Paper No.

: 04 Unit Operations in Food Processing

Module : 16 Drying-2: Drying Rate

Development Team
Principal Investigator Prof. (Mrs.) Vijaya Khader, Ph.D
Former Dean, Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University
Dr. Vijaya Khader
Former Dean, Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University
Paper Coordinator Er. Dibyakanta Seth
Asst. Professor, Tezpur University, Assam

Er. Prakash Nayak

Content Writer CIT, Kokrajhar, Assam

Prof. (Mrs.) Vijaya Khader, Ph.D

Content Reviewer Former Dean, Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University
Dr. MC Varadaraj , Chief Scientist CSIR-CFTRI, Mysore
Dr. Vijaya Khader
Dr. MC Varadaraj

Unit Operations in Food Processing

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Drying-2: Drying Rate
 Description of Module

Subject Name Food Technology

Paper Name 04 Unit Operations in Food Processing

Module Name/Title Drying rate

Module Id FT/UOFP/16

Pre-requisites Basic of Heat Transfer & mass transfer

Objectives To understand the basic principle of drying in food products and apply the knowledge in
solving critical problems in drying.

Keywords Drying rate, constant rate period, conduction drying

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16.1 Introduction

The separation operation of drying converts a solid, semi-solid or liquid feedstock into a solid
product by evaporation of the liquid into a vapor phase via application of heat. In the special
case of freeze drying, which takes place below the triple point of the liquid being removed,
drying occurs by sublimation of the solid phase directly into the vapor phase. This definition
thus excludes conversion of a liquid phase into a concentrated liquid phase (evaporation),
mechanical dewatering operations such as Filtration, centrifugation sedimentation,
supercritical extraction of water from gels to produce extremely high porosity aerogels
(extraction) or so-called drying of liquids and gases by use of molecular sieves (adsorption).
Phase change and production of a solid phase as end product are essential features of the
drying process. Drying is an essential operation in the chemical, agricultural, biotechnology,
food, polymer, ceramics, pharmaceutical, pulp and paper, mineral processing, and wood
processing industries.

“Simply Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or

another solvent by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. This process is
often used as a final production step before selling or packaging products”

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 16.2 Mechanisms of Drying:

Drying of solids takes place in three stages:

1) Transport of the liquid from the interior of the solid to the surface
2) Evaporation of the liquid at the surface
3) Transport of the vapor away from the surface

Figure 16.1: Drying steps for a particle

Materials that are surface-wet will exhibit three distinct drying regimes which is shown
in fig. 16.2.

AB – material is warming (to an equilibrium temperature)

BC – constant drying rate: “Constant Drying Rate Period”
CD – rate of drying decreases: “Falling Rate Period”

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 Fig.
16.2 Moisture content vs. time

Amount of moisture removed from the dried material in unit time per unit of drying
surface:
𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑋
𝑊𝐷 = −
𝐴 𝑑𝑡

Where, 𝑚𝑠 =mass of DRY solid (kg)

WD =drying rate (kg/m2s)

X =moisture content, dry basis (kg [MOISTURE]/kg [BONE DRY MATERIAL] ) i.e.
m.dX is the mass of total moisture, on a dry basis

A =surface area (m2)

t =time (s)

We can integrate this expression to:

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 𝑡
𝑚𝑠 𝑋2 𝑑𝑋
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
0 𝐴 𝑋1 𝑊𝑑

NB: Negative sign is because moisture content decreases with time.

Fig 16.3: typical WD vs. X

16.3 Drying rate curves or drying periods:

The drying characteristic of wet solids are usually described by the drying rate
curves .Generally, a drying rate curve can be divided into the following drying
rate period.

1) Settle down period

2) Constant drying rate period
3) First falling drying rate period
4) Second falling rate period

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 Figure 16.4: Typical Drying Curve

Here, Point 1-2 > Settle down period

Point 2-3 > Constant rate period

Point 3-4 > First falling rate period

Point 4-5 > Second falling rate period

 Settle down period :

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 The stage 1-2 (in fig.16.4) represents the settle down period where the solid
surface comes to equilibrium with dry air. At time 0, point 1 represents the initial
moisture content .This stage is usually very short and may be ignored from the
drying time calculation.

 Constant rate period :

The stage 2-3 represents the constant rate period.This period has the following
characteristics:

 It occurs with the product at the WBT of the air.

 A continuous film of water exists on drying surface and evaporation of water
occurs from this film of water.
 The duration of constant rate period depends on three external factors.
1) Heat or mass transfer coefficient
2) Exposed area
3) Temperature and humidity difference between the air stream and wet surface
of food material

 Critical moisture content(CMC) :

Point 3 in the figure represents the Critical moisture content.It is the end point of
constant rate period (CRP)and starting point of falling rate periods(FRP).From
this point onwards the surface temperature begins to rise ,the moisture content
decreases ,rate of diffusion drops and rate of drying becomes slow as drying
proceeds.

 First falling rate period(FFRP):

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 In FFRP, the food surface is no longer capable of supplying sufficient moisture
from within the food mass to the surface .This is the period of unsaturated surface
drying.

 Second falling rate period(SFRP):

It begins at point 4 when the surface is completely dried.This period have some
characteristics.

1) In this period, the drying rate is mainly limited by the diffusion of moisture from
within the product to surface.
2) Heat for evaporation is transferred through the solid to the zone of evaporation
and vaporized water comes into the air stream through the solid .Most of the
drying is generally takes place in secondfalling rateperiod.

The time of falling rate period is longer than constant period, though the amount of
water evaporation is smaller .The entire drying process occurs in falling rate period
when initial moisture content (IMC) is less than Critical moisture content (CMC).

16.4 Calculation of constant rate period / prediction of drying time in Constant Rate
Period (CRP):
For calculation or prediction of constant drying rate period the following relation can be
used:
16.4.1 Moisture removal rate in constant rate period
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 𝑑𝑚 𝑋𝑖 −𝑋𝑐 ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑎 −𝑇𝑤 )
𝑅𝑐 = = = 𝐾𝑔 . 𝐴. (𝑃𝑤 − 𝑃𝑎 ) = …….(1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑐 ℎ𝑓𝑔

Where

Rc=Rate of constant drying period

Xi=Initial moisture content, kg water/kg dry solids

Xc=Critical moisture content, kg water/kg dry solids

Tc=Time for constant drying

dm/dt= moisture removal rate

Kg=overall mass transfer coefficient

Pw=Vapor pressure at surface temperature (i.e; WBT Tw)

Pa=Vapor pressure in the air

H=Heat transfer coefficient

Ta=Heated air temperature

Tw=Wet bulb temperature

A=Area over drying takes place

ℎ𝑓𝑔 =Enthalpy of evaporation

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 Fig 16.5: Prediction of drying time
16.4.2 CRP in terms of heat transfer coefficient:
ℎ𝑓𝑔 (𝑋𝑖 −𝑋𝑐 )
𝑇𝑐 = ……………… (2)
ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑎 −𝑇𝑤 )

16.4.3 CRP in terms of mass transfer coefficient:

0.622𝑅𝑇(𝑋𝑖 −𝑋𝑐 )
𝑇𝑐 = ……………… (3)
𝐾𝑔 𝐴𝑀𝑤 (𝐻𝑤 −𝐻𝑎 )

Where,
Hw-Ha= Gradient of humidity ratio at the product surface and in the heated air
T= Absulate temperature
16.4.4 CRP in terms of rate of drying:
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑/𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑀𝑑 (𝑋𝑖 −𝑋𝑐 )
𝑇𝑐 = …………… (4)
𝐴𝑅𝑐
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 Where,
𝑀𝑑 =Mass of dry solids
Example: 16.1

A batch drying process of 100 kg food powder whose drying curve represented by Figure
6.9 is dried from 28% moisture (𝑤𝑏 ) to 16% moisture (𝑤𝑏 ) at a constant rate of 0.006
kg/m^2s . The critical moisture content is 15%. Estimate the batch drying time if drying
surface is 0.03 𝑚2 per kg of dry weight.
Solution: Since initial and final moisture content are greater than the critical moisture
content, then the drying take place in constant rate period and drying time calculated by
equation. Referring to figure 16.6 convert the moisture content to dry basis gives
𝑥1 = 0.389 and x2=0.190.the available surface area for drying is 0.03Md m2.
Where, 𝑀𝑑 =total dry weight of solids
From equation 6.15, drying time 𝑡𝑐 for constant rate period is
𝑀𝑑 (0.389−0.190)
𝑡𝑐 =
0.03∗𝑀𝑑 ∗6∗10−3

Figure 16.6 on Constant Rate drying

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 16.5: Calculation of falling rate period/Prediction of drying time in falling rate
period:

Fig; 16.7: Prediction of drying time

For first falling rate period (R to S), the drying time can be calculated if moisture removal
rate(R) is represented by R=m.X+k, where m is the slope of the line and k is the intercept.
Thus, R1= m.X1 +k and R2=m.X2 +k
𝑀𝑑 (𝑋1 −𝑋2 ) 𝑅
𝑡𝐹1 = ln ( 1) ……… (5)
𝐴(𝑅1 −𝑅2 ) 𝑅
2

Similarly, drying time for second falling rate can be calculated.

However, drying time in the falling rate period can also be determined, if rate of drying
at constant period is known, by following expression
𝑀𝑑 (𝑋𝑐 −𝑋𝑒 ) 𝑋1 −𝑋𝑒
𝑡𝐹 = ∗ ln ( ) ……….(6)
𝐴𝑅𝑐 𝑋2 −𝑋𝑒

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 Often for lack of more detailed data an assumption is made that there is only one
falling rate period and this would be straight line RO(as shown in the fig;2)from Critical
moisture content (Xc) passing through origin .Then drying rate R at any moisture content
X is directly proportional to free moisture content.
Thus in that case R=Mx

𝑋1 = 𝑋𝑐 = 𝐶𝑀𝐶

𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑚𝑋1 = 𝑚𝑋𝑐

𝑅2 = 𝑚𝑋2
𝑅1 𝑋𝑐
Or = ………….. (7)
𝑅2 𝑋2

Fig. 16.8: Drying curve for falling rate period

Now, rewriting the equation (5)

𝑋2
𝑀𝑑 𝑋1 (1 −
𝑋1 ) 𝑅1
𝑡𝐹1 = ∗ ln ( )
𝑅 𝑅2
𝐴𝑅1 (1 − 2 )
𝑅1
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 𝑅1 𝑋𝑐
Putting 𝑋1 = 𝑋𝑐 , 𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑅2 𝑋2
𝑋
𝑀𝑑 𝑋𝑐 (1− 2 ) 𝑋
𝑋𝑐
𝑡𝐹1 = 𝑋2
∗ ln ( 𝑐 ) ……… (8)
𝐴𝑅𝑐 (1− ) 𝑋 2
𝑥𝐶

𝑀𝑑 𝑋𝑐 𝑋
𝑡𝐹 = ∗ ln ( 𝑐 ) …… (9)
𝐴𝑅𝑐 𝑋 2

The above expression can also be obtained in equation (6), if the value of 𝑋𝑒 in that
equation takes as zero.
Example: 16.2

A batch of wet solid whose drying rate curve is represented by figure 16.7 is to be dried
from 0.40 kg water per kg dry solid to 0.10 kg water per kg dry solids in two hours with
constant air condition .If the EMC=2% (dry basis).Calculate the total time required from
40% to 4% moisture content (dry basis).

Solution: Referring to figure 16.9, constant rate period only from 40% to 15% and
therefore, using equation, we get drying time for constant rate period
(0.40−0.15)𝑀𝑑 (0.25)𝑀𝑑
𝑡1 = =
𝑅𝑐 𝐴 𝑅𝑐 𝐴

Figure 16.9 on Falling rate period

Where, Md, Rc and A are all unknown.

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 For falling rate period between 15 % to 10 % the values of X1 abd X2 become 0.15 and
0.10 respectively. From equation, drying time over this range of moisture content is given
by
𝑀𝑑 (0.15 − 0.02)
𝑡1 = (0.15 − 0.02)𝑙𝑛
𝑅𝑐 𝐴 0.10 − 0.02

(0.0631)𝑀𝑑
=
𝑅𝑐 𝐴

However, Total drying time from moisture conetnt of 40 % to 10 % is 2 hour.

Thus
𝑀𝑑
𝑡1 +𝑡2 = (0.25 − 0.0631) =2
𝑅𝑐 𝐴

𝑀𝑑
= 6.39 ℎ
𝑅𝑐 𝐴

For falling rate period between Moisture conent of 10 % and 4 % respectively the drying
time is
(0.10 − 0.02)
𝑡3 = 6.39(0.15 − 0.02)𝑙𝑛
(0.04 − 0.02)

=1.15

Hence total drying time required to down the mositure conetnt from 40 % to 4% is
= 2+1.15= 3.15 h

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 16.6 METHODS OF DRYING

According to the mode of heat transfer, drying methods can be divided into
(a) Conduction drying; (b) convection drying; and (c) radiation drying. There are other
methods of drying also, namely, dielectric drying, chemical or sorption drying, vacuum
drying, freeze-drying, etc.

16.6.1 Convection Drying

In convection drying, the drying agent (hot gases) in contact with the wet solid is used to
supply heat and carry away the vaporized moisture, and the heat is transferred to the wet
solid mainly by convection. The characteristics of convection drying are as follows:
1. Drying is dependent upon the heat transfer from the drying agent to the wet material,
the former being the carrier of vaporized moisture
2. Steam heated air, direct flue gases of agricultural waste, etc., can be used as drying
agents
3. Drying temperature varies widely.
4. At gas temperatures below the boiling point, the vapor content of the gas affects the
drying rate and the final moisture content of the solid.
5. If the atmospheric humidities are high, natural air drying needs dehumidification.
6. Fuel consumption per kilogram of moisture evaporated is always higher than that of
conduction drying.

Convection drying is most popular in grain drying. It can be carried out either
continuously or batch-wise. Continuous tray dryers, continuous sheeting dryers,
pneumatic conveying dryers, rotary dryers, and tunnel dryers come under the continuous

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 system, whereas tray and compartment dryers and batch through circulation dryers are
batch dryers.

Convection drying can be further classified as follows:

Pneumatic of fluidized bed drying: When the hot gas (drying agent) is supplied at a
velocity higher than the terminal velocity of the wet solid, the drying of the wet solid
occurs in a suspended or fluidized state. This phenomenon is known as fluidized bed
drying.
Drying may be carried out in a semi-suspended state or spouted bed condition also.
Generally, the convection drying is conducted under ordinary state, i.e., drying agent is
supplied at a velocity much lower than the terminal velocity of the wet material.
16.6.2: Conduction Drying

When the heat for drying is transferred to the wet solids mainly by conduction
through a solid surfaces the phenomenon is known as conduction or contact
drying. In this method, conduction is the principal mode of heat transfer and the
vaporized moisture is removed independently of the heating media. Conduction
drying is characterized by:

 Heat transfer to the wet solid takes place by conduction through a solid
surface, usually metallic. The source of heat may be hot water, steam, flue
gases, hot oil etc.
 Surface temperatures may vary widely
 Contact dryers can be operated under low pressure and inert atmosphere.
 Dust and dusty materials can be removed very effectively.

Conduction drying can be carried out either continuously or batch wise. Cylinder dryers,
drum dryers, steam tube rotary dryers are some of the continuous conduction dryers.
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 Vacuum tray dryers, Freeze dryers and agitated pan dryers are the examples of batch
conduction dryers.
16.6.2.1 Drum Dryers

Drum drying is unique drying process in which both cooking and drying takes
place. Gelatinization of starch is also takes place during drying. Here, the food is
coated as a thin paste over the surface of a slowly revolving heated horizontal
cylinder (Fig. 16.8). In such a case, the food dries for as much of one revolution
of the cylinder as is mechanically feasible, after which it is scraped off and
replaced by fresh wet material .The amount of drying is substantially controlled
by the rate of heat transfer and estimates of the heat transfer rate can be used for
calculation of the extent of drying.

Fig 16.8 Double Drum Dryer

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 16.6.2.1.1 Working principle:

 This is an example of conduction drying because conduction is taking place here.

 It consist of two drums or cylinder separated by a little distance according to the
feed size.The two drums are standed by two rod stand and they are rotated by the
help of pulley,bearing and a shaft in a direction opposite to each other.
 The feed is fed at the joint of the two drums and the drum is filled with hot steam
of 120 degree centigrade.The hot steam give heat to the surface of the drum which
is generally high conductive in nature (eg; nickel surface) .So, the surface gets
heated and it gives heat to the feed and rotates and then the feed are get evaporated
and the moisture from the food get removed and the dried feed are scraped off by
the doctor blades and they are collected to the collectionplates.
 Generally, sticky and sugar or salt type foods can not dry using this dryer because
the hot surface of the drum attract hardly the particles if they are sticky and in this
case the separation or scrapping off of the product may not occur.

The drum dryer is generally used for making baby foods and weaning foods from
slurries of cereals, pulses and oil cakes taken in powder form.
16.6.2.1.2 Advantages
1. The method gives rapid drying, the thin film spread over a large area resulting
in rapid heat and mass transfer.

2. The equipment is compact, occupying much less space than other dryers.

3. Heating time is short, being only a few seconds.

4. The drum can be enclosed in a vacuum jacket, enabling the temperature of

drying to be reduced.

5. The product is obtained in flake form, which is convenient for many purposes.

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 16.6.2.1.3 Dis-advantages
The only disadvantage is that operating conditions are critical and it is necessary to
introduce careful control on feed rate, film thickness, speed of drum rotation and drum
temperature

16. 7 Dryer Efficiencies

Energy efficiency in drying is of obvious importance as energy consumption is such a

large component of drying costs. Basically it is a simple ratio of the minimum energy
needed to the energy actually consumed. But because of the complex relationships of the
food, the water, and the drying medium which is often air, a number of efficiency
measures can be worked out, each appropriate to circumstances and therefore selectable
to bring out special features important in the particular process. Efficiency calculations
are useful when assessing the performance of a dryer, looking for improvements, and in
making comparisons between the various classes of dryers which may be alternatives for
a particular drying operation.

Heat has to be supplied to separate the water from the food. The minimum quantity of
heat that will remove the required water is that needed to supply the latent heat of
evaporation, so one measure of efficiency is the ratio of that minimum to the energy
actually provided for the process. Sensible heat can also be added to the minimum, as this
added heat in the food often cannot be economically recovered.

Yet another useful measure for air drying such as in spray dryers, is to look at a heat
balance over the air, treating the dryer as adiabatic with no exchange of heat with the
surroundings. Then the useful heat transferred to the food for its drying corresponds to
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 the drop in temperature in the drying air, and the heat which has to be supplied
corresponds to the rise of temperature of the air in the air heater. So this adiabatic air-

T1 - T2) / (T1 - Ta)

Where T1 is the inlet (high) air temperature into the dryer, T2 is the outlet air temperature
from the dryer, and Ta is the ambient air temperature. The numerator, the gap between T1
and T2, is a major factor in the efficiency.

Example 15.4

A dryer reduces the moisture content of 100 kg of a potato product from 80% to 10%
moisture. 250 kg of steam at 70 kPa gauge is used to heat 49,800 m3 of air to 80°C, and
the air is cooled to 71°C in passing through the dryer. Calculate the efficiency of the dryer.
The specific heat of potato is 3.43 kJ kg-1 °C-1. Assume potato enters at 24°C, which is
also the ambient air temperature, and leaves at the same temperature as the exit air.

Solution:

In 100 kg of raw material there is 80% moisture, that is 80 kg water and 20 kg dry
material,
total weight of dry product = 20 x (10/9)
= 22.2 kg
weight of water = (22.2 - 20)
= 2.2 kg.

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 Water removed = (80 - 2.2)
= 77.8 kg.

Heat supplied to potato product

= sensible heat to raise potato product temperature from 24°C to 71°C + latent heat of
vaporization.

Now, the latent heat of vaporization corresponding to a saturation temperature of 71°C

is 2331 kJ kg-1
Heat (minimum) supplied/100 kg potato
= 100 x (71 - 24) x 3.43 + 77.8 x 2331
= 16 x 103 + 181 x 103
= 1.97 x 105 kJ

Heat to evaporate water only = 77.8 x 2331

= 1.81 x 105 kJ

The specific heat of air is 1.0 J kg-1 °C-1 and the density of air is 1.06 kg m-3
Heat given up by air/100 kg potato
= 1.0 x (80 - 71) x 49,800 x 1.06
= 4.75 x 105 kJ.

The latent heat of steam at 70 kPa gauge is 2283 kJ kg-1

Heat in steam = 250 x 2283
= 5.71 x 105 kJ.

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 Therefore (a) efficiency based on latent heat of vaporization only:
= (1.81 x 105)/ (5.71 x 105)
= 32%
(b) efficiency assuming sensible heat remaining in food after drying is
unavailable
= (1.97 x 105)/ (5.71 x 105)
= 36%
(c) efficiency based heat input and output, in drying air
= (80 – 71)/ (80 – 24)
= 16%

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