prior
choice: feminist assertion or feminine abandon. Here again, women had
to act before they could act, choose before they could choose.
But it is just the prior choosing and acting that shape the difference
between women's writing and men's that no study of only women's writ-
ing can depict. So, for instance, Gilbert and Gubar suggest that the
monster in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein embodies in his peculiar horror a
peculiarly female conception of blasphemy. It may well be, but I do not
think we can tell by looking only at Frankenstein. At the least we need to
go back and look at Satan again, not as a gloss already tending toward
Frankenstein but as an independent term, an example of what sinful
creation is-for a man. Then we need to know what it was for Mary
Shelley's fellow Romantics. We might then see the extra dimension of
her travail, being able to recognize it because it was extra-outside the
requirements of her work and modifying that work in a special way. To
reverse the frame of reference, if male critics have consistently missed
the woman's aspect of Frankenstein, it may be only in part because they
are not interested. Another reason could be that in itself the work ap-
pears as just another individual treatment of a common Romantic
theme. Put simply, then, the issue for a feminist reading of Frankenstein is
to distinguish its female version of Romanticism: an issue of relatedness
and historicity. Women cannot write monologues; there must be two in
the world for one woman to exist, and one of them has to be a man.
So in The Madwoman in the Attic, building on Literary Women and A
Literature of Their Own, feminist criticism has established the historical
relativity of the gender definitions that organize this culture; the pat-
riarchal universe that has always represented itself as absolute has been

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Signs Summer 1981 585

revealed as man-tailored to a masculine purpose. It is not na

looking at in the sexual politics of literature, but history: w
now because women have rejected the natural order of y
and lived to tell a different tale. I have been arguing that,
tale, one needs ultimately to relate it to the myths of t
comments on. The converse is also true; in denying the nor
versality of men's writing, feminist criticism historicizes it
precisely, as "men's writing." On the back cover of The Madw
Attic Robert Scholes is quoted as having written that "in the
be embarrassing to teach Jane Austen, Mary Shelley, t
George Eliot, Emily Dickinson, and their sisters without co
book." Not so embarrassing, one would like to add, as it
teach Samuel Richardson, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Charles D
liam Makepeace Thackeray, Walt Whitman, and their broth
consulting a feminist analysis.
Indeed, in suggesting here that women critics adopt a
radical comparativism, I have in mind as one benefit the po
demonstrating thereby the contingency of the dominant ma
as well. Comparison reverses the territorial image along
tained methodology and projects instead, as the world
something like a long border. The confrontations along
between, say, Portrait of a Lady and House of Mirth, two lit
created by two gods out of one thematic clay, can light up t
most encompassing parameters (perimeters) of both worlds
ing the philosophical grounds of the two cosmic models, "n
otherwise appear unimpeachably absolute. This border (th
land) might have provided Archimedes himself a standpo
the disengagements, the distancings of comparative analyses
on the relations between situations rather than on the situations them-
selves, one might be able to generate the conceptual equivalent of gettin
off this world and seeing it from the outside. At the same time, compari
son also involves engagement by requiring one to identify the specific
qualities of each term. The overabstraction of future visions has often
been the flip side of nonanalytical descriptions of the present viewe
only in its own internal terms. To talk about then and now as focuses o
relations may be a way of tempering both misty fantasies and myopic
documentations.
Thus the work of a woman-whose proposal to be a writer in itself
reveals that female identity is not naturally what it has been assumed t
be-may be used comparatively as an external ground for seeing th
dominant literature whole. Hers is so fundamental a denial that its out-
line outlines as well the assumption it confronts. And such comparison
works in reverse, too, for juxtaposed with the masculinist assumption w
can also see whole the feminist denial and trace its limits. Denial alway
runs the risk of merely shaping itself in the negative image of what i

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586 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

rejects. If there is any danger that feminism may become trapped, either
in winning for women the right to be men or in taking the opposite
sentimental tack and celebrating the feminine identity of an oppressed
past as ideal womanhood, these extremes can be better avoided when
women's assumptions too can be seen down to their structural roots-
from the other ground provided by men's writing.
Lest it appear that I am advocating a sort of comparison mongering,
let me cite as a model, early blazing a path we have not followed very far,
a study that on the surface is not at all comparative. Millett's Sexual
Politics was all about comparison, however, about the abysses between
standpoints, between where men stood to look at women and where
women stood to be looked at. Facing these two at the book's starting
point was Millett's construction of yet another lookout where a feminist
might stand. As criticism per se, Sexual Politics may be flawed by its
simplifying insistence on a single issue. But as ideological analysis, as
model illuminator and "deconstructor," it remains our most powerful
work. It is somewhat puzzling that, since then, so little has been written
about the dominant literary culture whose ideas and methods of domi-
nance were Millett's major concerns.8 It may be that the critical
shortcomings of so tangential an approach have been too worrisome.
Certainly it is in reading the dominant "universal" literature that the
contradictions of an ideological criticism become most acute. There are
many ways of dealing with contradictions, however, of which only one is
to try to resolve them. Another way amounts to joining a con-
tradiction-engaging it not so much for the purpose of overcoming it as
to tap its energy. To return one last time to the fulcrum image, a fulcrum
is a point at which force is transmitted-the feminist fulcrum is not just
any point in the culture where misogyny is manifested but one where
misogyny is pivotal or crucial to the whole. The thing to look for in our
studies, I believe, is the connection, the meshing of a definition of
women and a definition of the world. And insofar as the former is
deleterious, the connection will be contradictory; indeed, as the lit
examples that follow suggest, one may recognize a point of connec
by its contradictions. It will turn out, or I will try to show, that
tradictions just such as that between ethical and aesthetic that we
tried to resolve away lest they belie our argument frequently are
8. I want to cite two works, one recently published and one in progress, that d
with the traditions of male writing. Judith Fetterley in The Resisting Reader: A Fe
Approach to American Fiction (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978) writes
women should "resist the view of themselves presented in literature by refusing to
what they read, and by arguing with it, begin to exorcize the male ideas and attitud
have absorbed." Lee Edwards in her forthcoming Labors of Psyche: Female Heroi
Fictional Form expresses the somewhat different but related purpose of reclaiming
guage and mythology for women. My objections to both these approaches will b
from the essay. Let me add here only that I also find them nonetheless extremely s
tive and often persuasive.

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Signs Summer 1981 587

firmest and most fruitful grounds. The second part of this

attempt to illustrate this use of contradiction through the exa
American sentimental novel, a kind of women's writing in
contradiction between ideology and criticism would appea
overwhelming.

II

The problem is all too easily stated: the sentimental novels that were
best-sellers in America from the 1820s to the 1870s were written and
read mostly by women, constituting an oasis of women's writing in an
American tradition otherwise unusually exclusively male. But this oasis
holds scant nourishment; in plain words, most of the women's writing is
awful. What is a feminist critic to do with it? It is not that as a feminist she
must praise women unthinkingly, but there is little point either in her
just contributing more witty summaries of improbable plots and de-
scriptions of impossible heroines to enliven the literary histories. There
hardly needs a feminist come to tell us that E. D. E. N. Southworth's
cautionary tales are a caution; and as to whether Susan Warner's Wide
Wide World does set "an all-time record for frequency of references to
tears and weeping,"9 there are others already counting. We might do
best, with Elizabeth Hardwick, to simply let it alone. In her collection of
more or less unknown women's writings,?1 Hardwick selected works that
were commendable in their own rights and discarded most of what she
read as "so bad Ijust had to laugh-I wasn't even disappointed. The tradi-
tion was just too awful in the nineteenth-century."
Still, there it is, the one area of American writing that women have
dominated and defined ostensibly in their own image, and it turned out
just as the fellows might have predicted. It is gallant but also a little
ingenuous of Hardwick to point out that men's sentimental writing was
just as bad. For Hawthorne, whose cri de coeur against the "damned mob
of scribbling women" still resonates in the hearts of his countrymen, did
not invent the association between sentimentality and women. The
scribbling women themselves did, ascribing their powers to draw readers
deep into murky plots and uplift them to heavenly visions to the special
gifts of a feminine sensibility. If there is no question of celebrating in the
sentimentalists "great women who have spoken for us all," it seems just
as clear that they spoke as women to women, and that, if we are to
criticize the place of women in this culture, we need to account for the
very large place they occupied-and still do; the sentimental mode re-
9. Henry Nash Smith, "The Scribbling Women and the Cosmic Success Story," Critical
Inquiry 1, no. 1 (September 1974): 49-70.
10. Elizabeth Hardwick, Rediscovered Fiction by American Women (New York: Arno
Press, 1978).

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588 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

mains a major aspect of literary commerce, still mostly written and read
by women.
Although at bottom either way presents the same contradiction be-
tween politics and criticism, the sentimental novel would seem, there-
fore, to flip the problems encountered in A Literature of Their Own, Liter-
ary Women, and The Madwoman in the Attic. The issue there was to uncover
new aspects of works and writers that had more or less transcended the
limitations of the patriarchal culture-or failed and found tragedy. In-
spired by their example, one had nonetheless to temper admiration with
critical distance. Here the difficulty lies instead in tempering rejection
with a recognition of kinship, kinship one is somewhat hesitant to ac-
knowledge in that it rests on a shared subordination in which the senti-
mental novel appears altogether complicitous. For the sentimentalists
were prophets of compliance, to God the patriarch as to his viceroys on
earth. Their stories are morality dramas featuring heroines prone at the
start to react to unjust treatment by stamping their feet and weeping
rebellious tears, but who learn better and in the end find happiness in
"unquestioning submission to authority, whether of God or an earthly
father figure or society in general." They also find some more substantial
rewards, Mammon rising like a fairy godmother to bestow rich husbands
and fine houses. Conformity is powerful, and Henry Nash Smith's expli-
cation of it all has a definitive clarity: "The surrender of inner freedom,
the discipline of deviant impulses into rapturous conformity, and the
consequent achievement of both worldly success and divine grace merge
into a single mythical process, a cosmic success story."" If that success is
ill-gotten by Smith's lights, it can only appear still more tainted to a
feminist critic whose focus makes her acutely aware that the sweet sellout
is a woman and the inner freedom of women her first sale. With over-
grown conscience and shrunken libido, the sentimental heroine
enumerating her blessings in the many rooms of her husband's mansion
is the prototype of that deformed angel Virginia Woolf urged us to kill.
To kill within ourselves, that is. Thus we return to the recognition of
kinship that makes it necessary to understand the sentimentalists not
only the way critics generally have explained them but also as writers
expressing a specifically female response to the patriarchal culture. This
is a controversial venture that has resulted thus far in (roughly defined)
two schools of thought. One of these starts from Hawthorne's charge
that the popular novels usurped the place of serious literature. The title
of Ann Douglas's Feminization of American Culturel2 announces her thesis
that the sentimentalists exploited a literary Gresham's law to debase the
cultural currency with their feminine coin. But gold is at least hoarded,
while this bad money devalued outright Hawthorne's and Melville's
good. A tough, iconoclastic, and individualistic masculine high culture,
11. Smith, p. 51.
12. Ann Douglas, The Feminization of American Culture (New York: Avon Books, 1978).

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Signs Summer 1981 589

the potential worthy successor of the tough Puritan eth

routed from the national arena by a conservative femininity
the arts to the corners of hearths and to church pews. Hen
still today, a stultifying mass culture has emasculated t
imagination. Douglas does not blame women for this, for sh
as themselves defined by their society. Even in the exploita
destructive power, she thinks, they meant well; nor would
an equivalently simpleminded macho replacement to th
culture. But the implied alternative is nonetheless d
masculine-in a good way, of course: strong, serious, and
accepting of women who have abjured their feminine sensib
hard thing to do, for if the choice is between Susan Warner
why were we not all born men?
That choice, however, is just the problem, its traditional
erated by the Archimedean bind of trying to think about n
the old terms, when those terms do not merely ignore the n
deny them actively and thus force one instead into the old w
choices only among them. The terms here are masculine and
they participate in clusters of value that interpret American
culture. It has been generally understood among cultur
historians that the creative force in America is individualist
masculine. Perhaps to a fault: Quentin Anderson would h
American self less imperially antisocial,13 and before him L
worried that its exclusive masculinity excluded heterosexual
These analysts of American individualism do not necessa
judge it the same way, but they define it alike and alike ther
as its logical opposition conformity, passive compliance, fam
femininity. Huck Finn and Aunt Polly. The critical literatu
now mostly concentrated on Huck Finn, and The Feminization
Culture completes the picture by focusing on Aunt Polly.
In the sense that its features are composed from real fa
Polly" may well be a true picture. But her position in th
American portrait, opposed in her trite conventionality to
individualism, is not a function of facts alone but also of an
scheme secured by a set of parallel dichotomies that vo
another: Aunt Polly is to Huck as feminine is to masculine; f
masculine as Aunt Polly is to Huck. Only if we pull these apa
able to question the separate validity of either.
Potentially even more radically, Nina Baym15 sets out t
the component terms of the generally accepted dichot
nineteenth century between female conformity and man
13. Quentin Anderson, The Imperial Self (New York: Alfred A. Knopf
14. Leslie Fiedler, Love and Death in the American Novel (New York: Delt
15. Nina Baym, Woman's Fiction: A Guide to Novels by and about Wom
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1978). Page numbers indicated in

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590 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

alism, between female social conservatism and masculine rebellion. Rep-

resenting the other school of thought about sentimentalism, this one in
line with recent historical reconsideration of such ridiculed women's
movements as temperance and revivalism, she argues that the women
novelists too had their reasons. She answers Smith's accusation that the
novels' "cosmic success story" pointed an arch-conservative moral b
suggesting that for disenfranchised and property-deprived women to
acquire wealth, social status, and some measure of control over the
domestic environment could be considered a radical achievement, as
ruling a husband by virtue of virtue might amount to subversion. As she
sees it, "The issue [for the women in the novels] is power and how to live
without it." They do not run their society and never hope to, so, short of
revolution, no direct action can be taken. Even from their state of total
dependence, however, these women can rise to take practical charge of
their lives and acquire a significant measure of power by implementing
the conservative roles to which the patriarchal society has relegated
them. In this light, what Smith terms their "ethos of conformity" takes
on another aspect and almost becomes a force for change, all depending
on how you look at it.
Which is precisely the problem of this essay, emerging here with
unusual clarity because both Smith and Baym approach the material
ideologically. Even their descriptions, let alone their interpretations,
show the effects of divergent standpoints. Consider how each sum-
marizes the typical sentimental plot. Smith reports that Wide Wide World
is the tale of "an orphan exposed to poverty and psychological hardships
who finally attains economic security and high social status through mar-
riage."'6 Baym reads the same novel as "the story of a young girl who is
deprived of the supports she had rightly or wrongly depended on to
sustain her throughout life and is faced with the necessity of winning her
own way in the world" (p. 19). The second account stresses the role of
the girl herself in defining her situation, so that the crux of her story
becomes her passage from passivity to active engagement. On the con-
trary, with an eye to her environment and its use of her, Smith posits her
as passive throughout, "exposed" at first, in the end married. Clearly this
is not a matter of right or wrong readings but of a politics of vision.
It is as a discussion of the politics of vision that Woman's Fiction is
perhaps most valuable. Baym has set out to see the novels from a differ-
ent perspective, and indeed they look different. The impossible piety of
the heroine, for instance, Baym views as an assertion of her moral
strength against those who consider her an empty vessel, lacking ego and
understanding and in need of constant supervision. Typically the
heroine starts out sharing this view, taking herself very lightly and look-
ing to the world to coddle and protect her. With each pious stand she

16. Smith, p. 49.

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Signs Summer 1981 591

takes over the course of the novel, she becomes more self-r
the end she has "developed a strong conviction of her own
and becomes a model for female self-respect. Thus, the
minating righteousness and its concomitant rewards, that f
point prove the opportunistic virtues of submission, indic
new and quite rare emergence of female power manifes
alanche of good things with which the story ends. To Smi
nucopia endings are the payoff for mindless acquiescence, s
sweet ruining the nation's palate for stronger meat. For Do
a banquet celebrating the women's takeover; a starving Me
out. But for Baym the comfort in which the heroine rest
hard-earned just reward, the sentimental cult of domestic
ing a pragmatic feminism aimed primarily at establishi
women under their own rule.
In that spirit, she sees a more grown-up kind of sense than do most
critics in the novels' prudishness, pointing out that, when they we
written, the Richardsonian model they otherwise followed had become
tale of seduction. The women novelists, she suggests, were "unwilling
accept ... a concept of woman as inevitable sexual prey" (p. 26); in
world where sexual politics hardly offered women a democratic choice
they preferred to eschew sex altogether rather than be raped. Her
again, point of view is all. One recalls that Fiedler had a more ominous
reading. According to him, the middle-class ladies who wrote the senti
mental fiction had "grown too genteel for sex" but, being female, the
still yearned "to see women portrayed as abused and suffering, and th
male as crushed and submissive in the end";17 so they desexed the
heroes by causing them to love exceptionally good girls with whom sex
was unthinkable.
Without sharing Fiedler's alarm over the state of American man-
hood, one has to concede that the sentimental novel, with its ethereal
heroines and staunchly buttoned heroes, was indeed of a rarefied spiri-
tuality. That its typical plot traced, instead of physical seduction, the
moral regeneration and all-around strengthening of erstwhile helpless
women would appear all to the good; it is surely an improvement for
women to cease being portrayed as inevitable victims. But the fact is that
the sentimental heroines, perhaps rich as models, are rather poor as
characters. Those inner possibilities they discover in becoming self-
sufficient seem paradoxically to quench any interior life, so that we nod
in both senses of the word when such a heroine "looks to marry a man
who is strong, stable and safe." For, "she is canny in her judgment of
men, and generally immune to the appeal of a dissolute suitor. When she
feels such attraction, she resists it" (p. 41). Quite right, except we actually
wish she would not: do we then regret the fragile fair who fell instantly

17. Fiedler, pp. 259-60.

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592 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

and irrevocably in an earlier literature, or the "graceful deaths that

created remorse in all one's tormentors" (p. 25) and in the story some
sparks of life?
Baym is well aware of the problem and offers two possible analyses.
In the first place, she says, the women novelists never claimed to be
writing great literature. They thought of "authorship as a profession
rather than a calling, as work and not art. Often the women deliberately
and even proudly disavowed membership in an artistic fraternity." So
they intentionally traded art for ideology, a matter of political rather
than critical significance. "Yet," she adds (and here she is worth quoting
at length because she has articulated clearly and forcefully a view that is
important in feminist criticism),

I cannot avoid the belief that "purely" literary criteria, as they have
been employed to identify the best American works, have inevitably
had a bias in favor of things male-in favor, say of whaling ships
rather than the sewing circle as a symbol of the human community;
in favor of satires on domineering mothers, shrewish wives, or be-
traying mistresses rather than tyrannical fathers, abusive husbands,
or philandering suitors; displaying an exquisite compassion for the
crises of the adolescent male, but altogether impatient with the par-
allel crises of the female. While not claiming literary greatness for
any of the novels introduced in this study, I would like at least to
begin to correct such a bias by taking their content seriously. And it
is time, perhaps-though this task lies outside my scope here-to
reexamine the grounds upon which certain hallowed American clas-
sics have been called great. [Pp. 14-15]

On the surface this is an attractive position, and, indeed, much of it is

unquestionably valid; but it will not bear a close analysis. She is having it
both ways, admitting the artistic limitations of the women's fiction ("I
have not unearthed a forgotten Jane Austen or George Eliot, or hit upon
even one novel that I would propose to set alongside The Scarlet Letter"
[p. 14]) and at the same time denying the validity of the criteria that
measure those limitations; disclaiming any ambition to reorder the liter-
ary canon, and, on second thought, challenging the canon after all-or
rather challenging not the canon itself but the grounds for its selection.
There is much reason to reconsider these grounds, and such re-
consideration should be one aim of an aggressive feminist criticism. But
it has little to do with the problem at hand-the low quality of the
women's fiction-that no reconsideration will raise. True, whaling voy-
ages are generally taken more seriously than sewing circles, but it is also
true that Melville's treatment of the whale hunt is a more serious affair
than the sentimentalists' treatment of sewing circles. And the latter,
when treated in the larger terms of the former, do get recognized-for
example, Penelope weaving the shroud for Ulysses surrounded by her

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Signs Summer 1981 593

suitors, or, for that matter, the opening scene of Middlemar

two young girls quibble over baubles, situations whose re
even the most misogynist reader misses.
The first part of the explanation, that the women did not
selves seriously, seems more promising. Baym tells us that t
expected to write specifically for their own sex and within th
of their woman's culture rather than within the Great Tradit
tainly, "they never presented themselves as followers in the
Milton or Spenser, seekers after literary immortality, or comp
the male authors of their own time who were aiming at gre
178). With this we come closer to the writing itself and ther
sources of its intrinsic success or failure. I want to stress intrinsic here as
a way of recalling the distinction between a work as politics-its external
significance-and as art. So when seeking to explain the intrinsic failures
of the sentimentalists, one needs to look beyond their politics, beyond
their relationships with publishers, critics, or audiences, to their re-
lationship to writing as such. Melville wrote without the support of pub-
lishers, critics, and audiences-indeed, despite their active
discouragement-so those cannot be the crucial elements. He did, how-
ever, have himself, he took himself seriously; as Whitman might have
said, he assumed himself.
Now, no woman can assume herself because she has yet to create
herself, and this the sentimentalists, acceding to their society's definition,
did not do. To the extent that they began by taking the basic order of
things as given, they forswore any claim on the primary vision of art18
and saw themselves instead as interpreters of the established ethos, its
guardians, or even, where needed, its restorers. My point is that, for all
their virtual monopoly of the literary marketplace, the women novelists,
being themselves conceived by others, were conceptually totally de-
pendent. This means dependent on Melville himself and on the domi-
nant culture of which he, but not they, was a full, albeit an alienated or
even a reviled, member. His novel in the sentimental mode could take on
sentimentalism because he had an alternative world on which to stand:
himself. And although no one would wish on a friendly author th
travail that brought forth Pierre, there it is nonetheless, the perfect
example of what no woman novelist conceiving of herself not as an arti
or maker but as a "professional"-read practitioner, implementor
transmitter, follower of a craft-could ever have written. Pierre does no
know how to be acquiescently sentimental, it can only be about se
timentalism. The issue is self-consciousness, and in self-consciousness,

18. I am aware that this analysis assumes a modern psychology of art, that "creatio
has not always been the artist's mission, or tacit acceptance of the established ethos cons
ered fatal. But we are here speaking of the nineteenth century, not of all time; and writ
who did not challenge their society's values would also not have questioned its fundamen
construction of artistic identity as individualistic and as authentically creative.

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594 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

is self. With the example of Melville, we might then reconsider the re-
lationship of the rebel to conventions. The rebel has his conventional
definition too-that is, his is one possible interpretation of the
conventions-so that he stands fully formed within the culture, at a
leading edge. On the other hand, in this society women stand outside
any of the definitions of complete being; hence perhaps the appeal to
them of a literature of conformity and inclusion-and the extraordinary
difficulty, but for the extraordinary few, of serious writing.
Indeed, Baym's defense of the women novelists, like that generally
of the lesser achievement of women in any art, seems to me finally
unnecessary. If history has treated women badly, it is entirely to be
expected that a reduced or distorted female culture, one that is variously
discouraged, embittered, obsessively parochial, or self-abnegating, will
show it. There is little point then in claiming more than exists or in
looking to past achievement as evidence of future promise: at this stage
of history, we have the right, I think, simply to assert the promise.
If there is no cause for defensiveness, moreover, it does have its cost.
In the case of the sentimental novel, for instance, too much apologia can
obscure the hard question Baym implies but does not quite articulate, to
wit, why are the ways in which the sentimental novel asserts that women
can succeed precisely the ways that it fails as literature? Is its ideological
success tied to its artisticfailure? Is its lack of persuasiveness as art in some
way the result of the strong ideological argument it makes for female
independence? The issue, it seems, is not merely neglecting art for the
sake of politics but actively sacrificing it. Which brings the discussion
back to the Douglas thesis that since the sentimentalists universalized
(Americanized) a debased feminine culture, the more powerful the
women (authors and heroines both), the worse the literature and thereby
the consequences for the whole culture. The great appeal of this argu-
ment is that it confronts squarely the painful contradiction of women
becoming powerful not by overcoming but by exploiting their im-
potence.
I would like to suggest another possible explanation. The con-
tradiction between the art and the politics of the sentimental novel arises,
not surprisingly, at the point where the novelists confronted the tradi-
tion in which they were working and, for political reasons, rejected it
formally: when they refused to perpetuate the image of the seduced and
abandoned heroine and substituted in her stead the good girl who holds
out to the happy (bitter or boring) end. The parent tradition is that of
the novel of sensibility as it was defined in Clarissa. But before Clarissa,
Richardson wrote Pamela, probably the prototype of the female "cosmic
success story." Pamela begins powerless and ends up in charge, re-
warded for her tenacious virtue (or her virtuous tenacity) by a commodi-
ous house, a husband, and all those same comforts of upper middle-class
life that crowned the goodness of America's sentimental heroines. In-

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Signs Summer 1981 595

deed, Pamela had helped set up their new world, being the f
actually printed here-by Benjamin Franklin, who understood
mance and commerce and knew how well they could work to
did Pamela, of course, a superb pragmatist who not only foil
but also turns him into a very nice husband. She is perhaps no
tuned or morally nice as her sentimental descendants, but sh
careful and controlled, as certain of her values, as unwi
victimized-and ultimately as triumphant. In contrast,
helplessly enamored, seduced, destroyed. She is also the more
ing character and Clarissa the more complex story-can it be
victimized women make for better novels?
In the first part of this discussion, I made the point that the madness
into which women artists are characterized as driven by social constraints
needs to be compared with the similar state often attributed to male
artists. The same need arises here, for male protagonists too are gener-
ally defeated, and, of course, Clarissa's seducer Lovelace dies along with
her. But he is neither weak (in the helpless sense that she is) nor vic-
timized; nor (to name doomed heroes at random) is Stendhal's Julien
Sorel or Melville's Pierre. There is certainly no surprise in the contrast as
such; we expect male characters to be stronger than female. The jux-
taposition, however, may be suggesting something not already so evi-
dent: that as the distinctive individual identity of a male character typi-
cally is generated by his defiance, so that of a female character seems to
come from her vulnerability, which thus would be organic to the heroine
as a novelistic construct.
It seems reasonable to suppose that the novel, envisioning the en-
counter of the individual with his world in the modern idiom, posits as
one of its structuring assumptions (an assumption that transcends the
merely thematic, to function formally) the special form that sexual
hierarchy has taken in modern times. The novel, we know, is organically
individualistic: even when it deals with several equally important indi-
viduals, or attacks individualism itself, it is always about the unitary self
versus the others. Moreover, it is about the generation, the becoming, of
that self. I want to suggest that this process may be so defined as to
require a definition of female characters that effectively precludes their
becoming autonomous, so that indeed they would do so at the risk of the
novel's artistic life.
Pamela represents the advent of a new form to deal with such new
problems of the modern era as the transformation of the family and the
newly dynamic mode of social mobility. Pamela works these out very well
for its heroine, but there is something wrong in the resolution. Pamela's
triumph means the defeat of Mr. B., who in his chastened state can
hardly be the enterprising, potent entrepreneur that the rising middle
class needs him to be. Her individualism has evolved at the cost of his;
later Freud would develop a special term for such misadventures, but

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596 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

Richardson must already have known that this was not the way it should
be.
At any rate, he resolved this difficulty in his next work simply by
raising the social status of his heroine. Since she was a servant, Pamela's
quest for independent selfhood necessarily took a public form. To
affirm her value and remain in possession of her self, Pamela had to
assert her equality publicly; to claim herself, she had, in effect, to claim
power. But as an established member of the powerful class, Clarissa is in
full possession of its perquisites, notably that of being taken as honorably
marriageable by the lords of her world. Though it is true that her fam-
ily's greed for yet more wealth and status precipitates her crisis, the
problems she faces are really not those of upward mobility. Standing at
the other end of that process, she is profoundly unhappy with its results
and with the internal workings of her society. Her story is about the
conflict within, the problems that arise inside the middle-class world; and
its marvelously suited theater for exploring these is the self within.
In thus locating itself inside the life of its dominant class, the novel
only followed suit after older genres. But what is peculiar to this genre is
that it locates the internal problems of its society still deeper inside,
inside the self. Richardson's earlier novel had retained an older concep-
tion more like that of Defoe, identifying the self externally-hence
Pamela's interpretation of romance as commerce. Clarissa, on the con-
trary, now treats commerce in the terms of romance. Pamela had pro-
jected her inner world outward and identified her growth as a character
with the extension of her power. But this approach tends to vitiate the
distinction between the private self and the world out there that is the
powerful crux of middle-class identity. Clarissa takes that distinction as
its theme, and the locale of the novel henceforth is the interior life. I
want to propose the thesis that this interior life, whether lived by man or
woman, is female, so that women characters define themselves and have
power only in this realm. Androgyny, in the novel, is a male trait en-
abling men to act from their male side and feel from their female side.
One common feminist notion is that the patriarchal society suppress-
es the interior lives of women. In literature, at least, this does not seem
altogether true, for indeed the interior lives of female characters are the
novel's mainstay. Instead, it is women's ability to act in the public domain
that novels suppress, and again Richardson may have shown the way.
Pamela developed its heroine by reducing its hero (in conventional
terms). This compensation was, in fact, inevitable as long as the charac-
ters defined themselves the same way, by using and expanding the indi-
vidualistic potency of the self. Since by this scheme Pamela would be less
of a person and a character if she were less active, she had to compete
with Mr. B. to the detriment of one of them-to the detriment also of
conjugal hierarchy and beyond that, of their society, whose resulting
universal competitiveness must become dangerously atomizing and pos

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Signs Summer 1981 597

sibly centrifugal. In a middle-class society, however, the fam

meant to generate coherence, in that the home provides both
a terminus for the competitive activity of the marketplac
reliant man necessarily subsumes his family, chief among the
to his own identity; it is in the middle-class society above all
home is his castle. But how can this subsuming be accomplish
denying identity to women altogether and thus seriously un
their potency as helpmates as well? The problem lies in re
potency, that can come only from individualism, without su
consequences of its realization in individualistic competition.
particularly admired the way this problem had been res
America. Women in the New World were free, strong, and i
but they voluntarily stayed home. In other words, their aut
realized by being freely abandoned, after which, of course, t
to exist as characters-witness their virtual absence from the American
novel.
The European novelist, at least the English and the French, either
less sanguine about the natural goodness of middle-class values or more
embattled with older norms, saw that this voluntary subjugation could be
problematical. If women too are people, and people are individualists,
might they not rebel? If they succeeded in this, social order would crum-
ble; indeed, they could not succeed because they did not have the power.
But the possibility, arising from the most basic terms of middle-class
thought and also doomed by the very prevalence of that thought,
emerged as the central drama of the modern imagination. It is precisely
the drama of the suppressed self, the self who assumes the universal
duty of self-realization but finds its individual model in absolute conflict
with society. Then as it becomes the more heroically individualistic, the
more self-realized, the more it pushes toward inevitable doom. If there is
a tragic dimension to the novel, it is here in the doomed encounter
between the female self and the middle-class world. This is the en-
counter Gilbert and Gubar have observed and attributed, too exclu
I think, to women. The lack of a comparative dimension can te
obscure the distinction between representation and reality, to fuse
so that the female self simply is woman, if woman maligned. B
Flaubert might have pointed out, many a male novelist has represe
at least part of himself as female.
Which is not to suggest that European novelists were champion
women's rights. Their interest lay rather in the metaphorical poten
the female situation to represent the great Problem of modern soc
the reconciliation of the private and the public realms, once th
nerstone of the new social and economic order has been laid in their
alienation. Such reconciliation is problematical in that the self, gran
its freedom, may not willingly accept social control; it may insist o
separate and other privacy, on the integrity of its interior vision. Cla

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598 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

wants to be and do otherwise than her world permits, and with that
impulse, her inner self comes into view. It grows as she becomes less and
less able to project her will, or rather as the incursions against her private
self become more ferocious. Who, and what, Clarissa is finally is that
private world.
I want to stress that in championing her alienated private self, the
novel is not taking the side of real women, or even of female characters
as female. Recent praise of Clarissa as a feminist document, or vindica-
tions of its heroine's behavior against her patriarchal oppressors, have
not dealt clearly enough with the fact that her creator was a patriarch. If
nonetheless he envisioned his heroine in terms with which feminists may
sympathize, it is, I believe, because he viewed her as representing not
really woman but the interior self, the female interior self in all men-in
all men, but especially developed perhaps in writers, whose external role
in this society is particularly incommensurate with their vision, who
create new worlds but earn sparse recognition or often outright scorn in
this one.
It is in this sense, I think, that Emma Bovary was Flaubert, or Anna
Karenina, Tolstoy, or Isabel Archer, James. But the way Dorothea
Brooke was George Eliot reveals the edge of this common identification
between author and heroine, for Eliot, though herself a successful
woman, cannot envision Dorothea as equally so.19 One might suppose
that she at least could have imagined her heroine, if not triumphant like
Julien Sorel, acting out her doom rather than accepting it. It is one thing
for male novelists to assume that women are incapable of effective ac-
tion, but that women do so as well is more disturbing. I am suggesting
that George Eliot was compelled by the form of her story to tell it as she
did, that the novel as a genre precludes androgynously heroic women
while and indeed because it demands androgynous heroes. In other
words, the novel demands that the hero have an interior life and that this
interior life be metaphorically female. The exterior life, on the other
hand, is just as ineluctably male (and the novel has its share of active,
manly women). These identifications are not consciously made as being
convenient or realistic, in which case they would be vulnerable to con-
scious change. They are assumed, built into the genre as organic and
natural; for, if action were either male or female, we would be back with
the potentially castrating Pamela. She, however, bent her considerable
force to enter the middle class, endorsing its values wholeheartedly. A
similarly active Clarissa, an effective and militant Dorothea, must
threaten the entire order of things.
The novel is critical, it examines and even approves the rebellions of
19. For an illuminating discussion of this phenomenon-of women novelists being
unable to imagine female characters as strong as themselves-see Carolyn Heilbrun,
"Women Writers and Female Characters: The Failure of Imagination," in Reinventing
Womanhood (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1979), pp. 71-92.

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Signs Summer 1981 599

Clarissa and Dorothea, but only after signaling its more b

of an order it locates, beyond political attack, in natur
Sorel's alienation, however Napoleonic his aspirations,
throughout with the female part of his character; his
inability to accept the life and values his father offers hi
repeatedly described as feminine traits, and the final act th
bespeaks his feminine nature, much to the dismay of his m
the mirror world of this and other novels, femaleness is n
but potentially revolutionary. At the same time, it is by cu
incapable of active fulfillment. In taking woman as me
interior life, then, and-far from suppressing her-ex
almost to the exclusion of any other life, the novel bo
interior, individualistic, alienated territory and placed the
territory within the structures of the middle-class world it
Eliot could have made Dorothea strong only by challengin
tures or by accepting them and depicting her as manly, t
another story, perhaps The Bostonians. And no more t
would that story have challenged the conventional notion
and masculine.
There is a third possibility for the novel, which is to return to Pame
and close down the alienated interior realm by having Dorothea act no
out of internal impulses but in response to social dictates. This is what
the sentimental novel does, its heroines realizing themselves in society
actively but in full accord with its values and imperatives. This solution
the subversive threat posed by female individualism amounts to rever
ing the Richardsonian development from Pamela to Clarissa. We have a
precise representation of that reversal-wrought, one is tempted
think, in deference to the greater solidity of the middle-class ethic in t
country-in the first American novel, Charlotte Temple (1791). Its autho
Susanna Rowson, copies the contemporary fashion of Clarissa-like stor
but then, apparently thinking the better of such downbeat endings, tac
on a Pamela conclusion. Charlotte Temple, the disastrously fragile E
glish heroine of the story, is carried off by a soldier en route to Americ
no sooner carried off than pregnant, no sooner pregnant than aban
doned, no sooner abandoned than wandering the icy roads in winter in
slippers and a thin shawl. She is charitably taken in to a hospitab
fireside only to pass away, leaving an innocent babe and much remors
all around. At this point, however, with one perfectly satisfactory endi
in place, Susanna Rowson adds a second.
While neglecting Charlotte, her faithless lover Montraville has falle
in love with New York's most desirable belle, Julia Franklin, an or
phaned heiress who is "the very reverse of Charlotte Temple." Julia is
strong, healthy, and of independent means and spirit. Her guardia
entertains "too high an opinion of her prudence to scrutinize her action
so much as would have been necessary with many young ladies who wer

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600 Jehlen Feminist Criticism

not blest with her discretion." Though Montraville has behaved badly
toward the hapless Charlotte, he seems to be capable of a New World
redemption. Overcome by guilt at Charlotte's death, he fights a duel to
avenge her honor and is dangerously wounded but, more fortunate than
Lovelace, is nursed back to health by the discreet Julia. A representative
of the new American womanhood, far too sensible to be tempted by
rakes, far too clear about the uses of romantic love ever to separate it
from marriage, Julia has accomplished the "Pamela" reform. She mar-
ries Montraville, and he becomes one of New York's most upright (and
affluent) citizens, the fallen seducer risen a husband through the minis-
trations of a woman who is not merely good but also strong-strong, of
course, in being all that she should be. Thus in Julia Franklin the private
and the public selves are one, and the novel, with no relation between
them to explore and therefore no way or need to envision the private,
comes to a speedy end. About Charlotte a far better novel could have
and has been written, but about Julia really nothing but exemplary tales
for young girls and their spinster aunts. Pioneer mother of sentimental
heroines, she deeds them an ability to take care of themselves (by taking
care) that Baym rightly applauds from a feminist viewpoint but that
effectively does them in as literature. This implies a possibility no less
drastic than that the novel, evolved to deal with the psychological and
emotional issues of a patriarchal society, may not permit a feminist
interpretation.
The possibility that an impotent feminine sensibility is a basic
structure of the novel, representing one of the important ways that the
novel embodies the basic structures of this society, would suggest more
generally that the achievement of female autonomy must have radical
implications not only politically but also for the very forms and
categories of all our thinking. Yet as students of this thinking, we are not
only implicated in it but many of us committed to much of it. Literary
criticism especially, because it addresses the best this thinking has pro-
duced, exposes this paradox in all its painful complexity-while also
revealing the extraordinary possibility of our seeing the old world from a
genuinely new perspective.
This analysis of novelistic form has been speculative, of course, a
way of setting the issues of women's writing in the context of the whole
literature in order to illustrate the uses of a comparative viewpoint as an
alternative footing at the critical distance needed for re-vision. It has also
been an exercise in joining rather than avoiding the contradiction be-
tween ideological and appreciative criticism on the supposition that the
crucial issues manifest themselves precisely at the points of contradic-
tion. As a method this has further implications I cannot pursue here. Let
me suggest only that to focus on points of contradiction as the places
where we can see the whole structure of our world most clearly implies

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 Signs Summer 1981 601

the immanent relativity o

appears first as a methodol
in itself, seems finally to b
But then, it is only right t
itself.
Humanities Division
State University of New York College at Purchase

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