Theory Into Practice, 53:123–130, 2014

Copyright © The College of Education and Human Ecology, The Ohio State University
ISSN: 0040-5841 print/1543-0421 online
DOI: 10.1080/00405841.2014.885812

Sonya Douglass Horsford

When Race Enters the Room:

Improving Leadership and
Learning Through Racial Literacy

This article explains (a) why racial literacy—

an understanding of the origins and function of
race in US schools and society—is essential to
G IVEN US EDUCATION ’ S FOCUS on race
in everything from student test scores
to school assignment plans and district-level
the work of educational leaders, and (b) how achievement gaps, racial literacy, or understand-
educational leaders can improve their leadership ing what race is and how it functions in society, is
through racial literacy. It introduces the concept increasingly important to the work of educational
of racial literacy as a first step to improving leaders. Whether to measure and increase racial
school leadership practices, to be followed by diversity, assess the at-riskness of a school, or
racial realism, racial reconstruction, and racial ensure legal protections for historically segre-
reconciliation in racially diverse school com- gated or marginalized groups, the role of race in
munities. The article concludes with recommen- education continues to represent a complex rela-
dations and resources designed to advance the tionship that those in the field must acknowledge
racial literacy of educational leaders and their and understand. Flawed conceptions of race can
teams as part of a broader commitment to inclu- undermine not only leadership efforts to close
sion and social justice in US schools. gaps in student opportunity and achievement, but
also exacerbate such inequalities, which continue
to correspond heavily to race. In the field of
Sonya Douglass Horsford is an associate professor of education, as Ladson-Billings (2011) observed
Education in the College of Education and Human after decades of research on culturally relevant
Development at George Mason University.
pedagogy, critical race theory in education, and
Correspondence should be addressed to Sonya
Douglass Horsford, College of Education and Human
education policy and practices, “race almost al-
Development, George Mason University, 4400 Uni- ways enters the room.” Indeed, this proverbial
versity Drive, MS 4C2, Fairfax, VA 22030. E-mail: elephant in the room has been increasingly hard
[email protected]. to ignore in a high-stakes accountability envi-

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Inclusive Schooling and Leadership for Social Justice

ronment that requires school leaders to report This racialized worldview shapes their beliefs
student achievement data by race alongside class, and behaviors concerning race, and what it means
language, special education classification, and in the United States to be Black or African
other indicators of difference. American, Hispanic or Latino, Asian, Pacific Is-
This article explains (a) why an understanding lander, Native American, White or White Ethnic.
of the origins and function of race in US schools While potentially avoiding the pitfalls of heated
and society is essential to the work of educational or painful discussions, failure to acknowledge
leaders, and (b) how educational leaders can and consider race in school contexts erects a
improve their leadership through racial literacy different set of barriers that commonly result
(Guinier, 2004; Horsford, 2009, 2011; Twine, from colorblind approaches to addressing racial
2004). I begin by introducing the concept of inequality and discrimination.
racial literacy as a first step to improving school In the case of educational leadership in
leadership practices, followed by a discussion of racially diverse contexts, if school leaders are
racial realism, racial reconstruction, and racial blind to color (or age, or sex, or ability for
reconciliation in racially diverse school commu- that matter), they fail to see their students, par-
nities. More specifically, in this article, I put ents and caregivers, teachers and staff members,
forth racial literacy and the multistep progression and the communities they are responsible for
from racial literacy to racial reconciliation as a leading and serving. Such colorblindness inhibits
practical approach to improving school leader- an education leader’s ability to shape and sus-
ship practices and their implications for student tain a school culture that draws strength from
learning in racially diverse school communities diverse backgrounds, experiences, perspectives,
(Horsford, 2011). Although this article focuses and concerns because it suggests that these dif-
specifically on the construct of race, it does not ferences do not exist or are too controversial
suggest that race is more important than other to acknowledge and, thus, better left ignored
forms of difference in schools. In fact, it under- (Rusch & Horsford, 2009; Tatum, 2007). At their
scores the belief that educational leaders should worst, colorblind discourses in schools constrain
examine race in context, in relation to other vari- constructive talk about race and racial equity and
ables such as class and geography, and relative serve to justify efforts to avoid race-conscious
to existing distributions of power (Guinier, 2004). conversations, policies, and practices altogether
The article concludes with recommendations and (DeCuir & Dixson, 2004, p. 29; Horsford, 2009,
resources designed to advance the racial literacy 2011; Rusch & Horsford, 2009). Surely, the
of educational leaders and their staffs as part of fears of being labeled a racist or accused of
a broader commitment to inclusion and social playing the race card are common concerns,
justice in US schools. but can be mitigated through proper leadership
training and preparation. According to Rusch and
Horsford (2009), “There is mounting evidence
Race and Educational Leadership that aspiring school heads who feel unprepared
to talk about racial and cultural perspectives and
The desire for educational leaders, along with differences, have limited ability to effectively
those who craft and implement education pol- lead in diverse social contexts” and that those
icy, to avoid issues of race is both pragmatic who “lack opportunities during preparation to
and problematic. Avoidance is pragmatic because talk constructively about complex social issues
race is a difficult topic that often results in are more likely to revert to ‘deficit thinking’ ” in
misunderstandings depending on the racial stand- such school communities (p. 303).
points, experiences, and perspectives represented. Thus, race remains “the undiscussable”
Nearly all individuals who have attended schools, (Rusch & Horsford, 2009, p. 303) when, in fact,
lived, worked, or spent significant time in the “aggressive, color-conscious efforts” (Delgado &
United States possess a racialized worldview. Stefancic, 2001, p. 22) are needed to dismantle

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Horsford Improving Leadership/Learning Through Racial Literacy

the reproduction of racial inequality and inequity “socially imposed and hierarchical,” resulting in
in schools. And while race is not being dis- “an inequality built into the system” (Conley,
cussed, it is almost always in the room—on every 2003). Although people often confuse or conflate
student registration application, school account- race and ethnicity, they are different in several
ability report, school improvement plan, federal ways. First, although one can have multiple eth-
grant application, program evaluation, and a large nic affiliations (e.g., Irish, Italian, and Peruvian),
share of education research and policy reports. In race is principally unitary, meaning an individual
many ways, the pervasiveness of race reaffirms can only belong to one racial group (Conley,
its role in schools, making it unlikely that an 2003). Second, ethnicity is more closely linked
educational leader can even begin to close a to a geographic region, language, customs, and
racial achievement gap or address similar issues culture, as well as a matter of choice and group
of racial equality or justice without having a clear membership. Race, although it may correspond
understanding of what race is and how it operates significantly to ethnicity and all that comes with
daily in schools. it, is an affiliation that others frequently deter-
This uneven application of race in the study mine for an individual and often unbeknownst
and practice of educational leadership (colorblind to her or him (Cheng, 2003). Third, and perhaps
discourses and color-conscious policies) under- the most important distinction between race and
scores the importance of not taking for granted ethnicity for the purposes of this discussion,
the ways in which race overtly and quietly are the ways in which dominant public and
functions in US schools. In the next section, private institutions treat race versus ethnicity. As
I present a multistep progression toward racial historian David Freund (2003) explained:
equality in education (Horsford, 2011a; Horsford
& Grosland, 2013; see Table 1). It begins with One could argue that they’re both illusory and
racial literacy, or understanding what race is, imagined. But racial categories have had a much
how it works, and its relationship to inequality; more concrete impact on peoples’ lives, because
they’ve been used to discriminate and to dis-
followed by racial realism, which acknowledges
tribute resources unequally and set up different
the history, regularity, and reproduction of racism standards for protection under law. Both public
in educational institutions like schools. The next policy and private institutional and communal
stage is racial reconstruction, a process whereby actions have created inequalities based on race.
individuals and institutions move from deficit- (para. 1)
laden thinking and stereotypes and ascribe new
meanings to race; which is followed by racial These dissimilarities between race and eth-
reconciliation, the aspirational goal of healing nicity are particularly important for educational
and reaching common ground (not necessarily leaders to apprehend, bringing us to the signifi-
agreement) concerning matters of race and racial cance of racial literacy in schools. According to
equality. Guinier (2004), to be racially literate is to under-
stand that race is a byproduct of the “dynamic
interplay among race, class, and geography” and
Racial Literacy in Education:
that racially literate examinations of race reveal
Understanding Race and How It
how “those most advantaged by the status quo
Functions in Schools
have historically manipulated race to order social,
In its simplest terms, racial literacy in edu- economic, and political relations to their benefit”
cation is “the ability to understand what race is, (p. 114). In sum, “racial literacy is contextual,”
why it is, and how it is used to reproduce inequal- “emphasizes the relationship between race and
ity and oppression” (Horsford, 2011a, p. 95). power,” and although it “never loses sight of race,
To start, race, or what sociologists refer to as : : : It constantly interrogates the dynamic rela-
social race, is a social construction. It is not tionship among race, class, geography, gender,
biologically or genetically determined, but rather and other explanatory variables” (pp. 114–115).

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Inclusive Schooling and Leadership for Social Justice

Table 1
Multistep Progression From Racial Literacy to Racial Reconciliation (Horsford, 2011a)

Step 1: Racial literacy Ability to understand what race is, why it is, and how it is used to reproduce
inequality and oppression.
Step 2: Racial realism Drawn from critical race theory’s focus on acknowledging the history,
pervasiveness, and salience of race and racism in US society, including its
schools, and the pitfalls associated with liberal education ideology, policy,
and practices.
Step 3: Racial reconstruction The process of ascribing new meaning to race in order to transform the ways
we think about, and subsequently act on, our racial assumptions, attitudes,
and biases.
Step 4: Racial reconciliation Process that seeks to heal the soul wounds and damage that has been done in
schools and society as it relates to race and racism.

Reprinted by permission of the Publisher. From Sonya Douglass Horsford, Learning in a Burning House:
Educational Inequality, Ideology, and (Dis)Integration, New York: Teachers College Press. Copyright © 2011 by
Teachers College, Columbia University. All rights reserved.

Within the context of schools, it is understand-  The history, laws, and practices of school seg-
ing that much of the educational inequality that regation by race (boarding schools for Amer-
exists, whether the Black/Latino–White/Asian ican Indians, schooling in relocation camps
achievement gap, overrepresentation of Black for Japanese Americans, separate-but-equal
boys in special education, or inadequate funding schools for Blacks, Chicanos, and other col-
of support for English language learners, is a ored children);
result of both public policy and private actions  A 21st century racialized achievement gap
that make privilege and success seemingly nat- discourse that reinforces high academic expec-
ural for some groups and oppression and failure tations for White and Asian students and low
the norm for others (Bonilla-Silva, 2006; Conley, expectations for their Black and Latino peers
2003; Guinier, 2004; Omi & Winant, 1986). To (in the most general of terms).
avoid and dismantle this type of deficit thinking
toward historically marginalized students and Thus, this first step of racial literacy suggests that
communities, educational leaders must become educational leaders become knowledgeable about
well-grounded in the knowledge base concern- the longstanding historical relationship between
ing the historical relationship between race and race and education in the United States and the
education in the United States, perhaps even history of discrimination toward students solely
before attempting to confront or interrogate their because of race. Prior to engaging in antiracist
own racial assumptions and biases. This includes self-reflective work, or engaging faculty in an-
becoming familiar with the following movements tiracist training, it is important to be aware of
that have institutionalized racialized hierarchies this history and able to engage in racially literate
and racial inequality in US schools over time analyses of their implications for student learning
such as: and inclusive education in the 21st century.

Racial Realism in Education:

 The American eugenics movement of the
Acknowledging Race and Racism
early 20th century, which sought to improve
in Schools
humankind through immigration, segregation,
and sterilization policy (Public Broadcasting Once educational leaders have begun develop-
Service, 2003; Selden, 1999); ing a more nuanced understanding of what race

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Horsford Improving Leadership/Learning Through Racial Literacy

is, why it is, and how it functions in schools, Acknowledging the racialized power differentials
it is important to acknowledge that race and the that exist in schools is central to racial realism
practice of racism, which Guinier (2004) defined for educational leaders. Whether it is the power
as “the maintenance of, and acquiescence in, dynamic that exists along the color line between
racialized hierarchies governing resource distri- teachers and students, administrators and teach-
bution” (p. 98), are not artifacts of the past, ers, or educators and parents, educational leaders
but rather very present realities that continue to must remember that, sadly, racism is real and
determine who gets what. This acknowledgment continues to interact with class and geography
is central to racial realism, the second stage in ways that dominant institutions control to
of the progression from racial literacy to racial privilege certain groups over others.
reconciliation (refer back to Table 1). Informed The practice of counterstorytelling, also a fea-
by critical race theory’s pragmatic worldview that ture of critical race theory, provides a useful tool
racism is yet a normal part of American life, for informing and guiding conversations about
racial realists do not find racism shocking or how race continues to unfairly disadvantage
aberrant, but rather things that one could expect students, educators, and parents who represent
and, thus, become more intentional about how historically marginalized groups. Grounded in the
they see, interpret, and address racial inequal- voice-of-color thesis, which assumes that “minor-
ity and discriminatory attitudes and practices in ity status : : : brings with it a presumed compe-
schools (Ladson-Billings, 2011). tence to speak about race and racism” (Delgado
In fact, racism is easily identifiable in public & Stefancic, 2001, p. 9), counterstories serve
education where schools located in middle-to- as “an important tool for dismantling prevailing
high-income areas famously receive more re- notions of educational fairness and neutrality in
sources, experienced teachers, and political and educational policy, practice, and research” (Vil-
community support than their low-income coun- lenas, Deyhle, & Parker, 1999, p. 33). Although
terparts, which often struggle to recruit and some scholars have chosen to appropriate the
maintain experienced teachers and secure ade- practice of counterstorytelling to illustrate dom-
quate educational materials, facilities, and fund- inant voices and experiences, its original intent
ing (Darling-Hammond, 2004). Although this and significance lie in the “explanatory power”
example points to socioeconomic status and geo- of marginalized, not mainstream, perspectives
graphic location as key factors for school-level as a way to reveal the ongoing and oppressive
investment, it highlights the interplay between consequences of racism (DeCuir & Dixson, 2004,
class, geography, and race when it comes to not p. 30; Lynn & Adams, 2002).
only gaps in achievement, but in opportunity As such, educational leaders and their staffs
and resources. Within schools, this racialized can benefit greatly from reading, listening, and
resource distribution can impact everything from learning from the counterstories of a veteran
whether or not a student is placed in remedial or Black schoolteacher in their community, a first-
advanced placement courses to the development generation Asian American mother, a fifth-
of culturally relevant parent engagement pro- generation Latina college student, or a Native
grams to which individuals are selected to work American school principal to better understand
as teachers or administrators in the building. As how they see the world, and if and how race plays
Guinier (2004) observed: a role in their daily lived experiences, educational
philosophies, and interactions within powerful
dominant institutions. The point, however, is
Even when race is no longer explicitly coded by
appearance or ancestry, the allocation of seats not to generalize these stories or use them as
in a classroom, the use of buses to transport composite narratives for an entire race of people.
schoolchildren, or the hue of the dolls with Nor, at this stage, is the point to engage in a
which those children play, race is, and was, courageous conversation, coconstruct a narrative,
about the distribution of power. (p. 99) or present one’s own counterstory. That comes

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Inclusive Schooling and Leadership for Social Justice

later. The purpose of the racial realist stage is vast array of American intellectuals and sought to
simply to acknowledge the pervasive role of race improve humankind through selective breeding,
and racism in US society, and thus its schools, restrictive immigration policies, and segregation
and how race operates both independently of and from those deemed “unfit” (Selden, 1999, p. 1).
alongside class and geography in ways that are Concerning education, this political, social, and
real and powerful in the lives of the majority of pseudo-scientific movement “made itself present
schoolchildren in America. in the school and college curriculum,” as well
as gifted education and intelligence testing, and
reflected a group of American thinkers who
Racial Reconstruction in Education:
were “profoundly anxious when confronted with
Creating New Conceptions of Race
America’s increasing social diversity in the early
in Schools
20th century” (p. 1).
After racial literacy and racial realism comes Thus, the ways in which eugenics and biolog-
what is arguably the most transformational stage ical determinism have informed US social policy
on the journey to racial reconciliation, that is (e.g., immigration, school segregation, tracking)
racial reconstruction (refer back to Table 1). and research-based educational practices (e.g.,
When educational leaders begin to understand standardized tests as sufficient measures of abil-
race and how it functions, and acknowledge that ity and achievement) provide just one example
race and racism are not constructs of the past but of how racist belief systems and racism have
very real tools that continue to reproduce present- perpetuated deficit thinking in contemporary ed-
day educational inequalities, these leaders can ucational contexts. By exploring the origins of
actively begin to disrupt the historic patterns of these racially constructed norms and expecta-
deficit thinking, segregation, and racial stereo- tions through film viewings and discussions and
types that produce new manifestations of racial book circles, and interrogating personally held
inequality, such as the achievement gap. In other assumptions about race through antiracist peda-
words, racial reconstruction, as I have defined gogical and leadership training and cross-racial
elsewhere, is “the process of ascribing new mean- relationship-building, education leaders can ag-
ing to race in order to transform the ways we gressively work to create new conceptions of
think about and subsequently, act on, our racial race that lead to high academic expectations for
assumptions, attitudes, and biases” (Horsford, students of all races.
2011a, p. 100). This is where the inward journey
and difficult antiracist work begins and requires
Racial Reconciliation in Education:
educational leaders to change—or reconstruct—
Toward Racial Healing and Harmony
both their thinking and actions concerning race.
in Schools
For American school leaders, rebuilding or re-
thinking one’s racial assumptions requires a his- The fourth and final stage of this multistep
torical and critical understanding of the founda- progression toward racial equality in education
tions of such racialized worldviews and practices is racial reconciliation (refer back to Table 1).
in the United States. As Steven Selden (1999) As noted previously, the troubling relationship
observed in his very important book, Inherit- between race and educational inequality and in-
ing Shame: The Story of Eugenics and Racism justice remains very real in 21st century schools.
in America, “In the early decades of the 20th Despite its extensive history and countless at-
century, the assumptions that race and heredity tempts to name, examine, and interrogate race,
were central to human development and social this social construct continues to be a difficult,
progress were basic components of American so- uncomfortable, oftentimes contentious topic to
cial thought” (p. 1). Such assumptions, imported talk about, much less do something about (Rusch
from Great Britain, guided the American Popular & Horsford, 2009; Singleton & Linton, 2005;
Eugenics Movement, which was supported by a Tatum, 2007). Although this is not new, it is crit-

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Horsford Improving Leadership/Learning Through Racial Literacy

ical for educational leaders to recognize not only listening and learning from the counterstories of
how public and private institutions and actions re- students, parents, and colleagues who represent
produce racialized hierarchies and inequities, but differing racial worldviews; and reconstructing
also how personally painful and damaging a lack the meaning they attach to race in America,
of racial awareness, literacy, or realism can be to educators can work collectively to advance racial
the educational and professional experiences of understanding and justice in schools and commu-
students and educators of all colors. nities throughout the United States.
Perhaps it is somewhat ironic that after em-
phasizing racial literacy and racial realism as
necessary and pragmatic steps to engaging in the Concluding Thoughts
transformative practice of racial reconstruction,
the journey ends on an idealistic note. Racial Educational leaders committed to improving
reconciliation, or healing the wounds inflicted the life chances of children through high expec-
and damage done in schools as a result of racial tations, rigorous instruction and curricula, and
inequality and racism, takes a slight departure high-quality inclusive learning environments are
from the other stages’ emphasis on the role of no strangers to big and bold ideas. Success
institutional practices and a step toward interper- in identifying and implementing racially liter-
sonal interactions and self-reflection. Others can- ate practices that translate dialogue into action
not generate this healing and process of reconcil- prove to be difficult and will almost always face
iation. It can only come from within (Horsford, resistance (Theoharis, 2010), but is worth the
2011b). Thus, the aim of racial reconciliation, fight. Through developing racial literacy and by
much like the hope for a society free of war, reframing race in ways that challenge individ-
poverty, and crime, serves as an idealistic end ual assumptions and biases and institutionalized
of a race-consciousness journey that may prove school policies and practices, educational leaders
more aspirational than attainable, but through can begin to work intentionally to close the
which schools could serve as sites of hope and achievement gap. Better still, they will consider
possibility. such gaps within the historical context of racial
In education, the goal of racial reconciliation exclusion, segregation, and discrimination, and
is reflected largely by my preferred definitions their implications for leadership and learning
of the word integration, as opposed to the mix- when they enter the room.
ing of bodies by race, or desegregation (Hors-
ford, 2010, 2011a, 2011b). Although often used
interchangeably, integration reflects what legal Note
scholar Charles Ogletree (2004) described as the
means of “creating a new community founded on 1. Although sociologist France Winddance Twine
a new form of respect and tolerance” (p. 301). used this term in 2004 to describe how parents
As I have noted elsewhere (see Horsford, 2011), of mixed race children in the United Kingdom
Ogletree’s characterization echoes Dr. Martin prepared them to identify, cope with, and counter
racism and anti-Black attitudes and practices, its us-
Luther King, Jr.’s definition of integration as
age in this article is more closely aligned with crit-
“genuine, intergroup, interpersonal doing” and
ical race scholar Lani Guinier’s (2004) conception.
“the ultimate goal of our national community”
(1962/1986, p. 118). In many ways, racial rec-
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Inclusive Schooling and Leadership for Social Justice

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